Split (1)

train · 2.87M rows

id stringlengths 2 7	title stringlengths 1 182	text stringlengths 200 369k	url stringlengths 31 212	timestamp stringdate 2025-04-05 18:25:13 2025-04-05 23:52:07
7484	Company (disambiguation)	A company is a legal entity representing an association of people. Company may also refer to: Organizations Company (military unit), military unit of 100–250 soldiers Opera company, an instituted company that performs operas Theatre company, of touring actors, singers and/or dancers Arts, entertainment, and media Literature Company (novel), a 2006 novel by Max Barry Company (novella), a 1979 novella by Samuel Beckett Music Groups Company (band) Company (free improvisation group), a jazz collective founded in 1968 Albums Company (Bluejuice album), (2011) Company (Andy Burrows album) (2012) Company (The Drink album) (2014) Songs "Company" (Broadway song), a song from Sondheim and Furth's musical Company "Company" (Justin Bieber song) (2015) "Company" (Tinashe song) (2016) "Company" (24kGoldn song) (2021) "Company", a song by Drake from If You're Reading This It's Too Late "Company", a song by Third Eye Blind from Out of the Vein Company, the subtitle of String Quartet No. 2 by Philip Glass Periodicals Company (British magazine) Company (LGBT magazine), a magazine in Hungary Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media Company (2002 film), a Hindi film by Ram Gopal Varma Company (musical), a 1970 musical by Stephen Sondheim and George Furth Company (2011 film), a 2011 filmed version of the 1970 musical See also La Compagnie, French airline "Kompanie", Bonez MC and RAF Camora's 2018 rap song, from the album Palmen aus Plastik 2 Kompany (disambiguation) The Company (disambiguation)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Company_(disambiguation)	2025-04-05T18:28:09.791487
7485	Corporation	"Copr."}} }} is one of the most recognizable corporations in the world.]] A corporation or body corporate is an individual or a group of people, such as an association or company, that has been authorized by the state to act as a single entity (a legal entity recognized by private and public law as "born out of statute"; a legal person in a legal context) and recognized as such in law for certain purposes. Early incorporated entities were established by charter (i.e., by an ad hoc act granted by a monarch or passed by a parliament or legislature). Most jurisdictions now allow the creation of new corporations through registration. Corporations come in many different types but are usually divided by the law of the jurisdiction where they are chartered based on two aspects: whether they can issue stock, or whether they are formed to make a profit. Depending on the number of owners, a corporation can be classified as aggregate (the subject of this article) or sole (a legal entity consisting of a single incorporated office occupied by a single natural person). Registered corporations have legal personality recognized by local authorities and their shares are owned by shareholders whose liability is generally limited to their investment. One of the attractive early advantages business corporations offered to their investors, compared to earlier business entities like sole proprietorships and joint partnerships, was limited liability. Limited liability separates control of a company from ownership and means that a passive shareholder in a corporation will not be personally liable either for contractually agreed obligations of the corporation, or for torts (involuntary harms) committed by the corporation against a third party (acts done by the controllers of the corporation). Where local law distinguishes corporations by their ability to issue stock, corporations allowed to do so are referred to as stock corporations; one type of investment in the corporation is through stock, and owners of stock are referred to as stockholders or shareholders. Corporations not allowed to issue stock are referred to as non-stock corporations; i.e. those who are considered the owners of a non-stock corporation are persons (or other entities) who have obtained membership in the corporation and are referred to as a member of the corporation. Corporations chartered in regions where they are distinguished by whether they are allowed to be for-profit are referred to as for-profit and not-for-profit corporations, respectively. Shareholders do not typically actively manage a corporation; shareholders instead elect or appoint a board of directors to control the corporation in a fiduciary capacity. In most circumstances, a shareholder may also serve as a director or officer of a corporation. Countries with co-determination employ the practice of workers of an enterprise having the right to vote for representatives on the board of directors in a company. History mine, dated June 16, 1288]] The word "corporation" derives from corpus, the Latin word for body, or a "body of people". By the time of Justinian (reigned 527–565), Roman law recognized a range of corporate entities under the names Universitas, corpus or collegium. Following the passage of the Lex Julia during the reign of Julius Caesar as Consul and Dictator of the Roman Republic (49–44 BC), and their reaffirmation during the reign of Caesar Augustus as Princeps senatus and Imperator of the Roman Army (27 BC–14 AD), collegia required the approval of the Roman Senate or the Emperor in order to be authorized as legal bodies. These included the state itself (the Populus Romanus), municipalities, and such private associations as sponsors of a religious cult, burial clubs, political groups, and guilds of craftsmen or traders. Such bodies commonly had the right to own property and make contracts, to receive gifts and legacies, to sue and be sued, and, in general, to perform legal acts through representatives. Private associations were granted designated privileges and liberties by the emperor. The concept of the corporation was revived in the Middle Ages with the recovery and annotation of Justinian's by the glossators and their successors the commentators in the 11th–14th centuries. Particularly important in this respect were the Italian jurists Bartolus de Saxoferrato and Baldus de Ubaldis, the latter of whom connected the corporation to the metaphor of the body politic to describe the state. Early entities which carried on business and were the subjects of legal rights included the collegium of ancient Rome and the sreni of the Maurya Empire in ancient India. In medieval Europe, churches became incorporated, as did local governments, such as the City of London Corporation. The point was that the incorporation would survive longer than the lives of any particular member, existing in perpetuity. The alleged oldest commercial corporation in the world, the Stora Kopparberg mining community in Falun, Sweden, obtained a charter from King Magnus Eriksson in 1347. In medieval times, traders would do business through common law constructs, such as partnerships. Whenever people acted together with a view to profit, the law deemed that a partnership arose. Early guilds and livery companies were also often involved in the regulation of competition between traders. Mercantilism Dutch and English chartered companies, such as the Dutch East India Company (also known by its Dutch initials: VOC) and the Hudson's Bay Company, were created to lead the colonial ventures of European nations in the 17th century. Acting under a charter sanctioned by the Dutch government, the Dutch East India Company defeated Portuguese forces and established itself in the Moluccan Islands in order to profit from the European demand for spices. Investors in the VOC were issued paper certificates as proof of share ownership, and were able to trade their shares on the original Amsterdam Stock Exchange. Shareholders were also explicitly granted limited liability in the company's royal charter. In England, the government created corporations under a royal charter or an Act of Parliament with the grant of a monopoly over a specified territory. The best-known example, established in 1600, was the East India Company of London. Queen Elizabeth I granted it the exclusive right to trade with all countries to the east of the Cape of Good Hope. Some corporations at this time would act on the government's behalf, bringing in revenue from its exploits abroad. Subsequently, the company became increasingly integrated with English and later British military and colonial policy, just as most corporations were essentially dependent on the Royal Navy's ability to control trade routes. Labeled by both contemporaries and historians as "the grandest society of merchants in the universe", the English East India Company would come to symbolize the dazzlingly rich potential of the corporation, as well as new methods of business that could be both brutal and exploitative. On 31 December 1600, Queen Elizabeth I granted the company a 15-year monopoly on trade to and from the East Indies and Africa. By 1711, shareholders in the East India Company were earning a return on their investment of almost 150 per cent. Subsequent stock offerings demonstrated just how lucrative the company had become. Its first stock offering in 1713–1716 raised £418,000, its second in 1717–1722 raised £1.6 million. A similar chartered company, the South Sea Company, was established in 1711 to trade in the Spanish South American colonies, but met with less success. The South Sea Company's monopoly rights were supposedly backed by the Treaty of Utrecht, signed in 1713 as a settlement following the War of the Spanish Succession, which gave Great Britain an asiento to trade in the region for thirty years. In fact, the Spanish remained hostile and let only one ship a year enter. Unaware of the problems, investors in Britain, enticed by extravagant promises of profit from company promoters bought thousands of shares. By 1717, the South Sea Company was so wealthy (still having done no real business) that it assumed the public debt of the British government. This accelerated the inflation of the share price further, as did the Bubble Act 1720, which (possibly with the motive of protecting the South Sea Company from competition) prohibited the establishment of any companies without a royal charter. The share price rose so rapidly that people began buying shares merely in order to sell them at a higher price, which in turn led to higher share prices. This was the first speculative bubble the country had seen, but by the end of 1720, the bubble had "burst", and the share price sank from £1,000 to under £100. As bankruptcies and recriminations ricocheted through government and high society, the mood against corporations and errant directors was bitter. 's stock prices. The rapid inflation of the stock value in the 1710s led to the Bubble Act 1720, which restricted the establishment of companies without a royal charter.]] In the late 18th century, Stewart Kyd, the author of the first treatise on corporate law in English, defined a corporation as: Development of modern company law Due to the late 18th century abandonment of mercantilist economic theory and the rise of classical liberalism and laissez-faire economic theory due to a revolution in economics led by Adam Smith and other economists, corporations transitioned from being government or guild affiliated entities to being public and private economic entities free of governmental directions. Smith wrote in his 1776 work The Wealth of Nations that mass corporate activity could not match private entrepreneurship, because people in charge of others' money would not exercise as much care as they would with their own. Deregulation ]] The British Bubble Act 1720's prohibition on establishing companies remained in force until its repeal in 1825. By this point, the Industrial Revolution had gathered pace, pressing for legal change to facilitate business activity. The repeal was the beginning of a gradual lifting on restrictions, though business ventures (such as those chronicled by Charles Dickens in Martin Chuzzlewit) under primitive companies legislation were often scams. Without cohesive regulation, proverbial operations like the "Anglo-Bengalee Disinterested Loan and Life Assurance Company" were undercapitalized ventures promising no hope of success except for richly paid promoters. The process of incorporation was possible only through a royal charter or a private act and was limited, owing to Parliament's jealous protection of the privileges and advantages thereby granted. As a result, many businesses came to be operated as unincorporated associations with possibly thousands of members. Any consequent litigation had to be carried out in the joint names of all the members and was almost impossibly cumbersome. Though Parliament would sometimes grant a private act to allow an individual to represent the whole in legal proceedings, this was a narrow and necessarily costly expedient, allowed only to established companies. Then, in 1843, William Gladstone became the chairman of a Parliamentary Committee on Joint Stock Companies, which led to the Joint Stock Companies Act 1844, regarded as the first modern piece of company law. The Act created the Registrar of Joint Stock Companies, empowered to register companies by a two-stage process. The first, provisional, stage cost £5 and did not confer corporate status, which arose after completing the second stage for another £5. For the first time in history, it was possible for ordinary people through a simple registration procedure to incorporate. The advantage of establishing a company as a separate legal person was mainly administrative, as a unified entity under which the rights and duties of all investors and managers could be channeled. Limited liability However, there was still no limited liability and company members could still be held responsible for unlimited losses by the company. The next, crucial development, then, was the Limited Liability Act 1855, passed at the behest of the then Vice President of the Board of Trade, Robert Lowe. This allowed investors to limit their liability in the event of business failure to the amount they invested in the company – shareholders were still liable directly to creditors, but just for the unpaid portion of their shares. (The principle that shareholders are liable to the corporation had been introduced in the Joint Stock Companies Act 1844). The 1855 Act allowed limited liability to companies of more than 25 members (shareholders). Insurance companies were excluded from the act, though it was standard practice for insurance contracts to exclude action against individual members. Limited liability for insurance companies was allowed by the Companies Act 1862. This prompted the English periodical The Economist'' to write in 1855 that "never, perhaps, was a change so vehemently and generally demanded, of which the importance was so much overrated." The major error of this judgment was recognised by the same magazine more than 70 years later, when it claimed that, "[t]he economic historian of the future... may be inclined to assign to the nameless inventor of the principle of limited liability, as applied to trade corporations, a place of honour with Watt and Stephenson, and other pioneers of the Industrial Revolution. " These two features – a simple registration procedure and limited liability – were subsequently codified into the landmark 1856 Joint Stock Companies Act. This was subsequently consolidated with a number of other statutes in the Companies Act 1862, which remained in force for the rest of the century, up to and including the time of the decision in Salomon v A Salomon & Co Ltd. The legislation quickly led to a railway boom, resulting in a surge in the formation of companies. However, in the later nineteenth century, a period of depression set in, causing many of these companies to collapse and become insolvent. Strong academic, legislative, and judicial opinions emerged, opposing the notion that businessmen could escape accountability for their role in the failing businesses. Further developments was the leading expert on partnerships and company law in the Salomon v. Salomon & Co. case. The landmark case confirmed the distinct corporate identity of the company.]] In 1892, Germany introduced the with a separate legal personality and limited liability even if all the shares of the company were held by only one person. This inspired other countries to introduce corporations of this kind. The last significant development in the history of companies was the 1897 decision of the House of Lords in Salomon v. Salomon & Co., where the House of Lords confirmed the separate legal personality of the company, and that the liabilities of the company were separate and distinct from those of its owners. In the United States, forming a corporation usually required an act of legislation until the late 19th century. Many private firms, such as Carnegie's steel company and Rockefeller's Standard Oil, avoided the corporate model for this reason (as a trust). State governments began to adopt more permissive corporate laws from the early 19th century, although these were all restrictive in design, often with the intention of preventing corporations from gaining too much wealth and power. In 1896, New Jersey was the first state to adopt an "enabling" corporate law, with the goal of attracting more business to the state. In 1899, Delaware followed New Jersey's lead by enacting an enabling corporate statute. However, Delaware only emerged as the leading corporate state after the enabling provisions of the 1896 New Jersey corporate law were repealed in 1913. The day-to-day activities of a corporation are typically controlled by individuals appointed by the members. In some cases, this will be a single individual but more commonly corporations are controlled by a committee or by committees. Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of committee structure. * A single committee known as a board of directors is the method favored in most common law countries. Under this model, the board of directors is composed of both executive and non-executive directors, the latter being meant to supervise the former's management of the company. * A two-tiered committee structure with a supervisory board and a managing board is common in civil law countries. In countries with co-determination (such as in Germany), workers elect a fixed fraction of the corporation's board. Formation Historically, corporations were created by a charter granted by the government. As explained above, such charters were often enacted as private bills. Today, a corporation is formed, or incorporated, by registering with the state, province, or national government and regulated by the laws enacted by that government. Registration is the main prerequisite to the corporation's assumption of limited liability. The law sometimes requires the corporation to designate its principal address, as well as a registered agent (a person or company designated to receive legal service of process). It may also be required to designate an agent or other legal representatives of the corporation. Generally, a corporation files articles of incorporation with the government, laying out the general nature of the corporation, the amount of stock it is authorized to issue, and the names and addresses of directors. Once the articles are approved, the corporation's directors meet to create bylaws that govern the internal functions of the corporation, such as meeting procedures and officer positions. In theory, a corporation cannot own its own stock. An exception is treasury stock, where the company essentially buys back stock from its shareholders, which reduces its outstanding shares. This essentially becomes the equivalent of unissued capital, where it is not classified as an asset on the balance sheet (passive capital). Under the internal affairs doctrine, the law of the jurisdiction in which a corporation is incorporated will govern its internal activities—that is, conflicts between shareholders and managers such as the board of directors and corporate officers. If a corporation operates outside its home state, it is usually required to register with other governments as a foreign corporation and must formally appoint a registered agent to accept service of process within such other jurisdictions. Nowadays, corporations in most jurisdictions have a distinct name that does not need to make reference to the members of their boards. In Canada, this possibility is taken to its logical extreme: many smaller Canadian corporations have no names at all, merely numbers based on a registration number (for example, "12345678 Ontario Limited"), which is assigned by the provincial or territorial government where the corporation incorporates. In most countries, corporate names include a term or an abbreviation that denotes the corporate status of the entity (for example, "Incorporated" or "Inc." in the United States) or the limited liability of its members (for example, "Limited", "Ltd.", or "LLC"). These terms vary by jurisdiction and language. In some jurisdictions, they are mandatory, and in others, such as California, they are not. Their use puts everybody on constructive notice that they are dealing with an entity whose liability is limited: one can only collect from whatever assets the entity still controls when one obtains a judgment against it. Corporate names are supposed to be unique to the jurisdiction in which the corporation is registered. Governments will not allow another corporation or any other kind of legal entity to register a name that is too similar to the name of an existing corporation. and they can themselves be responsible for human rights violations. Corporations can be "dissolved" either by statutory operation, the order of the court, or voluntary action on the part of shareholders. Insolvency may result in a form of corporate failure, when creditors force the liquidation and dissolution of the corporation under court order, but it most often results in a restructuring of corporate holdings. Corporations can even be convicted of special criminal offenses in the UK, such as fraud and corporate manslaughter. However, corporations are not considered living entities in the way that humans are. Legal scholars and others, such as Joel Bakan, have observed that a business corporation created as a "legal person" has a psychopathic personality because it is required to elevate its own interests above those of others even when this inflicts major risks and grave harms on the public or on other third-parties. Such critics note that the legal mandate of the corporation to focus exclusively on corporate profits and self-interest often victimizes employees, customers, the public at large, and/or the natural resources. The political theorist David Runciman notes that corporate personhood forms a fundamental part of the 21st century conception state, and believes the idea of the corporation as legal persons can help to clarify the role of citizens as political stakeholders, and to break down the sharp conceptual dichotomy between the state and the people or the individual, a distinction that, on his account, is "increasingly unable to meet the demands placed on the state in the modern world". See also Notes References Further reading * * Bakan, Joel. The New Corporation: How "Good" Corporations Are Bad for Democracy. (2020) * Blackstone, W. Commentaries on the Laws of England (1765) 455–473 * Blumberg, Phillip I., The Multinational Challenge to Corporation Law: The Search for a New Corporate Personality, (1993) * Blumberg, PI, The Multinational Challenge to Corporation Law (1993) * Bromberg, Alan R. Crane and Bromberg on Partnership. 1968. * Brown, Bruce. [http://www.astonisher.com/archives/corporation/corporation_intro.html The History of the Corporation] (2003) * Cadman, John William. The Corporation in New Jersey: Business and Politics (1949) * Conard, Alfred F. Corporations in Perspective. 1976. * Cooke, C.A., Corporation, Trust and Company: A Legal History, (1950) * Davies, PL, and LCB Gower, Principles of Modern Company Law (6th ed., Sweet and Maxwell, 1997), chapters 2–4 * Davis, John P. [http://socserv2.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/davisjohn/index.html Corporations] (1904) * Davis, Joseph S. [http://socserv2.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/davisjoe/index.html Essays in the Earlier History of American Corporations] (1917) * Dignam, Alan and John Lowry (2020), Company Law, Oxford University Press * Dodd, Edwin Merrick. American Business Corporations Until 1860, with Special Reference to Massachusetts (1954) * DuBois, A. B. The English Business Company after the Bubble Act (1938) * Formoy, RR, The Historical Foundations of Company Law (Sweet and Maxwell 1923) 21 * Freedman, Charles. Joint-stock Enterprise in France: From Privileged Company to Modern Corporation (1979) * Frentrop, P, A History of Corporate Governance 1602–2002 (Brussels et al., 2003) * Freund, Ernst. [https://web.archive.org/web/20050129193644/http://socserv2.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/freund/index.html The Legal Nature of the Corporation] (1897), MCMaster.ca * Hallis, Frederick. Corporate Personality: A Study in Jurisprudence (1930) * Hessen, Robert. In Defense of the Corporation. Hoover Institute. 1979. * Hunt, Bishop. The Development of the Business Corporation in England (1936) * Klein and Coffee. Business Organization and Finance: Legal and Economic Principles. Foundation. 2002. * Kocaoglu, Kagan (Cahn Kojaolu) [https://ssrn.com/abstract=1103644 A Comparative Bibliography: Regulatory Competition on Corporate Law] * Kyd, S, A Treatise on the Law of Corporations (1793–1794) * Mahoney, PG, "Contract or Concession? An Essay on the History of Corporate Law" (2000) 34 Ga. Law Review 873 * Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra. [http://socserv2.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/majumdar/index.html Corporate Life in Ancient India] , (1920) * Means, Robert Charles. Underdevelopment and the Development of Law: Corporations and Corporation Law in Nineteenth-century Colombia, (1980) * Micklethwait, John and Wooldridge, Adrian. The Company: A Short History of a Revolutionary Idea. New York: Modern Library. 2003. * * Owen, Thomas. The Corporation Under Russian Law: A Study in Tsarist Economic Policy (1991) * Rungta, Radhe Shyam. The Rise of the Business Corporation in India, 1851–1900 (1970) * Scott, W. R. [http://socserv2.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/scott/index.html Constitution and Finance of English, Scottish and Irish Joint-Stock Companies to 1720] (1912) * Sobel, Robert. The Age of Giant Corporations: A Microeconomic History of American Business. (1984) * Tooze, Adam, "Democracy and Its Discontents", The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVI, no. 10 (6 June 2019), pp. 52–53, 56–57. "Democracy has no clear answer for the mindless operation of bureaucratic and technological power. We may indeed be witnessing its extension in the form of artificial intelligence and robotics. Likewise, after decades of dire warning, the environmental problem remains fundamentally unaddressed.... Bureaucratic overreach and environmental catastrophe are precisely the kinds of slow-moving existential challenges that democracies deal with very badly.... Finally, there is the threat du jour: corporations and the technologies they promote." (pp. 56–57.) External links * US Corporate Law at Wikibooks * [http://www.brh.org.uk/dwtf2008/kcc.html an Audio from a talk about the history of corporations and the English Law by Barrister Daniel Bennett] Category:Companies Category:Corporate law Category:Legal entities Category:Types of organization	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporation	2025-04-05T18:28:09.831870
7487	Fairchild Channel F	\| lifespan = 1976–1983 \| price \| discontinued = 1983 \| units sold (as of 1979) Lawson worked with industrial designer Nick Talesfore and mechanical engineer Ronald A. Smith to turn the prototype into a viable project. Jerry Lawson replaced the 8080 with Fairchild's own F8 CPU; while Nick Talesfore and Ron Smith were responsible for adapting the prototype's complex keyboard controls into a single control stick, and encasing the ROM circuit boards into plastic cartridges reminiscent of 8-track tapes. It was released as the Video Entertainment System (VES) at the price of $169.95, but renamed to the Channel F the next year. Channel F was unable to compete against Atari's Video Computer System (VCS) as the console only had 22 games compared to Atari's 187. Marketing for the console included an event featuring Ken Uston playing Video Blackjack and commercials starring Milton Berle. The console was licensed in Europe to television manufacturers and led to the clone consoles of Ingelen Telematch Processor in Austria, Barco Challenger in Belgium, ITT Telematch-Processor and Nordmende Color Teleplay μP in Germany, Dumont Videoplay System and Emerson Videoplay System in Italy, Luxor TV-Datorspel and Luxor Video Entertainment Computer in Sweden, and Grandstand Video Entertainment Computer in the United Kingdom. Both models of the Saba Videoplay were sold in Germany and Italy. Channel F System II thumb\|Channel F System II Lawson moved on to form his own company, Video Soft in 1980. Talesfore continued working on the system at Fairchild, and eventually a number of these improvements resulted in the improved System II. The major changes were that the controllers were now removable, using the Atari joystick port connector (not Atari compatible), and their storage was moved to the back of the machine. The sound was now mixed into the RF modulator so you could adjust it on your TV set instead of a fixed volume internal speaker. The internal electronics were also simplified, with two custom logic chips replacing the standard TTL logic chips. This resulted in a much smaller motherboard which allowed for a smaller, simpler and more modern-looking case design. Fairchild left the video game market in April 1979. Zircon International acquired the rights to the system and related assets in 1979. The company redesigned the console into the Channel F System II. This featured removable controllers and audio coming from the TV rather than a speaker within the console. It was sold at the price point of $99.95 or $69.95 if the previous console was traded in. Zircon released an additional four games for a final library of 26 games on the console.Design of the Channel F]] The Channel F is based on the Fairchild F8 microprocessor, which was innovative compared to other contemporary processors and integrated circuits. Because chip packaging was not initially available with enough pins, a few pins were used to communicate with other chips in the system. At least two chips were necessary to set up an F8 processor system to be able run any code. The savings from using standard pin layout enabled the inclusion of 64 bytes of internal scratchpad RAM in the CPU. The VES/Channel F, as well as the System II, had one CPU and two storage chips (PSU:s). (A single-chip variant of the F8 was used by the VideoBrain computer system). The Channel F is able to use one plane of graphics and one of four background colors per line, with three plot colors to choose from (red, green, and blue) that turns white if the background is set to black, at a resolution of 128 × 64, with approximately 104 × 60 pixels visible on the TV screen. This VRAM or framebuffer was "write only" and not usable for anything else. 64 bytes of scratchpad RAM are available for general use - half the amount of the later Atari 2600. Controllers The controllers for the system were conceived by Lawson and built by Nicholas Talesfore. Unlike the Atari 2600 joystick, Channel F controllers lack a base. Instead, the main body is a large handgrip with a triangular "cap" on top, which can move in eight directions. It could be used as both a joystick and paddle (twist), and not only could it be pushed down to operate as a fire button, it could be pulled up as well. * Refresh rate: 60 Hz Reception The Channel F had beaten the Atari VCS to the market, but once the VCS was released, sales of the Channel F fell, attributed to the types of games that were offered. Most of the Channel F titles were slow-paced educational and intellectual games, compared to the action-driven games that launched with the VCS. Even with the redesigned Channel F II in 1978, Fairchild was unable to meet the sales that the VCS and its games were generating. By the time Fairchild sold the technology to Zircon in 1979, around 350,000 total units had been sold. See also TV Powww References Works cited * }} }}External links * [http://thedoteaters.com/?bitstory=channel-f The Dot Eaters article] with a history of the Channel F and games * [http://www.vintagecomputing.com/index.php/archives/545 Interview with designer Jerry Lawson] * [http://www.mobygames.com/browse/games/channel-f/ MobyGames list] of Channel F games * [http://channelf.se/ Channel F wiki] programming and electronics as well as a gallery of labels, instructions, and boxes. * [https://patents.google.com/patent/US4095791 Patent: Cartridge programmable video game apparatus US 4095791 A] * [http://www.fastcompany.com/3040889/the-untold-story-of-the-invention-of-the-game-cartridge The Untold Story of the Invention of the Video Game Cartridge]—how the Channel F's video game cartridge was created (January 22, 2015). * [https://www.avclub.com/channel-f-was-1977-s-top-game-system-before-atari-wiped-1798260297 Channel F was 1977's top game system—before Atari wiped it out] at The A.V. Clubs AUX (4/09/2017) * [https://archive.org/details/channelf_library Channel F games] playable for free in the browser at the Internet Archive Console Living Room * [https://veniamin-ilmer.github.io/fairchild_ves/?bios=https://archive.org/download/Fairchild_Video_Entertainment_System_Fairchild_Channel_F/BIOS%20(GoodChaF%20V3.13)/Fairchild_Channel_F_BIOS_(1976)_(Fairchild).7z/Fairchild%20Channel%20F%20BIOS%20(With%20Hockey%2BTennis).bin Channel F emulation of the BIOS] Category:Computer-related introductions in 1976 Category:Home video game consoles Category:Second-generation video game consoles Category:Fairchild Corporation Category:Products introduced in 1976 Category:1976 in video gaming Category:Discontinued video game consoles	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairchild_Channel_F	2025-04-05T18:28:09.851160
7489	Collation	Collation is the assembly of written information into a standard order. Many systems of collation are based on numerical order or alphabetical order, or extensions and combinations thereof. Collation is a fundamental element of most office filing systems, library catalogs, and reference books. Collation differs from classification in that the classes themselves are not necessarily ordered. However, even if the order of the classes is irrelevant, the identifiers of the classes may be members of an ordered set, allowing a sorting algorithm to arrange the items by class. Formally speaking, a collation method typically defines a total order on a set of possible identifiers, called sort keys, which consequently produces a total preorder on the set of items of information (items with the same identifier are not placed in any defined order). A collation algorithm such as the Unicode collation algorithm defines an order through the process of comparing two given character strings and deciding which should come before the other. When an order has been defined in this way, a sorting algorithm can be used to put a list of any number of items into that order. The main advantage of collation is that it makes it fast and easy for a user to find an element in the list, or to confirm that it is absent from the list. In automatic systems this can be done using a binary search algorithm or interpolation search; manual searching may be performed using a roughly similar procedure, though this will often be done unconsciously. Other advantages are that one can easily find the first or last elements on the list (most likely to be useful in the case of numerically sorted data), or elements in a given range (useful again in the case of numerical data, and also with alphabetically ordered data when one may be sure of only the first few letters of the sought item or items). Ordering Numerical and chronological Strings representing numbers may be sorted based on the values of the numbers that they represent. For example, "−4", "2.5", "10", "89", "30,000". Pure application of this method may provide only a partial ordering on the strings, since different strings can represent the same number (as with "2" and "2.0" or, when scientific notation is used, "2e3" and "2000"). A similar approach may be taken with strings representing dates or other items that can be ordered chronologically or in some other natural fashion. Alphabetical Alphabetical order is the basis for many systems of collation where items of information are identified by strings consisting principally of letters from an alphabet. The ordering of the strings relies on the existence of a standard ordering for the letters of the alphabet in question. (The system is not limited to alphabets in the strict technical sense; languages that use a syllabary or abugida, for example Cherokee, can use the same ordering principle provided there is a set ordering for the symbols used.) To decide which of two strings comes first in alphabetical order, initially their first letters are compared. The string whose first letter appears earlier in the alphabet comes first in alphabetical order. If the first letters are the same, then the second letters are compared, and so on, until the order is decided. (If one string runs out of letters to compare, then it is deemed to come first; for example, "cart" comes before "carthorse".) The result of arranging a set of strings in alphabetical order is that words with the same first letter are grouped together, and within such a group words with the same first two letters are grouped together, and so on. Capital letters are typically treated as equivalent to their corresponding lowercase letters. (For alternative treatments in computerized systems, see Automated collation, below.) Certain limitations, complications, and special conventions may apply when alphabetical order is used: When strings contain spaces or other word dividers, the decision must be taken whether to ignore these dividers or to treat them as symbols preceding all other letters of the alphabet. For example, if the first approach is taken then "car park" will come after "carbon" and "carp" (as it would if it were written "carpark"), whereas in the second approach "car park" will come before those two words. The first rule is used in many (but not all) dictionaries, the second in telephone directories (so that Wilson, Jim K appears with other people named Wilson, Jim and not after Wilson, Jimbo). Abbreviations may be treated as if they were spelt out in full. For example, names containing "St." (short for the English word Saint) are often ordered as if they were written out as "Saint". There is also a traditional convention in English that surnames beginning Mc and M are listed as if those prefixes were written Mac. Strings that represent personal names will often be listed by alphabetical order of surname, even if the given name comes first. For example, Juan Hernandes and Brian O'Leary should be sorted as "Hernandes, Juan" and "O'Leary, Brian" even if they are not written this way. Very common initial words, such as The in English, are often ignored for sorting purposes. So The Shining would be sorted as just "Shining" or "Shining, The". When some of the strings contain numerals (or other non-letter characters), various approaches are possible. Sometimes such characters are treated as if they came before or after all the letters of the alphabet. Another method is for numbers to be sorted alphabetically as they would be spelled: for example 1776 would be sorted as if spelled out "seventeen seventy-six", and as if spelled "vingt-quatre..." (French for "twenty-four"). When numerals or other symbols are used as special graphical forms of letters, as in 1337 for leet or Se7en for the movie title Seven, they may be sorted as if they were those letters. Languages have different conventions for treating modified letters and certain letter combinations. For example, in Spanish the letter ñ is treated as a basic letter following n, and the digraphs ch and ll were formerly (until 1994) treated as basic letters following c and l, although they are now alphabetized as two-letter combinations. A list of such conventions for various languages can be found at . In several languages the rules have changed over time, and so older dictionaries may use a different order than modern ones. Furthermore, collation may depend on use. For example, German dictionaries and telephone directories use different approaches. Root sorting Some Arabic dictionaries, such as Hans Wehr's bilingual A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic, group and sort Arabic words by semitic root. For example, the words kitāba ( 'writing'), kitāb ( 'book'), kātib ( 'writer'), maktaba ( 'library'), maktab ( 'office'), maktūb ( 'fate,' or 'written'), are agglomerated under the triliteral root k-t-b (), which denotes 'writing'. Radical-and-stroke sorting See also Chinese characters and Chinese character orders Another form of collation is radical-and-stroke sorting, used for non-alphabetic writing systems such as the hanzi of Chinese and the kanji of Japanese, whose thousands of symbols defy ordering by convention. In this system, common components of characters are identified; these are called radicals in Chinese and logographic systems derived from Chinese. Characters are then grouped by their primary radical, then ordered by number of pen strokes within radicals. When there is no obvious radical or more than one radical, convention governs which is used for collation. For example, the Chinese character 妈 (meaning "mother") is sorted as a six-stroke character under the three-stroke primary radical 女 (meaning "woman"). The radical-and-stroke system is cumbersome compared to an alphabetical system in which there are a few characters, all unambiguous. The choice of which components of a logograph comprise separate radicals and which radical is primary is not clear-cut. As a result, logographic languages often supplement radical-and-stroke ordering with alphabetic sorting of a phonetic conversion of the logographs. For example, the kanji word Tōkyō (東京) can be sorted as if it were spelled out in the Japanese characters of the hiragana syllabary as "to-u-ki-yo-u" (とうきょう), using the conventional sorting order for these characters. In addition, Chinese characters can also be sorted by stroke-based sorting. In Greater China, surname stroke ordering is a convention in some official documents where people's names are listed without hierarchy. Automation When information is stored in digital systems, collation may become an automated process. It is then necessary to implement an appropriate collation algorithm that allows the information to be sorted in a satisfactory manner for the application in question. Often the aim will be to achieve an alphabetical or numerical ordering that follows the standard criteria as described in the preceding sections. However, not all of these criteria are easy to automate. The simplest kind of automated collation is based on the numerical codes of the symbols in a character set, such as ASCII coding (or any of its supersets such as Unicode), with the symbols being ordered in increasing numerical order of their codes, and this ordering being extended to strings in accordance with the basic principles of alphabetical ordering (mathematically speaking, lexicographical ordering). So a computer program might treat the characters a, b, C, d, and $ as being ordered $, C, a, b, d (the corresponding ASCII codes are $ 36, a 97, b 98, C 67, and d = 100). Therefore, strings beginning with C, M, or Z would be sorted before strings with lower-case a, b, etc. This is sometimes called ASCIIbetical order. This deviates from the standard alphabetical order, particularly due to the ordering of capital letters before all lower-case ones (and possibly the treatment of spaces and other non-letter characters). It is therefore often applied with certain alterations, the most obvious being case conversion (often to uppercase, for historical reasons) before comparison of ASCII values. In many collation algorithms, the comparison is based not on the numerical codes of the characters, but with reference to the collating sequence' – a sequence in which the characters are assumed to come for the purpose of collation – as well as other ordering rules appropriate to the given application. This can serve to apply the correct conventions used for alphabetical ordering in the language in question, dealing properly with differently cased letters, modified letters, digraphs, particular abbreviations, and so on, as mentioned above under Alphabetical order, and in detail in the Alphabetical order article. Such algorithms are potentially quite complex, possibly requiring several passes through the text. Problems are nonetheless still common when the algorithm has to encompass more than one language. For example, in German dictionaries the word ökonomisch comes between offenbar and olfaktorisch, while Turkish dictionaries treat o and ö as different letters, placing oyun before öbür. A standard algorithm for collating any collection of strings composed of any standard Unicode symbols is the Unicode Collation Algorithm. This can be adapted to use the appropriate collation sequence for a given language by tailoring its default collation table. Several such tailorings are collected in Common Locale Data Repository. Sort keys In some applications, the strings by which items are collated may differ from the identifiers that are displayed. For example, The Shining might be sorted as Shining, The (see Alphabetical order above), but it may still be desired to display it as The Shining. In this case two sets of strings can be stored, one for display purposes, and another for collation purposes. Strings used for collation in this way are called sort keys. Issues with numbers Sometimes, it is desired to order text with embedded numbers using proper numerical order. For example, "Figure 7b" goes before "Figure 11a", even though '7' comes after '1' in Unicode. This can be extended to Roman numerals. This behavior is not particularly difficult to produce as long as only integers are to be sorted, although it can slow down sorting significantly. For example, Microsoft Windows does this when sorting file names. Sorting decimals properly is a bit more difficult, because different locales use different symbols for a decimal point, and sometimes the same character used as a decimal point is also used as a separator, for example "Section 3.2.5". There is no universal answer for how to sort such strings; any rules are application dependent. Labeling of ordered items In some contexts, numbers and letters are used not so much as a basis for establishing an ordering, but as a means of labeling items that are already ordered. For example, pages, sections, chapters, and the like, as well as the items of lists, are frequently "numbered" in this way. Labeling series that may be used include ordinary Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, ...), Roman numerals (I, II, III, ... or i, ii, iii, ...), or letters (A, B, C, ... or a, b, c, ...). (An alternative method for indicating list items, without numbering them, is to use a bulleted list.) When letters of an alphabet are used for this purpose of enumeration, there are certain language-specific conventions as to which letters are used. For example, the Russian letters Ъ and Ь (which in writing are only used for modifying the preceding consonant), and usually also Ы, Й, and Ё, are omitted. Also in many languages that use extended Latin script, the modified letters are often not used in enumeration. See also Alphabetical order Asciibetical order Chinese character orders Sorting Taxonomic sequence Mac and Mc together Unicode equivalence Natural sort order Notes References External links Unicode Collation Algorithm: Unicode Technical Standard #10 Collation in Spanish Collation of the names of the member states of the United Nations Typographical collation for many languages, as proposed in the List module of Cascading Style Sheets. Collation Charts: Charts demonstrating language-specific sorting orders in various operating systems and DBMS ICU Locale Explorer : An online demonstration of sorting in different languages that uses the Unicode Collation Algorithm with International Components for Unicode	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collation	2025-04-05T18:28:09.864586
7490	Civil Rights Act	Civil Rights Act may refer to several civil right acts in the United States. These acts of the United States Congress are meant to protect rights to ensure individuals' freedom from infringement by governments, social organizations, and private individuals. The first wave of civil rights acts were passed during the Reconstruction era after the American Civil War. The Civil Rights Act of 1866 extends the rights of emancipated slaves by stating that any person born in the United States regardless of race is an American citizen. The Enforcement Acts of 1870-1871 allows the President to protect Black American men’s right to vote, to hold office, to serve on juries, and for Black men and women to receive equal protection of laws, including protection from racist violence. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 prohibited discrimination in "public accommodations" until it was found unconstitutional in 1883 by the Supreme Court of the United States. The Jim Crow Laws were established during the 19th century and served to block African American votes, ban integration in public facilities such as schools, and forbid interracial marriage in the South. The enactment of these laws was able to vastly undermine the progress toward equality which was made during the Reconstruction era. Civil Rights Acts would not be passed for 82 more years until the success of the Civil rights movement which aimed to abolish legalized racial segregation, discrimination, and disenfranchisement in the country, which was most commonly employed against African Americans. The Civil Rights Act of 1957 established the Civil Rights Commission and the Civil Rights Act of 1960 established federal inspection of local voter registration polls. The landmark Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, and national origin by federal and state governments as well as public places. The Civil Rights Act of 1968 prohibits discrimination in sale, rental, and financing of housing based on race, creed, and national origin. The Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987 specifies that recipients of federal funds must comply with civil rights laws in all areas, not just in the particular program or activity that received federal funding. The Civil Rights Act of 1990 was a bill that would have made it easier for plaintiffs to win civil rights cases which was vetoed by President George H. W. Bush. The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 prohibits discrimination based on disability. The Civil Rights Act of 1991 provides the right to trial by jury on discrimination claims and introducing the possibility of emotional distress damages, while limiting the amount that a jury could award. Background The first shift towards equality for African Americans occurred when President Abraham Lincoln passed the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, which declared that "all persons held as slaves... shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free...". As initially ratified, the United States Constitution granted each state complete discretion to determine voter qualifications for its residents. In American history, the Reconstruction era was the period from 1865-1877 following the end of the American Civil War. This period was marked by various attempts made to redress the inequities imposed on African Americans through slavery. Three Reconstruction Amendments were ratified and limited this discretion. The Thirteenth Amendment (1865) prohibits slavery "except as a punishment for crime"; the Fourteenth Amendment (1868) grants citizenship to anyone "born or naturalized in the United States" and guarantees every person due process and equal protection rights; and the Fifteenth Amendment (1870) provides that "[t]he right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." These amendments were established to provide African Americans the same civil rights as white Americans, and also empower Congress to enforce their provisions through "appropriate legislation". This time period marked the beginnings of the Civil Rights Movement. To enforce the Reconstruction Amendments, Congress passed the Enforcement Acts in the 1870s. The acts criminalized the obstruction of a citizen's voting rights and provided for federal supervision of the electoral process, including voter registration. By 1873, Supreme Court decisions began to limit the scope of Reconstruction legislation, and many whites resorted to intimidation and violence to undermine African Americans' voting rights. The Compromise of 1877, an informal agreement to resolve a political dispute, marked the end of the Reconstruction era. After the Reconstruction Era ended in 1877, enforcement of these civil rights laws ceased, and in 1894, Congress repealed most of their provisions. From 1888 to 1908, Southern states legalized disenfranchisement by enacting Jim Crow laws; they amended their constitutions and passed legislation to impose various voting restrictions, including literacy tests, poll taxes, property-ownership requirements, moral character tests, requirements that voter registration applicants interpret particular documents, and grandfather clauses that allowed otherwise-ineligible persons to vote if their grandfathers voted (which excluded many African Americans whose grandfathers had been slaves or otherwise ineligible). It was mainly intended, in the wake of the American Civil War, to protect the civil rights of persons of African descent born in or brought to the United States. The Act was passed by Congress in 1866 and vetoed by U.S. President Andrew Johnson. In April 1866, Congress again passed the bill to support the Thirteenth Amendment, and Johnson again vetoed it, but a two-thirds majority in each chamber overrode the veto to allow it to become law without presidential signature. John Bingham and other congressmen argued that Congress did not yet have sufficient constitutional power to enact this law. Following passage of the Fourteenth Amendment in 1868, Congress ratified the 1866 Act in 1870. The act had three primary objectives for the integration of African Americans into the American society following the Civil War: 1.) a definition of American citizenship 2.) the rights which come with this citizenship and 3.) the unlawfulness to deprive any person of citizenship rights "on the basis of race, color, or prior condition of slavery or involuntary servitude." The act accomplished these three primary objectives. Congressman James F. Wilson summarized what he considered to be the purpose of the act as follows, when he introduced the legislation in the House of Representatives: During the subsequent legislative process, the following key provision was deleted: "there shall be no discrimination in civil rights or immunities among the inhabitants of any State or Territory of the United States on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." John Bingham was an influential supporter of this deletion, on the ground that courts might construe the term "civil rights" more broadly than people like Wilson intended. Weeks later, Senator Trumbull described the bill's intended scope: On April 5, 1866, the Senate overrode President Andrew Johnson's veto. This marked the first time that the U.S. Congress ever overrode a presidential veto for a major piece of legislation. Content With an incipit of "An Act to protect all Persons in the United States in their Civil Rights, and furnish the Means of their vindication", the act declared that all people born in the United States who are not subject to any foreign power are entitled to be citizens, without regard to race, color, or previous condition of slavery or involuntary servitude. The Civil Rights Act of 1866 also said that any citizen has the same right that a white citizen has to make and enforce contracts, sue and be sued, give evidence in court, and inherit, purchase, lease, sell, hold, and convey real and personal property. Additionally, the act guaranteed to all citizens the "full and equal benefit of all laws and proceedings for the security of person and property, as is enjoyed by white citizens, and ... like punishment, pains, and penalties..." Persons who denied these rights on account of race or previous enslavement were guilty of a misdemeanor and upon conviction faced a fine not exceeding $1,000, or imprisonment not exceeding one year, or both. Parts of the Civil Rights Act of 1866 are enforceable into the 21st century, according to the United States Code: One section of the United States Code (42 U.S.C. §1981), is §1 of the Civil Rights Act of 1866 as revised and amended by subsequent Acts of Congress. The Civil Rights Act of 1866 was reenacted by the Enforcement Act of 1870, ch. 114, § 18, 16 Stat. 144, codified as sections 1977 and 1978 of the Revised Statutes of 1874, and appears now as 42 U.S.C. §§ 1981–82 (1970). Section 2 of the Civil Rights Act of 1866, as subsequently revised and amended, appears in the US Code at 18 U.S.C. §242. After the fourteenth amendment became effective, the 1866 Act was reenacted as an addendum to the Enforcement Act of 1870 in order to dispel any possible doubt as to its constitutionality. Act of May 31, 1870, ch. 114, § 18, 16 Stat. 144. Enactment, constitutionalization, and reenactment Senator Lyman Trumbull was the Senate sponsor of the Civil Rights Act of 1866, and he argued that Congress had power to enact it in order to eliminate a discriminatory "badge of servitude" prohibited by the Thirteenth Amendment. Congressman John Bingham, principal author of the first section of the Fourteenth Amendment, was one of several Republicans who believed (prior to that Amendment) that Congress lacked power to pass the 1866 Act. In the 20th century, the U.S. Supreme Court ultimately adopted Trumbull's Thirteenth Amendment rationale for congressional power to ban racial discrimination by states and by private parties, as the Thirteenth Amendment does not require a state actor. In any event, there is currently no consensus that the language of the Civil Rights Act of 1866 actually purports to confer any legal benefits upon white citizens. Representative Samuel Shellabarger said that it did not. After enactment of the Civil Rights Act of 1866 by overriding a presidential veto, some members of Congress supported the Fourteenth Amendment in order to eliminate doubts about the constitutionality of the Civil Rights Act of 1866, or to ensure that no subsequent Congress could later repeal or alter the main provisions of that Act. Thus, the Citizenship Clause in the Fourteenth Amendment parallels citizenship language in the Civil Rights Act of 1866, and likewise the Equal Protection Clause parallels nondiscrimination language in the 1866 Act; the extent to which other clauses in the Fourteenth Amendment may have incorporated elements of the Civil Rights Act of 1866 is a matter of continuing debate. Ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment was completed in 1868, 2 years after, the 1866 Act was reenacted, as Section 18 of the Enforcement Act of 1870. After Johnson's veto was overridden, the measure became law. Despite this victory, even some Republicans who had supported the goals of the Civil Rights Act began to doubt that Congress possessed the constitutional power to turn those goals into laws. The experience encouraged both radical and moderate Republicans to seek Constitutional guarantees for black rights, rather than relying on temporary political majorities. The activities of groups such as the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) undermined the act, meaning that it failed to immediately secure the civil rights of African Americans. While it has been de jure illegal in the U.S. to discriminate in employment and housing on the basis of race since 1866, federal penalties were not provided for until the second half of the 20th century (with the passage of related civil rights legislation), which meant remedies were left to the individuals involved: because those being discriminated against had limited or no access to legal assistance, this often left many victims of discrimination without recourse. There have been an increasing number of remedies provided under this act since the second half of the 20th century, including the landmark Jones v. Mayer and Sullivan v. Little Hunting Park, Inc. decisions in 1968. Enforcement Acts of 1870-1871 The Enforcement Acts were three bills that were passed by the United States Congress between 1870 and 1871. They were criminal codes that protected African Americans’ right to vote, to hold office, to serve on juries, and receive equal protection of laws. Passed under the presidency of Ulysses S. Grant, the laws also allowed the federal government to intervene when states did not act to protect these rights. The acts passed following the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment to the US Constitution, which gave full citizenship to anyone born in the United States or freed slaves, and the Fifteenth Amendment, which banned racial discrimination in voting. At the time, the lives of all newly freed slaves, as well as their political and economic rights, were being threatened. This threat led to the creation of the Enforcement Acts. The main goal in creating these acts was to improve conditions for black people and freed slaves. The main target was the Ku Klux Klan, a white supremacy organization, which was targeting black people, and, later, other groups. Although this act was meant to fight the KKK and help black people and freedmen, many states were reluctant to take such relatively extreme actions, for several reasons. Some politicians at the state and federal levels were either members of the Klan, or did not have enough strength to fight the Klan. Another goal of these acts was to achieve national unity, by creating a country where all races were considered equal under the law. The Enforcement Acts did many things to help freedmen. The main purpose under the act was the prohibited use of violence or any form of intimidation to prevent the freedmen from voting and denying them that right. There were many provisions placed under the act, many with serious consequences. The Enforcement Acts were created as part of the Reconstruction era following the American Civil War. To allow full national unity, all citizens must be accepted and viewed equally, with violence prohibited. Other laws banned the KKK entirely. Hundreds of KKK members were arrested and tried as common criminals and terrorists. The first Klan was all but eradicated within a year of federal prosecution. Enforcement Act of 1871 The Second Enforcement Act of 1871 (formally, "an Act to enforce the rights of citizens of the United States to vote in the several states of this union"), permitted federal oversight of local and state elections if any two citizens in a town with more than twenty-thousand inhabitants desired it. The Enforcement Act of 1871 (second act) and the Civil Rights Act of 1875 are very similar to the original act as they all have the same goal, but revised the first act with the intention of being more effective. The Act of 1871 has more severe punishments with larger fines for disregarding the regulations, and the prison sentences vary in length. The final act, and the most effective, was also a revision. Although the fines lowered again, and the prison sentences remained approximately the same, The Enforcement Acts were a series of acts, but it was not until the Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871, the third Enforcement Act, that their regulations to protect black Americans, and to enforce the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution were really enforced and followed. It was only after the creation of the third Enforcement Act that trials were conducted, and perpetrators were convicted for any crimes they had committed in violation of the Enforcement Acts.Judicial interpretations After the Colfax massacre in Louisiana, the federal government brought a civil rights case against nine men (out of 97 indicted) who were accused of paramilitary activity intended to stop black people from voting. In United States v. Cruikshank (1876), the Court ruled that the federal government did not have the authority to prosecute the men because the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments provide only for redress against state actors. However, in Ex Parte Yarbrough (1884) the Court allowed individuals who were not state actors to be prosecuted because Article I Section 4 of the Constitution gives Congress the power to regulate federal elections. In Hodges v. United States (1906) the Court addressed a possible Thirteenth Amendment rationale for the Enforcement Acts, and found that the federal government did not have the authority to punish a group of men for interfering with black workers through whitecapping. Hodges v. United States would be overruled in Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co. some 50 years later, stating for the first time since Reconstruction that the federal government could criminalize racist acts by private actors. Civil Rights Act of 1875 The Civil Rights Act of 1875, sometimes called the Enforcement Act or the Force Act, was a United States federal law enacted during the Reconstruction era in response to civil rights violations against African Americans. The bill was passed by the 43rd United States Congress and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1, 1875. The act was designed to "protect all citizens in their civil and legal rights", providing for equal treatment in public accommodations and public transportation and prohibiting exclusion from jury service. It was originally drafted by Senator Charles Sumner in 1870, but was not passed until shortly after Sumner's death in 1875. The law was not effectively enforced, partly because President Grant had favored different measures to help him suppress election-related violence against blacks and Republicans in the Southern United States. The Reconstruction era ended with the resolution of the 1876 presidential election, and the Civil Rights Act of 1875 was the last federal civil rights law enacted until the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957. In 1883, the Supreme Court ruled in the Civil Rights Cases that the public accommodation sections of the act were unconstitutional, saying Congress was not afforded control over private persons or corporations under the Equal Protection Clause. Parts of the Civil Rights Act of 1875 were later re-adopted in the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Civil Rights Act of 1968, both of which cited the Commerce Clause as the source of Congress's power to regulate private actors. Legislative history The drafting of the bill was performed early in 1870 by United States Senator Charles Sumner, a dominant Radical Republican in the Senate, with the assistance of John Mercer Langston, a prominent African American who established the law department at Howard University. The bill was proposed by Senator Sumner and co-sponsored by Representative Benjamin F. Butler, both Republicans from Massachusetts, in the 41st Congress of the United States in 1870. Congress removed the coverage of public schools that Sumner had included. The act was passed by the 43rd Congress in February 1875 as a memorial to honor Sumner, who had just died. It was signed into law by United States President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1, 1875.EnforcementPresident Grant had wanted an entirely different law to help him suppress election-related violence against blacks and Republicans in the South. Congress did not give him that, but instead wrote a law for equal rights to public accommodations that was passed as a memorial to Grant's bitterest enemy, the late Senator Charles Sumner. Grant never commented on the 1875 law, and did nothing to enforce it, says historian John Hope Franklin. Grant's Justice Department ignored it and did not send copies to US attorneys, says Franklin, while many federal judges called it unconstitutional before the Supreme Court shut it down. Franklin concludes regarding Grant and Hayes administrations, "The Civil Rights Act was never effectively enforced." Public opinion was opposed, with the black community in support. Historian Rayford Logan looking at newspaper editorials finds the press was overwhelmingly opposed.Case law The Supreme Court, in an 8–1 decision, declared sections of the act unconstitutional in the Civil Rights Cases on October 15, 1883, thus stripping the Civil Rights Act of 1875 of much of its ability to protect civil rights. Justice John Marshall Harlan provided the lone dissent. The Court held the Equal Protection Clause within the Fourteenth Amendment prohibits discrimination by the state and local government, but it does not give the federal government the power to prohibit discrimination by private individuals and organizations. The Court also held that the Thirteenth Amendment was meant to eliminate "the badge of slavery," but not to prohibit racial discrimination in public accommodations. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 was the last federal civil rights bill signed into law until the Civil Rights Act of 1957, enacted during the Civil Rights Movement. In the late 19th and early 20th century, the legal justification for voiding the Civil Rights Act of 1875 was part of a larger trend by the United States Supreme Court majorities to invalidate most government regulations of the private sector, except when dealing with laws designed to protect traditional public morality. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 is notable as the last major piece of legislation related to Reconstruction that was passed by Congress during the Reconstruction era. These include the Civil Rights Act of 1866, the four Reconstruction Acts of 1867 and 1868, the three Enforcement Acts of 1870 and 1871, and the three Constitutional Amendments adopted between 1865 and 1870. Provisions contained in the Civil Rights Act of 1875 were later readopted by Congress during the Civil Rights Movement as part of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Civil Rights Act of 1968. The 1964 and 1968 acts relied upon the Commerce Clause contained in Article One of the Constitution of the United States rather than the Equal Protection Clause within the Fourteenth Amendment. Civil Rights Act of 1957 The Civil Rights Act of 1957, signed by President Dwight D. Eisenhower on September 9, 1957, was the first federal civil rights legislation since the Civil Rights Act of 1875 to become law. After the Supreme Court ruled school segregation unconstitutional in 1954 in Brown v. Board of Education, Southern Democrats began a campaign of "massive resistance" against desegregation, and even the few moderate white leaders shifted to openly racist positions. Partly in an effort to defuse calls for more far-reaching reforms, Eisenhower proposed a civil rights bill that would increase the protection of African American voting rights. The Supreme Court's 1954 ruling in the case of Brown v. Board of Education brought the issue of school desegregation to the fore of public attention, as Southern Democratic leaders began a campaign of "massive resistance" against desegregation. In the midst of this campaign, President Eisenhower proposed a civil rights bill designed to provide federal protection for African American voting rights; most African Americans in the Southern United States had been disenfranchised by state and local laws. Though the civil rights bill passed Congress, opponents of the act were able to remove or weaken several provisions via the Anderson–Aiken amendment and the O'Mahoney jury trial amendment, significantly watering down its immediate impact. During the debate over the law, Senator Strom Thurmond conducted the longest one-person filibuster in Senate history. Under the direction of Senate Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas, the Senate passed a watered-down, yet also passable, version of the House bill which removed stringent voting protection clauses. Despite having a limited impact on African-American voter participation, at a time when black voter registration from 0% (in 11 counties) to less than 5% (in 97 counties) despite being majority-Black counties, the Civil Rights Act of 1957 did establish the United States Commission on Civil Rights and the United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division. By 1960, black voting had increased by only 3%, and Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1960, which eliminated certain loopholes left by the 1957 Act. Congress would later pass far more effective civil rights laws in the form of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and the Civil Rights Act of 1968.BackgroundFollowing the Supreme Court ruling in Brown, which eventually led to the integration of public schools, Southern whites began a campaign of "Massive Resistance". Violence against black people rose; in Little Rock, Arkansas where President Dwight D. Eisenhower ordered U.S. paratroopers of the 101st Airborne Division to protect nine black teenagers integrating into a public school, the first time federal troops were deployed in the South to settle civil rights issues since the Reconstruction Era. There had been continued physical assaults against suspected activists and bombings of schools and churches in the South. Partly in an effort to defuse calls for more far-reaching reforms, President Eisenhower proposed a civil rights bill that would increase the protection of African American voting rights. By 1957, only about 20% of black people were registered to vote. Despite being the majority in numerous counties and congressional districts in the South, most black people had been effectively disfranchised by discriminatory voter registration rules and laws in those states since the late 19th and early 20th centuries that were heavily instituted and propagated by Southern Democrats. Civil rights organizations had collected evidence of discriminatory practices, such as the administration of literacy and comprehension tests and poll taxes. While the states had the right to establish rules for voter registration and elections, the federal government found an oversight role in ensuring that citizens could exercise the constitutional right to vote for federal officers: electors for president and vice president and members of the US Congress. Legislative history The Democratic Senate majority leader, Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas, who would play a vital role in the bill's passage in the Senate, realized that the bill and its journey through Congress could tear apart his party, as southern Democrats vehemently opposed civil rights, and its northern members were strongly in favor of them. Southern Democratic senators occupied chairs of numerous important committees because of their long seniority. As, in the near-century between the end of Reconstruction and the 1960s, white Southerners voted solidly as a bloc for the Democrats, Southern Democrats in Congress rarely lost their seats in elections, ensuring that they had more seniority than Democratic members of Congress from other parts of the country. Johnson sent the bill to the Senate Judiciary Committee, led by Democratic Senator James Eastland of Mississippi, who drastically altered the bill. Democratic Senator Richard Russell Jr., of Georgia had denounced the bill as an example of the federal government seeking to impose its laws on states. Johnson sought recognition from civil rights advocates for passing the bill as well as recognition from the anti-civil rights Democrats for weakening the bill so much as to make it toothless. As well as a general if vague support for civil rights as the party of Lincoln, Republicans saw that this could be an effective way to increase the number of Black Republican voters as the blocking of the Bill by the Democrats in the Southern Caucus would become obvious. They, like Johnson, also saw the potential for dividing the Democratic party's Northern and Southern wings. This meant that the (on this issue) liberal but hardball Republican operators like the Vice President, Richard Nixon, who had a constitutional right to chair the Senate took a great interest in the Bill. Conservative Republican Senators who were sympathetic to Southern arguments on States rights were more likely to vote on a party basis. On the other hand, the Republicans were willing to quietly allow Democratic Southern obstruction if this meant that African-American and liberal voters would be more likely to see the culprits as Democrats. Anderson–Aiken amendment A bipartisan group of Senators realized that Southerners would not allow passage of the act with Title III, which authorized the US Attorney General to seek preventive relief in civil rights cases. Majority Leader Johnson convinced Senator Clinton Anderson (D-NM) to introduce an amendment to strip out the enforcement provisions of Title III. Later President Eisenhower in answer to a direct question on Russell's charges distanced himself from the "exact language" of Title III. The vote on the amendment did not split purely along partisan or ideological lines; it was opposed by conservative William Knowland (R-CA) and supported by liberal Frank Church (D-ID). Alleged violators of civil rights injunctions are normally entitled to jury trials, with the exception of civil contempt actions. A jury trial amendment that included the guarantee of jury trials in civil contempt actions would, in the South, result in perpetrators of voter suppression being acquitted by an all-white jury, thus ensuring no resulted accomplishment to enfranchise blacks. There was also support from some unions, particularly the Railroad brotherhoods and the United Mine Workers of America who agreed that this would also stop injunctions in union cases. Their support was seen as a major reason why Senators in mining states such as West Virginia and mid western Republican senators where the railroads were strong became less hostile to the amendment. Following the vote, many Republicans were visible in their bitterness, having failed in an opportunity to spearhead the cause of civil rights against a deceitful, partisan Democratic effort. According to Johnson biographer Robert A. Caro: Filibuster Then-Democratic Senator Strom Thurmond of South Carolina, an ardent segregationist, sustained the longest one-person filibuster in history in an attempt to keep the bill from becoming law. His one-man filibuster lasted 24 hours and 18 minutes; he began with readings of every US state's election laws in alphabetical order. He later read from the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, and George Washington's Farewell Address. Thurmond pointed out that there was already a federal statute that prosecuted citizens who denied or intimidated voters at voting booths under a fine and/or imprisonment but that the bill then under consideration could legally deny trial by jury to those that continued to do so. Democratic Representative Charles A. Boyle of Illinois, a member of the powerful Appropriations Subcommittee of Defense, pushed the bill through the House of Representatives. Final passage The bill passed 285–126 in the House of Representatives with a majority of both parties' support (Republicans 167–19, Democrats 118–107). It then passed 72–18 in the Senate, again with a majority of both parties (Republicans 43–0, Democrats 29–18). Despite large opposition from Southern Democrats, the Democratic U.S. Senators from Tennessee and Texas would support the law. President Eisenhower signed the bill on September 9, 1957. The act established both the Commission on Civil Rights and the office of Assistant Attorney General for Civil Rights. Subsequently, on December 9, 1957, the Civil Rights Division was established within the Justice Department by order of US Attorney General William P. Rogers, giving the Assistant Attorney General for Civil Rights a distinct division to command. Previously, civil rights lawyers had enforced Reconstruction-era civil rights laws from within the Department's Criminal Division. Civil Rights Act of 1960 The Civil Rights Act of 1960 () is a United States federal law that established federal inspection of local voter registration polls and introduced penalties for anyone who obstructed someone's attempt to register to vote. It dealt primarily with discriminatory laws and practices in the segregated South, by which African-Americans and Tejanos had been effectively disenfranchised since the late 19th and start of the 20th century. This was the fifth Civil Rights Act to be enacted in United States history. Over an 85-year period, it was preceded only by the Civil Rights Act of 1957, whose shortcomings largely influenced its creation. This law served to more effectively enforce what was set forth in the 1957 act through eliminating certain loopholes in it, and to establish additional provisions. Aside from addressing voting rights, the Civil Rights Act of 1960 also imposed criminal penalties for obstruction of court orders to limit resistance to the Supreme Court's school desegregation decisions, arranged for free education for military members' children, and banned the act of fleeing to avoid prosecution for property damage. The Civil Rights Act of 1960 was signed into law by President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Civil Rights Act of 1964 The Civil Rights Act of 1964 () is a landmark civil rights and labor law in the United States that outlaws discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, and national origin. It prohibits unequal application of voter registration requirements, racial segregation in schools and public accommodations, and employment discrimination. The act "remains one of the most significant legislative achievements in American history". Initially, powers given to enforce the act were weak, but these were supplemented during later years. Congress asserted its authority to legislate under several different parts of the United States Constitution, principally its enumerated power to regulate interstate commerce under the Commerce Clause of Article I, Section 8, its duty to guarantee all citizens equal protection of the laws under the 14th Amendment, and its duty to protect voting rights under the 15th Amendment. The legislation was proposed by President John F. Kennedy in June 1963, but it was opposed by filibuster in the Senate. After Kennedy was assassinated on November 22, 1963, President Lyndon B. Johnson pushed the bill forward. The United States House of Representatives passed the bill on February 10, 1964, and after a 72-day filibuster, it passed the United States Senate on June 19, 1964. The final vote was 290–130 in the House of Representatives and 73–27 in the Senate. After the House agreed to a subsequent Senate amendment, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was signed into law by President Johnson at the White House on July 2, 1964.Legislative history On June 11, 1963, President Kennedy met with Republican leaders to discuss the legislation before his television address to the nation that evening. Two days later, Senate Minority Leader Everett Dirksen and Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield both voiced support for the president's bill, except for provisions guaranteeing equal access to places of public accommodations. This led to several Republican Representatives drafting a compromise bill to be considered. On June 19, the president sent his bill to Congress as it was originally written, saying legislative action was "imperative". The president's bill went first to the House of Representatives, where it was referred to the Judiciary Committee, chaired by New York Democrat Emanuel Celler. After a series of hearings on the bill, Celler's committee strengthened the act, adding provisions to ban racial discrimination in employment, providing greater protection to black voters, eliminating segregation in all publicly owned facilities (not just schools), and strengthening the anti-segregation clauses regarding public facilities such as lunch counters. They also added authorization for the Attorney General to file lawsuits to protect individuals against the deprivation of any rights secured by the Constitution or U.S. law. In essence, this was the controversial "Title III" that had been removed from the 1957 Act and 1960 Act. Civil rights organizations pressed hard for this provision because it could be used to protect peaceful protesters and black voters from police brutality and suppression of free speech rights. on August 28, 1963, civil rights leaders met with President Kennedy and Vice President Johnson to discuss civil rights legislation.]]Lobbying support for the Civil Rights Act was coordinated by the Leadership Conference on Civil Rights, a coalition of 70 liberal and labor organizations. The principal lobbyists for the Leadership Conference were civil rights lawyer Joseph L. Rauh Jr. and Clarence Mitchell Jr. of the NAACP. After the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, on August 28, 1963, the organizers visited Kennedy to discuss the civil rights bill. Roy Wilkins, A. Philip Randolph, and Walter Reuther attempted to persuade him to support a provision establishing a Fair Employment Practices Commission that would ban discriminatory practices by all federal agencies, unions, and private companies. Kennedy called the congressional leaders to the White House in late October 1963 to line up the necessary votes in the House for passage. The bill was reported out of the Judiciary Committee in November 1963 and referred to the Rules Committee, whose chairman, Howard W. Smith, a Democrat and staunch segregationist from Virginia, indicated his intention to keep the bill bottled up indefinitely. The assassination of United States President John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963, changed the political situation. Kennedy's successor as president, Lyndon B. Johnson, made use of his experience in legislative politics, along with the bully pulpit he wielded as president, in support of the bill. In his first address to a joint session of Congress on November 27, 1963, Johnson told the legislators, "No memorial oration or eulogy could more eloquently honor President Kennedy's memory than the earliest possible passage of the civil rights bill for which he fought so long." Judiciary Committee chairman Celler filed a petition to discharge the bill from the Rules Committee which required the support of a majority of House members to move the bill to the floor. Initially, Celler had a difficult time acquiring the signatures necessary, with many Representatives who supported the civil rights bill itself remaining cautious about violating normal House procedure with the rare use of a discharge petition. By the time of the 1963 winter recess, 50 signatures were still needed. After the return of Congress from its winter recess, however, it was apparent that public opinion in the North favored the bill and that the petition would acquire the necessary signatures. To avert the humiliation of a successful discharge petition, Chairman Smith relented and allowed the bill to pass through the Rules Committee. and Malcolm X at the United States Capitol on March 26, 1964, listening to the Senate debate on the bill. The two met for only one minute.]] signs the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Among the guests behind him is Martin Luther King Jr.]]Johnson, who wanted the bill passed as soon as possible, ensured that it would be quickly considered by the Senate. Normally, the bill would have been referred to the Senate Judiciary Committee, which was chaired by James O. Eastland, a Democrat from Mississippi, whose firm opposition made it seem impossible that the bill would reach the Senate floor. Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield took a novel approach to prevent the Judiciary Committee from keeping the bill in limbo: initially waiving a second reading immediately after the first reading, which would have sent it to the Judiciary Committee, he took the unprecedented step of giving the bill a second reading on February 26, 1964, thereby bypassing the Judiciary Committee, and sending it to the Senate floor for immediate debate. When the bill came before the full Senate for debate on March 30, 1964, the "Southern Bloc" of 18 southern Democratic Senators and lone Republican John Tower of Texas, led by Richard Russell (D-GA), launched a filibuster to prevent its passage. Russell proclaimed, "We will resist to the bitter end any measure or any movement which would tend to bring about social equality and intermingling and amalgamation of the races in our [Southern] states." Strong opposition to the bill also came from Senator Strom Thurmond, who was still a Democrat at the time: "This so-called Civil Rights Proposals [sic], which the President has sent to Capitol Hill for enactment into law, are unconstitutional, unnecessary, unwise and extend beyond the realm of reason. This is the worst civil-rights package ever presented to the Congress and is reminiscent of the Reconstruction proposals and actions of the radical Republican Congress." After the filibuster had gone on for 54 days, Senators Mansfield, Hubert Humphrey, Everett Dirksen, and Thomas Kuchel introduced a substitute bill that they hoped would overcome it by combining a sufficient number of Republicans as well as core liberal Democrats. The compromise bill was weaker than the House version as to the government's power in regulating the conduct of private business, but not weak enough to make the House reconsider it. Senator Robert Byrd ended his filibuster in opposition to the bill on the morning of June 10, 1964, after 14 hours and 13 minutes. Up to then, the measure had occupied the Senate for 60 working days, including six Saturdays. The day before, Humphrey, the bill's manager, concluded that he had the 67 votes required at that time to end the debate and the filibuster. With six wavering senators providing a four-vote victory margin, the final tally stood at 71 to 29. Never before in its entire history had the Senate been able to muster enough votes to defeat a filibuster on a civil rights bill, and only once in the 37 years since 1927 had it agreed to cloture for any measure. The most dramatic moment during the cloture vote came when Senator Clair Engle (D-CA) was wheeled into the chamber. Suffering from terminal brain cancer, unable to speak, he pointed to his left eye, signifying his affirmative "Aye" vote when his name was called. He died seven weeks later. On June 19, the compromise bill passed the Senate by a vote of 73–27, quickly passed through the conference committee, which adopted the Senate version of the bill, then was passed by both houses of Congress and signed into law by Johnson on July 2, 1964. Aspects Women's rights One year earlier, the same Congress had passed the Equal Pay Act of 1963, which prohibited wage differentials based on sex. The prohibition on sex discrimination was added to the Civil Rights Act by Howard W. Smith, a powerful Virginia Democrat who chaired the House Rules Committee and strongly opposed the legislation. Smith's amendment was passed by a teller vote of 168 to 133. Historians debate whether Smith cynically attempted to defeat the bill because he opposed civil rights for Black people and women or attempted to support their rights by broadening the bill to include women. Smith expected that Republicans, who had included equal rights for women in their party's platform since 1944, would probably vote for the amendment. Historians speculate that Smith was trying to embarrass northern Democrats who opposed civil rights for women because labor unions opposed the clause. Representative Carl Elliott of Alabama later said, "Smith didn't give a damn about women's rights", as "he was trying to knock off votes either then or down the line because there was always a hard core of men who didn't favor women's rights", and according to the Congressional Record, laughter greeted Smith when he introduced the amendment. Smith asserted that he was not joking and sincerely supported the amendment. Along with Representative Martha Griffiths, he was the amendment's chief spokesperson. Griffiths argued that the new law would protect black women but not white women, and that that was unfair to white women. Black feminist lawyer Pauli Murray wrote a supportive memorandum at the behest of the National Federation of Business and Professional Women. Griffiths also argued that the laws "protecting" women from unpleasant jobs were actually designed to enable men to monopolize those jobs, and that that was unfair to women who were not allowed to try out for those jobs. The amendment passed with the votes of Republicans and Southern Democrats. The final law passed with the votes of Republicans and Northern Democrats. Thus, as Justice William Rehnquist wrote in Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson'', "The prohibition against discrimination based on sex was added to Title VII at the last minute on the floor of the House of Representatives [...] the bill quickly passed as amended, and we are left with little legislative history to guide us in interpreting the Act's prohibition against discrimination based on 'sex. Desegregation One of the bill's opponents' most damaging arguments was that once passed, the bill would require forced busing to achieve certain racial quotas in schools. The bill's proponents, such as Emanuel Celler and Jacob Javits, said it would not authorize such measures. Leading sponsor Hubert Humphrey wrote two amendments specifically designed to outlaw busing. Senator Richard Russell, Jr. later warned President Johnson that his strong support for the civil rights bill "will not only cost you the South, it will cost you the election". Johnson, however, went on to win the 1964 election by one of the biggest landslides in American history. The South, which had five states swing Republican in 1964, became a stronghold of the Republican Party by the 1990s. Although majorities in both parties voted for the bill, there were notable exceptions. Though he opposed forced segregation, Republican 1964 presidential candidate, Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona, voted against the bill, remarking, "You can't legislate morality." Goldwater had supported previous attempts to pass civil rights legislation in 1957 and 1960 as well as the 24th Amendment outlawing the poll tax. He stated that the reason for his opposition to the 1964 bill was Title II, which in his opinion violated individual liberty and states' rights. Democrats and Republicans from the Southern states opposed the bill and led an unsuccessful 60 working day filibuster, including Senators Albert Gore, Sr. (D-TN) and J. William Fulbright (D-AR), as well as Senator Robert Byrd (D-WV), who personally filibustered for 14 hours straight. There were white business owners who claimed that Congress did not have the constitutional authority to ban segregation in public accommodations. For example, Moreton Rolleston, the owner of a motel in Atlanta, Georgia, said he should not be forced to serve black travelers, saying, "the fundamental question [...] is whether or not Congress has the power to take away the liberty of an individual to run his business as he sees fit in the selection and choice of his customers". Rolleston claimed that the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was a breach of the Fourteenth Amendment and also violated the Fifth and Thirteenth Amendments by depriving him of "liberty and property without due process". When local college students in Orangeburg, South Carolina, attempted to desegregate a bowling alley in 1968, they were violently attacked, leading to rioting and what became known as the "Orangeburg massacre." Resistance by school boards continued into the next decade, with the most significant declines in black-white school segregation only occurring at the end of the 1960s and the start of the 1970s in the aftermath of the Green v. County School Board of New Kent County (1968) court decision. In June 2020, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in three cases (Bostock v. Clayton County, Altitude Express, Inc. v. Zarda, and R.G. & G.R. Harris Funeral Homes Inc. v. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission) that Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, which barred employers from discriminating on the basis of sex, precluded employers from discriminating on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity. Afterward, USA Today stated that in addition to LGBTQ employment discrimination, "[t]he court's ruling is likely to have a sweeping impact on federal civil rights laws barring sex discrimination in education, health care, housing and financial credit." Voting Rights Act of 1965 The Voting Rights Act of 1965 is a landmark piece of federal legislation in the United States that prohibits racial discrimination in voting. It was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson during the height of the civil rights movement on August 6, 1965, and Congress later amended the Act five times to expand its protections. The National Archives and Records Administration stated: "The Voting Rights Act of 1965 was the most significant statutory change in the relationship between the federal and state governments in the area of voting since the Reconstruction period following the Civil War". The act contains numerous provisions that regulate elections. The act's "general provisions" provide nationwide protections for voting rights. Section 2 is a general provision that prohibits state and local government from imposing any voting rule that "results in the denial or abridgement of the right of any citizen to vote on account of race or color" or membership in a language minority group. Other general provisions specifically outlaw literacy tests and similar devices that were historically used to disenfranchise racial minorities. The act also contains "special provisions" that apply to only certain jurisdictions. A core special provision is the Section 5 preclearance requirement, which prohibited certain jurisdictions from implementing any change affecting voting without first receiving confirmation from the U.S. attorney general or the U.S. District Court for D.C. that the change does not discriminate against protected minorities. Another special provision requires jurisdictions containing significant language minority populations to provide bilingual ballots and other election materials. Section 5 and most other special provisions applied to jurisdictions encompassed by the "coverage formula" prescribed in Section 4(b). The coverage formula was originally designed to encompass jurisdictions that engaged in egregious voting discrimination in 1965, and Congress updated the formula in 1970 and 1975. In Shelby County v. Holder (2013), the U.S. Supreme Court struck down the coverage formula as unconstitutional, reasoning that it was obsolete. The court did not strike down Section 5, but without a coverage formula, Section 5 is unenforceable. The jurisdictions which had previously been covered by the coverage formula massively increased the rate of voter registration purges after the Shelby decision. In 2021, the Brnovich v. Democratic National Committee Supreme Court ruling reinterpreted Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, substantially weakening it. The Act has also been linked to concrete outcomes, such as greater public goods provision (such as public education) for areas with higher black population shares, more members of Congress who vote for civil rights-related legislation, and greater Black representation in local offices. Background , the first of the Selma to Montgomery marches]] Prior to the enactment of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 there were several efforts to stop the disenfranchisement of black voters by Southern states,. In the 1950s the Civil Rights Movement increased pressure on the federal government to protect the voting rights of racial minorities. In 1957, Congress passed the first civil rights legislation since Reconstruction: the Civil Rights Act of 1957. This legislation authorized the attorney general to sue for injunctive relief on behalf of persons whose Fifteenth Amendment rights were denied, created the Civil Rights Division within the Department of Justice to enforce civil rights through litigation, and created the Commission on Civil Rights to investigate voting rights deprivations. Further protections were enacted in the Civil Rights Act of 1960, which allowed federal courts to appoint referees to conduct voter registration in jurisdictions that engaged in voting discrimination against racial minorities. However, despite lobbying from civil rights leaders, the Act did not prohibit most forms of voting discrimination. President Lyndon B. Johnson recognized this, and shortly after the 1964 elections in which Democrats gained overwhelming majorities in both chambers of Congress, he privately instructed Attorney General Nicholas Katzenbach to draft "the goddamndest, toughest voting rights act that you can". and other civil rights leaders organized several peaceful demonstrations in Selma, which were violently attacked by police and white counter-protesters. Throughout January and February, these protests received national media coverage and drew attention to the issue of voting rights. King and other demonstrators were arrested during a march on February 1 for violating an anti-parade ordinance; this inspired similar marches in the following days, causing hundreds more to be arrested. Spurred by this event, and at the initiation of Bevel, on March 7 SCLC and SNCC began the first of the Selma to Montgomery marches, in which Selma residents intended to march to Alabama's capital, Montgomery, to highlight voting rights issues and present Governor George Wallace with their grievances. On the first march, demonstrators were stopped by state and county police on horseback at the Edmund Pettus Bridge near Selma. The police shot tear gas into the crowd and trampled protesters. Televised footage of the scene, which became known as "Bloody Sunday", generated outrage across the country. The worst injured was Reverend James Reeb from Boston, who died on Thursday, March 11. In the wake of the events in Selma, President Johnson, addressing a televised joint session of Congress on March 15, called on legislators to enact expansive voting rights legislation. In his speech, he used the words "we shall overcome", adopting the rallying cry of the civil rights movement. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 was introduced in Congress two days later while civil rights leaders, now under the protection of federal troops, led a march of 25,000 people from Selma to Montgomery.}} In South Carolina v. Katzenbach (1966) the Supreme Court also held that Congress had the power to pass the Voting Rights Act of 1965 under its Enforcement Powers stemming from the Fifteenth Amendment: Original billLyndon B. Johnson, Martin Luther King Jr., and Rosa Parks at the signing of the Voting Rights Act on August 6, 1965]]SenateThe Voting Rights Act of 1965 was introduced in Congress on March 17, 1965, as S. 1564, and it was jointly sponsored by Senate majority leader Mike Mansfield (D-MT) and Senate minority leader Everett Dirksen (R-IL), both of whom had worked with Attorney General Katzenbach to draft the bill's language. Although Democrats held two-thirds of the seats in both chambers of Congress after the 1964 Senate elections, The bill contained several special provisions that targeted certain state and local governments: a "coverage formula" that determined which jurisdictions were subject to the Act's other special provisions ("covered jurisdictions"); a "preclearance" requirement that prohibited covered jurisdictions from implementing changes to their voting procedures without first receiving approval from the U.S. attorney general or the U.S. District Court for D.C. that the changes were not discriminatory; and the suspension of "tests or devices", such as literacy tests, in covered jurisdictions. The bill also authorized the assignment of federal examiners to register voters, and of federal observers to monitor elections, to covered jurisdictions that were found to have engaged in egregious discrimination. The bill set these special provisions to expire after five years. The scope of the coverage formula was a matter of contentious congressional debate. The coverage formula reached a jurisdiction if (1) the jurisdiction maintained a "test or device" on November 1, 1964, and (2) less than 50 percent of the jurisdiction's voting-age residents either were registered to vote on November 1, 1964, or cast a ballot in the November 1964 presidential election. The bill also included provisions allowing a covered jurisdiction to "bail out" of coverage by proving in federal court that it had not used a "test or device" for a discriminatory purpose or with a discriminatory effect during the 5 years preceding its bailout request. The bill was first considered by the Senate Judiciary Committee, whose chair, Senator James Eastland (D-MS), opposed the legislation with several other Southern senators on the committee. To prevent the bill from dying in committee, Mansfield proposed a motion to require the Judiciary Committee to report the bill out of committee by April 9, which the Senate overwhelmingly passed by a vote of 67 to 13. On May 26, the Senate passed the bill by a 77–19 vote (Democrats 47–16, Republicans 30–2); only senators representing Southern states voted against it.House of Representatives Emanuel Celler (D-NY), Chair of the House Judiciary Committee, introduced the Voting Rights Act in the House of Representatives on March 19, 1965, as H.R. 6400. Later that night, the House passed the Voting Rights Act by a 333–85 vote (Democrats 221–61, Republicans 112–24).Conference committeeThe chambers appointed a conference committee to resolve differences between the House and Senate versions of the bill. A major contention concerned the poll tax provisions; the Senate version allowed the attorney general to sue states that used poll taxes to discriminate, while the House version outright banned all poll taxes. Initially, the committee members were stalemated. To help broker a compromise, Attorney General Katzenbach drafted legislative language explicitly asserting that poll taxes were unconstitutional and instructed the Department of Justice to sue the states that maintained poll taxes. To assuage concerns of liberal committee members that this provision was not strong enough, Katzenbach enlisted the help of Martin Luther King Jr., who gave his support to the compromise. King's endorsement ended the stalemate, and on July 29, the conference committee reported its version out of committee. and the Senate passed it on August 4 by a 79–18 vote (Democrats 49–17, Republicans 30–1). On August 6, President Johnson signed the Act into law with King, Rosa Parks, John Lewis, and other civil rights leaders in attendance at the signing ceremony. To ease the burdens of the reauthorized special provisions, Congress liberalized the bailout procedure in 1982 by allowing jurisdictions to escape coverage by complying with the Act and affirmatively acting to expand minority political participation. Congress amended various provisions, such as the preclearance requirement and Section 2's general prohibition of discriminatory voting laws, to prohibit discrimination against language minorities. Congress also enacted a bilingual election requirement in Section 203, which requires election officials in certain jurisdictions with large numbers of English-illiterate language minorities to provide ballots and voting information in the language of the language minority group. Originally set to expire after 10 years, Congress reauthorized Section 203 in 1982 for seven years, expanded and reauthorized it in 1992 for 15 years, and reauthorized it in 2006 for 25 years. The bilingual election requirements have remained controversial, with proponents arguing that bilingual assistance is necessary to enable recently naturalized citizens to vote and opponents arguing that the bilingual election requirements constitute costly unfunded mandates. which interpreted the Section 5 preclearance requirement to prohibit only voting changes that were enacted or maintained for a "retrogressive" discriminatory purpose instead of any discriminatory purpose, and Georgia v. Ashcroft (2003), which established a broader test for determining whether a redistricting plan had an impermissible effect under Section 5 than assessing only whether a minority group could elect its preferred candidates. Since the Supreme Court struck down the coverage formula as unconstitutional in Shelby County v. Holder (2013), several bills have been introduced in Congress to create a new coverage formula and amend various other provisions; none of these bills have passed.ProvisionsThe act contains two types of provisions: "general provisions", which apply nationwide, and "special provisions", which apply to only certain states and local governments. "The Voting Rights Act was aimed at the subtle, as well as the obvious, state regulations which have the effect of denying citizens their right to vote because of their race. Moreover, compatible with the decisions of this Court, the Act gives a broad interpretation to the right to vote, recognizing that voting includes "all action necessary to make a vote effective." 79 Stat. 445, 42 U.S.C. § 19731(c)(1) (1969 ed., Supp. I). See Reynolds v. Sims, 377 U. S. 533, 377 U. S. 555 (1964)." Most provisions are designed to protect the voting rights of racial and language minorities. The term "language minority" means "persons who are American Indian, Asian American, Alaskan Natives or of Spanish heritage." Section 2 of the law contains two separate protections against voter discrimination for laws which, in contrast to Section 5 of the law, are already implemented. The first protection is a prohibition of intentional discrimination based on race or color in voting. The second protection is a prohibition of election practices that result in the denial or abridgment of the right to vote based on race or color. In Mobile v. Bolden (1980), the Supreme Court held that as originally enacted in 1965, Section 2 simply restated the Fifteenth Amendment and thus prohibited only those voting laws that were intentionally enacted or maintained for a discriminatory purpose. In 1982, Congress amended Section 2 to create a "results" test, which prohibits any voting law that has a discriminatory effect irrespective of whether the law was intentionally enacted or maintained for a discriminatory purpose. In Thornburg v. Gingles (1986) the United States Supreme Court explained with respect to the 1982 amendment for section 2 that the "essence of a Section 2 claim is that a certain electoral law, practice, or structure interacts with social and historical conditions to cause an inequality in the opportunities enjoyed by black and white voters to elect their preferred representatives." The United States Department of Justice declared that section 2 is not only a permanent and nationwide-applying prohibition against discrimination in voting to any voting standard, practice, or procedure that results in the denial or abridgement of the right of any citizen to vote on account of race, color, or membership in a language minority group, but also a prohibition for state and local officials to adopt or maintain voting laws or procedures that purposefully discriminate on the basis of race, color, or membership in a language minority group. Under the amended statute, proof of intent is no longer required to prove a § 2 violation. Now plaintiffs can prevail under § 2 by demonstrating that a challenged election practice has resulted in the denial or abridgement of the right to vote based on color or race. Congress not only incorporated the results test in the paragraph that formerly constituted the entire § 2, but also designated that paragraph as subsection (a) and added a new subsection (b) to make clear that an application of the results test requires an inquiry into "the totality of the circumstances." Section 2(a) adopts a results test, thus providing that proof of discriminatory intent is no longer necessary to establish any violation of the section. Section 2(b) provides guidance about how the results test is to be applied. There is a statutory framework to determine whether a jurisdiction's election law violates the general prohibition from Section 2 in its amended form: <blockquote>Section 2 prohibits voting practices that "result[] in a denial or abridgment of the right * * * to vote on account of race or color [or language-minority status]," and it states that such a result "is established" if a jurisdiction’s "political processes * * * are not equally open" to members of such a group "in that [they] have less opportunity * * * to participate in the political process and to elect representatives of their choice." [https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=(title:52%20section:10301%20edition:prelim) 52 U.S.C. 10301]. [...] Subsection (b) states in relevant part: A violation of subsection (a) is established if, based on the totality of circumstances, it is shown that the political processes leading to nomination or election in the State or political subdivision are not equally open to participation by members of a class of citizens protected by subsection (a) in that its members have less opportunity than other members of the electorate to participate in the political process and to elect representatives of their choice.</blockquote> In Brnovich v. Democratic National Committee (2021) the United States Supreme Court introduced the means to review Section 2 challenges. The Court laid out these guideposts used to evaluate the state regulations in context of Section 2, which included: the size of the burden created by the rule, the degree which the rule deviates from past practices, the size of the racial imbalance, and the overall level of opportunity afforded voters in considering all election rules. When determining whether a jurisdiction's election law violates the general prohibition from Section 2 of the VRA, courts have relied on factors enumerated in the Senate Judiciary Committee report associated with the 1982 amendments ("Senate Factors"), including: Section 2 prohibits two types of discrimination: "vote denial", in which a person is denied the opportunity to cast a ballot or to have their vote properly counted, and "vote dilution", in which the strength or effectiveness of a person's vote is diminished. Most Section 2 litigation has concerned vote dilution, especially claims that a jurisdiction's redistricting plan or use of at-large/multimember elections prevents minority voters from casting sufficient votes to elect their preferred candidates. Redistricting plans can be gerrymandered to dilute votes cast by minorities by "packing" high numbers of minority voters into a small number of districts or "cracking" minority groups by placing small numbers of minority voters into a large number of districts. In Thornburg v. Gingles (1986), the Supreme Court used the term "vote dilution through submergence" to describe claims that a jurisdiction's use of an at-large/multimember election system or gerrymandered redistricting plan diluted minority votes, and it established a legal framework for assessing such claims under Section 2., that the Gingles test also applies to claims that a redistricting plan results in vote dilution through the arrangement of single-member districts.}} Under the Gingles test, plaintiffs must show the existence of three preconditions: # The racial or language minority group "is sufficiently numerous and compact to form a majority in a single-member district"; # The minority group is "politically cohesive" (meaning its members tend to vote similarly); and # The "majority votes sufficiently as a bloc to enable it ... usually to defeat the minority's preferred candidate." The first precondition is known as the "compactness" requirement and concerns whether a majority-minority district can be created. The second and third preconditions are collectively known as the "racially polarized voting" or "racial bloc voting" requirement, and they concern whether the voting patterns of the different racial groups are different from each other. If a plaintiff proves these preconditions exist, then the plaintiff must additionally show, using the remaining Senate Factors and other evidence, that under the "totality of the circumstances", the jurisdiction's redistricting plan or use of at-large or multimember elections diminishes the ability of the minority group to elect candidates of its choice. the Supreme Court held that the first Gingles precondition can be satisfied only if a district can be drawn in which the minority group comprises a majority of voting-age citizens. This means that plaintiffs cannot succeed on a submergence claim in jurisdictions where the size of the minority group, despite not being large enough to comprise a majority in a district, is large enough for its members to elect their preferred candidates with the help of "crossover" votes from some members of the majority group. In contrast, the Supreme Court has not addressed whether different protected minority groups can be aggregated to satisfy the Gingles preconditions as a coalition, and lower courts have split on the issue. Since Gingles, lower courts have split on the issue. Although most Section 2 litigation has involved claims of vote dilution through submergence, the Supreme Court held that claims that minority votes are diluted by the small size of a governing body, such as a one-person county commission, may not be brought under Section 2. A plurality of the court reasoned that no uniform, non-dilutive "benchmark" size for a governing body exists, making relief under Section 2 impossible. Another type of vote dilution may result from a jurisdiction's requirement that a candidate be elected by a majority vote. A majority-vote requirement may cause a minority group's candidate of choice, who would have won the election with a simple plurality of votes, to lose after a majority of voters unite behind another candidate in a runoff election. The Supreme Court has not addressed whether such claims may be brought under Section 2, and lower courts have reached different conclusions on the issue. In addition to claims of vote dilution, courts have considered vote denial claims brought under Section 2. The Supreme Court, in Richardson v. Ramirez (1974), held that felony disenfranchisement laws cannot violate Section 2 because, among other reasons, Section 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment permits such laws. Starting in 2013, lower federal courts began to consider various challenges to voter ID laws brought under Section 2.Specific prohibitionsThe act contains several specific prohibitions on conduct that may interfere with a person's ability to cast an effective vote. One of these prohibitions is prescribed in Section 201, which prohibits any jurisdiction from requiring a person to comply with any "test or device" to register to vote or cast a ballot. The term "test or device" is defined as literacy tests, educational or knowledge requirements, proof of good moral character, and requirements that a person be vouched for when voting. Before the Act's enactment, these devices were the primary tools used by jurisdictions to prevent racial minorities from voting. Originally, the Act suspended tests or devices temporarily in jurisdictions covered by the Section 4(b) coverage formula, but Congress subsequently expanded the prohibition to the entire country and made it permanent. Several further protections for voters are contained in Section 11. Section 11(a) prohibits any person acting under color of law from refusing or failing to allow a qualified person to vote or to count a qualified voter's ballot. Similarly, Section 11(b) prohibits any person from intimidating, harassing, or coercing another person for voting or attempting to vote. Finally, under Section 208, a jurisdiction may not prevent anyone who is English-illiterate or has a disability from being accompanied into the ballot box by an assistant of the person's choice. The only exceptions are that the assistant may not be an agent of the person's employer or union. During the Act's early history, Section 3(c) was little used; no jurisdictions were bailed in until 1975. Between 1975 and 2013, 18 jurisdictions were bailed in, including 16 local governments and the states of Arkansas and New Mexico. Although the Supreme Court held the Section 4(b) coverage formula unconstitutional in Shelby County v. Holder (2013), it did not hold Section 3(c) unconstitutional. Therefore, jurisdictions may continue to be bailed-in and subjected to Section 3(c) preclearance. In the months following Shelby County, courts began to consider requests by the attorney general and other plaintiffs to bail in the states of Texas and North Carolina, and in January 2014 a federal court bailed in Evergreen, Alabama. A more narrow bail-in process pertaining to federal observer certification is prescribed in Section 3(a). Under this provision, a federal court may certify a non-covered jurisdiction to receive federal observers if the court determines that the jurisdiction violated the voting rights guaranteed by the Fourteenth or Fifteenth Amendments. Jurisdictions certified to receive federal observers under Section 3(a) are not subject to preclearance.Special provisionsCoverage formula '' (2013), which declared the coverage formula unconstitutional.]] Section 4(b) contains a "coverage formula" that determines which states and local governments may be subjected to the Act's other special provisions (except for the Section 203(c) bilingual election requirements, which fall under a different formula). Congress intended for the coverage formula to encompass the most pervasively discriminatory jurisdictions. A jurisdiction is covered by the formula if: # As of November 1, 1964, 1968, or 1972, the jurisdiction used a "test or device" to restrict the opportunity to register and vote; and # Less than half of the jurisdiction's eligible citizens were registered to vote on November 1, 1964, 1968, or 1972; or less than half of eligible citizens voted in the presidential election of November 1964, 1968, or 1972. As originally enacted, the coverage formula contained only November 1964 triggering dates; subsequent revisions to the law supplemented it with the additional triggering dates of November 1968 and November 1972, which brought more jurisdictions into coverage. As Congress added new triggering dates to the coverage formula, new jurisdictions were brought into coverage. The 1965 coverage formula included the whole of Alabama, Alaska, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina, and Virginia; and some subdivisions (mostly counties) in Arizona, Hawaii, Idaho, and North Carolina. The other special provisions that are dependent on the coverage formula, such as the Section 5 preclearance requirement, remain valid law. However, without a valid coverage formula, these provisions are unenforceable. Preclearance requirement Section 5 requires that covered jurisdictions receive federal approval, known as "preclearance", before implementing changes to their election laws. A covered jurisdiction has the burden of proving that the change does not have the purpose or effect of discriminating on the basis of race or language minority status; if the jurisdiction fails to meet this burden, the federal government will deny preclearance and the jurisdiction's change will not go into effect. The Supreme Court broadly interpreted Section 5's scope in Allen v. State Board of Election (1969), holding that any change in a jurisdiction's voting practices, even if minor, must be submitted for preclearance. The court also held that if a jurisdiction fails to have its voting change precleared, private plaintiffs may sue the jurisdiction in the plaintiff's local district court before a three-judge panel. In these Section 5 "enforcement actions", a court considers whether the jurisdiction made a covered voting change, and if so, whether the change had been precleared. If the jurisdiction improperly failed to obtain preclearance, the court will order the jurisdiction to obtain preclearance before implementing the change. However, the court may not consider the merits of whether the change should be approved. Jurisdictions may seek preclearance through either an "administrative preclearance" process or a "judicial preclearance" process. If a jurisdiction seeks administrative preclearance, the attorney general will consider whether the proposed change has a discriminatory purpose or effect. After the jurisdiction submits the proposed change, the attorney general has 60 days to interpose an objection to it. The 60-day period may be extended an additional 60 days if the jurisdiction later submits additional information. If the attorney general interposes an objection, then the change is not precleared and may not be implemented. The attorney general's decision is not subject to judicial review, but if the attorney general interposes an objection, the jurisdiction may independently seek judicial preclearance, and the court may disregard the attorney general's objection at its discretion. Private parties may intervene in judicial preclearance lawsuits. the court held that for a voting change to have a prohibited discriminatory effect, it must result in "retrogression" (backsliding). Under this standard, a voting change that causes discrimination, but does not result in more discrimination than before the change was made, cannot be denied preclearance for having a discriminatory effect. For example, replacing a poll tax with an equally expensive voter registration fee is not a "retrogressive" change because it causes equal discrimination, not more. Relying on the Senate report for the Act, the court reasoned that the retrogression standard was the correct interpretation of the term "discriminatory effect" because Section 5's purpose is " 'to insure that [the gains thus far achieved in minority political participation] shall not be destroyed through new [discriminatory] procedures' ". Uncertainty remains as to what this language precisely means and how courts may interpret it.Federal examiners and observersUntil the 2006 amendments to the Act, Because of time and resource constraints, federal observers are not assigned to every certified jurisdiction for every election. The 1982 amendment to the bailout eligibility standard went into effect on August 5, 1984. which held that local governments that do not register voters have the ability to bail out. After this ruling, jurisdictions succeeded in at least 20 bailout actions before the Supreme Court held in Shelby County v. Holder (2013) that the coverage formula was unconstitutional. Congress enacted the provisions to break down language barriers and combat pervasive language discrimination against the protected groups. Impact , President of the Senate Hubert Humphrey, and Speaker of the House John McCormack]] "The Voting Rights Act had an immediate impact. By the end of 1965, a quarter of a million new Black voters had been registered, one-third by federal examiners. By the end of 1966, only four out of 13 southern states had fewer than 50 percent of African Americans registered to vote." After its enactment in 1965, the law immediately decreased racial discrimination in voting. The suspension of literacy tests and the assignments of federal examiners and observers allowed for high numbers of racial minorities to register to vote. In covered jurisdictions, less than one-third (29.3 percent) of the African American population was registered in 1965; by 1967, this number increased to more than half (52.1 percent), Nationwide, the number of African American elected officials increased from 1,469 in 1970 to 4,912 in 1980. Similarly, registration rates for language minority groups increased after Congress enacted the bilingual election requirements in 1975 and amended them in 1992. In 1973, the percent of Hispanics registered to vote was 34.9 percent; by 2006, that amount nearly doubled. The number of Asian Americans registered to vote in 1996 increased 58 percent by 2006. By enfranchising racial minorities, the Act facilitated a political realignment of the Democratic and Republican parties. Between 1890 and 1965, Black disenfranchisement enabled the Democratic Party to dominate Southern politics. After Johnson signed the Act into law, newly enfranchised Black voters began to push the Democratic Party to the left throughout the South; this in turn pushed Southern white conservatives to switch their support from the Democratic to Republican party. This trend caused the two parties to ideologically polarize, with the Democratic Party becoming more Liberal and the Republican Party becoming more Conservative. Over the subsequent decades, the creation of majority-minority districts to remedy racial vote dilution claims also contributed to these developments. By packing liberal-leaning racial minorities into small numbers of majority-minority districts, large numbers of surrounding districts became more solidly white, conservative, and Republican. While this increased the elected representation of racial minorities as intended, it also decreased white Democratic representation and increased the representation of Republicans overall. A 2016 study in the American Journal of Political Science found "that members of Congress who represented jurisdictions subject to the preclearance requirement were substantially more supportive of civil rights-related legislation than legislators who did not represent covered jurisdictions." A 2013 Quarterly Journal of Economics study found that the Act boosted voter turnout and increases in public goods transfers from state governments to localities with higher black population. A 2019 study in the American Economic Journal found that preclearance substantially increased turnout among minorities, even as far as to 2012 (the year prior to the Supreme Court ruling ending preclearance). The study estimates that preclearance led to an increase in minority turnout of 17 percentage points. Another 2020 study found that VRA coverage halved the incidence and the onset of political violence. In a 5–4 decision in Shelby County v. Holder (2013), the Supreme Court struck down Section 4(b) as unconstitutional. Research has shown that the coverage formula and the requirement of preclearance substantially increased turnout among racial minorities, even as far as the year before Shelby County. On July 1, 2021, the Act's preclearance requirements were further weakened at the state and local level following the Brnovich v. Democratic National Committee in a 6-3 Supreme Court ruling which held that Section 2 preclearance provisions could not apply to out-of-precinct voting or ballot collecting. (That Act appears today in Title 25, sections 1301 to 1303 of the United States Code). Titles VIII and IX are commonly known as the Fair Housing Act, which was meant as a follow-up to the Civil Rights Act of 1964. (This is different legislation than the Housing and Urban Development Act of 1968, which expanded housing funding programs.) While the Civil Rights Act of 1866 prohibited discrimination in housing, there were no federal enforcement provisions. The 1968 act expanded on previous acts and prohibited discrimination concerning the sale, rental, and financing of housing based on race, religion, national origin, and since 1974, sex. Since 1988, the act protects people with disabilities and families with children. Pregnant women are also protected from illegal discrimination because they have been given familial status with their unborn child being the other family member. Victims of discrimination may use both the 1968 act and the 1866 act's section 1983 to seek redress. The 1968 act provides for federal solutions while the 1866 act provides for private solutions (i.e., civil suits). The act also made it a federal crime to "by force or by threat of force, injure, intimidate, or interfere with anyone... by reason of their race, color, religion, or national origin, handicap or familial status." Title X, commonly known as the Anti-Riot Act, makes it a felony to "travel in interstate commerce...with the intent to incite, promote, encourage, participate in and carry on a riot." That provision has been criticized for "equating organized political protest with organized violence." Legislative history and components In 1966, President Johnson proposed a new civil rights bill, but it was not passed through by the Senate. On February 17, 1967, the bill was introduced in the House by Rep. Manny Celler and in the Senate by Senator Philip A. Hart. The House Judiciary Committee cleared HR 2516 (civil rights bill) and HR 10805 (extended life of Civil Rights Commission for another five years). House Judiciary Subcommittee No. 5 June 22 approved a package combining HR 2516 and HR 421 (Administration bill) in order to strengthen protections for civil rights workers. The initial vote in the House of Representatives was 327–92 (161–25 in the House Republican Conference and 166–67 in the House Democratic Caucus) with 12 members voting present or abstaining, while in the Senate the final vote with amendments was 71–20 (29–3 in the Senate Republican Conference and 42–17 in the Senate Democratic Caucus) with 5 members voting present or abstaining. The House agreed to the Senate amendments by a vote of 250–172 (100–84 in the House Republican Conference and 150–88 in the House Democratic Caucus) with 10 members voting present or abstaining. Bill H.R. 2516 was passed by the 90th United States Congress and signed by the 36th President of the United States, Lyndon B. Johnson on April 11, 1968. Title I: Hate crimes The Civil Rights Act of 1968 also enacted (b)(2), which permits federal prosecution of anyone who "willingly injures, intimidates or interferes with another person, or attempts to do so, by force because of the other person's race, color, religion or national origin" because of the victim's attempt to engage in one of six types of federally protected activities, such as attending school, patronizing a public place/facility, applying for employment, acting as a juror in a state court or voting. Persons violating this law face a fine or imprisonment of up to one year or both. If bodily injury results or if such acts of intimidation involve the use of firearms, explosives or fire, individuals can receive prison terms of up to 10 years, while crimes involving kidnapping, sexual assault, or murder can be punishable by life in prison or the death penalty. Though sexual orientation and gender identity were also excluded from this law, they are included in a more recent Federal hate-crime law, the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act. Title II–VII: Indian Civil Rights Act The Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968 granted Native Americans full access to the United States Bill of Rights. The first minor section focuses on re-establishing amendments now granted to Native Americans. The main portion of the section focuses on Native Americans in the United States legal system. The last section of this act points out other materials related to more constitutional rights of Native Americans, such as the "Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties" doctrine. Title VIII–IX: Fair Housing Act Housing discrimination Title VIII of the Civil Rights Act of 1968 is commonly referred to as the Fair Housing Act of 1968. Since 1968 its protections have been expanded significantly by amendment. The Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity within the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development is charged with administering and enforcing this law. Types of banned discrimination The Civil Rights Act of 1968 prohibited the following forms of housing discrimination: * Refusal to sell or rent a dwelling to any person because of their race, color, religion or national origin. Discrimination on the basis of sex was added in 1974, and people with disabilities and families with children were added to the list of protected classes in 1988. * Discrimination against a person in the terms, conditions or privilege of the sale or rental of a dwelling. * Advertising the sale or rental of a dwelling indicating preference of discrimination based on race, color, religion or national origin. This provision was also amended to include sex, disability, and having children. * Coercing, threatening, intimidating, or interfering with a person's enjoyment or exercise of housing rights based on discriminatory reasons or retaliating against a person or organization that aids or encourages the exercise or enjoyment of fair housing rights. * Neglecting maintenance and repairs of the units rented by people based on race, religion, sex, or any other discriminatory demographic. * Restricting access to services and amenities on the basis of the renter's race, gender, religion, or nationality. * In 2012, the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development's Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity issued a regulation prohibiting LGBT discrimination in federally assisted housing programs. The Supreme Court ruled in 2020 that discrimination on the basis of "sex" includes discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity. It was not until February 2021 that Housing and Urban Development issued a rule change under President Joe Biden to implement this decision. In addition, many states, cities and towns have passed laws prohibiting discrimination in housing based on sexual orientation and gender identity.Types of allowed discriminationOnly certain kinds of discrimination are covered by fair housing laws. Landlords are not required by law to rent to any tenant who applies for a property. Landlords can select tenants based on objective business criteria, such as the applicant's ability to pay the rent and take care of the property. Landlords can lawfully discriminate against tenants with bad credit histories or low incomes, and (except in some areas) do not have to rent to tenants who will be receiving Section 8 vouchers. Landlords must be consistent in the screening, treat tenants who are inside and outside the protected classes in the same manner, and should document any legitimate business reason for not renting to a prospective tenant. The United States Department of Housing and Urban Development has stated that buyers and renters may discriminate and may request real estate agents representing them to limit home searches to parameters that are discriminatory. The primary purpose of the Fair Housing Act is to protect the buyer's (and renter's) right to seek a dwelling anywhere they choose. It protects the buyer's right to discriminate by prohibiting certain discriminatory acts by sellers, landlords, and real estate agents. People with disabilities The Fair Housing Act defines a person with a disability in the same manner as the Americans with Disabilities Act – "a person with a physical or mental impairment which substantially limits one or more major life activities; a record of such an impairment; or being regarded as having such an impairment." The Fair Housing Act provides several specific protections for buyers and tenants with disabilities. Landlords and sellers cannot make a dwelling unit unavailable or deny a dwelling to a buyer or renter because of their disability or the disability of any person who intends to reside in the dwelling or because of the disability of anyone with whom they are associated. Landlords cannot deny a person with a disability all of the privileges provided in connection with the dwelling, because of the person's disability. The Fair Housing Act (FHA) provides some specific protections for people with disabilities that facilitate independence and community living. First, the FHA allows tenants to make reasonable modifications to the existing premises. It makes it illegal for landlords to not allow people with disabilities to make reasonable modifications to the premises, at their own expense, if they need the modification to have full enjoyment of the premises. For example, an individual with a disability may require grab bars installed in order to have access to take a shower. The landlord must allow the tenant to install the grab bars to allow access to take a shower. However, technically, the landlord may require the tenant remove the grab bars at the end of the tenancy, at the tenant's own expense. However, the regulations specify that in rental housing, a landlord may not condition widening a bathroom doorway to provide wheelchair access, to its return to its former narrow state upon the end of the tenancy, since it will not interfere with the next tenants use and enjoyment of the premises. The second protection offered by the FHA includes the requirement that no one can refuse to make reasonable accommodations to "rules, policies, practices, or services, when the accommodation is necessary to afford" a person with a disability "equal opportunity to use and enjoy a dwelling unit," including the amenities of the dwelling, which may involve common areas. For example, a building with a "No Pets" policy would violate the FHA if it did not allow a blind person to have their seeing eye dog live with them as a reasonable accommodation to the policy. Similarly, a wheelchair user could request an assigned, accessible parking space as a reasonable accommodation in a "first come first serve" parking lot attached to an apartment complex. Title X: Anti-Riot Act The Act included the "Anti-Riot Act," enacted at (with its key terms, "riot" and "incite a riot," defined in ), which makes it a federal crime to use interstate or foreign commerce routes or facilities (such as by crossing state lines or through mail, use of the Internet, or phone calls) to incite a riot, organize, promote or participate in a riot or to extend activities of a riot, or to aid and abet any person performing such activities. The provision has been informally referred to as the "H. Rap Brown Law" since the arrest and trial of H. Rap Brown in 1967 for carrying a gun across state lines. Rulings by the 4th Circuit in 2020 and 9th Circuit in 2021 struck down in those circuits the portions of the law which prohibit "urging" a riot on the grounds of freedom of speech, leaving in place bans on inciting and participation in riots. Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987 The Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987, or'Grove City Bill, is a United States legislative act that specifies that entities receiving federal funds must comply with civil rights legislation in all of their operations, not just in the program or activity that received the funding. The Act overturned the precedent set by the Supreme Court decision in Grove City College v. Bell, 465 U.S. 555 (1984), which held that only the particular program in an educational institution receiving federal financial assistance was required to comply with the anti-discrimination provisions of Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, not the institution as a whole. The Act was proposed as a response to the Grove City College v. Bell Supreme Court decision in 1984. The decision held that only the particular program in an educational institution receiving federal financial assistance was required to comply with anti-discrimination provisions of Title IX. This decision created loopholes for educational institutions to continue discriminatory practices in other areas, which had a significant impact on minority communities, women, and people with disabilities. Legislative history The Act was first passed by the House in June 1984 (375–32) but stalled for several years after divisions over its potential effects on Title IX regulations prohibiting discrimination relating to abortion impeded the effectiveness of a civil rights coalition. In January 1988, the Senate accepted an amendment by Senator John Danforth (R-MO). He is described as "abortion neutral" and clarified that the Act does not impose a requirement for entities receiving federal funding to pay or provide for abortions and that it prohibits discrimination against women who use or seek abortion services. The amendment was opposed by the National Organization for Women and other pro-choice groups but ultimately resulted in passage of the bill in both the House and the Senate. The final vote in the Senate, on January 28, 1988, was 75–14 (48–0 in the Senate Democratic Caucus and 27–14 in the Senate Republican Conference), with 11 members voting present or abstaining. The final vote in the House of Representatives on March 2, 1988, was 315–98 (242–4 in the House Democratic Caucus and 73–94 in the House Republican Conference) with 20 members voting present or abstaining. On March 16, 1988, President Ronald Reagan vetoed the bill by arguing that the Act represented an overexpansion of governmental power over private organizational decision-making and "would diminish substantially the freedom and independence of religious institutions in our society." On March 22, 1988, the Senate overrode Reagan's veto by a vote of 73–24 (52–0 in the Senate Democratic Caucus and 21–24 in the Senate Republican Conference) with 3 members voting present or abstaining. On the same day, the House voted in favor of the bill with a vote of 292–133 (240–10 in the House Democratic Caucus and 52–123 in the House Republican Conference), with 7 members voting present or abstaining. Reagan's veto was the first veto of a civil rights act since Andrew Johnson vetoed the Civil Rights Act of 1866. Provisions In addition to Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 (which prohibits sex discrimination in educational institutions), the Act applies to the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (which prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability), Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (which prohibits racial discrimination), and the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (which prohibits age discrimination in employment). With the passage of the act, educational institutions receiving any federal funding were required to comply with all federal civil rights laws, including those relating to gender, race, and disability, throughout the institution (not only in the parts of the institution receiving the funding). The act also extended protection against discrimination in educational institutions to a wider range of individuals, including students, faculty, and staff. Civil Rights Act of 1990 The Civil Rights Act of 1990' was a bill that, had it been signed into law, would have made it easier for litigants in race or sex discrimination cases to win. It was introduced into the 101st United States Congress on February 7, 1990, by Senator Edward Kennedy (D-MA) in the United States Senate, and by Augustus Hawkins (D-CA) in the House of Representatives. Soon before the bill made it to the desk of then-President of the United States George H. W. Bush, it was criticized by the Harvard Law School professor Charles Fried. In a New York Times op-ed, Fried (a ranking member of the Federalist Society who served as Solicitor General in the Reagan Administration from 1985-1989), wrote that descriptions of the bill as the most important civil rights legislation in a quarter-century were "a public relations flimflam perpetrated by a cabal of overzealous civil rights plaintiffs' lawyers." He concluded by saying that Bush should "veto this bill in its present form." On October 22, 1990, President Bush vetoed the bill, claiming that it "employs a maze of highly legalistic language to introduce the destructive force of quotas into our national employment system." The Bush administration argued that the bill's provisions were strict enough that they would give employers "powerful incentives" to adopt quotas. Supporters of the bill argued that, contrary to Bush's claims, the bill would not have led employers to adopt quotas. For example, Benjamin Hooks, the then-executive director of the NAACP, said he was "at a loss" as to why Bush described the legislation as a quota bill. Congress attempted to override his veto on October 24, but their attempt failed in the Senate by one vote to achieve the two-thirds majority required. The Civil Rights Act of 1991 is a United States labor law, passed in response to United States Supreme Court decisions that limited the rights of employees who had sued their employers for discrimination. The Act represented the first effort since the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to modify some of the basic procedural and substantive rights provided by federal law in employment discrimination cases. It provided the right to trial by jury on discrimination claims and introduced the possibility of emotional distress damages and limited the amount that a jury could award. It added provisions to Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 protections expanding the rights of women to sue and collect compensatory and punitive damages for sexual discrimination or harassment. U.S. President George H. W. Bush had used his veto against the more comprehensive Civil Rights Act of 1990. He feared racial quotas would be imposed but later approved the 1991 version of the bill. The 1991 Act was intended to strengthen the protections afforded by 2 different civil rights acts: the Civil Rights Act of 1866, better known by the number assigned to it in the codification of federal laws as Section 1981, and the employment-related provisions of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, generally referred to as Title VII. The two statutes, passed nearly a century apart, approached the issue of employment discrimination very differently: Section 1981 prohibited only discrimination based on race or color, but Title VII also prohibited discrimination on the basis of sex, religion, and national origin. Section 1981, which had lain dormant and unenforced for a century after its passage, allowed plaintiffs to seek compensatory damages and trial by jury. Title VII, passed in the 1960s when it was assumed that Southern juries could not render a fair verdict, allowed only trial by the court and provided for only traditional equitable remedies: back pay, reinstatement, and injunctions against future acts of discrimination. By the time the 1991 Act was passed, both allowed for an award of attorneys' fees. The 1991 Act expanded the remedies available to victims of discrimination by amending Title VII of the 1964 Act. Background Congress had amended Title VII once before, in 1972, when it broadened the coverage of the Act. It was moved to overhaul Title VII in 1991 and to harmonize it with Section 1981 jurisprudence, as a result of a series of controversial Supreme Court decisions: Patterson v. McLean Credit Union, , which held that an employee could not sue for damages caused by racial harassment on the job because even if the employer's conduct were discriminatory, the employer had not denied the employee the "same right... to make and enforce contracts... as is enjoyed by white citizens," the language that Congress chose in passing the law in 1866. Wards Cove Packing Co. v. Atonio, , which made it more difficult for employees of Wards Cove Packing Company to prove that an employer's personnel practices, neutral on their face, had an unlawful disparate impact on them by requiring that they identify the particular policy or requirement that allegedly produced inequalities in the workplace and show that it, in isolation, had that effect. Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins, , which held that the burden of proof shifted, once an employee had proved that an unlawful consideration had played a part in the employer's personnel decision, to the employer to prove that it would have made the same decision if it had not been motivated by that unlawful factor, but such proof by the employer would constitute a complete defense for the employer. Martin v. Wilks, , which permitted white firefighters who had not been party to the litigation, establishing a consent decree governing hiring and promotion of black firefighters in the Birmingham, Alabama, Fire Department, to bring suit to challenge the decree. United Automobile Workers v. Johnson Controls, Inc., , which held that Title VII prohibits gender-specific fetal protection policies. Changes Patterson had attracted much criticism since it appeared to leave employees victimized by racial harassment on the job with no effective remedies, as they could not prove a violation of Section 1981 and could rarely show any wage losses that they could recover under Title VII. In addition, the Court's narrow reading of the phrase "make or enforce contracts" eliminated any liability under Section 1981 for lost promotions and most other personnel decisions that did not constitute a refusal to hire on the basis of race or color. Congress addressed the issue by redefining the phrase "make and enforce contracts" to include "the making, performance, modification, and termination of contracts, and the enjoyment of all benefits, privileges, terms, and conditions of the contractual relationship." Congress also clarified that Section 1981 applied to both governmental and private discrimination, the issue that the Supreme Court originally announced it would decide in Patterson. Congress also believed that the Wards Cove case made it too difficult to prove disparate impact claims under Title VII. While the amended Act still generally requires that a plaintiff identify particular employment practice(s) allegedly causing a disparate impact, Congress added that an employer's decisionmaking process may be analyzed as a whole if the plaintiff can show that "the elements of [an employer's] decisionmaking process are not capable of separation for analysis." Congress also established that the employer has the burden of proof on the business necessity defense and restored the meaning of "business necessity" to how it was interpreted before Wards Cove. Congress did not, however, alter the portion of Wards Cove describing the plaintiff's burden with respect to statistical proof, in which the court had held: "The mere existence of a statistical imbalance in an employer's workforce on account of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin is not alone sufficient to establish a prima facie case of disparate impact violation." While the majority in Congress supported the burden-shifting rule in Price Waterhouse, it was uncomfortable with how that case gave the employer the ability to prove that it would have made the same decision in any event, as a complete defense in a case in which it had been shown that race or gender or another unlawful factor played a significant role in its decision. Congress amended the Act to provide that the employer's proof that it would have made the same decision in any case was a defense to back pay, reinstatement and other remedies but not to liability per se. The practical effect of this change was to allow a party that proved that the employer discriminated but could not show that it made any practical difference to the outcome could still recover attorney's fees after showing that the employer discriminated, even if no other remedy was awarded. Finally, Congress limited the rights of non-parties to attack consent decrees by barring any challenges by parties who knew or should have known of the decree or who were adequately represented by the original parties. The Act also authorized jury trials on Title VII claims and allowed Title VII plaintiffs to recover emotional distress and punitive damages, while imposing caps on such relief. The 1991 Act also made technical changes affecting the length of time allowed to challenge unlawful seniority provisions, to sue the federal government for discrimination, and to bring age discrimination claims, but it allowed successful plaintiffs to recover expert witness fees as part of an award of attorney's fees and to collect interest on any judgment against the federal government. See also Civil right acts in the United States Notes ReferencesBibliography* * }} Category:Anti-discrimination law in the United States Category:Post–civil rights era in African-American history Category:Lists of legislation by short title and collective title	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act	2025-04-05T18:28:10.334715
7491	Cola	(as Coca-Cola) \| discontinued \| color Caramel (with certain exceptions such as Zevia Cola and Kola Román) \| flavor = Cola (Kola nut, citrus, cinnamon and vanilla) \| variants \| related \| website = }} Cola is a carbonated soft drink flavored with vanilla, cinnamon, citrus oils, and other flavorings. Cola became popular worldwide after the American pharmacist John Stith Pemberton invented Coca-Cola, a trademarked brand, in 1886, which was imitated by other manufacturers. Most colas originally contained caffeine from the kola nut (Cola acuminata), leading to the drink's name, though other sources of caffeine are generally used in modern formulations. The Pemberton cola drink also contained a coca plant extract. His non-alcoholic recipe was inspired by the coca wine of pharmacist Angelo Mariani, created in 1863. Most modern colas have a dark caramel color and are sweetened with sugar, high-fructose corn syrup or artificial sweeteners. They come in numerous different brands, with Coca-Cola and Pepsi being among the most popular. These two companies have been competing since the 1890s, a rivalry that has intensified since the 1980s. Flavorings The primary modern flavorings in a cola drink are citrus oils (from orange, lime, and lemon peels), cinnamon, vanilla, and an acidic flavoring. Manufacturers of cola drinks add trace flavorings to create distinctive tastes for each brand. Trace flavorings may include a wide variety of ingredients, such as spices like nutmeg or coriander. Acidity is often provided by phosphoric acid, sometimes accompanied by citric or other isolated acids. Coca-Cola's recipe is maintained as a corporate trade secret. A variety of different sweeteners may be used in cola, often influenced by local agricultural policy. High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is predominantly used in the United States due to the lower cost of government-subsidized corn. In Europe, however, HFCS is subject to production quotas designed to encourage the production of sugar; sugar is thus preferentially used to sweeten sodas. In addition, stevia or an artificial sweetener may be used; "sugar-free" or "diet" colas typically contain artificial sweeteners only. In Japan, there is a burgeoning craft cola industry, with small-scale local production methods and highly unique cola recipes using locally sourced fruits, herbs, and spices. Clear cola In the 1940s, Coca-Cola produced White Coke at the request of Marshal of the Soviet Union Georgy Zhukov. Clear colas were again produced during the clear craze of the early 1990s. Brands included Crystal Pepsi, Tab Clear, and 7 Up Ice Cola. Crystal Pepsi was repeatedly reintroduced in the 2010s. In Denmark, a popular clear cola was made by the Cooperative FDB in 1976. It was especially known for being the "Hippie Cola" because of the focus on the harmful effects the color additive could have on children and the boycott of multinational brands. It was inspired by a campaign on harmful additives in Denmark by the Environmental-Organization NOAH, an independent Danish division of Friends of the Earth. This was followed up with a variety of sodas without artificial coloring. Today many organic colas are available in Denmark, but, for nostalgic reasons, clear cola has still maintained its popularity to a certain degree. In June 2018, Coca-Cola introduced Coca-Cola Clear in Japan. Health effects A 2007 study claimed that consumption of colas, both those with natural sweetening and those with artificial sweetening, was associated with an increased risk of chronic kidney disease. The phosphoric acid used in colas was thought to be a possible cause. A link has been shown between long-term regular cola intake and osteoporosis in older women (but not men). This was thought to be due to the presence of phosphoric acid, though the risk for women was found to be greater for sugared and caffeinated colas than diet and decaffeinated variants, with a higher intake of cola correlating with lower bone density. One 2005 study indicated that soda and sweetened drinks are the main source of calories in the American diet and that of those who drink more sweetened drinks, obesity rates were higher. Most nutritionists advise that Coca-Cola and other soft drinks can be harmful if consumed excessively, particularly to young children whose soft drink consumption competes with, rather than complements, a balanced diet. Studies have shown that regular soft drink users have a lower intake of calcium, magnesium, vitamin C, riboflavin, and vitamin A. The drink has also aroused criticism for its use of caffeine, which can cause physical dependence (caffeine dependence), and can reduce sleep quality. Many soft drinks in North America are sweetened mostly or entirely with high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS), rather than white sugar. Some nutritionists caution against the consumption of corn syrup because it may aggravate obesity and type-2 diabetes more than cane sugar. , there is no high-quality evidence that replacing cane sugar (sucrose) with HFCS causes any difference in health effects.Regional brandsAsiaAir Koryo Cocoa Honeydew, a 'Coca-Cola-style product' manufactured by the national airline in North Korea Amrat Cola, popular in Pakistan Big/Real/Royal Cola, popular in Indonesia, Thailand, Nigeria and throughout South America Campa Cola, India's most popular brand prior to the reintroduction of Coca-Cola and Pepsi to the Indian market in 1991 Chi Forest (formerly known as Genki Forest) sparkling water cola flavor, a local brand in China Est Cola, a local brand in Thailand Future Cola, a local brand in China KIK Cola, a local brand in Sri Lanka Laoshan Cola, a local brand in China Mecca-Cola, sold in the Middle East, North Africa, as well as parts of Europe Meadows Classic Cola, a DFI brand in Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singapore and Kampuchea Mojo, a local brand in Bangladesh MyCola, a local brand in Sri Lanka Pakola, popular in Pakistan Parsi Cola, popular in Iran Red Bull Cola, popular in Thailand Sparkling Super Cola, sold by the A.S. Watson Group (PARKnSHOP, Watsons) of Hong Kong Terelj Cola, sold in Mongolia. Thums Up, popular in India Topsia Cola, popular in Iran Vita Cola, produced by Vitasoy of Hong Kong Zamzam Cola, popular in Iran and parts of the Arab world Europe Cola, a soft drink produced in Indre, France]] Afri-Cola, a German brand, was relaunched in April 2006 with the original formulation with the higher caffeine content. Baikal, a cola-like drink popular in Russia Barr Cola made by A.G. Barr (the makers of the popular Irn-Bru drink) in the United Kingdom Breizh Cola is a local brand from Brittany (France). Brisa Cola is a local brand from Madeira, Portugal and produced by Empresa de Cervejas da Madeira. Cola Turka is a local brand in Turkey Cockta is a local brand from former Yugoslavia, which does not contain any caffeine or phosphoric acid. Corsica Cola is a regional cola distributed by the Corsican brewery Pietra. Cuba Cola is a brand from Sweden. Dobry Cola, a Russian brand which replaced Coca-Cola after the departure of global companies from Russia in 2022, produced in the same factories as the original products. Evoca Cola is a cola made with mineral water made by Evoca Drinks. Fentimans Curiosity Cola, is an upmarket botanically brewed cola produced by Fentimans, from the UK. Fritz-Kola, a cola soft drink from Hamburg, Germany, uses the highest possible concentration of caffeine for beverages allowed by German law. Green Cola is a brand from Greece that is available also in Germany, Spain, Cyprus, the Baltic states, Romania, the Middle East, Slovenia etc. Hofmuhl Cola is a local brand from Bavaria, made by a regional brewery. Jolly Cola, which had a 40% share of the cola drink market in Denmark from the mid-1960s to the late 1980s. Kofola is the primary rival to Coca-Cola and Pepsi in the Czech Republic and Slovakia, and does not contain phosphoric acid. Kristal Kola is a local brand in Turkey LOCKWOODS Cola, a UK cola brand introduced in the 1960s produced by Lockwoods Foods Limited at their canning factory site in Long Sutton, England, the drink is not on the market anymore, it was sold nationally and also exported. Maxi-Cola was sold by Mac's Brewery in England as a rival to Coke and Pepsi. Production ended in the early 90s. Polo-Cockta, a Polish brand. Qibla Cola was a British cola brand active from 2003 to 2005. Red Bull Simply Cola has been available throughout Europe since 2008. Sinalco cola is a German cola brand sold and produced in Europe Tøyen-Cola is a Norwegian cola brand, based on the open Cube cola recipe. Ubuntu Cola is a fair trade cola from the United Kingdom available in parts of Western Europe. Virgin Cola was popular in South Africa and Western Europe in the 1990s but has waned in availability. Vita-Cola is a German cola brand with a distinct citrus flavor; nowadays it is mostly sold in eastern Germany. XL Cola was a Swedish cola brand introduced in 1985, but the drink is not at the market anymore. North America Coca-Cola, often referred to simply as Coke, is produced and manufactured by The Coca-Cola Company. It is one of the most popular cola brands in North America and worldwide, as well as being the original cola. Pepsi, produced and manufactured by PepsiCo, is also one of the most popular cola brands in North America and worldwide. Pepsi is the main competitor and rival of Coca-Cola. RC Cola, short for Royal Crown Cola, is now produced by Keurig Dr Pepper Bec Cola is produced in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, sold across Quebec and Ontario. It is sweetened with primarily maple syrup Big 8 Cola is a brand of colas and other flavored sodas that can be found in Atlantic Canada Cott produces many house brand beverages as well as its own line of products, most notably its Black Cherry and Bubba cola. The Double Cola Company, Double Cola Faygo Cola is distributed in the Eastern United States and can be found in some regions of Canada. Fentimans Curiosity Cola, originating from the United Kingdom in 1905, now sold across Europe and North America Jarritos Cola is a brand of cola from Mexico, native to Mexico and widely distributed in the United States. Jolt Cola is sold by Wet Planet Beverages of Rochester, New York. Jones Soda also makes a cola using cane sugar. Polar Beverages of Worcester, MA produces its own brand of cola under the Polar name. Red Bull Simply Cola was available in the United States from 2008 to 2011. Red Cola, a Mexican soft drink brand produced by Consorcio AGA, which also distributes Jarritos' products in certain regions in Mexico. Shasta Cola, produced by Shasta TuKola and Tropicola are brands from Cuba (also sold widely in Italy). Zevia Cola is a zero-calorie soft drink sweetened with Stevia. South America Inca Kola, created by Lindley bottler to compete with Coca-Cola. It is still the best selling cola in Perú. * Big Cola, a cola produced by Peruvian company Ajegroup which operates in 14 countries in Latin America. * Perú Cola, created by Peruvian bottler Embotelladora Don Jorge S.A.C. to compete with Coca-Cola and Kola Real. * Kola Román, a cola that was invented in the city of Cartagena, Colombia in 1865 by Don Carlos Román. Oceania <span class"anchor" id"Export Cola">Export Cola</span> was an Australian carbonated cola drink Manufactured by Cadbury Schweppes (now Cadbury plc) during the 1970s and early 1980s. A series of TV advertisements for the drink featured the Australian cricketer Jeff Thomson. It enjoyed a brief resurgence in popularity when it was re-launched in 1993, but the drink was discontinued in 1999. LA Ice Cola is an Australian cola owned by Tru Blu Beverages, similar to Coca-Cola and Pepsi, its rivals. * Billson's produces a Heritage Cola, inspired by recipes dating back to the Temperance movement in Australia. * Foxton Fizz is a New Zealand soft drink company which produces a cola-flavored soft drink beverage, manufactured in Foxtown. * Tahiti Cola from French Polynesia Defunct brands * Hansen's Natural Soda, Original Cola, made with cane sugar See also * * * * * * * * References External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090410064941/http://www.colawp.com/colas/400/cola467_recipe.html OpenCola recipe] (originally published by Cory Doctorow) * [https://web.archive.org/web/19991008000738/http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mcaffeine.html Straight Dope article about caffeine levels on soft drinks] Category:19th-century inventions Category:American inventions Category:Soft drinks Category:Historical polysubstance drinks	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cola	2025-04-05T18:28:10.377038
7492	Capability Maturity Model	The Capability Maturity Model (CMM) is a development model created in 1986 after a study of data collected from organizations that contracted with the U.S. Department of Defense, who funded the research. The term "maturity" relates to the degree of formality and optimization of processes, from ad hoc practices, to formally defined steps, to managed result metrics, to active optimization of the processes. The model's aim is to improve existing software development processes, but it can also be applied to other processes. In 2006, the Software Engineering Institute at Carnegie Mellon University developed the Capability Maturity Model Integration, which has largely superseded the CMM and addresses some of its drawbacks.OverviewThe Capability Maturity Model was originally developed as a tool for objectively assessing the ability of government contractors' processes to implement a contracted software project. The model is based on the process maturity framework first described in IEEE Software and, later, in the 1989 book Managing the Software Process by Watts Humphrey. It was later published as an article in 1993 and as a book by the same authors in 1994. Though the model comes from the field of software development, it is also used as a model to aid in business processes generally, and has also been used extensively worldwide in government offices, commerce, and industry. History Prior need for software processes In the 1980s, the use of computers grew more widespread, more flexible and less costly. Organizations began to adopt computerized information systems, and the demand for software development grew significantly. Many processes for software development were in their infancy, with few standard or "best practice" approaches defined. As a result, the growth was accompanied by growing pains: project failure was common, the field of computer science was still in its early years, and the ambitions for project scale and complexity exceeded the market capability to deliver adequate products within a planned budget. Individuals such as Edward Yourdon, Larry Constantine, Gerald Weinberg, Tom DeMarco, and David Parnas began to publish articles and books with research results in an attempt to professionalize the software-development processes. In the 1980s, several US military projects involving software subcontractors ran over-budget and were completed far later than planned, if at all. In an effort to determine why this was occurring, the United States Air Force funded a study at the Software Engineering Institute (SEI). Precursor The first application of a staged maturity model to IT was not by CMU/SEI, but rather by Richard L. Nolan, who, in 1973 published the stages of growth model for IT organizations. Watts Humphrey began developing his process maturity concepts during the later stages of his 27-year career at IBM. Development at Software Engineering Institute Active development of the model by the US Department of Defense Software Engineering Institute (SEI) began in 1986 when Humphrey joined the Software Engineering Institute located at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania after retiring from IBM. At the request of the U.S. Air Force he began formalizing his Process Maturity Framework to aid the U.S. Department of Defense in evaluating the capability of software contractors as part of awarding contracts. The result of the Air Force study was a model for the military to use as an objective evaluation of software subcontractors' process capability maturity. Humphrey based this framework on the earlier Quality Management Maturity Grid developed by Philip B. Crosby in his book "Quality is Free". Humphrey's approach differed because of his unique insight that organizations mature their processes in stages based on solving process problems in a specific order. Humphrey based his approach on the staged evolution of a system of software development practices within an organization, rather than measuring the maturity of each separate development process independently. The CMMI has thus been used by different organizations as a general and powerful tool for understanding and then improving general business process performance. Watts Humphrey's Capability Maturity Model (CMM) was published in 1988 and as a book in 1989, in Managing the Software Process. Organizations were originally assessed using a process maturity questionnaire and a Software Capability Evaluation method devised by Humphrey and his colleagues at the Software Engineering Institute. The full representation of the Capability Maturity Model as a set of defined process areas and practices at each of the five maturity levels was initiated in 1991, with Version 1.1 being published in July 1993. In 2016, the responsibility for CMMI was transferred to the Information Systems Audit and Control Association (ISACA). ISACA subsequently released CMMI v2.0 in 2021. It was upgraded again to CMMI v3.0 in 2023. CMMI now places a greater emphasis on the process architecture which is typically realized as a process diagram. Copies of CMMI are available now only by subscription. Adapted to other processes The CMMI was originally intended as a tool to evaluate the ability of government contractors to perform a contracted software project. Though it comes from the area of software development, it can be, has been, and continues to be widely applied as a general model of the maturity of process (e.g., IT service management processes) in IS/IT (and other) organizations. Model topics Maturity models A maturity model can be viewed as a set of structured levels that describe how well the behaviors, practices and processes of an organization can reliably and sustainably produce required outcomes. A maturity model can be used as a benchmark for comparison and as an aid to understanding - for example, for comparative assessment of different organizations where there is something in common that can be used as a basis for comparison. In the case of the CMM, for example, the basis for comparison would be the organizations' software development processes. Structure The model involves five aspects: * Maturity Levels: a 5-level process maturity continuum - where the uppermost (5th) level is a notional ideal state where processes would be systematically managed by a combination of process optimization and continuous process improvement. * Key Process Areas: a Key Process Area identifies a cluster of related activities that, when performed together, achieve a set of goals considered important. * Goals: the goals of a key process area summarize the states that must exist for that key process area to have been implemented in an effective and lasting way. The extent to which the goals have been accomplished is an indicator of how much capability the organization has established at that maturity level. The goals signify the scope, boundaries, and intent of each key process area. * Common Features: common features include practices that implement and institutionalize a key process area. There are five types of common features: commitment to perform, ability to perform, activities performed, measurement and analysis, and verifying implementation. * Key Practices: The key practices describe the elements of infrastructure and practice that contribute most effectively to the implementation and institutionalization of the area. Levels There are five levels defined along the continuum of the model and, according to the SEI: "Predictability, effectiveness, and control of an organization's software processes are believed to improve as the organization moves up these five levels. While not rigorous, the empirical evidence to date supports this belief". # Initial (chaotic, ad hoc, individual heroics) - the starting point for use of a new or undocumented repeat process. # Repeatable - the process is at least documented sufficiently such that repeating the same steps may be attempted. # Defined - the process is defined/confirmed as a standard business process # Capable - the process is quantitatively managed in accordance with agreed-upon metrics. # Efficient - process management includes deliberate process optimization/improvement. Within each of these maturity levels are Key Process Areas which characterise that level, and for each such area there are five factors: goals, commitment, ability, measurement, and verification. These are not necessarily unique to CMMI, representing — as they do — the stages that organizations must go through on the way to becoming mature. The model provides a theoretical continuum along which process maturity can be developed incrementally from one level to the next. Skipping levels is not allowed/feasible. ; Level 1 - Initial: It is characteristic of processes at this level that they are (typically) undocumented and in a state of dynamic change, tending to be driven in an ad hoc, uncontrolled and reactive manner by users or events. This provides a chaotic or unstable environment for the processes. (Example - a surgeon performing a new operation a small number of times - the levels of negative outcome are not known). ; Level 2 - Repeatable: It is characteristic of this level of maturity that some processes are repeatable, possibly with consistent results. Process discipline is unlikely to be rigorous, but where it exists it may help to ensure that existing processes are maintained during times of stress. ; Level 3 - Defined: It is characteristic of processes at this level that there are sets of defined and documented standard processes established and subject to some degree of improvement over time. These standard processes are in place. The processes may not have been systematically or repeatedly used - sufficient for the users to become competent or the process to be validated in a range of situations. This could be considered a developmental stage - with use in a wider range of conditions and user competence development the process can develop to next level of maturity. ; Level 4 - Managed (Capable): It is characteristic of processes at this level that, using process metrics, effective achievement of the process objectives can be evidenced across a range of operational conditions. The suitability of the process in multiple environments has been tested and the process refined and adapted. Process users have experienced the process in multiple and varied conditions, and are able to demonstrate competence. The process maturity enables adaptions to particular projects without measurable losses of quality or deviations from specifications. Process Capability is established from this level. (Example - surgeon performing an operation hundreds of times with levels of negative outcome approaching zero). ; Level 5 - Optimizing (Efficient):It is a characteristic of processes at this level that the focus is on continually improving process performance through both incremental and innovative technological changes/improvements. At maturity level 5, processes are concerned with addressing statistical common causes of process variation and changing the process (for example, to shift the mean of the process performance) to improve process performance. This would be done at the same time as maintaining the likelihood of achieving the established quantitative process-improvement objectives. Between 2008 and 2019, about 12% of appraisals given were at maturity levels 4 and 5. Critique The model was originally intended to evaluate the ability of government contractors to perform a software project. It has been used for and may be suited to that purpose, but critics pointed out that process maturity according to the CMM was not necessarily mandatory for successful software development.Software process framework The software process framework documented is intended to guide those wishing to assess an organization's or project's consistency with the Key Process Areas. For each maturity level there are five checklist types: :{\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Type ! Description \|- \| Policy \|Describes the policy contents and KPA goals recommended by the Key Process Areas. \|- \| Standard \|Describes the recommended content of select work products described in the Key Process Areas. \|- \| Process \| Describes the process information content recommended by the Key Process Areas. These are refined into checklists for: * Roles, entry criteria, inputs, activities, outputs, exit criteria, reviews and audits, work products managed and controlled, measurements, documented procedures, training, and tools \|- \| Procedure \| Describes the recommended content of documented procedures described in the Key Process Areas. \|- \| Level overcome \| Provides an overview of an entire maturity level. These are further refined into checklists for: * Key Process Areas purposes, goals, policies, and standards; process descriptions; procedures; training; tools; reviews and audits; work products; measurements \|} See also * Capability Immaturity Model * Capability Maturity Model Integration * People Capability Maturity Model * Testing Maturity Model References External links * [http://cmmiinstitute.com/ CMMI Institute] * [http://pubs.opengroup.org/architecture/togaf8-doc/arch/chap27.html Architecture Maturity Models] at The Open Group * [https://www.isaca.org/enterprise/cmmi-performance-solutions ISACA] Category:Software development process Category:Maturity models Category:Information technology management Category:1986 introductions	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capability_Maturity_Model	2025-04-05T18:28:10.407369
7499	RDX	\| Name \| ImageFile \| ImageFileL1 = RDX.svg \| ImageClassL1 = skin-invert-image \| ImageFileR1 = RDX_3D_BallStick.png \| ImageClassR1 = bg-transparent \| ImageFile2 = RDX crystal.jpg \| ImageCaption2 = RDX crystal \| PIN = 1,3,5-Trinitro-1,3,5-triazinane \| SystematicName \| OtherNames 1,3,5-Trinitroperhydro-1,3,5-triazine<br />RDX<br />cyclonite, hexogen<br />1,3,5-Trinitro-1,3,5-triazacyclohexane<br />1,3,5-Trinitrohexahydro-s-triazine<br />Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine<br />Hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-s-triazine<br />Trimethylenetrinitramine<br />hexolite \| IUPACName \| Section1 \| ChemSpiderID = 8177 \| InChI = 1/C3H6N6O6/c10-7(11)4-1-5(8(12)13)3-6(2-4)9(14)15/h1-3H2 \| InChIKey = XTFIVUDBNACUBN-UHFFFAOYAY \| StdInChI_Ref = \| StdInChI = 1S/C3H6N6O6/c10-7(11)4-1-5(8(12)13)3-6(2-4)9(14)15/h1-3H2 \| StdInChIKey_Ref = \| StdInChIKey = XTFIVUDBNACUBN-UHFFFAOYSA-N \| CASNo_Ref = \| CASNo = 121-82-4 \| UNII_Ref = \| UNII = W91SSV5831 \| PubChem = 8490 \| ChEBI_Ref = \| ChEBI = 24556 \| SMILES C1N(CN(CN1[N+](O)[O-])[N+](O)[O-])[N+](O)[O-] \| UNNumber = 0072, 0391, 0483 }} \| Section2 = Semtex (trade name): Plastic demolition explosive containing RDX and PETN as major energetic components Torpex: 42% RDX, 40% TNT, and 18% powdered aluminium; the mixture was designed during World War II and used mainly in underwater ordnance Outside military applications, RDX is also used in controlled demolition to raze structures. The demolition of the Jamestown Bridge in the U.S. state of Rhode Island was one instance where RDX shaped charges were used to remove the span. Synthesis RDX is classified by chemists as a hexahydro-1,3,5-triazine derivative. In laboratory settings (industrial routes are described below separately) it is obtained by treating hexamine with white fuming nitric acid. : This nitrolysis reaction also produces methylene dinitrate, ammonium nitrate, and water as by-products. The overall reaction is: History RDX was used by both sides in World War II. The US produced about per month during WWII and Germany about per month. RDX had the major advantages of possessing greater explosive force than TNT and required no additional raw materials for its manufacture. Thus, it was also extensively used in World War I In this patent, only the medical properties of RDX were mentioned. and another for its use as an explosive, noting its excellent characteristics. The German military hadn't considered its adoption during the war due to the expense of production but started investigating its use in 1920, referring to it as hexogen. described as an Austrian and later a German citizen, rediscovered the explosive properties of RDX SH-Salz (SH salt) was from Schnurr, who developed a batch-process in 1937–38 based on nitrolysis of hexamine. The K-method, from Knöffler, involved addition of ammonium nitrate to the hexamine/nitric acid process. The E-method, developed by Ebele, proved to be identical to the Ross and Schiessler process described below. The KA-method, also developed by Knöffler, turned out to be identical to the Bachmann process described below. The explosive shells fired by the MK 108 cannon and the warhead of the R4M rocket, both used in Luftwaffe fighter aircraft as offensive armament, both used hexogen as their explosive base.UKIn the United Kingdom (UK), RDX was manufactured from 1933 by the research department in a pilot plant at the Royal Arsenal in Woolwich, London, a larger pilot plant being built at the RGPF Waltham Abbey just outside London in 1939. By 1942 the Royal Air Force's annual requirement was forecast to be of RDX, much of which came from North America (Canada and the US). RDX had been tested by Picatinny Arsenal in 1929, and it was regarded as too expensive and too sensitive. At that time, this works had the largest nitric acid plant in the world. By early 1941, the NDRC was researching new processes. At least three laboratories with no previous explosive experience were instructed to develop better production methods for RDX; they were based at Cornell, Michigan, and Pennsylvania State universities. Bachmann process The National Defence Research Committee (NDRC) instructed three companies to develop pilot plants. They were the Western Cartridge Company, E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Company, and Tennessee Eastman Company, part of Eastman Kodak. The Bachmann process yields both RDX and HMX, with the major product determined by the specific reaction conditions. Military compositions The United Kingdom's intention in World War II was to use "desensitised" RDX. In the original Woolwich process, RDX was phlegmatized with beeswax, but later paraffin wax was used, based on the work carried out at Bruceton. In the event the UK was unable to obtain sufficient RDX to meet its needs, some of the shortfall was met by substituting amatol, a mixture of ammonium nitrate and TNT. Nonetheless, by May 1942 Wellington bombers began to deploy depth charges containing Torpex, a mixture of RDX, TNT, and aluminium, which had up to 50 percent more destructive power than TNT-filled depth charges.TerrorismA Semtex bomb was used in the Pan Am Flight 103 (known also as the Lockerbie) bombing in 1988. A belt laden with of RDX explosives tucked under the dress of the assassin was used in the assassination of former Indian prime minister Rajiv Gandhi in 1991. The 1993 Bombay bombings used RDX placed into several vehicles as bombs. RDX was the main component used for the 2006 Mumbai train bombings and the Jaipur bombings in 2008. It also is believed to be the explosive used in the 2010 Moscow Metro bombings. Traces of RDX were found on pieces of wreckage from 1999 Russian apartment bombings and 2004 Russian aircraft bombings. FSB reports on the bombs used in the 1999 apartment bombings indicated that while RDX was not a part of the main charge, each bomb contained plastic explosive used as a booster charge. Ahmed Ressam, the al-Qaeda Millennium Bomber, used a small quantity of RDX as one of the components in the bomb that he prepared to detonate in Los Angeles International Airport on New Year's Eve 1999–2000; the bomb could have produced a blast forty times greater than that of a devastating car bomb. In July 2012, the Kenyan government arrested two Iranian nationals and charged them with illegal possession of of RDX. According to the Kenyan Police, the Iranians planned to use the RDX for "attacks on Israeli, US, UK and Saudi Arabian targets". RDX was used in the assassination of Lebanese Prime Minister Rafic Hariri on February 14, 2005. In the 2019 Pulwama attack in India, 250 kg of high-grade RDX was used by Jaish-e-Mohammed. The attack resulted in the deaths of 44 Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) personnel as well as the attacker. Two letter bombs sent to journalists in Ecuador were disguised as USB flash drives which contained RDX that would detonate when plugged in. Stability RDX has a high nitrogen content and a high oxygen to carbon ratio, (O:C ratio), both of which indicate its explosive potential for formation of N<sub>2</sub> and CO<sub>2</sub>. RDX undergoes a deflagration to detonation transition (DDT) in confinement and certain circumstances. The velocity of detonation of RDX at a density of 1.80 g/cm<sup>3</sup> is 8750 m/s. It starts to decompose at approximately 170 °C and melts at 204 °C. At room temperature, it is very stable. It burns rather than explodes. It detonates only with a detonator, being unaffected even by small arms fire. This property makes it a useful military explosive. It is less sensitive than pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN). Under normal conditions, RDX has a Figure of Insensitivity of exactly 80 (RDX defines the reference point). RDX sublimes in vacuum, which restricts or prevents its use in some applications. RDX, when exploded in air, has about 1.5 times the explosive energy of TNT per unit weight and about 2.0 times per unit volume. RDX is insoluble in water, with solubility 0.05975 g/L at temperature of 25 °C.ToxicityThe substance's toxicity has been studied for many years. RDX has caused convulsions (seizures) in military field personnel ingesting it, and in munition workers inhaling its dust during manufacture. At least one fatality was attributed to RDX toxicity in a European munitions manufacturing plant. During the Vietnam War, at least 40 American soldiers were hospitalized with composition C-4 (which is 91% RDX) intoxication from December 1968 to December 1969. C-4 was frequently used by soldiers as a fuel to heat food, and the food was generally mixed by the same knife that was used to cut C-4 into small pieces prior to burning. Soldiers were exposed to C-4 either due to inhaling the fumes, or due to ingestion, made possible by many small particles adhering to the knife having been deposited into the cooked food. The symptom complex involved nausea, vomiting, generalized seizures, and prolonged postictal confusion and amnesia; which indicated toxic encephalopathy. Oral toxicity of RDX depends on its physical form; in rats, the LD50 was found to be 100 mg/kg for finely powdered RDX, and 300 mg/kg for coarse, granular RDX. The substance has low to moderate toxicity with a possible human carcinogen classification. Further research is ongoing, however, and this classification may be revised by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Remediating RDX-contaminated water supplies has proven to be successful. It is known to be a kidney toxin in humans and highly toxic to earthworms and plants, thus army testing ranges where RDX was used heavily may need to undergo environmental remediation. Concerns have been raised by research published in late 2017 indicating that the issue has not been addressed correctly by U.S. officials. Civilian use RDX has been used as a rodenticide because of its toxicity. Biodegradation RDX is degraded by the organisms in sewage sludge as well as the fungus Phanaerocheate chrysosporium. Both wild and transgenic plants can phytoremediate explosives from soil and water. One by-product of the environmental decomposition is R-salt. Alternatives FOX-7 is considered to be approximately a 1-to-1 replacement for RDX in almost all applications.NotesReferences Bibliography * * * . See also . Urbański translation [https://openlibrary.org/books/OL3160546M/Chemistry_and_technology_of_explosives openlibrary.org], Macmillan, NY, 1964, . Further reading * * * * * * * * External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081206125325/http://www.adi-limited.com/2-01-050-030-000.html ADI Limited (Australia)]. [https://web.archive.org/web//http://www.adi-limited.com/2-01-050-030-000.html Archive.org] leads to [https://web.archive.org/web/20110716214813/http://www.thalesgroup.com/assets/0/95/389/392/e93b97ee-e77e-43fa-8f7c-07d4061bc14d.pdf?LangType=2057 Thales group products page] that shows some military specifications.<!-- The link is borderline. Without the specs, it would just be an ad. EL could be discarded. --> [http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/search/r?dbs+hsdb:@term+@na+@rel+cyclonite NLM Hazardous Substances Databank (US) – Cyclonite (RDX)] * [https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0169.html CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards] * [http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article38338874 nla.gov.au], Army News (Darwin, NT), October 2, 1943, p 3. "Britain's New Explosive: Experts Killed in Terrific Blast", uses "Research Department formula X" * [http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article42015565 nla.gov.au], The Courier-Mail (Brisbane, Qld.), September 27, 1943, p 1. Category:Explosive chemicals Category:Nitroamines Category:Triazines Category:Convulsants Category:GABAA receptor negative allosteric modulators Category:Rodenticides Category:Rocket propellants	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RDX	2025-04-05T18:28:10.496558
7500	Celebes (disambiguation)	Celebes is the western name of Sulawesi, an island in Indonesia. Celebes may also refer to: Celebes Sea, western Pacific Ocean Celebes TV, a local news television station in South Sulawesi, Indonesia The Elephant Celebes, a 1921 Surrealist work by Max Ernst HMS Celebes (1806), originally the Batavian Republic frigate Pallas Celebes papeda, Citrus celebica, a tree species native to Sulawesi See also	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celebes_(disambiguation)	2025-04-05T18:28:10.528064
7502	Christianity and Judaism	Christianity began as a movement within Second Temple Judaism and the two religions gradually diverged over the first few centuries of the Christian era. Today, differences of opinion vary between denominations in both religions, but the most important distinction is Christian acceptance and Jewish non-acceptance of Jesus as the Messiah prophesied in the Hebrew Bible and Jewish tradition. Early Christianity distinguished itself by determining that observance of Halakha (Jewish law) was not necessary for non-Jewish converts to Christianity (see Pauline Christianity). Another major difference is the two religions' conceptions of God. Depending on the denomination followed, the Christian God is either believed to consist of three persons of one essence (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit), with the doctrine of the incarnation of the Son in Jesus being of special importance, or like Judaism, believes in and emphasizes the Oneness of God. Judaism, however, rejects the Christian concept of God in human form. Christianity recognizes the Hebrew Bible (called the Old Testament by Christians) as part of its scriptural canon; Judaism does not recognize the Christian New Testament. Jesus himself claimed that he was not a god. The relative importance of belief and practice constitute an important area of difference. Most forms of Protestant Christianity emphasize correct belief (or orthodoxy), focusing on the New Covenant as mediated through Jesus Christ, as recorded in the New Testament. Judaism has traditionally been thought to emphasize correct conduct (or orthopraxy), focusing on the Mosaic covenant, as recorded in the Torah and discussed Talmud. Mainstream Roman Catholicism occupies a middle position, stating that both faith and works are factors in a person's salvation. Some schools of thought within Catholicism, such as Franciscanism and liberation theology, explicitly favor orthopraxy over orthodoxy. Praxis is of central importance to Eastern Christianity, as well, with Maximus the Confessor going as far as to say that "theology without action is the theology of demons." Christian conceptions of right practice (i.e., orthopraxy) vary (e.g., Catholic social teaching and its preferential option for the poor; the Eastern Orthodox Church's practices of fasting, hesychasm, and asceticism; and the Protestant work ethic of Calvinists and others) but differ from Judaism in that they are not based on Halakha or any other interpretation of the Mosaic covenant. While more liberal Jewish denominations may not mandate observance of Halakha, Jewish life remains centred on individual and collective participation in an eternal dialogue with God through tradition, rituals, prayers and ethical actions.Jewish self-identification Judaism's purpose is to carry out what it holds to be the covenant between God and the Jewish people. The Torah (), both written and oral, tells the story of this covenant and provides Jews with the terms of the covenant. The Oral Torah is the primary guide for Jews to abide by these terms, as expressed in tractate Gittin 60b ("the Holy One, Blessed be He, did not make His covenant with Israel except by virtue of the Oral Law") to help them learn how to live a holy life, and to bring holiness, peace and love into the world and into every part of life, so that life may be elevated to a high level of kedusha, originally through study and practice of the Torah, and since the destruction of the Second Temple, through prayer as expressed in tractate Sotah 49a: "Since the destruction of the Temple, every day is more cursed than the preceding one; and the existence of the world is assured only by the kedusha...and the words spoken after the study of Torah." Since the adoption of the Amidah, the acknowledgement of God through the declaration from Isaiah 6:3: "Kadosh [holy], kadosh, kadosh, is HaShem, Master of Legions; the whole world is filled with His glory". as a replacement for the study of Torah, which is a daily obligation for Jews, and sanctifies God in itself. This continuous maintenance of the relationship between the individual Jew and God through study or prayer repeated three times daily is the confirmation of the original covenant. This allows the Jewish people as a community to strive and fulfill the prophecy "I, the Lord, have called you in righteousness, and will hold your hand and keep you. And I will establish you as a covenant of the people, for a light unto the nations." (i.e., a role model) over the course of history, and a part of the divine intent of bringing about an age of peace and sanctity where ideally a faithful life and good deeds should be ends in themselves, not means (see also Jewish principles of faith). According to Christian theologian Alister McGrath, the Jewish Christians affirmed every aspect of then-contemporary Second Temple Judaism with the addition of the belief that Jesus was the Messiah, with Isaiah 49:6, "an explicit parallel to 42:6" quoted by Paul the Apostle in Acts 13:47 and reinterpreted by Justin Martyr. According to Christian writers, most notably Paul, the Bible teaches that people are, in their current state, sinful, and the New Testament reveals that Jesus is both the Son of man and the Son of God, united in the hypostatic union, God the Son, God made incarnate; that Jesus' death by crucifixion was a sacrifice to atone for all of humanity's sins, and that acceptance of Jesus as Savior and Lord saves one from Divine Judgment, giving Eternal life. Jesus is the mediator of the New Covenant. to be the proclamation of the New Covenant ethics, in contrast to the Mosaic Covenant of Moses from Mount Sinai. Some scholars, like Margaret Barker, propose that early Christianity has roots in First Temple Israelite religion, which is dubbed as the "Temple Theology". Baker's work has been criticized for engaging in parallelomania and failing to engage in the broader scholarly literature, but it has gained some religious and academic support.Sacred texts The Hebrew Bible is composed of three parts: the Torah ('instruction'; the Septuagint translated the Hebrew to nomos or Law), the Nevi'im (Prophets) and the Ketuvim (Writings). Collectively, these are known as the Tanakh. According to Rabbinic Judaism the Torah was revealed by God to Moses; within it, Jews find 613 mitzvot (commandments). Rabbinic tradition asserts that God revealed two Torahs to Moses, one that was written down, and one that was transmitted orally. Whereas the written Torah has a fixed form, the Oral Torah is a living tradition that includes not only specific supplements to the written Torah (for instance, what is the proper manner of shechita and what is meant by "Frontlets" in the Shema), but also procedures for understanding and talking about the written Torah (thus, the Oral Torah revealed at Sinai includes debates among rabbis who lived long after Moses). The Oral Law elaborations of narratives in the Bible and stories about the rabbis are referred to as aggadah. It also includes elaboration of the 613 commandments in the form of laws referred to as halakha. Elements of the Oral Torah were committed to writing and edited by Judah HaNasi in the Mishnah in 200 CE; much more of the Oral Torah were committed to writing in the Babylonian and Jerusalem Talmuds, which were edited around 600 CE and 450 CE, respectively. The Talmuds are notable for the way they combine law and lore, for their explication of the midrashic method of interpreting texts, and for their accounts of debates among rabbis, which preserve divergent and conflicting interpretations of the Bible and legal rulings. Since the transcription of the Talmud, notable rabbis have compiled law codes that are generally held in high regard: the Mishneh Torah, the Tur, and the Shulchan Aruch. The latter, which was based on earlier codes and supplemented by the commentary by Moshe Isserles that notes other practices and customs practiced by Jews in different communities, especially among Ashkenazim, is generally held to be authoritative by Orthodox Jews. The Zohar, which was written in the 13th century, is generally held as the most important esoteric treatise of the Jews. All contemporary Jewish movements consider the Tanakh, and the Oral Torah in the form of the Mishnah and Talmuds as sacred, although movements are divided as to claims concerning their divine revelation, and also their authority. For Jews, the Torah—written and oral—is the primary guide to the relationship between God and man, a living document that has unfolded and will continue to unfold whole new insights over the generations and millennia. A saying that captures this goes, "Turn it [the Torah's words] over and over again, for everything is in it." Christians accept the Written Torah and other books of the Hebrew Bible (alternatively called Old Testament) as Scripture, although they generally give readings from the Koine Greek Septuagint translation instead of the Biblical Hebrew/Biblical Aramaic Masoretic Text. Two notable examples are: * Isaiah 7:14 – "virgin" instead of "young woman" * Psalm 22:16 – "they have pierced my hands and feet" instead of "like a lion, (they are at) my hands and feet" Instead of the traditional Jewish order and names for the books, Christians organize and name the books closer to that found in the Septuagint. Some Christian denominations (such as Anglican, Roman Catholic, and Eastern Orthodox), include a number of books that are not in the Hebrew Bible (the biblical apocrypha or deuterocanonical books or Anagignoskomena, see Development of the Old Testament canon) in their biblical canon that are not in today's Jewish canon, although they were included in the Septuagint. Christians reject the Jewish Oral Torah, which was still in oral, and therefore unwritten, form in the time of Jesus. which included commentary on the Old Covenant. Some scholars consider this to be an antitype of the proclamation of the Ten Commandments or Mosaic Covenant by Moses from the Biblical Mount Sinai.]]Covenant theology Christians believe that God has established a New Covenant with people through Jesus, as recorded in the Gospels, Acts of the Apostles, Epistles, and other books collectively called the New Testament (the word testament attributed to Tertullian is commonly interchanged with the word covenant). For some Christians, such as Roman Catholics and Orthodox Christians, this New Covenant includes authoritative sacred traditions and canon law. Others, especially Protestants, reject the authority of such traditions and instead hold to the principle of sola scriptura, which accepts only the Bible itself as the final rule of faith and practice. Anglicans do not believe in sola scriptura. For them, scripture is the longest leg of a 3-legged stool: scripture, tradition, and reason. Scripture cannot stand on its own since it must be interpreted in the light of the Church's patristic teaching and ecumenical creeds. Additionally, some denominations include the "oral teachings of Jesus to the Apostles", which they believe have been handed down to this day by apostolic succession. Christians refer to the canonized books about Jesus as the New Testament and to the canon of the Hebrew Bible as the Old Testament. Judaism does not accept the retronymic labeling of its sacred texts as the "Old Testament", and some Jews refer to the New Testament as the Christian Testament or Christian Bible. Judaism rejects all claims that the Christian New Covenant supersedes, abrogates, fulfills, or is the unfolding or consummation of the covenant expressed in the Written and Oral Torahs. Therefore, just as Christianity does not accept that Mosaic law has any authority over Christians, Judaism does not accept that the New Testament has any religious authority over Jews.Law Many Jews view Christians as having quite an ambivalent view of the Torah and the laws contained in it: on one hand, Christians speak of it as God's absolute word, but on the other, they apply its commandments with a certain selectivity. Some Jews contend that Christians cite commandments from the Hebrew Bible to support one point of view but then ignore other commandments of a similar class and equal weight. Examples of this are certain commandments that God states explicitly to be a "lasting covenant." Some translate the Hebrew as a "perpetual covenant." Christians explain that such selectivity is based on rulings made by early Jewish Christians in the Book of Acts, at the Council of Jerusalem, that, while believing gentiles did not need to convert to Judaism fully, they should follow some aspects of Torah like avoiding idolatry, fornication, and blood. This view is also reflected by modern Judaism, in that righteous gentiles need not convert to Judaism and need to observe only the Noahide laws, which also contain prohibitions against idolatry and fornication and blood. Some Christians agree that Jews who accept Jesus should still observe all of the Torah—see, for example dual-covenant theology—based on warnings by Jesus to Jews not to use him as an excuse to disregard it, and they support efforts of those such as Messianic Jews (Messianic Judaism is considered by most Christians and Jews to be a form of Christianity) to do that, but some Protestant forms of Christianity oppose all observance of the Mosaic law, even by Jews, which Luther criticised as antinomianism. A minority view in Christianity, known as Christian Torah-submission, holds that the Mosaic law as it is written is binding on all followers of God under the New Covenant, even for gentiles, because it views God's commands as "everlasting" and "good." Concepts of God Traditionally, both Judaism and Christianity believe in the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, for Jews the God of the Tanakh, for Christians the God of the Old Testament, the creator of the universe. Judaism and major sects of Christianity reject the view that God is entirely immanent and within the world as a physical presence (although Christians believe in the incarnation of God). Both religions reject the view that God is entirely transcendent, and thus separate from the world, as the pre-Christian Greek Unknown God. Both religions reject atheism on one hand and polytheism on the other. Both religions agree that God shares both transcendent and immanent qualities. How these religions resolve this issue is where the religions differ. Christianity posits that God exists as a Trinity; in this view God exists as three distinct persons who share a single divine essence, or substance. In those three there is one, and in that one there are three; the one God is indivisible, while the three persons are distinct and unconfused, God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. It teaches that God became especially immanent in physical form through the Incarnation of God the Son who was born as Jesus of Nazareth, who is believed to be at once fully God and fully human. There are denominations self-describing as Christian who question one or more of these doctrines, however, see Nontrinitarianism. By contrast, Judaism sees God as a single entity, and views trinitarianism as both incomprehensible and a violation of the Bible's teaching that God is one. It rejects the notion that Jesus or any other object or living being could be 'God', that God could have a literal 'son' in physical form or is divisible in any way, or that God could be made to be joined to the material world in such fashion. Although Judaism provides Jews with a word to label God's transcendence (Ein Sof, without end) and immanence (Shekhinah, in-dwelling), these are merely human words to describe two ways of experiencing God; God is one and indivisible. Shituf A minority Jewish view maintains that while Christian worship is polytheistic (due to the multiplicity of the Trinity), it is permissible for them to swear in God's name, since they are referring to the one God. This theology is referred to in Hebrew as Shituf (literally "partnership" or "association"). Although worship of a trinity is considered to be not different from any other form of idolatry for Jews, it may be an acceptable belief for non-Jews (according to the ruling of some Rabbinic authorities). Right action Faith versus good deeds Judaism teaches that the purpose of the Torah is to teach us how to act correctly. God's existence is a given in Judaism, and not something that most authorities see as a matter of required belief. Although some authorities see the Torah as commanding Jews to believe in God, Jews see belief in God as a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for a Jewish life. The quintessential verbal expression of Judaism is the Shema Yisrael, the statement that the God of the Bible is their God, and that this God is unique and one. The quintessential physical expression of Judaism is behaving in accordance with the 613 Mitzvot (the commandments specified in the Torah), and thus live one's life in God's ways. Thus fundamentally in Judaism, one is enjoined to bring holiness into life (with the guidance of God's laws), rather than removing oneself from life to be holy. Much of Christianity also teaches that God wants people to perform good works, but all branches hold that good works alone will not lead to salvation, which is called Legalism, the exception being dual-covenant theology. Some Christian denominations hold that salvation depends upon transformational faith in Jesus, which expresses itself in good works as a testament (or witness) to ones faith for others to see (primarily Eastern Orthodox Christianity and Roman Catholicism), while others (including most Protestants) hold that faith alone is necessary for salvation. Some argue that the difference is not as great as it seems, because it really hinges on the definition of "faith" used. The first group generally uses the term "faith" to mean "intellectual and heartfelt assent and submission". Such a faith will not be salvific until a person has allowed it to effect a life transforming conversion (turning towards God) in their being (see Ontotheology). The Christians that hold to "salvation by faith alone" (also called by its Latin name "sola fide") define faith as being implicitly ontological—mere intellectual assent is not termed "faith" by these groups. Faith, then, is life-transforming by definition. Sin In both religions, offenses against the will of God are called sin. These sins can be thoughts, words, or deeds. Catholicism categorizes sins into various groups. A wounding of the relationship with God is often called venial sin; a complete rupture of the relationship with God is often called mortal sin. Without salvation from sin (see below), a person's separation from God is permanent, causing such a person to enter Hell in the afterlife. Both the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church define sin more or less as a "macula", a spiritual stain or uncleanliness that constitutes damage to man's image and likeness of God. Hebrew has several words for sin, each with its own specific meaning. The word pesha, or "trespass", means a sin done out of rebelliousness. The word aveira means "transgression". And the word avone, or "iniquity", means a sin done out of moral failing. The word most commonly translated simply as "sin", het, literally means "to go astray". Just as Jewish law, halakha provides the proper "way" (or path) to live, sin involves straying from that path. Judaism teaches that humans are born with free will, and morally neutral, with both a yetzer hatov, (literally, "the good inclination", in some views, a tendency towards goodness, in others, a tendency towards having a productive life and a tendency to be concerned with others) and a yetzer hara, (literally "the evil inclination", in some views, a tendency towards evil, and in others, a tendency towards base or animal behavior and a tendency to be selfish). In Judaism all human beings are believed to have free will and can choose the path in life that they will take. It does not teach that choosing good is impossible—only at times more difficult. There is almost always a "way back" if a person wills it. (Although texts mention certain categories for whom the way back will be exceedingly hard, such as the slanderer, the habitual gossip, and the malicious person) The rabbis recognize a positive value to the yetzer hara: one tradition identifies it with the observation on the last day of creation that God's accomplishment was "very good" (God's work on the preceding days was just described as "good") and explain that without the yetzer ha'ra there would be no marriage, children, commerce or other fruits of human labor; the implication is that yetzer ha'tov and yetzer ha'ra are best understood not as moral categories of good and evil but as selfless versus selfish orientations, either of which used rightly can serve God's will. In contrast to the Jewish view of being morally balanced, Original Sin refers to the idea that the sin of Adam and Eve's disobedience (sin "at the origin") has passed on a spiritual heritage, so to speak. Christians teach that human beings inherit a corrupted or damaged human nature in which the tendency to do bad is greater than it would have been otherwise, so much so that human nature would not be capable now of participating in the afterlife with God. This is not a matter of being "guilty" of anything; each person is only personally guilty of their own actual sins. However, this understanding of original sin is what lies behind the Christian emphasis on the need for spiritual salvation from a spiritual Saviour, who can forgive and set aside sin even though humans are not inherently pure and worthy of such salvation. Paul the Apostle in Romans and I Corinthians placed special emphasis on this doctrine, and stressed that belief in Jesus would allow Christians to overcome death and attain salvation in the hereafter. Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox Christians, and some Protestants teach the Sacrament of Baptism is the means by which each person's damaged human nature is healed and sanctifying grace (capacity to enjoy and participate in the spiritual life of God) is restored. This is referred to as "being born of water and the Spirit", following the terminology in the Gospel of St. John. Most Protestants believe this salvific grace comes about at the moment of personal decision to follow Jesus, and that baptism is a symbol of the grace already received.Love The Hebrew word for "love", ahavah (אהבה), is used to describe intimate or romantic feelings or relationships, such as the love between parent and child in Genesis 22:2; 25: 28; 37:3; the love between close friends in I Samuel 18:2, 20:17; or the love between a young man and young woman in Song of Songs. Christians will often use the Greek of the Septuagint to make distinctions between the types of love: philia for brotherly, eros for romantic and agape for self-sacrificing love. Like many Jewish scholars and theologians, literary critic Harold Bloom understands Judaism as fundamentally a religion of love. But he argues that one can understand the Hebrew conception of love only by looking at one of the core commandments of Judaism, Leviticus 19:18, "Love your neighbor as yourself", also called the second Great Commandment. Talmudic sages Hillel and Rabbi Akiva commented that this is a major element of the Jewish religion. Also, this commandment is arguably at the center of the Jewish faith. As the third book of the Torah, Leviticus is literally the central book. Historically, Jews have considered it of central importance: traditionally, children began their study of the Torah with Leviticus, and the midrashic literature on Leviticus is among the longest and most detailed of midrashic literature. Bernard Jacob Bamberger considers Leviticus 19, beginning with God's commandment in verse 3—"You shall be holy, for I the Lord your God, am holy"—to be "the climactic chapter of the book, the one most often read and quoted" (1981:889). Leviticus 19:18 is itself the climax of this chapter. Abortion The only statements in the Tanakh about the status of a fetus state that killing an unborn infant does not have the same status as killing a born human being, and mandates a much lesser penalty. (Although this interpretation is disputed, the passage could refer to an injury to a woman that causes a premature, live birth). The Talmud states that the fetus is not yet a full human being until it has been born (either the head or the body is mostly outside of the woman), therefore killing a fetus is not murder, and abortion—in restricted circumstances—has always been legal under Jewish law. Rashi, the great 12th century commentator on the Bible and Talmud, states clearly of the fetus lav nefesh hu: "it is not a person". The Talmud contains the expression ubar yerech imo—the fetus is as the thigh of its mother,' i.e., the fetus is deemed to be part and parcel of the pregnant woman's body." The Babylonian Talmud Yevamot 69b states that: "the embryo is considered to be mere water until the fortieth day." Afterwards, it is considered subhuman until it is born. Christians who agree with these views may refer to this idea as abortion before the quickening of the fetus. Judaism unilaterally supports, in fact mandates, abortion if doctors believe that it is necessary to save the life of the woman. Many rabbinic authorities allow abortions on the grounds of gross genetic imperfections of the fetus. They also allow abortion if the woman were suicidal because of such defects. However, Judaism holds that abortion is impermissible for family planning or convenience reasons. Each case must be decided individually, however, and the decision should lie with the pregnant woman, the man who impregnated her, and their Rabbi. War, violence and pacifism Jews and Christians accept as valid and binding many of the same moral principles taught in the Torah. There is a great deal of overlap between the ethical systems of these two faiths. Nonetheless, there are some highly significant doctrinal differences. Judaism has many teachings about peace and compromise, and its teachings make physical violence the last possible option. Nonetheless, the Talmud teaches that "If someone comes with the intention to murder you, then one is obligated to kill in self-defense [rather than be killed]". The clear implication is that to bare one's throat would be tantamount to suicide (which Jewish law forbids) and it would also be considered helping a murderer kill someone and thus would "place an obstacle in front of a blind man" (i.e., makes it easier for another person to falter in their ways). The tension between the laws dealing with peace, and the obligation to self-defense, has led to a set of Jewish teachings that have been described as tactical-pacifism. This is the avoidance of force and violence whenever possible, but the use of force when necessary to save the lives of one's self and one's people. Although killing oneself is forbidden under normal Jewish law as being a denial of God's goodness in the world, under extreme circumstances when there has seemed no choice but to either be killed or forced to betray their religion, Jews have committed suicide or mass suicide (see Masada, First French persecution of the Jews, and York Castle for examples). As a grim reminder of those times, there is even a prayer in the Jewish liturgy for "when the knife is at the throat", for those dying "to sanctify God's Name". These acts have received mixed responses by Jewish authorities. Where some Jews regard them as examples of heroic martyrdom, but others saying that while Jews should always be willing to face martyrdom if necessary, it was wrong for them to take their own lives. Because Judaism focuses on this life, many questions to do with survival and conflict (such as the classic moral dilemma of two people in a desert with only enough water for one to survive) were analysed in great depth by the rabbis within the Talmud, in the attempt to understand the principles a godly person should draw upon in such a circumstance. The Sermon on the Mount records that Jesus taught that if someone comes to harm you, then one must turn the other cheek. This has led four Protestant Christian denominations to develop a theology of pacifism, the avoidance of force and violence at all times. They are known historically as the peace churches, and have incorporated Christ's teachings on nonviolence into their theology so as to apply it to participation in the use of violent force; those denominations are the Quakers, Mennonites, Amish, and the Church of the Brethren. Many other churches have people who hold to the doctrine without making it a part of their doctrines, or who apply it to individuals but not to governments, see also Evangelical counsels. The vast majority of Christian nations and groups have not adopted this theology, nor have they followed it in practice. See also But to bring a sword. Capital punishment Although the Hebrew Bible has many references to capital punishment, the Jewish sages used their authority to make it nearly impossible for a Jewish court to impose a death sentence. Even when such a sentence might have been imposed, the Cities of Refuge and other sanctuaries, were at hand for those unintentionally guilty of capital offences. It was said in the Talmud about the death penalty in Judaism, that if a court killed more than one person in seventy years, it was a barbarous (or "bloody") court and should be condemned as such. Christianity usually reserved the death penalty for heresy, the denial of the orthodox view of God's view, and witchcraft or similar non-Christian practices. For example, in Spain, unrepentant Jews were exiled, and it was only those crypto-Jews who had accepted baptism under pressure but retained Jewish customs in private, who were punished in this way. It is presently acknowledged by most of Christianity that these uses of capital punishment were deeply immoral. Taboo food and drink Orthodox Jews, unlike most Christians, still practice a restrictive diet that has many rules. Most Christians believe that the kosher food laws have been superseded. For example, they cite what Jesus taught in Mark 7: what you eat doesn't make you unclean but what comes out of a man's heart makes him unclean—although Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy have their own set of dietary observances. Eastern Orthodoxy, in particular has very elaborate and strict rules of fasting, and continues to observe the Council of Jerusalem's apostolic decree of Act 15. Some Christian denominations observe some biblical food laws, for example, the practice of Ital in Rastafari. Jehovah's Witnesses do not eat blood products and are known for their refusal to accept blood transfusions based on not "eating blood". Salvation Judaism does not see human beings as inherently flawed or sinful and needful of being saved from it, but rather capable with a free will of being righteous, and unlike Christianity does not closely associate ideas of "salvation" with a New Covenant delivered by a Jewish messiah, although in Judaism Jewish people will have a renewed national commitment of observing God's commandments under the New Covenant, and the Jewish Messiah will also be ruling at a time of global peace and acceptance of God by all people. Judaism holds instead that proper living is accomplished through good works and heartfelt prayer, as well as a strong faith in God. Judaism also teaches that gentiles can receive a share in "the world to come". This is codified in the Mishna Avot 4:29, the Babylonian Talmud in tractates Avodah Zarah 10b, and Ketubot 111b, and in Maimonides's 12th century law code, the Mishneh Torah, in Hilkhot Melachim (Laws of Kings) 8.11. The Protestant view is that every human is a sinner, and being saved by God's grace, not simply by the merit of one's own actions, pardons a damnatory sentence to Hell. Forgiveness In Judaism, one must go to those he has harmed to be entitled to forgiveness. This means that in Judaism a person cannot obtain forgiveness from God for wrongs the person has done to other people. This also means that, unless the victim forgave the perpetrator before he died, murder is unforgivable in Judaism, and they will answer to God for it, though the victims' family and friends can forgive the murderer for the grief they caused them. Thus the "reward" for forgiving others is not God's forgiveness for wrongs done to others, but rather help in obtaining forgiveness from the other person. Sir Jonathan Sacks, Chief Rabbi of the United Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth, summarized: "it is not that God forgives, while human beings do not. To the contrary, we believe that just as only God can forgive sins against God, so only human beings can forgive sins against human beings."Judgment Both Christianity and Judaism believe in some form of judgment. Most Christians (the exception is Full Preterism) believe in the future Second Coming of Jesus, which includes the Resurrection of the Dead and the Last Judgment. Those who have accepted Jesus as their personal saviour will be saved and live in God's presence in the Kingdom of Heaven, those who have not accepted Jesus as their saviour, will be cast into the Lake of fire (eternal torment, finite torment, or simply annihilated), see for example The Sheep and the Goats. In Jewish liturgy there is significant prayer and talk of a "book of life" that one is written into, indicating that God judges each person each year even after death. This annual judgment process begins on Rosh Hashanah and ends with Yom Kippur. Additionally, God sits daily in judgment concerning a person's daily activities. Upon the anticipated arrival of the Messiah, God will judge the nations for their persecution of Israel during the exile. Later, God will also judge the Jews over their observance of the Torah. Heaven and Hell There is little Jewish literature on heaven or hell as actual places, and there are few references to the afterlife in the Hebrew Bible. One is the ghostly apparition of Samuel, called up by the Witch of Endor at King Saul's command. Another is a mention by the Prophet Daniel of those who sleep in the earth rising to either everlasting life or everlasting abhorrence. Early Hebrew views were more concerned with the fate of the nation of Israel as a whole, rather than with individual immortality. A stronger belief in an afterlife for each person developed during the Second Temple period but was contested by various Jewish sects. Pharisees believed that in death, people rest in their graves until they are physically resurrected with the coming of the Messiah, and within that resurrected body the soul would exist eternally. Maimonides also included the concept of resurrection in his Thirteen Principles of Faith. Judaism's view is summed up by a biblical observation about the Torah: in the beginning God clothes the naked (Adam), and at the end God buries the dead (Moses). The Children of Israel mourned for 40 days, then got on with their lives. In Judaism, Heaven is sometimes described as a place where God debates Talmudic law with the angels, and where Jews spend eternity studying the Written and Oral Torah. Jews do not believe in "Hell" as a place of eternal torment. Gehenna is a place or condition of purgatory where Jews spend up to twelve months purifying to get into heaven, depending on how sinful they have been, although some suggest that certain types of sinners can never be purified enough to go to heaven and rather than facing eternal torment, simply cease to exist. Therefore, some violations like suicide would be punished by separation from the community, such as not being buried in a Jewish cemetery (in practice, rabbis often rule suicides to be mentally incompetent and thus not responsible for their actions). Judaism also does not have a notion of hell as a place ruled by Satan since God's dominion is total and Satan is only one of God's angels. Catholics also believe in a purgatory for those who are going to heaven, but Christians in general believe that Hell is a fiery place of torment that never ceases, called the Lake of Fire. A small minority believe this is not permanent, and that those who go there will eventually either be saved or cease to exist. Heaven for Christians is depicted in various ways. As the Kingdom of God described in the New Testament and particularly the Book of Revelation, Heaven is a new or restored earth, a World to Come, free of sin and death, with a New Jerusalem led by God, Jesus, and the most righteous of believers starting with 144,000 Israelites from every tribe, and all others who received salvation living peacefully and making pilgrimages to give glory to the city. In Christianity, promises of Heaven and Hell as rewards and punishments are often used to motivate good and bad behavior, as threats of disaster were used by prophets like Jeremiah to motivate the Israelites. Modern Judaism generally rejects this form of motivation, instead teaching to do the right thing because it's the right thing to do. As Maimonides wrote: <blockquote> "A man should not say: I shall carry out the precepts of the Torah and study her wisdom in order to receive all the blessings written therein or in order to merit the life of the World to Come and I shall keep away from the sins forbidden by the Torah in order to be spared the curses mentioned in the Torah or in order not to be cut off from the life of the World to Come. It is not proper to serve God in this fashion. For one who serves thus serves out of fear. Such a way is not that of the prophets and sages. Only the ignorant, and the women and children serve God in this way. These are trained to serve out of fear until they obtain sufficient knowledge to serve out of love. One who serves God out of love studies the Torah and practices the precepts and walks in the way of wisdom for no ulterior motive at all, neither out of fear of evil nor in order to acquire the good, but follows the truth because it is true and the good will follow the merit of attaining to it. It is the stage of Abraham our father whom the Holy One, blessed be God, called "My friend" (Isaiah 41:8 – ohavi = the one who loves me) because he served out of love alone. It is regarding this stage that the Holy One, Blessed be God, commanded us through Moses, as it is said: "You shall love the Lord your God" (Deuteronomy 6:5). When man loves God with a love that is fitting he automatically carries out all the precepts of love. (Maimonides Yad Chapter 10, quoted in Jacobs 1973: 159)</blockquote> The Messiah Jews believe that a descendant of King David will one day appear to restore the Kingdom of Israel and usher in an era of peace, prosperity, and spiritual understanding for Israel and all the nations of the world. Jews refer to this person as Moshiach or "anointed one", translated as messiah in English. The traditional Jewish understanding of the messiah is that he is fully human and born of human parents without any supernatural element. The messiah is expected to have a relationship with God similar to that of the prophets of the Tanakh. In his commentary on the Talmud, Maimonides (Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon) wrote: :All of the people Israel will come back to Torah; The people of Israel will be gathered back to the land of Israel; The Temple in Jerusalem will be rebuilt; Israel will live among the nations as an equal, and will be strong enough to defend herself; Eventually, war, hatred and famine will end, and an era of peace and prosperity will come upon the Earth. He adds: :"And if a king shall stand up from among the House of David, studying Torah and indulging in commandments like his father David, according to the written and oral Torah, and he will coerce all Israel to follow it and to strengthen its weak points, and will fight The Lord's wars, this one is to be treated as if he were the anointed one. If he succeeded [and won all nations surrounding him. Old prints and mss.] and built a Holy Temple in its proper place and gathered the strayed ones of Israel together, this is indeed the anointed one for certain, and he will mend the entire world to worship the Lord together ... But if he did not succeed until now, or if he was killed, it becomes known that he is not this one of whom the Torah had promised us, and he is indeed like all [other] proper and wholesome kings of the House of David who died." He also clarified the nature of the Messiah: :"Do not imagine that the anointed King must perform miracles and signs and create new things in the world or resurrect the dead and so on. The matter is not so: For Rabbi Akiba was a great scholar of the sages of the Mishnah, and he was the assistant-warrior of the king Ben Coziba Simon bar Kokhba... He and all the Sages of his generation deemed him the anointed king, until he was killed by sins; only since he was killed, they knew that he was not. The Sages asked him neither a miracle nor a sign..." The Christian view of Jesus as Messiah goes beyond such claims and is the fulfillment and union of three anointed offices; a prophet like Moses who delivers God's commands and covenant and frees people from bondage, a High Priest in the order of Melchizedek overshadowing the Levite priesthood and a king like King David ruling over Jews, and like God ruling over the whole world and coming from the line of David. For Christians, Jesus is also fully human and fully divine as the Word of God who sacrifices himself so that humans can receive salvation. Jesus sits in Heaven at the Right Hand of God and will judge humanity in the end times when he returns to earth. Christian readings of the Hebrew Bible find many references to Jesus. This can take the form of specific prophesy, and in other cases of foreshadowing by types or forerunners. Traditionally, most Christian readings of the Bible maintained that almost every prophecy was actually about the coming of Jesus, and that the entire Old Testament of the Bible is a prophecy about the coming of Jesus. Catholic views Catholicism teaches Extra Ecclesiam Nulla Salus ("Outside the Church there is no salvation"), which some, like Fr. Leonard Feeney, interpreted as limiting salvation to Catholics only. At the same time, it does not deny the possibility that those not visibly members of the Church may attain salvation as well. In recent times, its teaching has been most notably expressed in the Vatican II council documents Unitatis Redintegratio (1964), Lumen gentium (1964), Nostra aetate (1965), an encyclical issued by Pope John Paul II: Ut unum sint (1995), and in a document issued by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, Dominus Iesus in 2000. The latter document has been criticised for claiming that non-Christians are in a "gravely deficient situation" as compared to Catholics, but also adds that "for those who are not formally and visibly members of the Church, salvation in Christ is accessible by virtue of a grace which, while having a mysterious relationship to the Church, does not make them formally part of the Church, but enlightens them in a way which is accommodated to their spiritual and material situation." Pope John Paul II on 2 October 2000 emphasized that this document did not say that non-Christians were actively denied salvation: "...this confession does not deny salvation to non-Christians, but points to its ultimate source in Christ, in whom man and God are united". On 6 December the Pope issued a statement to further emphasize that the Church continued to support its traditional stance that salvation was available to believers of other faiths: "The gospel teaches us that those who live in accordance with the Beatitudes—the poor in spirit, the pure of heart, those who bear lovingly the sufferings of life—will enter God's kingdom." He further added, "All who seek God with a sincere heart, including those who do not know Christ and his church, contribute under the influence of Grace to the building of this Kingdom." On 13 August 2002 American Catholic bishops issued a joint statement with leaders of Reform and Conservative Judaism, called "Reflections on Covenant and Mission", which affirmed that Christians should not target Jews for conversion. The document stated: "Jews already dwell in a saving covenant with God" and "Jews are also called by God to prepare the world for God's Kingdom." However, many Christian denominations still believe it is their duty to reach out to "unbelieving" Jews. In December 2015, the Vatican released a 10,000-word document that, among other things, stated that Jews do not need to be converted to find salvation, and that Catholics should work with Jews to fight antisemitism.Eastern Orthodox views Eastern Orthodox Christianity emphasizes a continuing life of repentance or metanoia, which includes an increasing improvement in thought, belief and action. Regarding the salvation of Jews, Muslims, and other non-Christians, the Orthodox have traditionally taught that there is no salvation outside the church. Orthodoxy recognizes that other religions may contain truth, to the extent that they are in agreement with Christianity. God is thought to be good, just, and merciful; it would not seem just to condemn someone because they never heard the Gospel message, or were taught a distorted version of the Gospel by heretics. Therefore, the reasoning goes, they must at some point have an opportunity to make a genuine informed decision. Ultimately, those who persist in rejecting God condemn themselves, by cutting themselves off from the ultimate source of all Life, and from the God who is Love embodied. Jews, Muslims, and members of other faiths, then, are expected to convert to Christianity in the afterlife.Proselytizing Judaism is not a proselytizing religion. Orthodox Judaism deliberately makes it very difficult to convert and become a Jew, and requires a significant and full-time effort in living, study, righteousness, and conduct over several years. The final decision is by no means a foregone conclusion. A person cannot become Jewish by marrying a Jew, or by joining a synagogue, nor by any degree of involvement in the community or religion, but only by explicitly undertaking intense, formal, and supervised work over years aimed towards that goal. Some less strict versions of Judaism have made this process somewhat easier but it is still far from common. In the past, scholars understood Judaism to have an evangelistic drive, but today's scholars are inclined to the view that it was often more akin just to "greater openness to converts" rather than active soliciting of conversions. Since Jews believe that one need not be a Jew to approach God, there is no religious pressure to convert non-Jews to their faith. Indeed, Scholars have revisited the traditional claims about Jewish proselytizing and have brought forward a variety of new insights. McKnight and Goodman have argued persuasively that a distinction ought to be made between the passive reception of converts or interested Pagans, and an active desire or intent to convert the non-Jewish world to Judaism. The Chabad-Lubavitch branch of Hasidic Judaism has been an exception to this non-proselytizing standard, since in recent decades it has been actively promoting Noahide Laws for gentiles as an alternative to Christianity. By contrast, Christianity is an explicitly evangelistic religion. Christians are commanded by Jesus to "Therefore, go and make disciples of all nations". Historically, evangelism has on rare occasions led to forced conversion under threat of death or mass expulsion. Mutual views Common Jewish views of Christianity Many Jews view Jesus as one in a long list of failed Jewish claimants to be the Messiah, none of whom fulfilled the tests of a prophet specified in the Law of Moses. Others see Jesus as a teacher who worked with the gentiles and ascribe the messianic claims that Jews find objectionable to his later followers. Because much physical and spiritual violence was done to Jews in the name of Jesus and his followers, and because evangelism is still an active aspect of many churches' activities, many Jews are uncomfortable with discussing Jesus and treat him as a non-person. In answering the question "What do Jews think of Jesus", philosopher Milton Steinberg claims, for Jews, Jesus cannot be accepted as anything more than a teacher. "In only a few respects did Jesus deviate from the Tradition," Steinberg concludes, "and in all of them, Jews believe, he blundered." Judaism does not believe that God requires the sacrifice of any human. This is emphasized in Jewish traditions concerning the story of the Akedah, the binding of Isaac. In the Jewish explanation, this is a story in the Torah whereby God wanted to test Abraham's faith and willingness, and Isaac was never going to be actually sacrificed. Thus, Judaism rejects the notion that anyone can or should die for anyone else's sin. Judaism is more focused on the practicalities of understanding how one may live a sacred life in the world according to God's will, rather than a hope of a future one. Judaism does not believe in the Christian concept of hell but does have a punishment stage in the afterlife (i.e. Gehenna, a term that also appears in the New Testament and translated as hell) as well as a Heaven (Gan Eden), but the religion does not intend it as a focus. Judaism views the worship of Jesus as inherently polytheistic, and rejects the Christian attempts to explain the Trinity as a complex monotheism. Christian festivals have no religious significance in Judaism and are not celebrated, but some secular Jews in the West treat Christmas as a secular holiday. Common Christian views of Judaism Christians believe that Christianity is the fulfillment and successor of Judaism, retaining much of its doctrine and many of its practices including monotheism, the belief in a Messiah, and certain forms of worship like prayer and reading from religious texts. Christians believe that Judaism requires blood sacrifice to atone for sins, and believe that Judaism has abandoned this since the destruction of the Second Temple. Most Christians consider the Mosaic Law to have been a necessary intermediate stage, but that once the crucifixion of Jesus occurred, adherence to civil and ceremonial Law was superseded by the New Covenant. Some Christians adhere to New Covenant theology, which states that with the arrival of his New Covenant, Jews have ceased being blessed under his Mosaic covenant. This position has been softened or disputed by other Christians, where Jews are recognized to have a special status under the Abrahamic covenant. New Covenant theology is thus in contrast to Dual-covenant theology. Some Christians who view the Jewish people as close to God seek to understand and incorporate elements of Jewish understanding or perspective into their beliefs as a means to respect their "parent" religion of Judaism, or to more fully seek out and return to their Christian roots. Christians embracing aspects of Judaism are sometimes criticized as Biblical Judaizers by Christians when they pressure gentile Christians to observe Mosaic teachings rejected by most modern Christians. Commonwealth Theology (CT) asserts that Judeo-Christian tensions were exacerbated in the fall of Jerusalem and by the subsequent Jewish Revolt. As a result, early Christian theologies formulated in the Roman capitals of Rome and Constantinople began to include antisemitic attitudes, which have been carried forward and embraced by the Protestant Reformers. Dispensation Theology, formalized in the 1830s by John Darby, holds that "God has not rejected His people whom He foreknew." Dispensationalism, however, maintains that God's special dealings with Israel have been interrupted by the Church Age. Commonwealth Theology, on the other hand, recognizes the continuity of God's "congregation in the wilderness" as presently consisting of the Jews (house of Judah) and the Nations (Gentiles), among whom are abiding the historically scattered Northern Kingdom (house of Israel). Commonwealth Theology views the Jews as already included in Commonwealth of Israel even while in unbelief, but nevertheless unsaved in their unbelieving state. is a process that began on the Day of Pentecost. The full realization of the "one new man" created through the peace (between the Jews and "you Gentiles") made by his cross will take place in Ezekiel's two sticks made one, when both houses of Israel will be united under the Kingdom of David. Messianic Judaism Jewish Christians Some scholars have found evidence of continuous interactions between Jewish-Christian and rabbinic movements from the mid- to late second century CE to the fourth century CE. Of particular importance is the figure of James the brother of Jesus, the leader of the Christian Church in Jerusalem until he was killed in the year 62, who was known for his righteous behavior as a Jew, and set the terms of the relationship between Jewish Christians and Gentile Christians in dialogue with Paul. To him is attributed a letter which emphasizes the view that faith must be expressed in works. The neglect of this mediating figure has often damaged Christian-Jewish relations. Modern scholarship is engaged in an ongoing debate over which term should be used as the proper designation for Jesus' first followers. Many scholars believe that the term Jewish Christians is anachronistic given the fact that there is no consensus on the date of the birth of Christianity. The very concepts of Christianity and Judaism can be seen as essentializing, since these are changing and plural traditions. Clearly, the first Christians would not have believed that they were exchanging one religion for another, because they believed that the resurrection of Jesus was the fulfillment of Jewish prophecies, and they believed that the mission to the gentiles which was initiated by Saul (Paul of Tarsus) was a secondary activity. Some modern scholars have suggested that the designations "Jewish believers in Jesus" and "Jewish followers of Jesus" better reflect the original context. Inter-faith relationship praying at the Western Wall in Jerusalem on his 2014 visit to the Holy Land.]] In addition to Christianity and Judaism's varying views on each other as religions, there has also been a long and often painful history of conflict, persecution and at times, tolerance, reconciliation, between the two religions, which have influenced their mutual views of their relationship with each other over time. Since the end of the Second World War and The Holocaust, Christianity has embarked on a process of introspection with regard to its Jewish roots and its attitudes toward Judaism. The eradication of the anti-Jewish tendencies is but one dimension of this ongoing Christian introspection, that attempts to engage a variety of legacies that disturb modern believers (Antisemitism, slavery, racial and ethnic prejudice, colonialism, sexism, homophobia and religious persecution). Since the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church upheld (Formal Statement on the Jews), which stated Persecution, forcible conversion, and forcible displacement of Jews (i.e. hate crimes) occurred for many centuries, along with occasional gestures at reconciliation which also occurred from time to time. Pogroms were a common occurrence throughout Christian Europe, including organized violence, restrictions on land ownership and professional lives, forcible relocation and ghettoization, mandatory dress codes, and at times, humiliating actions and torture. All of these actions and restrictions had major effects on Jewish cultures. From the fifth century onward, Church councils imposed ever-increasing burdens and limitations on the Jews. Among the decrees: marriages between a Jew and a Christian were forbidden (Orleans, 533 and 538; Clermont, 535; Toledo, 589 and 633). Jews and Christians were forbidden to eat together (Vannes, 465; Agde, 506; Epaone, 517; Orleans, 538; Macon, 583; Clichy, 626–7) Jews were banned from public office (Clermont, 535; Toledo, 589; Paris, 614–5; Clichy, 626–7; Toledo, 633). Jews were forbidden to appear in public during Easter (Orleans, 538; Macon, 583) and to work on Sunday (Narbonne, 589). By the end of the first millennium, the Jewish population in the Christian lands had been decimated, expelled, forced into conversion or worse. Only a few small and scattered communities survived. There have also been non-coercive outreach and missionary efforts such as the Church of England's Ministry Among Jewish People, founded in 1809. For Martin Buber, Judaism and Christianity were variations on the same theme of messianism. Buber made this theme the basis of a famous definition of the tension between Judaism and Christianity: <blockquote> Pre-messianically, our destinies are divided. Now to the Christian, the Jew is the incomprehensibly obdurate man who declines to see what has happened; and to the Jew, the Christian is the incomprehensibly daring man who affirms in an unredeemed world that its redemption has been accomplished. This is a gulf which no human power can bridge. </blockquote> The Nazi Party was known for its persecution of Christian Churches; many of them, such as the Protestant Confessing Church and the Catholic Church, as well as Quakers and Jehovah's Witnesses, aided and rescued Jews who were being targeted by the régime. Following the Holocaust, attempts have been made to construct a new Jewish-Christian relationship of mutual respect for differences, through the inauguration of the interfaith body the Council of Christians and Jews in 1942 and International Council of Christians and Jews. The Seelisberg Conference in 1947 established 10 points relating to the sources of Christian antisemitism. The ICCJ's "Twelve points of Berlin" sixty years later aim to reflect a recommitment to interreligious dialogue between the two communities. Pope Paul VI wrote that "the Jewish people, who still retain the religion of the Old Testament, ... are indeed worthy of our respect and love". Pope John Paul II and the Catholic Church have "upheld the Church's acceptance of the continuing and permanent election of the Jewish people" as well as a reaffirmation of the covenant between God and the Jews. In December 2015, the Vatican released a 10,000-word document which, among other things, stated that Catholics should work with Jews to fight antisemitism. He concludes by writing, as to Judeo-Christian values, that "the hyphen between Jewish and Christian values is Jesus himself." On 3 December 2015, the Center for Jewish-Christian Understanding and Cooperation (CJCUC) spearheaded a petition of Orthodox rabbis from around the world calling for increased partnership between Jews and Christians. The unprecedented Orthodox Rabbinic Statement on Christianity, entitled "To Do the Will of Our Father in Heaven: Toward a Partnership between Jews and Christians", was initially signed by over 25 prominent Orthodox rabbis in Israel, the United States, and Europe,Between Jerusalem and RomeOn 31 August 2017, representatives of the Conference of European Rabbis, the Rabbinical Council of America, and the Commission of the Chief Rabbinate of Israel issued and presented the Holy See with a statement entitled Between Jerusalem and Rome. The document pays particular tribute to the Second Vatican Council's Declaration Nostra Aetate, whose fourth chapter represents the "Magna Carta" of the Holy See's dialogue with the Jewish world. The Statement Between Jerusalem and Rome does not hide the theological differences that exist between the two faith traditions while all the same it expresses a firm resolve to collaborate more closely, now and in the future.See also * Anabaptist–Jewish relations * Antisemitism in Christianity * Christianity and other religions * Christian–Jewish reconciliation * Christian Zionism * Jesus in Christianity * Roman Catholicism and Judaism * Judaism and Mormonism * Protestantism and Judaism Notes Further reading * Bamberger, Bernard (1981). "Commentary to Leviticus" in The Torah: A Modern Commentary, edited by W. Gunther Plaut, New York: Union of American Hebrew Congregations. * Bloom, Harold (2005). Jesus and Yahweh: The Names Divine, Riverhead. * Herberg, Will (1951). Judaism and Modern Man: An Interpretation of Jewish religion, Jewish Publication Society. * Jacobs, Louis (1973). A Jewish Theology, Behrman House. * Rosenzweig, Franz (2005). The Star of Redemption, University of Wisconsin Press. * Rouvière, Jean-Marc (2006). Brèves méditations sur la création du monde, L'Harmattan Paris. * Spiegel, Shalom (1993). The Last Trial: On the Legends and Lore of the Command to Abraham to Offer Isaac As a Sacrifice: The Akedah, Jewish Lights Publishing; Reprint edition. * Welker, Carmen (2007). Should Christians be Torah Observant?, Netzari Press. Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2006). "'Etymythological Othering' and the Power of 'Lexical Engineering' in Judaism, Islam and Christianity. A Socio-Philo(sopho)logical Perspective", Explorations in the Sociology of Language and Religion, edited by Tope Omoniyi and Joshua A. Fishman, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 237–258. External links [http://www.religioustolerance.org/rcc_othe.htm Roman Catholic Church's views on other faiths] * [http://JewishStudies.eteacherbiblical.com Jewish Studies for Christians Online Study Group by Dr. Eli] * [http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid489&letterC&search=Christianity Jewish Encyclopedia: Christianity in its Relation to Judaism] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080412081828/http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid245&letterN&search=New%20Testament#700 Jewish Encyclopedia: New Testament: For and Against the Law] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160304030959/http://www.levant.info/MER039.html A Rival, a Relative, or Both? Differing Christian Stances Toward Judaism Over Two Millennia] by Dr. Graham Keith (Middle East Resources) *[https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/pcb_documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_20020212_popolo-ebraico_en.html The Pontifical Biblical Commission: The Jewish People and their Sacred Scriptures in the Christian Bible]	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_and_Judaism	2025-04-05T18:28:10.623660
7504	Cesare Borgia	\| native_name \| native_name_lang \| pronunciation \| birth_name <!-- only use if different from name --> \| birth_date = 13 September 1475 \| birth_place Subiaco, Papal States (now Italy) \| death_date \| death_place = Viana, Navarre (now Spain) \| death_cause \| burial_place Iglesia de Santa María (Viana) \| resting_place_coordinates <!-- --> \| nationality \| other_names \| education \| occupation \| years_active \| known_for \| title = Duke of Valentinois \| opponents \| spouse Charlotte of Albret \| partner = <!-- (unmarried long-term partner) --> \| children = \| parents = \| relatives \| family Borgia \| module \| signature \| signature_size = }} Cesare Borgia; ; .}} (13 September 1475 – 12 March 1507) was a Roman Catholic deacon—cardinal and later an Italian condottiero (mercenary). He was the illegitimate son of Pope Alexander VI of the Aragonese House of Borgia and was a sibling to Lucrezia Borgia. After initially entering the Church and becoming a cardinal on his father's election to the papacy, he resigned his diaconal profession after the death of his brother in 1498. He was employed as a condottiero for King Louis XII of France around 1500, and occupied both Milan and Naples during the Italian Wars. At the same time, he carved out a state for himself in Central Italy, but he was unable to retain power for long after his father's death. His quest for political power was a major inspiration for The Prince by the renowned Florentine historian, Niccolò Machiavelli. Early life . ]] Like many aspects of Cesare Borgia's life, the date of his birth is a subject of dispute. He was born in Subiaco in Lazio, Italy Cesare's father, Pope Alexander VI, was the first pope who openly recognized his children born out of wedlock. The Italian historian Stefano Infessura writes that Cardinal Borgia falsely claimed Cesare to be the legitimate son of another man—Domenico d'Arignano, the nominal husband of Vannozza dei Cattanei. More likely, Pope Sixtus IV granted Cesare a release from the necessity of proving his birth in a papal bull of 1 October 1480. Career Diaconate Cesare was initially groomed for a career in the Roman Catholic Church. Following school in Perugia and Pisa, Cesare studied law at the Studium Urbis (today as the Sapienza University of Rome). He was made Bishop of Archdiocese of Pamplona and Tudela (aged 15) and Archbishop of Valencia (aged 17). In 1493, he had also been appointed bishop of both Castres and Elne. In 1494, he also received the title of abbot of the abbey of Saint-Michel-de-Cuxa. Along with his father's elevation to Pope, Cesare was made Cardinal at the age of 18. as Giovanni's disappearance could finally open to him a long-awaited military career and also solve the jealousy over Sancha of Aragon, wife of Cesare's younger brother, Gioffre, and mistress of both Cesare and Giovanni. Cesare's role in the act has never been clear. However, he had no definitive motive, as he was likely to be given a powerful secular position, whether or not his brother lived. It is possible that Giovanni was killed as a result of a sexual liaison. On 17 August 1498, Cesare resigned from the cardinalate, in order to pursue a military career. On the same day, Louis XII of France named Cesare Duke of Valentinois. This random title was selected as being homophonous with his nickname Il Valentino ("The Valencian"), derived from his father's papal epithet in Latin Valentinus ("The Valencian") indicating his birth in Xàtiva in the Kingdom of Valencia under the Crown of Aragon, and along with Cesare's former position as Cardinal of Valencia. On 6 September 1499, he was released from all ecclesiastical duties and laicised from his diaconal orders (because he only was ordained deacon on 26 March 1494 and never received other major orders as priesthood and bishop consecration).Military Cesare's career was founded upon his father's ability to distribute patronage, along with his alliance with France (reinforced by his marriage with Charlotte d'Albret, sister of John III of Navarre), in the course of the Italian Wars. Louis XII invaded Italy in 1499; after Gian Giacomo Trivulzio had ousted its duke Ludovico Sforza, Cesare accompanied the king in his entrance into Milan. , by Altobello Melone]] At this point, Alexander decided to profit from the favourable situation and carve out for Cesare a state of his own in northern Italy. To this end, he declared that all his vicars in Romagna and Marche were deposed. Though in theory subject directly to the pope, these rulers had been practically independent or dependent on other states for generations. In the view of the citizens, these vicars were cruel and petty. When Cesare eventually took power, he was viewed by the citizens as a great improvement. Cesare was appointed commander of the papal armies with a number of Italian mercenaries, supported by 300 cavalry and 4,000 Swiss infantry sent by the king of France. Alexander sent him to capture Imola and Forlì, ruled by Caterina Sforza (mother of the Medici condottiero Giovanni dalle Bande Nere). Despite being deprived of his French troops after the conquest of those two cities, Borgia returned to Rome to celebrate a triumph and to receive the title of Papal Gonfalonier from his father. In 1500 the creation of twelve new cardinals granted Alexander enough money for Cesare to hire the condottieri, Vitellozzo Vitelli, Gian Paolo Baglioni, Giulio and Paolo Orsini, and Oliverotto Euffreducci, who resumed his campaign in Romagna. Giovanni Sforza, first husband of Cesare's sister Lucrezia, was soon ousted from Pesaro; Pandolfo Malatesta lost Rimini; Faenza surrendered, its young lord Astorre III Manfredi being later drowned in the Tiber by Cesare's order. In May 1501 the latter was created duke of Romagna. Hired by Florence, Cesare subsequently added the lordship of Piombino to his new lands. While his condottieri took over the siege of Piombino which ended in 1502, Cesare commanded the French troops in the sieges of Naples and Capua, defended by Prospero and Fabrizio Colonna. On 24 June 1501, Borgia's troops stormed the latter to end the siege of Capua. of Cesare Borgia as Duke of Valentinois and Duke of Romagna and Captain-General of the Church.]] In June 1502, he set out for Marche, where he was able to capture Urbino and Camerino by treason. He planned to conquer Bologna next. However, his condottieri, most notably Vitellozzo Vitelli and the Orsini brothers (Giulio, Paolo and Francesco), feared Cesare's cruelty and set up a plot against him. Guidobaldo da Montefeltro and Giovanni Maria da Varano returned to Urbino and Camerino, and Fossombrone revolted. The fact that his subjects had enjoyed his rule thus far meant that his opponents had to work much harder than they would have liked. He eventually recalled his loyal generals to Imola, where he waited for his opponents' loose alliance to collapse. Cesare called for a reconciliation, but imprisoned his condottieri in Senigallia, then called Sinigaglia, a feat described as a "wonderful deceiving" by historian Paolo Giovio, and had them strangled. In 1503 he conquered the Republic of San Marino.Later years and deathAlthough he was an immensely capable general and statesman, Cesare had trouble maintaining his domain without continued papal patronage. Niccolò Machiavelli cites Cesare's dependence on the goodwill of the papacy, under the control of his father, as being the principal disadvantage of his rule. Machiavelli argued that, had Cesare been able to win the favour of the new Pope, he would have been a very successful ruler. The news of his father's death in 1503 arrived when Cesare was planning the conquest of Tuscany. While he was convalescing in Castel Sant'Angelo from an attack of malarial fever (likely contracted on the same occasion when Alexander contracted his fatal illness), his troops controlled the September 1503 papal conclave. The new pope, Pope Pius III, supported Cesare Borgia and reconfirmed him as Gonfaloniere, but after a brief pontificate of twenty-six days, he died. Borgia's deadly enemy, Giuliano Della Rovere, then succeeded by dexterous diplomacy in tricking the weakened Cesare Borgia into supporting him by offering him money and continued papal backing for Borgia policies in the Romagna; promises which he disregarded upon his election as Pope Julius II by the near-unanimous vote of the cardinals in the October 1503 papal conclave. Realizing his mistake by then, Cesare tried to correct the situation in his favour, but Pope Julius II made sure of its failure at every turn. Cesare was for example forced by Julius to give up San Marino, after occupying the republic for six months. was betrayed while in Naples by Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, a man he had considered his ally, and imprisoned there, while his lands were retaken by the papacy. In 1504 he was transferred to Spain and imprisoned first in the Castle of Chinchilla de Montearagón in La Mancha, but after an attempted escape he was moved north to the Castle of La Mota, Medina del Campo, near Segovia. who was missing an experienced military commander, ahead of the feared Castilian invasion. Borgia recaptured Viana, Navarre, which had been in the hands of forces loyal to Louis de Beaumont, the count of Lerín and Ferdinand II of Aragon's conspiratorial ally in Navarre, but not the castle, which he then besieged. In the early morning of 11 March 1507, an enemy party of knights fled from the castle during a heavy storm. Outraged at the ineffectiveness of the siege, Borgia chased them, only to find himself on his own. The party of knights, discovering that he was alone, trapped him in an ambush, where he received a fatal injury from a spear. He was then stripped of all his luxurious garments, valuables, and a leather mask covering half his face (disfigured, possibly by syphilis, during his late years). Borgia was left lying naked, with just a red tile covering his genitals. {\| \|<poem style=margin-left:2em></poem> \|<poem style=margin-left:2em>Here lies in a little earth he whom everyone feared, he whom peace and war held in his hand. Oh, you who go in search of worthy things to praise, if you would praise the worthiest then your path stops here and you do not need to go any farther.</poem> \|} Borgia was an old enemy of Ferdinand of Aragon, and he was fighting the count who paved the way for Ferdinand's 1512 invasion against John III and Catherine of Navarre. While the circumstances are not well known, the tomb was destroyed sometime between 1523 and 1608, during which time Santa María was undergoing renovation and expansion. Tradition goes that a Bishop of Calahorra considered it inappropriate to have the remains of "that degenerate" lying in the church, so the opportunity was taken to tear down the monument and expel Borgia's bones to where they were reburied under the street in front of the church to be trodden on by all who walked through the town. Vicente Blasco Ibáñez, in A los pies de Venus, writes that the then Bishop of Santa María had Borgia expelled from the church because his own father had died after being imprisoned under Alexander VI. It was held for many years that the bones were lost, although in fact local tradition continued to mark their place quite accurately and folklore sprung up around Borgia's death and ghost. The bones were in fact dug up twice and reburied once by historians (both local and international—the first dig in 1886 involved the French historian Charles Yriarte, who also published works on the Borgias) seeking the resting place of the infamous Cesare Borgia. After Borgia was unearthed for the second time in 1945 his bones were taken for a rather lengthy forensic examination by Victoriano Juaristi, a surgeon by trade and Borgia aficionado, and the tests concurred with the preliminary ones carried out in the 19th century. There was evidence that the bones belonged to Borgia. Cesare Borgia's remains then were sent to Viana's town hall, directly across from Santa María, where they remained until 1953. They were then reburied immediately outside of the Church of Santa María, no longer under the street and in direct danger of being stepped on. A memorial stone was placed over it which, translated into English, declared Borgia the Generalissimo of the papal as well as the Navarrese forces. A movement was made in the late 1980s to have Borgia dug up once more and put back into Santa María, but this proposal was ultimately rejected by church officials due to a recent ruling against the interment of anyone who did not hold the title of pope or cardinal. Since Borgia had renounced the cardinalate it was decided that it would be inappropriate for his bones to be moved into the church. It was reported that Fernando Sebastián Aguilar, the Archbishop of Pamplona, would acquiesce after more than 50 years of petitions and Borgia would finally be moved back inside the church on 11 March 2007, the day before the 500th anniversary of his death, but an Archbishopric spokesman declared that the church doesn't authorize any such practice. Machiavelli's use of Borgia is subject to controversy. Some scholars see Machiavelli's Borgia as the precursor of state crimes in the 20th century. Others, including Macaulay and Lord Acton, have historicized Machiavelli's Borgia, explaining the admiration for such violence as an effect of the general criminality and corruption of the time. Leonardo da Vinci Cesare Borgia briefly employed the artisan Leonardo da Vinci as a military architect and engineer between 1502 and 1503. Cesare provided Leonardo with an unlimited pass to inspect and direct all ongoing and planned construction in his domain. While in Romagna, Leonardo built the canal from Cesena to the Porto Cesenatico. Before meeting Cesare, Leonardo had worked at the Milanese court of Ludovico Sforza for many years, until Louis XII of France drove Sforza out of Italy. After Cesare, Leonardo was unsuccessful in finding another patron in Italy. King Francis I of France was able to convince Leonardo to enter his service, and the last three years of Leonardo's life were spent working in France. Personal life On 10 May 1499, Cesare married Charlotte of Albret (1480 – 11 March 1514), a sister of King John III of Navarre. The arrangement was part of a plan by the Navarrese monarchs to ease tensions with the newly proclaimed French King Louis XII by offering a royal blood bride in his dealings with the Holy See. They were parents to a daughter, Louise Borgia (1500–1553). Cesare was also the father to at least 11 illegitimate children. Among them are Girolamo Borgia who married Isabella Contessa di Carpi and Camilla Lucrezia Borgia (the younger) who, after Cesare's death, was moved to Ferrara to the court of her aunt Lucrezia Borgia (the elder). There are accounts recorded by Machiavelli during his time spent with Cesare Borgia during his diplomatic trips. Machiavelli found that he could be at times secretive and taciturn, at other times loquacious and boastful. He alternated bursts of demonic activity when he stayed up all night receiving and dispatching messengers, with moments of unaccountable sloth when he remained in bed refusing to see anyone. He was quick to take offence and rather remote from his immediate entourage, yet he was very open with his subjects, loving to join local sports and cutting a dashing figure. However, at other times, Machiavelli observed Cesare as having "inexhaustible" energy and an unrelenting genius in military matters, and also diplomatic affairs, and he would go days and nights on end without seemingly requiring sleep. Character discussed in works of philosophy * The Prince (1532) by Niccolò Machiavelli * The Antichrist (1895) by Friedrich Nietzsche * Beyond Good and Evil (1886) by Friedrich Nietzsche * Twilight of the Idols (1889) by Friedrich Nietzsche * Minima Moralia (1951) by Theodor Adorno * The Philosophy of the Encounter (2006) by Louis Althusser * Egoism and Freedom Movements: On the Anthropology of the Bourgeois Era (1982) by Max Horkheimer Non-fiction literature * The Life of Cesare Borgia (1912) by Rafael Sabatini * Cesare Borgia: The Machiavellian Prince (1942) by Carlo Beuf * A Triptych of Poisoners (1958) by Jean Plaidy * Cesare Borgia (1976) by Sarah Bradford * The Borgias (1981) by Sarah Bradford and John Prebble * The Artist, The Philosopher and the Warrior (2009) by Paul Strathern * The Borgias: The Hidden History (2013) by G. J. Meyer * Cesare Borgia in a Nutshell (2016) by Samantha Morris Fictional portrayals * Cesare is a character in Prince of Foxes, a 1947 historical fiction novel by Samuel Shellabarger. In the 1949 film adaptation of the story, he is portrayed by Orson Welles. * In the 1981 BBC TV series The Borgias, Cesare is portrayed by Oliver Cotton. * Cesare appears as the main antagonist of the 2010 video game ''Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood. He is voiced by Andreas Apergis. The game was developed primarily by Ubisoft Montreal with contributions by four other Ubisoft branches: Annecy, Singapore, Bucharest, and Quebec City. * In The Borgias, a 2011 American TV series, Cesare is portrayed by Francois Arnaud. * In Borgia, a 2011 European TV series, Cesare is portrayed by Mark Ryder. * In series 4 of Horrible Histories, the cast performed a parody of The Addams Family about the lives of the Borgia family. Mathew Baynton portrayed Cesare Borgia. * The Hatsune Miku & KAITO song "Cantarella" is based on Cesare Borgia and his sister Lucrezia Borgia. * The Cantarella'' manga by You Higuri is a dark fantasy historical fiction on Cesare's life with some supernatural elements. * Cesare: Il Creatore che ha distrutto is a manga by Fuyumi Soryo that chronicles his life from the age of 15. A musical adaptation premiered in 2023. Cesare was portrayed by Akinori Nakagawa in the original cast. Cesare is a character in The Family, a historical fiction novel created by The Godfather author Mario Puzo. In Brazilian literature, César Borgia is one of the main characters in the novel The Devil's Strip, by Miguel M. Abrahão See also * Rocca di Borgia * Route of the Borgias Notes References Sources * * * * * * * * External links * [https://www.britannica.com/biography/Cesare-Borgia-duke-of-Valentinois Cesare Borgia, Encyclopedia Britannica] * * * [http://sites.google.com/site/diarioborjaborgia/Home Diario de los Borja (Borgia)] Category:1475 births Category:1507 deaths Category:15th-century condottieri Category:16th-century condottieri Category:15th-century Italian cardinals Category:15th-century Roman Catholic archbishops in the Kingdom of Aragon Cesare Category:University of Perugia alumni Category:University of Pisa alumni Category:Dukes of Urbino Category:Cardinals created by Pope Alexander VI Category:Bishops of Elna Category:Princes of the Papal States Category:Archbishops of Valencia Category:Dukes of Valentinois Category:Cardinal-nephews Category:Illegitimate children of Pope Alexander VI Category:Lords of Rimini Category:Captains General of the Church Category:Clergy from Rome Category:Military personnel from Rome Category:Lords of Pesaro Category:Lords of Faenza Category:Resigned cardinals Category:People of the Italian Wars of 1499–1504 Category:Italian people of Spanish descent Category:Italian people of Lombard descent Category:Sapienza University of Rome alumni Category:French abbots Category:Italian escapees Category:Italian people imprisoned abroad Category:Escapees from Spanish detention Category:Italian military personnel killed in action Category:Deaths by edged and bladed weapons	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cesare_Borgia	2025-04-05T18:28:10.664966
7507	Chronicle	}} , the "Illuminated Chronicle" from the royal Hungarian court from 1358]] A chronicle (, from Greek chroniká, from , chrónos'' – "time") is a historical account of events arranged in chronological order, as in a timeline. Typically, equal weight is given for historically important events and local events, the purpose being the recording of events that occurred, seen from the perspective of the chronicler. A chronicle which traces world history is a universal chronicle. This is in contrast to a narrative or history, in which an author chooses events to interpret and analyze and excludes those the author does not consider important or relevant. The information sources for chronicles vary. Some are written from the chronicler's direct knowledge, others from witnesses or participants in events, still others are accounts passed down from generation to generation by oral tradition. Some used written material, such as charters, letters, and earlier chronicles. \| width = 20% \| title_bg = none \| tstyle = text-align: left; \| qalign = left }} Scholars categorize the genre of chronicle into two subgroups: live chronicles, and dead chronicles. A dead chronicle is one where the author assembles a list of events up to the time of their writing, but does not record further events as they occur. A live chronicle is where one or more authors add to a chronicle in a regular fashion, recording contemporary events shortly after they occur. Because of the immediacy of the information, historians tend to value live chronicles, such as annals, over dead ones. The term often refers to a book written by a chronicler in the Middle Ages describing historical events in a country, or the lives of a nobleman or a clergyman, although it is also applied to a record of public events. The earliest medieval chronicle to combine both retrospective (dead) and contemporary (live) entries, is the Chronicle of Ireland, which spans the years 431 to 911. Chronicles are the predecessors of modern "time lines" rather than analytical histories. They represent accounts, in prose or verse, of local or distant events over a considerable period of time, both the lifetime of the individual chronicler and often those of several subsequent continuators. If the chronicles deal with events year by year, they are often called annals. Unlike the modern historian, most chroniclers tended to take their information as they found it, and made little attempt to separate fact from legend. The point of view of most chroniclers is highly localised, to the extent that many anonymous chroniclers can be sited in individual abbeys. It is impossible to say how many chronicles exist, as the many ambiguities in the definition of the genre make it impossible to draw clear distinctions of what should or should not be included. However, the Encyclopedia of the Medieval Chronicle lists some 2,500 items written between 300 and 1500 AD.Citation of entriesEntries in chronicles are often cited using the abbreviation s.a., meaning sub anno (under the year), according to the year under which they are listed. For example, "ASC MS A, s.a. 855" means the entry for the year 855 in manuscript A of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The same event may be recorded under a different year in another manuscript of the chronicle, and may be cited for example as "ASC MS D, s.a. 857".English chroniclesThe most important English chronicles are the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, started under the patronage of King Alfred in the 9th century and continued until the 12th century, and the Chronicles of England, Scotland and Ireland (1577–87) by Raphael Holinshed and other writers; the latter documents were important sources of materials for Elizabethan drama. Later 16th century Scottish chronicles, written after the Reformation, shape history according to Catholic or Protestant viewpoints.CronistaA cronista is a term for a historical chronicler, a role that held historical significance in the European Middle Ages. Until the European Enlightenment, the occupation was largely equivalent to that of a historian, describing events chronologically that were of note in a given country or region. As such, it was often an official governmental position rather than an independent practice. The appointment of the official chronicler often favored individuals who had distinguished themselves by their efforts to study, investigate and disseminate population-related issues. The position was granted on a local level based on the mutual agreements of a city council in plenary meetings. Often, the occupation was honorary, unpaid, and stationed for life. In modern usage, the term usually refers to a type of journalist who writes chronicles as a form of journalism or non-professional historical documentation. Cronista in the Middle Ages Before the development of modern journalism and the systematization of chronicles as a journalistic genre, cronista were tasked with narrating chronological events considered worthy of remembrance that were recorded year by year. Unlike writers who created epic poems regarding living figures, cronista recorded historical events in the lives of individuals in an ostensibly truthful and reality-oriented way. Even from the time of early Christian historiography, cronistas were clearly expected to place human history in the context of a linear progression, starting with the creation of man until the second coming of Christ, as prophesied in biblical texts. <!--linked--> Lists of chronicles * Babylonian Chronicles (loosely-defined set of 25 clay tablets) * Burmese chronicles * Cambodian Royal Chronicles (loosely-defined collection) * List of collections of Crusader sources (most of them chronicles) * List of Danish chronicles * List of English chronicles * List of Hungarian chronicles * List of Rus' chronicles * Muslim chronicles for Indian history * Chronicles of Nepal * Serbian chronicles Alphabetical list of notable chronicles History of Alam Aray Abbasi – Safavid dynasty Alamgirnama – Mughal Empire Alexandrian World Chronicle - Greek history of the world until 392 AD Altan Tobchi - Mongol Empire Anglo-Saxon Chronicle – England Annales Bertiniani – West Francia Annales Cambriae – Wales Annales Posonienses – Kingdom of Hungary Annales seu cronicae incliti Regni Poloniae – Poland Annals of Inisfallen – Ireland Annals of Lough Cé – Ireland Annals of the Four Masters – Ireland Annals of Spring and Autumn – China Annals of Thutmose III – Ancient Egypt The Annals of the Choson Dynasty – Korea Babylonian Chronicles – Mesopotamia Anonymous Bulgarian Chronicle – Bulgaria Barnwell Chronicle - England Bodhi Vamsa – Sri Lanka Books of Chronicles attributed to Ezra – Israel Buranji – Ahoms, Assam, India Bychowiec Chronicle Lithuania Cāmadevivaṃsa – Northern Thailand Culavamsa – Sri Lanka (Chronica Polonorum): see Cheitharol Kumbaba – Manipur, India Chronica Gentis Scotorum Chronica Hungarorum – History of Hungary Chronica seu originale regum et principum Poloniae – Poland Chronicle of 754 - Spain Chronicle (Crònica) by Ramon Muntaner – 13th/14th-century Crown of Aragon. Third and longest of the Grand Catalan Chronicles. Chronicle of Finland (Chronicon Finlandiae) by Johannes Messenius – Finland Chronicle of Fredegar - France Chronicle of the Slavs – Europe Chronicle of Greater Poland – Poland Chronicle of Jean de Venette – France Chronicle of the Bishops of England (De Gestis Pontificum Anglorum) by William of Malmesbury Chronicle of the Kings of Alba - Scotland Chronicle of the Kings of England (De Gestis Regum Anglorum) by William of Malmesbury Chronicles of Mann - Isle of Man Chronicon of Eusebius Chronicon Scotorum – Ireland Chronicon of Thietmar of Merseburg Chronicon Paschale - 7th century Greek chronicle of the world Chronicon Pictum – History of Hungary Chronographia – 11th century History of the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) by Michael Psellos Comentarios Reales de los Incas Conversion of Kartli – Georgia Cronaca- Chronicle of Cyprus from the 4th up to the 15th century by Cypriot chronicler Leontios Machairas Cronaca fiorentina – Chronicle of Florence up to the end of the 14th Century by Baldassarre Bonaiuti Cronicae et gesta ducum sive principum Polonorum – Poland Crónica Mexicayotl — History of the Incas Croyland Chronicle – England Dawn-Breakers (Nabil's Narrative) – Baháʼí Faith and Middle East Dioclean Priest's Chronicle – Europe Dipavamsa – Sri Lanka Divan of the Abkhazian Kings – Georgia Epic of Sundiata - West Africa Epitome rerum Hungarorum – History of Hungary Eric's Chronicle – Sweden Eusebius Chronicle – Mediterranean and Middle East Fragmentary Annals of Ireland – Ireland Froissart's Chronicles – France and Western Europe Galician-Volhynian Chronicle – Ukraine Georgian Chronicles – Georgia Gesta Hungarorum – History of Hungary Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum – History of Hungary Gesta Normannorum Ducum – Normandy * Grandes Chroniques de France – France General Estoria by Alfonso X – c. 1275-1284 Castile, Spain. Henry of Livona Chronicle – Eastern Europe Historia Ecclesiastica – Norman England * Historia Scholastica by Petrus Comestor - 12th century France * The Historie and Chronicles of Scotland, Robert Lindsay of Pitscottie História da Província Santa Cruz a que vulgarmente chamamos Brasil – Brazil History of the Prophets and Kings – Middle East and Mediterranean Hustyn Chronicle – Eastern Europe Jami' al-tawarikh by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani - Universal history Jans der Enikel – Europe and Mediterranean Jerome's Chronicle – Mediterranean and Middle East Jinakalamali – Northern Thailand Joannis de Czarnkow chronicon Polonorum – Poland Kaiserchronik – Central and southern Europe, Germany Kano Chronicle – Nigeria Khulasat-ut-Tawarikh by Sujan Rai - History of India Khwaday-Namag - History of Persia Kilwa Chronicle - East Africa Kojiki - Japan Lethrense Chronicle – Denmark Livonian Chronicle of Henry - Livonia Livonian Rhymed Chronicle - Livonia Libre dels Feyts – Book of the Deeds by James I of Aragon, first of the Grand Catalan Chronicles Madala Panji – Chronicle of the Jagannath Temple in Puri, India, related to the History of Odisha Mahavamsa – Sri Lanka Maronite Chronicle – The Levant, anonymous annalistic chronicle in the Syriac language completed shortly after 664. Manx Chronicle – Isle of Man Nabonidus Chronicle – Mesopotamia Nihon Shoki - Japan Novgorod First Chronicle - Russia Nuova Cronica – Florence Nuremberg Chronicle Old Tibetan Chronicle - History of Tibet Parian Chronicle - Ancient Greece Paschale Chronicle – Mediterranean Pictish Chronicle - Scotland Primary Chronicle – Eastern Europe Puranas – India Rajatarangini – Kashmir Roit and Quheil of Tyme – Scotland, Adam Abell Roskildense Chronicle – Denmark Royal Frankish Annals – Frankish Empire Scotichronicon – by the Scottish historian Walter Bower Shahnama-yi-Al-i Osman'' by Fethullah Arifi Çelebi – Ottoman empire (1300 ac – the end of Sultan Suleyman I's reign) which is the fifth volume of it Süleymanname Skibby Chronicle – Danish Latin chronicle from the 1530s Swiss illustrated chronicles – Switzerland Timbuktu Chronicles – Mali Zizhi Tongjian – China Rhymed chronicles Rhymed or poetic chronicles, as opposed to prosaic chronicles, include: * Rhymed Chronicle of Armenia Minor * ("Chronicle of L'Aquila"), both in prose and verse form * Brabantsche Yeesten ( 1315–1351) by Jan van Boendale (continued by an anonymous author) * Cornicke van Brabant (1415) by Hennen van Merchtenen * Cronijck van Brabant ( 1435–1460), anonymous, until 1430 * * by Gottfried Hagen * Chronicle of Dalimil * * * '' * Erik's Chronicle * Rhymed Chronicle of Flanders, part of the . It is unique as all other surviving Dutch-language chronicles of Flanders were written in prose. * Die olde Freesche cronike (1474), anonymous history of Friesland until 1248 * * Rhymed Chronicle of Holland by Melis Stoke * * Rhymed Chronicle of Kastl (Kastler Reimchronik) * , notorious 17th-century forgery pretending to be written in the 12th century * Livonian Rhymed Chronicle * Rhymed Chronicle of Mecklenburg by Ernest of Kirchberg * Chronique métrique de Philippe le Bel or Chronique rimée (1316) by Geoffrey of Paris * Chronique rimée ( 1250) by Philippe Mouskes * New Prussian Chronicle by Wigand of Marburg * Roman de Brut by Wace * Spieghel Historiael by Jacob van Maerlant * * * Rhymed Chronicle of Utrecht ( 1378) * Rhyming Chronicle of Worringen'' See also * Books of Chronicles * Medieval Chronicle Society References External links * * * Category:Medieval literature Category:Works about history	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronicle	2025-04-05T18:28:10.755171
7512	Concentration	In chemistry, concentration is the abundance of a constituent divided by the total volume of a mixture. Several types of mathematical description can be distinguished: mass concentration, molar concentration, number concentration, and volume concentration. The concentration can refer to any kind of chemical mixture, but most frequently refers to solutes and solvents in solutions. The molar (amount) concentration has variants, such as normal concentration and osmotic concentration. Dilution is reduction of concentration, e.g. by adding solvent to a solution. The verb to concentrate means to increase concentration, the opposite of dilute. Etymology Concentration-, concentratio, action or an act of coming together at a single place, bringing to a common center, was used in post-classical Latin in 1550 or earlier, similar terms attested in Italian (1589), Spanish (1589), English (1606), French (1632). Qualitative description frame\|right\|These glasses containing red dye demonstrate qualitative changes in concentration. The solutions on the left are more dilute, compared to the more concentrated solutions on the right. Often in informal, non-technical language, concentration is described in a qualitative way, through the use of adjectives such as "dilute" for solutions of relatively low concentration and "concentrated" for solutions of relatively high concentration. To concentrate a solution, one must add more solute (for example, alcohol), or reduce the amount of solvent (for example, water). By contrast, to dilute a solution, one must add more solvent, or reduce the amount of solute. Unless two substances are miscible, there exists a concentration at which no further solute will dissolve in a solution. At this point, the solution is said to be saturated. If additional solute is added to a saturated solution, it will not dissolve, except in certain circumstances, when supersaturation may occur. Instead, phase separation will occur, leading to coexisting phases, either completely separated or mixed as a suspension. The point of saturation depends on many variables, such as ambient temperature and the precise chemical nature of the solvent and solute. Concentrations are often called levels, reflecting the mental schema of levels on the vertical axis of a graph, which can be high or low (for example, "high serum levels of bilirubin" are concentrations of bilirubin in the blood serum that are greater than normal). Quantitative notation There are four quantities that describe concentration: Mass concentration The mass concentration \rho_i is defined as the mass of a constituent m_i divided by the volume of the mixture V: \rho_i = \frac {m_i}{V}. The SI unit is kg/m3 (equal to g/L). Molar concentration The molar concentration c_i is defined as the amount of a constituent n_i (in moles) divided by the volume of the mixture V: c_i = \frac {n_i}{V}. The SI unit is mol/m3. However, more commonly the unit mol/L (= mol/dm3) is used. Number concentration The number concentration C_i is defined as the number of entities of a constituent N_i in a mixture divided by the volume of the mixture V: C_i = \frac{N_i}{V}. The SI unit is 1/m3. Volume concentration The volume concentration \sigma_i (not to be confused with volume fraction) is defined as the volume of a constituent V_i divided by the volume of the mixture V: \sigma_i = \frac {V_i}{V}. Being dimensionless, it is expressed as a number, e.g., 0.18 or 18%. There seems to be no standard notation in the English literature. The letter \sigma_i used here is normative in German literature (see Volumenkonzentration). Related quantities Several other quantities can be used to describe the composition of a mixture. These should not be called concentrations. Normality Normality is defined as the molar concentration c_i divided by an equivalence factor f_\mathrm{eq}. Since the definition of the equivalence factor depends on context (which reaction is being studied), the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry and National Institute of Standards and Technology discourage the use of normality. Molality The molality of a solution b_i is defined as the amount of a constituent n_i (in moles) divided by the mass of the solvent m_\mathrm{solvent} (not the mass of the solution): b_i = \frac{n_i}{m_\mathrm{solvent}}. The SI unit for molality is mol/kg. Mole fraction The mole fraction x_i is defined as the amount of a constituent n_i (in moles) divided by the total amount of all constituents in a mixture n_\mathrm{tot}: x_i = \frac {n_i}{n_\mathrm{tot}}. The SI unit is mol/mol. However, the deprecated parts-per notation is often used to describe small mole fractions. Mole ratio The mole ratio r_i is defined as the amount of a constituent n_i divided by the total amount of all other constituents in a mixture: r_i = \frac{n_i}{n_\mathrm{tot}-n_i}. If n_i is much smaller than n_\mathrm{tot}, the mole ratio is almost identical to the mole fraction. The SI unit is mol/mol. However, the deprecated parts-per notation is often used to describe small mole ratios. Mass fraction The mass fraction w_i is the fraction of one substance with mass m_i to the mass of the total mixture m_\mathrm{tot}, defined as: w_i = \frac {m_i}{m_\mathrm{tot}}. The SI unit is kg/kg. However, the deprecated parts-per notation is often used to describe small mass fractions. Mass ratio The mass ratio \zeta_i is defined as the mass of a constituent m_i divided by the total mass of all other constituents in a mixture: \zeta_i = \frac{m_i}{m_\mathrm{tot}-m_i}. If m_i is much smaller than m_\mathrm{tot}, the mass ratio is almost identical to the mass fraction. The SI unit is kg/kg. However, the deprecated parts-per notation is often used to describe small mass ratios. Dependence on volume and temperature Concentration depends on the variation of the volume of the solution with temperature, due mainly to thermal expansion. Table of concentrations and related quantities Concentration type Symbol Definition SI unit other unit(s) mass concentration \rho_i or \gamma_i m_i/V kg/m3 g/100mL ( g/dL) molar concentration c_i n_i/V mol/m3 M ( mol/L) number concentration C_i N_i/V 1/m3 1/cm3 volume concentration \sigma_i V_i/V m3/m3 Related quantities Symbol Definition SI unit other unit(s) normality c_i/f_\mathrm{eq} mol/m3 M (= mol/L) molality b_i n_i/m_\mathrm{solvent} mol/kg m mole fraction x_i n_i/n_\mathrm{tot} mol/mol ppm, ppb, ppt mole ratio r_i n_i/(n_\mathrm{tot}-n_i) mol/mol ppm, ppb, ppt mass fraction w_i m_i/m_\mathrm{tot} kg/kg ppm, ppb, ppt mass ratio \zeta_i m_i/(m_\mathrm{tot}-m_i) kg/kg ppm, ppb, ppt volume fraction \phi_i V_i/\sum_j V_j m3/m3 ppm, ppb, ppt See also References External links	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentration	2025-04-05T18:28:10.793943
7514	Christine Lavin	\| birth_place \| death_date <!-- (death date 1st) --> \| death_place \| genre Folk music \| occupation = Singer, songwriter \| years_active = <!-- YYYY–YYYY (or –present) --> \| website = }} Christine Lavin (born January 2, 1952) is a New York City–based singer-songwriter and promoter of contemporary folk music. She has recorded numerous solo albums, and has also recorded under the name Four Bitchin' Babes with three bandmates. She is known for her sense of humor, which is expressed in both her music and her onstage performances. Many of her songs alternate between comedy and emotional reflections on romance. Lavin worked at Caffe Lena in Saratoga Springs, New York, until Dave Van Ronk convinced her to move to New York City and make a career as a singer-songwriter. She followed his advice and accepted his offer of guitar lessons. She was the original host of Sunday Breakfast on WFUV in New York City and a founding member of the Four Bitchin' Babes when they were formed in 1990. She is a lifelong astrophysics hobbyist and has included those themes in her music.Awards* The ASCAP 43rd Annual Deems Taylor Award for her book Cold Pizza For Breakfast: A Mem-Wha??, 2011 * The ASCAP Foundation Jamie deRoy and Friends Award, 2010 * World Folk Music Association Kate Wolf Memorial Award 1990 Discography * Absolutely Live (1981; re-issued by Winthrop, 2000) * Future Fossils (Philo, 1984) * Beau Woes and Other Problems of Modern Life (Philo, 1986) * ''Another Woman's Man (Philo, 1987) * Good Thing He Can't Read My Mind (Philo, 1988) * Attainable Love (Philo, 1990) * Compass (Philo, 1991) * Live at the Cactus Cafe: What Was I Thinking? (Philo, 1993) * Please Don't Make Me Too Happy (Shanachie, 1995) * Shining My Flashlight on the Moon (Shanachie, 1997) * One Wild Night in Concert (1998) * Getting in Touch With My Inner Bitch (Christine Lavin, 1999) * The Bellevue Years (Philo, 2000) * The Subway Series (Christine Lavin, 2001) * Final Exam (2001) * I Was in Love With a Difficult Man (Redwing, 2002) * The Runaway Christmas Tree (2003) * Sometimes Mother Really Does Know Best [Live] (Appleseed, 2004) * folkZinger (Appleseed, 2005) * One Meat Ball (Appleseed, 2006) * The Runaway Christmas Tree (Appleseed, 2006) * Happydance of the Xenophobe (2007) * I Don't Make This Stuff Up, I Just Make It Rhyme (2008) * Cold Pizza for Breakfast (Yellow Tail Records, 2009) * If You're Drunk You Cannot Buy A Puppy (Christine Lavin, 2014) * Spaghettification (Christine Lavin, 2017) * On My Way To Hooterville'' (2020) References External links * [http://www.christinelavin.com Official Christine Lavin site] Category:1952 births Category:Living people Category:American women singer-songwriters Category:American comedy musicians Category:American folk guitarists Category:American folk singers Category:American women folk singers Category:American women satirists Category:American satirical musicians Category:Fast Folk artists Category:Singer-songwriters from New York (state) Category:Four Bitchin' Babes members Category:Place of birth missing (living people) Category:Guitarists from New York (state) Category:20th-century American guitarists Category:WFUV people Category:20th-century American women guitarists Category:21st-century American women	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christine_Lavin	2025-04-05T18:28:10.821368
7515	Cutter Expansive Classification	The Cutter Expansive Classification system is a library classification system devised by Charles Ammi Cutter. The system was the basis for the top categories of the Library of Congress Classification. History of the Expansive Classification Charles Ammi Cutter (1837–1903), inspired by the decimal classification of his contemporary Melvil Dewey, and with Dewey's initial encouragement, developed his own classification scheme for the Winchester, Massachusetts town library and then the Boston Athenaeum, at which he served as librarian for twenty-four years. He began work on it around the year 1880, publishing an overview of the new system in 1882. The same classification would later be used, but with a different notation, also devised by Cutter, at the Cary Library in Lexington, Massachusetts. Many libraries found this system too detailed and complex for their needs, and Cutter received many requests from librarians at small libraries who wanted the classification adapted for their collections. While numbers and letters are required in large library classifications, small libraries did not need their classification system to be too specific. He devised the Expansive Classification in response, to meet the needs of growing libraries, and to address some of the complaints of his critics. Cutter completed and published an introduction and schedules for the first six classifications of his new system (Expansive Classification: Part I: The First Six Classifications), but his work on the seventh was interrupted by his death in 1903. The Cutter Expansive Classification, although adopted by comparatively few libraries, has been called one of the most logical and scholarly of American classifications. Library historian Leo E. LaMontagne wrote: Cutter produced the best classification of the nineteenth century. While his system was less "scientific" than that of J. P. Lesley, its other key features – notation, specificity, and versatility – make it deserving of the praise it has received. Its top level divisions served as a basis for the Library of Congress classification, which also took over some of its features. It did not catch on as did Dewey's system because Cutter died before it was completely finished, making no provision for the kind of development necessary as the bounds of knowledge expanded and scholarly emphases changed throughout the twentieth century. Structure of the Expansive Classification The Expansive Classification uses seven separate schedules, each designed to be used by libraries of different sizes. After the first, each schedule was an expansion of the previous one, and Cutter provided instructions for how a library might change from one expansion to another as it grows. Summary of the Expansive Classification schedules First classification The first classification is meant for very small libraries. The first classification has only seven top-level classes, and only eight classes in total: A Works of reference and general works which include several of the following sections, and so could not go in any one. B Philosophy and Religion E Biography F History and Geography and Travels H Social sciences L Natural sciences and Arts Y Language and Literature YF Fiction Further classifications Further expansions add more top-level classes and subdivisions. Many subclasses arranged systematically, with common divisions, such as those by geography and language, following a consistent system throughout. By the fifth classification all the letters of the alphabet are in use for top-level classes. These are: A General Works B Philosophy C Christianity and Judaism D Ecclesiastical History E Biography F History, Universal History G Geography and Travels H Social Sciences I Demotics, Sociology J Civics, Government, Political Science K Legislation L Science and Arts together M Natural History N Botany O Zoology P Anthropology and Ethnology Q Medicine R Useful arts, Technology S Constructive arts (Engineering and Building) T Manufactures and Handicrafts U Art of War V Recreative arts, Sports, Games, Festivals W Art X English Language Y English and American literature Z Book arts These schedules were not meant to be fixed, but were to be adapted to meet the needs of each library. For example, books on the English language may be put in X, and books on language in general in a subclass of X, or this can be reversed. The first option is less logical, but results in shorter marks for most English language libraries. Construction of call numbers Most call numbers in the Expansive Classification follow conventions offering clues to the book's subject. The first line represents the subject, the second the author (and perhaps title), the third and fourth dates of editions, indications of translations, and critical works on particular books or authors. All numbers in the Expansive Classification are (or should be) shelved as if in decimal order. Size of volumes is indicated by points (.), pluses (+), or slashes (/ or //). For some subjects a numerical geographical subdivision follows the classification letters on the first line. The number 83 stands for the United States—hence, F83 is U.S. history, G83 U.S. travel, JU83 U.S. politics, WP83 U.S. painting. Geographical numbers are often further expanded decimally to represent more specific areas, sometimes followed by a capital letter indicating a particular city. The second line usually represents the author's name by a capital letter plus one or more numbers arranged decimally. This may be followed by the first letter or letters of the title in lower-case, and/or sometimes the letters a, b, c indicating other printings of the same title. When appropriate, the second line may begin with a 'form' number—e.g., 1 stands for history and criticism of a subject, 2 for a bibliography, 5 for a dictionary, 6 for an atlas or maps, 7 for a periodical, 8 for a society or university publication, 9 for a collection of works by different authors. On the third line a capital Y indicates a work about the author or book represented by the first two lines, and a capital E (for English—other letters are used for other languages) indicates a translation into English. If both criticism and translation apply to a single title, the number expands into four lines. Cutter numbers (Cutter codes) One of the features adopted by other systems, including Library of Congress, is the Cutter number. It is an alphanumeric device to code text so that it can be arranged in alphabetical order using the fewest characters. It contains one or two initial letters and Arabic numbers, treated as a decimal. To construct a Cutter number, a cataloguer consults a Cutter table as required by the classification rules. Although Cutter numbers are mostly used for coding the names of authors, the system can be used for titles, subjects, geographic areas, and more. +Cutter table for second character If the first letter is a... 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 S a ch e h–i m–p t u w–z Qu a e i o r t y other consonant a e i o r u y vowel b d l–m n p r s–t u–y +Cutter table for additional characters 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 a–d e–h i–l m–o p–s t–v w–z Initial letters Qa–Qt are assigned Q2–Q29, while entries beginning with numerals have a Cutter number A12–A19, therefore sorting before the first A entry. So to make the three-digit Cutter number for "Cutter", one would start with "C", then looking under other consonants, find that "u" gives the number 8, and under additional letters, "t" is 8, giving a Cutter number of "C88". Notes References Bliss, Henry Evelyn. The Organization of Knowledge in Libraries: and the Subject-Approach to Books, 2nd ed. New York: H. W. Wilson, 1939. Cutter, Charles A. Rules for a Dictionary Catalog. W. P. Cutter, ed. 4th ed. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1904. London: The Library Association, 1962. Cutter, William Parker. Charles Ammi Cutter. Chicago: American Library Association, 1931. Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms, 1969. Foster, William E. "Charles Ammi Cutter: A Memorial Sketch". Library Journal 28 (1903): 697–704. Hufford, Jon R. "The Pragmatic Basis of Catalog Codes: Has the User Been Ignored?". Cataloging and Classification Quarterly 14 (1991): 27–38. Immroth, John Philip. "Cutter, Charles Ammi". Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Allen Kent and Harold Lancour, ed. 47 vols. New York, M. Dekker [1968– ] LaMontagne, Leo E. American Library Classification: With Special Reference to the Library of Congress. Hamden, CT, Shoe String Press. 1961. Slavis, Dobrica. "CUTT-x: An Expert System for Automatic Assignment of Cutter Numbers". Cataloging and Classification Quarterly. Vol 22, no. 2, 1996. Tauber, Maurice F., and Edith Wise. "Classification Systems". Ralph R. Shaw, ed.. The State of the Library Art. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers U. Graduate School of Library Service, 1961. 1–528. External links The Boston Athenaeum's Guide to the classification system developed by Cutter for their collection Forbes Library's Outline of Cutter's Expansive Classification system A brief guide to the Expansive Classification from Forbes Library Rules for a dictionary catalog, by Charles A. Cutter, fourth edition, hosted by the UNT Libraries Digital Collections Library of Congress Guidelines for using the LC Online Shelflist and formulating a literary author number: Cutter Table Dewey Cutter Program Three figure Cutter-Sanborn number on line Category:Library cataloging and classification Category:Knowledge representation	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutter_Expansive_Classification	2025-04-05T18:28:10.861814
7516	Cem Karaca	\| birth_place = Bakırköy, Turkey \| death_date \| death_place = Istanbul, Turkey \| instrument = \| genre = \| occupation = \| years_active = 1961–2004 \| website = [http://www.cemkaraca.com www.cemkaraca.com] \| past_member_of = Moğollar, Kurtalan Ekspres, Apaşlar }} Muhtar Cem Karaca (5 April 1945 – 8 February 2004) was a Turkish legendary rock musician and one of the most important figures in the Anatolian rock movement. He was a graduate of Robert College. He worked with various Turkish rock bands such as Apaşlar, Kardaşlar, Moğollar and Dervişan. With these bands, he brought a new understanding and interpretation to Turkish rock.Biography He was the only child of Mehmet İbrahim Karaca, a theatre actor of Azerbaijani origin, and İrma Felekyan, a popular opera, theatre, and movie actress His first group was called Dynamites and was a classic rock cover band. Later he joined Jaguars, an Elvis Presley cover band. In 1967, he started to write his own music, joining the band Apaşlar (The Rowdies), his first Turkish language group. The same year, he participated in the Golden Microphone () contest, a popular music contest in which he won second place with his song Emrah. In 1969, Karaca and bass-player Serhan Karabay left Apaşlar and started an original Anatolian group called Kardaşlar (The Brothers). In 1972, Karaca joined the group Moğollar (The Mongols) and wrote one of his best-known songs, "Namus Belası". However, Cahit Berkay, the leader of Moğollar, wanted an international reputation for his band, and he left for France to take the group to the next level. Karaca, who wanted to continue his Anatolian beat sound, left Moğollar and started his own band Dervişan (Dervishes) in 1974. Karaca and Dervişan sang poetic and progressive songs. In the 1970s, Turkey was dealing with political violence between supporters of the left and the right, separatist movements and the rise of Islamism. As the country fell into chaos, the government suspected Cem Karaca of involvement in rebel organisations. He was accused of treason for being a separatist thinker and a Marxist-Leninist. The Turkish government tried to portray Karaca as a man who was unknowingly writing songs to start a revolution. One politician was quoted as saying, "Karaca is simply calling citizens to a bloody war against the state." Dervişan was ultimately dissolved at the end of 1977. In 1978, he founded Edirdahan, an acronym for "from Edirne to Ardahan"; the westernmost and the easternmost provinces of Turkey. He recorded one LP with Edirdahan called "Safinaz". In early 1979, Karaca left for Cologne, West Germany for business reasons. In 1980 he began singing in German with the song Nazim Hikmet - Kız Çocuğu (Little girl): Cem performed the German verses alternating with his best friend, manager, producer, arranger and bandleader/bass player/keyboarder/drummer, guitar player Ralf Mähnhöfer accompanying him on grand piano, solo or with the band Anatology, singing the song in the Turkish language. Turkey continued to spin out of control with military curfews and the 1980 Turkish coup d'état on September 12, 1980. General Kenan Evren took over the government and temporarily banned all the nation's political parties. After the coup, many intellectuals, including writers, artists and journalists, were arrested. A warrant was issued for the arrest of Karaca by the government of Turkey. The state invited Karaca back several times, but Karaca, not knowing what would happen upon his return, decided not to come back. While Karaca was in Germany his father died, but he could not return to attend the funeral. After some time, the Turkish government decided to strip Cem Karaca of his Turkish citizenship, keeping the arrest warrant active. Several years later, in 1987, the prime minister and leader of the Turkish Motherland Party, Turgut Özal, issued an amnesty for Karaca. Shortly afterwards, he returned to Turkey. His return also brought a new album with it, which released in September 12 of that year, Merhaba Gençler ve Her Zaman Genç Kalanlar ("Hello, The Young and The Young at Heart"), one of his most influential works. His return home was received cheerfully by his fans, but during his absence Karaca had lost the young audience and acquired only a few new listeners. He died of a heart attack on February 8, 2004, and was interred at Karacaahmet Cemetery in the Üsküdar district of Istanbul. Musical Style The appreciation towards Cem Karaca won't be easy while at the same time he is also one of the most powerful voices of the Turkish rock scene. But the music styles audience will find him singing however will range very much, from severe mellowness chanson until powerful progressive song-based rock music. His first records were surely progressive, in a rock-sense, and Safinaz is symphonic piece comparable to a more western progressive rock albums. It remains rock music. Especially the period with Mogollar should appeal to collectors. Discography 45s * Emrah/Karacaoğlan (1967) (with Apaşlar) * ''Hudey / Vahşet / Bang Bang / Shakin' All Over (1967) (with Apaşlar) * Emrah / Hücum / Karacaoğlan / Ayşen (1967) (with Apaşlar) * Ümit Tarlaları/Anadolu Oyun Havası/Suya Giden Allı Gelin/Nasıl Da Geçtin (1967) (with Apaşlar) * İstanbul'u Dinliyorum/Oy Bana Bana (1968) (with Apaşlar and Ferdy Klein Band) * Oy Babo/Hikaye (1968) (with Apaşlar) * İstanbul/Why (1968) (with Apaşlar and Ferdy Klein Band) * Emrah 1970/Karanlık Yollar (1968) (with Apaşlar and Ferdy Klein Band) * Resimdeki Gözyaşları/Emrah (1968) (with Apaşlar and Ferdy Klein Band) * Resimdeki Gözyaşları/Şans Çocuğu (1968) (with Apaşlar and Ferdy Klein Band) * Tears/No, No, No (1968) (with Apaşlar and Ferdy Klein Band) * Ayrılık Günümüz/Gılgamış (1969) (with Apaşlar and Ferdy Klein Band) * Zeyno/Niksar (1969) (with Apaşlar and Ferdy Klein Band) * Bu Son Olsun/Felek Beni (1969) (with Apaşlar and Ferdy Klein Band) * Emmioğlu/O Leyli (1970) (with Ferdy Klein Band) * Kendim Ettim kendim Buldum/Erenler (1970) (with Ferdy Klein Band) * Adsız/Unut Beni (1970) (with Ferdy Klein Band) * Muhtar/Baba (1970) (with Ferdy Klein Band) * Dadaloğlu/Kalender (1970) (with Kardaşlar) * Oy Gülüm Oy/Kara Sevda (1971) (with Kardaşlar) * Tatlı Dillim/Demedim Mi (1971) (with Kardaşlar) * Kara Yılan/Lümüne (1971) (with Kardaşlar) * Acı Doktor (Kısım 1)/Acı Doktor (Kısım 2) (1971) (with Kardaşlar) * Kara Üzüm/Mehmet'e Ağıt (1971) (with Kardaşlar) * Askaros Deresi/Üryan Geldim (1972) (with Kardaşlar) * Obur Dünya/El Çek Tabib (1973) (with Moğollar) * Gel Gel/Üzüm Kaldı (1973) (with Moğollar) * Namus Belası/Gurbet (1974) (with Moğollar) * Beyaz Atlı/Yiğitler (1974) (with Dervişan) * Tamirci Çırağı/Nerdesin? (1975) (with Dervişan) * Mutlaka Yavrum/Kavga (1975) (with Dervişan) * Beni Siz Delirttiniz/Niyazi (1975) (with Dervişan) * Parka/İhtarname (1976) (with Dervişan) * Mor Perşembe/Bir Mirasyediye Ağıt (1977) (with Dervişan) * 1 Mayıs/Durduramayacaklar Halkın Coşkun Akan Selini (1977) (with Dervişan) LPs * Apaşlar-Kardaşlar (1972) * Cem Karaca'nın Apaşlar, Kardaşlar, Moğollar ve Ferdy Klein Orkestrasına Teşekkürleriyle (1974) * Nem Kaldı (1975) * Parka (1977) * Yoksulluk Kader Olamaz (1977) (1) * Safinaz (1978) (2) * Hasret (1980) (It was sold as LP and tape) * Bekle Beni (1982) (It was sold as tape only) * Die Kanaken (1984) * Merhaba Gençler ve Her Zaman Genç Kalanlar (1987) (CD, cassette, LP) Other albums * Töre (1988) (It was sold as CD) by Oğuz Abadan Orchestra * Yiyin Efendiler (1990) * Nerde Kalmistik (1992) * Bindik Bir Alamete (1999) * Kahpe Bizans (2000) * Hayvan Terli (2004) (Single) Collection albums * The Best of Cem Karaca Volume 1 (1996) * The Best of Cem Karaca Volume 2 (1997) * The Best of Cem Karaca Volume 3 (2000) * The Best of Cem Karaca Volume 4 (2001) * The Best of Cem Karaca Volume 5 (2002) * Ölümsüzler (Immortals) (2004) (posthumously) * Ölümsüzler 2 (Immortals 2) (2005) (posthumously) * Mutlaka Yavrum (Absolutely, baby) (2006) (posthumously) References Literature * Martin Stokes: Music in Performance: Cem Karaca, Live. In: Virginia Danielson, Dwight Reynolds, Scott Marcus (Hrsg.): The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. Band 6: The Middle East. Garland, London 2002, S. 243–245 Türkischer Akademiker- und Künstlerverein, in Berlin (author), publisher: Jürgen Kleindienst (1977): Nazim Hikmet - Sie haben Angst vor unseren Liedern, documentation, language: German-Turkish External links [https://global.britannica.com/biography/Cem-Karaca Cem Karaca, Encyclopædia Britannica] * [https://www.theguardian.com/news/2004/mar/08/guardianobituaries.artsobituaries Obituary in The Guardian] * [https://www.nytimes.com/2004/02/16/arts/music/16KARA.html Obituary in The New York Times] * [http://www.allmusic.com/artist/cem-karaca-mn0000336980 Cem Karaca, All Music] * [https://myturkishrock.ru/cem-karaca-english Cem Karaca in MyTurkishRock] * [http://testicanzoni.mtv.it/testi-Cem-Karaca_126392 Cem Karaca, MTV Italia''] Category:1945 births Category:2004 deaths Category:People from Antakya Category:Robert College alumni Category:Turkish rock musicians Category:Turkish male composers Category:Turkish male songwriters Category:Turkish people of Armenian descent Category:Turkish people of Azerbaijani descent Category:Burials at Karacaahmet Cemetery Category:Anatolian rock musicians Category:People who lost Turkish citizenship Category:Anatolian rock Category:Bass-baritones Category:Turkish Shia Muslims	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cem_Karaca	2025-04-05T18:28:10.892362
7517	Calista Flockhart	\| birth_place = Freeport, Illinois, U.S. \| known_for = Ally McBeal<br/>Brothers & Sisters<br/>''A Midsummer Night's Dream<br/>Supergirl<br/>The Birdcage \| occupation = Actress \| alma_mater = Rutgers University, New Brunswick (BFA) \| children = 1 \| years_active = 1989–present \| spouse = }} Calista Kay Flockhart (born November 11, 1964) is an American actress. She is best known for portraying the title character on the Fox television series Ally McBeal (1997–2002), for which she received a Golden Globe Award in 1998 and was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series three times. From 2006 to 2011, she starred as Kitty Walker on the ABC drama series Brothers & Sisters, and between 2015 and 2021, Flockhart appeared as Cat Grant on the superhero drama Supergirl. In film, she is known for roles in The Birdcage (1996), A Midsummer Night's Dream (1999), and Things You Can Tell Just by Looking at Her'' (2000).Early lifeFlockhart was born in Freeport, Illinois, the daughter of Kay Calista, an English teacher, and Ronald Flockhart, a Kraft Foods executive. Her parents retired to Morristown, Tennessee, where her father lived until his death and her mother continues to reside. She has one older brother, Gary. Her mother reversed her own first and middle names in naming her Calista Kay. Flockhart attended Mason Gross School of the Arts at Rutgers University–New Brunswick. People began recognizing Flockhart's acting ability when William Esper (Mason Gross theater director and Flockhart's acting teacher) made an exception to policy by allowing Flockhart to perform on the main stage. Though this venue usually is reserved for juniors and seniors, Harold Scott insisted that Flockhart perform there in his production of William Inge's Picnic. Flockhart graduated with a Bachelor of Fine Arts in theater in 1988 from Rutgers as one of the few students who successfully completed the acting course. Rutgers inducted her into the Hall of Distinguished Alumni on May 3, 2003.CareerEarly career In spring 1989, Flockhart made her first television appearance in a minor role in an episode of Guiding Light as a babysitter. She also appeared in a one-hour afternoon special for Lifestories: Families in Crisis, playing a teenager battling an eating disorder. Flockhart made her professional debut on the New York stage, appearing in Beside Herself alongside Melissa Joan Hart, at the Circle Repertory Theatre. Two years later, Flockhart appeared in the television movie Darrow. Though she later appeared in films Naked in New York (1993) and Getting In (1994), her first substantial speaking part in a film was in Quiz Show, directed by Robert Redford. Flockhart debuted on Broadway in 1994, as Laura in The Glass Menagerie. Flockhart received a Clarence Derwent Award for her performance. In 1995, Flockhart became acquainted with actors such as Dianne Wiest and Faye Dunaway when she appeared in the movie Drunks. In 1996, Flockhart appeared as the daughter of Dianne Wiest and Gene Hackman's characters in The Birdcage. Later that year, Flockhart starred in Jane Doe as a drug addict, though it was not released until 1999, over three years after filming ended. Throughout that year, she continued to work on Broadway, playing the role of Natasha in Anton Chekhov's Three Sisters. Ally McBeal Ally McBeal}} In 1997, Flockhart was asked to audition for the starring role in David E. Kelley's Fox television series Ally McBeal. Kelley, having heard of Flockhart, wanted her to audition for the contract part. Though she hesitated due to the necessary commitment to the show in a negotiable contract, she was swayed by the script and traveled to Los Angeles to audition for the part, which she won. She earned a Golden Globe Award for the role in 1998. Flockhart also appeared on the June 29, 1998, cover of Time magazine, placed as the newest iteration in the evolution of feminism, relating to the ongoing debate about the role depicted by her character. Flockhart starred on the show until it was canceled in 2002. Brothers & Sisters Brothers & Sisters (2006 TV series)}} Flockhart performed in a starring role as Kitty Walker, opposite Sally Field, Rachel Griffiths and Matthew Rhys, in the critically acclaimed ABC prime time series Brothers & Sisters, which premiered in September 2006 in the time slot after Desperate Housewives. The show was cancelled in May 2011 after running for five years. Flockhart's character was significant throughout the series' first four years, but her appearances were reduced for the 2010–2011 season, coinciding with the departure of TV husband Rob Lowe. Other work Flockhart played the role of Helena in ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'', a 1999 film version of Shakespeare's play. In 2000, she appeared in Things You Can Tell Just by Looking at Her and Bash: Latter-Day Plays, later accompanying Eve Ensler to Kenya in order to protest violence against women, particularly female genital mutilation. Flockhart also starred in the off-Broadway production of Ensler's The Vagina Monologues. In 2004, Flockhart appeared as Matthew Broderick's deranged girlfriend in The Last Shot. In the same year, Flockhart traveled to Spain for the filming of Fragile, which premiered in September 2005 at the Venice Film Festival. She was offered the role of Susan Mayer on Desperate Housewives but declined, and the role later went to Teri Hatcher. In 2014, Flockhart landed a role in Full Circle second season, as mob boss Ellen. It was expected to air in 2015. This had been Flockhart's first acting role in three years, after her hiatus when Brothers & Sisters ended. In 2015, Flockhart was cast in the television series Supergirl as Cat Grant, a "self-made media magnate and founder of CatCo" and boss to Kara (Supergirl's alter ego). The series premiered on October 26, 2015, on CBS. Due to the network's wish to reduce the show's budget, it was moved to sister network The CW after its first season, along with a move to filming in Vancouver. Flockhart remained with the show (albeit as a recurring character), despite her previous aversion to working outside Los Angeles. In 2022, she played the role of Martha opposite Zachary Quinto in Edward Albee's ''Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?'' at the Geffen Playhouse in Los Angeles. The production was directed by Gordon Greenberg and also starred Aimee Carrero and Graham Phillips. In 2024, Flockhart appeared as Lee Radziwill in Capote vs. The Swans, the second season of the anthology series Feud. Regarding playing Radziwill in an interview with The New York Times, Flockhart said, “Truman Capote recognized that she was living in her sister’s shadow... and he would say things: ‘You’re so much prettier. You’re so much smarter. You’re more interesting. You have better style.’ She really needed to hear that. I think it made her really love Truman. He was fun, and she confided in him, like they all did.”Personal lifeIn January 2001, Flockhart announced that she had adopted a baby boy. in September 2009]] Flockhart is married to actor Harrison Ford, whom she first met at the Golden Globe Awards on January 20, 2002. They became engaged on Valentine's Day in 2009, and were married on June 15, 2010, in Santa Fe, New Mexico. The ceremony was presided over by New Mexico Governor Bill Richardson and New Mexico Supreme Court Chief Justice Charles W. Daniels. From 2004 to 2014, Flockhart served as the national spokeswoman for Peace Over Violence. Filmography Film {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|- ! Year ! Title ! Role \|- \| 1993 \| Naked in New York \| Acting student \|- \| rowspan="3" \| 1994 \| Clear Cut \| \|- \| Gettin In \| Amanda Morel \|- \| Quiz Show \| Barnard Girl \|- \| rowspan="2" \| 1995 \| Pictures of Baby Jane Doe \| Jane \|- \| Drunks \| Helen \|- \| rowspan="2" \| 1996 \| \| Barbara Keeley \|- \| Milk & Money \| Christine \|- \| 1997 \| Telling Lies in America \| Diney Majeski \|- \| 1999 \| \| Helena \|- \| 2000 \| Things You Can Tell Just by Looking at Her \| Christine Taylor \|- \| 2004 \| \| Valerie Weston \|- \| 2005 \| Fragile \| Amy Nicholls \|} Television {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|- ! Year ! Title ! Role ! class="unsortable" \| Notes \|- \| 1989 \| Guiding Light \| Elise \| \|- \| 1991 \| Darrow \| Lillian Anderson \| Movie \|- \| 1992 \| Lifestories: Families in Crisis \| Mary-Margaret Carter \| Episode: "The Secret Life of Mary Margaret: Portrait of a Bulimic" \|- \| 1997–2002 \| Ally McBeal \| Ally McBeal \| Lead Role (112 episodes) \|- \| 1998 \| \| Ally McBeal \| Episode: "Axe Murderer" \|- \| rowspan="2" \| 2000 \| Happily Ever After: Fairy Tales for Every Child \| Vanna Van (voice) \| Episode: "Rip Van Winkle" \|- \| Saturday Night Live \| Herself (host) \| Episode: "Calista Flockhart / Ricky Martin" \|- \| 2001 \| Bash: Latter-Day Plays \|Sue \| Movie \|- \| 2006–2011 \| Brothers & Sisters \| Kitty Walker \| Lead role (110 episodes) \|- \| rowspan="2" \| 2014 \|Robot Chicken \| Dr. Ryan Stone / Smurfette / Rebecca Cunningham (voice) \| Episode: "Batman Forever 21" \|- \| Web Therapy \| April Keating \| Episodes: "Lost on the Young" and "Judicial Oversight" \|- \| 2015 \| Full Circle \| Ellen Kelly-O'Rourke \| 5 episodes \|- \| 2015–2018, 2021 \| Supergirl \| Cat Grant \| Series regular (season 1; 20 episodes)<br/>Recurring (season 2; 4 episodes)<br/>Special guest star (season 3: 1 episode; season 6: 1 episode) \|- \| 2015 \| The Penguins of Madagascar \| Doris (voice) \| Episode: "The Penguin Who Loved Me" \|- \| 2024 \| Feud: Capote vs. The Swans \| Lee Radziwill \| 8 episodes \|- \|2024–present \| Invincible \| April Howsam (voice) \| 4 episodes \|} Awards and nominations {\| class="wikitable " \|+ ! Year ! Award ! Category ! Work ! Result \|- \| rowspan=4\| 1998 \| Primetime Emmy Award \| Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series \| rowspan19 style"text-align:center;" \| Ally McBeal \| \|- \| Golden Globe Award \| Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy \| \|- \| rowspan=2\| Screen Actors Guild Award \| Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series \| \|- \| Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series \| \|- \| rowspan=5\| 1999 \| Primetime Emmy Award \| Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series \| \|- \| Golden Globe Award \| Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy \| \|- \| Satellite Award \| Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy \| \|- \| rowspan=2\| Screen Actors Guild Award \| Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series \| \|- \| Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series \| \|- \| rowspan=5\| 2000 \| Golden Globe Award \| Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy \| \|- \| People's Choice Awards \| Favorite Female Television Performer \| \|- \| Satellite Award \| Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy \| \|- \| rowspan=2\| Screen Actors Guild Award \| Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series \| \|- \| Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series \| \|- \| rowspan=4\| 2001 \| Primetime Emmy Award \| Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series \| \|- \| Golden Globe Award \| Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy \| \|- \| rowspan=2\| Screen Actors Guild Award \| Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series \| \|- \| Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series \| \|- \| 2002 \| Golden Globe Award \| Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy \| \|- \| 2016 \| Saturn Award \| Best Supporting Actress On Television \| Supergirl \| \|} References External links * * * * * \|- ! colspan"3" style"background: #DAA520;" \| Theatre World Award \|- Category:1964 births Category:20th-century American actresses Category:21st-century American actresses Category:Actresses from Illinois Category:American film actresses Category:American Shakespearean actresses Category:American soap opera actresses Category:American stage actresses Category:Best Musical or Comedy Actress Golden Globe (television) winners Category:Clarence Derwent Award winners Category:Living people Category:Mason Gross School of the Arts alumni Category:People from Freeport, Illinois Category:People from Norwich, New York Category:Rowan University alumni Category:Rutgers University alumni Category:Shawnee High School (New Jersey) alumni	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calista_Flockhart	2025-04-05T18:28:10.960335
7519	Convolution	, and autocorrelation. For the operations involving function <math>f</math>, and assuming the height of <math>f</math> is 1.0, the value of the result at 5 different points is indicated by the shaded area below each point. The symmetry of <math>f</math> is the reason <math>f \star g</math> and <math>gf</math> are identical in this example. <!--Note that g∗f and f∗g would be identical even without the symmetry of f, so please don't change the statement above.-->]] In mathematics (in particular, functional analysis), convolution is a mathematical operation on two functions (<math>f</math> and <math>g</math>) that produces a third function (<math>fg</math>), as the integral of the product of the two functions after one is reflected about the y-axis and shifted. The term convolution refers to both the resulting function and to the process of computing it. The integral is evaluated for all values of shift, producing the convolution function. The choice of which function is reflected and shifted before the integral does not change the integral result (see commutativity). Graphically, it expresses how the 'shape' of one function is modified by the other. Some features of convolution are similar to cross-correlation: for real-valued functions, of a continuous or discrete variable, convolution differs from cross-correlation (<math>f \star g</math>) only in that either <math>f(x)</math> or <math>g(x)</math> is reflected about the y-axis in convolution; thus it is a cross-correlation of <math>g(-x)</math> and <math>f(x)</math>, or <math>f(-x)</math> and <math>g(x)</math>. For complex-valued functions, the cross-correlation operator is the adjoint of the convolution operator. Convolution has applications that include probability, statistics, acoustics, spectroscopy, signal processing and image processing, geophysics, engineering, physics, computer vision and differential equations. The convolution can be defined for functions on Euclidean space and other groups (as algebraic structures). For example, periodic functions, such as the discrete-time Fourier transform, can be defined on a circle and convolved by periodic convolution. (See row 18 at .) A discrete convolution can be defined for functions on the set of integers. Generalizations of convolution have applications in the field of numerical analysis and numerical linear algebra, and in the design and implementation of finite impulse response filters in signal processing. Computing the inverse of the convolution operation is known as deconvolution. Definition The convolution of <math>f</math> and <math>g</math> is written <math>f * g</math>, denoting the operator with the symbol <math></math>. is different than , which is often used to denote complex conjugation. See . }} It is defined as the integral of the product of the two functions after one is reflected about the y-axis and shifted. As such, it is a particular kind of integral transform: :<math>(f g)(t) := \int_{-\infty}^\infty f(\tau) g(t - \tau) \, d\tau.</math> An equivalent definition is (see commutativity): :<math>(f * g)(t) := \int_{-\infty}^\infty f(t - \tau) g(\tau)\, d\tau.</math> While the symbol <math>t</math> is used above, it need not represent the time domain. At each <math>t</math>, the convolution formula can be described as the area under the function <math>f(\tau)</math> weighted by the function <math>g(-\tau)</math> shifted by the amount <math>t</math>. As <math>t</math> changes, the weighting function <math>g(t-\tau)</math> emphasizes different parts of the input function <math>f(\tau)</math>; If <math>t</math> is a positive value, then <math>g(t-\tau)</math> is equal to <math>g(-\tau)</math> that slides or is shifted along the <math>\tau</math>-axis toward the right (toward <math>+\infty</math>) by the amount of <math>t</math>, while if <math>t</math> is a negative value, then <math>g(t-\tau)</math> is equal to <math>g(-\tau)</math> that slides or is shifted toward the left (toward <math>-\infty</math>) by the amount of <math>\|t\|</math>. For functions <math>f</math>, <math>g</math> supported on only <math>[0,\infty)</math> (i.e., zero for negative arguments), the integration limits can be truncated, resulting in: :<math>(f * g)(t) = \int_{0}^{t} f(\tau) g(t - \tau)\, d\tau \quad \ \text{for } f, g : [0, \infty) \to \mathbb{R}.</math> For the multi-dimensional formulation of convolution, see domain of definition (below). Notation A common engineering notational convention is: :<math> f(t) * g(t) \mathrel{:=} \underbrace{\int_{-\infty}^\infty f(\tau) g(t - \tau)\, d\tau}_{(f * g )(t)},</math> which has to be interpreted carefully to avoid confusion. For instance, <math>f(t) * g(t-t_0)</math> is equivalent to <math>(fg)(t-t_0)</math>, but <math>f(t-t_0) g(t-t_0)</math> is in fact equivalent to <math>(f * g)(t-2t_0)</math>. Relations with other transforms Given two functions <math> f(t) </math> and <math> g(t) </math> with bilateral Laplace transforms (two-sided Laplace transform) :<math> F(s) = \int_{-\infty}^\infty e^{-su} \ f(u) \ \text{d}u </math> and :<math> G(s) = \int_{-\infty}^\infty e^{-sv} \ g(v) \ \text{d}v </math> respectively, the convolution operation <math> (f * g)(t) </math> can be defined as the inverse Laplace transform of the product of <math> F(s) </math> and <math> G(s) </math>. More precisely, :<math> \begin{align} F(s) \cdot G(s) &= \int_{-\infty}^\infty e^{-su} \ f(u) \ \text{d}u \cdot \int_{-\infty}^\infty e^{-sv} \ g(v) \ \text{d}v \\ &= \int_{-\infty}^\infty \int_{-\infty}^\infty e^{-s(u + v)} \ f(u) \ g(v) \ \text{d}u \ \text{d}v \end{align} </math> Let <math> t = u + v </math>, then :<math> \begin{align} F(s) \cdot G(s) &= \int_{-\infty}^\infty \int_{-\infty}^\infty e^{-st} \ f(u) \ g(t - u) \ \text{d}u \ \text{d}t \\ &= \int_{-\infty}^\infty e^{-st} \underbrace{\int_{-\infty}^\infty f(u) \ g(t - u) \ \text{d}u}_{(f * g)(t)} \ \text{d}t \\ &= \int_{-\infty}^\infty e^{-st} (f * g)(t) \ \text{d}t. \end{align} </math> Note that <math> F(s) \cdot G(s) </math> is the bilateral Laplace transform of <math> (f * g)(t) </math>. A similar derivation can be done using the unilateral Laplace transform (one-sided Laplace transform). The convolution operation also describes the output (in terms of the input) of an important class of operations known as linear time-invariant (LTI). See LTI system theory for a derivation of convolution as the result of LTI constraints. In terms of the Fourier transforms of the input and output of an LTI operation, no new frequency components are created. The existing ones are only modified (amplitude and/or phase). In other words, the output transform is the pointwise product of the input transform with a third transform (known as a transfer function). See Convolution theorem for a derivation of that property of convolution. Conversely, convolution can be derived as the inverse Fourier transform of the pointwise product of two Fourier transforms. Visual explanation {\| class="wikitable" \|- \| is a positive value, then <math>g(t-\tau)</math> is equal to <math>g(-\tau)</math> that slides or is shifted along the <math>\tau</math>-axis toward the right (toward <math>+\infty</math>) by the amount of <math>t</math>. If <math>t</math> is a negative value, then <math>g(t-\tau)</math> is equal to <math>g(-\tau)</math> that slides or is shifted toward the left (toward <math>-\infty</math>) by the amount of <math>\|t\|</math>.\|Start <math>t</math> at <math>-\infty</math> and slide it all the way to <math>+\infty</math>. Wherever the two functions intersect, find the integral of their product. In other words, at time <math>t</math>, compute the area under the function <math>f(\tau)</math> weighted by the weighting function <math>g(t - \tau).</math> }} The resulting waveform (not shown here) is the convolution of functions <math>f</math> and <math>g</math>. If <math>f(t)</math> is a unit impulse, the result of this process is simply <math>g(t)</math>. Formally: : <math>\int_{-\infty}^\infty \delta(\tau) g(t - \tau)\, d\tau = g(t)</math> \| \|- \| In this example, the red-colored "pulse", <math>\ g(\tau),</math> is an even function <math>(\ g(-\tau) g(\tau)\ ),</math> so convolution is equivalent to correlation. A snapshot of this "movie" shows functions <math>g(t - \tau)</math> and <math>f(\tau)</math> (in blue) for some value of parameter <math>t,</math> which is arbitrarily defined as the distance along the <math>\tau</math> axis from the point <math>\tau 0</math> to the center of the red pulse. The amount of yellow is the area of the product <math>f(\tau) \cdot g(t - \tau),</math> computed by the convolution/correlation integral. The movie is created by continuously changing <math>t</math> and recomputing the integral. The result (shown in black) is a function of <math>t,</math> but is plotted on the same axis as <math>\tau,</math> for convenience and comparison. \| \|- \| In this depiction, <math>f(\tau)</math> could represent the response of a resistor-capacitor circuit to a narrow pulse that occurs at <math>\tau 0.</math> In other words, if <math>g(\tau) \delta(\tau),</math> the result of convolution is just <math>f(t).</math> But when <math>g(\tau)</math> is the wider pulse (in red), the response is a "smeared" version of <math>f(t).</math> It begins at <math>t -0.5,</math> because we defined <math>t</math> as the distance from the <math>\tau 0</math> axis to the center of the wide pulse (instead of the leading edge). \| \|} Historical developments One of the earliest uses of the convolution integral appeared in D'Alembert's derivation of Taylor's theorem in Recherches sur différents points importants du système du monde, published in 1754. Also, an expression of the type: :<math>\int f(u)\cdot g(x - u) \, du</math> is used by Sylvestre François Lacroix on page 505 of his book entitled Treatise on differences and series, which is the last of 3 volumes of the encyclopedic series: , Chez Courcier, Paris, 1797–1800. Soon thereafter, convolution operations appear in the works of Pierre Simon Laplace, Jean-Baptiste Joseph Fourier, Siméon Denis Poisson, and others. The term itself did not come into wide use until the 1950s or 1960s. Prior to that it was sometimes known as Faltung (which means folding in German), composition product, superposition integral, and ''Carson's integral''. Yet it appears as early as 1903, though the definition is rather unfamiliar in older uses. The operation: :<math>\int_0^t \varphi(s)\psi(t - s) \, ds,\quad 0 \le t < \infty,</math> is a particular case of composition products considered by the Italian mathematician Vito Volterra in 1913. Circular convolution When a function <math>g_T</math> is periodic, with period <math>T</math>, then for functions, <math>f</math>, such that <math>f * g_T</math> exists, the convolution is also periodic and identical to: :<math>(f * g_T)(t) \equiv \int_{t_0}^{t_0+T} \left[\sum_{k=-\infty}^\infty f(\tau + kT)\right] g_T(t - \tau)\, d\tau,</math> where <math>t_0</math> is an arbitrary choice. The summation is called a periodic summation of the function <math>f</math>. When <math>g_T</math> is a periodic summation of another function, <math>g</math>, then <math>fg_T</math> is known as a circular or cyclic convolution of <math>f</math> and <math>g</math>. And if the periodic summation above is replaced by <math>f_T</math>, the operation is called a periodic convolution of <math>f_T</math> and <math>g_T</math>. Discrete convolution For complex-valued functions <math>f</math> and <math>g</math> defined on the set <math>\Z</math> of integers, the discrete convolution of <math>f</math> and <math>g</math> is given by: :<math>(f g)[n] \sum_{m-\infty}^\infty f[m] g[n - m],</math> or equivalently (see commutativity) by: :<math>(f * g)[n] \sum_{m-\infty}^\infty f[n-m] g[m].</math> The convolution of two finite sequences is defined by extending the sequences to finitely supported functions on the set of integers. When the sequences are the coefficients of two polynomials, then the coefficients of the ordinary product of the two polynomials are the convolution of the original two sequences. This is known as the Cauchy product of the coefficients of the sequences. Thus when has finite support in the set <math>\{-M,-M+1,\dots,M-1,M\}</math> (representing, for instance, a finite impulse response), a finite summation may be used: :<math>(f * g)[n]\sum_{m-M}^M f[n-m]g[m].</math> Circular discrete convolution When a function <math>g_{_N}</math> is periodic, with period <math>N,</math> then for functions, <math>f,</math> such that <math>fg_{_N}</math> exists, the convolution is also periodic and identical to: :<math>(f g_{_N})[n] \equiv \sum_{m0}^{N-1} \left(\sum_{k-\infty}^\infty {f}[m + kN]\right) g_{_N}[n - m].</math> The summation on <math>k</math> is called a periodic summation of the function <math>f.</math> If <math>g_{_N}</math> is a periodic summation of another function, <math>g,</math> then <math>fg_{_N}</math> is known as a circular convolution of <math>f</math> and <math>g.</math> When the non-zero durations of both <math>f</math> and <math>g</math> are limited to the interval <math>[0,N-1],</math> <math>fg_{_N}</math> reduces to these common forms: {{Equation box 1\|title\|indent: \|cellpadding0 \|border 0 \|background colour=white \|equation={{NumBlk2\| \|<math>\begin{align} \left(f * g_N\right)[n] &\sum_{m0}^{N-1} f[m]g_N[n - m] \\ &\sum_{m0}^n f[m]g[n - m] + \sum_{m=n+1}^{N-1} f[m]g[N + n - m] \\[2pt] &\sum_{m0}^{N-1} f[m]g[(n - m)_\bmod{N}] \\[2pt] &\triangleq \left(f _N g\right)[n] \end{align}</math> \|Eq.1}}}} The notation <math>f _N g</math> for cyclic convolution denotes convolution over the cyclic group of integers modulo . Circular convolution arises most often in the context of fast convolution with a fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm. Fast convolution algorithms In many situations, discrete convolutions can be converted to circular convolutions so that fast transforms with a convolution property can be used to implement the computation. For example, convolution of digit sequences is the kernel operation in multiplication of multi-digit numbers, which can therefore be efficiently implemented with transform techniques (; ). requires arithmetic operations per output value and operations for outputs. That can be significantly reduced with any of several fast algorithms. Digital signal processing and other applications typically use fast convolution algorithms to reduce the cost of the convolution to O( log ) complexity. The most common fast convolution algorithms use fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithms via the circular convolution theorem. Specifically, the circular convolution of two finite-length sequences is found by taking an FFT of each sequence, multiplying pointwise, and then performing an inverse FFT. Convolutions of the type defined above are then efficiently implemented using that technique in conjunction with zero-extension and/or discarding portions of the output. Other fast convolution algorithms, such as the Schönhage–Strassen algorithm or the Mersenne transform, use fast Fourier transforms in other rings. The Winograd method is used as an alternative to the FFT. It significantly speeds up 1D, 2D, and 3D convolution. If one sequence is much longer than the other, zero-extension of the shorter sequence and fast circular convolution is not the most computationally efficient method available. Instead, decomposing the longer sequence into blocks and convolving each block allows for faster algorithms such as the overlap–save method and overlap–add method. A hybrid convolution method that combines block and FIR algorithms allows for a zero input-output latency that is useful for real-time convolution computations. Domain of definition The convolution of two complex-valued functions on is itself a complex-valued function on , defined by: :<math>(f * g )(x) \int_{\mathbf{R}^d} f(y)g(x-y)\,dy \int_{\mathbf{R}^d} f(x-y)g(y)\,dy,</math> and is well-defined only if and decay sufficiently rapidly at infinity in order for the integral to exist. Conditions for the existence of the convolution may be tricky, since a blow-up in at infinity can be easily offset by sufficiently rapid decay in . The question of existence thus may involve different conditions on and : Compactly supported functions If and are compactly supported continuous functions, then their convolution exists, and is also compactly supported and continuous . More generally, if either function (say ) is compactly supported and the other is locally integrable, then the convolution is well-defined and continuous. Convolution of and is also well defined when both functions are locally square integrable on and supported on an interval of the form (or both supported on ). Integrable functions The convolution of and exists if and are both Lebesgue integrable functions in (), and in this case is also integrable . This is a consequence of Tonelli's theorem. This is also true for functions in , under the discrete convolution, or more generally for the convolution on any group. Likewise, if () and () where , then (), and :<math>\\|{f}* g\\|_p\le \\|f\\|_1\\|g\\|_p.</math> In the particular case 1}}, this shows that is a Banach algebra under the convolution (and equality of the two sides holds if and are non-negative almost everywhere). More generally, Young's inequality implies that the convolution is a continuous bilinear map between suitable spaces. Specifically, if satisfy: :<math>\frac{1}{p}+\frac{1}{q}=\frac{1}{r}+1,</math> then :<math>\left\Vert fg\right\Vert_r\le\left\Vert f\right\Vert_p\left\Vert g\right\Vert_q,\quad f\in L^p,\ g\in L^q,</math> so that the convolution is a continuous bilinear mapping from to . The Young inequality for convolution is also true in other contexts (circle group, convolution on ). The preceding inequality is not sharp on the real line: when , there exists a constant such that: :<math>\left\Vert fg\right\Vert_r\le B_{p,q}\left\Vert f\right\Vert_p\left\Vert g\right\Vert_q,\quad f\in L^p,\ g\in L^q.</math> The optimal value of was discovered in 1975 and independently in 1976, see Brascamp–Lieb inequality. A stronger estimate is true provided : :<math>\\|f * g\\|_r\le C_{p,q}\\|f\\|_p\\|g\\|_{q,w}</math> where <math>\\|g\\|_{q,w}</math> is the weak norm. Convolution also defines a bilinear continuous map <math>L^{p,w}\times L^{q,w}\to L^{r,w}</math> for <math>1< p,q,r<\infty</math>, owing to the weak Young inequality: :<math>\\|f * g\\|_{r,w}\le C_{p,q}\\|f\\|_{p,w}\\|g\\|_{r,w}.</math> Functions of rapid decay In addition to compactly supported functions and integrable functions, functions that have sufficiently rapid decay at infinity can also be convolved. An important feature of the convolution is that if f and g both decay rapidly, then f∗g also decays rapidly. In particular, if f and g are rapidly decreasing functions, then so is the convolution f∗g. Combined with the fact that convolution commutes with differentiation (see #Properties), it follows that the class of Schwartz functions is closed under convolution . Distributions If f is a smooth function that is compactly supported and g is a distribution, then f∗g is a smooth function defined by :<math>\int_{\mathbb{R}^d} {f}(y)g(x-y)\,dy = (fg)(x) \in C^\infty(\mathbb{R}^d) .</math> More generally, it is possible to extend the definition of the convolution in a unique way with <math>\varphi</math> the same as f above, so that the associative law :<math>f (g* \varphi) = (f* g)* \varphi</math> remains valid in the case where f is a distribution, and g a compactly supported distribution . Measures The convolution of any two Borel measures μ and ν of bounded variation is the measure <math>\mu\nu</math> defined by :<math>\int_{\mathbf{R}^d} f(x) \, d(\mu\nu)(x) = \int_{\mathbf{R}^d}\int_{\mathbf{R}^d}f(x+y)\,d\mu(x)\,d\nu(y).</math> In particular, : <math>(\mu\nu)(A) = \int_{\mathbf{R}^d\times\mathbf R^d}1_A(x+y)\, d(\mu\times\nu)(x,y),</math> where <math>A\subset\mathbf R^d</math> is a measurable set and <math>1_A</math> is the indicator function of <math>A</math>. This agrees with the convolution defined above when μ and ν are regarded as distributions, as well as the convolution of L<sup>1</sup> functions when μ and ν are absolutely continuous with respect to the Lebesgue measure. The convolution of measures also satisfies the following version of Young's inequality :<math>\\|\mu \nu\\|\le \\|\mu\\|\\|\nu\\| </math> where the norm is the total variation of a measure. Because the space of measures of bounded variation is a Banach space, convolution of measures can be treated with standard methods of functional analysis that may not apply for the convolution of distributions. Properties Algebraic properties The convolution defines a product on the linear space of integrable functions. This product satisfies the following algebraic properties, which formally mean that the space of integrable functions with the product given by convolution is a commutative associative algebra without identity . Other linear spaces of functions, such as the space of continuous functions of compact support, are closed under the convolution, and so also form commutative associative algebras. ; Commutativity: <math display"block">f * g g * f </math> Proof: By definition: <math display"block">(f * g)(t) \int^\infty_{-\infty} f(\tau)g(t - \tau)\, d\tau</math> Changing the variable of integration to <math>u = t - \tau</math> the result follows. ; Associativity: <math display"block">f * (g * h) (f * g) * h</math> Proof: This follows from using Fubini's theorem (i.e., double integrals can be evaluated as iterated integrals in either order). ; Distributivity: <math display"block">f * (g + h) (f * g) + (f * h)</math> Proof: This follows from linearity of the integral. ; Associativity with scalar multiplication: <math display"block">a (f * g) (a f) * g</math> for any real (or complex) number <math>a</math>. ; Multiplicative identity: No algebra of functions possesses an identity for the convolution. The lack of identity is typically not a major inconvenience, since most collections of functions on which the convolution is performed can be convolved with a delta distribution (a unitary impulse, centered at zero) or, at the very least (as is the case of L<sup>1</sup>) admit approximations to the identity. The linear space of compactly supported distributions does, however, admit an identity under the convolution. Specifically, <math display"block">f * \delta f</math> where δ is the delta distribution. ; Inverse element: Some distributions S have an inverse element S<sup>−1</sup> for the convolution which then must satisfy <math display"block">S^{-1} * S \delta</math> from which an explicit formula for S<sup>−1</sup> may be obtained.The set of invertible distributions forms an abelian group under the convolution. ; Complex conjugation: <math display"block">\overline{f * g} \overline{f} * \overline{g}</math> ; Time reversal: If <math>q(t) r(t)s(t),</math> then <math>q(-t) r(-t)s(-t).</math> <blockquote> Proof (using convolution theorem): <math>q(t) \ \stackrel{\mathcal{F}}{\Longleftrightarrow}\ \ Q(f) = R(f)S(f)</math> <math>q(-t) \ \stackrel{\mathcal{F}}{\Longleftrightarrow}\ \ Q(-f) = R(-f)S(-f)</math> <math> \begin{align} q(-t) &= \mathcal{F}^{-1}\bigg\{R(-f)S(-f)\bigg\}\\ &= \mathcal{F}^{-1}\bigg\{R (-f)\bigg\} * \mathcal{F}^{-1}\bigg\{S(-f)\bigg\}\\ &= r(-t) * s(-t) \end{align} </math> </blockquote> ; Relationship with differentiation: <math display"block">(f * g)' f' * g = f * g'</math> Proof: :<math> \begin{align} (f * g)' & = \frac{d}{dt} \int^\infty_{-\infty} f(\tau) g(t - \tau) \, d\tau \\ & =\int^\infty_{-\infty} f(\tau) \frac{\partial}{\partial t} g(t - \tau) \, d\tau \\ & \int^\infty_{-\infty} f(\tau) g'(t - \tau) \, d\tau f* g'. \end{align} </math> ; Relationship with integration: If <math display"inline">F(t) \int^t_{-\infty} f(\tau) d\tau,</math> and <math display"inline">G(t) \int^t_{-\infty} g(\tau) \, d\tau,</math> then <math display"block">(F * g)(t) (f * G)(t) \int^t_{-\infty}(f * g)(\tau)\,d\tau.</math> Integration If f and g are integrable functions, then the integral of their convolution on the whole space is simply obtained as the product of their integrals: : <math>\int_{\mathbf{R}^d}(f * g)(x) \, dx=\left(\int_{\mathbf{R}^d}f(x) \, dx\right) \left(\int_{\mathbf{R}^d}g(x) \, dx\right).</math> This follows from Fubini's theorem. The same result holds if f and g are only assumed to be nonnegative measurable functions, by Tonelli's theorem. Differentiation In the one-variable case, : <math>\frac{d}{dx}(f * g) \frac{df}{dx} * g f * \frac{dg}{dx}</math> where <math>\frac{d}{dx}</math> is the derivative. More generally, in the case of functions of several variables, an analogous formula holds with the partial derivative: : <math>\frac{\partial}{\partial x_i}(f * g) \frac{\partial f}{\partial x_i} * g f * \frac{\partial g}{\partial x_i}.</math> A particular consequence of this is that the convolution can be viewed as a "smoothing" operation: the convolution of f and g is differentiable as many times as f and g are in total. These identities hold for example under the condition that f and g are absolutely integrable and at least one of them has an absolutely integrable (L<sup>1</sup>) weak derivative, as a consequence of Young's convolution inequality. For instance, when f is continuously differentiable with compact support, and g is an arbitrary locally integrable function, : <math>\frac{d}{dx}(f* g) = \frac{df}{dx} * g.</math> These identities also hold much more broadly in the sense of tempered distributions if one of f or g is a rapidly decreasing tempered distribution, a compactly supported tempered distribution or a Schwartz function and the other is a tempered distribution. On the other hand, two positive integrable and infinitely differentiable functions may have a nowhere continuous convolution. In the discrete case, the difference operator D f(n) = f(n + 1) − f(n) satisfies an analogous relationship: : <math>D(f * g) (Df) * g f * (Dg).</math> Convolution theorem The convolution theorem states that : <math> \mathcal{F}\{f * g\} = \mathcal{F}\{f\}\cdot \mathcal{F}\{g\}</math> where <math> \mathcal{F}\{f\}</math> denotes the Fourier transform of <math>f</math>. Convolution in other types of transformations Versions of this theorem also hold for the Laplace transform, two-sided Laplace transform, Z-transform and Mellin transform. Convolution on matrices If <math>\mathcal W</math> is the Fourier transform matrix, then : <math>\mathcal W\left(C^{(1)}x \ast C^{(2)}y\right) \left(\mathcal W C^{(1)} \bull \mathcal W C^{(2)}\right)(x \otimes y) \mathcal W C^{(1)}x \circ \mathcal W C^{(2)}y</math>, where <math> \bull </math> is face-splitting product, <math> \otimes </math> denotes Kronecker product, <math> \circ </math> denotes Hadamard product (this result is an evolving of count sketch properties). This can be generalized for appropriate matrices <math>\mathbf{A},\mathbf{B}</math>: : <math>\mathcal W\left((\mathbf{A}x) \ast (\mathbf{B}y)\right) \left((\mathcal W \mathbf{A}) \bull (\mathcal W \mathbf{B})\right)(x \otimes y) (\mathcal W \mathbf{A}x) \circ (\mathcal W \mathbf{B}y)</math> from the properties of the face-splitting product. Translational equivariance The convolution commutes with translations, meaning that : <math>\tau_x (f * g) (\tau_x f) * g f * (\tau_x g)</math> where τ<sub>x</sub>f is the translation of the function f by x defined by : <math>(\tau_x f)(y) = f(y - x).</math> If f is a Schwartz function, then τ<sub>x</sub>f is the convolution with a translated Dirac delta function τ<sub>x</sub>f = f ∗ τ<sub>x</sub> δ. So translation invariance of the convolution of Schwartz functions is a consequence of the associativity of convolution. Furthermore, under certain conditions, convolution is the most general translation invariant operation. Informally speaking, the following holds : Suppose that S is a bounded linear operator acting on functions which commutes with translations: S(τ<sub>x</sub>f) τ<sub>x</sub>(Sf) for all x. Then S is given as convolution with a function (or distribution) g<sub>S</sub>; that is Sf g<sub>S</sub> ∗ f. Thus some translation invariant operations can be represented as convolution. Convolutions play an important role in the study of time-invariant systems, and especially LTI system theory. The representing function g<sub>S</sub> is the impulse response of the transformation S. A more precise version of the theorem quoted above requires specifying the class of functions on which the convolution is defined, and also requires assuming in addition that S must be a continuous linear operator with respect to the appropriate topology. It is known, for instance, that every continuous translation invariant continuous linear operator on L<sup>1</sup> is the convolution with a finite Borel measure. More generally, every continuous translation invariant continuous linear operator on L<sup>p</sup> for 1 ≤ p < ∞ is the convolution with a tempered distribution whose Fourier transform is bounded. To wit, they are all given by bounded Fourier multipliers. Convolutions on groups If G is a suitable group endowed with a measure λ, and if f and g are real or complex valued integrable functions on G, then we can define their convolution by :<math>(f * g)(x) = \int_G f(y) g\left(y^{-1}x\right)\,d\lambda(y).</math> It is not commutative in general. In typical cases of interest G is a locally compact Hausdorff topological group and λ is a (left-) Haar measure. In that case, unless G is unimodular, the convolution defined in this way is not the same as <math display="inline">\int f\left(xy^{-1}\right)g(y) \, d\lambda(y)</math>. The preference of one over the other is made so that convolution with a fixed function g commutes with left translation in the group: :<math>L_h(f* g) = (L_hf)* g.</math> Furthermore, the convention is also required for consistency with the definition of the convolution of measures given below. However, with a right instead of a left Haar measure, the latter integral is preferred over the former. On locally compact abelian groups, a version of the convolution theorem holds: the Fourier transform of a convolution is the pointwise product of the Fourier transforms. The circle group T with the Lebesgue measure is an immediate example. For a fixed g in L<sup>1</sup>(T), we have the following familiar operator acting on the Hilbert space L<sup>2</sup>(T): :<math>T {f}(x) = \frac{1}{2 \pi} \int_{\mathbf{T}} {f}(y) g( x - y) \, dy.</math> The operator T is compact. A direct calculation shows that its adjoint T* is convolution with :<math>\bar{g}(-y).</math> By the commutativity property cited above, T is normal: T* T = TT* . Also, T commutes with the translation operators. Consider the family S of operators consisting of all such convolutions and the translation operators. Then S is a commuting family of normal operators. According to spectral theory, there exists an orthonormal basis {h<sub>k</sub>} that simultaneously diagonalizes S. This characterizes convolutions on the circle. Specifically, we have :<math>h_k (x) = e^{ikx}, \quad k \in \mathbb{Z},\;</math> which are precisely the characters of T. Each convolution is a compact multiplication operator in this basis. This can be viewed as a version of the convolution theorem discussed above. A discrete example is a finite cyclic group of order n. Convolution operators are here represented by circulant matrices, and can be diagonalized by the discrete Fourier transform. A similar result holds for compact groups (not necessarily abelian): the matrix coefficients of finite-dimensional unitary representations form an orthonormal basis in L<sup>2</sup> by the Peter–Weyl theorem, and an analog of the convolution theorem continues to hold, along with many other aspects of harmonic analysis that depend on the Fourier transform. Convolution of measures Let G be a (multiplicatively written) topological group. If μ and ν are Radon measures on G, then their convolution μ∗ν is defined as the pushforward measure of the group action and can be written as <!-- PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE EDITING: Groups are written multiplicatively, so please don't change this from multiplication in the group to "+". :<math>(\mu * \nu)(E) = \iint 1_E(xy) \,d\mu(x) \,d\nu(y)</math> -->:<math>(\mu * \nu)(E) = \iint 1_E(xy) \,d\mu(x) \,d\nu(y)</math> for each measurable subset E of G. The convolution is also a Radon measure, whose total variation satisfies :<math>\\|\mu * \nu\\| \le \left\\|\mu\right\\| \left\\|\nu\right\\|.</math> In the case when G is locally compact with (left-)Haar measure λ, and μ and ν are absolutely continuous with respect to a λ, so that each has a density function, then the convolution μ∗ν is also absolutely continuous, and its density function is just the convolution of the two separate density functions. In fact, if either measure is absolutely continuous with respect to the Haar measure, then so is their convolution. If μ and ν are probability measures on the topological group then the convolution μ∗ν is the probability distribution of the sum X + Y of two independent random variables X and Y whose respective distributions are μ and ν. Infimal convolution In convex analysis, the infimal convolution of proper (not identically <math>+\infty</math>) convex functions <math>f_1,\dots,f_m</math> on <math>\mathbb R^n</math> is defined by: <math display"block">(f_1\cdotsf_m)(x)\inf_x \{ f_1(x_1)+\cdots+f_m(x_m) \| x_1+\cdots+x_m = x\}.</math> It can be shown that the infimal convolution of convex functions is convex. Furthermore, it satisfies an identity analogous to that of the Fourier transform of a traditional convolution, with the role of the Fourier transform is played instead by the Legendre transform: <math display"block">\varphi^(x) \sup_y ( x\cdot y - \varphi(y)).</math> We have: <math display"block">(f_1\cdots f_m)^(x) f_1^(x) + \cdots + f_m^(x).</math> Bialgebras Let (X, Δ, ∇, ε, η) be a bialgebra with comultiplication Δ, multiplication ∇, unit η, and counit ε. The convolution is a product defined on the endomorphism algebra End(X) as follows. Let φ, ψ ∈ End(X), that is, φ, ψ: X → X are functions that respect all algebraic structure of X, then the convolution φ∗ψ is defined as the composition :<math>X \mathrel{\xrightarrow{\Delta}} X \otimes X \mathrel{\xrightarrow{\phi\otimes\psi}} X \otimes X \mathrel{\xrightarrow{\nabla}} X.</math> The convolution appears notably in the definition of Hopf algebras . A bialgebra is a Hopf algebra if and only if it has an antipode: an endomorphism S such that :<math>S * \operatorname{id}_X \operatorname{id}_X * S \eta\circ\varepsilon.</math> Applications can be used to obtain a smooth grayscale digital image of a halftone print.]] Convolution and related operations are found in many applications in science, engineering and mathematics. * Convolutional neural networks apply multiple cascaded convolution kernels with applications in machine vision and artificial intelligence. Though these are actually cross-correlations rather than convolutions in most cases. * In non-neural-network-based image processing In digital image processing convolutional filtering plays an important role in many important algorithms in edge detection and related processes (see Kernel (image processing)) In optics, an out-of-focus photograph is a convolution of the sharp image with a lens function. The photographic term for this is bokeh. ** In image processing applications such as adding blurring. * In digital data processing In analytical chemistry, Savitzky–Golay smoothing filters are used for the analysis of spectroscopic data. They can improve signal-to-noise ratio with minimal distortion of the spectra<!----> In statistics, a weighted moving average is a convolution. * In acoustics, reverberation is the convolution of the original sound with echoes from objects surrounding the sound source. In digital signal processing, convolution is used to map the impulse response of a real room on a digital audio signal. In electronic music convolution is the imposition of a spectral or rhythmic structure on a sound. Often this envelope or structure is taken from another sound. The convolution of two signals is the filtering of one through the other. * In electrical engineering, the convolution of one function (the input signal) with a second function (the impulse response) gives the output of a linear time-invariant system (LTI). At any given moment, the output is an accumulated effect of all the prior values of the input function, with the most recent values typically having the most influence (expressed as a multiplicative factor). The impulse response function provides that factor as a function of the elapsed time since each input value occurred. * In physics, wherever there is a linear system with a "superposition principle", a convolution operation makes an appearance. For instance, in spectroscopy line broadening due to the Doppler effect on its own gives a Gaussian spectral line shape and collision broadening alone gives a Lorentzian line shape. When both effects are operative, the line shape is a convolution of Gaussian and Lorentzian, a Voigt function. In time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy, the excitation signal can be treated as a chain of delta pulses, and the measured fluorescence is a sum of exponential decays from each delta pulse. In computational fluid dynamics, the large eddy simulation (LES) turbulence model uses the convolution operation to lower the range of length scales necessary in computation thereby reducing computational cost. * In probability theory, the probability distribution of the sum of two independent random variables is the convolution of their individual distributions. ** In kernel density estimation, a distribution is estimated from sample points by convolution with a kernel, such as an isotropic Gaussian. * In radiotherapy treatment planning systems, most part of all modern codes of calculation applies a convolution-superposition algorithm. * In structural reliability, the reliability index can be defined based on the convolution theorem. ** The definition of reliability index for limit state functions with nonnormal distributions can be established corresponding to the joint distribution function. In fact, the joint distribution function can be obtained using the convolution theory. * In Smoothed-particle hydrodynamics, simulations of fluid dynamics are calculated using particles, each with surrounding kernels. For any given particle <math>i</math>, some physical quantity <math>A_i</math> is calculated as a convolution of <math>A_j</math> with a weighting function, where <math>j</math> denotes the neighbors of particle <math>i</math>: those that are located within its kernel. The convolution is approximated as a summation over each neighbor. * In Fractional calculus convolution is instrumental in various definitions of fractional integral and fractional derivative. See also * Analog signal processing * Circulant matrix * Convolution for optical broad-beam responses in scattering media * Convolution power * Convolution quotient * Dirichlet convolution * Generalized signal averaging * List of convolutions of probability distributions * LTI system theory#Impulse response and convolution * Multidimensional discrete convolution * Scaled correlation * Titchmarsh convolution theorem * Toeplitz matrix (convolutions can be considered a Toeplitz matrix operation where each row is a shifted copy of the convolution kernel) * Wavelet transform Notes References Further reading * . * * * Dominguez-Torres, Alejandro (Nov 2, 2010). "Origin and history of convolution". 41 pgs. https://slideshare.net/Alexdfar/origin-adn-history-of-convolution. Cranfield, Bedford MK43 OAL, UK. Retrieved Mar 13, 2013. * * * . * . * . * . * . * <!-- --> * * . * <!-- --> * . * . * . * . * <!-- --> * * . External links * [https://jeff560.tripod.com/c.html Earliest Uses: The entry on Convolution has some historical information.] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060221234856/https://rkb.home.cern.ch/rkb/AN16pp/node38.html#SECTION000380000000000000000 Convolution], on [https://web.archive.org/web/20060512020859/https://rkb.home.cern.ch/rkb/titleA.html The Data Analysis BriefBook] * https://jhu.edu/~signals/convolve/index.html Visual convolution Java Applet * https://jhu.edu/~signals/discreteconv2/index.html Visual convolution Java Applet for discrete-time functions * https://get-the-solution.net/projects/discret-convolution discret-convolution online calculator https://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Convolution/CI.html Convolution demo and visualization in JavaScript https://phiresky.github.io/convolution-demo/ Another convolution demo in JavaScript * Lectures on Image Processing: A collection of 18 lectures in pdf format from Vanderbilt University. Lecture 7 is on 2-D convolution., by Alan Peters * https://archive.org/details/Lectures_on_Image_Processing * [https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/java/digitalimaging/processing/kernelmaskoperation/ Convolution Kernel Mask Operation Interactive tutorial] * [https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Convolution.html Convolution] at MathWorld * [https://nongnu.org/freeverb3/ Freeverb3 Impulse Response Processor]: Opensource zero latency impulse response processor with VST plugins * Stanford University CS 178 [https://graphics.stanford.edu/courses/cs178/applets/convolution.html interactive Flash demo] showing how spatial convolution works. * [https://youtube.com/watch?v=IW4Reburjpc A video lecture on the subject of convolution] given by Salman Khan * [https://dspguide.com/ch24/6.htm Example of FFT convolution for pattern-recognition (image processing)] *[https://betterexplained.com/articles/intuitive-convolution/ Intuitive Guide to Convolution] A blogpost about an intuitive interpretation of convolution. Category:Functional analysis Category:Image processing Category:Fourier analysis Category:Bilinear maps Category:Feature detection (computer vision)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convolution	2025-04-05T18:28:11.045717
7521	Calico	thumb\|The weave of calico sample from a shopping bag shown against a centimetre scale Calico (; in British usage since 1505) is a heavy plain-woven textile made from unbleached, and often not fully processed, cotton. It may also contain unseparated husk parts. The fabric is far coarser than muslin, but less coarse and thick than canvas or denim. However, it is still very cheap owing to its unfinished and undyed appearance. The fabric was originally from the city of Calicut in southwestern India. It was made by the traditional weavers called cāliyans. The raw fabric was dyed and printed in bright hues, and calico prints became popular in Europe. History Origins Calico originated in Calicut, from which the name of the textile came, in South India, now Kerala, during the 11th century, It was mentioned in Indian literature by the 12th century when the polymath and writer Hemachandra described calico fabric prints with a lotus design. Calico was woven using Gujarati cotton from Surat for both the warp and weft. By the 15th century, calico from Gujarat made its appearance in Cairo, then capital of the Egypt Eyalet under the Ottoman Empire. Cheap calico prints, imported by the East India Company from Hindustān (India), had become popular. In 1700 the first of the Calico Acts was passed to prevent the import of dyed or printed calicoes from India, China or Persia. This caused demand to switch to imported grey cloth instead — calico that had not been finished-dyed or printed. These were printed with popular patterns in southern England. Also, Lancashire businessmen produced grey cloth with linen warp and cotton weft, known as fustian, which they sent to London for finishing. The Woollen, etc., Manufactures Act 1720 was passed, enacting fines against anyone caught wearing printed or stained calico muslins, but neckcloths and fustians were exempted. The Lancashire manufacturers exploited this exemption; coloured cotton weft with linen warp were specifically permitted by the 1736 Manchester Act. In 1764, of cottonwool was imported. Calico printing thumb\|left\|Sample of calico printed with a six-colour machine by Walter Crum & Co., from Frederick Crace Calvert, Dyeing and Calico Printing (1878) Early Indian chintz, that is, glazed calico with a large floral pattern, was primarily produced using painting techniques. Later, the hues were applied by wooden blocks, and the cloth manufacturers in Britain printed calico using wooden block printing. Calico printers at work are depicted in one of the stained glass windows made by Stephen Adam for the Maryhill Burgh Halls, Glasgow. Confusingly, linen and silk printed this way were known as linen calicoes and silk calicoes. Early European calicoes (1680) were cheap plain weave white cotton fabric, or cream or unbleached cotton, with a design block-printed using a single alizarin dye fixed with two mordants, giving a red and black pattern. Polychromatic prints were possible, using two sets of blocks and an additional blue dye. The Indian taste was for dark printed backgrounds, while the European market preferred a pattern on a cream base. As the century progressed the European preference moved from the large chintz patterns to smaller, tighter patterns. After 1888, block printing was only used for short-run specialized jobs. After 1880, profits from printing fell due to overcapacity and the firms started to form combines. In the first, three Scottish firms formed the United Turkey Red Co. Ltd in 1897, and the second, in 1899, was the much larger Calico Printers' Association 46 printing concerns and 13 merchants combined, representing 85% of the British printing capacity. Some of this capacity was removed and in 1901 Calico had 48% of the printing trade. In 1916, they and the other printers formed and joined a trade association, which then set minimum prices for each 'price section' of the industry. The trade association remained in operation until 1954, when the arrangement was challenged by the government Monopolies Commission. Over the intervening period much trade had been lost overseas. Terminology thumb\|Calico printing In the UK, Australia and New Zealand: Calico – simple, cheap equal weft and warp plain weave fabric in white, cream or unbleached cotton Calico bag - a bag made of calico used by banks and other financial institutions Muslin – a very fine, light plain weave cotton fabric Muslin gauze – US: muslin – simple, cheap equal weft and warp plain weave fabric in white, cream or unbleached cotton and/or a very fine, light plain weave cotton fabric Gauze – extremely soft and fine cotton fabric with a very open plain weave Cheesecloth – US: gauze – any very light fabric, generally with a plain weave Tote bag - sometimes made of calico In the US: Calico – cotton fabric with a small, all-over floral print Muslin – UK: muslin gauze – simple, cheap equal weft and warp plain weave fabric in white, cream or unbleached cotton and/or a very fine, light plain weave cotton fabric Muslin gauze – the very lightest, most open weave of muslin Gauze – UK: cheesecloth – any very light fabric, generally with a plain weave Cheesecloth – extremely soft and fine cotton fabric with a very open plain weave Printed calico was imported into the United States from Lancashire in the 1780s, and here a linguistic separation occurred. While Europe maintained the word calico for the fabric, in the States it was used to refer to the printed design. See also Bafta cloth Calico Acts Calico cat Calico (goldfish) Calico Jack Piece goods References External links Charles O'Neill (1869) A dictionary of dyeing and calico printing – digital facsimile from the Linda Hall Library William Crookes (1874) A practical handbook of dyeing and calico-printing. Illustrated with period fabric swatches. – digital facsimile from the Linda Hall Library Baba Gee Calico Printing A calico Printing store . where design fabric with calico technique. Deazley, R. (2008) 'Commentary on the Calico Printers' Act 1787', in Primary Sources on Copyright (1450–1900), eds L. Bently & M. Kretschmer,Copyright History 1787 Calico Printers' Act Category:History of Kerala Category:Woven fabrics Category:Indian inventions Category:History of Kozhikode Category:Economy of Kozhikode Category:Cotton industry in India	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calico	2025-04-05T18:28:11.079590
7522	Calorimetry	and Pierre-Simon Laplace, to determine the heat involved in various chemical changes; calculations which were based on Joseph Black’s prior discovery of latent heat. These experiments mark the foundation of thermochemistry.]] In chemistry and thermodynamics, calorimetry () is the science or act of measuring changes in state variables of a body for the purpose of deriving the heat transfer associated with changes of its state due, for example, to chemical reactions, physical changes, or phase transitions under specified constraints. Calorimetry is performed with a calorimeter. Scottish physician and scientist Joseph Black, who was the first to recognize the distinction between heat and temperature, is said to be the founder of the science of calorimetry. Indirect calorimetry calculates heat that living organisms produce by measuring either their production of carbon dioxide and nitrogen waste (frequently ammonia in aquatic organisms, or urea in terrestrial ones), or from their consumption of oxygen. Lavoisier noted in 1780 that heat production can be predicted from oxygen consumption this way, using multiple regression. The dynamic energy budget theory explains why this procedure is correct. Heat generated by living organisms may also be measured by direct calorimetry, in which the entire organism is placed inside the calorimeter for the measurement. A widely used modern instrument is the differential scanning calorimeter, a device which allows thermal data to be obtained on small amounts of material. It involves heating the sample at a controlled rate and recording the heat flow either into or from the specimen. Classical calorimetric calculation of heat Cases with differentiable equation of state for a one-component body Basic classical calculation with respect to volume Calorimetry requires that a reference material that changes temperature have known definite thermal constitutive properties. The classical rule, recognized by Clausius and Kelvin, is that the pressure exerted by the calorimetric material is fully and rapidly determined solely by its temperature and volume; this rule is for changes that do not involve phase change, such as melting of ice. There are many materials that do not comply with this rule, and for them, the present formula of classical calorimetry does not provide an adequate account. Here the classical rule is assumed to hold for the calorimetric material being used, and the propositions are mathematically written: The thermal response of the calorimetric material is fully described by its pressure <math>p\ </math> as the value of its constitutive function <math>p(V,T)\ </math> of just the volume <math>V\ </math> and the temperature <math>T\ </math>. All increments are here required to be very small. This calculation refers to a domain of volume and temperature of the body in which no phase change occurs, and there is only one phase present. An important assumption here is continuity of property relations. A different analysis is needed for phase change When a small increment of heat is gained by a calorimetric body, with small increments, <math>\delta V\ </math> of its volume, and <math>\delta T\ </math> of its temperature, the increment of heat, <math>\delta Q\ </math>, gained by the body of calorimetric material, is given by :<math>\delta Q\ =C^{(V)}_T(V,T)\, \delta V\,+\,C^{(T)}_V(V,T)\,\delta T</math> where :<math>C^{(V)}_T(V,T)\ </math> denotes the latent heat with respect to volume, of the calorimetric material at constant controlled temperature <math>T</math>. The surroundings' pressure on the material is instrumentally adjusted to impose a chosen volume change, with initial volume <math>V\ </math>. To determine this latent heat, the volume change is effectively the independently instrumentally varied quantity. This latent heat is not one of the widely used ones, but is of theoretical or conceptual interest. :<math>C^{(T)}_V(V,T)\ </math> denotes the heat capacity, of the calorimetric material at fixed constant volume <math>V\ </math>, while the pressure of the material is allowed to vary freely, with initial temperature <math>T\ </math>. The temperature is forced to change by exposure to a suitable heat bath. It is customary to write <math>C^{(T)}_V(V,T)\ </math> simply as <math>C_V(V,T)\ </math>, or even more briefly as <math>C_V\ </math>. This latent heat is one of the two widely used ones. The latent heat with respect to volume is the heat required for unit increment in volume at constant temperature. It can be said to be 'measured along an isotherm', and the pressure the material exerts is allowed to vary freely, according to its constitutive law <math>pp(V,T)\ </math>. For a given material, it can have a positive or negative sign or exceptionally it can be zero, and this can depend on the temperature, as it does for water about 4 C. The concept of latent heat with respect to volume was perhaps first recognized by Joseph Black in 1762. The term 'latent heat of expansion' is also used. The latent heat with respect to volume can also be called the 'latent energy with respect to volume'. For all of these usages of 'latent heat', a more systematic terminology uses 'latent heat capacity'. The heat capacity at constant volume is the heat required for unit increment in temperature at constant volume. It can be said to be 'measured along an isochor', and again, the pressure the material exerts is allowed to vary freely. It always has a positive sign. This means that for an increase in the temperature of a body without change of its volume, heat must be supplied to it. This is consistent with common experience. Quantities like <math>\delta Q\ </math> are sometimes called 'curve differentials', because they are measured along curves in the <math>(V,T)\ </math> surface. Classical theory for constant-volume (isochoric) calorimetry Constant-volume calorimetry is calorimetry performed at a constant volume. This involves the use of a constant-volume calorimeter. Heat is still measured by the above-stated principle of calorimetry. This means that in a suitably constructed calorimeter, called a bomb calorimeter, the increment of volume <math>\delta V\ </math> can be made to vanish, <math>\delta V=0\ </math>. For constant-volume calorimetry: :<math>\delta Q = C_V \delta T\ </math> where :<math>\delta T\ </math> denotes the increment in temperature and :<math>C_V\ </math> denotes the heat capacity at constant volume. Classical heat calculation with respect to pressure From the above rule of calculation of heat with respect to volume, there follows one with respect to pressure. In a process of small increments, <math>\delta p\ </math> of its pressure, and <math>\delta T\ </math> of its temperature, the increment of heat, <math>\delta Q\ </math>, gained by the body of calorimetric material, is given by :<math>\delta Q\ =C^{(p)}_T(p,T)\, \delta p\,+\,C^{(T)}_p(p,T)\,\delta T</math> where :<math>C^{(p)}_T(p,T)\ </math> denotes the latent heat with respect to pressure, of the calorimetric material at constant temperature, while the volume and pressure of the body are allowed to vary freely, at pressure <math>p\ </math> and temperature <math>T\ </math>; :<math>C^{(T)}_p(p,T)\ </math> denotes the heat capacity, of the calorimetric material at constant pressure, while the temperature and volume of the body are allowed to vary freely, at pressure <math>p\ </math> and temperature <math>T\ </math>. It is customary to write <math>C^{(T)}_p(p,T)\ </math> simply as <math>C_p(p,T)\ </math>, or even more briefly as <math>C_p\ </math>. The new quantities here are related to the previous ones: :<math>C^{(p)}_T(p,T)=\frac{C^{(V)}_T(V,T)}{\left.\cfrac{\partial p}{\partial V}\right\|_{(V,T)}} </math> :<math>C^{(T)}_p(p,T)=C^{(T)}_V(V,T)-C^{(V)}_T(V,T) \frac{\left.\cfrac{\partial p}{\partial T}\right\|_{(V,T)}}{\left.\cfrac{\partial p}{\partial V}\right\|_{(V,T)}} </math> where :<math>\left.\frac{\partial p}{\partial V}\right\|_{(V,T)}</math> denotes the partial derivative of <math>p(V,T)\ </math> with respect to <math>V\ </math> evaluated for <math>(V,T)\ </math> and :<math>\left.\frac{\partial p}{\partial T}\right\|_{(V,T)}</math> denotes the partial derivative of <math>p(V,T)\ </math> with respect to <math>T\ </math> evaluated for <math>(V,T)\ </math>. The latent heats <math>C^{(V)}_T(V,T)\ </math> and <math>C^{(p)}_T(p,T)\ </math> are always of opposite sign. It is common to refer to the ratio of specific heats as :<math>\gamma(V,T)\frac{C^{(T)}_p(p,T)}{C^{(T)}_V(V,T)}</math> often just written as <math>\gamma\frac{C_p}{C_V}</math>. Calorimetry through phase change, equation of state shows one jump discontinuity An early calorimeter was that used by Laplace and Lavoisier, as shown in the figure above. It worked at constant temperature, and at atmospheric pressure. The latent heat involved was then not a latent heat with respect to volume or with respect to pressure, as in the above account for calorimetry without phase change. The latent heat involved in this calorimeter was with respect to phase change, naturally occurring at constant temperature. This kind of calorimeter worked by measurement of mass of water produced by the melting of ice, which is a phase change. Cumulation of heating For a time-dependent process of heating of the calorimetric material, defined by a continuous joint progression <math>P(t_1,t_2)\ </math> of <math>V(t)\ </math> and <math>T(t)\ </math>, starting at time <math>t_1\ </math> and ending at time <math>t_2\ </math>, there can be calculated an accumulated quantity of heat delivered, <math>\Delta Q(P(t_1,t_2))\, </math> . This calculation is done by mathematical integration along the progression with respect to time. This is because increments of heat are 'additive'; but this does not mean that heat is a conservative quantity. The idea that heat was a conservative quantity was invented by Lavoisier, and is called the 'caloric theory'; by the middle of the nineteenth century it was recognized as mistaken. Written with the symbol <math>\Delta\ </math>, the quantity <math>\Delta Q(P(t_1,t_2))\, </math> is not at all restricted to be an increment with very small values; this is in contrast with <math>\delta Q\ </math>. One can write :<math>\Delta Q(P(t_1,t_2))\ </math> ::<math>=\int_{P(t_1,t_2)} \dot Q(t)dt</math> ::<math>=\int_{P(t_1,t_2)} C^{(V)}_T(V,T)\, \dot V(t)\, dt\,+\,\int_{P(t_1,t_2)}C^{(T)}_V(V,T)\,\dot T(t)\,dt </math>. This expression uses quantities such as <math>\dot Q(t)\ </math> which are defined in the section below headed 'Mathematical aspects of the above rules'. Mathematical aspects of the above rules The use of 'very small' quantities such as <math>\delta Q\ </math> is related to the physical requirement for the quantity <math>p(V,T)\ </math> to be 'rapidly determined' by <math>V\ </math> and <math>T\ </math>; such 'rapid determination' refers to a physical process. These 'very small' quantities are used in the Leibniz approach to the infinitesimal calculus. The Newton approach uses instead 'fluxions' such as <math>\dot V(t) = \left.\frac{dV}{dt}\right\|_t</math>, which makes it more obvious that <math>p(V,T)\ </math> must be 'rapidly determined'. In terms of fluxions, the above first rule of calculation can be written :<math>\dot Q(t)\ =C^{(V)}_T(V,T)\, \dot V(t)\,+\,C^{(T)}_V(V,T)\,\dot T(t)</math> where :<math>t\ </math> denotes the time :<math>\dot Q(t)\ </math> denotes the time rate of heating of the calorimetric material at time <math>t\ </math> :<math>\dot V(t)\ </math> denotes the time rate of change of volume of the calorimetric material at time <math>t\ </math> :<math>\dot T(t)\ </math> denotes the time rate of change of temperature of the calorimetric material. The increment <math>\delta Q\ </math> and the fluxion <math>\dot Q(t)\ </math> are obtained for a particular time <math>t\ </math> that determines the values of the quantities on the righthand sides of the above rules. But this is not a reason to expect that there should exist a mathematical function <math>Q(V,T)\ </math>. For this reason, the increment <math>\delta Q\ </math> is said to be an 'imperfect differential' or an 'inexact differential'. Some books indicate this by writing <math>q\ </math> instead of <math>\delta Q\ </math>. Also, the notation đQ is used in some books. Carelessness about this can lead to error. The quantity <math>\Delta Q(P(t_1,t_2))\ </math> is properly said to be a functional of the continuous joint progression <math>P(t_1,t_2)\ </math> of <math>V(t)\ </math> and <math>T(t)\ </math>, but, in the mathematical definition of a function, <math>\Delta Q(P(t_1,t_2))\ </math> is not a function of <math>(V,T)\ </math>. Although the fluxion <math>\dot Q(t)\ </math> is defined here as a function of time <math>t\ </math>, the symbols <math>Q\ </math> and <math>Q(V,T)\ </math> respectively standing alone are not defined here. Physical scope of the above rules of calorimetry The above rules refer only to suitable calorimetric materials. The terms 'rapidly' and 'very small' call for empirical physical checking of the domain of validity of the above rules. The above rules for the calculation of heat belong to pure calorimetry. They make no reference to thermodynamics, and were mostly understood before the advent of thermodynamics. They are the basis of the 'thermo' contribution to thermodynamics. The 'dynamics' contribution is based on the idea of work, which is not used in the above rules of calculation. Experimentally conveniently measured coefficients Empirically, it is convenient to measure properties of calorimetric materials under experimentally controlled conditions. Pressure increase at constant volume For measurements at experimentally controlled volume, one can use the assumption, stated above, that the pressure of the body of calorimetric material is can be expressed as a function of its volume and temperature. For measurement at constant experimentally controlled volume, the isochoric coefficient of pressure rise with temperature, is defined by :<math>\alpha _V(V,T)\ \frac{1}{p(V,T)}{\left.\cfrac{\partial p}{\partial V}\right\|_{(V,T)}} </math>Expansion at constant pressure For measurements at experimentally controlled pressure, it is assumed that the volume <math>V\ </math> of the body of calorimetric material can be expressed as a function <math>V(T,p)\ </math> of its temperature <math>T\ </math> and pressure <math>p\ </math>. This assumption is related to, but is not the same as, the above used assumption that the pressure of the body of calorimetric material is known as a function of its volume and temperature; anomalous behaviour of materials can affect this relation. The quantity that is conveniently measured at constant experimentally controlled pressure, the isobar volume expansion coefficient, is defined by :<math>\beta _p(T,p)\ \frac{1}{V(T,p)}{\left.\cfrac{\partial V}{\partial T}\right\|_{(T,p)}} </math>Compressibility at constant temperature For measurements at experimentally controlled temperature, it is again assumed that the volume <math>V\ </math> of the body of calorimetric material can be expressed as a function <math>V(T,p)\ </math> of its temperature <math>T\ </math> and pressure <math>p\ </math>, with the same provisos as mentioned just above. The quantity that is conveniently measured at constant experimentally controlled temperature, the isothermal compressibility, is defined by Connection between calorimetry and thermodynamicsThermodynamics developed gradually over the first half of the nineteenth century, building on the above theory of calorimetry which had been worked out before it, and on other discoveries. According to Gislason and Craig (2005): "Most thermodynamic data come from calorimetry..." According to Kondepudi (2008): "Calorimetry is widely used in present day laboratories." In terms of thermodynamics, the internal energy <math>U\ </math> of the calorimetric material can be considered as the value of a function <math>U(V,T)\ </math> of <math>(V,T)\ </math>, with partial derivatives <math>\frac{\partial U}{\partial V}\ </math> and <math>\frac{\partial U}{\partial T}\ </math>. Then it can be shown that one can write a thermodynamic version of the above calorimetric rules: :<math>\delta Q\ =\left [p(V,T)\,+\,\left.\frac{\partial U}{\partial V}\right\|_{(V,T)}\right ]\, \delta V\,+\,\left.\frac{\partial U}{\partial T}\right\|_{(V,T)}\,\delta T</math> with :<math>C^{(V)}_T(V,T)=p(V,T)\,+\,\left.\frac{\partial U}{\partial V}\right\|_{(V,T)}\ </math> and :<math>C^{(T)}_V(V,T)\left.\frac{\partial U}{\partial T}\right\|_{(V,T)}\ </math> . Again, further in terms of thermodynamics, the internal energy <math>U\ </math> of the calorimetric material can sometimes, depending on the calorimetric material, be considered as the value of a function <math>U(p,T)\ </math> of <math>(p,T)\ </math>, with partial derivatives <math>\frac{\partial U}{\partial p}\ </math> and <math>\frac{\partial U}{\partial T}\ </math>, and with <math>V\ </math> being expressible as the value of a function <math>V(p,T)\ </math> of <math>(p,T)\ </math>, with partial derivatives <math>\frac{\partial V}{\partial p}\ </math> and <math>\frac{\partial V}{\partial T}\ </math> . Then, according to Adkins (1975), it can be shown that one can write a further thermodynamic version of the above calorimetric rules: :<math>\delta Q\ =\left [\left. \frac{\partial U}{\partial p}\right \|_{(p,T)}\,+\,p \left.\frac{\partial V}{\partial p}\right \|_{(p,T)}\right ]\delta p\,+\,\left [ \left.\frac{\partial U}{\partial T}\right\|_{(p,T)}\,+\,p \left.\frac{\partial V}{\partial T}\right \|_{(p,T)}\right ]\delta T</math> with :<math>C^{(p)}_T(p,T)=\left.\frac{\partial U}{\partial p}\right\|_{(p,T)}\,+\,p\left.\frac{\partial V}{\partial p}\right\|_{(p,T)}\ </math> and :<math>C^{(T)}_p(p,T)\left.\frac{\partial U}{\partial T}\right\|_{(p,T)}\,+\,p\left.\frac{\partial V}{\partial T}\right\|_{(p,T)}\ </math> .Special interest of thermodynamics in calorimetry: the isothermal segments of a Carnot cycle Calorimetry has a special benefit for thermodynamics. It tells about the heat absorbed or emitted in the isothermal segment of a Carnot cycle. A Carnot cycle is a special kind of cyclic process affecting a body composed of material suitable for use in a heat engine. Such a material is of the kind considered in calorimetry, as noted above, that exerts a pressure that is very rapidly determined just by temperature and volume. Such a body is said to change reversibly. A Carnot cycle consists of four successive stages or segments: (1) a change in volume from a volume <math>V_a\ </math> to a volume <math>V_b\ </math> at constant temperature <math>T^+\ </math> so as to incur a flow of heat into the body (known as an isothermal change) (2) a change in volume from <math>V_b\ </math> to a volume <math>V_c\ </math> at a variable temperature just such as to incur no flow of heat (known as an adiabatic change) (3) another isothermal change in volume from <math>V_c\ </math> to a volume <math>V_d\ </math> at constant temperature <math>T^-\ </math> such as to incur a flow or heat out of the body and just such as to precisely prepare for the following change (4) another adiabatic change of volume from <math>V_d\ </math> back to <math>V_a\ </math> just such as to return the body to its starting temperature <math>T^+\ </math>. In isothermal segment (1), the heat that flows into the body is given by : <math>\Delta Q(V_a,V_b;T^+)\,=\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\int_{V_a}^{V_b} C^{(V)}_T(V,T^+)\, dV\ </math> and in isothermal segment (3) the heat that flows out of the body is given by :<math>-\Delta Q(V_c,V_d;T^-)\,\,-\int_{V_c}^{V_d} C^{(V)}_T(V,T^-)\, dV\ </math>. Because the segments (2) and (4) are adiabats, no heat flows into or out of the body during them, and consequently the net heat supplied to the body during the cycle is given by :<math>\Delta Q(V_a,V_b;T^+;V_c,V_d;T^-)\,\,\Delta Q(V_a,V_b;T^+)\,+\,\Delta Q(V_c,V_d;T^-)\,\,\int_{V_a}^{V_b} C^{(V)}_T(V,T^+)\, dV\,+\,\int_{V_c}^{V_d} C^{(V)}_T(V,T^-)\, dV\ </math>. This quantity is used by thermodynamics and is related in a special way to the net work done by the body during the Carnot cycle. The net change of the body's internal energy during the Carnot cycle, <math>\Delta U(V_a,V_b;T^+;V_c,V_d;T^-)\ </math>, is equal to zero, because the material of the working body has the special properties noted above. Special interest of calorimetry in thermodynamics: relations between classical calorimetric quantities Relation of latent heat with respect to volume, and the equation of state The quantity <math>C^{(V)}_T(V,T)\ </math>, the latent heat with respect to volume, belongs to classical calorimetry. It accounts for the occurrence of energy transfer by work in a process in which heat is also transferred; the quantity, however, was considered before the relation between heat and work transfers was clarified by the invention of thermodynamics. In the light of thermodynamics, the classical calorimetric quantity is revealed as being tightly linked to the calorimetric material's equation of state <math>p=p(V,T)\ </math>. Provided that the temperature <math>T\, </math> is measured in the thermodynamic absolute scale, the relation is expressed in the formula :<math>C^{(V)}_T(V,T)T \left.\frac{\partial p}{\partial T}\right\|_{(V,T)}\ </math>. Difference of specific heats Advanced thermodynamics provides the relation :<math>C_p(p,T)-C_V(V,T)=\left [p(V,T)\,+\,\left.\frac{\partial U}{\partial V}\right\|_{(V,T)}\right ]\, \left.\frac{\partial V}{\partial T}\right\|_{(p,T)}</math>. From this, further mathematical and thermodynamic reasoning leads to another relation between classical calorimetric quantities. The difference of specific heats is given by :<math>C_p(p,T)-C_V(V,T)\frac{TV\,\beta _p^2(T,p)}{\kappa _T(T,p)}</math>. Practical constant-volume calorimetry (bomb calorimetry) for thermodynamic studies Constant-volume calorimetry is calorimetry performed at a constant volume. This involves the use of a constant-volume calorimeter. No work is performed in constant-volume calorimetry, so the heat measured equals the change in internal energy of the system. The heat capacity at constant volume is assumed to be independent of temperature. Heat is measured by the principle of calorimetry. :<math>q C_V \Delta T \Delta U \,,</math> where :ΔU is change in internal energy, :ΔT is change in temperature and :C<sub>V</sub> is the heat capacity at constant volume. In constant-volume calorimetry the pressure is not held constant. If there is a pressure difference between initial and final states, the heat measured needs adjustment to provide the enthalpy change. One then has :<math>\Delta H \Delta U + \Delta (PV) \Delta U + V \Delta P \,,</math> where :ΔH is change in enthalpy and :V is the unchanging volume of the sample chamber. See also * Isothermal microcalorimetry (IMC) * Isothermal titration calorimetry * Sorption calorimetry * Reaction calorimeter References Books * * * * * . * * * }} * * External links * Category:Heat transfer	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calorimetry	2025-04-05T18:28:11.167310
7525	Charles Evans Hughes	\| term_start2 = March 5, 1921 \| term_end2 = March 4, 1925 \| predecessor2 = Bainbridge Colby \| successor2 = Frank B. Kellogg \| office3 = Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States \| nominator3 = William Howard Taft \| term_start3 = October 10, 1910<!--PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE THE DATE! The term start date given reflects the date the judicial oaths taken (following the receipt of the commissions); this is the date used by the U.S. Supreme Court as the date of the beginning of a justice's service. Thank you--> \| term_end3 June 10, 1916 Charles Evans Hughes, the only child of David and Mary, was born in Glens Falls on April 11, 1862. The Hughes family moved to Oswego, New York, in 1866, but relocated soon after to Newark, New Jersey, and then to Brooklyn. With the exception of a brief period of attendance at Newark High School, Hughes received no formal education until 1874, instead being educated by his parents. In September 1874, he enrolled in New York City's prestigious Public School 35, graduating the following year. At the age of 14, Hughes entered Madison University (now Colgate University), where he studied for two years. He then transferred to Brown University. He graduated from Brown third in his class at the age of 19, having been elected to Phi Beta Kappa in his junior year. He was also a member of Delta Upsilon fraternity; he later served as its first international President. He then enrolled in Columbia Law School, graduating with a Bachelor of Laws in 1884 and ranked first in his class. That same year, he passed the New York bar exam with the highest score ever awarded. In 1888, Hughes married Antoinette Carter, the daughter of the senior partner of the law firm where he worked. Their first child, Charles Evans Hughes Jr., was born the following year, and Hughes purchased a house in Manhattan's Upper West Side neighborhood. Hughes and his wife had one son and three daughters. Their youngest child, Elizabeth Hughes, was one of the first humans injected with insulin, and later served as president of the Supreme Court Historical Society.Legal and academic careerHughes took a position with the Wall Street law firm of Chamberlain, Carter & Hornblower in 1883, focusing primarily on matters related to contracts and bankruptcies. He was made a partner in the firm in 1888, and the firm changed its name to Carter, Hughes & Cravath (it later became known as Hughes Hubbard & Reed). Hughes left the firm and became a professor at Cornell Law School from 1891 to 1893. He returned to Carter, Hughes & Cravath in 1893. He also joined the board of Brown University and served on a special committee that recommended revisions to New York's Code of Civil Procedure.Exposing corrupt utilitiesResponding to newspaper stories run by the New York World, Governor Frank W. Higgins appointed a legislative committee to investigate the state's public utilities in 1905. On the recommendation of a former state judge who had been impressed by Hughes's performance in court, the legislative committee appointed Hughes to lead the investigation. Hughes was reluctant to take on the powerful utility companies, but Senator Frederick C. Stevens, the leader of the committee, convinced Hughes to accept the position. Hughes decided to center his investigation on Consolidated Gas, which controlled the production and sale of gas in New York City. Though few expected the committee to have any impact on public corruption, Hughes was able to show that Consolidated Gas had engaged in a pattern of tax evasion and fraudulent bookkeeping. To eliminate or mitigate those abuses, Hughes drafted and convinced the state legislature to pass bills that established a commission to regulate public utilities and lowered gas prices.Exposing corrupt insurance companiesHughes's success made him a popular public figure in New York, and he was appointed counsel to the Armstrong Insurance Commission, which investigated the major life insurance companies headquartered in New York. His examination of the insurance industry uncovered payments made to journalists and lobbyists as well as payments and other forms of compensation directed to legislators serving throughout the country. His investigation also showed that many top insurance executives had various conflicts of interest and had received huge raises at the same time that dividends to policyholders had fallen. Seeking to remove Hughes from the investigation, Republican leaders nominated him as the party's candidate for Mayor of New York City, but Hughes refused the nomination. His efforts ultimately resulted in the resignation or firing of most of the top-ranking officials in the three major life insurance companies in the United States. Following the investigation, Hughes convinced the state legislature to bar insurance companies from owning corporate stock, underwriting securities, or engaging in other banking practices. Roosevelt described Hughes as "a sane and sincere reformer, who really has fought against the very evils which Hearst denounces, ... [but is] free from any taint of demagogy." In his campaign for governor, Hughes attacked the corruption of specific companies but defended corporations as a necessary part of the economy. He also called for an eight-hour workday on public works projects and favored prohibitions on child labor. Hughes was not a charismatic speaker, but he campaigned vigorously throughout the state and won the endorsements of most newspapers. Ultimately, Hughes defeated Hearst in a close election, taking 52 percent of the vote. He also signed laws that barred younger workers from several dangerous occupations and established a maximum 48-hour workweek for manufacturing workers under the age of 16. To enforce those laws, Hughes reorganized the New York State Department of Labor. Hughes's labor policies were influenced by economist Richard T. Ely, who sought to improve working conditions for laborers, but rejected the more far-reaching reforms favored by union leaders like Samuel Gompers.Organizing the BaptistsThe busy governor found time to get involved in religious matters. A lifelong Northern Baptist, Hughes participated in the creation of the Northern Baptist Convention in May 1907. Hughes served the convention as its first president, beginning the task of unifying the thousands of independent Baptist churches across the North into one denomination. Previously, northern Baptists had only connected between local churches through mission societies and benevolent causes. The Northern Baptist Convention went on to become the historically important American Baptist Churches USA, which made this aspect of Hughes's life during his governorship a key part of his historical influence. Disappointing second term as governor However, Hughes's political role was changing. He had previously been close with Roosevelt, but relations between Hughes and the president cooled after a dispute over a minor federal appointment. Roosevelt chose not to seek re-election in 1908, instead endorsing Secretary of War William Howard Taft as his preferred successor. Taft won the Republican presidential nomination and asked Hughes to serve as his running mate, but Hughes declined the offer. Hughes also considered retiring from the governorship, but Taft and Roosevelt convinced him to seek a second term. Despite having little support among some of the more conservative leaders of the state party, Hughes won re-election in the 1908 election. Hughes's second term proved to be less successful than his first. His highest priority was a direct primary law, and it repeatedly failed to pass. He did obtain increased regulation over telephone and telegraph companies and won passage of the first workers' compensation bill in U.S. history. According to historian and journalist Henry F. Pringle, Hughes's sense of civic duty was a poor fit in a party-machine age, leaving "many faithful Republicans" with bitter memories of Hughes's "horrid notions of efficiency in government" that "ruthlessly disregarded necessary rewards for party workers."Associate Justice ]] By early 1910, Hughes was anxious to retire from his position as governor. A vacancy on the Supreme Court arose following the death of Associate Justice David J. Brewer, and Taft offered the position to Hughes, who quickly accepted the offer. Hughes was sworn in to the Supreme Court on October 10, 1910, and quickly struck up friendships with other members of the Court, including Chief Justice White, Associate Justice John Marshall Harlan, and Associate Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. In the disposition of cases, however, Hughes tended to align with Holmes. He voted to uphold state laws providing for minimum wages, workmen's compensation, and maximum work hours for women and children. He also wrote several opinions upholding the power of Congress to regulate interstate commerce under the Commerce Clause. His majority opinion in Baltimore & Ohio Railroad vs. Interstate Commerce Commission upheld the right of the federal government to regulate the hours of railroad workers. His majority opinion in the 1914 Shreveport Rate Case upheld the Interstate Commerce Commission's decision to void discriminatory railroad rates imposed by the Railroad Commission of Texas. The decision established that the federal government could regulate intrastate commerce when it affected interstate commerce, though Hughes avoided directly overruling the 1895 case of United States v. E. C. Knight Co. He also wrote a series of opinions that upheld civil liberties; in one such case, McCabe v. Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway Co., Hughes's majority opinion required railroad carriers to give African-Americans "equal treatment." Hughes's majority opinion in Bailey v. Alabama invalidated a state law that had made it a crime for a laborer to fail to complete obligations agreed to in a labor contract. Hughes held that this law violated the Thirteenth Amendment and discriminated against African-American workers. Hughes and Holmes were the only dissenters from the court's ruling that affirmed a lower court's decision to withhold a writ of habeas corpus from Leo Frank, a Jewish factory manager convicted of murder in the state of Georgia.Presidential candidate , during the 1916 presidential campaign campaigning on the Olympian]] Taft and Roosevelt endured a bitter split during Taft's presidency, and Roosevelt challenged Taft for the 1912 Republican presidential nomination. Taft won re-nomination, but Roosevelt ran on the ticket of a third party, the Progressive Party. With the split in the Republican Party, Democratic Governor Woodrow Wilson defeated Taft and Roosevelt in the 1912 presidential election and enacted his progressive New Freedom agenda. Seeking to bridge the divide in the Republican Party and limit Wilson to a single term, several Republican leaders asked Hughes to consider running in the 1916 presidential election. Hughes at first rebuffed those entreaties, but his potential candidacy became the subject of widespread speculation and polls showed that he was the preferred candidate of many Republican voters. By the time of the June 1916 Republican National Convention, Hughes had won two presidential primaries, and his backers had lined up the support of numerous delegates. Hughes led on the first presidential ballot of the convention and clinched the nomination on the third ballot. Hughes accepted the nomination, becoming the first and only sitting Supreme Court Justice to serve as a major party's presidential nominee, and submitted his resignation to President Wilson. Roosevelt, meanwhile, declined to run again on a third party ticket, leaving Hughes and Wilson as the only major candidates in the race. Because of the Republican Party's dominance in presidential elections held since the election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860, Hughes was widely regarded as the favorite even though Wilson was the incumbent. His candidacy was further boosted by his own reputation for intelligence, personal integrity, and moderation. Hughes also won the public support of both Taft and Roosevelt, though Roosevelt remained uneasy with Hughes, who he feared would be a "Wilson with whiskers." However, the 1912 split in Republican ranks remained a lingering issue, and Hughes damaged his campaign by deciding to base his California campaign with the conservative Republican regulars. Hiram Johnson, the Governor of California who had been Roosevelt's running mate in the 1912 election, endorsed Hughes but the Progressive forces ignored Hughes. Nationally, because of Hughes's opposition to the Adamson Act and the Sixteenth Amendment, most former Progressive Party leaders endorsed Wilson. By election day, Hughes was still generally considered to be the favorite. He performed strongly in the Northeast and early election returns looked good. Nevertheless, Woodrow Wilson, as expected, swept the Solid South while also winning several states in the Midwest and Great Plains, where his candidacy was boosted by a strong antiwar sentiment. Wilson ultimately prevailed after winning the decisive state of California by fewer than 4,000 votes. Return to law practice and political advising After the election, Hughes turned down offers from larger organizations and returned to his small law firm, now known as Hughes, Rounds, Schurman & Dwight. In March 1917, Hughes joined with many other Republican leaders in demanding that Wilson declare war on the Central Powers after Germany sank several American merchant ships. The next month, Wilson asked Congress for a declaration of war, and the United States entered World War I. Hughes supported Wilson's military policies, including the imposition of the draft, and he served as chairman of New York City's draft appeals board. He also investigated the aircraft industry on behalf of the Wilson administration, exposing numerous inefficiencies. He once again returned to private practice after the war, serving a wide array of clients, including five Socialists who had been expelled from the New York legislature for their political beliefs. He sought to broker a compromise between President Wilson and Senate Republicans regarding US entrance into Wilson's proposed League of Nations, but the Senate rejected the League and the Treaty of Versailles. With Wilson's popularity declining, many Republican leaders believed that their party would win the 1920 presidential election. Hughes remained popular in the party, and many influential Republicans favored him as the party's candidate in 1920. Hughes was struck by personal tragedy when his daughter, Helen, died in 1920 of tuberculosis, and he refused to allow his name to be considered for the presidential nomination at the 1920 Republican National Convention. The party instead nominated a ticket consisting of Senator Warren G. Harding of Ohio and Governor Calvin Coolidge of Massachusetts. The Republican ticket won in a landslide, taking 61 percent of the popular vote.Secretary of State Shortly after Harding's victory in the 1920 election, Hughes accepted the position of Secretary of State. Harding granted Hughes a great deal of discretion in his leadership of the State Department and US foreign policy. Harding and Hughes frequently communicated, Hughes worked within some broad outlines, and the president remained well-informed. However, the President rarely overrode any of Hughes's decisions, with the big and obvious exception of the League of Nations. After taking office, President Harding hardened his stance on the League of Nations to deciding the US would not join even a scaled-down version. Another view is that Harding favored joining with reservations when he assumed office on March 4, 1921, but senators staunchly opposed (the "Irreconcilables"), per Ronald E. Powaski's 1991 book, "threatened to wreck the new administration." Hughes favored membership in the League. Early in his tenure as Secretary of State, he asked the Senate to vote on the Treaty of Versailles, but he yielded to either Harding's changing views and/or the political reality within the Senate. Instead, he convinced Harding of the necessity of a separate treaty with Germany, resulting in the signing and eventual ratification of the U.S.–German Peace Treaty. Hughes also favored US entrance into the Permanent Court of International Justice but was unable to convince the Senate to provide support. Washington Naval Treaty Hughes's major initiative in office was preventing an arms race among the three great naval powers of Britain, Japan, and the United States. After Senator William Borah led passage of a resolution calling on the Harding administration to negotiate an arms reduction treaty with Japan and Britain, Hughes convinced those countries as well as Italy and France to attend a naval conference in Washington. Hughes selected an American delegation consisting of himself, former Secretary of State Elihu Root, Republican Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, and Democratic Senator Oscar Underwood. Hughes hoped that the selection of Underwood would ensure bipartisan support for any treaty arising from the conference. Prior to the conference, Hughes had carefully considered possible treaty terms since each side would seek terms that would provide its respective navy with subtle advantages. He decided to propose an arms reduction formula based on the immediate halting of all naval construction, with future construction limits based on the ship tonnage of each country. The formula would be based on the ship tonnage ratio of 1920, which stood at roughly 5:5:3 for the United States, Britain, and Japan, respectively. Knowing that US and foreign naval leaders would resist his proposal, he anxiously guarded it from the press, but he won the support of Root, Lodge, and Underwood. The Washington Naval Conference opened in November 1921, attended by five national delegations, and in the gallery by hundreds of reporters and dignitaries such as Chief Justice Taft and William Jennings Bryan. On the first day of the conference, Hughes unveiled his proposal to limit naval armaments. Hughes's ambitious proposal to scrap all US capital ships under construction stunned the delegates, as did his proposals for the Japanese and British Navies. The British delegation, led by Arthur Balfour, supported the proposal, but the Japanese delegation, under the leadership of Katō Tomosaburō, asked for several modifications. Katō asked for the ratio to be adjusted to 10:10:7 and refused to destroy the Mutsu, a dreadnought that many Japanese saw as a symbol of national pride. Katō eventually relented on the naval ratios, but Hughes acquiesced to the retention of the Mutsu, leading to protests from British leaders. Hughes clinched an agreement after convincing Balfour to agree to limit the size of the Admiral-class battlecruisers despite objections from the British Navy. Hughes also won agreement on the Four-Power Treaty, which called for a peaceful resolution of territorial claims in the Pacific Ocean, as well as the Nine-Power Treaty, which guaranteed the territorial integrity of China. News of the success of the conference was warmly received around the world. Franklin D. Roosevelt later wrote that the conference "brought to the world the first important voluntary agreement for limitation and reduction of armament." in 1922]] Other issues In the aftermath of World War I, the German economy struggled from the strain of postwar rebuilding and war reparations owed to the Entente, and the Entente powers in turn owed large war debts to the United States. Though many economists favored cancellation of all European war debts, French leaders were unwilling to cancel the reparations, and Congress refused to consider forgiving the war debts. Hughes helped organize the creation of an international committee of economists to study the possibility of lowering Germany's reparations, and Hughes selected Charles G. Dawes to lead that committee. The resulting Dawes Plan, which provided for annual payments by Germany, was accepted at a 1924 conference held in London. portrait by Georges Chevalier, 1924]] Hughes favored a closer relationship with the United Kingdom, and sought to coordinate US foreign policy with Great Britain concerning matters in Europe and Asia. Hughes sought better relations with the countries of Latin America, and he favored removing US troops when he believed that doing so was practicable. He formulated plans for the withdrawal of US soldiers from the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua but decided that instability in Haiti required the continued presence of US soldiers. He also settled a border dispute between Panama and Costa Rica by threatening to send soldiers into Panama. Hughes was the keynote speaker at the 1919 National Conference on Lynching. Return to private practice Hughes stayed on as Secretary of State in the Coolidge administration after the death of Harding in 1923, but he left office in early 1925. He once again returned to his law firm, becoming one of the highest-earning lawyers in the country. He also served as a special master in a case concerning Chicago's sewage system, was elected president of the American Bar Association, and co-founded the National Conference on Christians and Jews. State party leaders asked him to run against Al Smith in New York's 1926 gubernatorial election, and some national party leaders suggested that he run for president in 1928, but Hughes declined to seek public office. After the 1928 Republican National Convention nominated Herbert Hoover, Hughes gave Hoover his full support and campaigned for him across the United States. Hoover won the election in a landslide and asked Hughes to serve as his Secretary of State, but Hughes declined the offer to keep his commitment to serve as a judge on the Permanent Court of International Justice. Judge of the Permanent Court of International Justice Hughes served on the Permanent Court of International Justice from 1928 until 1930.Chief JusticeRejoining the Supreme Court '' cover, December 29, 1924]] On February 3, 1930, President Hoover nominated Hughes to succeed Chief Justice Taft, who was gravely ill. Though many had expected Hoover to elevate his close friend, Associate Justice Harlan Stone, Hughes was the top choice of Taft and Attorney General William D. Mitchell. Though Hughes had compiled a progressive record during his tenure as an Associate Justice, by 1930 Taft believed that Hughes would be a consistent conservative on the court. The nomination faced resistance from progressive Republicans such as senators George W. Norris and William E. Borah, who were concerned that Hughes would be overly friendly to big business after working as a corporate lawyer. Many of those progressives, as well some Southern states' rights advocates, were outraged by the Taft Court's tendency to strike down state and federal legislation on the basis of the doctrine of substantive due process and feared that a Hughes Court would emulate the Taft Court. Adherents of the substantive due process doctrine held that economic regulations such as restrictions on child labor and minimum wages violated freedom of contract, which, they argued, could not be abridged by federal and state laws because of the Fifth Amendment and the Fourteenth Amendment. The Senate Judiciary Committee held no hearings, and voted to favorably report on Hughes's nomination by a 10–2 vote on February 10, 1930. On February 13, 1930, the Senate voted 31–49 against sending his nomination back to committee. After a brief but bitter confirmation battle, Hughes was confirmed by the Senate on February 13, 1930, in a 52–26 vote, and he took his judicial oath of office on February 24, 1930. Hughes quickly emerged as a leader of the Court, earning the admiration of his fellow justices for his intelligence, energy, and strong understanding of the law. Shortly after Hughes was confirmed, Hoover nominated federal judge John J. Parker to succeed deceased Associate Justice Edward Terry Sanford. The Senate rejected Parker, whose earlier rulings had alienated labor unions and the NAACP, but confirmed Hoover's second nominee, Owen Roberts. In early 1932, the other justices asked Hughes to request the resignation of Oliver Wendell Holmes, whose health had declined as he entered his nineties. Hughes privately asked his old friend to retire, and Holmes immediately sent a letter of resignation to President Hoover. To replace Holmes, Hoover nominated Benjamin N. Cardozo, who quickly won confirmation. The early Hughes Court was divided between the conservative "Four Horsemen" and the liberal "Three Musketeers". Hughes and Roberts were the swing justices between the two blocs for much of the 1930s.In one of the first major cases of his tenure, Hughes joined with Roberts and the Three Musketeers to strike down a piece of state legislation in the 1931 landmark case of Near v. Minnesota. In his majority opinion, Hughes held that the First Amendment barred states from violating freedom of the press. Hughes also wrote the majority opinion in Stromberg v. California, which represented the first time the Supreme Court struck down a state law on the basis of the incorporation of the Bill of Rights.Later tenure served alongside Hughes on the Supreme Court]] After 1937, the Hughes Court continued to uphold economic regulations, with McReynolds and Butler often being the lone dissenters. The liberal bloc was strengthened even further in 1940, when Butler was succeeded by another Roosevelt appointee, Frank Murphy. In the case of United States v. Carolene Products Co., Justice Stone's majority opinion articulated a broad theory of deference to economic regulations. Carolene Products established that the Supreme Court would conduct a "rational basis review" of economic regulations, meaning that the Court would only strike down a regulation if legislators lacked a "rational basis" for passing the regulation. The Supreme Court showed that it would defer to state legislators in the cases of Madden v. Kentucky and Olsen v. Nebraska. Hughes joined the majority in another case, United States v. Darby Lumber Co., which upheld the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938. The Hughes Court also faced several civil rights cases. Hughes wrote the majority opinion in Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada, which required the state of Missouri to either integrate its law school or establish a separate law school for African-Americans. He joined and helped arrange unanimous support for Black's majority opinion in Chambers v. Florida, which overturned the conviction of a defendant who had been coerced into confessing a crime. In the 1940 case of Minersville School District v. Gobitis, Hughes joined the majority decision, which held that public schools could require students to salute the American flag despite the students' religious objections to these practices. Hughes began to consider retiring in 1940, partly due to the declining health of his wife. In June 1941, he informed Roosevelt of his impending retirement. Hughes suggested that Roosevelt elevate Stone to the position of Chief Justice, a suggestion that Roosevelt accepted. Hughes retired in 1941, and Stone was confirmed as the new Chief Justice, beginning the Stone Court. Retirement and death During his retirement, Hughes generally refrained from re-entering public life or giving advice on public policy, but he agreed to review the United Nations Charter for Secretary of State Cordell Hull, and recommended that President Harry S. Truman appoint Fred M. Vinson as Chief Justice after the death of Stone. He lived in New York City with his wife, Antoinette, until she died in December 1945. On August 27, 1948, at the age of 86, Hughes died in what is now the Tiffany Cottage of the Wianno Club in Osterville, Massachusetts. When he died, Hughes was the last living Justice to have served on the White Court. He is interred at Woodlawn Cemetery in the Bronx, New York City. Legacy In the evaluation of historian Dexter Perkins, in domestic politics: :Hughes was a happy mixture of the liberal and the conservative. He was wise enough to know that you cannot preserve a social order unless you eradicate its abuses, and so he was never a stand-patter. On the other side he could see that change carried perils as well as promises. Sometimes he stood out against these perils. He was not always wise, it is true. We do not have to agree with him in everything. But he stands a noble and constructive figure in American life. In the consensus view of scholars, Hughes as a diplomat was: : an outstanding Secretary of State. He possessed a clear vision of America's position in the new international system. The United States would be a world leader, not only in terms of its ability to provide material progress, but also by its advocacy of diplomacy and arbitration over military force. Hughes was fully committed to the supremacy of negotiation and the maintenance of American foreign policy. This quality was combined with an ability to maintain a clear sense of the larger goals of American diplomacy ... He was able to maintain control over US foreign policy and take the country into a new role as a world power. Hughes has been honored in a variety of ways, including in the names of several schools, rooms, and events. Other things named for Hughes include the Hughes Range in Antarctica. On April 11, 1962, the 100th anniversary of Hughes's birth, the U.S. Post Office issued a commemorative stamp in his honor. The Charles Evans Hughes House, now the Burmese ambassador's residence, in Washington, D.C., was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1972. Judge Learned Hand once observed that Hughes was the greatest lawyer he had ever known, "except that his son (Charles Evans Hughes Jr.) was even greater."See also * Demographics of the Supreme Court of the United States * List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States * List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 6) * List of United States Supreme Court cases by the White Court Notes References Works cited * * * * * * * * * * * * * Further reading * * * * * * * * * * * Henretta, James A. "Charles Evans Hughes and the strange death of liberal America." Law and History Review 24.1 (2006): 115–171. * * * * Two volumes. The standard scholarly biography. * Shaw, Stephen K., William D. Pederson, and Michael R. Williams. Franklin D. Roosevelt and the transformation of the Supreme Court (Routledge, 2015). * * Primary sources * Hughes, Charles Evans. Addresses and papers of Charles Evans Hughes, governor of New York, 1906-1908 (GP Putnam's Sons, 1908) [https://books.google.com/books?idWhZCAAAAIAAJ&dqCharles+Evans+Hughes&pg=PR7 online] * Hughes, Charles Evans. Addresses of Charles Evans Hughes, 1906-1916 (GP Putnam's sons, 1916) [https://books.google.com/books?idiHNLAAAAMAAJ&dqCharles+Evans+Hughes&pg=PR43 online]. * External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090207190754/http://www.supremecourthistory.org/02_history/subs_history/02_c11.html The Hughes Court at] Supreme Court Historical Society. * [http://www.c-span.org/video/?301272-1/charles-evans-hughes-presidential-contender "Charles Evans Hughes, Presidential Contender"] from C-SPAN's The Contenders * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050220172237/http://air.fjc.gov/servlet/tGetMan?jid=1113 Judge Manuscript Information: Charles Evans Hughes]. List of archives with documents via [https://web.archive.org/web/20050414085006/http://air.fjc.gov/history/judges_frm.html Judges of the United States Courts]. Retrieved April 15, 2005. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060213233607/http://www.supremecourthistory.org/myweb/81journal/hughesetcata81.htm Archives at the Supreme Court Historical Society] * [https://archive.org/details/evanshughesadd00hughrich Addresses of Charles Evans Hughes, 1906–1916; with an introduction] * [https://findingaids.library.columbia.edu/ead/nnc-rb/ldpd_4078919 Finding aid to Charles Evans Hughes papers at Columbia University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library.] \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- Category:1862 births Category:1948 deaths Category:20th-century American judges Category:American legal scholars Category:American people of Welsh descent Category:Brown University alumni Category:Burials at Woodlawn Cemetery (Bronx, New York) Category:Chief justices of the United States Category:Colgate University alumni Category:Columbia Law School alumni Category:Coolidge administration cabinet members Category:Cornell Law School faculty Category:Republican Party governors of New York (state) Category:Harding administration cabinet members Category:New York (state) lawyers Category:New York State College of Forestry Category:Politicians from Glens Falls, New York Category:Permanent Court of International Justice judges Category:Progressive Era in the United States Category:Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees Category:United States federal judges appointed by Herbert Hoover Category:United States federal judges appointed by William Howard Taft Category:Candidates in the 1908 United States presidential election Category:Candidates in the 1916 United States presidential election Category:United States secretaries of state Category:American judges of international courts and tribunals Category:Baptists from New York (state) Category:People from the Upper West Side Category:Family of Charles Evans Hughes Category:Presidents of the American Society of International Law Category:People associated with Willkie Farr & Gallagher Category:Members of the American Philosophical Society Category:Delta Upsilon members Category:American anti-corruption activists	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes	2025-04-05T18:28:11.231377
7527	Concept album	(saluting on top) leading a live performance of Pink Floyd's The Wall, one of the best-known concept albums of all time In the 1960s several well-regarded concept albums were released by various rock bands, which eventually led to the birth of progressive rock and rock opera.DefinitionsThere is no clear definition of a "concept album". A precursor to this type of album can be found in the 19th-century song cycle, which ran into similar difficulties in classification. The extremely broad definitions of a "concept album" could potentially encompass all soundtracks, compilations, cast recordings, greatest hits albums, tribute albums, Christmas albums, and live albums. The most common definitions refer to an expanded approach to a rock album (as a story, play, or opus), or a project that either revolves around a specific theme or a collection of related materials. AllMusic writes, "A concept album could be a collection of songs by an individual songwriter or a particular theme – these are the concept LPs that reigned in the '50s ... the phrase 'concept album' is inextricably tied to the late 1960s, when rock & rollers began stretching the limits of their art form." Author Jim Cullen describes it as "a collection of discrete but thematically unified songs whose whole is greater than the sum of its parts ... sometimes [erroneously] assumed to be a product of the rock era." Author Roy Shuker defines concept albums and rock operas as albums that are "unified by a theme, which can be instrumental, compositional, narrative, or lyrical. ... In this form, the album changed from a collection of heterogeneous songs into a narrative work with a single theme, in which individual songs segue into one another." Speaking of concepts in albums during the 1970s, Robert Christgau wrote in ''Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies (1981), because "overall impression" of an album matters, "concept intensifies the impact" of certain albums "in more or less the way Sgt. Pepper intended", as well as "a species of concept that pushes a rhythmically unrelenting album like The Wild Magnolias'' or a vocally irresistible one like Shirley Brown's Woman to Woman, to a deeper level of significance." History 1940s–50s: Origins <!--- Information that is not verified with a reliable source will be removed. Do not fill this section with miscellaneous examples of concept albums that fail to elaborate on their significance. ---> In the 2016 BBC documentary When Pop Went Epic: The Crazy World of the Concept Album, it is suggested that the first concept album is Woody Guthrie's 1940 album Dust Bowl Ballads. The Independent regards it as "perhaps" one of the first concept albums, consisting exclusively of semi-autobiographical songs about the hardships of American migrant labourers during the 1930s. In the late 1940s, the LP record was introduced, with space age pop composers producing concept albums soon after. Themes included exploring wild life and dealing with emotions, with some albums meant to be played while dining or relaxing. This was accompanied in the mid-1950s with the invention of the gatefold, which allowed room for liner notes to explain the concept. in Capitol Records Studio A, 1956, during the recording of his album ''Songs for Swingin' Lovers!]] Singer Frank Sinatra recorded several concept albums prior to the 1960s rock era, including In the Wee Small Hours (1955) and Frank Sinatra Sings for Only the Lonely (1958). Sinatra is occasionally credited as the inventor of the concept album, beginning with The Voice of Frank Sinatra (1946), which led to similar work by Bing Crosby. According to biographer Will Friedwald, Sinatra "sequenced the songs so that the lyrics created a flow from track to track, affording an impression of a narrative, as in musical comedy or opera. ... [He was the] first pop singer to bring a consciously artistic attitude to recording." Singer/pianist Nat "King" Cole (who, along with Sinatra, often collaborated with arranger Nelson Riddle during this era) was also an early pioneer of concept albums, as with his Wild Is Love'' (1960), a suite of original songs about a man's search for love. 1960s: Rock and country music In the early 1960s, concept albums became highly featured in American country music, but the fact went largely unacknowledged by rock/pop fans and critics, who would only begin noting "concept albums" as a phenomenon later in the decade, when albums became closely aligned with countercultural ideology, resulting in a recognised "album era" and the introduction of the rock concept album. The author Carys Wyn Jones writes that the Beach Boys' Pet Sounds (1966), the Beatles' Revolver (1966) and ''Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band'' (1967), and the Who's Tommy (1969) are variously cited as "the first concept album", usually for their "uniform excellence rather than some lyrical theme or underlying musical motif". Other records have been claimed as "early" or "first" concept albums. The Beach Boys' first six albums, released over 1962–64, featured collections of songs unified respectively by a central concept, such as cars, surfing, and teenage lifestyles. <!--- Further source for LDC: ---> Writing in 101 Albums That Changed Popular Music, Chris Smith commented: "Though albums such as Frank Sinatra's 1955 In the Wee Small Hours and Marty Robbins' 1959 Gunfighter Ballads and Trail Songs had already introduced concept albums, [the Beach Boys' 1963 album] Little Deuce Coupe was the first to comprise almost all original material rather than standard covers." Music historian Larry Starr, who identifies the Beach Boys' 1964 releases Shut Down Volume 2 and All Summer Long as heralding the album era, cites Pet Sounds as the first rock concept album on the basis that it had been "conceived as an integrated whole, with interrelated songs arranged in a deliberate sequence." The 100 Greatest Bands of All Time (2015) states that the Ventures "pioneered the idea of the rock concept album years before the genre is generally acknowledged to have been born". Writing in his Concise Dictionary of Popular Culture, Marcel Danesi identifies the Beatles' Rubber Soul (1965) and the Who's The Who Sell Out (1967) as other examples of early concept albums. Brian Boyd of The Irish Times names the Kinks' Face to Face (1966) as the first concept album: "Written entirely by Ray Davies, the songs were supposed to be linked by pieces of music, so that the album would play without gaps, but the record company baulked at such radicalism. It's not one of the band's finest works, but it did have an impact." "Popular consensus" for the first rock concept album, according to AllMusic, favours Sgt. Pepper. Music critic and journalist Neil Slaven stated that Frank Zappa's Absolutely Free, released the same day as Sgt. Pepper, was "very much a concept album, but The Beatles effortlessly stole his thunder", and subsequently Sgt. Pepper was hailed as "perhaps the first 'concept album' even though the songs were unrelated." 1960s–70s: Rock operas, progressive rock, soul, and disco <!--- Information that is not verified with a reliable source will be removed. Do not fill this section with miscellaneous examples of concept albums that fail to elaborate on their significance. --->Author Bill Martin relates the assumed concept albums of the 1960s to progressive rock: }} recreating their concept album The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway'' (1974) for a live performance. Band member Peter Gabriel is wearing a costume for one of the album's characters.]] Popmatters Sarah Zupko notes that while the Who's Tommy is "popularly thought of as the first rock opera, an extra-long concept album with characters, a consistent storyline, and a slight bit of pomposity", it is preceded by the shorter concept albums ''Ogdens' Nut Gone Flake (Small Faces, 1968) and S.F. Sorrow'' (The Pretty Things, 1968). Author Jim Cullen states: "The concept album reached its apogee in the 1970s in ambitious records like Pink Floyd's Dark Side of the Moon (1973) and the Eagles' Hotel California (1976)." In 2015, Rolling Stone ranked Dark Side of the Moon at number one among the 50 greatest progressive rock albums of all time, also noting the LP's stature as the second-best-selling album of all time. Pink Floyd's The Wall (1979), a semi-autobiographical story modeled after the band's Roger Waters and former member Syd Barrett, is one of the most famous concept albums by any artist. In addition to The Wall, Danesi highlights Genesis' The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway (1974) and Frank Zappa's ''Joe's Garage'' (1979) as other culturally significant concept albums. According to author Edward Macan, concept albums as a recurrent theme in progressive rock was directly inspired by the counterculture associated with "the proto-progressive bands of the 1960s", observing: "the consistent use of lengthy forms such as the programmatic song cycle of the concept album and the multimovement suite underscores the hippies' new, drug-induced conception of time." Progressive soul musicians inspired by this approach conceived concept albums during this era reflecting themes and concerns of the African-American experience, including Marvin Gaye (1971's ''What's Going On), George Clinton (the 1975 Parliament album Mothership Connection''), and Stevie Wonder's Innervisions (1973) and Songs in the Key of Life (1976). By the mid-1970s, concept albums extended to disco music artists. Examples include Phylicia Rashad's 1978 album Josephine Superstar, which details the life of film star and activist Josephine Baker; Parliament's Mothership Connection (1975) featuring space disco elements such as sci-fi, UFOs, galactic exploration, and spaceflight; and The Undisputed Truth's Method to the Madness (1976) which is framed by the group's abduction by aliens and performance for "the Space Gods". 1980s–present: Decline and return to popularity <!--- Information that is not verified with a reliable source will be removed. Do not fill this section with miscellaneous examples of concept albums that fail to elaborate on their significance. ---> With the emergence of MTV as a music video network which valued singles over albums, concept albums became less dominant in the 1980s. My Chemical Romance’s The Black Parade (2006) is another example of a modern concept album. Dorian Lynskey, writing for GQ, noted a resurgence of concept albums in the 2010s due to streaming: "This is happening not in spite of the rise of streaming and playlists, but because of it. Threatened with redundancy in the digital era, albums have fought back by becoming more album-like." Cucchiara argues that concept albums should also describe "this new generation of concept albums, for one key reason. This is because the unison between the songs on a particular album has now been expanded into a broader field of visual and artistic design and marketing strategies that play into the themes and stories that form the album." A year later, Iron Maiden's, Seventh Son of a Seventh Son, released in 1988, would become one of the most notable examples of a heavy metal concept album at the time. Thus it could be argued that from the genre's inception, progressive metal has been a hotspot for concept albums, like its rock counterpart. Other notable progressive metal concept albums are Dream Theater's Metropolis Pt. 2: Scenes from a Memory, Opeth's Still Life, In the 21st century, the field of classical music has adopted the idea of the concept album, citing such historical examples as Schubert's Winterreise and Schumann's Liederkreis as prototypes for contemporary composers and musicians. Classical composers and performers increasingly adopt production and marketing strategies that unify otherwise disparate works into concept albums or concerts. Since 2019, the classical music magazine Gramophone has included a special category for "concept album" in its annual recordings of the year awards, to celebrate "albums where a creative mind has curated something visionary, a programme whose whole speaks more powerfully than its parts. A thought-through journey, which compels to be heard in one sitting." In a year-ending essay on the album in 2019, Ann Powers wrote for Slate that the year found the medium in a state of flux. In her observation, many recording artists revitalized the concept album around autobiographical narratives and personal themes, such as intimacy, intersectionality, African-American life, boundaries among women, and grief associated with death. She cited such albums as Brittany Howard's Jaime, Raphael Saadiq's Jimmy Lee, Jamila Woods' Legacy! Legacy!, Rapsody's Eve, Jenny Lewis' On the Line, Julia Jacklin's Crushing, Joe Henry's The Gospel According to Water, and Nick Cave's Ghosteen. EPIC: The Musical, a series of concept albums retelling The Odyssey, arose to massive popularity, with its first release in January 2023 surpassing three million streams within its first week of release and the musical remaining popular as subsequent "saga" albums were released. See also * List of concept albums * Visual album * Leitmotif Notes ReferencesBibliography * * * * * }} * * * * * * \|isbn978-0-394-55061-9}} * * }} * * * * * Further reading * * Category:Album types Category:1967 neologisms	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept_album	2025-04-05T18:28:11.306955
7530	Cro-hook	The cro-hook is a special double-ended crochet hook used to make double-sided crochet. It employs the use of a long double-ended hook, which permits the maker to work stitches on or off from either end. Because the hook has two ends, two alternating colors of thread can be used simultaneously and freely interchanged, working loops over the hook. Crafts using a double-ended hook are commercially marketed as Cro-hook and Crochenit. Cro-hook is a variation of Tunisian crochet and also shows similarities with the Afghan stitch used to make Afghan scarves, but the fabric is typically softer with greater elasticity. References External links A Cro-Hooking Tutorial Category:Crochet	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cro-hook	2025-04-05T18:28:11.328802
7531	Clavichord	The clavichord is a stringed rectangular keyboard instrument that was used largely in the Late Middle Ages, through the Renaissance, Baroque and Classical eras. Historically, it was mostly used as a practice instrument and as an aid to composition, not being loud enough for larger performances. History and use thumb\|The "Lépante" fretted clavichord, Musée de la Musique, Paris The clavichord was invented in the early fourteenth century. In 1404, the German poem "" mentions the terms clavicimbalum (a term used mainly for the harpsichord) and clavichordium, designating them as the best instruments to accompany melodies. One of the earliest references to the clavichord in England occurs in the privy-purse expenses of Elizabeth of York, queen of Henry VII, in an entry dated August 1502: Item. The same day, Hugh Denys for money by him delivered to a stranger that gave the queen a payre of clavycordes. In crowns form his reward iiii libres. The clavichord was very popular from the 16th century to the 18th century, but mainly flourished in German-speaking lands, Scandinavia, and the Iberian Peninsula in the latter part of this period. It had fallen out of use by 1850. In the late 1890s, Arnold Dolmetsch revived clavichord construction and Violet Gordon-Woodhouse, among others, helped to popularize the instrument. Although most of the instruments built before the 1730s were small (four octaves, four feet long), the latest instruments were built up to seven feet long with a six octave range. thumb\|Tangents In the clavichord, strings run transversely from the hitchpin rail at the left-hand end to tuning pegs on the right. Towards the right end they pass over a curved wooden bridge. The action is simple, with the keys being levers with a small brass tangent, a small piece of metal similar in shape and size to the head of a flat-bladed screwdriver, at the far end. The strings, which are usually of brass, or else a combination of brass and iron, are usually arranged in pairs, like a lute or mandolin. When the key is pressed, the tangent strikes the strings above, causing them to sound in a similar fashion to the hammering technique on a guitar. Unlike in a piano action, the tangent does not rebound from the string; rather, it stays in contact with the string as long as the key is held, acting as both the nut and as the initiator of sound. The volume of the note can be changed by striking harder or softer, and the pitch can also be affected by varying the force of the tangent against the string (known as Bebung). When the key is released, the tangent loses contact with the string and the vibration of the string is silenced by strips of damping cloth. thumb\|left\|Detail of the Clavichord at Museu de la Música de Barcelona The action of the clavichord is unique among all keyboard instruments in that one part of the action simultaneously initiates the sound vibration while at the same time defining the endpoint of the vibrating string, and thus its pitch. Because of this intimate contact between the player's hand and the production of sound, the clavichord has been referred to as the most intimate of keyboard instruments. Despite its many (serious) limitations, including extremely low volume, it has considerable expressive power, the player being able to control attack, duration, and volume, and even provide certain subtle effects of swelling of tone and a type of vibrato unique to the clavichord. Fretting thumb\|left\|Large five-octave unfretted clavichord by Paul Maurici, after J.A. Hass thumb\|Fretted clavichord, copy of an unsigned instrument conserved in Namur, Belgium. The way the same string pair is used for several notes is clearly visible in the full size image.\|left Since the string vibrates from the bridge only as far as the tangent, multiple keys with multiple tangents can be assigned to the same string. This is called fretting. Early clavichords frequently had many notes played on each string, even going so far as the keyed monochord—an instrument with only one string—though most clavichords were triple- or double-fretted. Since only one note can be played at a time on each string, the fretting pattern is generally chosen so that notes rarely heard together (such as C and C) share a string pair. The advantages of this system compared with unfretted instruments (see below) include relative ease of tuning (with around half as many strings to keep in tune), greater volume (though still not really enough for use in chamber music), and a clearer, more direct sound. Among the disadvantages: temperament could not be re-set without bending the tangents; and playing required a further refinement of touch, since notes sharing a single string played in quick succession had to be slightly separated to avoid a disagreeable deadening of the sound, potentially disturbing a legato line. Some clavichords have been built with a single pair of strings for each note. The first known reference to one was by Johann Speth in 1693 and the earliest such extant signed and dated clavichord was built in 1716 by Johann Michael Heinitz. Such instruments are referred to as unfretted whereas instruments using the same strings for several notes are called fretted. Among the advantages to unfretted instruments are flexibility in tuning (the temperament can be easily altered) and the ability to play any music exactly as written without concern for "bad" notes. Disadvantages include a smaller volume, even though many or most unfretted instruments tend to be significantly larger than fretted instruments; and many more strings to keep in tune. Unfretted instruments tend to have a sweeter, less incisive tone due to the greater load on the bridge resulting from the greater number of strings, though the large, late (early 19th century) Swedish clavichords tend to be the loudest of any of the historic clavichords. Pedal clavichord thumb\|J. Verscheure Reynvaan: engraving of an eighteenth-century pedal clavichord While clavichords were typically single manual instruments, they could be stacked, one clavichord on top of another, to provide multiple keyboards. With the addition of a pedal clavichord, which included a pedal keyboard for the lower notes, a clavichord could be used to practice organ repertoire. Most often, the addition of a pedal keyboard only involved connecting the keys of the pedalboard to the lower notes on the manual clavichord using string so the lower notes on the manual instrument could be operated by the feet. In the era of pipe organs, which used man-powered bellows that required several people to operate, and of churches only heated during church services if at all, organists used pedal harpsichords and pedal clavichords as practice instruments (see also: pedal piano). There is speculation that some works written for organ may have been intended for pedal clavichord. An interesting case is made by that Bach's "Eight Little Preludes and Fugues", now thought spurious, may actually be authentic. The keyboard writing seems unsuited to organ, but Speerstra argues that they are idiomatic on the pedal clavichord. As Speerstra and also note, the compass of the keyboard parts of Bach's six trio sonatas for organ (BWV 525–530) rarely go below the tenor C, so they could have been played on a single manual pedal clavichord, by moving the left hand down an octave, a customary practice in the 18th century. Repertoire Much of the musical repertoire written for harpsichord and organ from the period circa 1400–1800 can be played on the clavichord; however, it does not have enough (unamplified) volume to participate in chamber music, with the possible exception of providing accompaniment to a soft baroque flute, recorder, or single singer. J. S. Bach's son Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach was a great proponent of the instrument, and most of his German contemporaries regarded it as a central keyboard instrument, for performing, teaching, composing and practicing. The fretting of a clavichord provides new problems for some repertoire, but scholarship suggests that these problems are not insurmountable in Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier. C. P. E. Bach, one of the leading representatives of the 'Empfindsamer stil' or 'Sensitive Style,' emphasized emotional depth and expressiveness in his compositions. The clavichord was very successful in conveying these characteristics. With its unique sound, touch sensitivity, and ability to convey the most delicate nuances, the clavichord became C. P. E. Bach's most preferred instrument. C. P. E. Bach also used the fortepiano in his compositions, but he was much more interested in the technical features provided by the clavichord. He mentioned this in his book (Versuch über die wahre, Art das Clavier zu spielen, Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, Berlin, 1759.): "Of the many keyboard instruments, many of which are little known because of defects, or because they have not yet been introduced everywhere, there are two which have been most widely acclaimed, the harpsichord and the clavichord. The former is used mainly in louder music, the latter alone. The more recent pianofortes, when they are durable and well built, have many advantages, although their touch must be carefully worked out, a task which is not without difficulties. They sound well by themselves and in small ensembles. Yet, I hold that a good clavichord, except for its weaker tone, shares equally in the attractiveness of the pianoforte and in addition features the vibrato (Bebung) and portato (Tragen der Töne) which I produce by means of added pressure after each stroke. It is at the clavichord that a keyboard player may be most exactly evaluated." Among recent clavichord recordings, those by Christopher Hogwood (The Secret Bach, The Secret Handel, and The Secret Mozart), break new ground. In his liner notes, Hogwood pointed out that these composers would typically have played the clavichord in the privacy of their homes. In England, the composer Herbert Howells (1892–1983) wrote two significant collections of pieces for clavichord (Lambert's Clavichord and Howells' Clavichord), and Stephen Dodgson (1924–2013) wrote two clavichord suites. In a note written by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's wife, Constanze Mozart (1761–1842), found inside Mozart's clavichord, it is mentioned that Mozart composed his works, including The Magic Flute, La Clemenza di Tito, The Requiem, and a Masonic Cantata, on this clavichord. Haydn composed the greater part of "The Creation", one of his masterpieces, on the clavichord. He used the clavichord to accompany the voice. See also Harpsichord References Boalch-Mould Online A searchable database of 2000+ harpsichord and clavichord makers, 2500 instruments, and 4300 instrument photos. Citations Works cited Further reading External links Introduction of "The Clavichord" by Bernard Brauchli "What Is a Clavichord?" by Julian Perkins; a brief introduction to the clavichord for BBC Music Magazine Clavichord International British Clavichord Society Boston Clavichord Society "Clavecin-pédalier" by Yves Rechsteiner, 2001 Clavichords at the house of Heinrich Schütz Historical clavichords at the Metropolitan Museum of Art Clavichord by Christian Kintzing, Neuwied, Germany, 1763 Clavichord by John Christopher Jesse, Halberstadt, Germany, 1765 Clavichord, Germany, 18th century Category:String instruments Category:Keyboard instruments Category:Box zithers Category:Early musical instruments	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clavichord	2025-04-05T18:28:11.367544
7534	Centripetal force	Centripetal force (from Latin centrum, "center" and petere, "to seek") is the force that makes a body follow a curved path. The direction of the centripetal force is always orthogonal to the motion of the body and towards the fixed point of the instantaneous center of curvature of the path. Isaac Newton described it as "a force by which bodies are drawn or impelled, or in any way tend, towards a point as to a centre". In Newtonian mechanics, gravity provides the centripetal force causing astronomical orbits. One common example involving centripetal force is the case in which a body moves with uniform speed along a circular path. The centripetal force is directed at right angles to the motion and also along the radius towards the centre of the circular path. The mathematical description was derived in 1659 by the Dutch physicist Christiaan Huygens. Formula From the kinematics of curved motion it is known that an object moving at tangential speed v along a path with radius of curvature r accelerates toward the center of curvature at a rate <math display"block" qid"Q2248131">\textbf{a}_c \lim_{\Delta t \to 0} \frac{\Delta \textbf{v}}{\Delta t}, \quad a_c \frac{v^2}{r}</math> Here, <math>a_c</math> is the centripetal acceleration and <math>\Delta \textbf{v}</math> is the difference between the velocity vectors at <math>t+\Delta{t}</math> and <math>t</math>. By Newton's second law, the cause of acceleration is a net force acting on the object, which is proportional to its mass m and its acceleration. The force, usually referred to as a centripetal force, has a magnitude <math display"block" qid"Q172881">F_c ma_c m\frac{v^2}{r}</math> and is, like centripetal acceleration, directed toward the center of curvature of the object's trajectory. Derivation The centripetal acceleration can be inferred from the diagram of the velocity vectors at two instances. In the case of uniform circular motion the velocities have constant magnitude. Because each one is perpendicular to its respective position vector, simple vector subtraction implies two similar isosceles triangles with congruent angles – one comprising a base of <math>\Delta \textbf{v}</math> and a leg length of <math>v</math>, and the other a base of <math>\Delta \textbf{r}</math> (position vector difference) and a leg length of <math>r</math>: <math display"block">\frac{\|\Delta \textbf{v}\|}{v} \frac{\|\Delta \textbf{r}\|}{r}</math> <math display"block">\|\Delta \textbf{v}\| \frac{v}{r}\|\Delta \textbf{r}\|</math> Therefore, <math>\|\Delta\textbf{v}\|</math> can be substituted with <math>\frac{v}{r} \|\Delta \textbf{r}\|</math>: The speed in the formula is squared, so twice the speed needs four times the force, at a given radius. This force is also sometimes written in terms of the angular velocity ω of the object about the center of the circle, related to the tangential velocity by the formula <math display"block">v \omega r</math> so that <math display"block">F_c m r \omega^2 \,.</math> Expressed using the orbital period T for one revolution of the circle, <math display"block" qidQ161635>\omega = \frac{2\pi}{T} </math> the equation becomes <math display"block">F_c m r \left(\frac{2\pi}{T}\right)^2.</math> In particle accelerators, velocity can be very high (close to the speed of light in vacuum) so the same rest mass now exerts greater inertia (relativistic mass) thereby requiring greater force for the same centripetal acceleration, so the equation becomes: <math display"block">F_c \frac{\gamma m v^2}{r}</math> where <math display"block" qidQ599404>\gamma = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\frac{v^2}{c^2}}}</math> is the Lorentz factor. Thus the centripetal force is given by: <math display"block">F_c \gamma m v \omega</math> which is the rate of change of relativistic momentum <math>\gamma m v</math>. Sources requires a centripetal force, towards the axis as shown, to maintain its circular path.]] In the case of an object that is swinging around on the end of a rope in a horizontal plane, the centripetal force on the object is supplied by the tension of the rope. The rope example is an example involving a 'pull' force. The centripetal force can also be supplied as a 'push' force, such as in the case where the normal reaction of a wall supplies the centripetal force for a wall of death or a Rotor rider. Newton's idea of a centripetal force corresponds to what is nowadays referred to as a central force. When a satellite is in orbit around a planet, gravity is considered to be a centripetal force even though in the case of eccentric orbits, the gravitational force is directed towards the focus, and not towards the instantaneous center of curvature. Another example of centripetal force arises in the helix that is traced out when a charged particle moves in a uniform magnetic field in the absence of other external forces. In this case, the magnetic force is the centripetal force that acts towards the helix axis. Analysis of several cases Below are three examples of increasing complexity, with derivations of the formulas governing velocity and acceleration. Uniform circular motion Uniform circular motion refers to the case of constant rate of rotation. Here are two approaches to describing this case. Calculus derivation In two dimensions, the position vector <math>\textbf{r}</math>, which has magnitude (length) <math>r</math> and directed at an angle <math>\theta</math> above the x-axis, can be expressed in Cartesian coordinates using the unit vectors <math alt"x-hat">\hat\mathbf x</math> and <math alt"y-hat">\hat\mathbf y</math>: <math display"block"> \textbf{r} r \cos(\theta) \hat\mathbf x + r \sin(\theta) \hat\mathbf y. </math> The assumption of uniform circular motion requires three things: # The object moves only on a circle. # The radius of the circle <math>r</math> does not change in time. # The object moves with constant angular velocity <math>\omega</math> around the circle. Therefore, <math>\theta = \omega t</math> where <math>t</math> is time. The velocity <math>\textbf{v}</math> and acceleration <math>\textbf{a}</math> of the motion are the first and second derivatives of position with respect to time: <math display"block"> \textbf{r} r \cos(\omega t) \hat\mathbf x + r \sin(\omega t) \hat\mathbf y, </math> <math display"block" qid"Q11465"> \textbf{v} \dot{\textbf{r}} - r \omega \sin(\omega t) \hat\mathbf x + r \omega \cos(\omega t) \hat\mathbf y, </math> <math display"block" qidQ11376> \textbf{a} \ddot{\textbf{r}} - \omega^2 (r \cos(\omega t) \hat\mathbf x + r \sin(\omega t) \hat\mathbf y). </math> The term in parentheses is the original expression of <math>\textbf{r}</math> in Cartesian coordinates. Consequently, <math display"block"> \textbf{a} - \omega^2 \textbf{r}. </math> The negative sign shows that the acceleration is pointed towards the center of the circle (opposite the radius), hence it is called "centripetal" (i.e. "center-seeking"). While objects naturally follow a straight path (due to inertia), this centripetal acceleration describes the circular motion path caused by a centripetal force. Derivation using vectors and magnitude dθ /dt.]] The image at right shows the vector relationships for uniform circular motion. The rotation itself is represented by the angular velocity vector Ω, which is normal to the plane of the orbit (using the right-hand rule) and has magnitude given by: : <math> \|\mathbf{\Omega}\| \frac {\mathrm{d} \theta } {\mathrm{d}t} \omega \ , </math> with θ the angular position at time t. In this subsection, dθ/dt is assumed constant, independent of time. The distance traveled dℓ of the particle in time dt along the circular path is : <math> \mathrm{d}\boldsymbol{\ell} = \mathbf {\Omega} \times \mathbf{r}(t) \mathrm{d}t \ , </math> which, by properties of the vector cross product, has magnitude rdθ and is in the direction tangent to the circular path. Consequently, : <math>\frac {\mathrm{d} \mathbf{r}}{\mathrm{d}t} \lim_{{\Delta}t \to 0} \frac {\mathbf{r}(t + {\Delta}t)-\mathbf{r}(t)}{{\Delta}t} \frac{\mathrm{d} \boldsymbol{\ell}}{\mathrm{d}t} \ .</math> In other words, : <math> \mathbf{v}\ \stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{ }\ \frac {\mathrm{d} \mathbf{r}}{\mathrm{d}t} \frac {\mathrm{d}\mathbf{\boldsymbol{\ell}}}{\mathrm{d}t} = \mathbf {\Omega} \times \mathbf{r}(t)\ . </math> Differentiating with respect to time, <math display"block"> \mathbf{a}\ \stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{ }\ \frac {\mathrm{d} \mathbf{v}} {d\mathrm{t}} \mathbf {\Omega} \times \frac{\mathrm{d} \mathbf{r}(t)}{\mathrm{d}t} \mathbf{\Omega} \times \left[ \mathbf {\Omega} \times \mathbf{r}(t)\right] \ .</math> Lagrange's formula states: <math display"block"> \mathbf{a} \times \left ( \mathbf{b} \times \mathbf{c} \right ) \mathbf{b} \left ( \mathbf{a} \cdot \mathbf{c} \right ) - \mathbf{c} \left ( \mathbf{a} \cdot \mathbf{b} \right ) \ .</math> Applying Lagrange's formula with the observation that Ω • r(t) = 0 at all times, <math display"block"> \mathbf{a} - {\|\mathbf{\Omega\|}}^2 \mathbf{r}(t) \ .</math> In words, the acceleration is pointing directly opposite to the radial displacement r at all times, and has a magnitude: <math display"block"> \|\mathbf{a}\| \|\mathbf{r}(t)\| \left ( \frac {\mathrm{d} \theta}{\mathrm{d}t} \right) ^2 = r {\omega}^2 </math> where vertical bars \|...\| denote the vector magnitude, which in the case of r(t) is simply the radius r of the path. This result agrees with the previous section, though the notation is slightly different. When the rate of rotation is made constant in the analysis of nonuniform circular motion, that analysis agrees with this one. A merit of the vector approach is that it is manifestly independent of any coordinate system. Example: The banked turn The upper panel in the image at right shows a ball in circular motion on a banked curve. The curve is banked at an angle θ from the horizontal, and the surface of the road is considered to be slippery. The objective is to find what angle the bank must have so the ball does not slide off the road. Intuition tells us that, on a flat curve with no banking at all, the ball will simply slide off the road; while with a very steep banking, the ball will slide to the center unless it travels the curve rapidly. Apart from any acceleration that might occur in the direction of the path, the lower panel of the image above indicates the forces on the ball. There are two forces; one is the force of gravity vertically downward through the center of mass of the ball mg, where m is the mass of the ball and g is the gravitational acceleration; the second is the upward normal force exerted by the road at a right angle to the road surface ma<sub>n</sub>. The centripetal force demanded by the curved motion is also shown above. This centripetal force is not a third force applied to the ball, but rather must be provided by the net force on the ball resulting from vector addition of the normal force and the force of gravity. The resultant or net force on the ball found by vector addition of the normal force exerted by the road and vertical force due to gravity must equal the centripetal force dictated by the need to travel a circular path. The curved motion is maintained so long as this net force provides the centripetal force requisite to the motion. The horizontal net force on the ball is the horizontal component of the force from the road, which has magnitude F<sub>h</sub> ma<sub>n</sub> sin θ}}. The vertical component of the force from the road must counteract the gravitational force: F<sub>v</sub> ma<sub>n</sub> cos θ mg}}, which implies a<sub>n</sub> g / cos θ}}. Substituting into the above formula for F<sub>h</sub>}} yields a horizontal force to be: <math display"block" qidQ11402> \|\mathbf{F}_\mathrm{h}\| m \|\mathbf{g}\| \frac { \sin \theta}{ \cos \theta} m\|\mathbf{g}\| \tan \theta \, . </math> On the other hand, at velocity \|v\| on a circular path of radius r, kinematics says that the force needed to turn the ball continuously into the turn is the radially inward centripetal force F<sub>c</sub> of magnitude: <math display"block">\|\mathbf{F}_\mathrm{c}\| m \|\mathbf{a}_\mathrm{c}\| = \frac{m\|\mathbf{v}\|^2}{r} \, . </math> Consequently, the ball is in a stable path when the angle of the road is set to satisfy the condition: <math display"block">m \|\mathbf{g}\| \tan \theta \frac{m\|\mathbf{v}\|^2}{r} \, ,</math> or, <math display"block"> \tan \theta \frac {\|\mathbf{v}\|^2} {\|\mathbf{g}\|r} \, .</math> As the angle of bank θ approaches 90°, the tangent function approaches infinity, allowing larger values for \|v\|<sup>2</sup>/r. In words, this equation states that for greater speeds (bigger \|v\|) the road must be banked more steeply (a larger value for θ), and for sharper turns (smaller r) the road also must be banked more steeply, which accords with intuition. When the angle θ does not satisfy the above condition, the horizontal component of force exerted by the road does not provide the correct centripetal force, and an additional frictional force tangential to the road surface is called upon to provide the difference. If friction cannot do this (that is, the coefficient of friction is exceeded), the ball slides to a different radius where the balance can be realized. These ideas apply to air flight as well. See the FAA pilot's manual. Nonuniform circular motion As a generalization of the uniform circular motion case, suppose the angular rate of rotation is not constant. The acceleration now has a tangential component, as shown the image at right. This case is used to demonstrate a derivation strategy based on a polar coordinate system. Let r(t) be a vector that describes the position of a point mass as a function of time. Since we are assuming circular motion, let , where R is a constant (the radius of the circle) and u<sub>r</sub> is the unit vector pointing from the origin to the point mass. The direction of u<sub>r</sub> is described by θ, the angle between the x-axis and the unit vector, measured counterclockwise from the x-axis. The other unit vector for polar coordinates, u<sub>θ</sub> is perpendicular to u<sub>r</sub> and points in the direction of increasing θ. These polar unit vectors can be expressed in terms of Cartesian unit vectors in the x and y directions, denoted <math>\hat\mathbf i</math> and <math>\hat\mathbf j</math> respectively: <math display"block">\mathbf u_r \cos \theta \ \hat\mathbf i + \sin \theta \ \hat\mathbf j</math> and <math display"block">\mathbf u_\theta - \sin \theta \ \hat\mathbf i + \cos \theta \ \hat\mathbf j.</math> One can differentiate to find velocity: <math display="block">\begin{align} \mathbf{v} &= r \frac {d \mathbf{u}_r}{dt} \\ &= r \frac {d}{dt} \left( \cos \theta \ \hat\mathbf{i} + \sin \theta \ \hat\mathbf{j}\right) \\ &= r \frac {d \theta}{dt} \frac{d}{d \theta} \left( \cos \theta \ \hat\mathbf{i} + \sin \theta \ \hat\mathbf{j}\right) \\ & = r \frac {d \theta} {dt} \left( -\sin \theta \ \hat\mathbf{i} + \cos \theta \ \hat\mathbf{j}\right)\\ & = r \frac{d\theta}{dt} \mathbf{u}_\theta \\ & = \omega r \mathbf{u}_\theta \end{align}</math> where is the angular velocity . This result for the velocity matches expectations that the velocity should be directed tangentially to the circle, and that the magnitude of the velocity should be . Differentiating again, and noting that <math display"block">\frac {d\mathbf{u}_\theta}{dt} -\frac{d\theta}{dt} \mathbf{u}_r = - \omega \mathbf{u}_r \ , </math> we find that the acceleration, a is: <math display"block">\mathbf{a} r \left( \frac {d\omega}{dt} \mathbf{u}_\theta - \omega^2 \mathbf{u}_r \right) \ . </math> Thus, the radial and tangential components of the acceleration are: <math display"block">\mathbf{a}_{r} - \omega^{2} r \ \mathbf{u}_r - \frac{\|\mathbf{v}\|^2}{r} \ \mathbf{u}_r </math> and <math display"block">\mathbf{a}_\theta r \ \frac {d\omega}{dt} \ \mathbf{u}_\theta \frac {d \| \mathbf{v} \| }{dt} \ \mathbf{u}_\theta \ , </math> where v r ω}} is the magnitude of the velocity (the speed). These equations express mathematically that, in the case of an object that moves along a circular path with a changing speed, the acceleration of the body may be decomposed into a perpendicular component that changes the direction of motion (the centripetal acceleration), and a parallel, or tangential component, that changes the speed. General planar motion Polar coordinates The above results can be derived perhaps more simply in polar coordinates, and at the same time extended to general motion within a plane, as shown next. Polar coordinates in the plane employ a radial unit vector u<sub>ρ</sub> and an angular unit vector u<sub>θ</sub>, as shown above. A particle at position r is described by: <math display"block">\mathbf{r} \rho \mathbf{u}_{\rho} \ , </math> where the notation ρ is used to describe the distance of the path from the origin instead of R to emphasize that this distance is not fixed, but varies with time. The unit vector u<sub>ρ</sub> travels with the particle and always points in the same direction as r(t). Unit vector u<sub>θ</sub> also travels with the particle and stays orthogonal to u<sub>ρ</sub>. Thus, u<sub>ρ</sub> and u<sub>θ</sub> form a local Cartesian coordinate system attached to the particle, and tied to the path travelled by the particle. By moving the unit vectors so their tails coincide, as seen in the circle at the left of the image above, it is seen that u<sub>ρ</sub> and u<sub>θ</sub> form a right-angled pair with tips on the unit circle that trace back and forth on the perimeter of this circle with the same angle θ(t) as r(t). When the particle moves, its velocity is : <math> \mathbf{v} = \frac {\mathrm{d} \rho }{\mathrm{d}t} \mathbf{u}_{\rho} + \rho \frac {\mathrm{d} \mathbf{u}_{\rho}}{\mathrm{d}t} \, . </math> To evaluate the velocity, the derivative of the unit vector u<sub>ρ</sub> is needed. Because u<sub>ρ</sub> is a unit vector, its magnitude is fixed, and it can change only in direction, that is, its change du<sub>ρ</sub> has a component only perpendicular to u<sub>ρ</sub>. When the trajectory r(t) rotates an amount dθ, u<sub>ρ</sub>, which points in the same direction as r(t), also rotates by dθ. See image above. Therefore, the change in u<sub>ρ</sub> is : <math> \mathrm{d} \mathbf{u}_{\rho} = \mathbf{u}_{\theta} \mathrm{d}\theta \, , </math> or : <math> \frac {\mathrm{d} \mathbf{u}_{\rho}}{\mathrm{d}t} = \mathbf{u}_{\theta} \frac {\mathrm{d}\theta}{\mathrm{d}t} \, . </math> In a similar fashion, the rate of change of u<sub>θ</sub> is found. As with u<sub>ρ</sub>, u<sub>θ</sub> is a unit vector and can only rotate without changing size. To remain orthogonal to u<sub>ρ</sub> while the trajectory r(t) rotates an amount dθ, u<sub>θ</sub>, which is orthogonal to r(t), also rotates by dθ. See image above. Therefore, the change du<sub>θ</sub> is orthogonal to u<sub>θ</sub> and proportional to dθ (see image above): : <math> \frac{\mathrm{d} \mathbf{u}_{\theta}}{\mathrm{d}t} = -\frac {\mathrm{d} \theta} {\mathrm{d}t} \mathbf{u}_{\rho} \, . </math> The equation above shows the sign to be negative: to maintain orthogonality, if du<sub>ρ</sub> is positive with dθ, then du<sub>θ</sub> must decrease. Substituting the derivative of u<sub>ρ</sub> into the expression for velocity: : <math> \mathbf{v} \frac {\mathrm{d} \rho }{\mathrm{d}t} \mathbf{u}_{\rho} + \rho \mathbf{u}_{\theta} \frac {\mathrm{d} \theta} {\mathrm{d}t} v_{\rho} \mathbf{u}_{\rho} + v_{\theta} \mathbf{u}_{\theta} = \mathbf{v}_{\rho} + \mathbf{v}_{\theta} \, . </math> To obtain the acceleration, another time differentiation is done: : <math> \mathbf{a} = \frac {\mathrm{d}^2 \rho }{\mathrm{d}t^2} \mathbf{u}_{\rho} + \frac {\mathrm{d} \rho }{\mathrm{d}t} \frac{\mathrm{d} \mathbf{u}_{\rho}}{\mathrm{d}t} + \frac {\mathrm{d} \rho}{\mathrm{d}t} \mathbf{u}_{\theta} \frac {\mathrm{d} \theta} {\mathrm{d}t} + \rho \frac{\mathrm{d} \mathbf{u}_{\theta}}{\mathrm{d}t} \frac {\mathrm{d} \theta} {\mathrm{d}t} + \rho \mathbf{u}_{\theta} \frac {\mathrm{d}^2 \theta} {\mathrm{d}t^2} \, . </math> Substituting the derivatives of u<sub>ρ</sub> and u<sub>θ</sub>, the acceleration of the particle is: : <math>\begin{align} \mathbf{a} & = \frac {\mathrm{d}^2 \rho }{\mathrm{d}t^2} \mathbf{u}_{\rho} + 2\frac {\mathrm{d} \rho}{\mathrm{d}t} \mathbf{u}_{\theta} \frac {\mathrm{d} \theta} {\mathrm{d}t} - \rho \mathbf{u}_{\rho} \left( \frac {\mathrm{d} \theta} {\mathrm{d}t}\right)^2 + \rho \mathbf{u}_{\theta} \frac {\mathrm{d}^2 \theta} {\mathrm{d}t^2} \ , \\ & = \mathbf{u}_{\rho} \left[ \frac {\mathrm{d}^2 \rho }{\mathrm{d}t^2}-\rho\left( \frac {\mathrm{d} \theta} {\mathrm{d}t}\right)^2 \right] + \mathbf{u}_{\theta}\left[ 2\frac {\mathrm{d} \rho}{\mathrm{d}t} \frac {\mathrm{d} \theta} {\mathrm{d}t} + \rho \frac {\mathrm{d}^2 \theta} {\mathrm{d}t^2}\right] \\ & = \mathbf{u}_{\rho} \left[ \frac {\mathrm{d}v_{\rho}}{\mathrm{d}t}-\frac{v_{\theta}^2}{\rho}\right] + \mathbf{u}_{\theta}\left[ \frac{2}{\rho}v_{\rho} v_{\theta} + \rho\frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}t}\frac{v_{\theta}}{\rho}\right] \, . \end{align}</math> As a particular example, if the particle moves in a circle of constant radius R, then dρ/dt 0, v v<sub>θ</sub>, and: <math display"block">\mathbf{a} \mathbf{u}_{\rho} \left[ -\rho\left( \frac {\mathrm{d} \theta} {\mathrm{d}t}\right)^2 \right] + \mathbf{u}_{\theta}\left[ \rho \frac {\mathrm{d}^2 \theta} {\mathrm{d}t^2}\right] = \mathbf{u}_{\rho} \left[ -\frac{v^2}{r}\right] + \mathbf{u}_{\theta}\left[ \frac {\mathrm{d} v} {\mathrm{d}t}\right] \ </math> where <math> v = v_{\theta}. </math> These results agree with those above for nonuniform circular motion. See also the article on non-uniform circular motion. If this acceleration is multiplied by the particle mass, the leading term is the centripetal force and the negative of the second term related to angular acceleration is sometimes called the Euler force. For trajectories other than circular motion, for example, the more general trajectory envisioned in the image above, the instantaneous center of rotation and radius of curvature of the trajectory are related only indirectly to the coordinate system defined by u<sub>ρ</sub> and u<sub>θ</sub> and to the length \|r(t)\| ρ. Consequently, in the general case, it is not straightforward to disentangle the centripetal and Euler terms from the above general acceleration equation. To deal directly with this issue, local coordinates are preferable, as discussed next. Local coordinates at position s. The unit circle on the left shows the rotation of the unit vectors with s.]] Local coordinates mean a set of coordinates that travel with the particle, and have orientation determined by the path of the particle. Unit vectors are formed as shown in the image at right, both tangential and normal to the path. This coordinate system sometimes is referred to as intrinsic or path coordinates or nt-coordinates, for normal-tangential, referring to these unit vectors. These coordinates are a very special example of a more general concept of local coordinates from the theory of differential forms. Distance along the path of the particle is the arc length s, considered to be a known function of time. : <math> s = s(t) \ . </math> A center of curvature is defined at each position s located a distance ρ (the radius of curvature) from the curve on a line along the normal u<sub>n</sub> (s). The required distance ρ(s) at arc length s is defined in terms of the rate of rotation of the tangent to the curve, which in turn is determined by the path itself. If the orientation of the tangent relative to some starting position is θ(s), then ρ(s) is defined by the derivative dθ/ds: : <math>\frac{1} {\rho (s)} \kappa (s) \frac {\mathrm{d}\theta}{\mathrm{d}s}\ . </math> The radius of curvature usually is taken as positive (that is, as an absolute value), while the curvature κ is a signed quantity. A geometric approach to finding the center of curvature and the radius of curvature uses a limiting process leading to the osculating circle. See image above. Using these coordinates, the motion along the path is viewed as a succession of circular paths of ever-changing center, and at each position s constitutes non-uniform circular motion at that position with radius ρ. The local value of the angular rate of rotation then is given by: : <math> \omega(s) \frac{\mathrm{d}\theta}{\mathrm{d}t} \frac{\mathrm{d}\theta}{\mathrm{d}s} \frac {\mathrm{d}s}{\mathrm{d}t} \frac{1}{\rho(s)}\ \frac {\mathrm{d}s}{\mathrm{d}t} \frac{v(s)}{\rho(s)}\ ,</math> with the local speed v given by: : <math> v(s) = \frac {\mathrm{d}s}{\mathrm{d}t}\ . </math> As for the other examples above, because unit vectors cannot change magnitude, their rate of change is always perpendicular to their direction (see the left-hand insert in the image above): : <math>\frac{d\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{n}(s)}{ds} \mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t}(s)\frac{d\theta}{ds} \mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t}(s)\frac{1}{\rho} \ ; </math> <math>\frac{d\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t}(s)}{\mathrm{d}s} -\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{n}(s)\frac{\mathrm{d}\theta}{\mathrm{d}s} - \mathbf{u}_\mathrm{n}(s)\frac{1}{\rho} \ . </math> Consequently, the velocity and acceleration are: : <math> \mathbf{v}(t) = v \mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t}(s)\ ; </math> and using the chain-rule of differentiation: : <math> \mathbf{a}(t) \frac{\mathrm{d}v}{\mathrm{d}t} \mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t}(s) - \frac{v^2}{\rho}\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{n}(s) \ ; </math> with the tangential acceleration <math>\frac{\mathrm{\mathrm{d}}v}{\mathrm{\mathrm{d}}t} \frac{\mathrm{d}v}{\mathrm{d}s}\ \frac{\mathrm{d}s}{\mathrm{d}t} = \frac{\mathrm{d}v}{\mathrm{d}s}\ v \ . </math> In this local coordinate system, the acceleration resembles the expression for nonuniform circular motion with the local radius ρ(s), and the centripetal acceleration is identified as the second term. Extending this approach to three dimensional space curves leads to the Frenet–Serret formulas. Alternative approach Looking at the image above, one might wonder whether adequate account has been taken of the difference in curvature between ρ(s) and ρ(s + ds) in computing the arc length as ds ρ(s)dθ. Reassurance on this point can be found using a more formal approach outlined below. This approach also makes connection with the article on curvature. To introduce the unit vectors of the local coordinate system, one approach is to begin in Cartesian coordinates and describe the local coordinates in terms of these Cartesian coordinates. In terms of arc length s, let the path be described as: <math display"block">\mathbf{r}(s) \left[ x(s),\ y(s) \right] . </math> Then an incremental displacement along the path ds is described by: <math display"block">\mathrm{d}\mathbf{r}(s) \left[ \mathrm{d}x(s),\ \mathrm{d}y(s) \right] = \left[ x'(s),\ y'(s) \right] \mathrm{d}s \ , </math> where primes are introduced to denote derivatives with respect to s. The magnitude of this displacement is ds, showing that: : <math>\left[ x'(s)^2 + y'(s)^2 \right] = 1 \ . </math> (Eq. 1) This displacement is necessarily a tangent to the curve at s, showing that the unit vector tangent to the curve is: <math display"block">\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t}(s) \left[ x'(s), \ y'(s) \right] , </math> while the outward unit vector normal to the curve is <math display"block">\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{n}(s) \left[ y'(s),\ -x'(s) \right] , </math> Orthogonality can be verified by showing that the vector dot product is zero. The unit magnitude of these vectors is a consequence of Eq. 1. Using the tangent vector, the angle θ of the tangent to the curve is given by: <math display"block">\sin \theta \frac{y'(s)}{\sqrt{x'(s)^2 + y'(s)^2}} y'(s) \ ;</math> and <math>\cos \theta \frac{x'(s)}{\sqrt{x'(s)^2 + y'(s)^2}} = x'(s) \ .</math> The radius of curvature is introduced completely formally (without need for geometric interpretation) as: <math display"block">\frac{1}{\rho} \frac{\mathrm{d}\theta}{\mathrm{d}s}\ . </math> The derivative of θ can be found from that for sinθ: <math display"block">\frac{\mathrm{d} \sin\theta}{\mathrm{d}s} \cos \theta \frac {\mathrm{d}\theta}{\mathrm{d}s} \frac{1}{\rho} \cos \theta \ \frac{1}{\rho} x'(s)\ . </math> Now: <math display"block">\frac{\mathrm{d} \sin \theta }{\mathrm{d}s} \frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}s} \frac{y'(s)}{\sqrt{x'(s)^2 + y'(s)^2}} = \frac{y''(s)x'(s)^2-y'(s)x'(s)x''(s)} {\left(x'(s)^2 + y'(s)^2\right)^{3/2}}\ , </math> in which the denominator is unity. With this formula for the derivative of the sine, the radius of curvature becomes: <math display"block">\frac {\mathrm{d}\theta}{\mathrm{d}s} \frac{1}{\rho} y''(s)x'(s) - y'(s)x(s) \frac{y(s)}{x'(s)} = -\frac{x''(s)}{y'(s)} \ ,</math> where the equivalence of the forms stems from differentiation of Eq. 1: <math display"block">x'(s)x''(s) + y'(s)y''(s) 0 \ . </math> With these results, the acceleration can be found: <math display="block">\begin{align} \mathbf{a}(s) &\frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}t}\mathbf{v}(s) \frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}t}\left[\frac{\mathrm{d}s}{\mathrm{d}t} \left( x'(s), \ y'(s) \right) \right] \\ & = \left(\frac{\mathrm{d}^2s}{\mathrm{d}t^2}\right)\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t}(s) + \left(\frac{\mathrm{d}s}{\mathrm{d}t}\right) ^2 \left(x(s),\ y(s) \right) \\ & = \left(\frac{\mathrm{d}^2s}{\mathrm{d}t^2}\right)\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t}(s) - \left(\frac{\mathrm{d}s}{\mathrm{d}t}\right) ^2 \frac{1}{\rho} \mathbf{u}_\mathrm{n}(s) \end{align}</math> as can be verified by taking the dot product with the unit vectors u<sub>t</sub>(s) and u<sub>n</sub>(s). This result for acceleration is the same as that for circular motion based on the radius ρ. Using this coordinate system in the inertial frame, it is easy to identify the force normal to the trajectory as the centripetal force and that parallel to the trajectory as the tangential force. From a qualitative standpoint, the path can be approximated by an arc of a circle for a limited time, and for the limited time a particular radius of curvature applies, the centrifugal and Euler forces can be analyzed on the basis of circular motion with that radius. This result for acceleration agrees with that found earlier. However, in this approach, the question of the change in radius of curvature with s is handled completely formally, consistent with a geometric interpretation, but not relying upon it, thereby avoiding any questions the image above might suggest about neglecting the variation in ρ. Example: circular motion To illustrate the above formulas, let x, y be given as: : <math>x \alpha \cos \frac{s}{\alpha} \ ; \ y \alpha \sin\frac{s}{\alpha} \ .</math> Then: : <math>x^2 + y^2 = \alpha^2 \ , </math> which can be recognized as a circular path around the origin with radius α. The position s = 0 corresponds to [α, 0], or 3 o'clock. To use the above formalism, the derivatives are needed: : <math>y^{\prime}(s) \cos \frac{s}{\alpha} \ ; \ x^{\prime}(s) -\sin \frac{s}{\alpha} \ , </math> : <math>y^{\prime\prime}(s) -\frac{1}{\alpha}\sin\frac{s}{\alpha} \ ; \ x^{\prime\prime}(s) -\frac{1}{\alpha}\cos \frac{s}{\alpha} \ . </math> With these results, one can verify that: : <math> x^{\prime}(s)^2 + y^{\prime}(s)^2 1 \ ; \ \frac{1}{\rho} y^{\prime\prime}(s)x^{\prime}(s)-y^{\prime}(s)x^{\prime\prime}(s) = \frac{1}{\alpha} \ . </math> The unit vectors can also be found: : <math>\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t}(s) \left[-\sin\frac{s}{\alpha} \ , \ \cos\frac{s}{\alpha} \right] \ ; \ \mathbf{u}_\mathrm{n}(s) \left[\cos\frac{s}{\alpha} \ , \ \sin\frac{s}{\alpha} \right] \ , </math> which serve to show that s 0 is located at position [ρ, 0] and s ρπ/2 at [0, ρ], which agrees with the original expressions for x and y. In other words, s is measured counterclockwise around the circle from 3 o'clock. Also, the derivatives of these vectors can be found: : <math>\frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}s}\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t}(s) -\frac{1}{\alpha} \left[\cos\frac{s}{\alpha} \ , \ \sin\frac{s}{\alpha} \right] -\frac{1}{\alpha}\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{n}(s) \ ; </math> : <math> \ \frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}s}\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{n}(s) \frac{1}{\alpha} \left[-\sin\frac{s}{\alpha} \ , \ \cos\frac{s}{\alpha} \right] \frac{1}{\alpha}\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t}(s) \ . </math> To obtain velocity and acceleration, a time-dependence for s is necessary. For counterclockwise motion at variable speed v(t): : <math>s(t) = \int_0^t \ dt^{\prime} \ v(t^{\prime}) \ , </math> where v(t) is the speed and t is time, and s(t 0) 0. Then: : <math>\mathbf{v} = v(t)\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t}(s) \ ,</math> : <math>\mathbf{a} \frac{\mathrm{d}v}{\mathrm{d}t}\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t}(s) + v\frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}t}\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t}(s) \frac{\mathrm{d}v}{\mathrm{d}t}\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t}(s)-v\frac{1}{\alpha}\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{n}(s)\frac{\mathrm{d}s}{\mathrm{d}t} </math> : <math>\mathbf{a} = \frac{\mathrm{d}v}{\mathrm{d}t}\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t}(s)-\frac{v^2}{\alpha}\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{n}(s) \ , </math> where it already is established that α ρ. This acceleration is the standard result for non-uniform circular motion. See also * Analytical mechanics * Applied mechanics * Bertrand theorem * Central force * Centrifugal force * Circular motion * Classical mechanics * Coriolis force * Dynamics (physics) * Eskimo yo-yo * Example: circular motion * Fictitious force * Frenet-Serret formulas * History of centrifugal and centripetal forces * Kinematics * Kinetics * Orthogonal coordinates * Reactive centrifugal force * Statics Notes and references Further reading * * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20180804151453/http://regentsprep.org/Regents/physics/phys06/bcentrif/default.htm Centripetal force] vs. [https://web.archive.org/web/20180804144558/http://regentsprep.org/Regents/physics/phys06/bcentrif/centrif.htm Centrifugal force], from an online Regents Exam physics tutorial by the Oswego City School District External links * [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/HBASE/cf.html#cf Notes from Physics and Astronomy HyperPhysics at Georgia State University] Category:Force Category:Mechanics Category:Kinematics Category:Rotation Category:Acceleration Category:Articles containing video clips	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centripetal_force	2025-04-05T18:28:11.445560
7535	Commodore	Commodore may refer to: Ranks Commodore (rank), a naval rank Commodore (Royal Navy), in the United Kingdom Commodore (India), in India Commodore (United States) Commodore (Canada) Commodore (Finland) Commodore (Germany) or Kommodore Air commodore, a rank in the Royal Air Force and other Commonwealth air forces Commodore (yacht club), an officer of a yacht club Commodore (Sea Scouts), a position in the Boy Scouts of America's Sea Scout program Convoy commodore, a civilian in charge of a shipping convoy during the Second World War Fiction The Commodore, a Horatio Hornblower novel by C. S. Forester The Commodore (book), a novel in the Aubrey–Maturin series by Patrick O'Brian Music and music venues Commodore Ballroom, a nightclub and music venue in Vancouver, British Columbia Commodore Records, a jazz and swing music record label Commodores, an American soul/funk band People "The Commodore", the nickname of American entrepreneur Cornelius Vanderbilt (1794–1877) "Commodore Kuehnle", the nickname of American entrepreneur and politician Louis Kuehnle (1857–1934) Aaron Commodore (1819/20 – 1892), African American politician Mike Commodore (born 1979), a Canadian ice hockey player Commodore P. Vedder (1838–1910), New York politician Places Commodore, Pennsylvania, United States Commodore Island, a Canadian island in Hudson Bay Phoenix Park Hotel, hotel built in Washington, D.C., in 1922, known originally as "The Commodore" Vehicles Automobiles Hudson Commodore, an automobile produced from 1941 to 1952 in the US by Hudson Motor Car Company Opel Commodore, an automobile produced from 1967 to 1982 in Germany by Adam Opel AG Holden Commodore, an automobile produced from 1978 to 2017 in Australia by the Holden division of General Motors Ships and boats Commodore (shipwreck), an American steamboat shipwrecked off the coast of Florida Commodore 17, an American sailboat design USS Commodore, the name of various United States Navy ships Aircraft Consolidated Commodore, a flying boat used for passenger travel in the 1930s Computers Commodore International (also named Commodore Business Machines), a computer company that operated from 1954 to 1994 Commodore 64, an 8-bit home computer introduced in January 1982 by Commodore International Commodore USA, a computer company that operated from 2010 to 2013 after purchasing the classic brand name Other uses Several genera or species of brush-footed butterflies, in particular: Precis Auzakia danava Junonia artaxia Vanderbilt Commodores, intercollegiate athletics teams for Vanderbilt University	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore	2025-04-05T18:28:11.472977
7536	Conditioning	Conditioning may refer to: Science, computing, and technology Air conditioning, the removal of heat from indoor air for thermal comfort Automobile air conditioning, air conditioning in a vehicle Ice storage air conditioning, air conditioning using ice storage Solar air conditioning, air conditioning using solar power Beer conditioning, maturation, clarification, and stabilisation of beer Bottle conditioning, above conditioning after bottling Chemical conditioning, improvement and stabilization chemical components Data conditioning, the use of data management techniques in a computer system Flow conditioning, the study of the movement of fluids in pipes Signal conditioning, manipulating an analog signal in such a way that it meets the requirements of the next stage Biology and physical fitness Aerobic conditioning, exercise which trains the heart and lungs to pump blood more efficiently Body conditioning via physical exercise Learning Classical conditioning or Pavlovian conditioning, a behavioral mechanism in which one stimulus comes to signal the occurrence of a second stimulus Eyeblink conditioning, classical conditioning involving pairing of a stimulus with an eyeblink-eliciting stimulus Fear conditioning, classical conditioning involving aversive stimuli Second-order conditioning, a two-step process in classical conditioning Evaluative conditioning, a form of learning in which attitude towards one stimulus is learnt by its pairing with a second stimulus Covert conditioning, classical and operant conditioning in mental health treatment Operant conditioning or instrumental conditioning, a form of learning in which behavior is modified by its consequences Social conditioning, operant conditioning training individuals to act in a society Mathematics Condition number also known as Conditioning (numerical analysis), a quantity describing whether or not a numerical problem is well-behaved Conditioning (probability), a concept in probability theory See also Conditioning regimens in transplantation	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conditioning	2025-04-05T18:28:11.498128
7538	Checksum	thumb\|330px\|right\|Effect of a typical checksum function (the Unixcksum utility) A checksum is a small-sized block of data derived from another block of digital data for the purpose of detecting errors that may have been introduced during its transmission or storage. By themselves, checksums are often used to verify data integrity but are not relied upon to verify data authenticity. The procedure which generates this checksum is called a checksum function or checksum algorithm. Depending on its design goals, a good checksum algorithm usually outputs a significantly different value, even for small changes made to the input. This is especially true of cryptographic hash functions, which may be used to detect many data corruption errors and verify overall data integrity; if the computed checksum for the current data input matches the stored value of a previously computed checksum, there is a very high probability the data has not been accidentally altered or corrupted. Checksum functions are related to hash functions, fingerprints, randomization functions, and cryptographic hash functions. However, each of those concepts has different applications and therefore different design goals. For instance, a function returning the start of a string can provide a hash appropriate for some applications but will never be a suitable checksum. Checksums are used as cryptographic primitives in larger authentication algorithms. For cryptographic systems with these two specific design goals, see HMAC. Check digits and parity bits are special cases of checksums, appropriate for small blocks of data (such as Social Security numbers, bank account numbers, computer words, single bytes, etc.). Some error-correcting codes are based on special checksums which not only detect common errors but also allow the original data to be recovered in certain cases. Algorithms Parity byte or parity word The simplest checksum algorithm is the so-called longitudinal parity check, which breaks the data into "words" with a fixed number of bits, and then computes the bitwise exclusive or (XOR) of all those words. The result is appended to the message as an extra word. In simpler terms, for =1 this means adding a bit to the end of the data bits to guarantee that there is an even number of '1's. To check the integrity of a message, the receiver computes the bitwise exclusive or of all its words, including the checksum; if the result is not a word consisting of zeros, the receiver knows a transmission error occurred. With this checksum, any transmission error which flips a single bit of the message, or an odd number of bits, will be detected as an incorrect checksum. However, an error that affects two bits will not be detected if those bits lie at the same position in two distinct words. Also swapping of two or more words will not be detected. If the affected bits are independently chosen at random, the probability of a two-bit error being undetected is . Sum complement A variant of the previous algorithm is to add all the "words" as unsigned binary numbers, discarding any overflow bits, and append the two's complement of the total as the checksum. To validate a message, the receiver adds all the words in the same manner, including the checksum; if the result is not a word full of zeros, an error must have occurred. This variant, too, detects any single-bit error, but the pro modular sum is used in SAE J1708. Position-dependent The simple checksums described above fail to detect some common errors which affect many bits at once, such as changing the order of data words, or inserting or deleting words with all bits set to zero. The checksum algorithms most used in practice, such as Fletcher's checksum, Adler-32, and cyclic redundancy checks (CRCs), address these weaknesses by considering not only the value of each word but also its position in the sequence. This feature generally increases the cost of computing the checksum. Fuzzy checksum The idea of fuzzy checksum was developed for detection of email spam by building up cooperative databases from multiple ISPs of email suspected to be spam. The content of such spam may often vary in its details, which would render normal checksumming ineffective. By contrast, a "fuzzy checksum" reduces the body text to its characteristic minimum, then generates a checksum in the usual manner. This greatly increases the chances of slightly different spam emails producing the same checksum. The ISP spam detection software, such as SpamAssassin, of co-operating ISPs, submits checksums of all emails to the centralised service such as DCC. If the count of a submitted fuzzy checksum exceeds a certain threshold, the database notes that this probably indicates spam. ISP service users similarly generate a fuzzy checksum on each of their emails and request the service for a spam likelihood. General considerations A message that is bits long can be viewed as a corner of the -dimensional hypercube. The effect of a checksum algorithm that yields an -bit checksum is to map each -bit message to a corner of a larger hypercube, with dimension . The corners of this hypercube represent all possible received messages. The valid received messages (those that have the correct checksum) comprise a smaller set, with only corners. A single-bit transmission error then corresponds to a displacement from a valid corner (the correct message and checksum) to one of the adjacent corners. An error which affects bits moves the message to a corner which is steps removed from its correct corner. The goal of a good checksum algorithm is to spread the valid corners as far from each other as possible, to increase the likelihood "typical" transmission errors will end up in an invalid corner. See also General topic Algorithm Check digit Damm algorithm Data rot File verification Fletcher's checksum Frame check sequence cksum md5sum sha1sum Parchive Sum (Unix) SYSV checksum BSD checksum xxHash Error correction Hamming code Reed–Solomon error correction IPv4 header checksum Hash functions List of hash functions Luhn algorithm Parity bit Rolling checksum Verhoeff algorithm File systems Bcachefs, Btrfs, ReFS and ZFS – file systems that perform automatic file integrity checking using checksums Related concepts Isopsephy Gematria File fixity References Further reading External links Additive Checksums (C) theory from Barr Group Practical Application of Cryptographic Checksums A4 US-Letter *US-Letter two-column Checksum Calculator Open source python based application with GUI used to verify downloads.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Checksum	2025-04-05T18:28:11.528090
7540	Cultural evolution (disambiguation)	Cultural evolution is cultural change viewed from an evolutionary perspective. It may also refer to: Behavioral ecology, the study of the evolutionary basis for animal behavior due to ecological pressures Cultural selection theory, studies of cultural change modelled on evolutionary biology Dual-inheritance theory, a specific framework for studying cultural evolution Memetics, neo-Darwinist view of the transmission of cultural traits Sociocultural evolution, the change of cultures and societies over time as studied in anthropology	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_evolution_(disambiguation)	2025-04-05T18:28:11.578307
7541	City University of New York	\| mottoeng The education of free people is the hope of Mankind \| budget $3.6 billion \| established = \| type = Public university system \| chancellor Félix V. Matos Rodríguez \| provost = Wendy Hensel \| city = New York City, New York, U.S. \| students 243,000 \| academic_staff 19,568 \| administrative_staff 33,099 \| coordinates \| website \| logo = City University of New York wordmark.svg \| logo_size = 200px }} The City University of New York (CUNY, pronounced , ) is the public university system of New York City. It is the largest urban university system in the United States, comprising 25 campuses: eleven senior colleges, seven community colleges, and seven professional institutions. The university enrolls more than 275,000 students. The oldest constituent college of CUNY, City College of New York, was originally founded in 1847 and became the first free public institution of higher learning in the United States. In 1960, John R. Everett became the first chancellor of the Municipal College System of New York City, later known as the City University of New York (CUNY). CUNY, established by New York state legislation in 1961 and signed into law by governor Nelson Rockefeller, was an amalgamation of existing institutions and a new graduate school. The system was governed by the Board of Higher Education of the City of New York, created in 1926, and later renamed the Board of Trustees of CUNY in 1979. The institutions merged into CUNY included the Free Academy (later City College of New York), the Female Normal and High School (later Hunter College), Brooklyn College, and Queens College. CUNY has historically provided accessible education, especially to those excluded or unable to afford private universities. The first community college in New York City was established in 1955 with shared funding between the state and the city, but unlike the senior colleges, community college students had to pay tuition. The integration of CUNY's colleges into a single university system took place in 1961, under a chancellor and with state funding. The Graduate Center, serving as the principal doctorate-granting institution, was also established that year. In 1964, Mayor Robert F. Wagner Jr. extended the senior colleges' free tuition policy to community colleges. The 1960s saw student protests demanding more racial diversity and academic representation in CUNY, leading to the establishment of Medgar Evers College and the implementation of the Open Admissions policy in 1970. This policy dramatically increased student diversity but also introduced challenges like low retention rates. The 1976 fiscal crisis ended the free tuition policy, leading to the introduction of tuition fees for all CUNY colleges. History Founding In 1960, John R. Everett became the first chancellor of the Municipal College System of the City of New York, later renamed CUNY, for a salary of $25,000 ($}} in current dollar terms). CUNY was created in 1961, by New York State legislation, signed into law by Governor Nelson Rockefeller. The legislation integrated existing institutions and a new graduate school into a coordinated system of higher education for the city, under the control of the "Board of Higher Education of the City of New York", which had been created by New York State legislation in 1926. By 1979, the Board of Higher Education had become the "Board of Trustees of the CUNY". * Brooklyn College – Founded in 1930. * Queens College – Founded in 1937. Accessible education CUNY has served a diverse student body, especially those excluded from or unable to afford private universities. Its four-year colleges offered a high-quality, tuition-free education to the poor, the working class, and the immigrants of New York City who met the grade requirements for matriculated status. During the post-World War I era, when some Ivy League universities, such as Yale and Columbia, discriminated against Jews, many Jewish academics and intellectuals studied and taught at CUNY. The City College of New York developed a reputation of being "the Harvard of the proletariat." As New York City's population and public college enrollment grew during the early 20th century and the city struggled for resources, the municipal colleges slowly began adopting selective tuition, also known as instructional fees, for a handful of courses and programs. During the Great Depression, with funding for public colleges severely constrained, limits were imposed on the size of the colleges' free Day Sessions, and tuition was imposed upon students deemed "competent" but not academically qualified for the day program. Most of these "limited matriculation" students enrolled in the Evening Sessions, and paid tuition. Additionally, as the population of New York grew, CUNY was not able to accommodate the demand for higher education. Higher and higher requirements for admission were imposed; in 1965, a student seeking admission to CUNY needed an average grade of 92 or A−. This helped to ensure that the student population of CUNY remained largely white and middle-class. Undergraduate tuition and other student fees in 1957 comprised 17 percent of the colleges' $46.8 million in revenues, about $7.74 million ($}} in current dollar terms). Three community colleges had been established by early 1961 when New York City's public colleges were codified by the state as a single university with a chancellor at the helm and an infusion of state funds. But the city's slowness in creating the community colleges as demand for college seats was intensifying and had resulted in mounting frustration, particularly on the part of minorities, that college opportunities were not available to them. In 1964, as New York City's Board of Higher Education moved to take full responsibility for the community colleges, city officials extended the senior colleges' free tuition policy to them, a change that was included by Mayor Robert F. Wagner Jr. in his budget plans and took effect with the 1964–65 academic year. Calls for greater access to public higher education from the black and Puerto Rican communities in New York, especially in Brooklyn, led to the founding of "Community College Number 7," later Medgar Evers College, in 1966–1967. Student protests Students at some campuses became increasingly frustrated with the university's and Board of Higher Education's handling of university administration. At Baruch College in 1967, over a thousand students protested the plan to make the college an upper-division school limited to junior, senior, and graduate students. At Brooklyn College in 1968, students attempted a sit-in to demand the admission of more black and Puerto Rican students and additional black studies curriculum. Students at Hunter College also demanded a Black studies program. Members of the SEEK program, which provided academic support for underprepared and underprivileged students, staged a building takeover at Queens College in 1969 to protest the decisions of the program's director, who would later be replaced by a black professor. Puerto Rican students at Bronx Community College filed a report with the New York State Division of Human Rights in 1970, contending that the intellectual level of the college was inferior and discriminatory. Hunter College was crippled for several days by a protest of 2,000 students who had a list of demands focusing on more student representation in college administration. Across CUNY, students boycotted their campuses in 1970 to protest a rise in student fees and other issues, including the proposed (and later implemented) open admissions plan. Like many college campuses in 1970, CUNY faced a number of protests and demonstrations after the Kent State massacre and Cambodian Campaign. The Administrative Council of the City University of New York sent U.S. president Richard Nixon a telegram in 1970 stating, "No nation can long endure the alienation of the best of its young people." Some colleges, including John Jay College of Criminal Justice, historically the "college for cops," held teach-ins in addition to student and faculty protests. In April 2024, CUNY students joined other campuses across the United States in protests against the Israel–Hamas war. The student protestors demanded that CUNY divest from companies with ties to Israel and that CUNY officials cancel any upcoming trips to Israel and protect students involved in the demonstrations.Open admissionsUnder pressure from community activists and CUNY Chancellor Albert Bowker, the Board of Higher Education (BHE) approved an open admissions plan in 1966, but it was not scheduled to be fully implemented until 1975. Remedial education, to supplement the training of under-prepared students, became a significant part of CUNY's offerings. Additionally, ethnic and Black Studies programs and centers were instituted on many CUNY campuses, contributing to the growth of similar programs nationwide. Tuition, which had been in place in the State University of New York system since 1963, was instituted at all CUNY colleges. Meanwhile, CUNY students were added to the state's need-based Tuition Assistance Program (TAP), which had been created to help private colleges. Full-time students who met the income eligibility criteria were permitted to receive TAP, ensuring for the first time that financial hardship would deprive no CUNY student of a college education. CUNY at the time was the third-largest university in the United States, with over 180,000 students. By 2011, nearly six of ten full-time undergraduates qualified for a tuition-free education at CUNY due in large measure to state, federal and CUNY financial aid programs. CUNY's enrollment dipped after tuition was re-established, and there were further enrollment declines through the 1980s and into the 1990s.Financial crisis of 1995In 1995, CUNY suffered another fiscal crisis when Governor George Pataki proposed a drastic cut in state financing. Faculty cancelled classes and students staged protests. By May, CUNY adopted deep cuts to college budgets and class offerings. By June, to save money spent on remedial programs, CUNY adopted a stricter admissions policy for its senior colleges: students deemed unprepared for college would not be admitted, this a departure from the 1970 Open Admissions program. That year's final state budget cut funding by $102 million, which CUNY absorbed by increasing tuition by $750 and offering a retirement incentive plan for faculty. In 1999, a task force appointed by Mayor Rudolph Giuliani issued a report that described CUNY as "an institution adrift" and called for an improved, more cohesive university structure and management, as well as more consistent academic standards. Following the report, Matthew Goldstein, a mathematician and City College graduate who had led CUNY's Baruch College and briefly, Adelphi University, was appointed chancellor. CUNY ended its policy of open admissions to its four-year colleges, raised its admissions standards at its most selective four-year colleges (Baruch, Brooklyn, City, Hunter and Queens), and required new enrollees who needed remediation to begin their studies at a CUNY open-admissions community college.2010 onwardCUNY's enrollment of degree-credit students reached 220,727 in 2005 and 262,321 in 2010 as the university broadened its academic offerings. The university added more than 2,000 full-time faculty positions, opened new schools and programs, and expanded the university's fundraising efforts to help pay for them. By autumn 2013, all CUNY undergraduates were required to take an administration-dictated common core of courses which have been claimed to meet specific "learning outcomes" or standards. Since the courses are accepted university-wide, the administration claims it will be easier for students to transfer course credits between CUNY colleges. It also reduced the number of core courses some CUNY colleges had required, to a level below national norms, particularly in the sciences. The program is the target of several lawsuits by students and faculty, and was the subject of a "no confidence" vote by the faculty, who rejected it by an overwhelming 92% margin. Chancellor Goldstein retired on July 1, 2013, and was replaced on June 1, 2014, by James Milliken, president of the University of Nebraska, and a graduate of the University of Nebraska and New York University School of Law. Milliken retired at the end of the 2018 academic year and moved on to become the chancellor for the University of Texas system. In 2018, CUNY opened its 25th campus, the CUNY School of Labor and Urban Studies, named after former president Joseph S. Murphy and combining some forms and functions of the Murphy Institute that were housed at the CUNY School of Professional Studies. On February 13, 2019, the board of trustees voted to appoint Queens College president Felix V. Matos Rodriguez as the chancellor of the City University of New York. Matos became both the first Latino and minority educator to head the university. He assumed the post May 1. Enrollment and demographics CUNY is the fourth-largest university system in the United States by enrollment, behind the California State University, State University of New York (SUNY), and University of California systems. More than 271,000-degree-credit students, continuing, and professional education students are enrolled at campuses located in all five New York City boroughs. The university has one of the most diverse student bodies in the United States, with students hailing from around the world, although most students live in New York City. The black, white and Hispanic undergraduate populations each comprise more than a quarter of the student body, and Asian undergraduates make up 18 percent. Fifty-eight percent are female, and 28 percent are 25 or older. In the 2017–2018 award year, 144,380 CUNY students received the Federal Pell Grant. CUNY Citizenship Now! Founded in 1997 by immigration lawyer Allan Wernick, CUNY Citizenship Now! is an immigration assistance organization that provides free and confidential immigration law services to help individuals and families on their path to U.S. citizenship. In 2021, CUNY launched a College Immigrant Ambassador Program in partnership with the New York City Department of Education. Academics Component institutions }} {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|+ CUNY component institutions ! scope="col" \| Est. ! scope="col" \| Type ! style"text-align: left;" scope"col" \| Name \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| 1847 \|\| Senior College \|\| City College \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| 1870 \|\| Senior College \|\| Hunter College \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| 1919 \|\| Senior College \|\| Baruch College \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| 1930 \|\| Senior College \|\| Brooklyn College \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| 1937 \|\| Senior College \|\| Queens College \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| 1946 \|\| Senior College \|\| New York City College of Technology \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| 1964 \|\| Senior College \|\| John Jay College of Criminal Justice \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| 1966 \|\| Senior College \|\| York College \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| 1968 \|\| Senior College \|\| Lehman College \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| 1970 \|\| Senior College \|\| Medgar Evers College \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| 1976 \|\| Senior College \|\| College of Staten Island \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| 2001 \|\| Honors College \|\| William E. Macaulay Honors College \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| 1957 \|\| Community College \|\| Bronx Community College \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| 1958 \|\| Community College \|\| Queensborough Community College \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| 1963 \|\| Community College \|\| Borough of Manhattan Community College \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| 1963 \|\| Community College \|\| Kingsborough Community College \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| 1968 \|\| Community College \|\| LaGuardia Community College \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| 1970 \|\| Community College \|\| Hostos Community College \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| 2011 \|\| Community College \|\| Guttman Community College \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| 1961 \|\| Graduate / professional \|\| CUNY Graduate Center \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| 1973 \|\| Graduate / professional \|\| CUNY School of Medicine \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| 1983 \|\| Graduate / professional \|\| CUNY School of Law \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| 2006 \|\| Graduate / professional \|\| CUNY Graduate School of Journalism \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| 2006 \|\| Graduate / professional \|\| CUNY School of Professional Studies \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| 2008 \|\| Graduate / professional \|\| CUNY School of Public Health \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| 2018 \|\| Graduate / professional \|\| CUNY School of Labor and Urban Studies \|} Management structure The forerunner of today's City University of New York was governed by the Board of Education of New York City. Members of the Board of Education, chaired by the president of the board, served as ex officio trustees. For the next four decades, the board members continued to serve as ex officio trustees of the College of the City of New York and the city's other municipal college, the Normal College of the City of New York. In 1900, the New York State Legislature created separate boards of trustees for the College of the City of New York and the Normal College, which became Hunter College in 1914. In 1926, the legislature established the Board of Higher Education of the City of New York, which assumed supervision of both municipal colleges. In 1961, the New York State Legislature established the City University of New York, uniting what had become seven municipal colleges at the time: the City College of New York, Hunter College, Brooklyn College, Queens College, Staten Island Community College, Bronx Community College and Queensborough Community College. In 1979, the CUNY Financing and Governance Act was adopted by the State and the Board of Higher Education became the City University of New York board of trustees. Today, the City University is governed by the board of trustees composed of 17 members, ten of whom are appointed by the governor of New York "with the advice and consent of the senate," and five by the mayor of New York City "with the advice and consent of the senate." The final two trustees are ex officio members. One is the chair of the university's student senate, and the other is non-voting and is the chair of the university's faculty senate. Both the mayoral and gubernatorial appointments to the CUNY Board are required to include at least one resident of each of New York City's five boroughs. Trustees serve seven-year terms, which are renewable for another seven years. The chancellor is elected by the board of trustees, and is the "chief educational and administrative officer" of the City University. The administrative offices are in Midtown Manhattan. Faculty CUNY employs 6,700 full-time faculty members and over 10,000 adjunct faculty members. Faculty and staff are represented by the Professional Staff Congress (PSC), a labor union and chapter of the American Federation of Teachers.Notable faculty ]] ]] ]] ]] ]] ]] ]] ]] ]] * André Aciman, writer, Graduate Center Ali Jimale Ahmed, poet and professor of Comparative Literature, Queens College and Graduate Center F. Murray Abraham, actor of stage and screen; professor of theater, winner of the Academy Award for Best Actor, Brooklyn College * Chantal Akerman, film director, City College of New York * Meena Alexander, poet and writer, Graduate Center and Hunter College Hannah Arendt, philosopher and political theorist; author of The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951) and The Human Condition (1958), Brooklyn College Talal Asad, anthropologist, Graduate Center John Ashbery, poet, Pulitzer Prize for Poetry winner, Brooklyn College William Bialek, biophysicist, Graduate Center * Edwin G. Burrows, historian and writer, Pulitzer Prize for History winner for co-writing Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898 with Mike Wallace, Brooklyn College * Ron Carter, jazz bassist, City College * Joe Chambers, jazz drummer, City College Dee L. Clayman, classicist, Graduate Center Margaret Clapp, scholar, winner of the Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography, president of Wellesley College, Brooklyn College * Ta-Nehisi Coates, writer, journalist, and activist, CUNY Graduate School of Journalism * Billy Collins, poet, U.S. Poet Laureate, Lehman College (retired) * Blanche Wiesen Cook, historian, John Jay College of Criminal Justice and Graduate Center * John Corigliano, composer, Graduate Center * Michael Cunningham, writer, winner of Pulitzer Prize for Fiction and PEN/Faulkner Award for The Hours, Brooklyn College * Roy DeCarava, artist and photographer, Hunter College * Carolyn Eisele, mathematician, Hunter College * Nancy Fraser, philosopher and political scientist, Graduate Center * Ruth Wilson Gilmore, geographer, Graduate Center * Allen Ginsberg, beat poet, Brooklyn College * Aaron Goodelman, sculptor * Joel Glucksman, Olympic saber fencer, Brooklyn College * Ralph Goldstein, Olympic épée fencer, Brooklyn College * Michael Grossman, economist, Graduate Center * Kimiko Hahn, poet, winner of PEN/Voelcker Award for Poetry, Queens College * David Harvey, geographer, Graduate Center * Jimmy Heath, jazz saxophonist, City College * Bell Hooks, educator, writer and critic, City College of New York Karen Brooks Hopkins, president of the Brooklyn Academy of Music, Brooklyn College John Hospers, first presidential candidate of the US Libertarian Party, Brooklyn College * Tyehimba Jess, poet, winner of Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, College of Staten Island * KC Johnson born (1967), Brooklyn College and Graduate Center * Sheila Jordan, jazz vocalist, City College * Michio Kaku, physicist, City College * Jane Katz, Olympian swimmer, John Jay College of Criminal Justice * Alfred Kazin, writer and critic, Hunter College and Graduate Center * Saul Kripke, philosopher, Graduate Center * Irving Kristol, journalist, City College * Paul Krugman, economist, Graduate Center * Peter Kwong, journalist, filmmaker, activist, Hunter College and Graduate Center * Nathan H. Lents, scientist, author, and science communicator, John Jay College of Criminal Justice * Ben Lerner, writer, MacArthur Fellow, Brooklyn College * Audre Lorde, poet and activist, City College, John Jay College of Criminal Justice * Cate Marvin, poet, Guggenheim Fellowship winner, College of Staten Island Abraham Maslow, psychologist in the school of humanistic psychology, best known for his theory of human motivation which led to a therapeutic technique known as self-actualization, Brooklyn College John Matteson, historian and writer, Pulitzer Prize winner, John Jay College of Criminal Justice * Maeve Kennedy McKean, attorney and public health official * Stanley Milgram, social psychologist, Graduate Center * Charles W. Mills, philosopher, Graduate Center * June Nash, anthropologist, Graduate Center * Ruth O'Brien, political scientist and disability studies writer, Graduate Center Denise O'Connor, Olympic foil fencer, Brooklyn College John Patitucci, jazz bassist, City College * Itzhak Perlman, violinist, Brooklyn College * Frances Fox Piven, political scientist, activist, and educator, Graduate Center Roman Popadiuk, US Ambassador to Ukraine, Brooklyn College Graham Priest, philosopher, Graduate Center Inez Smith Reid, Senior Judge of the District of Columbia Court of Appeals, Brooklyn College Adrienne Rich, poet and activist, City College of New York * David M. Rosenthal, philosopher, Graduate Center Mark Rothko (born Markus Yakovlevich Rothkowitz), influential abstract expressionist painter, Brooklyn College Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., historian and social critic, Graduate Center * Flora Rheta Schreiber, journalist, John Jay College of Criminal Justice * Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, literary critic, Graduate Center * Betty Shabazz, educator and activist, Medgar Evers College Mark Strand, United States Poet Laureate, Pulitzer Prize for Poetry-winning poet, essayist, and translator, Brooklyn College Dennis Sullivan, mathematician, Graduate Center * Harold Syrett (1913–1984), president of Brooklyn College * Katherine Verdery, anthropologist, Graduate Center * Michele Wallace, women's studies and film studies, City College and Graduate Center * Mike Wallace, historian and writer, John Jay College of Criminal Justice and Graduate Center Ruth Westheimer (better known as Dr. Ruth; born Karola Ruth Siegel), sex therapist, media personality, author, radio, television talk show host, and Holocaust survivor, Brooklyn College Elie Wiesel, novelist, political activist, winner of the Nobel Peace Prize, Presidential Medal of Freedom, and Congressional Gold Medal, City College C. K. Williams, poet, won Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, Brooklyn College Andrea Alu, engineer and physicist, Graduate Center Robert Alfano, physicist, discovered the supercontinuum, City College Branko Milanović, economist most known for his work on income distribution and inequality; a visiting presidential professor at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York, an affiliated senior scholar at the Luxembourg Income Study and former lead economist in the World Bank's research department. * Simi Linton, arts consultant, author, filmmaker, and activist. Focuses on disability in the arts, disability studies, and ways that disability rights and disability justice perspectives can be brought to bear on the arts. Public Safety Department CUNY has a unified public safety department, the City University of New York Public Safety Department, with branches at each of the 26 CUNY campuses. The New York City Police Department is the primary policing and investigation agency within the New York City as per the NYC Charter, which includes all CUNY campuses and facilities. The Public Safety Department came under heavy criticism from student groups, after several students protesting tuition increases tried to occupy the lobby of the Baruch College. The occupiers were forcibly removed from the area and several were arrested on November 21, 2011. Antisemitism at CUNY In recent years, there have been a number of antisemitic incidents on CUNY campuses, including: * In March 2014, Brooklyn College settled the Title VI complaint that the Zionist Organization of America ("ZOA") had filed against its antisemitic discrimination. * In 2017, a CUNY admin was recorded saying that there were too many Jews on campus. * In 2020, a CUNY student was arrested for spray-painting antisemitic graffiti on a campus building. * In 2021, a survey found that nearly one in four CUNY students had experienced antisemitism on campus. The survey also found that Jewish students were more likely to report feeling unsafe on campus than students of other faiths. * In May 2021, a student at John Jay posted a picture of Adolf Hitler on Instagram with a message saying "We need another Hitler today." A group of Jewish students met with Karol Mason, the President of the college, who refused to condemn the action publicly. CUNY has taken steps to address antisemitism on its campuses. In 2020, the university created a task force to combat antisemitism. The task force has developed a number of initiatives, including training for faculty and staff on how to identify and address antisemitism. In June 2024, the United States Department of Education concluded that CUNY has failed to protect Jewish students from discrimination following the October 7 attacks. CUNY's Hunter College also faced scrutiny for incidents dating back to 2021. In response, Chancellor Félix V. Matos Rodríguez stated that CUNY is dedicated to maintaining a discrimination-free and hate-free environment, and that new measures will ensure consistent and transparent investigation and resolution of complaints.City University Television (CUNY TV) CUNY also has a broadcast TV service, CUNY TV (channel 75 on Spectrum, digital HD broadcast channel 25.3), which airs telecourses, classic and foreign films, magazine shows, and panel discussions in foreign languages. City University Film Festival (CUNYFF) The City University Film Festival is CUNY's official film festival. The festival was founded in 2009. Notable alumni CUNY graduates include 13 Nobel laureates, 2 Fields Medalists, 2 U.S. Secretaries of State, a Supreme Court Justice, several New York City mayors, members of Congress, state legislators, scientists, artists, and Olympians. <!-- BEGIN COMMENT Although the table is "sortable", please insert names in alphabetical order by last name, grouped by college, so that the list looks nice and alphabetical when the page initially loads. END COMMENT --> {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|+ CUNY notable alumni<br /> ! style"text-align: left;" scope"col" \| Name ! style"text-align: left;" scope"col" \| Grad. ! style"text-align: left;" scope"col" \| College ! style"text-align: left;" scope"col" class="unsortable" \| Notable for \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Arrow, Kenneth" \|Kenneth Arrow \|\| 1940 \|\| City \|\| economist and joint winner of the Nobel Prize in Economics \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Aumann, Robert" \|Robert Aumann \|\| 1950 \|\| City \|\| mathematician and winner of the Nobel Prize in Economics \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Axelord, Albert" \|Albert Axelrod \|\| \|\| City \|\| Olympic foil fencer \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Badillo, Herman" \| Herman Badillo \|\| 1951 \|\| City \|\| civil rights activist and first Puerto Rican elected to the U.S. Congress \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Bukantz, Daniel" \|Daniel Bukantz \|\| \|\| City \|\| Olympic foil fencer \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Cohen, Abram" \|Abram Cohen \|\| \|\| City \|\| Olympic foil, épée, and sabre fencer \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Davila, Arlene" \| Arlene Davila \|\| 1996 \|\| City \|\| author and Anthropology and American Studies professor at New York University \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Diaz Jr., Ruben" \| Rubén Díaz Jr. \|\| 2005 \|\| Lehman \|\| Bronx Borough President \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Diaz Sr., Ruben" \| Rubén Díaz Sr. \|\| 1976 \|\| Lehman \|\| NYC Council Member, Pastor \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Dinowitz, Jeffrey" \| Jeffrey Dinowitz \|\| 1975 \|\| Lehman \|\| NYS Assembly Member \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Douglas, Jesse" \| Jesse Douglas \|\| 1916 \|\| City \|\| mathematician and winner of one of the first two Fields Medals \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Engel, Eliot L" \| Eliot Engel \|\| 1969 \|\| Lehman \|\| Member of the US House of Representatives, Chairman of the House Foreign Affairs Committee \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Foxman, Abraham" \| Abraham Foxman \|\| \|\| City \|\| national director, Anti-Defamation League \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Frankfurter, Felix" \| Felix Frankfurter \|\| 1902 \|\| City \|\| U.S. Supreme Court Justice \|- \|Denise Galloway \|1975 \|City \|Cancer researcher and medical academic \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Goldsmith, Harold" \| Harold Goldsmith \|\| 1952 \|\| City \|\| Olympic foil and épée fencer \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Grove, Andy" \| Andy Grove \|\| 1960 \|\| City \|\| Chairman and CEO, Intel Corporation \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Hauptman, Herbert A." \| Herbert A. Hauptman \|\| 1937 \|\| City \|\| mathematician and winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="James, Letitia 'Tish'" \| Letitia James \|\| 1982 \|\| Lehman \|\| NYS Attorney General \|- \|Barbara Joans \|1974 \| \|anthropologist who researched biker culture \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Katz, Jane" \| Jane Katz \|\| 1963 \|\| City \|\| Olympic swimmer \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Kissinger, Henry" \| Henry Kissinger \|\| \|\| City \|\| U.S. Secretary of State and National Security Advisor \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Kleinrock, Leonard" \| Leonard Kleinrock \|\| 1957 \|\| City \|\| computer scientist, Internet pioneer \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Linares, Guillermo" \| Guillermo Linares \|\| 1975 \|\| City \|\| New York City Council member, first Dominican-American City Council member and Commissioner of the Mayor's Office of Immigrant Affairs \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Lubell, Nathaniel" \| Nathaniel Lubell \|\| 1936 \|\| City \|\| Olympic foil, saber, and épée fencer \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Lubell, Samuel" \| Samuel Lubell \|\| \|\| City \|\| pollster, journalist, and National Book Award for Nonfiction finalist \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Nakamura, Lisa" \| Lisa Nakamura \|\| 1993 1996 \|\| City \|\| Director and Professor of the Asian American Studies Program at the Institute of Communication Research at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Neider, Charles" \| Charles Neider \|\| \|\| City \|\| Author, Scholar \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Newman, Barnett" \| Barnett Newman \|\| 1927 \|\| City \|\| abstract expressionist artist \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="O'Keefe, John" \| John O'Keefe \|\| \|\| City \|\| 2014 Nobel laureate in Medicine \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Powell, Colin" \| Colin Powell \|\| 1958 \|\| City \|\| Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and Secretary of State \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Puzo, Mario" \| Mario Puzo \|\| \|\| City \|\| novelist, Oscar-winning screenwriter for Best Adapted Screenplay (1972, 1974). \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Ringgold, Faith" \| Faith Ringgold \|\| 1955 \|\| City \|\| feminist, writer and artist \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Rogovin, Saul" \| Saul Rogovin \|\| \|\| City<br /> BMCC \|\| Professional baseball player \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Rosenthal, A.M." \| A. M. Rosenthal \|\| 1949 \|\| City \|\| executive editor of The New York Times who championed the publication of the Pentagon Papers; Pulitzer Prize–winning journalist expelled from Poland in 1959 for his reporting on the nation's government and society \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Saidel, Rochelle" \| Rochelle Saidel \|\| \|\| City \|\| author, founder of the Remember the Women Institute \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Salk, Jonas" \| Jonas Salk \|\| 1934 \|\| City \|\| developed the first polio vaccine \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Schorr, Daniel" \| Daniel Schorr \|\| 1939 \|\| City \|\| Emmy award winning broadcast journalist for CBS-TV and National Public Radio \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Shepard, Elliot Fitch" \| Elliott Fitch Shepard \|\| 1855 \|\| City \|\| lawyer, banker, and a founder of the New York State Bar Association \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Strauch, James" \| James Strauch \|\| \|\| City \|\| Olympic épée fencer \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Weinraub, Bernard" \| Bernard Weinraub \|\| \|\| City \|\| journalist and playwright \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Wittenberg, Henry" \| Henry Wittenberg \|\| \|\| City \|\| Olympic champion wrestler \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Bağış, Egemen" \| Egemen Bağış \|\| \|\| Baruch \|\| Turkish politician, government minister \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Beame, Abraham" \| Abraham Beame \|\| 1928 \|\| Baruch \|\| born Abraham Birnbaum; mayor of New York City \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Byrd, Robin" \| Robin Byrd \|\| \|\| Baruch \|\|host of public access program The Robin Byrd Show (dropped out) \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Cornblatt, Barbara A." \| Barbara A. Cornblatt \|\| 1977 \|\| Baruch \|\|professor of psychiatry and molecular medicine at Hofstra University School of Medicine \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Ferrer, Fernando" \| Fernando Ferrer \|\| \|\| Baruch \|\|New York City mayoral candidate in 2001 and 2005 \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Harman, Sidney" \| Sidney Harman \|\| 1939 \|\| Baruch \|\|founder and executive chairman of Harman Kardon \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Karrow, Marcia A." \| Marcia A. Karrow \|\| \|\| Baruch \|\|member of New Jersey General Assembly \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Lam, James" \| James Lam \|\| 1983 \|\| Baruch \|\| author, risk management consultant \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Lauren, Ralph" \| Ralph Lauren \|\| \|\| Baruch \|\|born Ralph Lifshitz; chairman and CEO of Polo Ralph Lauren (dropped out) \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Lenz, Dolly" \| Dolly Lenz \|\| \|\| Baruch \|\|New York City real estate agent \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Levine, Dennis" \| Dennis Levine \|\| \|\| Baruch \|\|prominent player in the Wall Street insider trading scandals of the mid-1980s \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Lopez, Jennifer" \| Jennifer Lopez \|\| \|\| Baruch \|\|actress, singer, dancer (dropped out) \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value"Stanley, Craig A." \|Craig A. Stanley \|\| \|\| Baruch \|\|member of New Jersey General Assembly since 1996. \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Tarkan" \| Tarkan \|\| \|\| Baruch \|\|Turkish language singer \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Abzug, Bella" \| Bella Abzug \|\| 1942 \|\| Hunter \|\| born Bella Savitzky; feminist; political activist; U.S. Representative, 1971–1977 \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Ciparick, Carmen Beauchamp" \| Carmen Beauchamp Ciparick \|\| 1963 \|\| Hunter \|\| first Hispanic woman named to the New York State Court of Appeals \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Davila, Robert R." \| Robert R. Davila \|\| 1965 \|\| Hunter \|\| president of Gallaudet University and advocate for the rights of the hearing impaired \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Dee, Ruby" \| Ruby Dee \|\| 1945 \|\| Hunter \|\| Emmy-nominated actress and civil rights activist \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Garbus, Martin" \| Martin Garbus \|\| 1955 \|\| Hunter \|\| First amendment attorney \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Howe, Florence" \| Florence Howe \|\| 1950 \|\| Hunter \|\| founder of women's studies and founder/publisher of the Feminist Press/CUNY \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Lorde, Audre" \| Audre Lorde \|\| 1959 \|\| Hunter \|\| African-American lesbian poet, essayist, educator and activist \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Mohamedou, Mohamed Mahoud Ould" \| Mohamed Mahmoud Ould Mohamedou \|\| 1991 \|\| Hunter \|\| Foreign Minister of Mauritania and professor of international history at the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies in Geneva \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Mentschikoff, Soia" \| Soia Mentschikoff \|\| 1934 \|\| Hunter \|\| first woman partner of a major law firm; first woman elected president of the Association of American Law Schools \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Murphy Jr., Thomas J." \| Thomas J. Murphy Jr. \|\| 1973 \|\| Hunter \|\|three-term mayor of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1994–2006 \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Murray, Puali" \| Pauli Murray \|\| 1933 \|\| Hunter \|\| first African-American woman named an Episcopal priest; human rights activist; lawyer and co-founder of N.O.W \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Brady, Edward Thomas" \| Edward Thomas Brady \|\| \|\| John Jay \|\| (MA), trial attorney and Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of North Carolina \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Burch, Jennings Michael" \| Jennings Michael Burch \|\| \|\| John Jay \|\| author of the 1984 best-selling memoir They Cage the Animals at Night \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value"Crespo, Marcos" \| Marcos Crespo \|\| \|\| John Jay \|\| (BA), New York State Assemblyman representing district 85 \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Flynn, Edward A." \| Edward A. Flynn \|\| \|\| John Jay \|\| Chief of the Milwaukee Police Department \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Hawkins-Byrd, Petri" \| Petri Hawkins-Byrd \|\| 1989 \|\| John Jay \|\| Judge Judy bailiff \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Lee, Henry" \| Henry Lee \|\| 1972 \|\| John Jay \|\| forensic scientist and founder of the Henry C. Lee Institute of Forensic Science \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Martinez, Miguel" \| Miguel Martinez \|\| \|\| John Jay \|\|(BS), member of the New York City Council representing the 10th District in upper Manhattan's Washington Heights, Inwood, and Marble Hill areas until his resignation on July 14, 2009 \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Norvind, Eva" \| Eva Norvind \|\| \|\| John Jay \|\|(MA), actor and director \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Perrette, Pauley" \| Pauley Perrette \|\| \|\| John Jay \|\| actor best known for her role as Abby Scuito on NCIS \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Rice, Ronald" \| Ronald Rice \|\| \|\| John Jay \|\| New Jersey State Senator \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Rios, Ariel" \| Ariel Rios \|\| \|\| John Jay \|\| undercover special agent for the United States Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF), killed in the line of duty \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="St. Guillen, Imette" \| Imette St. Guillen \|\| \|\| John Jay \|\| criminal justice graduate student murdered in February 2006. A scholarship was created in her name \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Stringer, Scott" \| Scott Stringer \|\| \|\| John Jay \|\| Comptroller, Borough president of Manhattan, and member of the New York State Assembly \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Uhnak, Dorothy" \| Dorothy Uhnak \|\| \|\| John Jay \|\|(BA), novelist and detective for the New York City Transit Police Department \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Baird, Bill" \| Bill Baird \|\| 1955 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| reproductive rights activist and co-director of the Pro Choice League \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Black, Barbara Aronstein" \| Barbara Aronstein Black \|\| 1953 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| Dean of Columbia Law School \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Boxer, Barbara Levy" \| Barbara Levy Boxer \|\| 1962 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| anti-war activist, environmentalist, U.S. representative, 1982–1993, and U.S. senator \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Brooks, Mel" \| Mel Brooks \|\| 1956 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| born Melvin Kaminsky; Academy, Emmy, and Tony Award-winning director, writer, and actor \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Chisholm, Shirley" \| Shirley Chisholm \|\| 1946 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| first African-American U.S. Congresswoman, 1968–1982. Candidate for U.S. president, 1972 \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Chizen, Bruce" \| Bruce Chizen \|\| 1978 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| president & CEO, Adobe Systems \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Cohen, Manuel F." \| Manuel F. Cohen \|\| 1933 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| Securities and Exchange Commission Chairman \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Cohen, Paul" \| Paul Cohen \|\| 1953 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| Fields Medal-winning mathematician \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Cohen, Stanley" \| Stanley Cohen \|\| 1943 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| biochemist and Nobel laureate (Physiology or Medicine), 1986 \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Daly, Robert A." \| Robert A. Daly \|\| \|\| Brooklyn \|\| CEO of Warner Bros. and Los Angeles Dodgers \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Dershowitz, Alan M." \| Alan M. Dershowitz \|\| 1959 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| Harvard Law School professor and author \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Della Femina, Jerry" \| Jerry Della Femina \|\| 1957 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| Chairman & CEO, Della Femina, Jeary and Partners \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="DiDio, Dan" \| Dan DiDio \|\| 1983 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| comic book editor and executive for DC Comics \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Eisenstadt, Benjamin" \| Benjamin Eisenstadt \|\| 1954 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| creator of Sweet'N Low and founder of Cumberland Packing Corporation \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Feldman, Sandra" \| Sandra Feldman \|\| 1960 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| president, American Federation of Teachers \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Franco, James" \| James Franco \|\| \|\| Brooklyn \|\| Golden Globe Award-winning actor \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Franke, Nikki" \| Nikki Franke \|\| 1972 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| Olympic foil fencer \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Goldstein, Ralph" \| Ralph Goldstein \|\| \|\| Brooklyn \|\| Olympic épée fencer \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Johnson Jr., Sterling" \| Sterling Johnson Jr. \|\| 1963 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| Senior United States district judge of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Kamsky, Gata" \| Gata Kamsky \|\| 1999 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| chess grandmaster and five-time US chess champion \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Katz, Saul" \| Saul Katz \|\| 1960 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| president of the New York Mets \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Korman, Edward R." \| Edward R. Korman \|\| 1963 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| Senior United States District Judge on the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Kratter, Marvin" \| Marvin Kratter \|\| 1937 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| owner of the Boston Celtics \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Lemon, Don" \| Don Lemon \|\| 1996 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| reporter, CNN \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Lopate, Leonard" \| Leonard Lopate \|\| 1967 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| host of the public radio talk show The Leonard Lopate Show, broadcast on WNYC \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Lynne, Michael" \| Michael Lynne \|\| 1961 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| CEO of New Line Cinema \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Magner, Marjorie" \| Marjorie Magner \|\| 1969 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| Chairman of Gannett \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Markowitz, Marty" \| Marty Markowitz \|\| 1970 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| New York State Senator; Brooklyn Borough President \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Mazursky, Paul" \| Paul Mazursky \|\| 1951 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| film director, writer, producer; actor \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="McCourt, Frank" \| Frank McCourt \|\| 1967 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| Pulitzer Prize-winning author of ''Angela's Ashes and 'Tis \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Milgram, Stanley" \| Stanley Milgram \|\| 1954 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| social psychologist \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Moss, Jerry" \| Jerry Moss \|\| 1957 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| co-founder of A&M Records \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Munitz, Barry" \| Barry Munitz \|\| 1963 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| Chancellor of California State University \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Naylor, Gloria" \| Gloria Naylor \|\| 1981 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| novelist; Winner National Book Award \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Nero, Peter" \| Peter Nero \|\| 1956 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| born Bernard Nierow; pianist and pops conductor; Grammy Award winner \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Pitt, Harvey" \| Harvey Pitt \|\| 1965 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| Chairman of the Securities and Exchange Commission \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Pooler, Rosemary S." \| Rosemary S. Pooler \|\| 1959 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| United States circuit judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Pulliam, Jason K." \| Jason K. Pulliam \|\| 1995; 1997 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| United States district judge of the United States District Court for the Western District of Texas \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Salzberg, Barry" \| Barry Salzberg \|\|1974 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| CEO of Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Sanders, Bernie" \| Bernie Sanders \|\| \|\| Brooklyn \|\| US senator representing Vermont \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Schirripa, Steve" \| Steve Schirripa \|\| 1980 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| actor known for his role as Bobby Baccalieri on the HBO TV series The Sopranos \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Shaw, Irwin" \| Irwin Shaw \|\| 1934 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| born Irwin Shamforoff; O. Henry Award-winning author \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Shortell, Timothy" \| Timothy Shortell \|\| 1992 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| Writer, critic of religion \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Slomsky, Joel Harvey" \| Joel Harvey Slomsky \|\| 1967 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| Senior United States district judge of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Smits, Jimmy" \| Jimmy Smits \|\| 1980 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| Emmy Award-winning actor; NYPD Blue and L.A. Law'' \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Solomon, Maynard" \| Maynard Solomon \|\| 1950 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| co-founder of Vanguard Records \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Solomon, Maynard" \| Lisa Staiano-Coico \|\| 1976 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| president of City College of New York \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Tarloff, Frank" \| Frank Tarloff \|\| \|\| Brooklyn \|\| Academy Award-winning screenwriter \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Ward, Benjamin" \| Benjamin Ward \|\| 1960 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| first black New York City Police Commissioner, 1983–1989 \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Weinshall, Iris" \| Iris Weinshall \|\| 1975 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| Vice Chancellor at the City University of New York and Commissioner of the New York City Department of Transportation \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Weinstein, Jack B." \| Jack B. Weinstein \|\| 1943 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| Senior Judge, United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Yetnikoff, Walter" \| Walter Yetnikoff \|\| 1953 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| CEO of CBS Records \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Zimbardo, Philip" \| Philip Zimbardo \|\| 1954 \|\| Brooklyn \|\| social psychologist \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Behar, Joy" \| Joy Behar\|\| 1964 \|\| Queens \|\| comedian, television personality \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Colonna, Jerry" \| Jerry Colonna\|\| \|\| Queens \|\| venture capitalist and entrepreneur coach \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Crowley, Joseph" \| Joseph Crowley\|\| \|\| Queens \|\| member of the U.S. House of Representatives, 1999–2019 \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Hevesi, Alan" \| Alan Hevesi\|\| \|\| Queens \|\| New York State Comptroller, New York State Assemblyman, Queens College professor \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Lehman, Cheryl" \| Cheryl Lehman\|\| 1975 \|\| Queens \|\| Professor of Accounting, Hofstra University \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Marshall, Helen" \| Helen Marshall\|\| \|\| Queens \|\| Queens Borough President \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Orender, Donna" \| Donna Orender\|\| \|\| Queens \|\| WNBA president \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Seinfeld, Jerry" \| Jerry Seinfeld\|\| 1976 \|\| Queens \|\| actor and comedian \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Wang, Charles" \| Charles Wang\|\| \|\| Queens \|\| founder of Computer Associates, owner of the New York Islanders \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Andrews, Carl" \| Carl Andrews \|\| \|\| Medgar Evers \|\| New York state senator \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Clarke, Yvette" \| Yvette Clarke \|\| \|\| Medgar Evers \|\| Congresswoman, member of the United States House of Representatives from New York's 11th and 9th congressional districts \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Carmona, Richard" \| Richard Carmona \|\| 1973 \|\| Bronx \|\| Surgeon General of the United States \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Kid Chaos" \| Kid Chaos \|\| 1991 \|\| Bronx \|\| British rock Bassist and Guitarist who played in incarnations of hard rock bands such as The Cult \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Kid Mero, The" \| The Kid Mero \|\| \|\| Bronx \|\| Co-host of Desus & Mero \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Palma, Annabel" \| Annabel Palma \|\| 1991 \|\| Bronx \|\| NYC Council member, 2004–2017 \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Cardi B" \| Cardi B \|\| \|\| BMCC \|\| Rapper \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Latifah, Queen" \| Queen Latifah \|\| \|\| BMCC \|\| Singer-songwriter, rapper, actress, and producer \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Saleh, Adam" \| Adam Saleh \|\| \|\| BMCC \|\| YouTuber and boxer \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Savone, Mirko" \| Mirko Savone \|\| \|\| BMCC \|\| Italian voiceover actor \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Shakur, Assata" \| Assata Shakur \|\| \|\| BMCC \|\| Former member of Black Liberation Army, 1970–1981 \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Sidibe,Gabourey" \| Gabourey Sidibe \|\| \|\| BMCC \|\| American actress \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Williams, Michael K." \| Michael K. Williams \|\| \|\| BMCC \|\| American actor \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Bowe, Riddick" \| Riddick Bowe \|\| \|\| Kingsborough \|\| Professional boxer, 1989–2008 \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Carty, Mauriel" \| Mauriel Carty \|\| \|\| Kingsborough \|\| Anguillan sprinter \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Clay, Andrew Dice" \| Andrew Dice Clay \|\| \|\| Kingsborough \|\| Stand-up comedian, actor, musician and producer \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Falcone, Pete" \| Pete Falcone \|\| \|\| Kingsborough \|\| Professional baseball pitcher \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Koinange, Jeff" \| Jeff Koinange \|\|1989 \|\| Kingsborough \|\| Journalist and host of Jeff Koinange Live \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Nover, Phillipe" \| Phillipe Nover \|\| \|\| Kingsborough \|\| Mixed martial artist \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Seabrook, Larry" \| Larry Seabrook \|\| 1972 \|\| Kingsborough \|\| NYC Council member, 2002–2012 \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Waks, Aesha" \| Aesha Waks \|\| \|\| Kingsborough \|\| Actress \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Alexander, Khandi " \| Khandi Alexander \|\| \|\| Queensborough \|\| Dancer, choreographer, and actress \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Denton, Sandra" \| Sandra "Pepa" Denton \|\| \|\| Queensborough \|\| Rapper and songwriter, member of Salt-N-Pepa \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="James, Cheryl" \| Cheryl "Salt" James \|\| \|\| Queensborough \|\| Rapper and songwriter, member of Salt-N-Pepa \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Padrai, Nayan " \| Nayan Padrai \|\| \|\| Queensborough \|\| Screenwriter, producer and director \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Santagato, Joe" \| Joe Santagato \|\| \|\| Queensborough \|\| YouTuber, comedian and podcaster \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Gross, Elly " \| Elly Gross \|\|1993 \|\| LaGuardia \|\| A holocaust survivor and author of several Holocaust related books of poetry and prose \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="JP, DJ " \| DJ JP \|\| \|\| LaGuardia \|\| The official DJ to Pop Smoke \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Sky, Reby " \| Reby Sky \|\| \|\| LaGuardia \|\| Professional wrestler and model \|- style="vertical-align: top;" \| data-sort-value="Wilson, Elliot " \| Elliot Wilson \|\| \|\| LaGuardia \|\| Journalist, television producer, and magazine editor \|} See also * City University of New York Athletic Conference * CUNY Academic Commons * Education in New York City * Guide Association * State University of New York (SUNY) system. * The William E. Macaualay Honors College References Further reading * Dunham, E. Alden. Colleges of the Forgotten Americans. A Profile of State Colleges and Regional Universities (McGraw Hill, 1969). * Freedman, Morris. "CCNY Days." The American Scholar (1980) 49#2 pp. 193–207. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41210610 online] * Gettleman, Marvin E. "John H. Finley at CCNY—1903–1913." History of Education Quarterly 10.4 (1970): 423–439; on his presidency. [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/history-of-education-quarterly/article/abs/john-h-finley-at-ccny19031913/201C25A49F3F0D779EEF9F616B2B0468 online] * Gumport, Patricia J., and Michael N. Bastedo. "Academic stratification and endemic conflict: Remedial education policy at CUNY." Review of Higher Education 24.4 (2001): 333–349. [http://web.stanford.edu/group/siher/documents/pdfs/CUNYremediation.pdf online] * Nelson, Adam R. "Higher Education and Human Capital and in the 'New York Bay Area': Historical Lessons from the City University of New York (CUNY)." in Higher education, innovation and entrepreneurship from comparative perspectives (Springer Nature Singapore, 2022) pp. 17–58. [https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-16-8870-6_2 online] * Rudy, S. Willis. The College of the City of New York: A History, 1847–1947 (The City College Press, 1949), * Van Nort, Sydney C. The City College of New York (Arcadia Publishing, 2007) [https://books.google.com/books?idB8raTT3G-YgC&dq%22city+college%22&pgPA6 online].External links * * [https://data.ny.gov/browse?Dataset-Information_AgencyCity+University+of+New+York&sortByrelevance City University of New York] in Open NY (data.ny.gov) * <!-- Wikipedia applies this name to an early version of NYU, but CCNY is the topic here --> * Category:Universities and colleges established in 1961 Category:1961 establishments in New York City Category:Public universities and colleges in New York (state) New York, CUNY	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_University_of_New_York	2025-04-05T18:28:11.701986
7543	Computational complexity theory	In theoretical computer science and mathematics, computational complexity theory focuses on classifying computational problems according to their resource usage, and explores the relationships between these classifications. A computational problem is a task solved by a computer. A computation problem is solvable by mechanical application of mathematical steps, such as an algorithm. A problem is regarded as inherently difficult if its solution requires significant resources, whatever the algorithm used. The theory formalizes this intuition, by introducing mathematical models of computation to study these problems and quantifying their computational complexity, i.e., the amount of resources needed to solve them, such as time and storage. Other measures of complexity are also used, such as the amount of communication (used in communication complexity), the number of gates in a circuit (used in circuit complexity) and the number of processors (used in parallel computing). One of the roles of computational complexity theory is to determine the practical limits on what computers can and cannot do. The P versus NP problem, one of the seven Millennium Prize Problems, is part of the field of computational complexity. Closely related fields in theoretical computer science are analysis of algorithms and computability theory. A key distinction between analysis of algorithms and computational complexity theory is that the former is devoted to analyzing the amount of resources needed by a particular algorithm to solve a problem, whereas the latter asks a more general question about all possible algorithms that could be used to solve the same problem. More precisely, computational complexity theory tries to classify problems that can or cannot be solved with appropriately restricted resources. In turn, imposing restrictions on the available resources is what distinguishes computational complexity from computability theory: the latter theory asks what kinds of problems can, in principle, be solved algorithmically. Computational problems Problem instances A computational problem can be viewed as an infinite collection of instances together with a set (possibly empty) of solutions for every instance. The input string for a computational problem is referred to as a problem instance, and should not be confused with the problem itself. In computational complexity theory, a problem refers to the abstract question to be solved. In contrast, an instance of this problem is a rather concrete utterance, which can serve as the input for a decision problem. For example, consider the problem of primality testing. The instance is a number (e.g., 15) and the solution is "yes" if the number is prime and "no" otherwise (in this case, 15 is not prime and the answer is "no"). Stated another way, the instance is a particular input to the problem, and the solution is the output corresponding to the given input. To further highlight the difference between a problem and an instance, consider the following instance of the decision version of the travelling salesman problem: Is there a route of at most 2000 kilometres passing through all of Germany's 14 largest cities? The quantitative answer to this particular problem instance is of little use for solving other instances of the problem, such as asking for a round trip through all sites in Milan whose total length is at most 10 km. For this reason, complexity theory addresses computational problems and not particular problem instances. Representing problem instances When considering computational problems, a problem instance is a string over an alphabet. Usually, the alphabet is taken to be the binary alphabet (i.e., the set {0,1}), and thus the strings are bitstrings. As in a real-world computer, mathematical objects other than bitstrings must be suitably encoded. For example, integers can be represented in binary notation, and graphs can be encoded directly via their adjacency matrices, or by encoding their adjacency lists in binary. Even though some proofs of complexity-theoretic theorems regularly assume some concrete choice of input encoding, one tries to keep the discussion abstract enough to be independent of the choice of encoding. This can be achieved by ensuring that different representations can be transformed into each other efficiently. Decision problems as formal languages has only two possible outputs, yes or no (or alternately 1 or 0) on any input.]] Decision problems are one of the central objects of study in computational complexity theory. A decision problem is a type of computational problem where the answer is either yes or no (alternatively, 1 or 0). A decision problem can be viewed as a formal language, where the members of the language are instances whose output is yes, and the non-members are those instances whose output is no. The objective is to decide, with the aid of an algorithm, whether a given input string is a member of the formal language under consideration. If the algorithm deciding this problem returns the answer yes, the algorithm is said to accept the input string, otherwise it is said to reject the input. An example of a decision problem is the following. The input is an arbitrary graph. The problem consists in deciding whether the given graph is connected or not. The formal language associated with this decision problem is then the set of all connected graphs — to obtain a precise definition of this language, one has to decide how graphs are encoded as binary strings. Function problems A function problem is a computational problem where a single output (of a total function) is expected for every input, but the output is more complex than that of a decision problem—that is, the output is not just yes or no. Notable examples include the traveling salesman problem and the integer factorization problem. It is tempting to think that the notion of function problems is much richer than the notion of decision problems. However, this is not really the case, since function problems can be recast as decision problems. For example, the multiplication of two integers can be expressed as the set of triples <math>(a, b, c)</math> such that the relation <math>a \times b c</math> holds. Deciding whether a given triple is a member of this set corresponds to solving the problem of multiplying two numbers.Measuring the size of an instance To measure the difficulty of solving a computational problem, one may wish to see how much time the best algorithm requires to solve the problem. However, the running time may, in general, depend on the instance. In particular, larger instances will require more time to solve. Thus the time required to solve a problem (or the space required, or any measure of complexity) is calculated as a function of the size of the instance. The input size is typically measured in bits. Complexity theory studies how algorithms scale as input size increases. For instance, in the problem of finding whether a graph is connected, how much more time does it take to solve a problem for a graph with <math>2n</math> vertices compared to the time taken for a graph with <math>n</math> vertices? If the input size is <math>n</math>, the time taken can be expressed as a function of <math>n</math>. Since the time taken on different inputs of the same size can be different, the worst-case time complexity <math>T(n)</math> is defined to be the maximum time taken over all inputs of size <math>n</math>. If <math>T(n)</math> is a polynomial in <math>n</math>, then the algorithm is said to be a polynomial time algorithm. Cobham's thesis argues that a problem can be solved with a feasible amount of resources if it admits a polynomial-time algorithm. Machine models and complexity measures Turing machine A Turing machine is a mathematical model of a general computing machine. It is a theoretical device that manipulates symbols contained on a strip of tape. Turing machines are not intended as a practical computing technology, but rather as a general model of a computing machine—anything from an advanced supercomputer to a mathematician with a pencil and paper. It is believed that if a problem can be solved by an algorithm, there exists a Turing machine that solves the problem. Indeed, this is the statement of the Church–Turing thesis. Furthermore, it is known that everything that can be computed on other models of computation known to us today, such as a RAM machine, Conway's Game of Life, cellular automata, lambda calculus or any programming language can be computed on a Turing machine. Since Turing machines are easy to analyze mathematically, and are believed to be as powerful as any other model of computation, the Turing machine is the most commonly used model in complexity theory. Many types of Turing machines are used to define complexity classes, such as deterministic Turing machines, probabilistic Turing machines, non-deterministic Turing machines, quantum Turing machines, symmetric Turing machines and alternating Turing machines. They are all equally powerful in principle, but when resources (such as time or space) are bounded, some of these may be more powerful than others. A deterministic Turing machine is the most basic Turing machine, which uses a fixed set of rules to determine its future actions. A probabilistic Turing machine is a deterministic Turing machine with an extra supply of random bits. The ability to make probabilistic decisions often helps algorithms solve problems more efficiently. Algorithms that use random bits are called randomized algorithms. A non-deterministic Turing machine is a deterministic Turing machine with an added feature of non-determinism, which allows a Turing machine to have multiple possible future actions from a given state. One way to view non-determinism is that the Turing machine branches into many possible computational paths at each step, and if it solves the problem in any of these branches, it is said to have solved the problem. Clearly, this model is not meant to be a physically realizable model, it is just a theoretically interesting abstract machine that gives rise to particularly interesting complexity classes. For examples, see non-deterministic algorithm. Other machine models Many machine models different from the standard multi-tape Turing machines have been proposed in the literature, for example random-access machines. Perhaps surprisingly, each of these models can be converted to another without providing any extra computational power. The time and memory consumption of these alternate models may vary. What all these models have in common is that the machines operate deterministically. However, some computational problems are easier to analyze in terms of more unusual resources. For example, a non-deterministic Turing machine is a computational model that is allowed to branch out to check many different possibilities at once. The non-deterministic Turing machine has very little to do with how we physically want to compute algorithms, but its branching exactly captures many of the mathematical models we want to analyze, so that non-deterministic time is a very important resource in analyzing computational problems. Complexity measures For a precise definition of what it means to solve a problem using a given amount of time and space, a computational model such as the deterministic Turing machine is used. The time required by a deterministic Turing machine <math>M</math> on input <math>x</math> is the total number of state transitions, or steps, the machine makes before it halts and outputs the answer ("yes" or "no"). A Turing machine <math>M</math> is said to operate within time <math>f(n)</math> if the time required by <math>M</math> on each input of length <math>n</math> is at most <math>f(n)</math>. A decision problem <math>A</math> can be solved in time <math>f(n)</math> if there exists a Turing machine operating in time <math>f(n)</math> that solves the problem. Since complexity theory is interested in classifying problems based on their difficulty, one defines sets of problems based on some criteria. For instance, the set of problems solvable within time <math>f(n)</math> on a deterministic Turing machine is then denoted by DTIME(<math>f(n)</math>). Analogous definitions can be made for space requirements. Although time and space are the most well-known complexity resources, any complexity measure can be viewed as a computational resource. Complexity measures are very generally defined by the Blum complexity axioms. Other complexity measures used in complexity theory include communication complexity, circuit complexity, and decision tree complexity. The complexity of an algorithm is often expressed using big O notation. Best, worst and average case complexity algorithm, which has average case performance <math>\mathcal{O}(n\log n)</math>]] The best, worst and average case complexity refer to three different ways of measuring the time complexity (or any other complexity measure) of different inputs of the same size. Since some inputs of size <math>n</math> may be faster to solve than others, we define the following complexities: # Best-case complexity: This is the complexity of solving the problem for the best input of size <math>n</math>. # Average-case complexity: This is the complexity of solving the problem on an average. This complexity is only defined with respect to a probability distribution over the inputs. For instance, if all inputs of the same size are assumed to be equally likely to appear, the average case complexity can be defined with respect to the uniform distribution over all inputs of size <math>n</math>. # Amortized analysis: Amortized analysis considers both the costly and less costly operations together over the whole series of operations of the algorithm. # Worst-case complexity: This is the complexity of solving the problem for the worst input of size <math>n</math>. The order from cheap to costly is: Best, average (of discrete uniform distribution), amortized, worst. For example, the deterministic sorting algorithm quicksort addresses the problem of sorting a list of integers. The worst-case is when the pivot is always the largest or smallest value in the list (so the list is never divided). In this case, the algorithm takes time O(<math>n^2</math>). If we assume that all possible permutations of the input list are equally likely, the average time taken for sorting is <math>O(n \log n)</math>. The best case occurs when each pivoting divides the list in half, also needing <math>O(n \log n)</math> time. Upper and lower bounds on the complexity of problems To classify the computation time (or similar resources, such as space consumption), it is helpful to demonstrate upper and lower bounds on the maximum amount of time required by the most efficient algorithm to solve a given problem. The complexity of an algorithm is usually taken to be its worst-case complexity unless specified otherwise. Analyzing a particular algorithm falls under the field of analysis of algorithms. To show an upper bound <math>T(n)</math> on the time complexity of a problem, one needs to show only that there is a particular algorithm with running time at most <math>T(n)</math>. However, proving lower bounds is much more difficult, since lower bounds make a statement about all possible algorithms that solve a given problem. The phrase "all possible algorithms" includes not just the algorithms known today, but any algorithm that might be discovered in the future. To show a lower bound of <math>T(n)</math> for a problem requires showing that no algorithm can have time complexity lower than <math>T(n)</math>. Upper and lower bounds are usually stated using the big O notation, which hides constant factors and smaller terms. This makes the bounds independent of the specific details of the computational model used. For instance, if <math>T(n) 7n^2 + 15n + 40</math>, in big O notation one would write <math>T(n) \in O(n^2)</math>.Complexity classesDefining complexity classes A complexity class is a set of problems of related complexity. Simpler complexity classes are defined by the following factors: * The type of computational problem: The most commonly used problems are decision problems. However, complexity classes can be defined based on function problems, counting problems, optimization problems, promise problems, etc. * The model of computation: The most common model of computation is the deterministic Turing machine, but many complexity classes are based on non-deterministic Turing machines, Boolean circuits, quantum Turing machines, monotone circuits, etc. * The resource (or resources) that is being bounded and the bound: These two properties are usually stated together, such as "polynomial time", "logarithmic space", "constant depth", etc. Some complexity classes have complicated definitions that do not fit into this framework. Thus, a typical complexity class has a definition like the following: :The set of decision problems solvable by a deterministic Turing machine within time <math>f(n)</math>. (This complexity class is known as DTIME(<math>f(n)</math>).) But bounding the computation time above by some concrete function <math>f(n)</math> often yields complexity classes that depend on the chosen machine model. For instance, the language <math>\{xx \mid x \text{ is any binary string}\}</math> can be solved in linear time on a multi-tape Turing machine, but necessarily requires quadratic time in the model of single-tape Turing machines. If we allow polynomial variations in running time, Cobham-Edmonds thesis states that "the time complexities in any two reasonable and general models of computation are polynomially related" . This forms the basis for the complexity class P, which is the set of decision problems solvable by a deterministic Turing machine within polynomial time. The corresponding set of function problems is FP.Important complexity classes Many important complexity classes can be defined by bounding the time or space used by the algorithm. Some important complexity classes of decision problems defined in this manner are the following: {\| class="wikitable sortable" ! scope=col \| Resource ! scopecol \| <abbr title"of Turing Machine used to Model Computation">Determinism</abbr> ! scope=col \| Complexity class ! scope=col \| Resource constraint \|- ! scoperowgroup rowspan8 style="text-align:center;" \| Space ! scoperowgroup rowspan4 style="text-align:center;" \| Non-Deterministic \| NSPACE(<math>f(n)</math>) \| data-sort-value=0 \| <math>O(f(n))</math> \|- \| NL \| data-sort-value=1 \| <math>O(\log n)</math> \|- \| NPSPACE \| data-sort-value=2 \| <math>O(\text{poly}(n))</math> \|- \| NEXPSPACE \| data-sort-value=4 \| <math>O(2^{\text{poly}(n)})</math> \|- ! scoperowgroup rowspan4 style="text-align:center;" \| Deterministic \| DSPACE(<math>f(n)</math>) \| data-sort-value=0 \| <math>O(f(n))</math> \|- \| L \| data-sort-value=1 \| <math>O(\log n)</math> \|- \| PSPACE \| data-sort-value=2 \| <math>O(\text{poly}(n))</math> \|- \| EXPSPACE \| data-sort-value=4 \| <math>O(2^{\text{poly}(n)})</math> \|- ! scoperowgroup rowspan6 style="text-align:center;" \| Time ! scoperowgroup rowspan3 style="text-align:center;" \| Non-Deterministic \| NTIME(<math>f(n)</math>) \| data-sort-value=0 \| <math>O(f(n))</math> \|- \| NP \| data-sort-value=2 \| <math>O(\text{poly}(n))</math> \|- \| NEXPTIME \| data-sort-value=4 \| <math>O(2^{\text{poly}(n)})</math> \|- ! scoperowgroup rowspan3 style="text-align:center;" \| Deterministic \| DTIME(<math>f(n)</math>) \| data-sort-value=0 \| <math>O(f(n))</math> \|- \| P \| data-sort-value=2 \| <math>O(\text{poly}(n))</math> \|- \| EXPTIME \| data-sort-value=4 \| <math>O(2^{\text{poly}(n)})</math> \|} Logarithmic-space classes do not account for the space required to represent the problem. It turns out that PSPACE NPSPACE and EXPSPACE NEXPSPACE by Savitch's theorem. Other important complexity classes include BPP, ZPP and RP, which are defined using probabilistic Turing machines; AC and NC, which are defined using Boolean circuits; and BQP and QMA, which are defined using quantum Turing machines. #P is an important complexity class of counting problems (not decision problems). Classes like IP and AM are defined using Interactive proof systems. ALL is the class of all decision problems. Hierarchy theorems For the complexity classes defined in this way, it is desirable to prove that relaxing the requirements on (say) computation time indeed defines a bigger set of problems. In particular, although DTIME(<math>n</math>) is contained in DTIME(<math>n^2</math>), it would be interesting to know if the inclusion is strict. For time and space requirements, the answer to such questions is given by the time and space hierarchy theorems respectively. They are called hierarchy theorems because they induce a proper hierarchy on the classes defined by constraining the respective resources. Thus there are pairs of complexity classes such that one is properly included in the other. Having deduced such proper set inclusions, we can proceed to make quantitative statements about how much more additional time or space is needed in order to increase the number of problems that can be solved. More precisely, the time hierarchy theorem states that <math>\mathsf{DTIME}\big(o(f(n)) \big) \subsetneq \mathsf{DTIME} \big(f(n) \cdot \log(f(n)) \big)</math>. The space hierarchy theorem states that <math>\mathsf{DSPACE}\big(o(f(n))\big) \subsetneq \mathsf{DSPACE} \big(f(n) \big)</math>. The time and space hierarchy theorems form the basis for most separation results of complexity classes. For instance, the time hierarchy theorem tells us that P is strictly contained in EXPTIME, and the space hierarchy theorem tells us that L is strictly contained in PSPACE. Reduction Many complexity classes are defined using the concept of a reduction. A reduction is a transformation of one problem into another problem. It captures the informal notion of a problem being at most as difficult as another problem. For instance, if a problem <math>X</math> can be solved using an algorithm for <math>Y</math>, <math>X</math> is no more difficult than <math>Y</math>, and we say that <math>X</math> reduces to <math>Y</math>. There are many different types of reductions, based on the method of reduction, such as Cook reductions, Karp reductions and Levin reductions, and the bound on the complexity of reductions, such as polynomial-time reductions or log-space reductions. The most commonly used reduction is a polynomial-time reduction. This means that the reduction process takes polynomial time. For example, the problem of squaring an integer can be reduced to the problem of multiplying two integers. This means an algorithm for multiplying two integers can be used to square an integer. Indeed, this can be done by giving the same input to both inputs of the multiplication algorithm. Thus we see that squaring is not more difficult than multiplication, since squaring can be reduced to multiplication. This motivates the concept of a problem being hard for a complexity class. A problem <math>X</math> is hard for a class of problems <math>C</math> if every problem in <math>C</math> can be reduced to <math>X</math>. Thus no problem in <math>C</math> is harder than <math>X</math>, since an algorithm for <math>X</math> allows us to solve any problem in <math>C</math>. The notion of hard problems depends on the type of reduction being used. For complexity classes larger than P, polynomial-time reductions are commonly used. In particular, the set of problems that are hard for NP is the set of NP-hard problems. If a problem <math>X</math> is in <math>C</math> and hard for <math>C</math>, then <math>X</math> is said to be complete for <math>C</math>. This means that <math>X</math> is the hardest problem in <math>C</math>. (Since many problems could be equally hard, one might say that <math>X</math> is one of the hardest problems in <math>C</math>.) Thus the class of NP-complete problems contains the most difficult problems in NP, in the sense that they are the ones most likely not to be in P. Because the problem P NP is not solved, being able to reduce a known NP-complete problem, <math>\Pi_2</math>, to another problem, <math>\Pi_1</math>, would indicate that there is no known polynomial-time solution for <math>\Pi_1</math>. This is because a polynomial-time solution to <math>\Pi_1</math> would yield a polynomial-time solution to <math>\Pi_2</math>. Similarly, because all NP problems can be reduced to the set, finding an NP-complete problem that can be solved in polynomial time would mean that P NP.]]P versus NP problem The complexity class P is often seen as a mathematical abstraction modeling those computational tasks that admit an efficient algorithm. This hypothesis is called the Cobham–Edmonds thesis. The complexity class NP, on the other hand, contains many problems that people would like to solve efficiently, but for which no efficient algorithm is known, such as the Boolean satisfiability problem, the Hamiltonian path problem and the vertex cover problem. Since deterministic Turing machines are special non-deterministic Turing machines, it is easily observed that each problem in P is also member of the class NP. The question of whether P equals NP is one of the most important open questions in theoretical computer science because of the wide implications of a solution. If the answer is yes, many important problems can be shown to have more efficient solutions. These include various types of integer programming problems in operations research, many problems in logistics, protein structure prediction in biology, and the ability to find formal proofs of pure mathematics theorems. The P versus NP problem is one of the Millennium Prize Problems proposed by the Clay Mathematics Institute. There is a US$1,000,000 prize for resolving the problem.Problems in NP not known to be in P or NP-completeIt was shown by Ladner that if <math>P \neq NP</math> then there exist problems in <math>NP</math> that are neither in <math>P</math> nor <math>NP</math>-complete. If graph isomorphism is NP-complete, the polynomial time hierarchy collapses to its second level. Since it is widely believed that the polynomial hierarchy does not collapse to any finite level, it is believed that graph isomorphism is not NP-complete. The best algorithm for this problem, due to László Babai and Eugene Luks has run time <math>O(2^{\sqrt{n \log n}})</math> for graphs with <math>n</math> vertices, although some recent work by Babai offers some potentially new perspectives on this. The integer factorization problem is the computational problem of determining the prime factorization of a given integer. Phrased as a decision problem, it is the problem of deciding whether the input has a prime factor less than <math>k</math>. No efficient integer factorization algorithm is known, and this fact forms the basis of several modern cryptographic systems, such as the RSA algorithm. The integer factorization problem is in <math>NP</math> and in <math>co\text{-}NP</math> (and even in UP and co-UP). If the problem is <math>NP</math>-complete, the polynomial time hierarchy will collapse to its first level (i.e., <math>NP</math> will equal <math>co\text{-}NP</math>). The best known algorithm for integer factorization is the general number field sieve, which takes time <math>O(e^{\left(\sqrt[3]{\frac{64}{9}}\right)\sqrt[3]{(\log n)}\sqrt[3]{(\log \log n)^2}})</math> to factor an odd integer <math>n</math>. However, the best known quantum algorithm for this problem, Shor's algorithm, does run in polynomial time. Unfortunately, this fact doesn't say much about where the problem lies with respect to non-quantum complexity classes.Separations between other complexity classesMany known complexity classes are suspected to be unequal, but this has not been proved. For instance <math>P \subseteq NP \subseteq PP \subseteq PSPACE</math>, but it is possible that <math>P PSPACE</math>. If <math>P</math> is not equal to <math>NP</math>, then <math>P</math> is not equal to <math>PSPACE</math> either. Since there are many known complexity classes between <math>P</math> and <math>PSPACE</math>, such as <math>RP</math>, <math>BPP</math>, <math>PP</math>, <math>BQP</math>, <math>MA</math>, <math>PH</math>, etc., it is possible that all these complexity classes collapse to one class. Proving that any of these classes are unequal would be a major breakthrough in complexity theory. Along the same lines, <math>co\text{-}NP</math> is the class containing the complement problems (i.e. problems with the yes/no answers reversed) of <math>NP</math> problems. It is believed that <math>NP</math> is not equal to <math>co\text{-}NP</math>; however, it has not yet been proven. It is clear that if these two complexity classes are not equal then <math>P</math> is not equal to <math>NP</math>, since <math>P co\text{-}P</math>. Thus if <math>P NP</math> we would have <math>co\text{-}P co\text{-}NP</math> whence <math>NP P co\text{-}P co\text{-}NP</math>. Similarly, it is not known if <math>L</math> (the set of all problems that can be solved in logarithmic space) is strictly contained in <math>P</math> or equal to <math>P</math>. Again, there are many complexity classes between the two, such as <math>NL</math> and <math>NC</math>, and it is not known if they are distinct or equal classes. It is suspected that <math>P</math> and <math>BPP</math> are equal. However, it is currently open if <math>BPP NEXP</math>.Intractability <!-- This section is linked from Minimax, Intractability, Intractable --> A problem that can theoretically be solved, but requires impractical and finite resources (e.g., time) to do so, is known as an . Conversely, a problem that can be solved in practice is called a , literally "a problem that can be handled". The term infeasible (literally "cannot be done") is sometimes used interchangeably with intractable, though this risks confusion with a feasible solution in mathematical optimization. Tractable problems are frequently identified with problems that have polynomial-time solutions (<math>P</math>, <math>PTIME</math>); this is known as the Cobham–Edmonds thesis. Problems that are known to be intractable in this sense include those that are EXPTIME-hard. If <math>NP</math> is not the same as <math>P</math>, then NP-hard problems are also intractable in this sense. However, this identification is inexact: a polynomial-time solution with large degree or large leading coefficient grows quickly, and may be impractical for practical size problems; conversely, an exponential-time solution that grows slowly may be practical on realistic input, or a solution that takes a long time in the worst case may take a short time in most cases or the average case, and thus still be practical. Saying that a problem is not in <math>P</math> does not imply that all large cases of the problem are hard or even that most of them are. For example, the decision problem in Presburger arithmetic has been shown not to be in <math>P</math>, yet algorithms have been written that solve the problem in reasonable times in most cases. Similarly, algorithms can solve the NP-complete knapsack problem over a wide range of sizes in less than quadratic time and SAT solvers routinely handle large instances of the NP-complete Boolean satisfiability problem. To see why exponential-time algorithms are generally unusable in practice, consider a program that makes <math>2^n</math> operations before halting. For small <math>n</math>, say 100, and assuming for the sake of example that the computer does <math>10^{12}</math> operations each second, the program would run for about <math>4 \times 10^{10}</math> years, which is the same order of magnitude as the age of the universe. Even with a much faster computer, the program would only be useful for very small instances and in that sense the intractability of a problem is somewhat independent of technological progress. However, an exponential-time algorithm that takes <math>1.0001^n</math> operations is practical until <math>n</math> gets relatively large. Similarly, a polynomial time algorithm is not always practical. If its running time is, say, <math>n^{15}</math>, it is unreasonable to consider it efficient and it is still useless except on small instances. Indeed, in practice even <math>n^3</math> or <math>n^2</math> algorithms are often impractical on realistic sizes of problems. Continuous complexity theory Continuous complexity theory can refer to complexity theory of problems that involve continuous functions that are approximated by discretizations, as studied in numerical analysis. One approach to complexity theory of numerical analysis is information based complexity. Continuous complexity theory can also refer to complexity theory of the use of analog computation, which uses continuous dynamical systems and differential equations. Control theory can be considered a form of computation and differential equations are used in the modelling of continuous-time and hybrid discrete-continuous-time systems.History An early example of algorithm complexity analysis is the running time analysis of the Euclidean algorithm done by Gabriel Lamé in 1844. Before the actual research explicitly devoted to the complexity of algorithmic problems started off, numerous foundations were laid out by various researchers. Most influential among these was the definition of Turing machines by Alan Turing in 1936, which turned out to be a very robust and flexible simplification of a computer. The beginning of systematic studies in computational complexity is attributed to the seminal 1965 paper "On the Computational Complexity of Algorithms" by Juris Hartmanis and Richard E. Stearns, which laid out the definitions of time complexity and space complexity, and proved the hierarchy theorems. In addition, in 1965 Edmonds suggested to consider a "good" algorithm to be one with running time bounded by a polynomial of the input size. Earlier papers studying problems solvable by Turing machines with specific bounded resources include on real-time computations (1962). Somewhat earlier, Boris Trakhtenbrot (1956), a pioneer in the field from the USSR, studied another specific complexity measure. As he remembers: In 1967, Manuel Blum formulated a set of axioms (now known as Blum axioms) specifying desirable properties of complexity measures on the set of computable functions and proved an important result, the so-called speed-up theorem. The field began to flourish in 1971 when Stephen Cook and Leonid Levin proved the existence of practically relevant problems that are NP-complete. In 1972, Richard Karp took this idea a leap forward with his landmark paper, "Reducibility Among Combinatorial Problems", in which he showed that 21 diverse combinatorial and graph theoretical problems, each infamous for its computational intractability, are NP-complete.See also * Computational complexity * Descriptive complexity theory * Game complexity * Leaf language * Limits of computation * List of complexity classes * List of computability and complexity topics * List of unsolved problems in computer science * Parameterized complexity * Proof complexity * Quantum complexity theory * Structural complexity theory * Transcomputational problem * Computational complexity of mathematical operations Works on complexity * References Citations Textbooks * * * * * * * * Surveys * * * * External links [https://complexityzoo.net/Complexity_Zoo The Complexity Zoo] * [https://www.scottaaronson.com/papers/philos.pdf Scott Aaronson: Why Philosophers Should Care About Computational Complexity] Category:Computational fields of study	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_complexity_theory	2025-04-05T18:28:11.752899
7544	Cadence (disambiguation)	A cadence is a melodic or harmonic configuration that creates a sense of resolution. Cadence may also refer to: Arts and entertainment Music Cadence (vocal group), a Canadian a cappella quartet Cadence rampa a Haitian music genre and origin of Cadence-lypso Drum cadence, played exclusively by the percussion section of a marching band Military cadence, a marching chant Cadence, the high school band of Chris Daughtry Record labels Cadence Jazz Records, a record label associated with Cadence magazine Cadence Records, a 1940s/1950s American record label during the Cadence Music Group, formerly MapleMusic Recordings, a Canadian record label Other uses in arts and entertainment Cadence (film), a 1990 film by Martin Sheen Cadence (magazine), a quarterly review of jazz, blues and improvised music Cadence (poetry), the fall in pitch of the intonation of the voice Cadance, a character in My Little Pony: Friendship is Magic Businesses Cadence Bank, an American bank Cadence Bank (1887–2021), a former company merged into this bank Cadence Biomedical, an American medical device company Cadence Design Systems, an American company Cadence Industries, an American conglomerate People Cadence (given name) Other uses Cadence (cycling), a measure of cycling pedalling rate (r/min) Cadence (gait), a measure of athletic performance See also Cadenza (disambiguation) Cadence-lypso, a fusion of cadence and calypso dance music Cadence rampa, a dance music	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadence_(disambiguation)	2025-04-05T18:28:11.776931
7546	Camelot	Camelot is a legendary castle and court associated with King Arthur. Absent in the early Arthurian material, Camelot first appeared in 12th-century French romances and, since the Lancelot-Grail cycle, eventually came to be described as the fantastic capital of Arthur's realm and a symbol of the Arthurian world. Medieval texts locate it somewhere in Great Britain and sometimes associate it with real cities, though more usually its precise location is not revealed. Most scholars regard it as being entirely fictional, its unspecified geography being perfect for chivalric romance writers. Nevertheless, arguments about the location of the "real Camelot" have occurred since the 15th century and continue today in popular works and for tourism purposes. Etymology The name's derivation is uncertain. It has numerous different spellings in medieval French Arthurian romances, including Camaalot, Camalot, Chamalot, Camehelot (sometimes read as Camchilot), Camaaloth, Caamalot, Camahaloth, Camaelot, Kamaalot, Kamaaloth, Kaamalot, Kamahaloth, Kameloth, Kamaelot, Kamelot, Kaamelot, Cameloth, and Gamalaot. Arthurian scholar Ernst Brugger suggested that it was a corruption of the site of Arthur's final battle, the Battle of Camlann, in Welsh tradition. Medieval literature Arthur's court at Camelot is mentioned for the first time in Chrétien's poem Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart, dating to the 1170s, though it does not appear in all the manuscripts. In the C manuscript (Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, fonds français 794, folio 27r), which might in fact contain the proper reading of Chretien's original text, instead of the place name there is the Old French phrase con lui plot, meaning "as he pleased". The other manuscripts spell the name variously as Chamalot (MS A, f. f. 196r), Camehelot (MS E, f. 1r), Chamaalot (MS G, f. 34f), and Camalot (MS T, f. 41v); the name is missing, along with the rest of the passage containing it, in MS V (Vatican, Biblioteca Vaticana, Regina 1725). Camelot is mentioned only in passing and is not described: Nothing in Chrétien's poem suggests the level of importance Camelot would have in later romances. For Chrétien, Arthur's chief court was in Caerleon in Wales; this was the king's primary base in Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae and subsequent literature. however, in Britain, Arthur's court was generally located at Caerleon, or at Carlisle, which is usually identified with the "Carduel" of the French romances. The Lancelot-Grail cycle and the texts it influenced depict the city of Camelot as standing along a river, downstream from Astolat. It is surrounded by plains and forests, and its magnificent cathedral, St. Stephen's, originally established by Josephus, the son of Joseph of Arimathea, is the religious centre for Arthur's Knights of the Round Table. There, Arthur and Guinevere are married and there are the tombs of many kings and knights. In a mighty castle stands the Round Table, created by Merlin and Uther Pendragon; it is here that Galahad conquers the Siege Perilous, and where the knights see a vision of the Holy Grail and swear to find it. Jousts are often held in a meadow outside the city. Its imprecise geography serves the romances well, as Camelot becomes less a literal place than a powerful symbol of Arthur's court and universe. In Palamedes and some other works, including the Post-Vulgate cycle, King Arthur's Camelot is eventually razed to the ground by the treacherous King Mark of Cornwall (who had besieged it earlier) in his invasion of Logres after the Battle of Camlann. Many other places are listed as a location where Arthur holds court in the later romances, Carlisle and London perhaps being the most prominent. In the 15th century, the English writer Thomas Malory created the image of Camelot most familiar today in his ''Le Morte d'Arthur'', a work based mostly on the French romances. He firmly identifies Camelot with Winchester in England, an identification that remained popular over the centuries, though it was rejected by Malory's own editor, William Caxton, who preferred a Welsh location. Identifications 's Great Hall with a 13th-century prop Round Table]] Arthurian scholar Norris J. Lacy commented that "Camelot, located nowhere in particular, can be anywhere." The romancers' versions of Camelot draw on earlier traditions of Arthur's fabulous court. The Celliwig of Culhwch and Olwen appears in the Welsh Triads as well; this early Welsh material places Wales' greatest leader outside its national boundaries. Geoffrey's description of Caerleon is probably based on his personal familiarity with the town and its Roman ruins; it is less clear that Caerleon was associated with Arthur before Geoffrey. Several French romances (Perlesvaus, the Didot Perceval attributed to Robert de Boron, and even the early romances of Chrétien such as Erec and Enide and Yvain, the Knight of the Lion) have Arthur hold court at "Carduel in Wales", a northern city based on the real Carlisle. Malory's identification of Camelot as Winchester was probably partially inspired by the latter city's history: it had been the capital of Wessex under Alfred the Great, and boasted the Winchester Round Table, an artefact constructed in the 13th century but widely believed to be the original by Malory's time. Caxton rejected the association, saying Camelot was in Wales and that its ruins could still be seen; this is a likely reference to the Roman ruins at Caerwent. in Somerset considered it to be the original Camelot. This theory, which was repeated by later antiquaries, is bolstered, or may have derived from, Cadbury's proximity to the River Cam and the villages of Queen Camel and West Camel, and remained popular enough to help inspire a large-scale archaeological dig in the 20th century. The works were by far the largest known fortification of the period, double the size of comparative caers and with Mediterranean artefacts representing extensive trade and Saxon ones showing possible conquest. Modern archaeologists follow him in rejecting the name, calling it instead Cadbury Castle hill fort. Despite this, Cadbury remains widely associated with Camelot. The name of the Romano-British town of Camulodunum (modern Colchester) was derived from the Celtic god Camulus. However, it was located well within territory usually thought to have been conquered early in the 5th century by Saxons, so it is unlikely to have been the location of any "true" Camelot, as Arthur is traditionally dated to the late 5th and early 6th century. The town was definitely known as Colchester as early as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 917. Even Colchester Museum argues strongly regarding the historical Arthur: "It would be impossible and inconceivable to link him to the Colchester area, or to Essex more generally," pointing out that the connection between the name Camulodunum and Colchester was unknown until the 18th century. Arthurian scholar Peter Field has suggested that another Camulodunum, a former Roman fort, is a likely location of King Arthur's Camelot and that "Slack, on the outskirts of Huddersfield in West Yorkshire," is where Arthur would have held court. This is because of the name, and also regarding its strategic location: it is but a few miles from the extreme south-west of Hen Ogledd (also making close to North Wales), and would have been a flagship point in staving off attacks to the Celtic kingdoms from the Angles and others. Other places in Britain with names related to "Camel" have also been suggested, such as Camelford in Cornwall, located down the River Camel from where Geoffrey places Camlann, the scene of Arthur's final battle. The area's connections with Camelot and Camlann are merely speculative. Further north, Camelon and its connections with Arthur's O'on have been mentioned in relation to Camelot, but Camelon may be an antiquarian neologism coined after the 15th century, with its earlier name being Carmore or Carmure. Graham Phillips rejected the word "Camelot" entirely as just Chrétien's invention and instead proposed the old Roman city of Viroconium (near Shrewsbury in modern England) as Arthur's capital, citing archaeological evidence of a grand palace having been in use around 500 AD. Alistair Moffat identified Camelot with Roxburgh in Scotland. Modern culture Camelot has become a permanent fixture in modern interpretations of the Arthurian legend. The symbolism of Camelot so impressed Alfred, Lord Tennyson that he wrote up a prose sketch on the castle as one of his earliest attempts to treat the legend. Modern stories typically retain Camelot's lack of precise location and its status as a symbol of the Arthurian world, though they typically transform the castle itself into romantically lavish visions of a High Middle Ages palace. with lottery machines named after characters, places, and objects in Arthurian legend. In American contexts, Camelot era refers to the presidency of John F. Kennedy. In a 1963 Life interview, Jacqueline, his widow, referenced a line from the Lerner and Loewe musical to describe the Kennedy era White House: "Don't let it be forgot, that once there was a spot, for one brief shining moment, that was known as Camelot." She indicated that it was one of Kennedy's favourite lyrics from the musical and added, "there'll be great Presidents again [...] but there'll never be another Camelot again." The cultural impact of Camelot in Anglo-American culture can be understood in the numerous applications in ‘high’ and ‘popular’ culture by artists, filmmakers, public relations specialists, tableware and game makers, youth groups, stamp designers. The 2024 exhibit, [https://rbscpexhibits.lib.rochester.edu/exhibits/show/visualizing%20camelot/welcome Visualizing Camelot], at the University of Rochester Libraries offered an impressive cross-section of these applications. See also * List of mythological places * Locations associated with Arthurian legend References Citations Bibliography Alcock, Leslie; Stenvenson, S. J.; & Musson, C. R. (1995). Cadbury Castle, Somerset: The Early Medieval Archaeology. University of Wales Press. Ashley, Mike (2005). The Mammoth Book of King Arthur. London: Running Press. . Lacy, Norris J. (Ed.) (1991). The New Arthurian Encyclopedia. New York: Garland. . External links [http://d.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/theme/camelot Camelot] at The Camelot Project Category:Fictional elements introduced in the 12th century Category:Fictional fortifications Category:Locations associated with Arthurian legend Category:Mythological populated places Category:Fictional buildings and structures originating in literature Category:King Arthur	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camelot	2025-04-05T18:28:11.810533
7548	Contras	\| allies <small>(see Iran-Contra Affair)</small><br> <small>(see Operation Charly)</small><br><br><br><br><br><br> \| opponents = FSLN \| battles = Major operations at La Trinidad, Rama highway, and Siunalatisha and Bonanza. Numerous government bases overrun throughout Jinotega, Matagalpa, Zelaya Norte, Zelaya Sur, Chontales, and Río San Juan provinces. \| successor = }} In the history of Nicaragua, the Contras (Spanish: La contrarrevolución, the counter-revolution) were the right-wing militias who waged anti-communist guerilla warfare (1979–1990) against the Marxist governments of the Sandinista National Liberation Front and the Junta of National Reconstruction, which came to power after the Nicaraguan Revolution in 1979. Months after the political dynasty (1936–1979) of the Somoza family lost the Nicaraguan Revolution to the Sandinistas, the US government sponsored the remaining national-guard soldiers and Somocista politicians of the losing side as la Contra, the right-wing counter-revolution. The American military assistance and financial aid granted the Contras a measure of political credibility and military utility as anti-communist militias useful to U.S. foreign policy in Latin America. In 1986, consequent to complaints of the Contras' regular violation of the human rights of Nicaraguan civilians, the Boland Amendment (1982–1986) ended U.S. financing of the Contras; yet the Reagan government illegally continued financing the anti-communist secret war of the Contras against Sandinista Nicaragua, known in the US as the Iran–Contra affair. By 1987, the CIA had organized most of the Contra militias into the anti-communist Nicaraguan Resistance, within which the Nicaraguan Democratic Force (FDN) was the greatest militia. For eleven years, the Contras' counter-revolutionary war against the Sandinista government of Nicaragua featured terrorism and human rights violations against the civilian population of Nicaragua. In defense of the Contras, the Reagan government said that the anti-communist strategy of the US in Latin America did not include attacks upon civilian populations. The CIA said that the Contras' terrorism against Nicaraguan civilians resulted from "the poor discipline characteristic of irregular forces", and that terrorism was not official military doctrine of the Contras,HistoryOriginsThe Contras were not a monolithic group, but a combination of three distinct elements of Nicaraguan society:—these later were especially found in the military wing of the Nicaraguan Democratic Force (FDN). Remnants of the Guard later formed groups such as the Fifteenth of September Legion, the Anti-Sandinista Guerrilla Special Forces, and the National Army of Liberation. Initially however, these groups were small and conducted little active raiding into Nicaragua. * Anti-Somozistas who had supported the revolution but felt betrayed by the Sandinista government or José Francisco Cardenal, who had briefly served in the Council of State before leaving Nicaragua out of disagreement with the Sandinista government's policies and founding the Nicaraguan Democratic Union (UDN), an opposition group of Nicaraguan exiles in Miami. Another example are the MILPAS (Milicias Populares Anti-Sandinistas), peasant militias led by disillusioned Sandinista veterans from the northern mountains. Founded by Pedro Joaquín González (known as "Dimas"), the Milpistas were also known as (green corn). Even after his death, other MILPAS bands sprouted during 1980–1981. The Milpistas were composed largely of (peasant) highlanders and rural workers. Nicaraguans who had avoided direct involvement in the revolution but opposed the Sandinistas. Although the FDN had its roots in two groups made up of former National Guardsmen (of the Somoza regime), its joint political directorate was led by businessman and former anti-Somoza activist Adolfo Calero Portocarrero. Édgar Chamorro later stated that there was strong opposition within the UDN against working with the Guardsmen and that the merging only took place because of insistence by the CIA. Based in Honduras, Nicaragua's northern neighbor, under the command of former National Guard Colonel Enrique Bermúdez, the new FDN commenced to draw in other smaller insurgent forces in the north. Largely financed, trained, equipped, armed and organized by the U.S., it emerged as the largest and most active contra group. In April 1982, Edén Pastora (Comandante Cero), one of the heroes in the fight against Somoza, organized the Sandinista Revolutionary Front (FRS) – embedded in the Democratic Revolutionary Alliance (ARDE) – and declared war on the Sandinista government. Himself a former Sandinista who had held several high posts in the government, he had resigned abruptly in 1981 and defected, after a press conference he was holding on 30 May 1984 was bombed, he "voluntarily withdrew" from the contra struggle. The Misurasata movement split in 1983, with the breakaway Misura group of Stedman Fagoth Muller allying itself more closely with the FDN, and the rest accommodating themselves with the Sandinistas: on 8 December 1984 a ceasefire agreement known as the Bogota Accord was signed by Misurasata and the Nicaraguan government. A subsequent autonomy statute in September 1987 largely defused Miskito resistance. Unity efforts U.S. officials were active in attempting to unite the Contra groups. In June 1985 most of the groups reorganized as the United Nicaraguan Opposition (UNO), under the leadership of Adolfo Calero, Arturo Cruz and Alfonso Robelo, all originally supporters of the anti-Somoza revolution. After UNO's dissolution early in 1987, the Nicaraguan Resistance (RN) was organized along similar lines in May. U.S. military and financial assistance In front of the International Court of Justice, the Nicaraguan government claimed that the Contras were altogether a creation of the U.S. This claim was rejected The U.S. played a very large role in financing, training, arming, and advising the Contras over a long period, and it is unlikely that the Contras would have been capable of carrying out significant military operations without this support, given the large amount of training and weapons shipments that the Sandinistas had received from Cuba and the Soviet Union. Political background The US government viewed the leftist Sandinistas as a threat to economic interests of American corporations in Nicaragua and to national security. US President Ronald Reagan stated in 1983 that "The defense of [the USA's] southern frontier" was at stake. "In spite of the Sandinista victory being declared fair, the United States continued to oppose the left-wing Nicaraguan government." and opposed its ties to Cuba and the Soviet Union. Ronald Reagan, who had assumed the American presidency in January 1981, accused the Sandinistas of importing Cuban-style socialism and aiding leftist guerrillas in El Salvador. The Reagan administration continued to view the Sandinistas as undemocratic despite the 1984 Nicaraguan elections being generally declared fair by foreign observers. Throughout the 1980s the Sandinista government was regarded as "Partly Free" by Freedom House, an organization financed by the U.S. government. and Vice President George Bush in 1984]] On 4 January 1982, Reagan signed the top secret National Security Decision Directive 17 (NSDD-17), The arming, clothing, feeding and supervision of the Contras became the most ambitious paramilitary and political action operation mounted by the agency in nearly a decade. In the fiscal year 1984, the U.S. Congress approved $24 million in aid to the Contras. the Reagan administration lost much of its support regarding its Contra policy within Congress after disclosure of CIA mining of Nicaraguan ports, and a report of the Bureau of Intelligence and Research commissioned by the State Department found Reagan's allegations about Soviet influence in Nicaragua "exaggerated", Congress cut off all funds for the contras in 1985 by the third Boland Amendment. In October 1984, it was amended to forbid action by not only the Defense Department and the Central Intelligence Agency but all U.S. government agencies. Nevertheless, the case for support of the Contras continued to be made in Washington, D.C., by both the Reagan administration and the Heritage Foundation, which argued that support for the Contras would counter Soviet influence in Nicaragua. On 1 May 1985 President Reagan announced that his administration perceived Nicaragua to be "an unusual and extraordinary threat to the national security and foreign policy of the United States", and declared a "national emergency" and a trade embargo against Nicaragua to "deal with that threat". It "is now a given; it is true", the Washington Post declared in 1986, "the Sandinistas are communists of the Cuban or Soviet school"; that "The Reagan administration is right to take Nicaragua as a serious menace—to civil peace and democracy in Nicaragua and to the stability and security of the region"; that we must "fit Nicaragua back into a Central American mode" and "turn Nicaragua back toward democracy", and with the "Latin American democracies" "demand reasonable conduct by regional standard." Soon after the embargo was established, Managua re-declared "a policy of nonalignment" and sought the aid of Western Europe, who were opposed to U.S. policy, to escape dependency on the Soviet Union. Since 1981 U.S. pressures had curtailed Western credit to and trade with Nicaragua, forcing the government to rely almost totally on the Eastern bloc for credit, other aid, and trade by 1985. In his 1997 study on U.S. low intensity warfare, Kermit D. Johnson, a former Chief of the U.S. Army Chaplains, contends that U.S. hostility toward the revolutionary government was motivated not by any concern for "national security", but rather by what the world relief organization Oxfam termed "the threat of a good example": <blockquote>It was alarming that in just a few months after the Sandinista revolution, Nicaragua received international acclaim for its rapid progress in the fields of literacy and health. It was alarming that a socialist-mixed-economy state could do in a few short months what the Somoza dynasty, a U.S. client state, could not do in 45 years! It was truly alarming that the Sandinistas were intent on providing the very services that establish a government's political and moral legitimacy.</blockquote> The government's program included increased wages, subsidized food prices, and expanded health, welfare, and education services. And though it nationalized Somoza's former properties, it preserved a private sector that accounted for between 50 and 60 percent of GDP. Atrocities The United States began to support Contra activities against the Sandinista government by December 1981, with the CIA at the forefront of operations. The CIA supplied the funds and the equipment, coordinated training programs, and provided intelligence and target lists. While the Contras had little military successes, they did prove adept at carrying out CIA guerrilla warfare strategies from training manuals which advised them to incite mob violence, "neutralize" civilian leaders and government officials and attack "soft targets" — including schools, health clinics and cooperatives. The agency added to the Contras' sabotage efforts by blowing up refineries and pipelines, and mining ports. Finally, according to former Contra leader Edgar Chamorro, CIA trainers also gave Contra soldiers large knives. "A commando knife [was given], and our people, everybody wanted to have a knife like that, to kill people, to cut their throats". In 1985 Newsweek published a series of photos taken by Frank Wohl, a conservative student admirer traveling with the Contras, entitled "Execution in the Jungle": <blockquote>The victim dug his own grave, scooping the dirt out with his hands ... He crossed himself. Then a contra executioner knelt and rammed a k-bar knife into his throat. A second enforcer stabbed at his jugular, then his abdomen. When the corpse was finally still, the contras threw dirt over the shallow grave — and walked away.</blockquote> The CIA officer in charge of the covert war, Duane "Dewey" Clarridge, admitted to the House Intelligence Committee staff in a secret briefing in 1984 that the Contras were routinely murdering "civilians and Sandinista officials in the provinces, as well as heads of cooperatives, nurses, doctors and judges". But he claimed that this did not violate President Reagan's executive order prohibiting assassinations because the agency defined it as just 'killing'. "After all, this is war—a paramilitary operation", Clarridge said in conclusion. Edgar Chamorro explained the rationale behind this to a U.S. reporter. "Sometimes terror is very productive. This is the policy, to keep putting pressure until the people cry 'uncle'". The CIA manual for the Contras, Tayacan, states that the Contras should gather the local population for a public tribunal to "shame, ridicule and humiliate" Sandinista officials to "reduce their influence". It also recommends gathering the local population to witness and take part in public executions. These types of activities continued throughout the war. After the signing of the Central American Peace Accord in August 1987, the year war related deaths and economic destruction reached its peak, the Contras eventually entered negotiations with the Sandinista government (1988), and the war began to deescalate. The UNO scored a decisive victory on 25 February 1990. Chamorro won with 55 percent of the presidential vote as compared to Ortega's 41 percent. Of 92 seats in the National Assembly, UNO gained 51, and the FSLN won 39. On 25 April 1990, Chamorro assumed presidency from Daniel Ortega. Between 1984 and 1986, $34 million from third countries and $2.7 million from private sources were raised this way. According to the National Security Archive, Oliver North had been in contact with Manuel Noriega, the military leader of Panama later convicted on drug charges, whom he personally met. The issue of drug money and its importance in funding the Nicaraguan conflict was the subject of various reports and publications. The contras were funded by drug trafficking, of which the United States was aware. Senator John Kerry's 1988 Committee on Foreign Relations report on Contra drug links concluded that "senior U.S. policy makers were not immune to the idea that drug money was a perfect solution to the Contras' funding problems". The Reagan administration's support for the Contras continued to stir controversy well into the 1990s. In August 1996, San Jose Mercury News reporter Gary Webb published a series titled Dark Alliance, alleging that the contras contributed to the rise of crack cocaine in California. Gary Webb's career as a journalist was subsequently discredited by the leading U.S. papers, The New York Times, the Washington Post, and the Los Angeles Times. An internal CIA report, entitled, "Managing a Nightmare", shows the agency used "a ground base of already productive relations with journalists" to help counter what it called "a genuine public relations crisis." In the 1980s, Douglas Farah worked as a journalist, covering the civil wars in Central America for the Washington Post. According to Farah, while it was common knowledge that the Contras were involved in cocaine trafficking, the editors of the Washington Post refused to take it seriously: <blockquote>If you're talking about our intelligence community tolerating — if not promoting — drugs to pay for black ops, it's rather an uncomfortable thing to do when you're an establishment paper like the Post. If you were going to be directly rubbing up against the government, they wanted it more solid than it could probably ever be done.</blockquote> An investigation by the United States Department of Justice also stated that their "review did not substantiate the main allegations stated and implied in the Mercury News articles." Regarding the specific charges towards the CIA, the DOJ wrote "the implication that the drug trafficking by the individuals discussed in the Mercury News articles was connected to the CIA was also not supported by the facts." The CIA also investigated and rejected the allegations.PropagandaDuring the time the US Congress blocked funding for the contras, the Reagan government engaged in a campaign to alter public opinion and change the vote in Congress on contra aid. For this purpose, the NSC established an interagency working group, which in turn coordinated the Office of Public Diplomacy for Latin America and the Caribbean (managed by Otto Reich), which conducted the campaign. On top of that, Oliver North helped Carl Channell's tax-exempt organization, the National Endowment for the Preservation of Liberty, to raise $10 million, by arranging numerous briefings for groups of potential contributors at the premises of the White House and by facilitating private visits and photo sessions with President Reagan for major contributors. Channell in turn, used part of that money to run a series of television advertisements directed at home districts of Congressmen considered swing votes on contra aid. Nevertheless, the ICJ found that the U.S. encouraged acts contrary to general principles of humanitarian law by producing the manual Psychological Operations in Guerrilla Warfare (Operaciones sicológicas en guerra de guerrillas) and disseminating it to the contras. The manual, amongst other things, advised on how to rationalize killings of civilians and recommended to hire professional killers for specific selective tasks. The United States, which did not participate in the merits phase of the proceedings, maintained that the ICJ's power did not supersede the Constitution of the United States and argued that the court did not seriously consider the Nicaraguan role in El Salvador, while it accused Nicaragua of actively supporting armed groups there, specifically in the form of supply of arms. The ICJ had found that evidence of a responsibility of the Nicaraguan government in this matter was insufficient. The U.S. argument was affirmed, however, by the dissenting opinion of ICJ member U.S. Judge Schwebel, who concluded that in supporting the contras, the United States acted lawfully in collective self-defence in El Salvador's support. The U.S. blocked enforcement of the ICJ judgment by the United Nations Security Council and thereby prevented Nicaragua from obtaining any actual compensation. The Nicaraguan government finally withdrew the complaint from the court in September 1992 (under the later, post-FSLN, government of Violeta Chamorro), following a repeal of the law requiring the country to seek compensation.Human rights violationsAmericas Watch, which subsequently became part of Human Rights Watch, accused the Contras of: targeting health care clinics and health care workers for assassination kidnapping civilians torturing civilians executing civilians, including children, who were captured in combat raping women In his affidavit to the World Court, former contra Edgar Chamorro testified that "The CIA did not discourage such tactics. To the contrary, the Agency severely criticized me when I admitted to the press that the FDN had regularly kidnapped and executed agrarian reform workers and civilians. We were told that the only way to defeat the Sandinistas was to ...kill, kidnap, rob and torture". Contra leader Adolfo Calero denied that his forces deliberately targeted civilians: "What they call a cooperative is also a troop concentration full of armed people. We are not killing civilians. We are fighting armed people and returning fire when fire is directed at us." Controversy Several articles were published by U.S. press, including by The Wall Street Journal and The New Republic, accusing Americas Watch and other bodies of ideological bias and unreliable reporting. The articles alleged that Americas Watch gave too much credence to alleged Contra abuses and systematically tried to discredit Nicaraguan human rights groups such as the Permanent Commission on Human Rights, which blamed the most human rights abuses on the Sandinistas. In 1985, The Wall Street Journal reported: Human Rights Watch, the umbrella organization of Americas Watch, replied to these allegations: "Almost invariably, U.S. pronouncements on human rights exaggerated and distorted the real human rights violations of the Sandinista regime, and exculpated those of the U.S.-supported insurgents, known as the contras ... The Bush administration is responsible for these abuses, not only because the contras are, for all practical purposes, a U.S. force, but also because the Bush administration has continued to minimize and deny these violations, and has refused to investigate them seriously." A much-vaunted early 1986 offensive never materialized, and Contra forces were largely reduced to isolated acts of terrorism. Then on 21 December 1987, the FDN launched attacks at Bonanza, Siuna, and Rosita in Zelaya province, resulting in heavy fighting. ARDE Frente Sur attacked at El Almendro and along the Rama road. These large-scale raids mainly became possible as the contras were able to use U.S.-provided Redeye missiles against Sandinista Mi-24 helicopter gunships, which had been supplied by the Soviets. Nevertheless, the Contras remained tenuously encamped within Honduras and were not able to hold Nicaraguan territory. There were isolated protests among the population against the draft implemented by the Sandinista government, which even resulted in full-blown street clashes in Masaya in 1988. However, a June 1988 survey in Managua showed the Sandinista government still enjoyed strong support but that support had declined since 1984. Three times as many people identified with the Sandinistas (28%) than with all the opposition parties put together (9%); 59% did not identify with any political party. Of those polled, 85% opposed any further US aid to the Contras; 40% believed the Sandinista government to be democratic, while 48% believed it to be not democratic. People identified the war as the largest problem but were less likely to blame it for economic problems compared to a December 1986 poll; 19% blamed the war and US blockade as the main cause of economic problems while 10% blamed the government. Political opposition groups were splintered and the Contras began to experience defections, although United States aid maintained them as a viable military force. After a cutoff in U.S. military support, and with both sides facing international pressure to bring an end to the conflict, the contras agreed to negotiations with the FSLN. With the help of five Central American presidents, including Ortega, the sides agreed that a voluntary demobilization of the contras should start in early December 1989. They chose this date to facilitate free and fair elections in Nicaragua in February 1990 (even though the Reagan administration had pushed for a delay of contra disbandment). In the resulting February 1990 elections, Violeta Chamorro and her party the UNO won an upset victory of 55% to 41% over Daniel Ortega. Opinion polls leading up to the elections divided along partisan lines, with 10 of 17 polls analyzed in a contemporary study predicting an UNO victory while seven predicted the Sandinistas would retain power. Possible explanations include that the Nicaraguan people were disenchanted with the Ortega government as well as the fact that already in November 1989, the White House had announced that the economic embargo against Nicaragua would continue unless Violeta Chamorro won. Also, there had been reports of intimidation from the side of the contras, with a Canadian observer mission claiming that 42 people were killed by the contras in "election violence" in October 1989. Sandinistas were also accused of intimidation and abuses during the election campaign. According to the Puebla Institute, by mid-December 1989, seven opposition leaders had been murdered, 12 had disappeared, 20 had been arrested, and 30 others assaulted. In late January 1990, the OAS observer team reported that "a convoy of troops attacked four truckloads of UNO sympathizers with bayonets and rifle butts, threatening to kill them." This led many commentators to conclude that Nicaraguans voted against the Sandinistas out of fear of a continuation of the contra war and economic deprivation. While it is unclear whether the game was deliberately named after the Nicaraguan Contra rebels, the ending theme of the original game was titled , after the adversaries of the real-life Contras. Contra, the second studio album by the American indie rock band Vampire Weekend, released in January 2010 on XL Recordings. It debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200. The album title is intended as a thematic allegory and a complex reference to the Nicaraguan counter-revolutionaries. The song "I Think Ur a Contra" is from this album. Sandinista!, an album by The Clash, features songs about The Contras in Nicaragua. It was released in 1980. The song "Washington Bullets" is from this album. Student Visas, a song by Corb Lund from the album "Horse Soldier! Horse Soldier!", is about US Clandestine soldiers (such as SFOD-D and CIA Paramilitary) interacting with Contras in El Salvador and Nicaragua. Fragile The song is a tribute to Ben Linder, an American civil engineer who was killed by the Contras in 1987 while working on a hydroelectric project in Nicaragua. Narcos: Mexico'' features an episode where Felix has to deliver guns to Nicaragua with Amado and a CIA operative for Salvador Nava and Mexico's Minister of Defense The Mighty Quinn involves a CIA operative and a Latino right-wing assassin trying to recover large sums of untraceable US dollars which were to fund anti-communist counter-revolution on the mainland (Nicaragua is not mentioned). Snowfall a TV series following several characters, including an undercover CIA officer facilitating cocaine smuggling into the US on the behalf of the Nicaraguan Contras and his connection to a 20-year-old drug dealer in Los Angeles in the mid-1980s, the early days of the crack cocaine epidemic. The Last Narc, a 2020 documentary about the kidnapping and murder of DEA agent Kiki Camarena by Mexican drug cartels, ends up covering parts of the Iran-Contra scandal. See also Anti-communism CIA involvement in Contra cocaine trafficking Cold War Foreign interventions by the United States Latin America–United States relations Psychological Operations in Guerrilla Warfare Reagan Doctrine Role of women in the Nicaraguan Revolution United States involvement in regime change in Latin America Notes References Asleson, Vern. (2004) Nicaragua: Those Passed By. Galde Press Belli, Humberto. (1985). Breaking Faith: The Sandinista Revolution and Its Impact on Freedom and Christian Faith in Nicaragua. Crossway Books/The Puebla Institute. Bermudez, Enrique, "The Contras' Valley Forge: How I View the Nicaraguan Crisis", Policy Review, The Heritage Foundation, Summer 1988. Brody, Reed. (1985). Contra Terror in Nicaragua: Report of a Fact-Finding Mission: September 1984 – January 1985. Boston: South End Press. . Brown, Timothy. (2001). The Real Contra War: Highlander Peasant Resistance in Nicaragua. University of Oklahoma Press. . Chamorro, Edgar. (1987). Packaging the Contras: A Case of CIA Disinformation. New York: Institute for Media Analysis. ; . Christian, Shirley. (1986) Nicaragua, Revolution in the Family. New York: Vintage Books. Cox, Jack. (1987) Requiem in the Tropics: Inside Central America. UCA Books. Cruz S., Arturo J. (1989). Memoirs of a Counterrevolutionary. (1989). New York: Doubleday. Dickey, Christopher. (1985, 1987). With the Contras: A Reporter in the Wilds of Nicaragua. New York: Simon & Schuster. Garvin, Glenn. (1992). Everybody Had His Own Gringo: The CIA and the Contras. Washington: Brassey's. * Gugliota, Guy. (1989). Kings of Cocaine Inside the Medellin Cartel. Simon and Schuster. Horton, Lynn. Peasants in Arms: War and Peace in the Mountains of Nicaragua, 1979–1994. (1998). Athens: Ohio University Center for International Studies. International Court of Justice (1986) International Court of Justice (IV) (1986) Hamilton, Lee H. et al. (1987) [https://books.google.com/books?idew_K3auTwEgC&qReport+of+the+Congressional+Committees+Investigating+the+Iran/Contra+Affair "Report of the Congressional Committees Investigating the Iran/Contra Affair"] Johns, Michael "The Lessons of Afghanistan: Bipartisan Support for Freedom Fighters Pays Off", Policy Review, Spring 1987. Kirkpatrick, Jeane J. (1982) Dictatorships and Double Standards. Touchstone. Miranda, Roger, and William Ratliff. (1993, 1994) The Civil War in Nicaragua: Inside the Sandinistas. New Brunswick, NY: Transaction Publishers. Moore, John Norton (1987). The Secret War in Central America: Sandinista Assault on World Order. University Publications of America. Pardo-Maurer, Rogelio. (1990) The Contras, 1980–1989: A Special Kind of Politics. New York: Praeger. Sklar, H. (1988) [https://books.google.com/books?idIbFXs7_LutMC&dqcongress+report+nicaragua&pg=PA342 "Washington's war on Nicaragua"] South End Press. External links [http://www.tnr.com/article/confessions-contra Confessions of a Contra: How the CIA Masterminds the Nicaraguan Insurgency] by The New Republic, 5 August 1985 [https://web.archive.org/web/20120728041441/http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552661 The Contras and U.S. Funding] from the [https://web.archive.org/web/20160115205405/https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494 Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives] [https://web.archive.org/web/20160118210701/https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552675 U.S. Policy Towards the Contras] from the [https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494/browse?type=title Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives] [https://web.archive.org/web/20090412154510/http://www.whitepinepictures.com/wsw/twswfmr.htm "The World Stopped Watching"], a documentary film directed by Peter Raymont. White Pine Pictures, 2003. [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB2/nsaebb2.htm "The Contras, Cocaine, and Covert Operations"] – National Security Archive. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/27/newsid_2520000/2520169.stm US administration disregarding the UN verdict] Video provided by BBC. [https://archive.org/details/whenak47sfallsil00timo <!-- quote=When the AK-47s Fall Silent. --> When the AK-47s Fall Silent, by Timothy Brown] Category:Anti-communist guerrilla organizations Category:Anti-communist terrorism Category:Central Intelligence Agency operations Category:CIA activities in the Americas Category:Cold War conflicts Category:Cold War rebellions Category:Counter-revolutionaries Category:Dirty wars Category:1980s in Nicaragua Category:History of the foreign relations of the United States Category:Iran–Contra affair Category:Nicaraguan anti-communists Category:Nicaraguan Revolution Category:Nicaragua–United States relations Category:Reagan administration controversies Category:Rebellions in North America Category:Right-wing politics in Nicaragua Category:Terrorism in Nicaragua Category:Wars involving the United States	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contras	2025-04-05T18:28:11.887470
7550	Craig Venter	\| birth_place = Salt Lake City, Utah, U.S. \| alma_mater = University of California, San Diego \| work_institution = \| occupation = Biologist \| fields = \| awards = Gairdner Award (2002)<br />Nierenberg Prize (2007)<br />Kistler Prize (2008)<br />ENI award (2008)<br />Medal of Science (2008)<br />Dickson Prize (2011)<br />Leeuwenhoek Medal<br />Edogawa NICHE Prize (2020) \| website = }} John Craig Venter (born October 14, 1946) is an American scientist. He is known for leading one of the first draft sequences of the human genome and led the first team to transfect a cell with a synthetic chromosome. Venter founded Celera Genomics, the Institute for Genomic Research (TIGR) and the J. Craig Venter Institute (JCVI). He was the co-founder of Human Longevity Inc. and Synthetic Genomics. He was listed on Time magazine's 2007 and 2008 Time 100 list of the most influential people in the world. In 2010, the British magazine New Statesman listed Craig Venter at 14th in the list of "The World's 50 Most Influential Figures 2010". In 2012, Venter was honored with Dan David Prize for his contribution to genome research. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 2013. He is a member of the USA Science and Engineering Festival's advisory board.Early life and educationVenter was born in Salt Lake City, Utah, the son of Elisabeth and John Venter. His family moved to Millbrae, California during his childhood. In his youth, he did not take his education seriously, preferring to spend his time on the water in boats or surfing. He graduated from Mills High School. His father died suddenly at age 59 from cardiac arrest, giving him a lifelong awareness of his own mortality. He quotes a saying: "If you want immortality, do something meaningful with your life." Venter was drafted and enlisted in the United States Navy where he worked as a hospital corpsman in the intensive-care ward of a field hospital. He served from 1967 to 1968 at the Naval Support Activity Danang in Vietnam. While in Vietnam, he attempted suicide by swimming out to sea, but changed his mind more than a mile out. Being confronted with severely injured and dying marines on a daily basis instilled in him a desire to study medicine, although he later switched to biomedical research. Venter began his college education in 1969 at a community college, College of San Mateo in California, and later transferred to the University of California, San Diego, where he studied under biochemist Nathan O. Kaplan. He received a Bachelor of Science in biochemistry in 1972 and a Doctor of Philosophy in physiology and pharmacology in 1975 from UCSD. Career After working as an associate professor, and later as full professor, at the State University of New York at Buffalo, he joined the National Institutes of Health in 1984. EST controversy While an employee of the NIH, Venter learned how to identify mRNA and began to learn more about those expressed in the human brain. The short cDNA sequence fragments Venter discovered by automated DNA sequencing, he named expressed sequence tags, or ESTs. The NIH Office of Technology Transfer decided to file a patent on the ESTs discovered by Venter, patenting the genes identified based on studies of mRNA expression in the human brain. When Venter disclosed the NIH strategy during a Congressional hearing, a firestorm of controversy erupted. The NIH later stopped the effort and abandoned the patent applications it had filed, following public outcry.Human Genome Project Venter was passionate about the power of genomics to transform healthcare radically. Venter believed that shotgun sequencing was the fastest and most effective way to get useful human genome data. The method was rejected by the Human Genome Project however, since some geneticists felt it would not be accurate enough for a genome as complicated as that of humans, that it would be logistically more difficult, and that it would cost significantly more. Venter viewed the slow pace of progress in the Human Genome project as an opportunity to continue his interest in trying his shotgun sequencing method to speed up the human genome sequencing so when he was offered funding from a DNA sequencing company to start Celera Genomics. The company planned to profit from their work by creating genomic data to which users could subscribe for a fee. The goal consequently put pressure on the public genome program and spurred several groups to redouble their efforts to produce the full sequence. Venter's effort won him renown as he and his team at Celera Corporation shared credit for sequencing the first draft human genome with the publicly funded Human Genome Project. In 2000, Venter and Francis Collins of the National Institutes of Health and U.S. Public Genome Project jointly made the announcement of the mapping of the human genome, a full three years ahead of the expected end of the Public Genome Program. The announcement was made along with U.S. President Bill Clinton, and UK Prime Minister Tony Blair. Venter and Collins thus shared an award for "Biography of the Year" from A&E Network. On February 15, 2001, the Human Genome Project consortium published the first Human Genome in the journal Nature, followed one day later by a Celera publication in Science. Despite some claims that shotgun sequencing was in some ways less accurate than the clone-by-clone method chosen by the Human Genome Project, the technique became widely accepted by the scientific community. Venter was fired by Celera in early 2002. According to his biography, Venter was fired because of a conflict with the main investor, Tony White, specifically barring him from attending the White House ceremony celebrating the achievement of sequencing the human genome.Global Ocean Sampling ExpeditionThe Global Ocean Sampling Expedition (GOS) is an ocean exploration genome project with the goal of assessing the genetic diversity in marine microbial communities and to understand their role in nature's fundamental processes. Begun as a Sargasso Sea pilot sampling project in August 2003, the full Expedition was announced by Venter on March 4, 2004. The project, which used Venter's personal yacht, Sorcerer II, started in Halifax, Canada, circumnavigated the globe and returned to the U.S. in January 2006.Synthetic GenomicsIn June 2005, Venter co-founded Synthetic Genomics, a firm dedicated to using modified microorganisms to produce clean fuels and biochemicals. In July 2009, ExxonMobil announced a $600 million collaboration with Synthetic Genomics to research and develop next-generation biofuels. Venter continues to work on the creation of engineered diatomic microalgae for the production of biofuels. Venter is seeking to patent the first partially synthetic species possibly to be named Mycoplasma laboratorium. There is speculation that this line of research could lead to producing bacteria that have been engineered to perform specific reactions, for example, produce fuels, make medicines, combat global warming, and so on. In May 2010, a team of scientists led by Venter became the first to create successfully what was described as "synthetic life". This was done by synthesizing a very long DNA molecule containing an entire bacterium genome, and introducing this into another cell, analogous to the accomplishment of Eckard Wimmer's group, who synthesized and ligated an RNA virus genome and "booted" it in cell lysate. The single-celled organism contains four "watermarks" written into its DNA to identify it as synthetic and to help trace its descendants. The watermarks include # Code table for entire alphabet with punctuations # Names of 46 contributing scientists # Three quotations # The secret email address for the cell. On March 25, 2016, Venter reported the creation of Syn 3.0, a synthetic genome having the fewest genes of any freely living organism (473 genes). Their aim was to strip away all nonessential genes, leaving only the minimal set necessary to support life. This stripped-down, fast reproducing cell is expected to be a valuable tool for researchers in the field. In August 2018, Venter retired as chairman of the board, saying he wanted to focus on his work at the J. Craig Venter Institute. He will remain as a scientific advisor to the board.J. Craig Venter Institute In 2006 Venter founded the J. Craig Venter Institute (JCVI), a nonprofit which conducts research in synthetic biology. It has facilities in La Jolla and in Rockville, Maryland and employs over 200 people. In April 2022 Venter sold the La Jolla JCVI facility to the University of California, San Diego for $25 million. Venter will continue to lead a separate nonprofit research group, also known as the J. Craig Venter Institute, and stressed that he is not retiring. The Venter Institute has out grown its current building with multiple new facility hires and will be moving into new space in 2025.Individual human genomeOn September 4, 2007, a team led by Sam Levy published one of the first genomes of an individual human—Venter's own DNA sequence. Some of the sequences in Venter's genome are associated with wet earwax, increased risk of antisocial behavior, Alzheimer's and cardiovascular diseases. At the time of the announcement the company had already raised $70 million in venture financing, which was expected to last 18 months. The lawsuit was ultimately dismissed by a California judge on the basis that Human Longevity were unable to present a case that met the legal threshold required for a company, or individual, to sue when its trade secrets have been stolen. Human Longevity's mission is to extend healthy human lifespan by the use of high-resolution big data diagnostics from genomics, metabolomics, microbiomics, and proteomics, and the use of stem cell therapy. Published books Venter is the author of three books, the first of which is an autobiography titled A Life Decoded. He was applauded for his position on this by futurist Ray Kurzweil. Venter's most recent book, co-authored by David Ewing Duncan, The Voyage of Sorcerer II: The Expedition that Unlocked the Secrets of the Ocean’s Microbiome, details the Global Ocean Sampling Expedition, spanning a 15-year period during which microbes from the world's oceans were collected and their DNA sequenced.Personal lifeAfter a 12-year marriage to Barbara Rae-Venter, with whom he had a son, Christopher, he married Claire M. Fraser In late 2008 he married Heather Kowalski. Venter is an atheist. Venter was 75 when he sold his main research building to UCSD in 2022. The institute had out grown the space and will be moving to a new facility in 2025. The Venter Institute campus in Rockville MD also continues to expand. He said he has no intention of retiring. The Economist, Australian science magazine Cosmos, and The Atlantic. Venter appears in the two-hour 2001 NOVA special, "Cracking the code of life". On May 16, 2004, Venter gave the commencement speech at Boston University. On December 4, 2007, Venter gave the Dimbleby lecture for the BBC in London. Venter gave the Distinguished Public Lecture during the 2007 Michaelmas Term at the James Martin 21st Century School at Oxford University. Its title was "Genomics – From humans to the environment". Venter delivered the 2008 convocation speech for Faculty of Science honours and specialization students at the University of Alberta. In February 2008, he gave a speech about his current work at the TED conference. Venter was featured in Time magazine's "The Top 10 Everything of 2008" article. Number three in 2008's Top 10 Scientific Discoveries was a piece outlining his work stitching together the 582,000 base pairs necessary to invent the genetic information for a whole new bacterium. On May 20, 2010, Venter announced the creation of first self-replicating semi-synthetic bacterial cell. In the June 2011 issue of ''Men's Journal'', Venter was featured as the "Survival Skills" celebrity of the month. He shared various anecdotes and advice, including stories of his time in Vietnam, as well as mentioning a bout with melanoma on his back, which subsequently resulted in his "giving a pound of flesh" to surgery. In May 2011, Venter was the commencement speaker at the 157th commencement of Syracuse University. In May 2017, Venter was the guest of honor and keynote speaker at the inauguration ceremony of the Center for Systems Biology Dresden. Awards and nominations * 1996: Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement * 1999: Newcomb Cleveland Prize * 2000: Jacob Heskel Gabbay Award in Biotechnology and Medicine * 2001: Biotechnology Heritage Award with Francis Collins, from the Biotechnology Industry Organization (BIO) and the Chemical Heritage Foundation * 2002: Association for Molecular Pathology Award for Excellence in Molecular Diagnostics * 2007: On May 10, 2007, Venter was awarded an honorary doctorate from Arizona State University, and on October 24 of the same year, he received an honorary doctorate from Imperial College London. * 2008: Double Helix Medal from Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory * 2008: Kistler Prize from Foundation For the Future for genome research * 2008: ENI award for Research & Environment * 2008: National Medal of Science from President Obama * 2010: On May 8, 2010, Venter received an honorary doctor of science degree from Clarkson University for his work on the human genome. * 2011: On April 21, 2011, Venter received the 2011 Benjamin Rush Medal from William & Mary School of Law. * 2011: Dickson Prize in Medicine * 2020: Edogawa NICHE Prize for his contribution to research and development pertaining to the Human genome Works Venter has authored over 200 publications in scientific journals. <!--LIST CRITERIA--> <!-- For inclusion on this list, a publication must meet ALL of the following criteria (see exceptions below): (1) Include Venter as a primary author. He will invariably be listed first or last. THERE IS NO EXCEPTION TO THIS CRITERION. (2) Be cited in a peer-reviewed scientific journal with an impact factor of at least 10. (3) It must have at least an average of 100 citations PER YEAR. If you are using ISIknowledge, just click on the number of times cited, then click on "analyze results", and rank by publication year. To calculate this manually, take the number of citations the article has (try using ISIknowledge.com) and divide it by the number of years since it was published. This rule is more flexible for articles published in the 20th century, as most can reasonably be expected not to be cited often anymore. Exceptions to criteria 3 are: (1) his autobiography (2) an article that is a BIG DEAL but is too recent to have been so highly cited (for example, "Environmental genome shotgun sequencing of the Sargasso Sea" was a huge deal, but was only cited 60 times in 2004, a very low number for a Venter article) (3) a review, editorial, etc., that is often cited and that provides a broad overview OF HIS OWN WORKS. The criteria may seem incredibly high, but they account for the fact that Venter's articles are hugely cited and WP is not a directory. --> <!--NOTE: the use of the ellipsis is prescribed by the APA when a work has more than 7 authors and a later one needs mentioning. For the purposes of this section (and with a modification so that it matches the output of citation templates), the first 7 authors are listed, followed by the spaced ellipsis, followed by the author (Venter), and, if necessary, followed by et al.--> * * * * * * * * editor Roger Highfield * editor Roger Highfield See also * Artificial gene synthesis * Full genome sequencing * Genetic testing * Genome: The Autobiography of a Species in 23 Chapters * Personal genomics * Pharmacogenomics * Predictive medicine * Synthetic Organism Designer References Further reading * * * External links [http://www.humanlongevity.com/ Human Longevity, Inc.] [http://huref.jcvi.org HuRef Genome Browser] [http://www.jcvi.org/ J. Craig Venter Institute] [http://www.sorcerer2expedition.org/version1/HTML/main.htm Sorcerer II Expedition] [http://www.syntheticgenomics.com/ Synthetic Genomics] [http://www.jcvi.org The Institute for Genomic Research (TIGR)] ; Media * * * [https://www.theguardian.com/science/2007/oct/08/genetics.scienceandnature Cracking the code to life], The Guardian, October 8, 2007 [https://www.pbs.org/kcet/wiredscience/video/289-craig_venter.html Craig Venter interview], Wired Science, December 2007 (video) [http://bloggingheads.tv/diavlogs/398 Video of interview/discussion with Craig Venter] by Carl Zimmer on Bloggingheads.tv – TED (Technology Entertainment Design) conference (video) [https://web.archive.org/web/20081222163006/http://www.21school.ox.ac.uk/video/200710_venter.cfm Webcast of Venter talk 'Genomics: From humans to the environment'] at The James Martin 21st Century School [http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=4893602463025557866 The Richard Dimbleby Lecture 2007 – Dr. J. Craig Venter – A DNA Driven World] [http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/church_venter09/church_venter09_index.html A short course on synthetic genomics. Edge Master Class 2009] Category:1946 births Category:Living people Category:American atheists Category:American chairpersons of corporations Category:American geneticists Category:American technology chief executives Category:American technology company founders Category:American biotechnologists Category:Human Genome Project scientists Category:Leeuwenhoek Medal winners Category:Life extensionists Category:Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences Category:Military personnel from Salt Lake City Category:Researchers of artificial life Category:Scientists from Salt Lake City Category:United States Navy corpsmen Category:United States Navy personnel of the Vietnam War Category:University at Buffalo faculty Category:University of California, San Diego alumni Category:Members of the National Academy of Medicine Category:Members of the American Philosophical Society	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craig_Venter	2025-04-05T18:28:11.948012
7552	Chemical evolution	Chemical evolution may refer to: Abiogenesis, the transition from nonliving elements to living systems Astrochemistry, the study of the abundance and reactions of molecules in the universe, and their interaction with radiation Cosmochemistry, the study of the chemical compositions in the universe and the processes that led to them Evolution of metal ions in biological systems, incorporation of metallic ions into living organisms and how it has changed over time Gas evolution reaction, the process of a gas bubbling out from a solution Molecular evolution, evolution at the scale of molecules Oxygen evolution, the process of generating molecular oxygen through chemical reaction Stellar nucleosynthesis, the creation of chemical elements by stellar thermonuclear fusion or supernovae	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_evolution	2025-04-05T18:28:11.998095
7554	Carl Rogers	\| birth_place = Oak Park, Illinois, U.S. \| death_date \| death_place = San Diego, California, U.S. \| field = Psychology \| work_institutions = Ohio State University<br />University of Chicago<br /> University of Wisconsin–Madison<br />Western Behavioral Sciences Institute<br />Center for Studies of the Person \| alma_mater = University of Wisconsin–Madison (BA)<br />Union Theological Seminary<br>Columbia University (MA, PhD) \| known_for = The person-centered approach (e.g., Client-centered therapy, Student-centered learning, Rogerian argument) \| children = Natalie Rogers \| prizes = Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions to Psychology (1956, APA); Award for Distinguished Contributions to Applied Psychology as a Professional Practice (1972, APA); 1964 Humanist of the Year (American Humanist Association) }} Carl Ransom Rogers (January 8, 1902 – February 4, 1987) was an American psychologist who was one of the founders of humanistic psychology and was known especially for his person-centered psychotherapy. Rogers is widely considered one of the founding fathers of psychotherapy research and was honored for his research with the Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions by the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1956. The person-centered approach, Rogers's approach to understanding personality and human relationships, found wide application in various domains, such as psychotherapy and counseling (client-centered therapy), education (student-centered learning), organizations, and other group settings. For his professional work he received the Award for Distinguished Professional Contributions to Psychology from the APA in 1972. In a study by Steven J. Haggbloom and colleagues using six criteria such as citations and recognition, Rogers was found to be the sixth most eminent psychologist of the 20th century and second, among clinical psychologists, only to Sigmund Freud. Based on a 1982 survey of 422 respondents of U.S. and Canadian psychologists, he was considered the most influential psychotherapist in history (Freud ranked third). Biography Rogers was born on January 8, 1902, in Oak Park, Illinois, a suburb of Chicago. His father, Walter A. Rogers, was a civil engineer and a Congregationalist by religious denomination. His mother, Julia M. Cushing, was a homemaker and devout Baptist. Carl was the fourth of their six children. Rogers was intelligent and could read well before kindergarten. After being raised in a strict religious environment as an altar boy at the vicarage of Jimpley, he became isolated, independent, and disciplined, gaining knowledge and an appreciation for the scientific method in a practical world. At the University of Wisconsin–Madison, he joined the fraternity Alpha Kappa Lambda and initially planned to study agriculture before switching to history and finally settling on religion. At age 20, following his 1922 trip to Beijing, China, for an international Christian conference, Rogers started to doubt his religious convictions. To help him clarify his career choice, he attended a seminar entitled "Why Am I Entering the Ministry?" after which he decided to change careers. In 1924, he graduated from the University of Wisconsin, married fellow Wisconsin student and Oak Park resident Helen Elliott, and enrolled at Union Theological Seminary in New York City. Sometime later, he reportedly became an atheist. Although referred to as an atheist early in his career, Rogers was eventually described as an agnostic. He reportedly spoke about spirituality quite often in his later years. Brian Thorne, who knew and collaborated with Rogers throughout the latter's final decade of life, writes: "In his later years his openness to experience compelled him to acknowledge the existence of a dimension to which he attached such adjectives as mystical, spiritual, and transcendental". Rogers concluded that there is a realm "beyond" scientific psychology—a realm he came to prize as "the indescribable, the spiritual." After two years at Union, Rogers left to attend Teachers College, Columbia University, obtaining an M.A. in 1927 and a Ph.D. in 1931. While completing his doctoral work, he engaged in scientific studies of children. As an intern in 1927–1928 at the now-defunct Institute for Child Guidance in New York, Rogers studied with psychologist Alfred Adler. Later in life, Rogers recalled: In 1947, he was elected president of the American Psychological Association. In 1956, Rogers became the first president of the American Academy of Psychotherapists. He taught psychology at the University of Wisconsin, Madison (1957–1963). During this time, he wrote one of his best-known books, On Becoming a Person (1961). A student of his there, Marshall Rosenberg, went on to develop Nonviolent Communication. Rogers and Abraham Maslow pioneered a movement called humanistic psychology, which reached its peak in the 1960s. In 1961, he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Rogers was also one of the people who questioned the rise of McCarthyism in the 1950s. In articles, he criticized society for its backward-looking affinities. Rogers continued teaching at the University of Wisconsin until 1963 when he became a resident at the new Western Behavioral Sciences Institute (WBSI) in La Jolla, California. Rogers left the WBSI to help found the Center for Studies of the Person in 1968. His later books include Carl Rogers on Personal Power (1977) and ''Freedom to Learn for the '80s'' (1983). He remained a La Jolla resident for the rest of his life, doing therapy, giving speeches, and writing. In his later years, Rogers focused on applying his theories to address political oppression and social conflict globally. He facilitated dialogue between Protestants and Catholics in Belfast, Blacks and Whites in South Africa, and people transitioning to democracy in Brazil. In the U.S., he worked with health consumers and providers. At 85, his final trip was to the Soviet Union, where he conducted workshops that promoted communication and creativity, impressed by the awareness of his work among Russians. Between 1974 and 1984, Rogers, his daughter Natalie Rogers, and psychologists Maria Bowen, Maureen O'Hara, and John K. Wood convened a series of residential programs in the U.S., Europe, Brazil, and Japan: the Person-Centered Approach Workshops. The workshops focused on cross-cultural communications, personal growth, self-empowerment, and learning for social change. In 1987, Rogers suffered a fall that resulted in a fractured pelvis; he had life alert and was able to contact paramedics. He had a successful operation, but his pancreas failed the next night, and he died a few days later after a heart attack. One of Rogers's most famous quotations is: "Death is final, and accepting that is the most difficult thing to undertake. That loved one is not coming back and nothing can change that. Nothing compares to them. Life is precious and vulnerable, so be wise with how you choose to spend it, because once death arrives there is no turning back." Theory Rogers's theory of the self is considered humanistic, existential, and phenomenological. It is based directly on the "phenomenal field" personality theory of Combs and Snygg (1949). Rogers's elaboration of his theory is extensive. He wrote 16 books and many more journal articles about it. Prochaska and Norcross (2003) states Rogers "consistently stood for an empirical evaluation of psychotherapy. He and his followers have demonstrated a humanistic approach to conducting therapy and a scientific approach to evaluating therapy need not be incompatible." Nineteen propositions Rogers's theory (as of 1951) was based on 19 propositions: # All individuals (organisms) exist in a continually changing world of experience (phenomenal field) of which they are the center. # The organism reacts to the field as it is experienced and perceived. This perceptual field is "reality" for the individual. # The organism reacts as an organized whole to this phenomenal field. # A portion of the total perceptual field gradually becomes differentiated as the self. # As a result of interaction with the environment, and particularly as a result of evaluative interaction with others, the structure of the self is formed—an organized, fluid but consistent conceptual pattern of perceptions of characteristics and relationships of the "I" or the "me", together with values attached to these concepts. # The organism has one basic tendency and striving—to actualize, maintain and enhance the experiencing organism. # The best vantage point for understanding behavior is from the internal frame of reference of the individual. # Behavior is basically the goal-directed attempt of the organism to satisfy its needs as experienced, in the field as perceived. # Emotion accompanies, and in general facilitates, such goal directed behavior, the kind of emotion being related to the perceived significance of the behavior for the maintenance and enhancement of the organism. # The values attached to experiences, and the values that are a part of the self-structure, in some instances, are values experienced directly by the organism, and in some instances are values introjected or taken over from others, but perceived in distorted fashion, as if they had been experienced directly. # As experiences occur in the life of the individual, they are either (a) symbolized, perceived and organized into some relation to the self, (b) ignored because there is no perceived relationship to the self structure, or (c) denied symbolization or given distorted symbolization because the experience is inconsistent with the structure of the self. # Most of the ways of behaving that the organism adopts are those that are consistent with the concept of self. # In some instances, behavior may be brought about by organic experiences and needs that have not been symbolized. Such behavior may be inconsistent with the structure of the self, but in such instances the individual does not "own" the behavior. # Psychological adjustment exists when the concept of the self is such that all the sensory and visceral experiences of the organism are, or may be, assimilated on a symbolic level into a consistent relationship with the concept of self. # Psychological maladjustment exists when the organism denies awareness of significant sensory and visceral experiences, which consequently are not symbolized and organized into the gestalt of the self structure. When this situation exists, there is a basic or potential psychological tension. # Any experience that is inconsistent with the organization of the structure of the self may be perceived as a threat, and the more of these perceptions there are, the more rigidly the self structure is organized to maintain itself. # Under certain conditions, involving primarily complete absence of threat to the self structure, experiences inconsistent with it may be perceived and examined, and the structure of self revised to assimilate and include such experiences. # When the individual perceives and accepts into one consistent and integrated system all his sensory and visceral experiences, he is necessarily more understanding of others and more accepting of others as separate individuals. # As the individual perceives and accepts into his self structure more of his organic experiences, he finds that he is replacing his present value system—based extensively on introjections which have been distortedly symbolized—with a continuing organismic valuing process. In relation to No. 17, Rogers is known for practicing "unconditional positive regard", which is defined as accepting a person "without negative judgment of .... [a person's] basic worth". Development of the personality With regard to development, Rogers described principles rather than stages. The main issue is the development of a self-concept and the progress from an undifferentiated self to being fully differentiated. In the development of the self-concept, he saw conditional and unconditional positive regard as key. Those raised in an environment of unconditional positive regard have the opportunity to fully actualize themselves. Those raised in an environment of conditional positive regard feel worthy only if they match conditions (what Rogers describes as conditions of worth) that others have laid down for them. Fully functioning person Optimal development, as referred to in proposition 14, results in a certain process rather than static state. Rogers calls this the good life, where the organism continually aims to fulfill its potential. He listed the characteristics of a fully functioning person (Rogers 1961): # A growing openness to experience: they move away from defensiveness and have no need for subception (a perceptual defense that involves unconsciously applying strategies to prevent a troubling stimulus from entering consciousness). # An increasingly existential lifestyle: living each moment fully, not distorting the moment to fit personality or self-concept but allowing personality and self-concept to emanate from the experience. This results in excitement, daring, adaptability, tolerance, spontaneity, and lack of rigidity, and suggests a foundation of trust. "To open one's spirit to what is going on now, and discover in that present process whatever structure it appears to have" (Rogers 1961). documenting the application of person-centered approach to counseling military personnel returning from World War II. The first empirical evidence of the client-centered approach's effectiveness was published in 1941 at the Ohio State University by Elias Porter, using the recordings of therapeutic sessions between Rogers and his clients. Porter used Rogers's transcripts to devise a system to measure the degree of directiveness or non-directiveness a counselor employed. The counselor's attitude and orientation were shown to be instrumental in the decisions the client made. Learner-centered teaching The application to education has a large robust research tradition similar to that of therapy, with studies having begun in the late 1930s and continuing today (Cornelius-White, 2007). Rogers described the approach to education in Client-Centered Therapy and wrote Freedom to Learn devoted exclusively to the subject in 1969. Freedom to Learn was revised twice. The new Learner-Centered Model is similar in many regards to this classical person-centered approach to education. Before Rogers's death, he and Harold Lyon began a book, On Becoming an Effective Teacher—Person-centered Teaching, Psychology, Philosophy, and Dialogues with Carl R. Rogers and Harold Lyon, that Lyon and Reinhard Tausch completed and published in 2013. It contains Rogers's last unpublished writings on person-centered teaching. Rogers had the following five hypotheses regarding learner-centered education: The Rogerian method of argument involves each side restating the other's position to the satisfaction of the other, among other principles. Cross-cultural relations The application to cross-cultural relations has involved workshops in highly stressful situations and global locations, including conflicts and challenges in South Africa, Central America, and Ireland. Rogers, Alberto Zucconi, and Charles Devonshire co-founded the Istituto dell'Approccio Centrato sulla Persona (Person-Centered Approach Institute) in Rome, Italy. Rogers's international work for peace culminated in the Rust Peace Workshop, which took place in November 1985 in Rust, Austria. Leaders from 17 nations convened to discuss the topic "The Central America Challenge". The meeting was notable for several reasons: it brought national figures together as people (not as their positions), it was a private event, and was an overwhelming positive experience where members heard one another and established real personal ties, as opposed to stiffly formal and regulated diplomatic meetings. Person-centered, dialogic politics Some scholars believe there is a politics implicit in Rogers's approach to psychotherapy. Toward the end of his life, Rogers came to that view himself. The central tenet of Rogerian, person-centered politics is that public life need not consist of an endless series of winner-take-all battles among sworn opponents; rather, it can and should consist of an ongoing dialogue among all parties. Such dialogue is characterized by respect among the parties, authentic speaking by each, and—ultimately—empathic understanding among all parties. Out of such understanding, mutually acceptable solutions will (or at least can) flow. During his last decade, Rogers facilitated or participated in a wide variety of dialogic activities among politicians, activists, and other social leaders, often outside the U.S. and the founding of a "transformational" political organization, the New World Alliance. By the 21st century, interest in dialogic approaches to political engagement and change had become widespread, especially among academics and activists. Theorists of a specifically Rogerian, person-centered approach to politics as dialogue have made substantial contributions to that project. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) From the late 1950s into the '60s, Rogers served on the board of the Human Ecology Fund, a CIA-funded organization that provided grants to researchers looking into personality. In addition, he and other people in the field of personality and psychotherapy were given a lot of information about Khrushchev. "We were asked to figure out what we thought of him and what would be the best way of dealing with him. And that seemed to be an entirely principled and legitimate aspect. I don't think we contributed very much, but, anyway, we tried." Selected works * Rogers, Carl, and Carmichael, Leonard (1939). The Clinical Treatment of the Problem Child. Boston; New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. * Rogers, Carl. (1942). Counseling and Psychotherapy: Newer Concepts in Practice. Boston; New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. * Rogers, Carl. (1951). Client-Centered Therapy: Its Current Practice, Implications and Theory. London: Constable. . * Rogers, C.R. (1957). The necessary and sufficient conditions of therapeutic personality change. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 21: 95–103. * Rogers, Carl. (1959). A Theory of Therapy, Personality and Interpersonal Relationships as Developed in the Client-centered Framework. In (ed.) S. Koch, Psychology: A Study of a Science. Vol. 3: Formulations of the Person and the Social Context. New York: McGraw Hill. * Rogers, Carl. (1961). ''On Becoming a Person: A Therapist's View of Psychotherapy. London: Constable. .[http://www.panarchy.org/rogers/person.html Excerpts] * Rogers, Carl. (1969). Freedom to Learn: A View of What Education Might Become. (1st ed.) Columbus, Ohio: Charles Merill. [http://www.panarchy.org/rogers/learning.html Excerpts] * Rogers, Carl. (1970). On Encounter Groups. New York: Harrow Books, Harper and Row, * Rogers, Carl. (1977). On Personal Power: Inner Strength and Its Revolutionary Impact. * Rogers, Carl. (nd, @1978). A personal message from Carl Rogers. In: N. J. Raskin. (2004). Contributions to Client-Centered Therapy and the Person-Centered Approach. (pp. v-vi). Herefordshire, United Kingdom: PCCS Books, Ross-on-the-Wye. * Rogers, Carl. (1980). A Way of Being. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. * Rogers, Carl. and Stevens, B. (1967). Person to Person: The Problem of Being Human. Lafayette, CA: Real People Press. * Rogers, Carl, Lyon, Harold C., & Tausch, Reinhard (2013) On Becoming an Effective Teacher—Person-centered Teaching, Psychology, Philosophy, and Dialogues with Carl R. Rogers and Harold Lyon. London: Routledge, * Rogers, C.R., Raskin, N.J., et al. (1949). A coordinated research in psychotherapy. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 13, 149–200. Cited in: N.J. Raskin, The first 50 years and the next 10. Person-Centered Review, 5(4), November 1990, 364–372. Research on his work Howard Kirschenbaum has conducted extensive research on the work of Carl Rogers and the person-centered/client centered approach. Kirschenbaum published the first thorough book in English on Rogers’ life and work, titled, On Becoming Carl Rogers in 1979, followed by the biography, The Life and Work of Carl Rogers in 2007. See also * Hidden personality References Sources * * Raskin, N. (2004). Contributions to Client-Centered Therapy and the Person-Centered Approach. Herefordshire, Ross-on-the-Rye, UK: PCCS Books. Further reading * Farber, Barry A. The psychotherapy of Carl Rogers: cases and commentary (Guilford Press 1998). * Hall, C.S. & Linzey, G. (1957). Rogers self-theory. "Theories of Personality". (pp. 515–551). NY; John Wiley & Sons, Inc. * Thorne, Brian. Carl Rogers—Key Figures in Counselling and Psychotherapy series'' (Sage publications, 1992). * Rogers, Carl, Lyon, Harold C., & Tausch, Reinhard (2013) On Becoming an Effective Teacher—Person-centered Teaching, Psychology, Philosophy, and Dialogues with Carl R. Rogers and Harold Lyon. London: Routledge, * Mearns and Thorne, Person Centred Counselling in Action (Sage 1999) }} Category:1902 births Category:1987 deaths Category:American atheists Category:American humanists Category:20th-century American psychologists Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Category:Humanistic psychologists Category:Scientists from Oak Park, Illinois Category:Presidents of the American Psychological Association Category:Teachers College, Columbia University alumni Category:University of Chicago faculty Category:University of Wisconsin–Madison alumni Category:American educational psychologists Category:APA Distinguished Scientific Award for an Early Career Contribution to Psychology recipients	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Rogers	2025-04-05T18:28:12.036610
7555	Casimir effect	In quantum field theory, the Casimir effect (or Casimir force) is a physical force acting on the macroscopic boundaries of a confined space which arises from the quantum fluctuations of a field. The term Casimir pressure is sometimes used when it is described in units of force per unit area. It is named after the Dutch physicist Hendrik Casimir, who predicted the effect for electromagnetic systems in 1948. In the same year Casimir, together with Dirk Polder, described a similar effect experienced by a neutral atom in the vicinity of a macroscopic interface which is called the Casimir–Polder force. In 1997 a direct experiment by Steven K. Lamoreaux quantitatively measured the Casimir force to be within 5% of the value predicted by the theory. Since the value of this energy depends on the shapes and positions of the materials, the Casimir effect manifests itself as a force between such objects. Any medium supporting oscillations has an analogue of the Casimir effect. For example, beads on a string as well as plates submerged in turbulent water or gas illustrate the Casimir force. In modern theoretical physics, the Casimir effect plays an important role in the chiral bag model of the nucleon; in applied physics it is significant in some aspects of emerging microtechnologies and nanotechnologies. Physical properties The typical example is of two uncharged conductive plates in a vacuum, placed a few nanometers apart. In a classical description, the lack of an external field means that no field exists between the plates, and no force connects them. When this field is instead studied using the quantum electrodynamic vacuum, it is seen that the plates do affect the virtual photons that constitute the field, and generate a net force – either an attraction or a repulsion depending on the plates' specific arrangement. Although the Casimir effect can be expressed in terms of virtual particles interacting with the objects, it is best described and more easily calculated in terms of the zero-point energy of a quantized field in the intervening space between the objects. This force has been measured and is a striking example of an effect captured formally by second quantization. The treatment of boundary conditions in these calculations is controversial. In fact, "Casimir's original goal was to compute the van der Waals force between polarizable molecules" of the conductive plates. Thus it can be interpreted without any reference to the zero-point energy (vacuum energy) of quantum fields. Because the strength of the force falls off rapidly with distance, it is measurable only when the distance between the objects is small. This force becomes so strong that it becomes the dominant force between uncharged conductors at submicron scales. In fact, at separations of 10 nm – about 100 times the typical size of an atom – the Casimir effect produces the equivalent of about 1 atmosphere of pressure (the precise value depends on surface geometry and other factors). this special form is called the Casimir–Polder force. After a conversation with Niels Bohr, who suggested it had something to do with zero-point energy, Casimir alone formulated the theory predicting a force between neutral conducting plates in 1948. polarization in the case of light, energy, and so on. On average, most of these properties cancel out: the vacuum is, after all, "empty" in this sense. One important exception is the vacuum energy or the vacuum expectation value of the energy. The quantization of a simple harmonic oscillator states that the lowest possible energy or zero-point energy that such an oscillator may have is <math display"block">{E}\tfrac12 \hbar \omega \, .</math> Summing over all possible oscillators at all points in space gives an infinite quantity. Since only differences in energy are physically measurable (with the notable exception of gravitation, which remains beyond the scope of quantum field theory), this infinity may be considered a feature of the mathematics rather than of the physics. This argument is the underpinning of the theory of renormalization. Dealing with infinite quantities in this way was a cause of widespread unease among quantum field theorists before the development in the 1970s of the renormalization group, a mathematical formalism for scale transformations that provides a natural basis for the process. When the scope of the physics is widened to include gravity, the interpretation of this formally infinite quantity remains problematic. There is currently no compelling explanation as to why it should not result in a cosmological constant that is many orders of magnitude larger than observed. However, since we do not yet have any fully coherent quantum theory of gravity, there is likewise no compelling reason as to why it should instead actually result in the value of the cosmological constant that we observe. The Casimir effect for fermions can be understood as the spectral asymmetry of the fermion operator , where it is known as the Witten index. Relativistic van der Waals force Alternatively, a 2005 paper by Robert Jaffe of MIT states that "Casimir effects can be formulated and Casimir forces can be computed without reference to zero-point energies. They are relativistic, quantum forces between charges and currents. The Casimir force (per unit area) between parallel plates vanishes as alpha, the fine structure constant, goes to zero, and the standard result, which appears to be independent of alpha, corresponds to the alpha approaching infinity limit", and that "The Casimir force is simply the (relativistic, retarded) van der Waals force between the metal plates." More recently, Nikolic proved from first principles of quantum electrodynamics that the Casimir force does not originate from the vacuum energy of the electromagnetic field, and explained in simple terms why the fundamental microscopic origin of Casimir force lies in van der Waals forces. Effects Casimir's observation was that the second-quantized quantum electromagnetic field, in the presence of bulk bodies such as metals or dielectrics, must obey the same boundary conditions that the classical electromagnetic field must obey. In particular, this affects the calculation of the vacuum energy in the presence of a conductor or dielectric. Consider, for example, the calculation of the vacuum expectation value of the electromagnetic field inside a metal cavity, such as, for example, a radar cavity or a microwave waveguide. In this case, the correct way to find the zero-point energy of the field is to sum the energies of the standing waves of the cavity. To each and every possible standing wave corresponds an energy; say the energy of the th standing wave is . The vacuum expectation value of the energy of the electromagnetic field in the cavity is then <math display"block">\langle E \rangle\tfrac12 \sum_n E_n</math> with the sum running over all possible values of enumerating the standing waves. The factor of is present because the zero-point energy of the th mode is E<sub>n</sub>}}, where is the energy increment for the th mode. (It is the same as appears in the equation ħω}}.) Written in this way, this sum is clearly divergent; however, it can be used to create finite expressions. In particular, one may ask how the zero-point energy depends on the shape of the cavity. Each energy level depends on the shape, and so one should write for the energy level, and }} for the vacuum expectation value. At this point comes an important observation: The force at point on the wall of the cavity is equal to the change in the vacuum energy if the shape of the wall is perturbed a little bit, say by , at . That is, one has <math display"block">F(p) - \left. \frac{\delta \langle E(s) \rangle } { \delta s } \right\vert_p \,.</math> This value is finite in many practical calculations. Attraction between the plates can be easily understood by focusing on the one-dimensional situation. Suppose that a moveable conductive plate is positioned at a short distance from one of two widely separated plates (distance apart). With , the states within the slot of width are highly constrained so that the energy of any one mode is widely separated from that of the next. This is not the case in the large region where there is a large number of states (about }}) with energy evenly spaced between and the next mode in the narrow slot, or in other words, all slightly larger than . Now on shortening by an amount (which is negative), the mode in the narrow slot shrinks in wavelength and therefore increases in energy proportional to }}, whereas all the }} states that lie in the large region lengthen and correspondingly decrease their energy by an amount proportional to }} (note the different denominator). The two effects nearly cancel, but the net change is slightly negative, because the energy of all the }} modes in the large region are slightly larger than the single mode in the slot. Thus the force is attractive: it tends to make slightly smaller, the plates drawing each other closer, across the thin slot. Derivation of Casimir effect assuming zeta-regularization In the original calculation done by Casimir, he considered the space between a pair of conducting metal plates at distance apart. In this case, the standing waves are particularly easy to calculate, because the transverse component of the electric field and the normal component of the magnetic field must vanish on the surface of a conductor. Assuming the plates lie parallel to the -plane, the standing waves are <math display"block">\psi_n(x,y,z;t)e^{-i\omega_nt} e^{ik_xx+ik_yy} \sin(k_n z) \,,</math> where stands for the electric component of the electromagnetic field, and, for brevity, the polarization and the magnetic components are ignored here. Here, and are the wavenumbers in directions parallel to the plates, and <math display"block">k_n\frac{n\pi}{a}</math> is the wavenumber perpendicular to the plates. Here, is an integer, resulting from the requirement that vanish on the metal plates. The frequency of this wave is <math display"block">\omega_nc \sqrt{{k_x}^2 + {k_y}^2 + \frac{n^2\pi^2}{a^2}} \,,</math> where is the speed of light. The vacuum energy is then the sum over all possible excitation modes. Since the area of the plates is large, we may sum by integrating over two of the dimensions in -space. The assumption of periodic boundary conditions yields, <math display"block">\langle E \rangle\frac{\hbar}{2} \cdot 2 \int \frac{A \,dk_x \,dk_y}{(2\pi)^2} \sum_{n=1}^\infty \omega_n \,,</math> where is the area of the metal plates, and a factor of 2 is introduced for the two possible polarizations of the wave. This expression is clearly infinite, and to proceed with the calculation, it is convenient to introduce a regulator (discussed in greater detail below). The regulator will serve to make the expression finite, and in the end will be removed. The zeta-regulated version of the energy per unit-area of the plate is <math display"block">\frac{\langle E(s) \rangle}{A}\hbar \int \frac{dk_x \,dk_y}{(2\pi)^2} \sum_{n=1}^\infty \omega_n \left\| \omega_n \right\|^{-s} \,.</math><!-- Nice, how can it be fixed? --> In the end, the limit is to be taken. Here is just a complex number, not to be confused with the shape discussed previously. This integral sum is finite for real and larger than 3. The sum has a pole at 3}}, but may be analytically continued to 0}}, where the expression is finite. The above expression simplifies to: <math display"block">\frac{\langle E(s) \rangle}{A} \frac{\hbar c^{1-s}}{4\pi^2} \sum_n \int_0^\infty 2\pi q \,dq \left \| q^2 + \frac{\pi^2 n^2}{a^2} \right\|^\frac{1-s}{2} \,,</math> where polar coordinates k<sub>x</sub><sup>2</sup> + k<sub>y</sub><sup>2</sup>}} were introduced to turn the double integral into a single integral. The in front is the Jacobian, and the comes from the angular integration. The integral converges if , resulting in <math display"block">\frac{\langle E(s) \rangle}{A} -\frac {\hbar c^{1-s} \pi^{2-s}}{2a^{3-s}} \frac{1}{3-s} \sum_n \left\| n \right\| ^{3-s}= -\frac {\hbar c^{1-s} \pi^{2-s}}{2a^{3-s}(3-s)}\sum_n \frac{1}{\left\| n\right\| ^{s-3}} \,.</math> The sum diverges at in the neighborhood of zero, but if the damping of large-frequency excitations corresponding to analytic continuation of the Riemann zeta function to 0}} is assumed to make sense physically in some way, then one has <math display"block">\frac{\langle E \rangle}{A} \lim_{s\to 0} \frac{\langle E(s) \rangle}{A}= -\frac {\hbar c \pi^2}{6a^3} \zeta (-3) \,.</math> But }} and so one obtains <math display"block">\frac{\langle E \rangle}{A} -\frac {\hbar c \pi^2}{720 a^3}\,.</math> The analytic continuation has evidently lost an additive positive infinity, somehow exactly accounting for the zero-point energy (not included above) outside the slot between the plates, but which changes upon plate movement within a closed system. The Casimir force per unit area }} for idealized, perfectly conducting plates with vacuum between them is <math display"block">\frac{F_\mathrm{c}}{A}-\frac{d}{da} \frac{\langle E \rangle}{A} = -\frac {\hbar c \pi^2} {240 a^4}</math> where * is the reduced Planck constant, * is the speed of light, * is the distance between the two plates The force is negative, indicating that the force is attractive: by moving the two plates closer together, the energy is lowered. The presence of shows that the Casimir force per unit area }} is very small, and that furthermore, the force is inherently of quantum-mechanical origin. By integrating the equation above it is possible to calculate the energy required to separate to infinity the two plates as: <math display="block">\begin{align} U_E(a) &\int F(a) \,da \int - \hbar c \pi^2 \frac {A} {240 a^4} \,da \\[4pt] &= \hbar c \pi^2 \frac {A} {720 a^3} \end{align}</math> where * is the reduced Planck constant, * is the speed of light, * is the area of one of the plates, * is the distance between the two plates In Casimir's original derivation, a moveable conductive plate is positioned at a short distance from one of two widely separated plates (distance apart). The zero-point energy on both sides of the plate is considered. Instead of the above ad hoc analytic continuation assumption, non-convergent sums and integrals are computed using Euler–Maclaurin summation with a regularizing function (e.g., exponential regularization) not so anomalous as <sup>−s</sup>}} in the above. More recent theory Casimir's analysis of idealized metal plates was generalized to arbitrary dielectric and realistic metal plates by Evgeny Lifshitz and his students. Using this approach, complications of the bounding surfaces, such as the modifications to the Casimir force due to finite conductivity, can be calculated numerically using the tabulated complex dielectric functions of the bounding materials. Lifshitz's theory for two metal plates reduces to Casimir's idealized }} force law for large separations much greater than the skin depth of the metal, and conversely reduces to the }} force law of the London dispersion force (with a coefficient called a Hamaker constant) for small , with a more complicated dependence on for intermediate separations determined by the dispersion of the materials. Lifshitz's result was subsequently generalized to arbitrary multilayer planar geometries as well as to anisotropic and magnetic materials, but for several decades the calculation of Casimir forces for non-planar geometries remained limited to a few idealized cases admitting analytical solutions. However, in the 2010s a number of authors developed and demonstrated a variety of numerical techniques, in many cases adapted from classical computational electromagnetics, that are capable of accurately calculating Casimir forces for arbitrary geometries and materials, from simple finite-size effects of finite plates to more complicated phenomena arising for patterned surfaces or objects of various shapes. Measurement One of the first experimental tests was conducted by Marcus Sparnaay at Philips in Eindhoven (Netherlands), in 1958, in a delicate and difficult experiment with parallel plates, obtaining results not in contradiction with the Casimir theory, but with large experimental errors. The Casimir effect was measured more accurately in 1997 by Steve K. Lamoreaux of Los Alamos National Laboratory, and by Umar Mohideen and Anushree Roy of the University of California, Riverside. In practice, rather than using two parallel plates, which would require phenomenally accurate alignment to ensure they were parallel, the experiments use one plate that is flat and another plate that is a part of a sphere with a very large radius. In 2001, a group (Giacomo Bressi, Gianni Carugno, Roberto Onofrio and Giuseppe Ruoso) at the University of Padua (Italy) finally succeeded in measuring the Casimir force between parallel plates using microresonators. Numerous variations of these experiments are summarized in the 2009 review by Klimchitskaya. In 2013, a conglomerate of scientists from Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, University of Florida, Harvard University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Oak Ridge National Laboratory demonstrated a compact integrated silicon chip that can measure the Casimir force. The integrated chip defined by electron-beam lithography does not need extra alignment, making it an ideal platform for measuring Casimir force between complex geometries. In 2017 and 2021, the same group from Hong Kong University of Science and Technology demonstrated the non-monotonic Casimir force and distance-independent Casimir force, respectively, using this on-chip platform. Regularization In order to be able to perform calculations in the general case, it is convenient to introduce a regulator in the summations. This is an artificial device, used to make the sums finite so that they can be more easily manipulated, followed by the taking of a limit so as to remove the regulator. The heat kernel or exponentially regulated sum is <math display"block">\langle E(t) \rangle\frac12 \sum_n \hbar \|\omega_n \| \exp \bigl(-t \|\omega_n \|\bigr)\,,</math> where the limit is taken in the end. The divergence of the sum is typically manifested as <math display"block">\langle E(t) \rangle\frac{C}{t^3} + \textrm{finite}\,</math> for three-dimensional cavities. The infinite part of the sum is associated with the bulk constant which does not depend on the shape of the cavity. The interesting part of the sum is the finite part, which is shape-dependent. The Gaussian regulator <math display"block">\langle E(t) \rangle\frac12 \sum_n \hbar \|\omega_n \| \exp \left(-t^2 \|\omega_n \|^2\right)</math> is better suited to numerical calculations because of its superior convergence properties, but is more difficult to use in theoretical calculations. Other, suitably smooth, regulators may be used as well. The zeta function regulator <math display"block">\langle E(s) \rangle\frac12 \sum_n \hbar \|\omega_n \| \|\omega_n \|^{-s}</math> is completely unsuited for numerical calculations, but is quite useful in theoretical calculations. In particular, divergences show up as poles in the complex plane, with the bulk divergence at 4}}. This sum may be analytically continued past this pole, to obtain a finite part at 0}}. Not every cavity configuration necessarily leads to a finite part (the lack of a pole at 0}}) or shape-independent infinite parts. In this case, it should be understood that additional physics has to be taken into account. In particular, at extremely large frequencies (above the plasma frequency), metals become transparent to photons (such as X-rays), and dielectrics show a frequency-dependent cutoff as well. This frequency dependence acts as a natural regulator. There are a variety of bulk effects in solid state physics, mathematically very similar to the Casimir effect, where the cutoff frequency comes into explicit play to keep expressions finite. (These are discussed in greater detail in Landau and Lifshitz, "Theory of Continuous Media".) Generalities The Casimir effect can also be computed using the mathematical mechanisms of functional integrals of quantum field theory, although such calculations are considerably more abstract, and thus difficult to comprehend. In addition, they can be carried out only for the simplest of geometries. However, the formalism of quantum field theory makes it clear that the vacuum expectation value summations are in a certain sense summations over so-called "virtual particles". More interesting is the understanding that the sums over the energies of standing waves should be formally understood as sums over the eigenvalues of a Hamiltonian. This allows atomic and molecular effects, such as the Van der Waals force, to be understood as a variation on the theme of the Casimir effect. Thus one considers the Hamiltonian of a system as a function of the arrangement of objects, such as atoms, in configuration space. The change in the zero-point energy as a function of changes of the configuration can be understood to result in forces acting between the objects. In the chiral bag model of the nucleon, the Casimir energy plays an important role in showing the mass of the nucleon is independent of the bag radius. In addition, the spectral asymmetry is interpreted as a non-zero vacuum expectation value of the baryon number, cancelling the topological winding number of the pion field surrounding the nucleon. A "pseudo-Casimir" effect can be found in liquid crystal systems, where the boundary conditions imposed through anchoring by rigid walls give rise to a long-range force, analogous to the force that arises between conducting plates. Dynamical Casimir effect The dynamical Casimir effect is the production of particles and energy from an accelerated moving mirror. This reaction was predicted by certain numerical solutions to quantum mechanics equations made in the 1970s. In May 2011 an announcement was made by researchers at the Chalmers University of Technology, in Gothenburg, Sweden, of the detection of the dynamical Casimir effect. In their experiment, microwave photons were generated out of the vacuum in a superconducting microwave resonator. These researchers used a modified SQUID to change the effective length of the resonator in time, mimicking a mirror moving at the required relativistic velocity. If confirmed this would be the first experimental verification of the dynamical Casimir effect. In March 2013 an article appeared on the PNAS scientific journal describing an experiment that demonstrated the dynamical Casimir effect in a Josephson metamaterial. In July 2019 an article was published describing an experiment providing evidence of optical dynamical Casimir effect in a dispersion-oscillating fibre. In 2020, Frank Wilczek et al., proposed a resolution to the information loss paradox associated with the moving mirror model of the dynamical Casimir effect. Constructed within the framework of quantum field theory in curved spacetime, the dynamical Casimir effect (moving mirror) has been used to help understand the Unruh effect. Repulsive forces There are few instances wherein the Casimir effect can give rise to repulsive forces between uncharged objects. Evgeny Lifshitz showed (theoretically) that in certain circumstances (most commonly involving liquids), repulsive forces can arise. This has sparked interest in applications of the Casimir effect toward the development of levitating devices. An experimental demonstration of the Casimir-based repulsion predicted by Lifshitz was carried out by Munday et al. who described it as "quantum levitation". Other scientists have also suggested the use of gain media to achieve a similar levitation effect, though this is controversial because these materials seem to violate fundamental causality constraints and the requirement of thermodynamic equilibrium (Kramers–Kronig relations). Casimir and Casimir–Polder repulsion can in fact occur for sufficiently anisotropic electrical bodies; for a review of the issues involved with repulsion see Milton et al. A notable recent development on repulsive Casimir forces relies on using chiral materials. Q.-D. Jiang at Stockholm University and Nobel Laureate Frank Wilczek at MIT show that chiral "lubricant" can generate repulsive, enhanced, and tunable Casimir interactions. Timothy Boyer showed in his work published in 1968 that a conductor with spherical symmetry will also show this repulsive force, and the result is independent of radius. Further work shows that the repulsive force can be generated with materials of carefully chosen dielectrics. Speculative applications It has been suggested that the Casimir forces have application in nanotechnology, in particular silicon integrated circuit technology based micro- and nanoelectromechanical systems, and so-called Casimir oscillators. In 1995 and 1998 Maclay et al. published the first models of a microelectromechanical system (MEMS) with Casimir forces. While not exploiting the Casimir force for useful work, the papers drew attention from the MEMS community due to the revelation that Casimir effect needs to be considered as a vital factor in the future design of MEMS. In particular, Casimir effect might be the critical factor in the stiction failure of MEMS. In 2001, Capasso et al. showed how the force can be used to control the mechanical motion of a MEMS device, The researchers suspended a polysilicon plate from a torsional rod – a twisting horizontal bar just a few microns in diameter. When they brought a metallized sphere close up to the plate, the attractive Casimir force between the two objects made the plate rotate. They also studied the dynamical behaviour of the MEMS device by making the plate oscillate. The Casimir force reduced the rate of oscillation and led to nonlinear phenomena, such as hysteresis and bistability in the frequency response of the oscillator. According to the team, the system's behaviour agreed well with theoretical calculations. The Casimir effect shows that quantum field theory allows the energy density in very small regions of space to be negative relative to the ordinary vacuum energy, and the energy densities cannot be arbitrarily negative as the theory breaks down at atomic distances. Such prominent physicists such as Stephen Hawking and Kip Thorne, have speculated that such effects might make it possible to stabilize a traversable wormhole. See also * Negative energy * Scharnhorst effect * Van der Waals force * Squeezed vacuum References Further reading <!-- try to order from introductory to advanced --> Introductory readings * [http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Quantum/casimir.html Casimir effect description] from University of California, Riverside's version of the [http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/index.html Usenet physics FAQ]. * A. Lambrecht, [https://physicsworld.com/a/the-casimir-effect-a-force-from-nothing/ The Casimir effect: a force from nothing], Physics World, September 2002. * * Papers, books and lectures * * * * * * * * * (Includes discussion of French naval analogy.) * (Also includes discussion of French naval analogy.) * * Patent No. PCT/RU2011/000847 Author Urmatskih. Temperature dependence * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070210090006/http://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/newsfromnist_casimir-polder.htm Measurements Recast Usual View of Elusive Force] from NIST * External links * [http://xstructure.inr.ac.ru/x-bin/theme3.py?level3&index1313011 Casimir effect article search] on arxiv.org * G. Lang, [https://web.archive.org/web/20040604161012/http://www.casimir.rl.ac.uk/default.htm The Casimir Force] web site, 2002 * J. Babb, [http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/~babb/casimir-bib.html bibliography on the Casimir Effect] web site, 2009 * H. Nikolic, [http://thphys.irb.hr/wiki/main/images/2/2c/Casimir.pdf The origin of Casimir effect; Vacuum energy or van der Waals force?] presentation slides, 2018 Category:Quantum field theory Category:Physical phenomena Category:Force Category:Levitation Category:Articles containing video clips	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casimir_effect	2025-04-05T18:28:12.100067
7558	Coin	A coin is a small object, usually round and flat, used primarily as a medium of exchange or legal tender. They are standardized in weight, and produced in large quantities at a mint in order to facilitate trade. They are most often issued by a government. Coins often have images, numerals, or text on them. The faces of coins or medals are sometimes called the obverse and the reverse, referring to the front and back sides, respectively. The obverse of a coin is commonly called heads, because it often depicts the head of a prominent person, and the reverse is known as tails. The first metal coins – invented in the ancient Greek world and disseminated during the Hellenistic period – were precious metal–based, and were invented in order to simplify and regularize the task of measuring and weighing bullion (bulk metal) carried around for the purpose of transactions. They carried their value within the coins themselves, but the stampings also induced manipulations, such as the clipping of coins to remove some of the precious metal. Most modern coinage metals are base metal, and their value comes from their status as fiat money — the value of the coin is established by law. In the last hundred years, the face value of circulated coins has occasionally been lower than the value of the metal they contain, primarily due to inflation. If the difference becomes significant, the issuing authority may decide to withdraw these coins from circulation, possibly issuing new equivalents with a different composition, or the public may decide to melt the coins down or hoard them (see Gresham's law). Currently coins are used as money in everyday transactions, circulating alongside banknotes. Usually, the highest value coin in circulation (excluding bullion coins) is worth less than the lowest-value note. Coins are usually more efficient than banknotes because they last longer: banknotes last only about four years, compared with 30 years for a coin. Exceptions to the rule of face value being higher than content value currently occur for bullion coins made of copper, silver, or gold (and rarely other metals, such as platinum or palladium), intended for collectors or investors in precious metals. Examples of modern gold collector/investor coins include the British sovereign minted by the United Kingdom, the American Gold Eagle minted by the United States, the Canadian Gold Maple Leaf minted by Canada, and the Krugerrand, minted by South Africa. While the Eagle and Sovereign coins have nominal (purely symbolic) face values, the Krugerrand does not. Commemorative coins usually serve as collectors items only, although some countries also issue commemorative coins for regular circulation, such as the 2€ commemorative coins and U.S. America the Beautiful quarters. History Early metal coinage came into use about the time of the Axial Age in West Asia, in the Greek world, in India, and in China. Bullion and unmarked metals from Crete. Late Bronze Age metal ingots were given standard shapes, such as the shape of an "ox-hide", suggesting that they represented standardized values.]] Metal ingots, silver bullion or unmarked bars were probably in use for exchange among many of the civilizations that mastered metallurgy. The weight and purity of bullion would be the key determinant of value. In the Achaemenid Empire in the early 6th century BC, coinage was yet unknown. The barter system, as well as silver bullion were used instead for trade. The practice of using silver bars for currency also seems to have been current in Central Asia from the 6th century BC. Coins were an evolution of "currency" systems of the Late Bronze Age, when various cultures used standard-sized ingots and tokens such as knife money to store and transfer value. Phoenician metal ingots had to be stamped with the name of a current ruler to guarantee their worth and value, which is probably how stamping busts and designs began, although political advertising – glorification of a state or of a ruler – may also play a role. Tongbei in Bronze Age China (c. 1100 BC) In the late Chinese Bronze Age, standardized cast tokens were made, such as those discovered in a tomb near Anyang. These were replicas in bronze of earlier Chinese currency, cowrie shells, so they were named "Bronze Shell".China Henan Coin Factory (c. 640 – 550 BC)The world's oldest known coin factory has been excavated in the ancient city Guanzhuang in Henan province in China. The factory produced shovel-shaped bronze coins between 640 B.C. and 550 B.C., making it the oldest securely-dated minting-site. Iron Age Lydian and Ionian electrum coins (c. 600 BC) of Lydia, BC]] coin of Phanes from Ephesus, 625–600 BC. Obverse: Stag grazing right, ΦΑΝΕΩΣ (retrograde). Reverse: Two incuse punches, each with raised intersecting lines.]] The earliest coins are mostly associated with Iron Age Anatolia of the late 7th century BC, and especially with the kingdom of Lydia. Early electrum coins (an alluvial alloy of gold and silver, varying wildly in proportion, and usually about 40–55% gold) were not standardized in weight, and in their earliest stage may have been ritual objects, such as badges or medals, issued by priests. The unpredictability of the composition of naturally occurring electrum implied that it had a variable value, which greatly hampered its development. Maybe the first coins to be used for retailing on a large-scale basis were likely small silver fractions, Hemiobol, Ancient Greek coinage minted by the Ionian Greeks in the late sixth century BC. In contrast Herodotus mentioned the innovation made by the Lydians:}} Many early Lydian and Greek coins were minted under the authority of private individuals and are thus more akin to tokens or badges than to modern coins, though due to their numbers it is evident that some were official state issues. The earliest inscribed coins are those of Phanes, dated to 625–600 BC from Ephesus in Ionia, with the legend ΦΑΕΝΟΣ ΕΜΙ ΣHΜΑ (or similar) ("I am the badge/sign/mark of Phanes/light") or just bearing the name ΦΑΝΕΟΣ ("of Phanes"). The first electrum coins issued by a monarch are those minted by king Alyattes of Lydia (died ), for which reason this king is sometimes mentioned as the originator of coinage. Croesus: Pure gold and silver coins The successor of Alyattes, king Croesus (r. c. 560–546 BC), became associated with great wealth in Greek historiography. He is credited with issuing the Croeseid, the first true gold coins with a standardized purity for general circulation. Achaemenid coinage (546–330 BC) When Cyrus the Great (550–530 BC) came to power, coinage was unfamiliar in his realm. Barter and to some extent silver bullion was used instead for trade. , 5th century BC. Coins of this type were also found in the Bhir Mound hoard. is a coin hoard discovered in the vicinity of Kabul, Afghanistan, containing numerous Achaemenid coins as well as many Greek coins from the 5th and 4th centuries BC. The deposit of the hoard is dated to the Achaemenid period, in approximately 380 BC. The hoard also contained many locally produced silver coins, minted by local authorities under Achaemenid rule. Several of these issues follow the "western designs" of the facing bull heads, a stag, or Persian column capitals on the obverse, and incuse punch on the reverse. According to numismatist Joe Cribb, these finds suggest that the idea of coinage and the use of punch-marked techniques was introduced to India from the Achaemenid Empire during the 4th century BC. More Achaemenid coins were also found in Pushkalavati and in Bhir Mound.]] According to Aristotle (fr. 611,37, ed. V. Rose) and Pollux (Onamastikon IX.83), the first issuer of Greek coinage was Hermodike of Kyme. The most ancient inscribed coin known is from nearby Caria. This coin has a Greek legend reading phaenos emi sema interpreted variously as "I am the badge of Phanes", or "I am the sign of light". The Phanes coins are among the earliest of Greek coins; a hemihekte of the issue was found in the foundation deposit of the temple of Artemis at Ephesos (the oldest deposit of electrum coins discovered). One assumption is that Phanes was a mercenary mentioned by Herodotus, another that this coin is associated with the primeval god Phanes or "Phanes" might have been an epithet of the local goddess identified with Artemis. Barclay V. Head found these suggestions unlikely and thought it more probably "the name of some prominent citizen of Ephesus". Another candidate for the site of the earliest coins is Aegina, where Chelone ("turtle") coins were first minted c. 700 BC. Coins from Athens and Corinth appeared shortly thereafter, known to exist at least since the late 6th century BC. <gallery> File:LYCIA, Phaselis. Circa 550-530-20 BC.jpg\|Coin of Phaselis, Lycia, c. 550–530/20 BC. File:LYCIA, Uncertain king. Circa 520-470-60 BC.jpg\|Coin of Lycia, c. 520–470/60 BC. File:LYCIA, Uncertain. Circa 520-470-60 BC.jpg\|altLycia coin. Circa 520-470 BCE. Struck with worn obverse die.\|Lycia coin, c. 520-470 BC. Struck with worn obverse die. File:LESBOS, Unattributed Koinon mint. Circa 510-480 BC.jpg\|Coin of Lesbos, Ionia, c. 510–80 BC. </gallery> Antiquity Classical Greek antiquity (480 BC~) The Classical period saw Greek coinage reach a high level of technical and aesthetic quality. Larger cities now produced a range of fine silver and gold coins, most bearing a portrait of their patron god or goddess or a legendary hero on one side, and a symbol of the city on the other. Some coins employed a visual pun: some coins from Rhodes featured a rose, since the Greek word for rose is rhodon. The use of inscriptions on coins also began, usually the name of the issuing city. The wealthy cities of Sicily produced some especially fine coins. The large silver decadrachmes (10-drachmes) coin from Syracuse is regarded by many collectors as the finest coin produced in the ancient world, perhaps ever. Syracusan issues were rather standard in their imprints, one side bearing the head of the nymph Arethusa and the other usually a victorious quadriga. The tyrants of Syracuse were fabulously rich, and part of their public relations policy was to fund quadrigas for the Olympic chariot race, a very expensive undertaking. As they were often able to finance more than one quadriga at a time, they were frequent victors in this highly prestigious event. Syracuse was one of the epicenters of numismatic art during the classical period. Led by the engravers Kimon and Euainetos, Syracuse produced some of the finest coin designs of antiquity. Amongst the first centers to produce coins during the Greek colonization of Southern Italy (the so-called "Magna Graecia") were Paestum, Crotone, Sybaris, Caulonia, Metapontum, and Taranto. These ancient cities started producing coins from 550 BC to 510 BC. Amisano, in a general publication, including the Etruscan coinage, attributing it the beginning to in Populonia, a chronology that would leave out the contribution of the Greeks of Magna Graecia and attribute to the Etruscans the burden of introducing the coin in Italy. In this work, constant reference is made to classical sources, and credit is given to the origin of the Etruscan Lydia, a source supported by Herodotus, and also to the invention of coin in Lydia. <gallery> File:ISLANDS off ATTICA. Aegina. Circa 456-45-431 BC.jpg\|Aegina coin type, incuse skew pattern, c. 456/45–431 BC File:MACEDON, Akanthos. Circa 470-430 BC.jpg\|Coin of Akanthos, Macedon, c. 470-430 BC. File:PAMPHYLIA, Aspendos. Circa 465-430 BC.jpg\|Coin of Aspendos, Pamphylia, c. 465–430 BC. File:KORKYRA, Korkyra. Circa 350-30-290-70 BC.jpg\|Coin from Korkyra, c. 350/30–290/70 BC. File:CYPRUS, Paphos. Onasi(...). Mid 5th century BC.jpg\|Coin of Cyprus, c. 450 BC. </gallery> Appearance of dynastic portraiture (5th century BC) satraps and dynasts in Asia Minor developed the usage of portraiture from c. 420 BC. Portrait of the satrap of Lydia, Tissaphernes (c. 445–395 BC).]] Although many of the first coins illustrated the images of various gods, the first portraiture of actual rulers appears with the coinage of Lycia in the 5th century BC. No ruler had dared illustrating his own portrait on coinage until that time. A slightly earlier candidate for the first portrait-coin is Themistocles the Athenian general, who became a Governor of Magnesia on the Meander, c. 465–459 BC, for the Achaemenid Empire, although there is some question as to whether his coins may have represented Zeus rather than himself. Themistocles may have been in a unique position in which he could transfer the notion of individual portraiture, already current in the Greek world, and at the same time wield the dynastic power of an Achaemenid dynasty who could issue his own coins and illustrate them as he wished. From the time of Alexander the Great, portraiture of the issuing ruler would then become a standard, generalized, feature of coinage. File:DYNASTS of LYCIA. Kherei. Circa 440-30-410 BC.jpg\|Portrait of Lycian ruler Kherei wearing the Persian cap on the reverse of his coins (ruled 410–390 BC). File:DYNASTS of LYCIA. Erbbina. Circa 430-20-400 BC.jpg\|Portrait of Lycian ruler Erbbina wearing the Persian cap on the reverse of his coins (ruled 390–380 BC). File:DYNASTS of LYCIA. Perikles. Circa 380-360 BC.jpg\|Portrait of Lycian ruler Perikles facing (ruled 380–360 BC). </gallery> Indian coins (c. 400 BC – AD 100) coins, 3rd century BC]] The Karshapana is the earliest punch-marked coin found in India, produced from at least the mid-4th century BC, and possibly as early as 575 BC, influenced by similar coins produced in Gandhara under the Achaemenid empire, such as those of the Kabul hoard, or other examples found at Pushkalavati and in Bhir Mound.Chinese round coins (350 BC~) – Warring States Period, c. 300–220 BC. Four Hua (四化, 30mm, 6.94 g). Legend Yi Si Hua ([City of] Yi Four Hua).]] In China, early round coins appeared in the 4th century BC and were adopted for all China by Emperor Qin Shi Huang Di at the end of 3rd century BC. The round coin, the precursor of the familiar cash coin, circulated in both the spade and knife money areas in the Zhou period, from around 350 BC. Apart from two small and presumably late coins from the State of Qin, coins from the spade money area have a round hole and refer to the jin and liang units. Those from the knife money area have a square hole and are denominated in hua (化). Although for discussion purposes the Zhou coins are divided up into categories of knives, spades, and round coins, it is apparent from archaeological finds that most of the various kinds circulated together. A hoard found in 1981, near Hebi in north Henan province, consisted of: 3,537 Gong spades, 3 Anyi arched foot spades, 8 Liang Dang Lie spades, 18 Liang square foot spades and 1,180 Yuan round coins, all contained in three clay jars. Hellenistic period (320 BC – AD 30) The Hellenistic period was characterized by the spread of Greek culture across a large part of the known world. Greek-speaking kingdoms were established in Egypt and Syria, and for a time also in Iran and as far east as what is now Afghanistan and northwestern India. Greek traders spread Greek coins across this vast area, and the new kingdoms soon began to produce their own coins. Because these kingdoms were much larger and wealthier than the Greek city states of the classical period, their coins tended to be more mass-produced, as well as larger, and more frequently in gold. They often lacked the aesthetic delicacy of coins of the earlier period. Still, some of the Greco-Bactrian coins, and those of their successors in India, the Indo-Greeks, are considered the finest examples of Greek numismatic art with "a nice blend of realism and idealization", including the largest coins to be minted in the Hellenistic world: the largest gold coin was minted by Eucratides (reigned 171–145 BC), the largest silver coin by the Indo-Greek king Amyntas Nikator (reigned c. 95–90 BC). The portraits "show a degree of individuality never matched by the often bland depictions of their royal contemporaries further West" (Roger Ling, "Greece and the Hellenistic World"). <gallery> File:Seleucus Nicator Ai Khanoum mint.jpg\|altSeleucus Nicator (312–281 BCE), Ai Khanoum.\|Seleucus Nicator (312–281 BC), Ai Khanoum File:Antiochos I Soter Ai Khanoum mint.jpg\|Antiochus I (281–261 BC), Ai Khanoum File:Coin of Antialkidas.jpg\|Bilingual coin of Indo-Greek king Antialcidas (105–95 BC) File:Coin of the Bactrian King Agathokles.jpg\|Bilingual coin of Agathocles of Bactria with Hindu deities, c. 180 BC </gallery> Roman period (290 BC~) Coinage followed Greek colonization and influence first around the Mediterranean and soon after to North Africa (including Egypt), Syria, Persia, and the Balkans. Coins came late to the Roman Republic compared with the rest of the Mediterranean, especially Greece and Asia Minor where coins were invented in the 7th century BC. The currency of central Italy was influenced by its natural resources, with bronze being abundant (the Etruscans were famous metal workers in bronze and iron) and silver ore being scarce. The coinage of the Roman Republic started with a few silver coins apparently devised for trade with Celtic in northern Italy and the Greek colonies in Southern Italy, and heavy cast bronze pieces for use in Central Italy. The first Roman coins, which were crude, heavy cast bronzes, were issued c. 289 BC. Amisano, in a general publication, including the Etruscan coinage, attributing it the beginning to about 550 BC in Populonia, a chronology that would leave out the contribution of the Greeks of Magna Graecia and attribute to the Etruscans the burden of introducing the coin in Italy. In this work, constant reference is made to classical sources, and credit is given to the origin of the Etruscan Lydia, a source supported by Herodotus, and also to the invention of coin in Lydia. consistent with e.g. France. Debasement of coin was widespread. There were periods of significant debasement in 1340–60 and 1417–29, when no small coins were minted, and by the 15th century the issuance of small coin was further restricted by government restrictions and even prohibitions. With the exception of the Great Debasement, England's coins were consistently minted from sterling silver (silver content of 92.5%). A lower quality of silver with more copper mixed in, used in Barcelona, was called billon. Italy has been influential at a coinage point of view: the Florentine florin, one of the most used coinage types in European history and one of the most important coins in Western history, was struck in Florence in the 13th century, while the Venetian sequin, minted from 1284 to 1797, was the most prestigious gold coin in circulation in the commercial centers of the Mediterranean Sea. The Florentine florin was the first European gold coin struck in sufficient quantities since the 7th century to play a significant commercial role. The Florentine florin was used for larger transactions such as those used in dowries, international trade or for tax-related matters. <gallery> File:Cunincpert tremissis 612190 reverse.jpg\|Lombardic Tremissis depicting Saint Michael, AD 688–700 File:BorandukhtCoinHistoryofIran.jpg\|Silver coin of Borandukht of Persian Sassanian Empire, AD 629 File:Silver Dirham.png\|Silver Dirham of the Umayyad Caliphate, AD 729; minted by using Persian Sassanian framework File:Al-Mu'tamid-coin.jpg\|Abbasid coin, c. 1080s File:Almoravid dinar 1138 631905.jpg\|Almoravid coin, 1138–1139 File:Zecchino Antonio Venier 1382.jpg\|Venetian sequin, 1382 </gallery> Modern history Genoese coins became important in the 16th century during the Golden age of Genoese banking, with the Spanish Empire funnelling its massive wealth from Spanish America through the Bank of Saint George. With the decline in the fortunes of the Genoese banks and the Spanish Empire in the 17th century, however, the Genoese lira also depreciated substantially. The silver scudo's value increased to 6.5 lire in 1646, 7.4 lire in 1671, and 8.74 lire just before the Austrian occupation of Genoa in 1746. Variations in the mass of precious metals used in international trade, particularly in imports of spices and textiles into Europe, explain the numerous monetary reforms that occurred in this period. The effect of these transactions on the available reserves of gold and silver was at the origin of the various monetary reforms, which changed the price of silver compared to gold. Faced with the distinct monetary systems developed by Genoa, Venice or Florence, the widespread use in the 15th century of the silver thaler, of constant size and mass, allowed conversion operations to be limited and therefore exchanges facilitated. The thaler was the monetary unit of the Germanic countries until the 19th century and is considered the ancestor of the United States dollar. At the same time, the Mexican Mint was established on May 11, 1535, by order of the Spanish king following the Spanish colonization of the Americas. Opened in April 1536, this mint had the right to mint silver Spanish real which became the basis of the monetary system of the Spanish Empire. Louis XIII had the Louis d'or minted in 1640 to compete with these coins. The first attested siege coins appeared at the siege of Pavia in 1524. Auxiliary coins consisted, among the Greeks and Romans as in our modern societies, of coins strongly linked to copper. In particular, the red copper alloy was used for its physical properties, suitable for objects constantly subjected to manipulation: malleability, resistance to impacts, wear and corrosion (only gold has better resistance to corrosion). This alloy was often mixed with a little tin, zinc and especially nickel for their anti-corrosive, ductile and anti-fouling properties. <gallery> File:Silver Coin of Jalaluddin.jpg\|Silver coin of the 15th-century Bengal Sultanate ruler Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah File:Genova doppia 1639.jpg\|right\|Genoese doppia, 1639 File:France 1640 4 Louis d’or (Louis XIII).jpg\|Louis d'or, 1640 File:Wildermann thaler.jpg\|Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel Thaler minted in 1629 File:Genbun Inari Koban Kin.jpg\|Japanese local currency Genbun Inari Koban Kin, –1741 File:Potosì 8 reales 1768 131206.jpg\|1768 silver Spanish Dollar, or eight reales coin (the "piece of eight" of pirate fame), minted throughout the Spanish Empire File:TURKEY, SULTAN MAHMUD II 1818 -2 RUMI GOLD b - Flickr - woody1778a.jpg\|Ottoman coin, 1818 File:One Rupee East India Company.JPG\|One Rupee coin issued by the East India Company, 1835 File:Coins minted at the Royal Mint of Great Britain.jpg\|British coins 15-20 centuries </gallery> Value , 1923). Despite its high denomination, this coin's monetary value dropped to a tiny fraction of a US cent by the end of 1923, substantially less than the value of its metallic content.]] {\| class"toccolours" style"float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em; clear:right;" \|- \| \|- \| An unusual copper coin of King <br>George IV of Georgia with <br>Georgian inscriptions, 1210 \|} coin made during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Alamgir II (1754–1759)]] Currency Most coins presently are made of a base metal, and their value comes from their status as fiat money. This means that the value of the coin is established by law, and thus is determined by the free market only in as much as national currencies are used in domestic trade and also traded in the international market. Thus, these coins are monetary tokens, just as paper currency is: their value is usually not backed by metal, but rather by some form of government guarantee. Thus, there is very little economic difference between notes and coins of equivalent face value. Coins may be in circulation with face values lower than the value of their component metals, but they are never initially issued with such value, and the shortfall only arises over time due to inflation, as market values for the metal overtake the face value of the coin. Examples are the pre-1965 US dime, quarter, half dollar, and dollar (containing slightly less than a tenth, quarter, half, and full ounce of silver, respectively), US nickel, and pre-1982 US penny. As a result of the increase in the value of copper, the United States greatly reduced the amount of copper in each penny. Since mid-1982, United States pennies are made of 97.5% zinc, with the remaining 2.5% being a coating of copper. Extreme differences between face values and metal values of coins cause coins to be hoarded or removed from circulation by illicit smelters in order to realize the value of their metal content. This is an example of Gresham's law. The United States Mint, in an attempt to avoid this, implemented new interim rules on December 14, 2006, subject to public comment for 30 days, which criminalized the melting and export of pennies and nickels. Violators can be fined up to $10,000 and/or imprisoned for up to five years. Collector's items A coin's value as a collector's item or as an investment generally depends on its condition, specific historical significance, rarity, quality, beauty of the design and general popularity with collectors. If a coin is greatly lacking in all of these, it is unlikely to be worth much. The value of bullion coins is also influenced to some extent by those factors, but is largely based on the value of their gold, silver, or platinum content. Sometimes non-monetized bullion coins such as the Canadian Maple Leaf and the American Gold Eagle are minted with nominal face values less than the value of the metal in them, but as such coins are never intended for circulation, these face values have no relevance. Collector catalogs often include information about coins to assists collectors with identifying and grading. Additional resources can be found online for collectors These are collector clubs, collection management tools, marketplaces, trading platforms, and forums, Media of expression Coins can be used as creative media of expression – from fine art sculpture to the penny machines that can be found in most amusement parks. In the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) in the United States there are some regulations specific to nickels and pennies that are informative on this topic. 31 CFR § 82.1 forbids unauthorized persons from exporting, melting, or treating any 5 or 1 cent coins. This has been a particular problem with nickels and dimes (and with some comparable coins in other currencies) because of their relatively low face value and unstable commodity prices. For a while, the copper in US pennies was worth more than one cent, so people would hoard pennies and then melt them down for their metal value. It cost more than face value to manufacture pennies or nickels, so any widespread loss of the coins in circulation could be expensive for the US Treasury. This was more of a problem when coins were still made of precious metals like silver and gold, so strict laws against alteration make more sense historically. 31 CFR § 82.2(b) goes on to state that: "The prohibition contained in § 82.1 against the treatment of 5-cent coins and one-cent coins shall not apply to the treatment of these coins for educational, amusement, novelty, jewelry, and similar purposes as long as the volumes treated and the nature of the treatment makes it clear that such treatment is not intended as a means by which to profit solely from the value of the metal content of the coins." Debasement and clipping ten-cent coin from 1879, similar to the oldest coins still in official use today]] Throughout history, monarchs and governments have often created more coinage than their supply of precious metals would allow if the coins were pure metal. By replacing some fraction of a coin's precious metal content with a base metal (often copper or nickel), the intrinsic value of each individual coin was reduced (thereby "debasing" the money), allowing the coining authority to produce more coins than would otherwise be possible. Debasement occasionally occurs in order to make the coin physically harder and therefore less likely to be worn down as quickly, but the more usual reason is to profit from the difference between face value and metal value. Debasement of money almost always leads to price inflation. Sometimes price controls are at the same time also instituted by the governing authority, but historically these have generally proved unworkable. The United States is unusual in that it has only slightly modified its coinage system (except for the images and symbols on the coins, which have changed a number of times) to accommodate two centuries of inflation. The one-cent coin has changed little since 1856 (though its composition was changed in 1982 to remove virtually all copper from the coin) and still remains in circulation, despite a greatly reduced purchasing power. On the other end of the spectrum, the largest coin in common circulation is valued at 25 cents, a very low value for the largest denomination coin compared to many other countries. Increases in the prices of copper, nickel, and zinc meant that both the US one- and five-cent coins became worth more for their raw metal content than their face (fiat) value. In particular, copper one-cent pieces (those dated prior to 1982 and some 1982-dated coins) contained about two cents' worth of copper. Some denominations of circulating coins that were formerly minted in the United States are no longer made. These include coins with a face value of a half cent, two cents, three cents, and twenty cents. (The half dollar and dollar coins are still produced, but mostly for vending machines and collectors.) In the past, the US also coined the following denominations for circulation in gold: One dollar, $2.50, three dollars, five dollars, ten dollars, and twenty dollars. In addition, cents were originally slightly larger than the modern quarter and weighed nearly half an ounce, while five-cent coins (known then as "half dimes") were smaller than a dime and made of a silver alloy. Dollar coins were also much larger, and weighed approximately an ounce. One-dollar gold coins are no longer produced and rarely used. The US also issues bullion and commemorative coins with the following denominations: 50¢, $1, $5, $10, $25, $50, and $100. Circulating coins commonly suffered from "shaving" or "clipping": the public would cut off small amounts of precious metal from their edges to sell it and then pass on the mutilated coins at full value. Unmilled British sterling silver coins were sometimes reduced to almost half their minted weight. This form of debasement in Tudor England was commented on by Sir Thomas Gresham, whose name was later attached to Gresham's law. The monarch would have to periodically recall circulating coins, paying only the bullion value of the silver, and reminting them. This, also known as recoinage, is a long and difficult process that was done only occasionally. Many coins have milled or reeded edges, originally designed to make it easier to detect clipping. Cutting Some coins made of precious metals were manufactured with a cross on one side to make it easier to split the coin into halves or quarters. Other uses Some convicted criminals from the British Isles who were sentenced to transportation to Australia in the 18th and 19th centuries used coins to leave messages of remembrance to loved ones left behind in Britain. The coins were defaced, smoothed and inscribed, either by stippling or engraving, with sometimes touching words of loss. These coins were called "convict love tokens" or "leaden hearts". Some of these tokens are in the collection of the National Museum of Australia. Modern features ]] The side of a coin carrying an image of a monarch, other authority (see List of people on coins), or a national emblem is called the obverse (colloquially, heads); the other side, carrying various types of information, is called the reverse (colloquially, tails). The year of minting is usually shown on the obverse, although some Chinese coins, most Canadian coins, the pre-2008 British 20p coin, the post-1999 American quarter, and all Japanese coins are exceptions. The relation of the images on the obverse and reverse of a coin is the coin's orientation. If the image on the obverse of the coin is right side up and turning the coin left or right on its vertical axis reveals that the reverse of the coin is also right side up, then the coin is said to have medallic orientation—typical of the Euro and pound sterling; if, however, turning the coin left or right shows that the reverse image is upside down, then the coin is said to have coin orientation, characteristic of the coins of the United States dollar. Bimetallic coins are sometimes used for higher values and for commemorative purposes. In the 1990s, France used a tri-metallic coin. Common circulating bimetallic examples include the €1, €2, British £1, £2 and Canadian $2 and several peso coins in Mexico. The exergue is the space on a coin beneath the main design, often used to show the coin's date, although it is sometimes left blank or contains a mint mark, privy mark, or some other decorative or informative design feature. Many coins do not have an exergue at all, especially those with few or no legends, such as the Victorian bun penny. proof coin of Russia, minted in 2008]] Not all coins are round; they come in a variety of shapes. The Australian 50-cent coin, for example, has twelve flat sides. Some coins have wavy edges, e.g. the $2 and 20-cent coins of Hong Kong and the 10-cent coins of Bahamas. Some are square-shaped, such as the 15-cent coin of the Bahamas and the 50-cent coin from Aruba. During the 1970s, Swazi coins were minted in several shapes, including squares, polygons, and wavy edged circles with 8 and 12 waves. Historically, a considerable variety of coinage metals (including alloys) and other materials (e.g. porcelain) have been used to produce coins for circulation, collection, and metal investment: bullion coins often serve as more convenient stores of assured metal quantity and purity than other bullion. <gallery> File:Israelwave.jpg\|Scalloped coin of Israel File:Belizeonecentwave.jpg\|1996 one cent coin from Belize File:Phil2pisodecrev.jpg\|Decagonal two Piso Philippine coin 1990 </gallery> Some other coins, like the British 20 and 50 pence coins and the Canadian Loonie, have an odd number of sides, with the edges rounded off. This way the coin has a constant diameter, recognizable by vending machines whichever direction it is inserted. A triangular coin with a face value of £5 (produced to commemorate the 2007/2008 Tutankhamun exhibition at The O2 Arena) was commissioned by the Isle of Man: it became legal tender on 6 December 2007. Other triangular coins issued earlier include: Cabinda coin, Bermuda coin, 2 Dollar Cook Islands 1992 triangular coin, Uganda Millennium Coin and Polish Sterling-Silver 10-Zloty Coin. Some medieval coins, called bracteates, were so thin they were struck on only one side. Many coins over the years have been manufactured with integrated holes such as Chinese "cash" coins, Japanese coins, Colonial French coins, etc. This may have been done to permit their being strung on cords, to facilitate storage and being carried. Nowadays, holes help to differentiate coins of similar size and metal, such as the Japanese 50 yen and 100 yen coin. <gallery> File:Frenchholeobv.jpg\|1917 French coin with integrated hole File:Chong Ning Tongbao 1.JPG\|Chinese cash coin, 1102–1106 File:عملة فلسطينية معدنية.jpg\|1941 British Palestine coin File:50 Yen Rückseite.jpg\|Modern-day Japanese 50-yen coin File:1924 East African 1 cent coin reverse.jpg\|1924 East African coin </gallery> (Liberty Enlightening the World)]] The Royal Canadian Mint is now able to produce holographic-effect gold and silver coinage. However, this procedure is not limited to only bullion or commemorative coinage. The 500 yen coin from Japan was subject to a massive amount of counterfeiting. The Japanese government in response produced a circulatory coin with a holographic image. The Royal Canadian Mint has also released several coins that are colored, the first of which was in commemoration of Remembrance Day. The subject was a colored poppy on the reverse of a 25-cent piece minted through a patented process. An example of non-metallic composite coins (sometimes incorrectly called plastic coins) was introduced into circulation in Transnistria on 22 August 2014. Most of these coins are also non-circular, with different shapes corresponding to different coin values. For a list of many pure metallic elements and their alloys which have been used in actual circulation coins and for trial experiments, see coinage metals. Physics and chemistry minted in 2019 (left), an example of a Bullion coin. Its obverse design is based on the older, formerly circulating silver Walking Liberty half dollar (right).]] Flipping To flip a coin to see whether it lands heads or tails is to use it as a two-sided die in what is known in mathematics as a Bernoulli trial: if the probability of heads (in the parlance of Bernoulli trials, a "success") is exactly 0.5, the coin is fair. Spinning Coins can also be spun on a flat surface such as a table. This results in the following phenomenon: as the coin falls over and rolls on its edge, it spins faster and faster (formally, the precession rate of the symmetry axis of the coin, i.e., the axis passing from one face of the coin to the other) before coming to an abrupt stop. This is mathematically modeled as a finite-time singularity – the precession rate is accelerating to infinity, before it suddenly stops, and has been studied using high speed photography and devices such as Euler's Disk. The slowing down is predominantly caused by rolling friction (air resistance is minor), and the singularity (divergence of the precession rate) can be modeled as a power law with exponent approximately −1/3.OdorIron and copper coins have a characteristic metallic smell that is produced upon contact with oils in the skin. Perspiration is chemically reduced upon contact with these metals, which causes the skin oils to decompose, forming with iron the volatile molecule 1-octen-3-one.Regional examplesPhilippinesare tiny engraved gold coins found in the Philippines, along with barter rings, which are gold ring-like ingots. These barter rings are bigger than softballs in size and are made of pure gold from the Archaic period ( to 16th century).]] In the Philippines, small, engraved gold coins called Piloncitos have been excavated, some as lightweight as 0.09 to 2.65 grams. Piloncitos have been unearthed from Mandaluyong, Bataan, the banks of the Pasig River, Batangas, Marinduque, Samar, Leyte and some areas in Mindanao. Large quantities were found in Indonesian archaeological sites, suggesting that they may not have originated in the Philippines, but rather were imported. However, numerous Spanish accounts state that the gold coins were mined and made in the Philippines, such as the following from 1586: The term "Piloncitos" is a contemporary word, used by modern-day antique collectors, who thought that the cone-shaped pieces looked like a pilon of sugar. Piloncitos are presumably an offshoot of silver coinage and may have evolved into the bullet or pod duang coinage of Sukhothai in Thailand. Early historical records document the extensive use of gold throughout the Philippine archipelago before the arrival of European colonists. It was used extensively as currency, and also used in everyday items such as clothing and finery.<ref name"Scott1994"/> See also * Bi-metallic coin * Coin base weight * Coin collecting * Coin counter * Coin counterfeiting * Coin magic * Coin sorter * Coin standard * Currency * Hanukkah gelt – Chocolate coin * History of coins * Legal tender * List of currencies * List of circulating currencies * List of mints * List of most expensive coins * Mint * Money * Seigniorage * Token coin * Ten-cent coin Notes and references Works cited * }} Bibliography * * }} External links * Category:Currency Category:Money	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coin	2025-04-05T18:28:12.185075
7560	College of the City of New York	College of the City of New York may refer to: City University of New York (CUNY), the public university system of New York City College of the City of New York, an old name (1866–1929) for City College of New York, now part of CUNY New York City College of Technology, CUNY's technology college, founded in 1946 University of the City of New York, old name for New York University, a private research university founded in 1831 See also University of New York (disambiguation)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_of_the_City_of_New_York	2025-04-05T18:28:12.208888
7561	Classical Kuiper belt object	, the first classical Kuiper belt object visited by a spacecraft.]] (blue) and Pluto (pink)]] A classical Kuiper belt object, also called a cubewano ( "QB1-o"), is a low-eccentricity Kuiper belt object (KBO) that orbits beyond Neptune and is not controlled by an orbital resonance with Neptune. Cubewanos have orbits with semi-major axes in the 40–50 AU range and, unlike Pluto, do not cross Neptune's orbit. That is, they have low-eccentricity and sometimes low-inclination orbits like the classical planets. The name "cubewano" derives from the first trans-Neptunian object (TNO) found after Pluto and Charon: 15760 Albion, which until January 2018 had only the provisional designation (15760) . Similar objects found later were often called "QB1-os", or "cubewanos", after this object, though the term "classical" is much more frequently used in the scientific literature. Objects identified as cubewanos include: * 15760 Albion but was later found to be in a resonant orbit. and inclination of cubewanos (blue) compared to resonant TNOs (red).]] There are two basic dynamical classes of classical Kuiper-belt bodies: those with relatively unperturbed ('cold') orbits, and those with markedly perturbed ('hot') orbits. Most cubewanos are found between the 2:3 orbital resonance with Neptune (populated by plutinos) and the 1:2 resonance. 50000 Quaoar, for example, has a near-circular orbit close to the ecliptic. Plutinos, on the other hand, have more eccentric orbits bringing some of them closer to the Sun than Neptune. The majority of classical objects, the so-called cold population, have low inclinations (< 5°) and near-circular orbits, lying between 42 and 47 AU. A smaller population (the hot population) is characterised by highly inclined, more eccentric orbits. The terms 'hot' and 'cold' has nothing to do with surface or internal temperatures, but rather refer to the orbits of the objects, by analogy to molecules in a gas, which increase their relative velocity as they heat up. The Deep Ecliptic Survey reports the distributions of the two populations; one with the inclination centered at 4.6° (named Core) and another with inclinations extending beyond 30° (Halo). Distribution The vast majority of KBOs (more than two-thirds) have inclinations of less than 5° and eccentricities of less than 0.1 . Their semi-major axes show a preference for the middle of the main belt; arguably, smaller objects close to the limiting resonances have been either captured into resonance or have their orbits modified by Neptune. The 'hot' and 'cold' populations are strikingly different: more than 30% of all cubewanos are in low inclination, near-circular orbits. The parameters of the plutinos’ orbits are more evenly distributed, with a local maximum in moderate eccentricities in 0.15–0.2 range, and low inclinations 5–10°. See also the comparison with scattered disk objects. Cubewanos form a clear 'belt' outside Neptune's orbit, whereas the plutinos approach, or even cross Neptune's orbit. When orbital inclinations are compared, 'hot' cubewanos can be easily distinguished by their higher inclinations, as the plutinos typically keep orbits <20°. The high inclination of 'hot' cubewanos has not been explained. Cold and hot populations: physical characteristics In addition to the distinct orbital characteristics, the two populations display different physical characteristics. The difference in colour between the red cold population, such as 486958 Arrokoth, and more heterogeneous hot population was observed as early as in 2002. Recent studies, based on a larger data set, indicate the cut-off inclination of 12° (instead of 5°) between the cold and hot populations and confirm the distinction between the homogenous red cold population and the bluish hot population. Another difference between the low-inclination (cold) and high-inclination (hot) classical objects is the observed number of binary objects. Binaries are quite common on low-inclination orbits and are typically similar-brightness systems. Binaries are less common on high-inclination orbits and their components typically differ in brightness. This correlation, together with the differences in colour, support further the suggestion that the currently observed classical objects belong to at least two different overlapping populations, with different physical properties and orbital history. Toward a formal definition There is no official definition of 'cubewano' or 'classical KBO'. However, the terms are normally used to refer to objects free from significant perturbation from Neptune, thereby excluding KBOs in orbital resonance with Neptune (resonant trans-Neptunian objects). The Minor Planet Center (MPC) and the Deep Ecliptic Survey (DES) do not list cubewanos (classical objects) using the same criteria. Many TNOs classified as cubewanos by the MPC, such as dwarf planet Makemake, are classified as ScatNear (possibly scattered by Neptune) by the DES. may be an inner cubewano near the plutinos. Furthermore, there is evidence that the Kuiper belt has an 'edge', in that an apparent lack of low-inclination objects beyond 47–49 AU was suspected as early as 1998 and shown with more data in 2001. Consequently, the traditional usage of the terms is based on the orbit's semi-major axis, and includes objects situated between the 2:3 and 1:2 resonances, that is between 39.4 and 47.8 AU (with exclusion of these resonances and the minor ones in-between). Formally, this definition includes as classical all objects with their current orbits that are non-resonant (see the definition of the method) have a semi-major axis greater than that of Neptune (30.1 AU; i.e. excluding centaurs) but less than 2000 AU (to exclude inner-Oort-cloud objects) are not being scattered by Neptune have their eccentricity <math>e < 0.240</math> (to exclude detached objects) Unlike other schemes, this definition includes the objects with major semi-axis less than 39.4 AU (2:3 resonance)—termed inner classical belt, or more than 48.7 (1:2 resonance) – termed outer classical belt, and reserves the term main classical belt for the orbits between these two resonances. It includes Haumea, its moons, and seven smaller bodies.}} The objects not only follow similar orbits but also share similar physical characteristics. Unlike many other KBO their surface contains large amounts of water ice (H<sub>2</sub>O) and no or very little tholins. The surface composition is inferred from their neutral (as opposed to red) colour and deep absorption at 1.5 and 2. μm in infrared spectrum. Several other collisional families might reside in the classical Kuiper belt. Exploration As of January 2019, only one classical Kuiper belt object has been observed up close by spacecraft. Both Voyager spacecraft have passed through the region before the discovery of the Kuiper belt. New Horizons was the first mission to visit a classical KBO. After its successful exploration of the Pluto system in 2015, the NASA spacecraft has visited the small KBO 486958 Arrokoth at a distance of on 1 January 2019. List Here is a very generic list of classical Kuiper belt objects. , there are about 870 objects with and . * 15760 Albion * 20000 Varuna * * * * * * * 120347 Salacia * * * * 148780 Altjira * * * 174567 Varda * * 19521 Chaos * * * * * * 486958 Arrokoth * 50000 Quaoar * * 53311 Deucalion * * * * 58534 Logos * 66652 Borasisi * * 79360 Sila–Nunam * * * * * 88611 Teharonhiawako * See also * Lists of astronomical objects Footnotes References External links * * * * *	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Kuiper_belt_object	2025-04-05T18:28:12.246898
7564	Foreign policy of the United States	U.S. Foreign Policy (book)}} The officially stated goals of the foreign policy of the United States of America, including all the bureaus and offices in the United States Department of State, as mentioned in the Foreign Policy Agenda of the Department of State, are "to build and sustain a more democratic, secure, and prosperous world for the benefit of the American people and the international community". Liberalism has been a key component of US foreign policy since its independence from Britain. Since the end of World War II, the United States has had a grand strategy which has been characterized as being oriented around primacy, "deep engagement", and/or liberal hegemony. This strategy entails that the United States maintains military predominance; builds and maintains an extensive network of allies (exemplified by NATO, bilateral alliances and foreign US military bases); integrates other states into US-designed international institutions (such as the IMF, WTO/GATT, and World Bank); and limits the spread of nuclear weapons. U.S. foreign policy and foreign aid have been the subject of much debate and criticism, both domestically and abroad. Foreign policy developmentArticle Two of the United States Constitution grants power of foreign policy to the President of the United States, including powers to command the military, negotiate treaties, and appoint ambassadors. The Department of State carries out the president's foreign policy. The State Department is usually pulled between the wishes of Congress, and the wishes of the residing president. The Department of Defense carries out the president's military policy. The Central Intelligence Agency is an independent agency responsible for gathering intelligence on foreign activity. Some checks and balances are applied to the president's powers of foreign policy. Treaties negotiated by the president require ratification by the Senate to take force as United States law. The president's ambassadorial nominations also require Senate approval before taking office. Military actions must first be approved by both chambers of Congress. The Constitution grants Congress the power to approve the president's picks for ambassadors and the power to declare war. The president is commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. He appoints a Secretary of State and ambassadors with the advice and consent of the Senate. The Secretary acts similarly to a foreign minister, because they are the primary conductor of foreign affairs. While foreign policy has varied slightly from president to president, there have generally been consistently similar goals throughout different administrations. Generally speaking there are 4 schools of thought regarding foreign policy. First is Neo-Isolationists, who believe the United States should maintain a very narrow focus and avoid all involvement in the rest of the world. Second is selective-engagement which avoids all conflicts with other nations, and is semi-restrictive on its foreign policy. Third is cooperative security, which requires more involvement throughout the world, occasionally countering threats to the country. Finally is the idea of primacy which seeks to advance the United States well beyond all other nations of the world, placing it first in all matters. In Missouri v. Holland, the Supreme Court ruled that the power to make treaties under the U.S. Constitution is a power separate from the other enumerated powers of the federal government, and hence the federal government can use treaties to legislate in areas which would otherwise fall within the exclusive authority of the states. Between 1789 and 1990, the Senate approved more than 1,500 treaties, rejected 21 and withdrew 85 without further action. As of 2019, 37 treaties were pending Senate approval. International agreements, sometimes also collectively referred to as treaties, can also be entered into by other mechanisms, though they have different legal implications than Senate-ratified treaties. The president can unilaterally make executive agreements. Under the Supreme Court decisions United States v. Pink (1942) and Reid v. Covert (1957), these have the force of law only to the degree they were made by exercising a power in the scope of the president's authority. Congressional-executive agreements<!-- redirects here --> are commonly used to enshrine the provisions of an international compact into federal law. Under this procedure, the executive branch negotiates the language, which is then approved by Congress and signed by the President as a regular piece of legislation, only requiring a simple majority of both houses. This procedure has been upheld by federal courts, though some scholars question its constitutionality because it bypasses the explicit Senate ratification procedure spelled out for treaties. The State Department has taken the position that the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties represents established law. Following ratification, the United States incorporates treaty law into the body of U.S. federal law. As a result, Congress can modify or repeal treaties after they are ratified. This can overrule an agreed-upon treaty obligation even if that is seen as a violation of the treaty under international law. Several U.S. court rulings confirmed this understanding, including Supreme Court decisions in Paquete Habana v. the United States (1900), and Reid v. Covert (1957), as well as a lower court ruling in Garcia-Mir v. Meese (1986). As a result of the Reid v. Covert decision, the United States adds a reservation to the text of every treaty that says in effect that the United States intends to abide by the treaty but that if the treaty is found to be in violation of the Constitution, the United States legally is then unable to abide by the treaty since the American signature would be ultra vires.Historical overview The main trend regarding the history of U.S. foreign policy since the American Revolution is the shift from non-interventionism before and after World War I, to its growth as a world power and global hegemon during World War II and throughout the Cold War in the 20th century. Since the 19th century, U.S. foreign policy also has been characterized by a shift from the realist school to the idealistic or Wilsonian school of international relations. Over time, other themes, key goals, attitudes, or stances have been variously expressed by presidential 'doctrines'.18th century of 1795 aligned the U.S. more with Britain and less with France, leading to political polarization at home.]] Foreign policy themes were expressed considerably in George Washington's farewell address; these included, among other things, observing good faith and justice towards all nations and cultivating peace and harmony with all, excluding both "inveterate antipathies against particular nations, and passionate attachments for others", "steer[ing] clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world", and advocating trade with all nations. Foreign policy in the first years of American independence constituted the balancing of relations with Great Britain and France. The Federalist Party supported Washington's foreign policy and sought close ties with Britain, but the Democratic-Republican Party favored France. Under the Federalist government of John Adams, the United States engaged in conflict with France in the Quasi-War, but the rival Jeffersonians feared Britain and favored France in the 1790s, declaring the War of 1812 on Britain. Jeffersonians vigorously opposed a large standing army and any navy until attacks against American shipping by Barbary corsairs spurred the country into developing a navy, resulting in the First Barbary War in 1801.19th century American foreign policy was mostly peaceful and marked by steady expansion of its foreign trade during the 19th century. As the Jeffersonians took power in the 1800s, they opposed a large standing army and any navy until attacks against American shipping by Barbary corsairs spurred the country into developing a naval force projection capability, resulting in the First Barbary War in 1801. After the War of 1812, there were disagreements between Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton as to whether the United States should be isolated or be more involved in global activities. In the 1820s, the Monroe Doctrine was established as the primary foreign policy doctrine of the United States, establishing Latin America as an American sphere of influence and rejecting European colonization in the region. The 1830s and 1840s were marked by increasing conflict with Mexico, exacerbated by the Texas annexation and culminating in the Mexican–American War in 1846. Following the war, the United States claimed much of what is now the Southwestern United States, and the Gadsden Purchase further expanded this territory. Relations with Britain continued to be strained as a result of border conflicts until they were resolved by the Webster–Ashburton Treaty in 1842. The Perry Expedition of 1853 led to Japan establishing relations with the United States. The Diplomacy of the American Civil War emphasized preventing European involvement in the war. During the Civil War, Spain and France defied the Monroe Doctrine and expanded their colonial influence in the Dominican Republic and Mexico, respectively. The Alaska Purchase was negotiated with Russia in 1867 and the Newlands Resolution annexed Hawaii in 1898. The Spanish–American War took place during 1898, resulting in the United States claiming Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines, and causing Spain to retract claims upon Cuba. President Wilson's Fourteen Points was developed from his idealistic Wilsonianism program of spreading democracy and fighting militarism to prevent future wars. It became the basis of the German Armistice (which amounted to a military surrender) and the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. The resulting Treaty of Versailles, due to European allies' punitive and territorial designs, showed insufficient conformity with these points, and the U.S. signed separate treaties with each of its adversaries; due to Senate objections also, the U.S. never joined the League of Nations, which was established as a result of Wilson's initiative. In the 1920s, the United States followed an independent course, and succeeded in a program of naval disarmament, and refunding the German economy. Operating outside the League it became a dominant player in diplomatic affairs. New York became the financial capital of the world, but the Wall Street Crash of 1929 hurled the Western industrialized world into the Great Depression. American trade policy relied on high tariffs under the Republicans, and reciprocal trade agreements under the Democrats, but in any case exports were at very low levels in the 1930s. Post WWI, the United States entered back into isolation from world events. This was largely due to the Great Depression of 1929. The invasion of Afghanistan by the Soviet Union contributed directly to fueling tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union. This began with President Carter announcing the United States interests in maintaining the status quo within the Persian Gulf region, resulting in the Carter Doctrine. The Regan administration escalated the tensions by supporting freedom fighters around the world, most notably in Afghanistan during the Soviet invasion. The Soviet Union and the United States did not engage in direct conflict, but rather supported small proxies that opposed the other. Meanwhile, down to 1952 the Republican Party was split between an isolationist wing, based in the Midwest and led by Senator Robert A. Taft, and an internationalist wing based in the East and led by Dwight D. Eisenhower. Eisenhower defeated Taft for the 1952 nomination largely on foreign policy grounds. Since then the Republicans have been characterized by American nationalism, strong opposition to Communism, and strong support for Israel.21st century and his Western allies from G7 and NATO]] Mahathir Mohamad meets with US Secretary of State Mike Pompeo in 2018.]] Following the end of the Cold War, the United States entered the 21st century as the sole superpower, though this status has been challenged by China, India, Russia, and the European Union. Substantial problems remain, such as climate change, nuclear proliferation, and the specter of international terrorism. The September 11 attacks in 2001 caused a policy shift, in which America declared a "war on terror". The United States invaded Afghanistan in 2001 and invaded Iraq in 2003, emphasizing nation-building and the neutralization of terrorist threats in the Middle East. During the war on terror, the United States significantly expanded its military and intelligence capacities while also pursuing economic methods of targeting opposing governments. After a phased withdrawal from Iraq, In 2014, the Islamic State emerged as a major hostile power in the Middle East, and the United States led a military intervention in Iraq and Syria to combat it. The extended nature of American involvement in Iraq and Afghanistan has resulted in support for isolationism and reduced involvement in foreign conflicts. In 2011, the United States led a NATO intervention in Libya. In 2013, disclosures of American surveillance programs revealed that United States intelligence policy included extensive global surveillance activities against foreign governments and citizens. In 2017, diplomats from other countries developed new tactics to engage with President Donald Trump's brand of American nationalism. Peter Baker of The New York Times reported on the eve of his first foreign trip as president that the global diplomatic community had devised a strategy of keeping interactions brief, complimenting him, and giving him something he can consider a victory. Before the Trump presidency, foreign policy in the U.S. was the result of bipartisan consensus on an agenda of strengthening its position as the number one power. That consensus has since fractured, with Republican and Democratic politicians increasingly calling for a more restrained approach. Foreign policy under the Trump administration involved heightened tensions with Iran, a trade war through increased tariffs, and a reduced role in international organizations. Advancing a "Free and Open Indo-Pacific" has become the core of the U.S. national security strategy and has been embraced by both Democratic and Republican administrations. The United States ended its wars in the Greater Middle East with the withdrawal from Afghanistan in 2021. In early 2023, when China brokered the long-awaited reconciliation of Saudi-Arabia Iran relations, the U.S. found itself on the sidelines of political developments in the Middle East. The JCPOA, which attempted to control the nuclear capabilities of Iran, was not fully reinstated after the Trump administration abandoned the international agreement supported by European powers in 2018. As China attempted to fill this vacuum, the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine further tested the international alliances with the U.S. Iran and other larger powers such as India as well as Arab nations did not adopt any of the economic sanctions imposed on Russia but to the contrary, increased their economic and strategic alliances with Russia or China. As China is focussing primarily on the global expansion of its economy, Russia was able to maintain its military and energy-related influence not only in Asia but also in Africa and South America. With regard to the Middle East, trade from these nations with China is three times greater than the trade with the U.S. As China is extending its mid-East reach, Russia despite its battered economy from sanctions still remains influential in South America with trade relations that are difficult to deconstruct through U.S. American influence. While China's influence in the UAE, Saudi Arabia and Africa is still hindered by commercial and currency-related U.S. trade policies, it is perceived more and more as a peace negotiator than a communist aggressor, particularly outside of Europe and North America. While the U.S. still upholds its moral dominance by advocating for democracy, its foreign policies are increasingly marked by a perceived inability to defend its image as an exporter of peace and prosperity. Diplomatic policy The diplomatic policy of the United States is created by the president and carried out by the Department of State. The department's stated mission is to "protect and promote U.S. security, prosperity, and democratic values and shape an international environment in which all Americans can thrive." Its objectives during the 2022-2026 period include renewing U.S. leadership, promoting global prosperity, strengthening democratic institutions, revitalizing the diplomatic workforce and institutions, and serving U.S. citizens abroad. As of 2022, the United States has bilateral relations with all but four United Nations members. The United States government emphasizes human rights in foreign policy. Annual reports produced by the Department of State, such as "Advancing Freedom and Democracy" and the "Country Reports on Human Rights Practices", track the status of human rights around the world. The National Endowment for Democracy provides financial aid to promote democracy internationally. International agreements The United States is party to thousands of international agreements with other countries, territories, and international organizations. These include arms control agreements, human rights treaties, environmental protocols, and free trade agreements. Under the Compact of Free Association, the United States also maintains a relationship of free association with the countries of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau, grants the United States military access to the countries in exchange for military protection, foreign aid, and access domestic American agencies. The United States is a member of many international organizations. It is a founding member of the United Nations and holds a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council. The United States is also a member of other global organizations, including the World Trade Organization. Regional organizations in which the United States is a member include NATO, Organization of American States, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, the United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement, and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. As the largest economy in the world, the United States is also a member of organizations for the most developed nations, including the OECD, the Group of Seven, and the G20. Non-participation in multi-lateral agreements }} The United States notably does not participate in various international agreements adhered to by almost all other industrialized countries, by almost all the countries of the Americas, or by almost all other countries in the world. With a large population and economy, on a practical level this can undermine the effect of certain agreements, or give other countries a precedent to cite for non-participation in various agreements. In some cases the arguments against participation include that the United States should maximize its sovereignty and freedom of action, or that ratification would create a basis for lawsuits that would treat American citizens unfairly. In other cases, the debate became involved in domestic political issues, such as gun control, climate change, and the death penalty. Examples include: * Versailles Treaty and the League of Nations covenant (in force 1920–45, signed but not ratified) * International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (took effect in 1976, ratified with substantial reservations) * International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (took effect in 1976, signed but not ratified) * American Convention on Human Rights (took effect in 1978) * Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (took effect in 1981, signed but not ratified) * Convention on the Rights of the Child (took effect in 1990, signed but not ratified) * United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (took effect in 1994) * Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (signed in 1996 but never ratified and never took effect) * Mine Ban Treaty (took effect in 1999) * International Criminal Court (took effect in 2002) * Kyoto Protocol (in force 2005–12, signed but not ratified) * Optional Protocol to the Convention against Torture (took effect in 2006) * Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (took effect in 2008, signed but not ratified) * Convention on Cluster Munitions (took effect in 2010) * International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance (took effect in 2010) * Arms Trade Treaty (took effect in 2014) * Other human rights treaties * Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (took effect in 2016 as part of the United Nations Security Council Resolution 2231. Signed by the U.S., France, Germany, European Union, UK, Russia, China and Iran, but abandoned by the U.S. in 2018) Foreign aid Foreign assistance is a core component of the State Department's international affairs budget, and aid is considered an essential instrument of U.S. foreign policy. There are four major categories of non-military foreign assistance: bilateral development aid, economic assistance supporting U.S. political and security goals, humanitarian aid, and multilateral economic contributions (for example, contributions to the World Bank and International Monetary Fund). In absolute dollar terms, the United States government is the largest international aid donor. Foreign aid is a highly partisan issue in the United States, with liberals, on average, supporting foreign aid much more than conservatives do. The United States first began distributing regular foreign aid in the aftermath of World War II and the onset of the Cold War. Foreign aid has been used to foster closer relations with foreign nations, strengthen countries that could potentially become future allies and trading partners, and provide assistance for people of countries most in need. American foreign aid contributed to the Green Revolution in the 1960s and the democratization of Taiwan and Colombia. Since the 1970s, issues of human rights have become increasingly important in American foreign policy, and several acts of Congress served to restrict foreign aid from governments that "engage in a consistent pattern of gross violations of internationally recognized human rights". In 2011, President Obama instructed agencies to consider LGBT rights when issuing financial aid to foreign countries. In the 2019 fiscal year, the United States spent $39.2 billion in foreign aid, constituting less than one percent of the federal budget. War on drugs United States foreign policy is influenced by the efforts of the U.S. government to control imports of illicit drugs, including cocaine, heroin, methamphetamine, and cannabis. This is especially true in Latin America, a focus for the U.S. War on Drugs. These foreign policy efforts date back to at least the 1900s, when the U.S. banned the importation of non-medical opium and participated in the 1909 International Opium Commission, one of the first international drug conferences. Over a century later, the Foreign Relations Authorization Act requires the President to identify the major drug transit or major illicit drug-producing countries. In September 2005, the following countries were identified: Bahamas, Bolivia, Brazil, Burma, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, India, Jamaica, Laos, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan, Panama, Paraguay, Peru and Venezuela. Two of these, Burma and Venezuela are countries that the U.S. considers to have failed to adhere to their obligations under international counternarcotics agreements during the previous 12 months. Notably absent from the 2005 list were Afghanistan, the People's Republic of China and Vietnam; Canada was also omitted in spite of evidence that criminal groups there are increasingly involved in the production of MDMA destined for the United States and that large-scale cross-border trafficking of Canadian-grown cannabis continues. The U.S. believes that the Netherlands are successfully countering the production and flow of MDMA to the U.S. In 2011, overdose deaths in the U.S. were on a decline mostly due to interdiction efforts and international cooperation to reduce the production of illicit drugs. Since about 2014, a reversal of this trend could be clearly seen as legal semi-synthetic opioids and cocaine stimulants were replaced by the fully synthetic fentanyl and methamphetamine. By 2022, overdose deaths caused by illicit fentanyl led to the worst drug crisis the U.S. has ever experienced in its history, with 1,500 people dying every week of overdose-related cases. By 2022, deaths caused by fentanyl significantly reduced the life expectancy in the U.S. and were also seen as a major drag on the U.S. economy. Despite efforts to control the trade of chemicals used in the synthesis of fentanyl, the tide of fentanyl-related deaths continues to be a major threat to U.S. national security. Regional diplomacy Africa American involvement with Africa has historically been limited. During the war on terror, the United States increased its activities in Africa to fight terrorism in conjunction with African countries as well as to support democracy in Africa through the Millennium Challenge Corporation. Africa has also been the subject of competition between American and Chinese investment strategies. In 2007 the U.S. was sub-Saharan Africa's largest single export market accounting for 28% of exports (second in total to the EU at 31%). 81% of U.S. imports from this region were petroleum products.Asia America's relations with Asia have tended to be based on a "hub and spoke" model instead of multilateral relations, using a series of bilateral relationships where states coordinate with the United States instead of through a unified bloc. On May 30, 2009, at the Shangri-La Dialogue, Defense Secretary Robert M. Gates urged the nations of Asia to build on this hub and spoke model as they established and grew multilateral institutions such as ASEAN, APEC and the ad hoc arrangements in the area. In 2011, Gates said the United States must serve as the "indispensable nation", for building multilateral cooperation. As of 2022, the Department of Defense considers China to be the greatest threat to the policy goals of the United States. Almost all of Canada's energy exports go to the United States, making it the largest foreign source of U.S. energy imports; Canada is consistently among the top sources for U.S. oil imports, and it is the largest source of U.S. natural gas and electricity imports. Trade between the United States and Canada as well as Mexico is facilitated through the USMCA.Europe The United States has close ties with the European Union, and it is a member of NATO along with several European countries. The United States has close relations with most countries of Europe. Much of American foreign policy has involved combating the Soviet Union in the 20th century and Russia in the 21st century. Latin America The Monroe Doctrine has historically made up the foreign policy of the United States in regard to Latin America. Under this policy, the United States would consider Latin America to be under its sphere of influence and defend Latin American countries from European hostilities. The United States was heavily involved in the politics of Panama during the early 20th century in order to construct the Panama Canal. Cuba was an ally of the United States following its independence, but it was identified as a major national security threat following the Cuban Revolution; Cuba–United States relations remain poor. Middle East , Iraq, April 2003.]] The Middle East region was first proclaimed to be of national interest to the United States during World War II, and relations were secured with Saudi Arabia to secure additional oil supplies. The Middle East continued to be regarded as an area of vital importance to the United States during the Cold War, and American containment policy emphasized preventing Soviet influence from taking hold in the Middle East. The Truman, Eisenhower, and Nixon Doctrines all played roles in the formulation of the Carter Doctrine, which stated that the United States would use military force if necessary to defend its national interests in the Persian Gulf region. Carter's successor, President Ronald Reagan, extended the policy in October 1981 with the Reagan Doctrine, which proclaimed that the United States would intervene to protect Saudi Arabia, whose security was threatened after the outbreak of the Iran–Iraq War. During the so-called war on terror, the United States increased its involvement in the region; some analysts have argued that the implementation of the Carter Doctrine and the Reagan Doctrine also played a role in the outbreak of the 2003 Iraq War. Two-thirds of the world's proven oil reserves are estimated to be found in the Persian Gulf, and the United States imports oil from several Middle Eastern countries. While its imports have exceeded domestic production since the early 1990s, new hydraulic fracturing techniques and discovery of shale oil deposits in Canada and the American Dakotas offer the potential for increased energy independence from oil exporting countries such as OPEC.Oceania Australia and New Zealand are close allies of the United States. Together, the three countries compose the ANZUS collective security agreement. The United States and the United Kingdom also have a separate agreement, AUKUS, with Australia. After it captured the islands from Japan during World War II, the United States administered the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands from 1947 to 1986 (1994 for Palau). The Northern Mariana Islands became a U.S. territory (part of the United States), while Federated States of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau became independent countries. Each has signed a Compact of Free Association that gives the United States exclusive military access in return for U.S. defense protection and conduct of military foreign affairs (except the declaration of war) and a few billion dollars of aid. These agreements also generally allow citizens of these countries to live and work in the United States with their spouses (and vice versa), and provide for largely free trade. The federal government also grants access to services from domestic agencies, including the Federal Emergency Management Agency, National Weather Service, the United States Postal Service, the Federal Aviation Administration, the Federal Communications Commission, and U.S. representation to the International Frequency Registration Board of the International Telecommunication Union.Defense policy allies of the United States]] Defense policy of the United States is established by the president under the role of commander-in-chief, and it is carried out by the Department of Defense and the Department of Homeland Security. As of 2022, the stated objective of the Department of Defense is to deter attacks against the United States and its allies in order to protect the American people, expand America's prosperity, and defend democratic values. The department recognizes China as the greatest foreign threat to the United States, with Russia, North Korea, Iran, and violent extremist organizations recognized as other major foreign threats. Most American troops stationed in foreign countries operate in non-combat roles. As of 2021, about 173,000 troops are deployed in 159 countries. Japan, Germany, and South Korea are host to the largest numbers of American troops due to continued military cooperation following World War II and the Korean War. The United States has not been involved in a major war since the conclusion of the War in Afghanistan in 2021, though American forces continue to operate against terrorist groups in the Middle East and Africa through the Authorization for Use of Military Force of 2001. The United States also provides billions of dollars of military aid to allied countries each year. Since 2001, the Authorization for Use of Military Force of 2001 (AUMF) has granted the president the power to engage in military conflict with any country, organization, or person that was involved in carrying out the September 11 attacks. American presidents have since interpreted the AUMF to authorize military campaigns against terrorist groups associated with al-Qaeda in several countries.Alliances and partnershipsThe Department of Defense considers cooperation with American allies and partners to be "critical" to achieving American defense objectives. The United States military works in cooperation with many national governments, and the United States has approximately 750 military bases in at least 80 different countries. Under the Compact of Free Association, the United States is responsible for the defense of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau. Since it became a superpower in the mid-20th century, the United States has primarily carried out defense operations by leading and participating in multilateral coalitions. These coalitions may be constructed around existing defensive alliances, such as NATO, or through separate coalitions constructed through diplomatic negotiations and acting in a common interest. The United States has not engaged in unilateral military action since the invasion of Panama in 1989. United States military action may take place in accordance with or in opposition to the wishes of the United Nations. The United States has opposed the expansion of United Nations peacekeeping beyond its previous scope, instead supporting the use of multilateral coalitions in hostile countries and territories. (excluding the U.S. Coast Guard)]]Military aid , December 2009.]] The U.S. provides military aid through many channels, including direct funding, support for training, or distribution of military equipment. Military aid spending has varied over time, with spending reaching as high as $35 billion in 1952, adjusted for inflation. In 2020, the United States distributed $11.6 billion in military aid, the lowest since 2004. Military aid is one of the main forms of foreign aid, with 23% of American foreign aid in 2020 taking the form of military aid. Afghanistan was the primary recipient of American military aid in the 2010s. In 2022, military aid policy in the United States shifted from Afghanistan to Ukraine following the end of the War in Afghanistan and the Russian invasion of Ukraine. As of 2021, the United States has military bases in at least 80 countries. to use ground and space-based systems to protect the United States from attack by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles, later dubbed "Star Wars". The initiative focused on strategic defense rather than the prior strategic offense doctrine of mutual assured destruction (MAD). Though it was never fully developed or deployed, the research and technologies of SDI paved the way for some anti-ballistic missile systems of today. In February 2007, the U.S. started formal negotiations with Poland and Czech Republic concerning construction of missile shield installations in those countries for a Ground-Based Midcourse Defense system (in April 2007, 57% of Poles opposed the plan). According to press reports, the government of the Czech Republic agreed (while 67% Czechs disagree) to host a missile defense radar on its territory while a base of missile interceptors is supposed to be built in Poland. Russia threatened to place short-range nuclear missiles on the Russia's border with NATO if the United States refuses to abandon plans to deploy 10 interceptor missiles and a radar in Poland and the Czech Republic. In April 2007, Putin warned of a new Cold War if the Americans deployed the shield in Central Europe. Putin also said that Russia is prepared to abandon its obligations under an Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty of 1987 with the United States. On August 14, 2008, the United States and Poland announced a deal to implement the missile defense system in Polish territory, with a tracking system placed in the Czech Republic. "The fact that this was signed in a period of very difficult crisis in the relations between Russia and the United States over the situation in Georgia shows that, of course, the missile defense system will be deployed not against Iran but against the strategic potential of Russia", Dmitry Rogozin, Russia's NATO envoy, said. Keir A. Lieber and Daryl G. Press, argue in Foreign Affairs that U.S. missile defenses are designed to secure Washington's nuclear primacy and are chiefly directed at potential rivals, such as Russia and China. The authors note that Washington continues to eschew nuclear first strike and contend that deploying missile defenses "would be valuable primarily in an offensive context, not a defensive one; as an adjunct to a US First Strike capability, not as a stand-alone shield": <blockquote>If the United States launched a nuclear attack against Russia (or China), the targeted country would be left with only a tiny surviving arsenal, if any at all. At that point, even a relatively modest or inefficient missile defense system might well be enough to protect against any retaliatory strikes.</blockquote> This analysis is corroborated by the Pentagon's 1992 Defense Planning Guidance (DPG), prepared by then Secretary of Defense Richard Cheney and his deputies. The DPG declares that the United States should use its power to "prevent the reemergence of a new rival" either on former Soviet territory or elsewhere. The authors of the Guidance determined that the United States had to "Field a missile defense system as a shield against accidental missile launches or limited missile strikes by 'international outlaws'" and also must "Find ways to integrate the 'new democracies' of the former Soviet bloc into the U.S.-led system". The National Archive notes that Document 10 of the DPG includes wording about "disarming capabilities to destroy" which is followed by several blacked out words. "This suggests that some of the heavily excised pages in the still-classified DPG drafts may include some discussion of preventive action against threatening nuclear and other WMD programs." Robert David English, writing in Foreign Affairs, observes that the DPG's second recommendation has also been proceeding on course. "Washington has pursued policies that have ignored Russian interests (and sometimes international law as well) in order to encircle Moscow with military alliances and trade blocs conducive to U.S. interests." On September 12, 2024, the U.S. disclosed that Russia obtained ballistic missiles from Iran for its war in Ukraine, leading to new sanctions on Russian entities involved. The U.S. also targeted Iran Air and other organizations linked to Iran’s missile activities, though Iran denies supplying the weapons. Secretary of State Antony Blinken is set to visit Ukraine and Poland to discuss further support, as Ukraine urges stronger actions.Exporting democracy with U.S. President Gerald Ford in Jakarta on December 6, 1975, one day before the Indonesian invasion of East Timor]] Studies have been devoted to the historical success rate of the U.S. in exporting democracy abroad. Some studies of American intervention have been pessimistic about the overall effectiveness of U.S. efforts to encourage democracy in foreign nations. Until recently, scholars have generally agreed with international relations professor Abraham Lowenthal that U.S. attempts to export democracy have been "negligible, often counterproductive, and only occasionally positive". Other studies find U.S. intervention has had mixed results,Intelligence policy Intelligence policy is developed by the president and carried out by the United States Intelligence Community, led by the Director of National Intelligence. The Intelligence Community includes 17 offices and bureaus within various executive departments as well as the Central Intelligence Agency. Its stated purpose is to utilize insights, protected information, and understanding of adversaries to advance national security, economic strength, and technological superiority. The Intelligence Community provides support for all diplomatic and military action undertaken by the United States and serves to inform government and military decision-making, as well as collecting and analyzing global economic and environmental information. The primary functions of the Intelligence Community are the collection and analysis of information, and it is responsible for collecting information on foreign subjects that is not available publicly or through diplomatic channels. Collection of information typically takes the form of signals intelligence, imagery intelligence, and human intelligence. Information collected by American intelligence is used to counter foreign intelligence, terrorism, narcotics trafficking, WMD proliferation, and international organized crime. Counterintelligence The Intelligence Community is responsible for counterintelligence to protect the United States from foreign intelligence services. The Central Intelligence Agency is responsible for counterintelligence activities abroad, while the Federal Bureau of Investigation is responsible for combating foreign intelligence operations in the United States. The goal of American counterintelligence is to protect classified government information as well as trade secrets of American industry. Offensive counterintelligence operations undertaken by the United States include recruiting foreign intelligence agents, monitoring suspected foreign agents, and collecting information on the intentions of foreign intelligence services, while defensive counterintelligence operations include investigating suspected cases of espionage and producing analyses of foreign intelligence threats.Covert actionIn addition to intelligence gathering, the Central Intelligence Agency is authorized by the National Security Act of 1947 to engage in covert action. Covert action is undertaken to influence conditions in foreign countries without evidence of American involvement. This may include enacting propaganda campaigns, offering support to factions within a country, providing logistical assistance to foreign governments, or disrupting illegal activities. The use of covert action is controversial within the Intelligence Community due to the potential harm to foreign relations and public image, but most individuals involved in American intelligence cite it as an "essential" option to prevent terrorism, drug trafficking, and the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. In 1953 the CIA, working with the British government, initiated Operation Ajax against the Prime Minister of Iran Mohammad Mossadegh who had attempted to nationalize Iran's oil, threatening the interests of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company. This had the effect of restoring and strengthening the authoritarian monarchical reign of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. In 1957, the CIA and Israeli Mossad aided the Iranian government in establishing its intelligence service, SAVAK, later blamed for the torture and execution of the regime's opponents. A year later, in Operation PBSuccess, the CIA assisted the local military in toppling the democratically elected left-wing government of Jacobo Árbenz in Guatemala and installing the military dictator Carlos Castillo Armas. The United Fruit Company lobbied for Árbenz's overthrow as his land reforms jeopardized their land holdings in Guatemala, and painted these reforms as a communist threat. The coup triggered a decades long civil war which claimed the lives of an estimated 200,000 people (42,275 individual cases have been documented), mostly through 626 massacres against the Maya population perpetrated by the U.S.-backed Guatemalan military. An independent Historical Clarification Commission found that U.S. corporations and government officials "exercised pressure to maintain the country's archaic and unjust socio-economic structure", During the massacre of at least 500,000 alleged communists in 1960s Indonesia, U.S. government officials encouraged and applauded the mass killings while providing covert assistance to the Indonesian military which helped facilitate them. This included the U.S. Embassy in Jakarta supplying Indonesian forces with lists of up to 5,000 names of suspected members of the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI), who were subsequently killed in the massacres. In 2001, the CIA attempted to prevent the publication of the State Department volume Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964–1968, which documents the U.S. role in providing covert assistance to the Indonesian military for the express purpose of the extirpation of the PKI. In July 2016, an international panel of judges ruled the killings constitute crimes against humanity, and that the US, along with other Western governments, were complicit in these crimes. In 1970, the CIA worked with coup-plotters in Chile in the attempted kidnapping of General René Schneider, who was targeted for refusing to participate in a military coup upon the election of Salvador Allende. Schneider was shot in the botched attempt and died three days later. The CIA later paid the group $35,000 for the failed kidnapping. According to one peer-reviewed study, the U.S. intervened in 81 foreign elections between 1946 and 2000. The failed 1961 CIA Bay of Pigs Invasion in Cuba was an attempt by the U.S. government to overthrow a regime. Not only did this cause a diplomatic embarrassment, it also damaged the CIA's credibility internationally. Public image United States foreign policy has been the subject of debate, receiving praise and criticism domestically and abroad. As of 2019, public opinion in the United States is closely divided on American involvement in world affairs. 53% of Americans wish for the United States to be active in world affairs, while 46% of Americans wish for less involvement overseas. American involvement in the global economy is received more positively by the American people, with 73% considering it to be a "good thing". in Berlin against the NSA surveillance program PRISM, June 2013]] Global opinion Overall, the United States is viewed positively by the rest of the world. The Eurasia Group Foundation reported that as of 2021, 85% of respondents from 10 countries have a favorable opinion of the United States and 81% favor American hegemony over Chinese hegemony. Those with an unfavorable view of the United States most commonly cited interventionism, and in particular the War in Afghanistan, as their reason. It was also found that the exercise of soft power increased favorable opinions while the exercise of hard power decreased favorable opinions. Citizens of Brazil, Nigeria, and India were found to have more favorable opinions of the United States, while citizens of China and Germany were found to have less favorable opinions of the United States. and Slovakia's Prime Minister Mikulas Dzurinda are greeted by a crowd of thousands gathered in Bratislava's Hviezdoslavovo Square (February 2005).]] International opinion about the US has often changed with different executive administrations. For example, in 2009, the French public favored the United States when President Barack Obama (75% favorable) replaced President George W. Bush (42%). After President Donald Trump took the helm in 2017, French public opinion about the US fell from 63% to 46%. These trends were also seen in other European countries. Many democracies have voluntary military ties with the United States. See NATO, ANZUS, U.S.-Japan Security Treaty, Mutual Defense Treaty with South Korea, and Major non-NATO ally. Those nations with military alliances with the U.S. can spend less on the military since they can count on U.S. protection. This may give a false impression that the U.S. is less peaceful than those nations. A 2013 global poll in 65 countries found that the United States is perceived as the biggest threat to world peace, with 24% of respondents identifying it as such. A majority of Russian respondents named the United States as the greatest threat, as well as significant minorities in China, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Argentina, Greece, Turkey, and Pakistan. Foreign intervention in Jerusalem, Israel, 14 May 2018]] Empirical studies (see democide) have found that democracies, including the United States, inflict significantly fewer civilian casualties than dictatorships. Media may be biased against the U.S. regarding reporting human rights violations. Studies have found that The New York Times coverage of worldwide human rights violations predominantly focuses on the human rights violations in nations where there is clear U.S. involvement, while having relatively little coverage of the human rights violations in other nations. For example, the bloodiest war in recent time, involving eight nations and killing millions of civilians, was the Second Congo War, which was almost completely ignored by the media. Journalists and human rights organizations have been critical of US-led airstrikes and targeted killings by drones which have in some cases resulted in collateral damage of civilian populations. In early 2017, the U.S. faced criticism from some scholars, activists and media outlets for dropping 26,171 bombs on seven countries throughout 2016: Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan, Libya, Yemen, Somalia and Pakistan. Research on the democratic peace theory has generally found that democracies, including the United States, have not made war on one another. There have been U.S. support for coups against some democracies, but for example Spencer R. Weart argues that part of the explanation was the perception, correct or not, that these states were turning into Communist dictatorships. Also important was the role of rarely transparent United States government agencies, who sometimes mislead or did not fully implement the decisions of elected civilian leaders. Critics from the left cite episodes that undercut leftist governments or showed support for Israel. Others cite human rights abuses and violations of international law. Critics have charged that the U.S. presidents have used democracy to justify military intervention abroad. Critics also point to declassified records which indicate that the CIA under Allen Dulles and the FBI under J. Edgar Hoover aggressively recruited more than 1,000 Nazis, including those responsible for war crimes, to use as spies and informants against the Soviet Union in the Cold War. Studies have been devoted to the historical success rate of the U.S. in exporting democracy abroad. Some studies of American intervention have been pessimistic about the overall effectiveness of U.S. efforts to encourage democracy in foreign nations. Today the U.S. states that democratic nations best support U.S. national interests. According to the U.S. State Department, "Democracy is the one national interest that helps to secure all the others. Democratically governed nations are more likely to secure the peace, deter aggression, expand open markets, promote economic development, protect American citizens, combat international terrorism and crime, uphold human and worker rights, avoid humanitarian crises and refugee flows, improve the global environment, and protect human health." According to former U.S. President Bill Clinton, "Ultimately, the best strategy to ensure our security and to build a durable peace is to support the advance of democracy elsewhere. Democracies don't attack each other." In one view mentioned by the U.S. State Department, democracy is also good for business. Countries that embrace political reforms are also more likely to pursue economic reforms that improve the productivity of businesses. Accordingly, since the mid-1980s, under President Ronald Reagan, there has been an increase in levels of foreign direct investment going to emerging market democracies relative to countries that have not undertaken political reforms. Leaked cables in 2010 suggested that the "dark shadow of terrorism still dominates the United States' relations with the world". The United States officially maintains that it supports democracy and human rights through several tools. * The "Human Rights and Democracy Achievement Award" recognizes the exceptional achievement of officers of foreign affairs agencies posted abroad. * The "Ambassadorial Roundtable Series", created in 2006, are informal discussions between newly confirmed U.S. Ambassadors and human rights and democracy non-governmental organizations. * The National Endowment for Democracy, a private non-profit created by Congress in 1983 (and signed into law by President Ronald Reagan), which is mostly funded by the U.S. Government and gives cash grants to strengthen democratic institutions around the world.Support for authoritarian governments , January 2015. According to Amnesty International, "For too long, the USA has shied away from publicly confronting Saudi Arabia over its human rights record, largely turning a blind eye to a mounting catalogue of abuses."]] Both currently and historically, the United States has been willing to cooperate with authoritarian governments to pursue its geopolitical goals. The U.S. has faced criticism for backing right-wing dictators that systematically violated human rights, such as Augusto Pinochet of Chile, Alfredo Stroessner of Paraguay, Efraín Ríos Montt of Guatemala, Jorge Rafael Videla of Argentina, Hissène Habré of Chad Yahya Khan of Pakistan, and Suharto of Indonesia. with Hissène Habré at the White House]] Regarding support for certain anti-Communist dictatorships during the Cold War, a response is that they were seen as a necessary evil, with the alternatives even worse Communist or fundamentalist dictatorships. David Schmitz says this policy did not serve U.S. interests. Friendly tyrants resisted necessary reforms and destroyed the political center (though not in South Korea), while the 'realist' policy of coddling dictators brought a backlash among foreign populations with long memories. Some critical scholars and journalists, including Jason Hickel and Vincent Bevins, argue that the U.S. backed such dictators in order to reinforce Western business interests and to expand capitalism into countries of the Global South who were attempting to pursue alternative paths. The U.S. has been accused of complicity in war crimes for backing the Saudi Arabian-led intervention into the Yemeni Civil War, which has triggered a humanitarian catastrophe, including a cholera outbreak and millions facing starvation. Niall Ferguson argues that the U.S. is incorrectly blamed for all of the human rights violations perpetrated by U.S.-supported governments. Ferguson writes that there is general agreement that Guatemala was the worst of the U.S.-backed regimes during the Cold War, but the U.S. cannot be credibly blamed for all of the estimated 200,000 deaths during the long Guatemalan Civil War.Human rights an dictator Mobutu Sese Seko and Richard Nixon in Washington, D.C., October 1973]] Since the 1970s, issues of human rights have become increasingly important in American foreign policy. Congress took the lead in the 1970s. Following the Vietnam War, the feeling that U.S. foreign policy had grown apart from traditional American values was seized upon by Representative Donald M. Fraser (D, MN), leading the Subcommittee on International Organizations and Movements, in criticizing Republican Foreign Policy under the Nixon administration. In the early 1970s, Congress concluded the Vietnam War and passed the War Powers Act. As "part of a growing assertiveness by Congress about many aspects of Foreign Policy", human rights concerns became a battleground between the Legislative and the Executive branches in the formulation of foreign policy. David Forsythe points to three specific, early examples of Congress interjecting its own thoughts on foreign policy: # Subsection (a) of the International Financial Assistance Act of 1977: ensured assistance through international financial institutions would be limited to countries "other than those whose governments engage in a consistent pattern of gross violations of internationally recognized human rights". John Henry Coatsworth, a historian of Latin America and the provost of Columbia University, suggests the number of repression victims in Latin America alone far surpassed that of the USSR and its East European satellites during the period 1960 to 1990. W. John Green contends that the United States was an "essential enabler" of "Latin America's political murder habit, bringing out and allowing to flourish some of the region's worst tendencies". On December 6, 2011, Obama instructed agencies to consider LGBT rights when issuing financial aid to foreign countries. He also criticized Russia's law discriminating against gays, joining other western leaders in the boycott of the 2014 Winter Olympics in Russia. In June 2014, a Chilean court ruled that the United States played a key role in the murders of Charles Horman and Frank Teruggi, both American citizens, shortly after the 1973 Chilean coup d'état.See also * American entry into World War I * International relations, 1648–1814 * International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919) * International relations (1919–1939) * United States and state-sponsored terrorism * Perceptions of the United States sanctions * Criticism of United States foreign policy Diplomacy * Cowboy diplomacy * List of diplomatic missions in the United States * List of diplomatic missions of the United States * United States and the United Nations * United States foreign adversaries Intelligence * Extraordinary rendition * Special Activities Division * Torture and the United States Policy and doctrine * Anti-Americanism * Bush Doctrine * China containment policy * Détente * Human rights in the United States * Human Rights Record of the United States (Chinese publication) * Kirkpatrick Doctrine * Powell Doctrine * Special Relationship References Further reading * Bailey, Thomas. A Diplomatic History of the American People (10th ed. Prentice Hall, 1980) [https://archive.org/details/diplomatichistor0008bail_y8k0 online] * * Bokat-Lindell, Spencer. [https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/20/opinion/biden-afghanistan-intervention.html?searchResultPosition=2 "Is the United States Done Being the World's Cop?"]. The New York Times. July 20, 2021. * Borgwardt, Elizabeth. [https://books.google.com/books?id=3GGmssOod2YC A New Deal for the World] (Harvard University Press, 2005) * Chomsky, Noam. ''Hegemony or Survival: America's Quest for Global Dominance (Metropolitan Books, 2003) * Cohen, Warren I. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WS6nU7EUHE0C The Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations: Volume 4, America in the Age of Soviet Power, 1945–1991] (Cambridge University Press, 1995) * Congressional Research Service. Canada-U.S. Relations (Congressional Research Service, 2021) [https://sgp.fas.org/crs/row/96-397.pdf 2021 Report], by an agency of the U.S. government; not copyright; Updated February 10, 2021. * Crothers, Lane. "The cultural roots of isolationism and internationalism in American foreign policy". Journal of Transatlantic Studies 9.1 (2011): 21–34. [https://scholar.archive.org/work/vupazksa6jf2pee5632geeaymm/access/wayback/https://campusweb.franklinpierce.edu/ICS/icsfs/2_12r360.pdf?target=482d31c5-03e9-4168-93ae-c51b22cd19e6 online] * Dueck, Colin. [https://books.google.com/books?id=LKhB2ENzgvAC Hard Line: The Republican Party and U.S. Foreign Policy since World War II] (2010). * Fawcett, Louise, ed. [https://books.google.com/books?id=nNUiHaUzzNgC International Relations of the Middle East] (3rd ed. Oxford U.P. 2013) * Foot, Rosemary, and Amy King. "Assessing the deterioration in China–US relations: US governmental perspectives on the economic-security nexus". China International Strategy Review 1.1 (2019): 39-50 [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s42533-019-00005-y online] * Franczak, Michael. [https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9781501763915/global-inequality-and-american-foreign-policy-in-the-1970s/#bookTabs=1 Global Inequality and American Foreign Policy in the 1970s]. (Cornell UP, 2022) On US foreign policy response to New International Economic Order (NEIO)[https://issforum.org/to/jrt15-23 online book review] * Freedman, Lawrence. A Choice of Enemies: America Confronts the Middle East (PublicAffairs, 2009) * Gries, Peter Hays. The Politics of American Foreign Policy: How Ideology Divides Liberals and Conservatives over Foreign Affairs (Stanford University Press, 2014) * Hastedt, Glenn P. Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy (2004) [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofam0000hast online] * Hastedt, Glenn P. American foreign policy (4th ed. 2000) [https://openlibrary.org/books/OL36108M/American_foreign_policy online] * * Herring, George C. From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776 (Oxford History of the United States) (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Colony-Superpower-Foreign-Relations-History/dp/0199765537/ excerpt] * Hixson, Walter L. The Myth of American Diplomacy: National Identity and U.S. Foreign Policy. Yale University Press, 2009. * Hook, Steven W. and John Spanier. [https://books.google.com/books?id=I-y3hBzjRTQC American Foreign Policy Since WWII] (19th ed. 2012) * Ikenberry, G. John, ed. American Foreign Policy: Theoretical Essays (6th ed. Wadsworth, 2010), 640pp; essays by scholars * Iriye, Akira. [https://books.google.com/books?id=3moWFmpaRvQC The Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations: Volume 3, The Globalizing of America, 1913–1945] (Cambridge University Press, 1995) * Jentleson, Bruce W. American Foreign Policy: The Dynamics of Choice in the 21st Century (4th ed. W. W. Norton, 2010) * Jentleson, Bruce W. and Thomas G. Paterson, eds. Encyclopedia of U.S. Foreign Relations (4 vol 1997), long historical articles by scholars [https://archive.org/search.php?query=title%3A%28Encyclopedia%20of%20U.S.%20foreign%20relations%29 online] * LaFeber, Walter. The Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations: The American Search for Opportunity, 1865–1913, vol. 2 (Cambridge University Press, 1995) * * McCormick, James M. et al. [https://books.google.com/books?id=r6MzZF7EZtIC The Domestic Sources of American Foreign Policy: Insights and Evidence] (2012) * McDougall, Walter. "Promised Land, Crusader State" (2004) * Mead, Walter Russell, and Richard C. Leone. [https://books.google.com/books?id=TmlDcE0BBrsC Special Providence: American Foreign Policy and How It Changed the World] (2002) * * * Nichols, Christopher McKnight. "[https://books.google.com/books?id=uXDSQwdP3dgC Promise and Peril: America at the Dawn of a Global Age]" (2011) * Paterson, Thomas G. and others. American Foreign Relations (6th ed. 2 vol, Wadsworth, 2004), a detailed history * Perkins, Bradford. The Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations: Volume 1, The Creation of a Republican Empire, 1776–1865 (Cambridge University Press, 1995) * Power, Samantha. "A Problem from Hell": America and the Age of Genocide (2002) covers Bosnia, Kosovo, Srebenica, and Rwanda; Pulitzer Prize.[https://openlibrary.org/works/OL264876W/A_Problem_from_Hell online] * Sergent, Daniel J. [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYYbBQAAQBAJ A Superpower Transformed: The Remaking of American Foreign Relations in the 1970s] (2015) * Schulzinger, Robert. U.S. Diplomacy Since 1900 (6th ed. 2008) [https://archive.org/details/usdiplomacysince0000schu online] * Schulzinger, Robert. A Companion to American Foreign Relations'' (Wiley Blackwell Companions to American History) (2006). 26 essays by scholars; emphasis on historiography * * Watry, David M. [https://books.google.com/books?id=OnqOAwAAQBAJ Diplomacy at the Brink: Eisenhower, Churchill, and Eden in the Cold War]. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2014. * Wittkopf, Eugene R. et al. [https://books.google.com/books?id=jO4Kowz4KKcC American Foreign Policy: Pattern and Process] (2007) Primary sources * Engel, Jeffrey A. et al. eds. [https://books.google.com/books?id=FLvzAgAAQBAJ America in the World: A History in Documents from the War with Spain to the War on Terror] (2014) * [https://state.gov State.gov]—official departmental website and current policy External links * [https://history.state.gov/countries/ History of the United States' relations with the countries of the world], from US State Department * [https://history.state.gov/milestones/ Milestones of U.S. diplomatic history], from US State Department * [https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/ Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS): Official Documentary History of U.S. Foreign Relations] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160303235133/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/us/foraffrs.htm Foreign Relations and International Aid] from UCB Libraries G * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081220124800/http://www.cfr.org/publication/9488/ U.S. Political Parties and Foreign Policy], a background Q&A by Council on Foreign Relations * [https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R44891.pdf U.S. Role in the World: Background and Issues for Congress] Congressional Research Service * [http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/FRUS Foreign Relations of the United States] 1861–1960 (full text from the University of Wisconsin-Madison Libraries) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170623070615/https://www.publicagenda.org/citizen/researchstudies/foreign-policy Confidence in U.S. Foreign Policy Index] Tracking survey of American public attitudes on foreign policy, conducted by Public Agenda with Foreign Affairs magazine. United States Category:United States diplomacy Category:Law of the United States	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_United_States	2025-04-05T18:28:12.333211
7565	Christmas in Poland	Christmas in Poland, known in the Polish language as Boże Narodzenie (God's Birth) or Gwiazdka (Little Star), is a major annual celebration, as in most countries of the Christian world. The observance of Christmas in Poland developed gradually over the centuries, beginning in ancient times; combining old Polish pagan customs with the religious practice introduced after the Christianization of Poland by the Catholic Church. Later influences include the mutual permeating of local traditions, lore, and folk culture. It is one of the most important religious holidays for Poles, who follow strict traditional customs, some of which are not found elsewhere in Europe. The Day of Saint Nicholas on 6 December is the unofficial beginning of the festive season in Poland. Well-behaved children receive small gifts on the day, whereas naughty children receive a lump of coal or a rózga twig. The highlight of the holiday is Christmas Eve on 24 December; Christmas trees are traditionally decorated and lit in family rooms on the morning of Christmas Eve. The Polish Wigilia supper begins with the appearance of the first star, which corresponds to the Star of Bethlehem. During preparation, hay is spread beneath the tablecloth as a reminder that Jesus Christ was born in a manger. An empty place setting is left symbolically at the table for the Lord or lost wanderer. They are lit on Christmas Eve before Wigilia. At the top of each tree there is a star or a glittering tree topper. In many homes, sparklers are hung on the branches of the trees for wintery ambiance. Sometimes the trees are left standing until February 2, the feast day of St. Mary of the Candle of Lighting. The next day (December 25) begins with the early morning mass followed by daytime masses. According to scripture, the Christmas Day masses are interchangeable allowing for greater flexibility in choosing the religious services by individual parishioners.Kolędy, the Christmas carols with a Turoń creature singing Christmas carols called kolędy in Poland, 1929 postcard]] Christmas carols are not celebrated in Poland until during-and-after the Christmas Vigil Mass called "Pasterka" held between 24 and 25 of December. The Christmas season often runs until February 2. The early hymns sung in the Catholic church were brought to Poland by the Franciscan Brothers in the Middle Ages. The early Christmas music was Latin in origin. When the Polish words and melodies started to become popular, including many new secular pastorals (, or shepherd's songs), they were not written down originally, but rather taught among people by heart. Notably, the song "God Is Born" (Bóg się rodzi) with lyrics written by Franciszek Karpiński in 1792 became the Christmas hymn of Poland already in the court of King Stefan Batory. Many of the early Polish carols were collected in 1838 by in a book called Pastorałki i Kolędy z Melodiami (Pastorals and Carols with Melodies), including "Midst Quiet Night".Polish hand-made Christmas ornaments details. Poland is a major exporter of Christmas decorations, especially hand-blown ornaments]] Poland produces some of the finest hand blown glass Christmas ornaments in Europe. Families and collectors value these ornaments for high quality, traditional artwork, and unique decorations.See also Easter in Poland God Is Born Kraków szopka Wigilia the Christmas Eve vigil supper Christmas worldwide References External links [http://culture.pl/en/article/polish-christmas-eve-traditions Polish Christmas Eve Traditions] [http://goeasteurope.about.com/od/poland/a/Polandchristmastraditions.htm Poland Christmas Traditions] [http://www.polishworld.com/christmas/ Christmas in Poland] [https://web.archive.org/web/20080107101742/http://www.pmkamsterdam.nl/PL/Czytelnia/BozeNar.htm Boże Narodzenie, www.pmkamsterdam.nl (Polska Misja Katolicka, Amsterdam)] [http://www.polishamericancenter.org/Wigilia.htm Wigilia article from the Polish American Center] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20101127040410/http://www.polishcenter.org/Christmas/WIGILIA-ENG.htm Wigilia article from Pope John Paul II Polish Center] Category:Polish traditions Category:Christianity in Poland	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas_in_Poland	2025-04-05T18:28:12.365804
7566	Carousel (musical)	<!-- Please do not include production-specific (acting, directing, etc.) awards --> \| awards = }} Carousel is the second musical by the team of Richard Rodgers (music) and Oscar Hammerstein II (book and lyrics). The 1945 work was adapted from Ferenc Molnár's 1909 play Liliom, transplanting its Budapest setting to the Maine coastline. The story revolves around<!-- pun intended --> carousel barker Billy Bigelow, whose romance with millworker Julie Jordan comes at the price of both their jobs. He participates in a robbery to provide for Julie and their unborn child; after it goes tragically wrong, he is given a chance to make things right. A secondary plot line deals with millworker Carrie Pipperidge and her romance with ambitious fisherman Enoch Snow. The show includes the songs "If I Loved You", "June Is Bustin' Out All Over" and "You'll Never Walk Alone". Richard Rodgers later wrote that Carousel was his favorite of all his musicals. Following the spectacular success of the first Rodgers and Hammerstein musical, Oklahoma! (1943), the pair sought to collaborate on another piece, knowing that any resulting work would be compared with Oklahoma!, most likely unfavorably. They were initially reluctant to seek the rights to Liliom; Molnár had refused permission for the work to be adapted in the past, and the original ending was considered too depressing for the musical theatre. After acquiring the rights, the team created a work with lengthy sequences of music and made the ending more hopeful. The musical required considerable modification during out-of-town tryouts, but once it opened on Broadway on April 19, 1945, it was an immediate hit with both critics and audiences. Carousel initially ran for 890 performances and duplicated its success in the West End in 1950. Though it has never achieved as much commercial success as Oklahoma!, the piece has been repeatedly revived, recorded several times and was filmed in 1956. A production by Nicholas Hytner enjoyed success in 1992 in London, in 1994 in New York and on tour. Another Broadway revival opened in 2018. In 1999, Time magazine named Carousel the best musical of the 20th century. Background Liliom Ferenc Molnár's Hungarian-language drama, Liliom, premiered in Budapest in 1909. The audience was puzzled by the work, and it lasted only thirty-odd performances before being withdrawn, the first shadow on Molnár's successful career as a playwright. Liliom was not presented again until after World War I. When it reappeared on the Budapest stage, it was a tremendous hit. ) offers Louise (Evelyn Chard) the star he stole; 1921 Theatre Guild production]] Except for the ending, the plots of Liliom and Carousel are very similar. Andreas Zavocky (nicknamed Liliom, the Hungarian word for "lily", a slang term for "tough guy"), a carnival barker, falls in love with Julie Zeller, a servant girl, and they begin living together. With both discharged from their jobs, Liliom is discontented and contemplates leaving Julie, but decides not to do so on learning that she is pregnant. A subplot involves Julie's friend Marie, who has fallen in love with Wolf Biefeld, a hotel porter—after the two marry, he becomes the owner of the hotel. Desperate to make money so that he, Julie and their child can escape to America and a better life, Liliom conspires with lowlife Ficsur to commit a robbery, but it goes badly, and Liliom stabs himself. He dies, and his spirit is taken to heaven's police court. As Ficsur suggested while the two waited to commit the crime, would-be robbers like them do not come before God Himself. Liliom is told by the magistrate that he may go back to Earth for one day to attempt to redeem the wrongs he has done to his family, but must first spend sixteen years in a fiery purgatory. An English translation of Liliom was credited to Benjamin "Barney" Glazer, though there is a story that the actual translator, uncredited, was Rodgers' first major partner Lorenz Hart. A 1940 revival with Burgess Meredith and Ingrid Bergman was seen by both Hammerstein and Rodgers. Glazer, in introducing the English translation of Liliom, wrote of the play's appeal: <blockquote>And where in modern dramatic literature can such pearls be matched—Julie incoherently confessing to her dead lover the love she had always been ashamed to tell; Liliom crying out to the distant carousel the glad news that he is to be a father; the two thieves gambling for the spoils of their prospective robbery; Marie and Wolf posing for their portrait while the broken-hearted Julie stands looking after the vanishing Liliom, the thieves' song ringing in her ears; the two policemen grousing about pay and pensions while Liliom lies bleeding to death; Liliom furtively proffering his daughter the star he has stolen for her in heaven. ... The temptation to count the whole scintillating string is difficult to resist.</blockquote> Inception In the 1920s and 1930s, Rodgers and Hammerstein both became well known for creating Broadway hits with other partners. Rodgers, with Lorenz Hart, had produced a string of over two dozen musicals, including such popular successes as Babes in Arms (1937), The Boys from Syracuse (1938) and Pal Joey (1940). Some of Rodgers' work with Hart broke new ground in musical theatre: On Your Toes was the first use of ballet to sustain the plot (in the "Slaughter on Tenth Avenue" scene), while Pal Joey flouted Broadway tradition by presenting a knave as its hero. Hammerstein had written or co-written the words for such hits as Rose-Marie (1924), The Desert Song (1926), The New Moon (1927) and Show Boat (1927). Though less productive in the 1930s, he wrote material for musicals and films, sharing an Oscar for his song with Jerome Kern, "The Last Time I Saw Paris", which was included in the 1941 film Lady Be Good. By the early 1940s, Hart had sunk into alcoholism and emotional turmoil, becoming unreliable and prompting Rodgers to approach Hammerstein to ask if he would consider working with him. Hammerstein was eager to do so, and their first collaboration was Oklahoma! (1943). Thomas Hischak states, in his The Rodgers and Hammerstein Encyclopedia, that Oklahoma! is "the single most influential work in the American musical theatre. In fact, the history of the Broadway musical can accurately be divided into what came before Oklahoma! and what came after it." An innovation for its time in integrating song, character, plot and dance, Oklahoma! would serve, according to Hischak, as "the model for Broadway shows for decades", As they considered new projects, Hammerstein wrote, "We're such fools. No matter what we do, everyone is bound to say, 'This is not another Oklahoma!' " Oklahoma! had been a struggle to finance and produce. Hammerstein and Rodgers met weekly in 1943 with Theresa Helburn and Lawrence Langner of the Theatre Guild, producers of the blockbuster musical, who together formed what they termed "the Gloat Club". At one such luncheon, Helburn and Langner proposed to Rodgers and Hammerstein that they turn Molnár's Liliom into a musical. Both men refused—they had no feeling for the Budapest setting and thought that the unhappy ending was unsuitable for musical theatre. At the next luncheon, Helburn and Langner again proposed Liliom, suggesting that they move the setting to Louisiana and make Liliom a Creole. Rodgers and Hammerstein played with the idea over the next few weeks, but decided that Creole dialect, filled with "zis" and "zose", would sound corny and would make it difficult to write effective lyrics. Hammerstein wrote of this suggestion in 1945, <blockquote> I began to see an attractive ensemble—sailors, whalers, girls who worked in the mills up the river, clambakes on near-by islands, an amusement park on the seaboard, things people could do in crowds, people who were strong and alive and lusty, people who had always been depicted on the stage as thin-lipped puritans—a libel I was anxious to refute ... as for the two leading characters, Julie with her courage and inner strength and outward simplicity seemed more indigenous to Maine than to Budapest. Liliom is, of course, an international character, indigenous to nowhere. </blockquote> Rodgers and Hammerstein were also concerned about what they termed "the tunnel" of Molnár's second act—a series of gloomy scenes leading up to Liliom's suicide—followed by a dark ending. They also felt it would be difficult to set Liliom's motivation for the robbery to music. and producing I Remember Mama on Broadway. Meanwhile, the Theatre Guild took Molnár to see Oklahoma! Molnár stated that if Rodgers and Hammerstein could adapt Liliom as beautifully as they had modified Green Grow the Lilacs into Oklahoma!, he would be pleased to have them do it. The Guild obtained the rights from Molnár in October 1943. The playwright received one percent of the gross and $2,500 for "personal services". The duo insisted, as part of the contract, that Molnár permit them to make changes in the plot. At first, the playwright refused, but eventually yielded. Hammerstein later stated that if this point had not been won, "we could never have made Carousel." In seeking to establish through song Liliom's motivation for the robbery, Rodgers remembered that he and Hart had a similar problem in Pal Joey. Rodgers and Hart had overcome the problem with a song that Joey sings to himself, "I'm Talking to My Pal". This inspired "Soliloquy". Both partners later told a story that "Soliloquy" was only intended to be a song about Liliom's dreams of a son, but that Rodgers, who had two daughters, insisted that Liliom consider that Julie might have a girl. However, the notes taken at their meeting of December 7, 1943 state: "Mr. Rodgers suggested a fine musical number for the end of the scene where Liliom discovers he is to be a father, in which he sings first with pride of the growth of a boy, and then suddenly realizes it might be a girl and changes completely." that begins Carousel; 1921]] Hammerstein and Rodgers returned to the Liliom project in mid-1944. Hammerstein was uneasy as he worked, fearing that no matter what they did, Molnár would disapprove of the results. "This Was a Real Nice Clambake" was repurposed from a song, "A Real Nice Hayride", written for Oklahoma! but not used. Molnár's ending was unsuitable, and after a couple of false starts, Hammerstein conceived the graduation scene that ends the musical. According to Frederick Nolan in his book on the team's works: "From that scene the song "You'll Never Walk Alone" sprang almost naturally." In spite of Hammerstein's simple lyrics for "You'll Never Walk Alone", Rodgers had great difficulty in setting it to music. Rodgers explained his rationale for the changed ending, <blockquote> Liliom was a tragedy about a man who cannot learn to live with other people. The way Molnár wrote it, the man ends up hitting his daughter and then having to go back to purgatory, leaving his daughter helpless and hopeless. We couldn't accept that. The way we ended Carousel it may still be a tragedy but it's a hopeful one because in the final scene it is clear that the child has at last learned how to express herself and communicate with others. </blockquote> When the pair decided to make "This Was a Real Nice Clambake" into an ensemble number, Hammerstein realized he had no idea what a clambake was like, and researched the matter. Based on his initial findings, he wrote the line, "First came codfish chowder". However, further research convinced him the proper term was "codhead chowder", a term unfamiliar to many playgoers. He decided to keep it as "codfish". When the song proceeded to discuss the lobsters consumed at the feast, Hammerstein wrote the line "We slit 'em down the back/And peppered 'em good". He was grieved to hear from a friend that lobsters are always slit down the front. The lyricist sent a researcher to a seafood restaurant and heard back that lobsters are always slit down the back. Hammerstein concluded that there is disagreement about which side of a lobster is the back. One error not caught involved the song "June Is Bustin' Out All Over", in which sheep are depicted as seeking to mate in late spring—they actually do so in the winter. Whenever this was brought to Hammerstein's attention, he told his informant that 1873 was a special year, in which sheep mated in the spring. Rodgers early decided to dispense with an overture, feeling that the music was hard to hear over the banging of seats as latecomers settled themselves. In his autobiography, Rodgers complained that only the brass section can be heard during an overture because there are never enough strings in a musical's small orchestra. He determined to force the audience to concentrate from the beginning by opening with a pantomime scene accompanied by what became known as "The Carousel Waltz". The pantomime paralleled one in the Molnár play, which was also used to introduce the characters and situation to the audience. </blockquote> Casting and out-of-town tryouts The casting for Carousel began when Oklahoma!'s production team, including Rodgers and Hammerstein, was seeking a replacement for the part of Curly (the male lead in Oklahoma!). Lawrence Langner had heard, through a relative, of a California singer named John Raitt, who might be suitable for the part. Langner went to hear Raitt, then urged the others to bring Raitt to New York for an audition. Raitt asked to sing "Largo al factotum", Figaro's aria from The Barber of Seville, to warm up. The warmup was sufficient to convince the producers that not only had they found a Curly, they had found a Liliom (or Billy Bigelow, as the part was renamed). Theresa Helburn made another California discovery, Jan Clayton, a singer/actress who had made a few minor films for MGM. She was brought east and successfully auditioned for the part of Julie. Rodgers and Hammerstein reassembled much of the creative team that had made Oklahoma! a success, including director Rouben Mamoulian and choreographer Agnes de Mille. Miles White was the costume designer while Jo Mielziner (who had not worked on Oklahoma!) was the scenic and lighting designer. Even though Oklahoma! orchestrator Russell Bennett had informed Rodgers that he was unavailable to work on Carousel due to a radio contract, Rodgers insisted he do the work in his spare time. He orchestrated "The Carousel Waltz" and "(When I Marry) Mister Snow" before finally being replaced by Don Walker. A new member of the creative team was Trude Rittmann, who arranged the dance music. Rittmann initially felt that Rodgers mistrusted her because she was a woman, and found him difficult to work with, but the two worked together on Rodgers' shows until the 1970s. Rehearsals began in January 1945; Raitt was presented with the lyrics for "Soliloquy" on a five-foot long sheet of paper—the piece ran nearly eight minutes. Staging such a long solo number presented problems, and Raitt later stated that he felt that they were never fully addressed. At some point during rehearsals, Molnár came to see what they had done to his play. There are a number of variations on the story. As Rodgers told it, while watching rehearsals with Hammerstein, the composer spotted Molnár in the rear of the theatre and whispered the news to his partner. Both sweated through an afternoon of rehearsal in which nothing seemed to go right. At the end, the two walked to the back of the theatre, expecting an angry reaction from Molnár. Instead, the playwright said enthusiastically, "What you have done is so beautiful. And you know what I like best? The ending!" Hammerstein wrote that Molnár became a regular attendee at rehearsals after that. in the second act, as Billy looks down to the Earth from "Up There" and observes his daughter. In the original production the ballet was choreographed by de Mille. It began with Billy looking down from heaven at his wife in labor, with the village women gathered for a "birthing". The ballet involved every character in the play, some of whom spoke lines of dialogue, and contained a number of subplots. The focus was on Louise, played by Bambi Linn, who at first almost soars in her dance, expressing the innocence of childhood. She is teased and mocked by her schoolmates, and Louise becomes attracted to the rough carnival people, who symbolize Billy's world. A youth from the carnival attempts to seduce Louise, as she discovers her own sexuality, but he decides she is more girl than woman, and he leaves her. After Julie comforts her, Louise goes to a children's party, where she is shunned. The carnival people reappear and form a ring around the children's party, with Louise lost between the two groups. At the end, the performers form a huge carousel with their bodies. The play opened for tryouts in New Haven, Connecticut on March 22, 1945. The first act was well-received; the second act was not. Casto recalled that the second act finished about 1:30 a.m. By the time the company left New Haven, de Mille's ballet was down to forty minutes. before whom Billy appeared after his death. Mr. and Mrs. God were depicted as a New England minister and his wife, seen in their parlor. The couple was still part of the show at the Boston opening. and Mrs. God was removed from the show. Three weeks of tryouts in Boston followed the brief New Haven run, and the audience there gave the musical a warm reception. * "The Carousel Waltz" – Orchestra * "You're a Queer One, Julie Jordan" – Carrie Pipperidge and Julie Jordan * "(When I Marry) Mister Snow" – Carrie * "If I Loved You" – Billy Bigelow and Julie * "June Is Bustin' Out All Over" – Nettie Fowler and Chorus * "(When I Marry) Mister Snow" (reprise) – Carrie, Enoch Snow and Female Chorus * "When the Children Are Asleep" – Enoch and Carrie * "Blow High, Blow Low" – Jigger Craigin, Billy and Male Chorus * "Soliloquy" – Billy Act II Bambi Linn, who played Louise, was so enthusiastically received by the audience during her ballet that she was forced to break character, when she next appeared, and bow. Rodgers' daughter Mary caught sight of her friend, Stephen Sondheim, both teenagers then, across several rows; both had eyes wet with tears. After closing on Broadway, the show went on a national tour for two years. It played for five months in Chicago alone, visited twenty states and two Canadian cities, covered and played to nearly two million people. The touring company had a four-week run at New York City Center in January 1949. Following the City Center run, the show was moved back to the Majestic Theatre starring Stephen Douglass (Billy) and Iva Withers (Julie), in the hopes of filling the theatre until South Pacific opened in early April. Ticket sales were mediocre, however, and the show closed almost a month early. The musical premiered in the West End, London, at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, on June 7, 1950. The production was restaged by Jerome Whyte, with a cast that included Douglass and Withers reprising their roles as Billy and Julie, and Margot Moser as Carrie. Carousel ran in London for 566 performances, remaining there for over a year and a half. Subsequent productions Carousel was revived in 1954 and 1957 at City Center, presented by the New York City Center Light Opera Company. Both times, the production featured Barbara Cook, though she played Carrie in 1954 and Julie in 1957 (playing alongside Howard Keel as Billy). The production was then taken to Belgium to be performed at the 1958 Brussels World's Fair, with David Atkinson as Billy, Ruth Kobart as Nettie, and Clayton reprising the role of Julie, which she had originated. The following year, New York City Center Light Opera Company brought Carousel back to City Center for 22 performances, with Bruce Yarnell as Billy and Constance Towers as Julie. As they proceed on a revolving stage, carnival characters appear, and at last the carousel is assembled onstage for the girls to ride. Louise is seduced by the ruffian boy during her Act 2 ballet, set around the ruins of a carousel. Clive Rowe, as Enoch, was nominated for an Olivier Award. Enoch and Carrie were cast as an interracial couple whose eight children, according to the review in The New York Times, looked like "a walking United Colors of Benetton ad". It re-opened at the Shaftesbury Theatre in London in September 1993, presented by Cameron Mackintosh, where it continued until May 1994. The Hytner production moved to New York's Vivian Beaumont Theater, where it opened on March 24, 1994, and ran for 322 performances. Replacements for Billy included Marcus Lovett and James Barbour. One change made from the London to the New York production was to have Billy strike Louise across the face, rather than on the hand. According to Hayden, "He does the one unpardonable thing, the thing we can't forgive. It's a challenge for the audience to like him after that." The Hytner Carousel was presented in Japan in May 1995. A U.S. national tour with a scaled-down production began in February 1996 in Houston and closed in May 1997 in Providence, Rhode Island. Producers sought to feature young talent on the tour, and later Jennifer Laura Thompson, as Julie. A revival opened at London's Savoy Theatre on December 2, 2008, after a week of previews, starring Jeremiah James (Billy), Alexandra Silber (Julie) and Lesley Garrett (Nettie). The production received warm to mixed reviews. It closed in June 2009, a month early. Michael Coveney, writing in The Independent, admired Rodgers' music but stated, "Lindsay Posner's efficient revival doesn't hold a candle to the National Theatre 1992 version". A semi-staged revival by the English National Opera opened at the London Coliseum in 2017. The production was directed by Lonny Price, conducted by David Charles Abell, and starred Alfie Boe as Billy, Katherine Jenkins as Julie and Nicholas Lyndhurst as the Starkeeper. The production received mixed to positive reviews. The third Broadway revival began previews on February 28, 2018, at the Imperial Theatre and officially opened on April 12. It closed on September 16, 2018. The production starred Jessie Mueller, Joshua Henry, Renée Fleming, Lindsay Mendez and Alexander Gemignani. The production was directed by Jack O'Brien and choreographed by Justin Peck. The songs "Geraniums in the Winder" and "There's Nothin' So Bad for a Woman" were cut from this revival. Ben Brantley wrote in The New York Times, "The tragic inevitability of Carousel has seldom come across as warmly or as chillingly as it does in this vividly reimagined revival. ... [W]ith thoughtful and powerful performances by Mr. Henry and Ms. Mueller, the love story at the show's center has never seemed quite as ill-starred or, at the same time, as sexy. ... [T]he Starkeeper ... assumes new visibility throughout, taking on the role of Billy's angelic supervisor." Brantley strongly praised the choreography, all the performances and the designers. He was unconvinced, however, by the "mother-daughter dialogue that falls so abrasively on contemporary ears", where Julie tries to justify loving an abusive man, and other scenes in Act 2, particularly those set in heaven, and the optimism of the final scene. Most of the reviewers agreed that while the choreography and performances (especially the singing) were excellent, characterizing the production as sexy and sumptuous, O'Brien's direction did little to help the show deal with modern sensibilities about men's treatment of women, instead indulging in nostalgia. From July to September 2021 the Regent's Park Open Air Theatre in London is presenting a staging by its artistic director Timothy Sheader, with choreography by Drew McOnie. The cast included Carly Bawden as Julie, Declan Bennett as Billy and Joanna Riding as Nettie. Film, television and concert versions , where the location shots for Carousel's movie version were filmed]] A film version of the musical was made in 1956, starring Gordon MacRae and Shirley Jones. It follows the musical's story fairly closely, although a prologue, set in the Starkeeper's heaven, was added. The film was released only a few months after the release of the film version of Oklahoma! It garnered some good reviews, and the soundtrack recording was a best seller. As the same stars appeared in both pictures, however, the two films were often compared, generally to the disadvantage of Carousel. Thomas Hischak, in The Rodgers and Hammerstein Encyclopedia, later wondered "if the smaller number of Carousel stage revivals is the product of this often-lumbering<nowiki> [film] </nowiki> musical". There was also an abridged (100 minute) 1967 network television version that starred Robert Goulet, with choreography by Edward Villella. In 2002, Carnegie Hall presented a concert of the musical starring Hugh Jackman and Audra McDonald as Billy and Julie, directed by Walter Bobbie. Other cast members included Jason Danieley, Judy Kaye, Lauren Ward, Norbert Leo Butz, Philip Bosco and Blythe Danner. The New York Philharmonic presented a staged concert version of the musical from February 28 to March 2, 2013, at Avery Fisher Hall. Kelli O'Hara played Julie, with Nathan Gunn as Billy, Stephanie Blythe as Nettie, Jessie Mueller as Carrie, Danieley as Enoch, Shuler Hensley as Jigger, John Cullum as the Starkeeper, and Kate Burton as Mrs. Mullin. Tiler Peck danced the role of Louise to choreography by Warren Carlyle. The production was directed by John Rando and conducted by Rob Fisher. Charles Isherwood of The New York Times wrote, "this is as gorgeously sung a production of this sublime 1945 Broadway musical as you are ever likely to hear." It was broadcast as part of the PBS Live from Lincoln Center series, premiering on April 26, 2013. Music and recordings Musical treatment Rodgers designed Carousel to be an almost continuous stream of music, especially in Act 1. In later years, Rodgers was asked if he had considered writing an opera. He stated that he had been sorely tempted to, but saw Carousel in operatic terms. He remembered, "We came very close to opera in the Majestic Theatre. ... There's much that is operatic in the music." Rodgers uses music in Carousel in subtle ways to differentiate characters and tell the audience of their emotional state. In "You're a Queer One, Julie Jordan", the music for the placid Carrie is characterized by even eighth-note rhythms, whereas the emotionally restless Julie's music is marked by dotted eighths and sixteenths; this rhythm will characterize her throughout the show. When Billy whistles a snatch of the song, he selects Julie's dotted notes rather than Carrie's. Reflecting the close association in the music between Julie and the as-yet unborn Louise, when Billy sings in "Soliloquy" of his daughter, who "gets hungry every night", he uses Julie's dotted rhythms. Such rhythms also characterize Julie's Act 2 song, "What's the Use of Wond'rin'". The stable love between Enoch and Carrie is strengthened by her willingness to let Enoch not only plan his entire life, but hers as well. This is reflected in "When the Children Are Asleep", where the two sing in close harmony, but Enoch musically interrupts his intended's turn at the chorus with the words "Dreams that won't be interrupted". Rodgers biographer Geoffrey Block, in his book on the Broadway musical, points out that though Billy may strike his wife, he allows her musical themes to become a part of him and never interrupts her music. Block suggests that, as reprehensible as Billy may be for his actions, Enoch requiring Carrie to act as "the little woman", and his having nine children with her (more than she had found acceptable in "When the Children are Asleep") can be considered to be even more abusive. The twelve-minute "bench scene", in which Billy and Julie get to know each other and which culminates with "If I Loved You", according to Hischak, "is considered the most completely integrated piece of music-drama in the American musical theatre". "If I Loved You" has been recorded many times, by such diverse artists as Frank Sinatra, Barbra Streisand, Sammy Davis Jr., Mario Lanza and Chad and Jeremy. When the pair discussed the song that would become "Soliloquy", Rodgers improvised at the piano to give Hammerstein an idea of how he envisioned the song. When Hammerstein presented his collaborator with the lyrics after two weeks of work (Hammerstein always wrote the words first, then Rodgers would write the melodies), Rodgers wrote the music for the eight-minute song in two hours. "What's the Use of Wond'rin' ", one of Julie's songs, worked well in the show but was never as popular on the radio or for recording, and Hammerstein believed that the lack of popularity was because he had concluded the final line, "And all the rest is talk" with a hard consonant, which does not allow the singer a vocal climax. When singer Mel Tormé told Rodgers that "You'll Never Walk Alone" had made him cry, Rodgers nodded impatiently. "You're supposed to." The frequently recorded song has become a widely accepted hymn. The cast recording of Carousel proved popular in Liverpool, like many Broadway albums, and in 1963, the Brian Epstein-managed band, Gerry and the Pacemakers had a number-one hit with the song. At the time, the top ten hits were played before Liverpool F.C. home matches; even after "You'll Never Walk Alone" dropped out of the top ten, fans continued to sing it, and it has become closely associated with the soccer team<!-- This is an article on an American musical and uses American terminology --> and the city of Liverpool. A BBC program, Soul Music, ranked it alongside "Silent Night" and "Abide With Me" in terms of its emotional impact and iconic status. A number of songs were cut for the 1956 film, but two of the deleted numbers had been recorded and were ultimately retained on the soundtrack album. The expanded CD version of the soundtrack, issued in 2001, contains all of the singing recorded for the film, including the cut portions, and nearly all of the dance music. The recording of the 1965 Lincoln Center revival featured Raitt reprising the role of Billy. Studio recordings of Carousel's songs were released in 1956 (with Robert Merrill as Billy, Patrice Munsel as Julie, and Florence Henderson as Carrie), 1962 and 1987. The 1987 version featured a mix of opera and musical stars, including Samuel Ramey, Barbara Cook and Sarah Brightman. Kenrick judges the 1994 recording the best all-around performance of Carousel on disc, despite uneven singing by Hayden, due to Sally Murphy's Julie and the strong supporting cast (calling Audra McDonald the best Carrie he has heard). Critical reception and legacy The musical received almost unanimous rave reviews after its opening in 1945. According to Hischak, reviews were not as exuberant as for Oklahoma! as the critics were not taken by surprise this time. John Chapman of the Daily News termed it "one of the finest musical plays I have ever seen and I shall remember it always". The New York Times's reviewer, Lewis Nichols, stated that "Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein 2d, who can do no wrong, have continued doing no wrong in adapting Liliom into a musical play. Their Carousel is on the whole delightful." Wilella Waldorf of the New York Post, however, complained, "Carousel seemed to us a rather long evening. The Oklahoma! formula is becoming a bit monotonous and so are Miss de Mille's ballets. All right, go ahead and shoot!" Dance Magazine gave Linn plaudits for her role as Louise, stating, "Bambi doesn't come on until twenty minutes before eleven, and for the next forty minutes, she practically holds the audience in her hand". In 1954, when Carousel was revived at City Center, Atkinson discussed the musical in his review: <blockquote>Carousel has no comment to make on anything of topical importance. The theme is timeless and universal: the devotion of two people who love each other through thick and thin, complicated in this case by the wayward personality of the man, who cannot fulfill the responsibilities he has assumed. ... Billy is a bum, but Carousel recognizes the decency of his motives and admires his independence. There are no slick solutions in Carousel.</blockquote> Stephen Sondheim noted the duo's ability to take the innovations of Oklahoma! and apply them to a serious setting: "Oklahoma! is about a picnic, Carousel is about life and death." Critic Eric Bentley, on the other hand, wrote that "the last scene of Carousel is an impertinence: I refuse to be lectured to by a musical comedy scriptwriter on the education of children, the nature of the good life, and the contribution of the American small town to the salvation of souls." New York Times critic Frank Rich said of the 1992 London production: "What is remarkable about Mr. Hytner's direction, aside from its unorthodox faith in the virtues of simplicity and stillness, is its ability to make a 1992 audience believe in Hammerstein's vision of redemption, which has it that a dead sinner can return to Earth to do godly good." The Hytner production in New York was hailed by many critics as a grittier Carousel, which they deemed more appropriate for the 1990s. Clive Barnes of the New York Post called it a "defining Carousel—hard-nosed, imaginative, and exciting." BroadwayWorld.com stated in 2013 that Carousel is now "considered somewhat controversial in terms of its attitudes on domestic violence" because Julie chooses to stay with Billy despite the abuse; actress Kelli O'Hara noted that the domestic violence that Julie "chooses to deal with – is a real, existing and very complicated thing. And exploring it is an important part of healing it." Rodgers considered Carousel his favorite of all his musicals and wrote, "it affects me deeply every time I see it performed". Hammerstein's grandson, Oscar Andrew Hammerstein, in his book about his family, suggested that the wartime situation made Carousel's ending especially poignant to its original viewers, "Every American grieved the loss of a brother, son, father, or friend ... the audience empathized with <nowiki>[Billy's]</nowiki> all-too-human efforts to offer advice, to seek forgiveness, to complete an unfinished life, and to bid a proper good-bye from beyond the grave." Author and composer Ethan Mordden agreed with that perspective: <blockquote> If Oklahoma! developed the moral argument for sending American boys overseas, Carousel offered consolation to those wives and mothers whose boys would only return in spirit. The meaning lay not in the tragedy of the present, but in the hope for a future where no one walks alone. </blockquote> Awards and nominations Original 1945 Broadway production {\| class"wikitable" style"width:95%;" \|- ! style="width:5%;"\| Year ! style="width:20%;"\| Award ! style="width:45%;"\| Category ! style="width:20%;"\| Nominee ! style="width:10%;"\| Result \|- \|rowspan"8" align"center"\|1945 \|rowspan="8"\|Donaldson Award \|colspan="2"\|Best Musical of the 1944-1945 Season \| \|- \|Male Lead Performance (Musical) \|John Raitt \| \|- \|Direction (Musical) \|Rouben Mamoulian \| \|- \|rowspan="2"\|Supporting Performance (Dance) \|Bambi Linn \| \|- \|Peter Birch \| \|- \|colspan="2"\|Book, Lyrics and Score \| \|- \|Choreography \|Agnes DeMille \| \|- \|Costume Design \|Miles White \| \|- \|rowspan"2" align"center"\|1946 \|New York Drama Critics' Circle Award \|Best Musical \|Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II \| \|- \|Theatre World Award \|Best Debut Performance \|Ann Crowley \| \|} Note: The Tony Awards were not established until 1947, and so Carousel was not eligible to win any Tonys for the original Broadway production. 1957 revival {\| class"wikitable" style"width:95%;" \|- ! style="width:5%;"\| Year ! style="width:20%;"\| Award ! style="width:45%;"\| Category ! style="width:20%;"\| Nominee ! style="width:10%;"\| Result \|- \|align="center"\|1958 \|Tony Award \|Best Scenic Design \|Oliver Smith \| \|} 1992 London revival {\| class"wikitable" style"width:95%;" \|- ! style="width:5%;"\| Year ! style="width:20%;"\| Award ! style="width:45%;"\| Category ! style="width:20%;"\| Nominee ! style="width:10%;"\| Result \|- \|rowspan"9" align"center"\|1993 \|rowspan"9"\|Olivier Award \|colspan="2"\|Best Musical Revival \| \|- \|Best Director of a Musical \|Nicholas Hytner \| \|- \|Best Actor in a Musical \|Michael Hayden \| \|- \|Best Actress in a Musical \|Joanna Riding \| \|- \|Best Performance in a Supporting Role in a Musical \|Janie Dee \| \|- \|Best Performance in a Supporting Role in a Musical \|Clive Rowe \| \|- \|Best Theatre Choreographer \|Kenneth MacMillan \| \|- \|Best Set Designer \|rowspan="2"\|Bob Crowley \| \|- \|Best Costume Design \| \|} 1994 Broadway revival {\| class"wikitable" style"width:95%;" \|- ! style="width:5%;"\| Year ! style="width:20%;"\| Award ! style="width:45%;"\| Category ! style="width:20%;"\| Nominee ! style="width:10%;"\| Result \|- \|rowspan"14" align"center"\|1994 \|rowspan"5"\|Tony Award \|colspan="2"\|Outstanding Musical Revival \| \|- \|Outstanding Actor in a Musical \|Michael Hayden \| \|- \|Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Musical \|Audra McDonald \| \|- \|Outstanding Choreography \|Jane Elliot and Sir Kenneth MacMillan \| \|- \|Outstanding Director of a Musical \|Nicholas Hytner \| \|- \|Outstanding Lighting Design \|Paul Pyant \| \|- \|Outstanding Set Design \|Bob Crowley \| \|- \|rowspan"2"\|Theatre World Award \|colspan="2"\|Audra McDonald \| \|- \|colspan="2"\|Michael Hayden \| \|} 2018 Broadway revival {\| class"wikitable" style"width:95%;" \|- ! style="width:5%;"\| Year ! style="width:20%;"\| Award ! style="width:45%;"\| Category ! style="width:20%;"\| Nominee ! style="width:10%;"\| Result \|- \| rowspan="23" \|2018 \| rowspan="11" \|Tony Awards \| colspan="2" \|Best Revival of a Musical \| \|- \|Best Actor in a Musical \|Joshua Henry \| \|- \|Best Actress in a Musical \|Jessie Mueller \| \|- \|Best Featured Actor in a Musical \|Alexander Gemignani \| \|- \| rowspan="2" \|Best Featured Actress in a Musical \|Renée Fleming \| \|- \|Lindsay Mendez \| \|- \|Best Costume Design of a Musical \|Ann Roth \| \|- \|Best Lighting Design of a Musical \|Brian MacDevitt \| \|- \|Best Sound Design of a Musical \|Scott Lehrer \| \|- \|Best Choreography \|Justin Peck \| \|- \|Best Orchestrations \|Jonathan Tunick \| \|- \| rowspan"12" \|Drama Desk Award \| colspan="2" \|Outstanding Revival of a Musical \| \|- \|Outstanding Actor in a Musical \|Joshua Henry \| \|- \|Outstanding Actress in a Musical \|Jessie Mueller \| \|- \|Outstanding Featured Actor in a Musical \|Alexander Gemignani \| \|- \|Outstanding Featured Actress in a Musical \|Lindsay Mendez \| \|- \|Outstanding Director of a Musical \|Jack O'Brien \| \|- \|Outstanding Choreography \|Justin Peck \| \|- \|Outstanding Orchestrations \|Jonathan Tunick \| \|- \|Outstanding Set Design for a Musical \|Santo Loquasto \| \|- \|Outstanding Lighting Design for a Musical \|Brian MacDevitt \| \|- \|Outstanding Sound Design for a Musical \|Scott Lehrer \| \|- \|Outstanding Fight Choreography \|Steve Rankin \| \|} References Bibliography * Block, Geoffrey. [https://books.google.com/books?id6gRuvIuWZyUC&dqcarousel+new+haven+march+22%2C+1945&pg=PA162 Enchanted Evenings: The Broadway Musical from Show Boat to Sondheim]. New York: Oxford University Press US, 2004. . * Block, Geoffrey (ed.) [https://books.google.com/books?idQLxEdG6HJ9sC&qcarousel+rodgers The Richard Rodgers Reader]. New York: Oxford University Press US, 2006. . * Bradley, Ian. [https://books.google.com/books?idP9rFTWvLDNgC&dqsondheim+carousel+life+death&pg=PA79 ''You've Got to Have a Dream: The Message of the Broadway Musical]. Louisville, Ky., Westminster John Knox Press, 2005. 978-0-664-22854-5. * Easton, Carol. No Intermission: The Life of Agnes DeMille. Jefferson, N.C.: Da Capo Press, 2000 (1st DaCapo Press edition). . * Fordin, Hugh. Getting to Know Him: A Biography of Oscar Hammerstein II. Jefferson, N.C.: Da Capo Press, 1995 reprint of 1986 edition. . * Hammerstein, Oscar Andrew. The Hammersteins: A Musical Theatre Family. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, 2010. . * Hischak, Thomas S. [https://books.google.com/books?idCsbEP_Mu50EC&q%22Carousel.+A+musical+play%22&pg=PA310 The Rodgers and Hammerstein Encyclopedia]. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007. . * Hyland, William G. Richard Rodgers. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1998. . * Molnár, Ferenc. [https://books.google.com/books?idaTsiAAAAMAAJ&dqliliom+1909&pg=PR5 Liliom: A Legend in Seven Scenes and a Prologue]. New York: Boni and Liveright, 1921. * Mordden, Ethan. "Rodgers & Hammerstein". New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1992. . * Nolan, Frederick. The Sound of Their Music: The Story of Rodgers and Hammerstein. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Applause Theatre and Cinema Books, 2002. . * Rodgers, Richard. Musical Stages: An Autobiography. Jefferson, N.C. Da Capo Press, 2002 reprint of 1975 edition. . * Secrest, Meryle. Somewhere for Me: A Biography of Richard Rodgers. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Applause Theatre and Cinema Books, 2001. . External links * * [http://guidetomusicaltheatre.com/shows_c/carousel.htm Carousel at guidetomusicaltheatre.com] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080122081559/http://stageagent.com/Shows/View/708 Carousel info page on StageAgent.com] – Carousel plot summary and character descriptions * (1967 TV adaptation) }} Category:1945 musicals Category:Broadway musicals Category:Musicals by Rodgers and Hammerstein Category:West End musicals Category:Musicals based on plays Category:Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients Category:Maine in fiction Category:Fiction set in 1873 Category:Fiction about the afterlife Category:Fiction about suicide Category:Fiction about death Category:Musicals set in Maine Category:Musicals set in the 1870s Category:Tony Award–winning musicals	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carousel_(musical)	2025-04-05T18:28:12.457187
7572	Christian alternative rock	Christian alternative rock is a form of alternative rock music that is lyrically grounded in a Christian worldview. Some critics have suggested that unlike CCM and older Christian rock, Christian alternative rock generally emphasizes musical style over lyrical content as a defining genre characteristic, though the degree to which the faith appears in the music varies from artist to artist. History Christian alternative music has its roots in the early 1980s, as the earliest efforts at Christian punk and new wave were recorded by artists like Andy McCarroll and Moral Support, Undercover, the 77s, Steve Scott, Adam Again, Quickflight, Daniel Amos, Youth Choir (later renamed the Choir), Lifesavers Underground, Michael Knott, the Prayer Chain, Altar Boys, Breakfast with Amy, Steve Taylor, 4-4-1, David Edwards and Vector. Early labels, most now-defunct, included Blonde Vinyl, Frontline, Exit, and Refuge. By the 1990s, many of these bands and artists had disbanded, were no longer performing, or were being carried by independent labels because their music tended to be more lyrically complex (and often more controversial) than mainstream Christian pop. The modern market is currently supported by labels such as Tooth & Nail, Gotee and Floodgate. These companies are often children of, or partially owned, by general market labels such as Warner, EMI, and Capitol Records, giving successful artists an opportunity to "cross over" into mainstream markets. See also 7ball HM: The Hard Music Magazine True Tunes News References External links God Save the Teens: Local Kids Seek a New Kind of Church Through Hardcore and Hip-Hop by Lauren Sandler in The Village Voice May 30 to June 5, 2001 Category:20th-century music genres Category:Alternative rock genres Alternative	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_alternative_rock	2025-04-05T18:28:12.538852
7573	Clive Barker	\| birth_place = Liverpool, England \| occupation = \| death_date \| death_place \| website = \| signature = }} Clive Barker (born 5 October 1952) is an English writer, filmmaker, and visual artist. He came to prominence in the 1980s with a series of short stories collectively named the Books of Blood, which established him as a leading horror author. His work has been adapted into films, notably the Hellraiser series (the first installment of which he also wrote and directed) and the Candyman series. Barker's paintings and illustrations have been shown in galleries in the United States, and have appeared in his books. He has also created characters and series for comic books, and some of his more popular horror stories have been featured in ongoing comics series. Early life Barker was born in Liverpool on 5 October 1952. His mother, Joan Ruby (née Revill), was a painter and school welfare officer; his father, Leonard Barker, worked as the personnel director for an industrial relations firm. He was educated at Dovedale Primary School and Quarry Bank High School in Liverpool before joining the University of Liverpool, where he studied English and philosophy. At the age of three, he witnessed the infamous death of French skydiver Léo Valentin, who plummeted to the ground during a performance at an air show in Liverpool. He would later allude to Valentin in many of his stories. Theatrical work Barker's involvement in live theatre began while still in school with productions of Voodoo and Inferno in 1967. He collaborated on six plays with Theatre of the Imagination in 1974 and two more that he was the sole writer of, ''A Clowns' Sodom and Day of the Dog, for The Mute Pantomime Theatre in 1976 and 1977. Barker co-founded the avant-garde theatrical troupe The Dog Company in 1978 with former schoolmates and up-and-coming actors, many of whom would go on to become key collaborators in his film work; Doug Bradley, his long-time friend and former classmate at Quarry Bank High School in Liverpool, took on the now-iconic role of Pinhead in the Hellraiser series while Peter Atkins wrote the scripts for the first three Hellraiser sequels. Over the next five years Barker wrote nine plays, often serving as director, including some of his best-known stage productions, The History of The Devil, Frankenstein in Love, and The Secret Life of Cartoons. He began writing early in his career, mostly in the form of short stories (collected in Books of Blood 1–6) and the Faustian novel The Damnation Game (1985). Later he moved toward modern-day fantasy and urban fantasy with horror elements in Weaveworld (1987), The Great and Secret Show (1989), the world-spanning Imajica (1991), and Sacrament'' (1996). When Books of Blood was first published in the United States in paperback, Stephen King was quoted on the book covers: "I have seen the future of horror and his name is Clive Barker." As influences on his writing, Barker lists Herman Melville, Edgar Allan Poe, Ray Bradbury, William S. Burroughs, William Blake, and Jean Cocteau, among others. He is the writer of the best-selling Abarat series. In early 2024, he announced he would stop attending conventions and public events so he could focus more on his writing, as he was working on the manuscripts for 31 different projects, some closer to completion than others. Personal life Barker stated on Loveline in 1996 that he had several relationships with older women during his teenage years, but realised he was gay when he was around 18 or 19 years old. He dated John Gregson from 1975 to 1986, and was later in a relationship from 1996 to 2009 with photographer David Armstrong, who was described as his husband in the introduction to Coldheart Canyon. During his early years as a writer, Barker occasionally worked as an escort when his writing did not provide sufficient income. He has been open about his experiences with sadomasochism, calling himself a "six" on its "sliding scale". In 2003, Barker received the Davidson/Valentini Award at the 15th GLAAD Media Awards. Barker is critical of organized religion, but has said that the Bible influences his work and spirituality. In 2017, he clarified on Facebook that he did not identify as a Christian. Barker said in a December 2008 online interview (published in March 2009) that he had throat polyps which were so severe that a doctor told him he was taking in only 10% of the air he was supposed to. He has had two surgical procedures to remove them and believes his voice has improved as a result. He said he did not have cancer and has given up cigars. In 2012, Barker fell into a coma for several days after contracting toxic shock syndrome, triggered by a visit to a dentist where a spillage of poisonous bacteria entered his bloodstream and almost killed him. Realising he might have just a short time to live, he decided to put his personal concerns about the world and society into the novel Deep Hill, which he thought could be his final book. As of 2015, Barker is a member of the board of advisers for the Hollywood Horror Museum.Film workBarker wrote the screenplays for Underworld (1985) and Rawhead Rex (1986), both directed by George Pavlou. Displeased by how his material was handled, he moved to directing with Hellraiser (1987), based on his novella The Hellbound Heart. After his film Nightbreed (1990) flopped, Barker returned to write and direct Lord of Illusions (1995). The short story "The Forbidden", from Barker's Books of Blood, provided the basis for the 1992 film Candyman and its three sequels. He had been working on a series of film adaptations of his The Abarat Quintet books under The Walt Disney Company's management, but due to creative differences, the project was cancelled. He served as an executive producer for the 1998 film Gods and Monsters, a semi-fictional tale of Frankenstein director James Whale's later years, which won an Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay. Barker said of his interest in the project: "Whale was gay, I'm gay; Whale was English, I'm English…Whale made some horror movies, and I've made some horror movies. It seemed as if I should be helping to tell this story." Barker also provided the foreword on the published shooting script. In 2005, Barker and horror film producer Jorge Saralegui created the film production company Midnight Picture Show with the intent of producing two horror films per year. In October 2006, Barker announced through his website that he will be writing the script to a forthcoming remake of the original Hellraiser film. He was developing a film based on his Tortured Souls line of toys from McFarlane Toys. In 2020, Barker regained control of the Hellraiser franchise, and served as executive producer on a 2022 reboot film for the streaming service Hulu.Television workIn May 2015, Variety reported that Clive Barker was developing a television series adaptation of various creepypastas in partnership with Warner Brothers, to be called ''Clive Barker's Creepypastas, a feature arc based on Slender Man and Ben Drowned''. Barker was involved in a streaming service film adaptation of The Books of Blood in 2020, and is developing a Nightbreed television series directed by Michael Dougherty and written by Josh Stolberg for SyFy. In April 2020, HBO was announced to be developing a Hellraiser television series that would serve as "an elevated continuation and expansion" of its mythology with Mark Verheiden and Michael Dougherty writing the series and David Gordon Green directing several episodes. Verheiden, Dougherty and Green will also be executive producing the series with Danny McBride, Jody Hill, Brandon James and Roy Lee of Vertigo Entertainment. Visual art Barker is a prolific visual artist, often illustrating his own books. His paintings have been seen first on the covers of his official fan club magazine, Dread, published by Fantaco in the early '90s; on the covers of the collections of his plays, Incarnations (1995) and Forms of Heaven (1996); and on the second printing of the original British publications of his Books of Blood series. Barker also provided the artwork for his young adult novel The Thief of Always and for the Abarat series. His artwork has been exhibited at Bert Green Fine Art in Los Angeles and Chicago, at the Bess Cutler Gallery in New York and La Luz De Jesus in Los Angeles. Many of his sketches and paintings can be found in the collection Clive Barker, Illustrator, published in 1990 by Arcane/Eclipse Books, and in Visions of Heaven and Hell, published in 2005 by Rizzoli Books. He worked on the horror video game ''Clive Barker's Undying, providing the voice for the character Ambrose. Undying was developed by DreamWorks Interactive and released in 2001. He worked on Clive Barker's Jericho'' for Codemasters, which was released in late 2007. Barker created Halloween costume designs for Disguise Costumes. Around 150 art works by Barker were used in the set of the Academy of the Unseen Arts for the Netflix TV series Chilling Adventures of Sabrina. Comic books Barker published his Razorline imprint via Marvel Comics in 1993. Barker horror adaptations and spin-offs in comics include the Marvel/Epic Comics series Hellraiser, Nightbreed, Pinhead, The Harrowers, Book of the Damned, and Jihad; Eclipse Books' series and graphic novels Tapping The Vein, Dread, Son of Celluloid, Revelations, The Life of Death, Rawhead Rex and The Yattering and Jack, and Dark Horse Comics' Primal, among others. Barker served as a consultant and wrote issues of the Hellraiser anthology comic book. In 2005, IDW published a three-issue adaptation of Barker's children's fantasy novel The Thief of Always, written and painted by Kris Oprisko and Gabriel Hernandez. IDW is publishing a 12 issue adaptation of Barker's novel The Great and Secret Show. In December 2007, Chris Ryall and Clive Barker announced an upcoming collaboration of an original comic book series, Torakator, to be published by IDW. In 2008, Barker authored a foreword for the first volume of the DEMONICSEX comic series by Chuck Conner and Sean Platter. In October 2009, IDW published Seduth, co-written by Barker. The work was released with three variant covers. In 2011, Boom! Studios began publishing an original Hellraiser comic book series. In 2013, Boom! Studios announced Next Testament, the first original story by Barker to be published in comic book format. Works Novels * The Damnation Game (1985) * Weaveworld (1987) * Cabal (1988) (Novella) * The Great and Secret Show (1989) * Imajica (1991) * The Thief of Always (1992) * Everville (1994) * Sacrament (1996) * Galilee (1998) * Coldheart Canyon (2001) * Tortured Souls (2001). Novelette starring the characters of the series of first six action figures of Tortured Souls. In 2015 it was published with title Tortured Souls: The Legend of Primordium. * The Infernal Parade (2004). Novelette detailing the backstories of the characters of the series of six action figures of The Infernal Parade. In 2017 it was published with title Infernal Parade. * Mister B. Gone (2007) * Mr. Maximillian Bacchus And His Travelling Circus (2009) * Chiliad: A Meditation (2014) Hellraiser series # The Hellbound Heart (1986), novella # The Scarlet Gospels (2015) # Hellraiser: The Toll (2018) <small>(Story credit; Barker's unfinished short story "Heaven's Reply" served as a basis for the novella, which was authored by Mark Alan Miller)</small> Books of the Art series # The Great and Secret Show (1989) # Everville (1994) The Books of Abarat # Abarat (2002) # Days of Magic, Nights of War (2004) # Absolute Midnight (2011) Short stories Collections: * Books of Blood: # Books of Blood: Volume One (1984), , collection of 1 short story and 5 novelettes: #: "The Book of Blood", "The Midnight Meat Train" (novelette), "The Yattering and Jack" (novelette), "Pig Blood Blues" (novelette), "Sex, Death and Starshine" (novelette), "In the Hills, the Cities" (novelette) # Books of Blood, Volume Two, or Books of Blood, Volume II (1984), , collection of 5 novelettes: #: "Dread", "Hell's Event", "Jacqueline Ess: Her Will And Testament", "The Skins of the Fathers", "New Murders in the Rue Morgue" # Books of Blood, Volume Three, or Books of Blood 3 (1984), , collection of 5 novelettes: #: "Son of Celluloid", "Rawhead Rex", "Confessions of a (Pornographer's) Shroud", "Scape-Goats", "Human Remains" # Books of Blood: Volume IV, or The Inhuman Condition (1985), , collection of 1 short story and 4 novelettes/novellas: #: "The Body Politic" (novelette), "The Inhuman Condition" (novelette), "Revelations" (novella), "Down, Satan!", "The Age of Desire" (novella) # Books of Blood: Volume V, or In the Flesh (1985), , collection of 4 novelettes/novellas: #: "The Forbidden" (novelette), "The Madonna" (novelette), "Babel's Children" (novelette), "In the Flesh" (novella) # Books of Blood: Volume VI, or Books of Blood 6 (1985), , collection of 1 short story and 4 novelettes/novellas: #: "The Life of Death" (novelette), "How Spoilers Bleed" (novelette), "Twilight at the Towers" (novelette), "The Last Illusion" (novella), "On Jerusalem Street" * The Essential Clive Barker: Selected Fiction (1999), , collection of more than seventy excerpts from novels and plays and four full-length stories (1 short story and 3 novelettes): : "The Departed", "The Forbidden" (novelette), "In the Hills, the Cities" (novelette), "Jacqueline Ess: Her Will and Testament" (novelette) ''Clive Barker's First Tales (2013), , collection of 1 short story and 1 novella: : "The Wood on the Hill", "The Candle in the Cloud" (novella) Tonight, Again: Tales of Love, Lust and Everything in Between (2015), , collection of 24 short stories and 7 poems: : "Tonight, Again", "I Love You" (poem), "Craw: A Fable", "Afraid", "Moved", "I Imagine You", "If the Pen Is the Penis" (poem), "Touch the Rod" (poem), "Martha", "Tit", "The Freaks", "Cruelty" (poem), "Dollie", "The Collection", "What May Not Be Shown", "Two Views from a Window", "Men in the Aisles of Supermarkets" (poem), "A Blessing", "Unrequited", "Another Genesis", "Inside Out (Wasteland)", "I Have My Art" (poem), "Aurora", "Whistling in the Dark", "The Common Flesh", "Mr. Fred Coady Professes His Undying Love for His Little Sylvia", "The Phone Call", "The Multitude", "A Monster Lies in Wait" (poem), "An Incident at the Nunnery", "The Genius of Denny Dan" Fear Eternal (TBA) Uncollected short stories: * "Lost Souls" (1986) * "Coming to Grief" (1988), novelette * "The Rhapsodist" (1988) * "Nightbreed" (1990), screenplay for the film, based on novel Cabal'' * "Pidgin and Theresa" (1993) * "Animal Life" (1994) * "Sacrament" (1996), novelette * "Haeckel's Tale" (2005) * "How Mr. Maximillian Bacchus' Travelling Circus Reached Cathay, and Entertained the Court of the Khan Called Kublai In Xanadu, How They Sought the Bearded Bird, and How, At Last, Angelo Was Lost" (2009) * "How the Clown Domingo de Y Barrondo Fell Over the Edge of the World" (2009) * "The Face of the Flying Fish and Why Docor Jozabiah Bentham's Theatre of Tears Sailed North" (2009) * "The Wedding of Indigo Murphy To the Duke Lorenzo de Medici and How Angelo Was Discovered in an Orchard" (2009) * "And So with Cries" (2009) * "A Night's Work" (2013) Plays Collections: * Incarnations: Three Plays (1995), collection of 3 plays: : "Colossus", "Frankenstein in love or The Life of death", "The History of the Devil or Scenes from a Pretended Life" Forms of Heaven: Three Plays (1996), collection of 3 plays: : "Crazyface", "Paradise Street", "Subtle Bodies" All plays: ''A Clowns' Sodom (The Mute Pantomime Theatre, 1976) * Day of the Dog (The Mute Pantomime Theatre, 1977) * The Sack (The Dog Company, 1978) * The Magician (The Dog Company, 1978) * Dog (The Dog Company, 1979) * Nightlives (The Dog Company, 1979) * History of the Devil (The Dog Company, 1980) * Dangerous World (The Dog Company, 1981) * Paradise Street (The Dog Company, 1981) * Frankenstein in Love (The Dog Company, 1982) * The Secret Life of Cartoons (The Dog Company, 1982) * Crazyface (Cockpit Youth Theatre, 1982) * Subtle Bodies (Cockpit Youth Theatre, 1983) * Colossus (Cockpit Youth Theatre, 1983) Poems Uncollected poems: * "Six Commonplaces (from Weaveworld)" (1987), published in Fantasy Tales, V9n17, Summer 1987 * "There Was A Time" (2010), published in Multiverses by Preston Grassmann, ed. * "The Hour" (2021), published in Out of the Ruins by Preston Grassmann, ed. * "The Presence of This Breath" (TBA) * "Upon A Warm Milk Dawn" (2024), published in The Mad Butterfly's Ball by Preston Grassmann and Chris Kelso, ed. Non-fiction ;Art: * Clive Barker, Illustrator series: # Clive Barker, Illustrator (1990) # Illustrator II: The Art of Clive Barker (1992) * Visions of Heaven and Hell (2005) * Clive Barker: Imaginer series: # Clive Barker: Imaginer Volume 1 (2014) # Clive Barker: Imaginer Volume 2 (2015) # Clive Barker: Imaginer Volume 3 (2016) # Clive Barker: Imaginer Volume 4 (2017) # Clive Barker: Imaginer Volume 5 (2018) # Clive Barker: Imaginer Volume 6 (2018) # Clive Barker: Imaginer Volume 7 (2020) # Clive Barker: Imaginer Volume 8 (2020) ;Essays: * The Painter, The Creature and The Father of Lies (2011) Toys * Tortured Souls (2001–2002). Series of 12 action figures (six designed in 2001 and six in 2002) and a novelette starring the characters of the first six action figures * The Infernal Parade (2004) Co-created with Todd McFarlane, series of six action figures and a novelette detailing the backstories of the characters. Literary Awards {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Year !! Award !! Category !! Work !! Result !! Ref. \|- \| 1985\|\| British Fantasy Award \|\| Short Story\|\| In the Hills, the Cities\|\| \|\| \|- \| 1985\|\| Locus Award\|\| Collection\|\| Clive Barker's Books of Blood (Vols. I-III)\|\| \|\| \|- \| 1985\|\| World Fantasy Award\|\| Novella \|\| Jacqueline Ess: Her Will and Testament\|\| \|\| \|- \| 1985\|\| World Fantasy Award\|\| Anthology/Collection\|\| Clive Barker's Books of Blood (Vols. I-III)\|\| \|\| \|- \| 1986\|\| Locus Award \|\| Fantasy\|\| The Damnation Game\|\| \|\| \|- \| 1996\|\|International Horror Guild Award\|\| Novel\|\| Sacrament\|\| \|\| \|- \| 1997\|\| Locus Award \|\| Horror/Dark Fantasy\|\| Sacrament\|\| \|\| \|- \| 2015\|\| Bram Stoker Award \|\| Novel\|\| The Scarlet Gospels\|\| \|\| \|} Filmography {\| class="wikitable" \|- \|+ Film !Year !Title !Director !Writer !Producer !Notes \|- \| 1985 \| Underworld \| \| \| \| \|- \| 1986 \| Rawhead Rex \| \| \| \| based on Barker's short story "Rawhead Rex" \|- \|1987 \| Hellraiser \| \| \| \| based on Barker's novella The Hellbound Heart \|- \|1988 \| Hellbound: Hellraiser II \| \| \| \| \|- \| 1990 \| Nightbreed \| \| \| \| based on Barker's novella Cabal \|- \|rowspan=3\| 1992 \| Sleepwalkers \| \| \| \| Barker has an acting credit as "Forensic Tech" \|- \| Hellraiser III: Hell on Earth \| \| \| \| \|- \| Candyman \| \| \| \| based on Barker's short story "The Forbidden" \|- \|rowspan="2"\| 1995 \| Candyman: Farewell to the Flesh \| \| \| \| \|- \| Lord of Illusions \| \| \| \| based on Barker's short story "The Last Illusion" \|- \| 1996 \| Hellraiser: Bloodline \| \| \| \| \|- \| 1998 \| Gods and Monsters \| \| \| \| \|- \| 2006 \| The Plague \| \| \| \| \|- \| 2008 \| The Midnight Meat Train \| \| \| \| based on Barker's short story "The Midnight Meat Train" \|- \|rowspan=2\| 2009 \| Book of Blood \| \| \| \| based on Barker's short stories "The Book of Blood" & "On Jerusalem Street" \|- \| Dread \| \| \| \| based on Barker's short story "Dread" \|- \| 2019 \| JoJo Baby \| \| \| \| \|- \| 2020 \| Books of Blood \| \| \| \| based on Barker's short story "The Book of Blood" \|- \|2022 \|Hellraiser \| \| \| \| based on Barker's novella The Hellbound Heart \|- \|2025 \|Night of the Zoopocalypse \| \| \| \| based on Barker's short story "Zoombies" \|} {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|- \|+ Television ! Year ! Title ! Writer ! Producer ! Notes \|- \| 1987 \| Tales From The Darkside \| \| \| episode: "The Yattering and Jack" \|- \| 1997 \| Quicksilver Highway \| \| \| TV movie, based on Barker's short story "The Body Politic", Barker has an acting credit as "Anesthesiologist" \|- \| 2002 \| Saint Sinner \| \| \| TV movie \|- \| 2006 \| Masters of Horror \| \| \| episodes: "Haeckel's Tale" & "Valerie on the Stairs" \|- \|} {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|- \|+ Shorts ! Year ! Title ! Director ! Writer ! Actor ! Notes \|- \| 1973 \| Salome \| \| \| \| based on the play \|- \| 1978 \| The Forbidden \| \| \| \| \|} Adaptations * Rawhead Rex (1986), film directed by George Pavlou, based on novelette "Rawhead Rex" * Hellraiser (1987), film directed by Clive Barker, based on novella The Hellbound Heart * Hellbound: Hellraiser II (1988), film directed by Tony Randel, based on characters from the novella The Hellbound Heart * Nightbreed (1990), film directed by Clive Barker, based on novella Cabal * Hellraiser III: Hell on Earth (1992), film directed by Anthony Hickox, based on characters from the novella The Hellbound Heart * Candyman (1992), film directed by Bernard Rose, based on novelette "The Forbidden" * Candyman: Farewell to the Flesh (1995), film directed by Bill Condon, based on characters from the novelette "The Forbidden" * Lord of Illusions (1995), film directed by Clive Barker, based on novella "The Last Illusion" * Hellraiser: Bloodline (1996), film directed by Kevin Yagher and Joe Chapelle, based on characters from the novella The Hellbound Heart * "The Body Politic", first story of the TV movie Quicksilver Highway (1997) directed by Mick Garris, based on novelette "The Body Politic" * Candyman 3: Day of the Dead (1999), film directed by Turi Meyer, based on characters from the novelette "The Forbidden" * Hellraiser: Inferno (2000), film directed by Scott Derrickson, based on characters from the novella The Hellbound Heart * Hellraiser: Hellseeker (2002), film directed by Rick Bota, based on characters from the novella The Hellbound Heart * Hellraiser: Deader (2005), film directed by Rick Bota, based on characters from the novella The Hellbound Heart * Hellraiser: Hellworld (2005), film directed by Rick Bota, based on characters from the novella The Hellbound Heart * Hellraiser: Prophecy (2006), fan film directed by Jonathan S. Kui, based on characters from the novella The Hellbound Heart * "Haeckel's Tale" (2006), episode from Masters of Horror, based on short story "Haeckel's Tale" * The Midnight Meat Train (2008), film directed by Ryuhei Kitamura, based on novelette "The Midnight Meat Train" * ''Hellraiser: Deader – Winter's Lament (2009), fan film directed by Jonathan S. Kui, based on characters from the novella The Hellbound Heart * Dread (2009), film directed by Anthony DiBlasi, based on novelette "Dread" * Book of Blood (2009), film directed by John Harrison, based on short stories "The Book of Blood" and "On Jerusalem Street" * Hellraiser: Revelations (2011), film directed by Víctor Garcia, based on characters from the novella The Hellbound Heart * Hellraiser: Judgment (2018), film directed by Gary J. Tunnicliffe, based on characters from the novella The Hellbound Heart * Chatterer: A Hellraiser Fan Film (2020), fan film directed by Nicholas Michael Jacobs, based on characters from the novella The Hellbound Heart * "Miles", second story of the TV movie Books of Blood (2020) directed by Brannon Braga, based on short story "The Book of Blood" * "Bennett", third story of the TV movie Books of Blood (2020) directed by Brannon Braga, based on short story "On Jerusalem Street" * Candyman (2021), film directed by Nia DaCosta, based on characters from the novelette "The Forbidden" * Hellraiser (2022), film directed by David Bruckner, based on novella The Hellbound Heart Video games {\|class="wikitable" ! Year !! Title !! Developer \|- \| rowspan2 \| 1990 \|\| Clive Barker's Nightbreed: The Action Game \|\| rowspan2 \| Impact Software Development \|- \| Nightbreed, The Interactive Movie \|- \| 2001 \|\| Clive Barker's Undying \|\| EA Los Angeles \|- \| 2007 \|\| Clive Barker's Jericho \|\| MercurySteam<br>Alchemic Productions \|- \| Cancelled \|\| Clive Barker's Demonik'' \|\| Terminal Reality \|} See also * Cenobite * Clive Barker's unrealized projects * Lemarchand's box * List of horror fiction writers * Splatterpunk References Bibliography <!-- Currently in ascending chronological order. --> * Andrew Smith, "Worlds That Creep upon You: Postmodern Illusions in the Work of Clive Barker". In Clive Bloom, ed., Creepers: British Horror and Fantasy in the Twentieth Century. London and Boulder, CO: Pluto Press, 1993, pp. 176–86. * Suzanne J. Barbieri, Clive Barker: Mythmaker for the Millennium. Stockport, UK: British Fantasy Society, 1994, . . * Gary Hoppenstand, ''Clive Barker's Short Stories: Imagination as Metaphor in the Books of Blood and Other Works. (With a foreword by Clive Barker). Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 1994, . * Linda Badley, Writing Horror and the Body: The Fiction of Stephen King, Clive Barker, and Anne Rice. London: Greenwood Press, 1996, . * Chris Morgan, "Barker, Clive", in David Pringle, ed., St. James Guide to Horror, Ghost and Gothic Writers. London: St. James Press, 1998, * S. T. Joshi, The Modern Weird Tale. Jefferson, N.C., London: McFarland, 2001, . * Douglas E. Winter, Clive Barker: The Dark Fantastic. New York: Harper, 2002, . * Edwin F. Casebeer, "Clive Barker (1952–)" in: Darren Harris-Fain (ed.) British Fantasy and Science Fiction Writers Since 1960. Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson/Gale, 2002, . * K. A. Laity, "Clive Barker" in: Richard Bleiler, ed. Supernatural Fiction Writers: Contemporary Fantasy and Horror. New York: Thomson/Gale, 2003, . * Sorcha Ní Fhlainn (ed.). [http://www.manchesteruniversitypress.co.uk/9780719096921/ Clive Barker: Dark imaginer'']. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2017. 280pp. . External links * [http://www.clivebarker.info/ Official website] * [https://www.clivebarkerarchive.com/ Clive Barker Archive] * [https://www.clivebarkerarchive.com/clivebarker Clive Barker – Biography, works] at Clive Barker Archive * * * <!--horror and fantasy portals are divisions of spec fic portal--> Category:1952 births Category:Living people Category:Artists from Liverpool Category:Alumni of the University of Liverpool Category:English comics writers Category:English horror writers Category:English illustrators Category:English male prostitutes Category:British fantasy artists Category:English speculative fiction artists Category:English fantasy writers Category:Gay novelists Category:Gay male prostitutes Category:GLAAD Media Awards winners Category:British horror film directors Category:British horror artists Category:Inkpot Award winners Category:British LGBTQ film directors Category:LGBTQ comics creators Category:Gay screenwriters Category:People educated at Quarry Bank High School Category:People educated at Calderstones School Category:Splatterpunk Category:World Fantasy Award–winning writers Category:Writers who illustrated their own writing Category:British video game writers Category:Lambda Literary Award winners Category:20th-century English painters Category:English male painters Category:21st-century English painters Category:21st-century English male artists Category:20th-century English novelists Category:21st-century English novelists Category:20th-century English LGBTQ people Category:21st-century English LGBTQ people Category:Gay dramatists and playwrights Category:English LGBTQ novelists Category:English LGBTQ screenwriters Category:English LGBTQ dramatists and playwrights Category:English male dramatists and playwrights Category:English male short story writers Category:English short story writers Category:Dark fantasy writers Category:Marvel Comics people Category:British weird fiction writers Category:Mythopoeic writers Category:Male actors from Liverpool Category:LGBTQ video game developers	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clive_Barker	2025-04-05T18:28:12.620907
7574	Fantasy comedy	Fantasy comedy or comic fantasy is a subgenre of fantasy that is primarily humorous in intent and tone. Typically set in imaginary worlds, fantasy comedy often involves puns on, and parodies of, other works of fantasy. Literature The subgenre rose in the nineteenth century. Elements of fantasy comedy can be found in such nineteenth century works as some of Hans Christian Andersen's fairy tales, Charles Dickens' "Christmas Books", and Lewis Carroll's Alice books. The first writer to specialize in the subgenre was "F. Anstey" in novels such as Vice Versa (1882), where magic disrupts Victorian society with humorous results. Another American writer in a similar vein was Thorne Smith, whose works (such as Topper and The Night Life of the Gods) were popular and influential, and often adapted for film and television. Humorous fantasies narrated in a "gentleman's club" setting are common; they include John Kendrick Bangs' A Houseboat on the Styx (1895), Lord Dunsany's "Jorkens" stories, and Maurice Richardson's The Exploits of Englebrecht (1950). According to Lin Carter, T. H. White's works exemplify fantasy comedy, L. Sprague de Camp and Fletcher Pratt's Harold Shea stories are early exemplars. The overwhelming bulk of de Camp's fantasy was comic. Pratt and de Camp were among several contributors to Unknown Worlds, a pulp magazine which emphasized fantasy with a comedic element. The work of Fritz Leiber also appeared in Unknown Worlds, including his Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser stories, a jocose take on the sword and sorcery subgenre. In more modern times, Terry Pratchett's Discworld books, Piers Anthony's Xanth books, Robert Asprin's MythAdventures of Skeeve and Aahz books, and Tom Holt's books provide good examples, as do many of the works by Christopher Moore. There are also comic-strips/graphic novels in the humorous fantasy genre, including Chuck Whelon's Pewfell series and the webcomics 8-Bit Theater and The Order of the Stick. Other authors of the genre in modern times include C.K. McDonnell, Jasper Fforde, Neil Gaiman, Robert Rankin, John Brosnan, Craig Shaw Gardner, David Lee Stone and Esther Freisner, as well as countless independent authors. Other media The subgenre has also been represented in television, such as in the television series I Dream of Jeannie, Kröd Mändoon. Examples on radio are the BBC's Hordes of the Things and ElvenQuest. Fantasy comedy films can either be parodies (Monty Python and the Holy Grail), comedies with fantastical elements (Being John Malkovich, Barbie) or animated (Shrek). It has also been used with fantasy as the primary genre and comedy as the secondary, as in the case of Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle and its 2019 sequel. References External links Who is DC Farmer? Tales from Land of Ononokin? Fantasy Category:Fantasy genres * Category:Film genres	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantasy_comedy	2025-04-05T18:28:12.657672
7575	CLU (programming language)	\|designer = Barbara Liskov and her students \|developer = Massachusetts Institute of Technology \|latest release version Native CLU 1.5 (SPARC, VAX) / <br /> Portable CLU / \|latest release date \|typing strong \|website = \|implementations PDP-10 CLU, Native CLU, \|dialects \|influenced by ALGOL 60, Lisp, Simula, Alphard \|influenced Ada, Argus, C++, Lua, Python, Ruby, Sather, Swift }} CLU is a programming language created at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) by Barbara Liskov and her students starting in 1973. While it did not find extensive use, it introduced many features that are used widely now, and is seen as a step in the development of object-oriented programming (OOP). Key contributions include abstract data types, call-by-sharing, iterators, multiple return values (a form of parallel assignment), type-safe parameterized types, and type-safe variant types. It is also notable for its use of classes with constructors and methods, but without inheritance. Clusters The syntax of CLU was based on ALGOL, then the starting point for most new language designs. The key addition was the concept of a cluster, CLU's type extension system and the root of the language's name (CLUster). Clusters correspond generally to the concept of a "class" in an OO language. For instance, here is the CLU syntax for a cluster that implements complex numbers: <!-- Not actually Algol 68, but this attribute is required--> <syntaxhighlight lang="text"> complex_number = cluster is add, subtract, multiply, ... rep = record [ real_part: real, imag_part: real ] add = proc ... end add; subtract = proc ... end subtract; multiply = proc ... end multiply; ... end complex_number; </syntaxhighlight> A cluster is a module that encapsulates all of its components except for those explicitly named in the "is" clause. These correspond to the public components of a class in recent OO languages. A cluster also defines a type that can be named outside the cluster (in this case, "complex_number"), but its representation type (rep) is hidden from external clients. Cluster names are global, and no namespace mechanism was provided to group clusters or allow them to be created "locally" inside other clusters. In a cluster, the explicit type conversions up and down change between the abstract type and the representation; implicit conversions between these types are signified using the special type cvt. CLU does not otherwise perform implicit type conversions. There is a universal type any, and a procedure force[] to check that an object is a certain type. Objects may be mutable or immutable, the latter being base types such as integers, booleans, characters and strings. but CLU popularized it and is often credited as the direct influence leading to parallel assignment in later languages. All objects in a CLU program live in the heap, and memory management is automatic. CLU supports type-parameterized user-defined data abstractions. It was the first language to offer type-safe bounded parameterized types, using where clauses to express constraints on actual type arguments. Unlike in languages with template-based generics, a use of such a data abstraction can be type-checked without access to the implementation of the abstraction. Influence CLU and Ada were major inspirations for C++ templates. Python and Ruby borrowed call by sharing, the yield statement, and multiple assignment. References External links * * * [http://woodsheep.jp/clu2c.html clu2c]: a program to compile CLU code to C * [http://cgibin.erols.com/ziring/cgi-bin/cep/cep.pl?_key=CLU Dictionary of Programming Languages] * [http://99-bottles-of-beer.net/language-clu-133.html CLU] comparison at '99 bottles of beer' multi-language demo algorithm site * Category:Academic programming languages Category:Class-based programming languages Category:Massachusetts Institute of Technology software Category:Procedural programming languages Category:Programming languages created in 1975 Category:Programming languages created by women	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CLU_(programming_language)	2025-04-05T18:28:12.682475
7577	History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991)	The history of the Soviet Union from 1982 through 1991 spans the period from the Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev's death until the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Due to the years of Soviet military buildup at the expense of domestic development, and complex systemic problems in the command economy, Soviet output stagnated. Failed attempts at reform, a standstill economy, and the success of the proxies of the United States against the Soviet Union's forces in the war in Afghanistan led to a general feeling of discontent, especially in the Soviet-occupied Central and Eastern Europe (including the Baltic states). Greater political and social freedoms, instituted by the last Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, created an atmosphere of open criticism of the communist regime, and also perestroika. The dramatic drop of the price of oil in 1985 and 1986 profoundly influenced actions of the Soviet leadership. Nikolai Tikhonov, the Chairman of the Council of Ministers, was succeeded by Nikolai Ryzhkov, and Vasili Kuznetsov, the acting Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, was succeeded by Andrei Gromyko, the former Minister of Foreign Affairs. Several republics began resisting central control, and increasing democratization led to a weakening of the central government. The Soviet Union finally collapsed in 1991 when Boris Yeltsin seized power in the aftermath of a failed coup that had attempted to topple the reform-minded Gorbachev. Leadership transition By 1982, the stagnation of the Soviet economy was obvious, as evidenced by the fact that the Soviet Union had been importing grain from the U.S. throughout the 1970s, but the system was so firmly entrenched that any real change seemed impossible. A huge rate of defense spending consumed large parts of the economy. The transition period that separated the Brezhnev and Gorbachev eras resembled the former much more than the latter, although hints of reform emerged as early as 1983. Andropov interregnum Brezhnev died on 10 November 1982. After a two-day power struggle Yuri Andropov became the new General Secretary. He maneuvered his way into power both through his KGB connections and by gaining the support of the military by promising not to cut defense spending. For comparison, some of his rivals such as Konstantin Chernenko were skeptical of a continued high military budget. Aged 68, Andropov was the oldest person ever appointed as General Secretary. Andropov began a thorough house-cleaning throughout the party and state bureaucracy, a decision made easy by the fact that the Central Committee had an average age of 69. He replaced more than one-fifth of the Soviet ministers and regional party first secretaries and more than one-third of the department heads within the Central Committee apparatus. As a result, he replaced the aging leadership with younger, more vigorous administrators. But Andropov's ability to reshape the top leadership was constrained by his own age and poor health and the influence of Chernenko, his rival and longtime ally of Brezhnev who had previously supervised personnel matters in the Central Committee. The transition of power from Brezhnev to Andropov was notably the first one in Soviet history to occur completely peacefully with no one being imprisoned, killed, or forced from office. Domestic policies Andropov's domestic policy leaned heavily towards restoring discipline and order to Soviet society. He eschewed radical political and economic reforms, promoting instead a small degree of candor in politics and mild economic experiments similar to those that had been associated with the late Premier Alexei Kosygin's initiatives in the mid-1960s. In tandem with such economic experiments, Andropov launched an anti-corruption drive that reached high into the government and party ranks. Unlike Brezhnev, who possessed several mansions and a fleet of luxury cars, he lived quite simply. While visiting Budapest in early 1983, he expressed interest in Hungary's Goulash Communism and that the sheer size of the Soviet economy made strict top-down planning impractical. Changes were needed in a hurry for 1982 had witnessed the country's worst economic performance, with real GDP growth at almost zero percent. Foreign policies during the KAL 007 Flight.]] Andropov faced a series of foreign policy crises: the hopeless situation of the Soviet army in Afghanistan, threatened revolt in Poland, growing animosity with China, the polarization threat of war in the Middle East, and troubles in Ethiopia and South Africa. The most critical threat was the "Second Cold War" launched by American President Ronald Reagan and a specific attack on rolling back what he denounced as the "Evil Empire". Reagan was using American economic power, and Soviet economic weakness, to escalate massive spending on the Cold War, emphasizing high technology that Moscow lacked. The main response was raising the military budget to 70 percent of the national budget, and supplying billions of dollars worth of military aid to Syria, Iraq, Libya, South Yemen, the PLO, Cuba, and North Korea. That included tanks and armored troop carriers, hundreds of fighter planes, as well as anti-aircraft systems, artillery systems, and all sorts of high tech equipment for which the USSR was the main supplier for its allies. Andropov's main goal was to avoid an open war. In foreign policy, the conflict in Afghanistan continued even though Andropov—who now felt the invasion was a mistake—half-heartedly explored options for a negotiated withdrawal. Andropov's rule was also marked by deterioration of relations with the United States. During a much-publicized "walk in the woods" with Soviet dignitary Yuli Kvitsinsky, American diplomat Paul Nitze suggested a compromise for reducing nuclear missiles in Europe on both sides that was ultimately ignored by the Politburo. Kvitsinsky would later write that, despite his own efforts, the Soviet leadership was not interested in compromise, instead calculating that peace movements in the West would force the Americans to capitulate. On 8 March 1983, during Andropov's reign as General Secretary, U.S. President Ronald Reagan famously labeled the Soviet Union an "evil empire". The same month, on 23 March, Reagan announced the Strategic Defense Initiative. Reagan claimed this research program into ballistic missile defense would be "consistent with our obligations under the ABM Treaty". However, Andropov was dismissive of this claim, and said that "It is time they [Washington] stopped ... search[ing] for the best ways of unleashing nuclear war. ... Engaging in this is not just irresponsible. It is insane". In August 1983, Andropov announced that the country was stopping all work on space-based weapons. Meanwhile, Soviet–U.S. arms control talks on intermediate-range nuclear weapons in Europe were suspended by the Soviet Union in November 1983 and by the end of the year, the Soviets had broken off all arms control negotiations. Massive bad publicity worldwide came when Soviet fighters shot down a civilian jet liner, Korean Air Flight KAL-007, which carried 269 passengers and crew. It had strayed over the Soviet Union on 1 September 1983 on its scheduled route from Anchorage, Alaska, to Seoul, South Korea. The Soviet system was unprepared to deal with a civilian airliner, and the shooting down was a matter of following orders without question. Instead of admitting an accident, Soviet media proclaimed a brave decision to meet a Western provocation. Together with its low credibility explanation in 1986 of the meltdown of the nuclear reactor at Chernobyl, the episode demonstrated an inability to deal with public relations crises; the propaganda system was only aimed at people who already were committed friends of the Soviet Union. Both crises were escalated by technological and organizational failures, compounded by human error. US−Soviet relations deteriorated rapidly especially after March 1983, when Reagan dubbed the Soviet Union an "evil empire". The official press agency TASS accused Reagan of "thinking only in terms of confrontation and bellicose, lunatic anti-communism". Further Soviet outrage was directed at Reagan's stationing of intermediate-range nuclear missiles in Western Europe. In Afghanistan, Angola, Nicaragua and elsewhere, under the Reagan Doctrine, the US began undermining Soviet-supported governments by supplying arms to anti-communist resistance movements in these countries. President Reagan's decision to deploy medium-range Pershing II missiles in Western Europe met with mass protests in countries such as France and West Germany, sometimes numbering 1 million people at a time. Many Europeans became convinced that the US and not the Soviet Union was the more aggressive country, and there was fear over the prospect of a war, especially since there was a widespread conviction in Europe that the US, being separated from the Red Army by two oceans as opposed to a short land border, was insensitive to the people of Germany and other countries. Moreover, the memory of World War II was still strong and many Germans could not forget the destruction and mass rapes committed by Soviet troops in the closing days of that conflict. This attitude was helped along by the Reagan Administration's comments that a war between NATO and the Warsaw Pact would not necessarily result in the use of nuclear weapons. Andropov's health declined rapidly during the tense summer and fall of 1983, and he became the first Soviet leader to miss the anniversary celebrations of the 1917 revolution that November. He died in February 1984 of kidney failure after disappearing from public view for several months. His most significant legacy to the Soviet Union was his discovery and promotion of Mikhail Gorbachev. Beginning in 1978, Gorbachev advanced in two years through the Kremlin hierarchy to full membership in the Politburo. His responsibilities for the appointment of personnel allowed him to make the contacts and distribute the favors necessary for a future bid to become general secretary. At this point, Western experts believed that Andropov was grooming Gorbachev as his successor. However, although Gorbachev acted as a deputy to the general secretary throughout Andropov's illness, Gorbachev's time had not yet arrived when his patron died early in 1984. Chernenko interregnum At 73, Konstantin Chernenko was in poor health, suffering from emphysema, and unable to play an active role in policy making when he was chosen, after lengthy discussion, to succeed Andropov. But Chernenko's short time in office did bring some significant policy changes. The personnel changes and investigations into corruption undertaken under Andropov's tutelage came to an end. Chernenko advocated more investment in consumer goods and services and in agriculture. He also called for a reduction in the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's (CPSU) micromanagement of the economy and greater attention to public opinion. However, KGB repression of Soviet dissidents also increased. In February 1983, Soviet representatives withdrew from the World Psychiatric Organization in protest of that group's continued complaints about the use of psychiatry to suppress dissent. This policy was underlined in June when Vladimir Danchev, a broadcaster for Radio Moscow, referred to the Soviet troops in Afghanistan as "invaders" while conducting English-language broadcasts. After refusing to retract this statement, he was sent to a mental institution for several months. Valery Senderov, a leader of an unofficial union of professional workers, was sentenced to seven years in a labor camp early in the year for speaking out on discrimination practiced against Jews in education and the professions. Although Chernenko had called for renewed détente with the West, little progress was made towards closing the rift in East−West relations during his rule. The Soviet Union boycotted the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, retaliating for the United States-led boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow. In September 1984, the Soviet Union also prevented a visit to West Germany by East German leader Erich Honecker. Fighting in the Afghan Democratic Republic also intensified, but in the late autumn of 1984 the United States and the Soviet Union did agree to resume arms control talks in early 1985.Rise of GorbachevIn addition to the failing economy, the prolonged war in Afghanistan, often referred to as the Soviet Union's "Vietnam War", led to increased public dissatisfaction with the Communist regime. Also, the Chernobyl disaster in 1986 added motive force to Gorbachev's glasnost and perestroika reforms, which eventually spiraled out of control and caused the Soviet system to collapse. Ousting the old guard After years of stagnation, the "new thinking" of younger Communist apparatchik began to emerge. Following the death of terminally ill Konstantin Chernenko, the Politburo elected Mikhail Gorbachev to the position of General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in March 1985. At 54, Gorbachev was the youngest person since Joseph Stalin to become General Secretary and the country's first head of state born a Soviet citizen instead of a subject of the tsar. During his official confirmation on 11 March, Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko spoke of how the new Soviet leader had filled in for Chernenko as CC Secretariat, and praised his intelligence and flexible, pragmatic ideas instead of rigid adherence to party ideology. Gorbachev was aided by a lack of serious competition in the Politburo. He immediately began appointing younger men of his generation to important party posts, including Nikolai Ryzhkov, Secretary of Economics, Viktor Cherbrikov, KGB Chief, Foreign Minister Eduard Shevardnadze (replacing the 75-year-old Gromyko), Secretary of Defense Industries , and Secretary of Construction Boris Yeltsin. Removed from the Politburo and Secretariat was Grigory Romanov, who had been Gorbachev's most significant rival for the position of General Secretary. Gromyko's removal as Foreign Minister was the most unexpected change given his decades of unflinching, faithful service compared to the unknown, inexperienced Shevardnadze. More predictably, the 80-year-old Nikolai Tikhonov, the Chairman of the Council of Ministers, was succeeded by Nikolai Ryzhkov, and Vasili Kuznetsov, the acting Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, was succeeded by Andrei Gromyko, the former Minister of Foreign Affairs. Further down the chain, up to 40% of the first secretaries of the oblasts (provinces) were replaced with younger, better educated, and more competent men. The defense establishment was also given a thorough shakeup with the commanders of all 16 military districts replaced along with all theaters of military operation, as well as the three Soviet fleets. Not since World War II had the Soviet military had such a rapid turnover of officers. Sixty-eight-year-old Marshal Nikolai Ogarkov was fully rehabilitated after having fallen from favor in 1983–84 due to his handling of the KAL 007 shootdown and his ideas about improving Soviet strategic and tactical doctrines were made into an official part of defense policy, although some of his other ambitions such as developing the military into a smaller, tighter force based on advanced technology were not considered feasible for the time being. Many, but not all, of the younger army officers appointed during 1985 were proteges of Ogarkov. Gorbachev got off to an excellent start during his first months in power. He projected an aura of youth and dynamism compared to his aged predecessors and made frequent walks in the streets of the major cities answering questions from ordinary citizens. He became the first leader that spoke with the Soviet people in person. When he made public speeches, he made clear that he was interested in constructive exchanges of ideas instead of merely reciting lengthy platitudes about the excellence of the Soviet system. He also spoke candidly about the slackness and run-down condition of Soviet society in recent years, blaming alcohol abuse, poor workplace discipline, and other factors for these situations. Alcohol was a particular nag of Gorbachev's, especially as he himself did not drink, and he made one of his major policy aims curbing the consumption of it. Foreign policy In terms of foreign policy, the most important one, relations with the United States, remained twitchy through 1985. In October, Gorbachev made his first visit to a non-communist country when he traveled to France and was warmly received. The fashion-conscious French were also captivated by his wife Raisa and political pundits widely believed that the comparatively young Soviet leader would have a PR advantage over President Reagan, who was 20 years his senior. Reagan and Gorbachev met for the first time in Geneva in November. The three weeks preceding the summit meeting were marked by an unprecedented Soviet media campaign against the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), taking advantage of opposition at home in the US to the program. When it finally took place, the two superpower leaders established a solid rapport that boded well for the future despite Reagan's refusal to compromise on abandonment of SDI. A joint communique by both parties stated that they were in agreement that nuclear war could not be won by either side and must never be allowed to happen. It was also agreed that Reagan and Gorbachev would carry out two more summit meetings in 1986–87. Jimmy Carter had decisively ended the policy of détente, by financially aiding the Mujahideen movement in neighboring Socialist Afghanistan, which served as a pretext for the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan six months later, with the aims of supporting the Afghan government, controlled by the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan. Tensions between the superpowers increased during this time, when Carter placed trade embargoes on the Soviet Union and stated that the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan was "the most serious threat to the peace since the Second World War."EconomyEast-West tensions increased during the first term of US President Ronald Reagan (1981–85), reaching levels not seen since the Cuban Missile Crisis as Reagan increased US military spending to 7% of the GDP. To match the military buildup, the Soviet Union increased its own military spending to 27% of its GDP and froze production of civilian goods at 1980 levels, causing a sharp economic decline in the already failing Soviet economy. The US financed the training for the Mujahideen warlords such as Jalaluddin Haqqani, Gulbudin Hekmatyar and Burhanuddin Rabbani eventually culminated to the fall of the Soviet satellite the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. While the CIA and MI6 and the People's Liberation Army of China financed the operation along with the Pakistan government against the Soviet Union, eventually the Soviet Union began looking for a withdrawal route and in 1988 the Geneva Accords were signed between Communist-Afghanistan and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan; under the terms Soviet troops were to withdraw. Once the withdrawal was complete the Pakistan ISI continued to support the Mujahideen against the Communist Government and by 1992, the government collapsed. US President Reagan also actively hindered the Soviet Union's ability to sell natural gas to Europe whilst simultaneously actively working to keep gas prices low, which kept the price of Soviet oil low and further starved the Soviet Union of foreign capital. This "long-term strategic offensive," which "contrasts with the essentially reactive and defensive strategy of "containment", accelerated the fall of the Soviet Union by encouraging it to overextend its economic base. The proposition that special operations by the CIA in Saudi Arabia affected the prices of Soviet oil was refuted by Marshall Goldman—one of the leading experts on the economy of the Soviet Union—in his latest book. He pointed out that the Saudis decreased their production of oil in 1985 (it reached a 16-year low), whereas the peak of oil production was reached in 1980. They increased the production of oil in 1986, reduced it in 1987 with a subsequent increase in 1988, but not to the levels of 1980 when production reached its highest level. The real increase happened in 1990, by which time the Cold War was almost over. In his book he asked why, if Saudi Arabia had such an effect on Soviet oil prices, did prices not fall in 1980 when the production of oil by Saudi Arabia reached its highest level—three times as much oil as in the mid-eighties—and why did the Saudis wait till 1990 to increase their production, five years after the CIA's supposed intervention? Why didn't the Soviet Union collapse in 1980 then? By the time Gorbachev ushered in the process that would lead to the dismantling of the Soviet administrative command economy through his programs of uskoreniye (speed-up of economic development) and perestroika (political and economic restructuring) announced in 1986, the Soviet economy suffered from both hidden inflation and pervasive supply shortages aggravated by an increasingly open black market that undermined the official economy. Additionally, the costs of superpower status—the military, space program, subsidies to client states—were out of proportion to the Soviet economy. The new wave of industrialization based upon information technology had left the Soviet Union desperate for Western technology and credits in order to counter its increasing backwardness.Reforms The Law on Cooperatives enacted in May 1988 was perhaps the most radical of the economic reforms during the early part of the Gorbachev era. For the first time since Vladimir Lenin's New Economic Policy, the law permitted private ownership of businesses in the services, manufacturing, and foreign-trade sectors. Under this provision, cooperative restaurants, shops, and manufacturers became part of the Soviet scene. Glasnost resulted in greater freedom of speech and the press becoming far less controlled. Thousands of political prisoners and many dissidents were also released. Soviet social science became free to explore and publish on many subjects that had previously been off limits, including conducting public opinion polls. The All−Union Center for Public Opinion Research (VCIOM)—the most prominent of several polling organizations that were started then— was opened. State archives became more accessible, and some social statistics that had been kept secret became open for research and publication on sensitive subjects such as income disparities, crime, suicide, abortion, and infant mortality. The first center for gender studies was opened within a newly formed Institute for the Socio−Economic Study of Human Population. In January 1987, Gorbachev called for democratization: the infusion of democratic elements such as multi-candidate elections into the Soviet political process. A 1987 conference convened by Soviet economist and Gorbachev adviser Leonid Abalkin, concluded: "Deep transformations in the management of the economy cannot be realized without corresponding changes in the political system." In June 1988, at the CPSU's Nineteenth Party Conference, Gorbachev launched radical reforms meant to reduce party control of the government apparatus. On 1 December 1988, the Supreme Soviet amended the Soviet constitution to allow for the establishment of a Congress of People's Deputies as the Soviet Union's new supreme legislative body. Elections to the new Congress of People's Deputies were held throughout the USSR in March and April 1989. Gorbachev, as General Secretary of the Communist Party, could be forced to resign at any moment if the communist elite became dissatisfied with him. To proceed with reforms opposed by the majority of the communist party, Gorbachev aimed to consolidate power in a new position, President of the Soviet Union, which was independent from the CPSU and the soviets (councils) and whose holder could be impeached only in case of direct violation of the law. On 15 March 1990, Gorbachev was elected as the first executive president. At the same time, Article 6 of the constitution was changed to deprive the CPSU of a monopoly on political power.Unintended consequences Gorbachev's efforts to streamline the Communist system offered promise, but ultimately proved uncontrollable and resulted in a cascade of events that eventually concluded with the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Initially intended as tools to bolster the Soviet economy, the policies of perestroika and glasnost soon led to unintended consequences. Relaxation under glasnost resulted in the Communist Party losing its absolute grip on the media. Before long, and much to the embarrassment of the authorities, the media began to expose severe social and economic problems the Soviet government had long denied and actively concealed. Problems receiving increased attention included poor housing, alcoholism, drug abuse, pollution, outdated Stalin-era factories, and petty to large-scale corruption, all of which the official media had ignored. Media reports also exposed crimes committed by Joseph Stalin and the Soviet regime, such as the gulags, his treaty with Adolf Hitler, and the Great Purges, which had been ignored by the official media. Moreover, the ongoing war in Afghanistan, and the mishandling of the 1986 Chernobyl disaster, further damaged the credibility of the Soviet government at a time when dissatisfaction was increasing. In all, the positive view of Soviet lifelong presented to the public by the official media was rapidly fading, and the negative aspects of life in the Soviet Union were brought into the spotlight. This undermined the faith of the public in the Soviet system and eroded the Communist Party's social power base, threatening the identity and integrity of the Soviet Union itself. Fraying amongst the members of the Warsaw Pact countries and instability of its western allies, first indicated by Lech Wałęsa's 1980 rise to leadership of the trade union Solidarity, accelerated, leaving the Soviet Union unable to depend upon its Eastern European satellite states for protection as a buffer zone. By 1989, following his doctrine of "new political thinking", Gorbachev had repudiated the Brezhnev Doctrine in favor of non-intervention in the internal affairs of its Warsaw Pact allies ("Sinatra Doctrine"). Gradually, each of the Warsaw Pact countries saw their communist governments fall to popular elections and, in the case of Romania, a violent uprising. By 1990, the governments of Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland and Romania, all of which had been imposed after World War II, were brought down as revolutions swept Eastern Europe. The Soviet Union also began experiencing upheaval as the political consequences of glasnost reverberated throughout the country. Despite efforts at containment, the upheaval in Eastern Europe inevitably spread to nationalities within the USSR. In elections to the regional assemblies of the Soviet Union's constituent republics, nationalists as well as radical reformers swept the board. As Gorbachev had weakened the system of internal political repression, the ability of the USSR's central Moscow government to impose its will on the USSR's constituent republics had been largely undermined. Massive peaceful protests in the Baltic republics such as the Baltic Way and the Singing Revolution drew international attention and bolstered independence movements in various other regions. The rise of nationalism under freedom of speech soon re-awakened simmering ethnic tensions in various Soviet republics, further discrediting the ideal of a unified Soviet people. One instance occurred in February 1988, when the government in Nagorno-Karabakh, a predominantly ethnic Armenian region in the Azerbaijan SSR, passed a resolution calling for unification with the Armenian SSR. Violence against local Azerbaijanis was reported on Soviet television, provoking massacres of Armenians in the Azerbaijani city of Sumgait. Emboldened by the liberalized atmosphere of glasnost, public dissatisfaction with economic conditions was much more overt than ever before in the Soviet period. Although perestroika was considered bold in the context of Soviet history, Gorbachev's attempts at economic reform were not radical enough to restart the country's chronically sluggish economy in the late 1980s. The reforms made some inroads in decentralization, but Gorbachev and his team left intact most of the fundamental elements of the Stalinist system, including price controls, inconvertibility of the ruble, exclusion of private property ownership, and the government monopoly over most means of production. The value of all consumer goods manufactured in 1990 in retail prices was about 459 billion rubles ($2.1 trillion). Nevertheless, the Soviet government had lost control over economic conditions. Government spending increased sharply as an increasing number of unprofitable enterprises required state support and consumer price subsidies to continue. Tax revenues declined as republic and local governments withheld tax revenues from the central government under the growing spirit of regional autonomy. The anti−alcohol campaign reduced tax revenues as well, which in 1982 accounted for about 12% of all state revenue. The elimination of central control over production decisions, especially in the consumer goods sector, led to the breakdown in traditional supplier−producer relationships without contributing to the formation of new ones. Thus, instead of streamlining the system, Gorbachev's decentralization caused new production bottlenecks. Dissolution of the Soviet Union The dissolution of the Soviet Union' was a process of systematic disintegration, which occurred in the economy, social structure and political structure. It resulted in the abolition of the Soviet Federal Government ("the Union center") and independence of the USSR's republics on 26 December 1991. The process was caused by a weakening of the Soviet government, which led to disintegration and took place from about 19 January 1990 to 26 December 1991. The process was characterized by many of the republics of the Soviet Union declaring their independence and being recognized as sovereign nation-states. Andrei Grachev, the Deputy Head of the Intelligence Department of the Central Committee, summed up the denouement of the downfall quite cogently: Post-Soviet restructuring To restructure the Soviet administrative command system and implement a transition to a market economy, Yeltsin's shock program was employed within days of the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The subsidies to money-losing farms and industries were cut, price controls abolished, and the ruble moved towards convertibility. New opportunities for Yeltsin's circle and other entrepreneurs to seize former state property were created, thus restructuring the old state-owned economy within a few months. After obtaining power, the vast majority of "idealistic" reformers gained huge possessions of state property using their positions in the government and became business oligarchs in a manner that appeared antithetical to an emerging democracy. Existing institutions were conspicuously abandoned prior to the establishment of new legal structures of the market economy such as those governing private property, overseeing financial markets, and enforcing taxation. Market economists believed that the dismantling of the administrative command system in Russia would raise GDP and living standards by allocating resources more efficiently. They also thought the collapse would create new production possibilities by eliminating central planning, substituting a decentralized market system, eliminating huge macroeconomic and structural distortions through liberalization, and providing incentives through privatization. Since the USSR's collapse, Russia faced many problems that free market proponents in 1992 did not expect. Among other things, 25% of the population lived below the poverty line, life expectancy had fallen, birthrates were low, and the GDP was halved. There was a sharp increase in economic inequality between 1988/1989 and 1993/1995, with the Gini ratio increasing by an average of 9 points for all former socialist countries. These problems led to a series of crises in the 1990s, which nearly led to the election of Yeltsin's Communist challenger, Gennady Zyuganov, in the 1996 presidential election. After the turn of the century, the economy of Russia has begun to improve greatly, due to major investments and business development and also due to high prices of natural resources. Historiography According to Boris N. Mironov, by 2020 Russian scholars had produced over 300 books, 3000 articles, and 20 dissertations trying to explain the collapse. Two approaches were taken. The first is to look at the short term, 1985–1991, emphasizing personalities. external causes and policy mistakes. The second looks at long-term economic, political, cultural, and social structures. See also * Bibliography of the Post Stalinist Soviet Union * Cold War (1985–91) * History of the Russian Federation (1991–present) * Index of Soviet Union-related articles * Predictions of the dissolution of the Soviet Union * Reagan Doctrine * Revolutions of 1989 (Eastern Europe) References Further reading * Adelman, Jonathan R., and Deborah Anne Palmieri. The dynamics of Soviet foreign policy (Harpercollins, 1989). * Andrew, Christopher and Vasili Mitrokhin. The World Was Going Our Way: The KGB and the Battle for the Third World (Basic Books, 2005). * Downing, Taylor. Reagan, Andropov, and a World on the Brink (2018) * d'Encausse, Hélène Carrère, The End of the Soviet Empire: The Triumph of the Nations (Basic Books, 1992), * * Fischer, Ben B. A Cold War conundrum: the 1983 soviet war scare (Central Intelligence Agency, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1997). [https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/19970901.pdf online] * * * Hough, Jerry F. "Soviet politics under Andropov." Current History 82.486 (1983): 330–346. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/45315201 online] * Kort, Michael G. The Soviet colossus: history and aftermath (Routledge, 2019) * Marples, David R. The collapse of the Soviet Union, 1985–1991 (Routledge, 2016). * Matlock, Jr. Jack F., ''Autopsy on an Empire: The American Ambassador's Account of the Collapse of the Soviet Union, Random House, 1995, * Oberdorfer, Don. From the Cold War to a New Era: The United States and the Soviet Union, 1983–1991 (2nd ed. Johns Hopkins UP, 1998). * Remnick, David, Lenin's Tomb: The Last Days of the Soviet Empire, Vintage Books, 1994, * Steele, Jonathan. Soviet Power (1984) * Strayer, Robert. Why Did the Soviet Union Collapse?: Understanding Historical Change (Routledge, 2016). * Suny, Ronald Grigor, The Revenge of the Past: Nationalism, Revolution, and the Collapse of the Soviet Union, Stanford University Press, 1993, * Taubman, William. Gorbachev: His Life and Times (2017) * Volkogonov, Dimitri. Autopsy for an empire: The seven leaders who built the Soviet regime (1998). pp. 329–534. * Winters, Paul A. Turning Points in World History – The Collapse of the Soviet Union (1998) short essays by experts Historiography * Cox, Michael. "Learning from history? From Soviet collapse to the ‘new’ Cold War." Cold War History 14.4 (2014): 461–485. * Kalashnikov, Anthony. "Differing Interpretations: Causes of the collapse of the Soviet Union." Constellations 3.1 (2011) 75–86. [https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/constellations/index.php/constellations/article/download/16289/13076 online] * Marples, David R. "Revisiting the Collapse of the USSR." Canadian Slavonic Papers 53.2–4 (2011): 461–473. * Mironov, Boris N. "Disintegration of the USSR in Historiography: Collapse or Dissolution." (2021) DOI:10.21638/11701/SPBU02.2021.108 [https://dspace.spbu.ru/bitstream/11701/27904/1/132-147.pdf online in Russian] * Mironov, B. N. "From Indigenization to Sovereignization: How the Disintegration of the Soviet Union Was Prepared." Herald of the Russian Academy of Sciences'' 92.1 (2022): S33-S48. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S1019331622070085 online] External links * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/coldwar/soviet_end_01.shtml Reform, Coup and Collapse: The End of the Soviet State] by Professor Archie Brown * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110425065643/http://psi.ece.jhu.edu/~kaplan/IRUSS/BUK/GBARC/buk.html Soviet Archives] collected by Vladimir Bukovsky [http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552542 End of the Soviet Union] from the [https://www.library.georgetown.edu/digitalgeorgetown/krogh Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives] [http://www.4020.net/eastbloc/ Candid photos of the Eastern Bloc] September–December 1991, in the last months of the USSR * [http://chnm.gmu.edu/1989/ Making the History of 1989] Category:1980s in the Soviet Union Category:1990s in the Soviet Union Category:Eastern Bloc 1982 1982 *1982	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1982–1991)	2025-04-05T18:28:12.726348
7578	Corsican language	, \| ethnicity = Corsicans \| pronunciation = \| states = \| region = \| speakers = 150,000 in Corsica<!--data only supports 1 sig fig--> \| date = 2013 \| ref = e23 \| speakers2 \| familycolor Indo-European \| fam2 = Italic \| fam3 = Latino-Faliscan \| fam4 = Latin \| fam5 = Romance \| fam6 = Italo-Western \| fam7 = Italo-Dalmatian \| fam8 = Italo-Romance \| fam9 = Tuscan \| dia1 = Northern Corsican \| dia2 = Southern Corsican \| dia3 Gallurese \| dia4 Sassarese \| dia5 = Central Corsican \| dia6 Capraiese (semi-corsican dialect) \| dia7 = Castellanese \| script = Latin script (Corsican alphabet) \| minority = Corsica \| agency = No official regulation \| iso1 = co \| iso2 = cos \| lc1 = cos \| ld1 = Corsican \| lc2 \| ld2 \| lc3 \| ld3 \| lingua = 51-AAA-p \| glotto = cors1241 \| glottoname = Corsican \| glottorefname \| glotto2 sass1235 \| glottoname2 = Sassarese Sardinian \| glottorefname2 \| map Parlers de Corse.jpg \| mapcaption = Linguistic map of Corsica \| map2 = Lang Status 60-DE.svg \| mapcaption2 = }} \| notice = IPA }} Corsican (, , or , ) is a Romance language consisting of the continuum of the Tuscan Italo-Dalmatian dialects spoken on the Mediterranean island of Corsica, a territory of France, and in the northern regions of the island of Sardinia, an autonomous region of Italy. Corsica is situated approximately 123.9 km (77.0 miles; 66 nautical miles) off the western coast of Tuscany; and with historical connections, the Corsican language is considered a part of Tuscan varieties, from that part of the Italian peninsula, and thus is closely related to Florentine-based standard Italian. Under the long-standing influence of Tuscany's Pisa, and the historic Republic of Genoa, over Corsica, the Corsican language once filled the role of a vernacular, with Italian functioning as the island's official language until France acquired the island from the Republic of Genoa (1768); by 1859, French had replaced Italian as Corsica's first language so much so that, by the time of the Liberation of France (1945), nearly every islander had at least a working-knowledge of French. The 20th century saw a vast language shift, with the islanders adapting and changing their communications to the extent that there were no monolingual Corsican-speakers left by the 1960s. By 1995, an estimated 65% of islanders had some degree of proficiency in Corsican, and a minority of around 10% used Corsican as a first language. Classification Corsican is classed as a regional language under French law. It is almost universally agreed that Corsican is typologically and traditionally Italo-Romance, but its specific position therein is more controversial. Some scholars argue that Corsican belongs to the Centro-Southern Italian dialects, while others are of the opinion that it is closely related to, or as part of, Italy's Tuscan dialect varieties. Italian and the dialects of Corsican (especially Northern Corsican) are in fact very mutually intelligible. Southern Corsican, in spite of the geographical proximity, has as its closest linguistic neighbour not Sardinian (a separate group with which it is not mutually intelligible), but rather the Extreme Southern Italian dialects like Siculo-Calabrian. It has been theorised, on the other hand, that a Sardinian variety, or a variety very similar to Sardo-Romance, might have been originally spoken in Corsica prior to the island's Tuscanisation under Pisan and Genoese rule. The matter is controversial in light of the historical, cultural and particularly strong linguistic bonds that Corsica had traditionally formed with the Italian Mainland from the Middle Ages until the 19th century: in contrast to the neighbouring Sardinia, Corsica's installment into a diglossic system with Italian as the island's prestige language ran so deep that both Corsican and Italian might be even, and in fact were, perceived as two sociolinguistic levels of a single language. Corsican and Italian traditionally existed on a spectrum, and the dividing lines between them were blurred enough that the locals needed little else but a change of register to communicate in an official setting. "Tuscanising" their tongue, or as the Corsican elites would have once said, parlà in crusca ("speaking in crusca", from the name of the Academy dedicated to the standardisation of the Italian language), allowed for a practice not of code-switching, but rather of code-mixing which is quite typical of the Mainland Italian dialects. Italian was perceived as different from Corsican, but not as much as the differences between the two main isoglosses of Northern and Southern Corsican, as spoken by their respective native speakers. When Pasquale Paoli found himself exiled in London, he replied to Samuel Johnson's query on the peculiar existence of a "rustic language" very different from Italian that such a language existed only in Sardinia; in fact, the existence of Corsican as the island's native vernacular did not take anything away from Paoli's claims that Corsica's official language was Italian. Today's Corsican is the result of these historical vicissitudes, which have morphed the language to an idiom that bears a strong resemblance to the medieval Tuscan once spoken at the time of Dante and Boccaccio, and still existing in peripheral Tuscany (Lucca, Garfagnana, Elba, Capraia). The correspondence of modern Corsican to ancient Tuscan can be seen from almost any aspect of the language, ranging from the phonetics, morphology, lexicon to the syntax. One of the characteristics of standard Italian is the retention of the -re infinitive ending, as in Latin mittere "send"; such infinitival ending is lost in Tuscan as well as Corsican, resulting in the outcome mette / metta, "to put". Whereas the relative pronoun in Italian for "who" is chi and "what" is che/(che) cosa, it is an uninflected chì in Corsican. The only unifying, as well as distinctive, feature which separates the Corsican dialects from the mainland Tuscan ones, with the exception of Amiatino, Pitiglianese, and Capraiese, is the retention of word-final o-u. For example, the Italian demonstrative pronouns questo "this" and quello "that" become in Corsican questu or quistu and quellu or quiddu: this feature was also typical of the early Italian texts during the Middle Ages. Even after the acquisition of Corsica by Louis XV, Italian continued to be the island's language of education, literature, religion and local affairs. The affluent youth still went to Italy to pursue higher studies. (It has been estimated that Corsican presence in Pisa amounted to a fourth of the University's total student body in 1830.) Local civil registers continued to be written in Italian until 1855; it was on 9 May 1859, that Italian was replaced by French as the island's official language, although the latter would start to take root among the islanders from 1882 onwards, through the Jules Ferry laws aimed at spreading literacy across the French provinces. Even so, a specifically homegrown Corsican (rather than Italian) literature in Corsica only developed belatedly and, in its earliest phase, there were no autonomous cultural instances; Corsican writers, such as Salvatore Viale, even prided themselves on their affiliation to the broader Italian sphere, considering Corsican "one of the lowest, impure dialects of Italy". It was the Italian Fascist aggressive claims to the island in the 20th century, followed by their invasion, that provoked a popular backlash, estranging the native islanders from standard Italian and, if anything, only accelerated their shifting to the French even further. By the Liberation of France, any previously existing link between the two linguistic varieties and with Italy altogether had been severed; any promotion of Corsican, which had been politicized by the local collaborators with the regime, would be met with popular criticism and even suspicion of potentially harboring irredentist sentiments. From then on, Corsican would grow independently of Italian to become, later in the 1970s, a centerpiece of the Riacquistu ("reacquisition") movement for the rediscovery of Corsican culture. Nationalist calls for Corsican to be put on the same footing as French led the French National Assembly, in 1974, to extend the 1951 Deixonne Law, which initially recognized only a few languages (Breton, Basque, Catalan and Occitan), to including Corsican as well, among others, not as a dialect of Italian, but as one of France's full-fledged regional languages. (See governmental support.) Origins The common relationship between Corsica and central Italy can be traced from as far back as the Etruscans, who asserted their presence on the island in as early as 500 BC. In 40 AD, the natives of Corsica reportedly did not speak Latin. The Roman exile, Seneca the Younger, reported that both coast and interior were occupied by natives whose language he was not able to understand. More specifically, Seneca claimed that the island's population was the result of the stratification of different ethnic groups, such as the Greeks, the Ligures (see the Ligurian hypothesis) and the Iberians, whose language had long since stopped being recognizable among the population due to the intermixing of the other two groups. The occupation of the island by the Vandals around the year 469 marked the end of authoritative influence by Latin speakers. (See Medieval Corsica.) If the natives of that time spoke Latin, they must have acquired it during the late empire. Modern Corsican has been influenced by the languages of the major powers taking an interest in Corsican affairs; earlier by those of the medieval Italian powers, such as the Papal States (828–1077), the Republic of Pisa (1077–1282) and the Republic of Genoa (1282–1768), and finally by France which, since 1859, has promulgated the official Parisian French. The term "gallicised Corsican" refers to the evolution of Corsican starting from about the year 1950, whereas "distanciated Corsican" refers to an idealized variety of Corsican following linguistic purism, by means of removing any French-derived elements. Dialects Corsica The two most widely spoken forms of the Corsican language are the groups spoken in the Bastia and Corte area (generally throughout the northern half of the island, known as Haute-Corse, Cismonte or Corsica suprana), and the groups spoken around Sartène and Porto-Vecchio (generally throughout the southern half of the island, known as Corse-du-Sud, Pumonti or ). The dialect of Ajaccio has been described as in transition. The dialects spoken at Calvi and Bonifacio (Bonifacino) are dialects of the Ligurian language. This division along the Girolata-Porto Vecchio line was due to the massive immigration from Tuscany which took place in Corsica during the lower Middle Ages: as a result, the northern Corsican dialects became very close to a central Italian dialect like Tuscan, while the southern Corsican varieties could keep the original characteristics of the language which make it much more similar to Sicilian and, only to some extent, Sardinian. Northern Corsican The Northern Corsican macro variety (Supranacciu, Supranu, Cismuntincu or Cismontano) is the most widespread on the island and standardised as well, and is spoken in North-West Corsica around the districts of Bastia and Corte. The dialects of Bastia and Cap Corse belong to the Western Tuscan dialects; they being, with the exception of Florentine, the closest to standard Italian. All the dialects presenting, in addition to what has already been stated, the conditional formed in (e.g. "she would love") are generally considered Cismontani dialects, situated north of a line uniting the villages of Piana, Vico, Vizzavona, Ghisoni and Ghisonaccia, and also covering the subgroups from the Cap Corse (which, unlike the rest of the island and similarly to Italian, uses lu, li, la, le as definite articles), Bastia (besides i > e and a > e, u > o: , , , ; a > o: , , ), Balagna, Niolo and Corte (which retain the general Corsican traits: , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ). Transitional area Across the Northern and Southern borders of the line separating the Northern dialects from the Southern ones, there is a transitional area picking up linguistic phenomena associated with either of the two groups, with some local peculiarities. Along the Northern line are the dialects around Piana and Calcatoggio, from Cinarca with Vizzavona (which form the conditional as in the South), and Fiumorbo through Ghisonaccia and Ghisoni, which have the retroflex sound (written -dd-) for historical ; along the Southern line, the dialects of Ajaccio (retroflex -dd-, realized as -ghj-, feminine plurals ending in i, some Northern words like cane and accattà instead of ghjacaru and cumprà, as well as ellu/ella and not eddu/edda; minor variations: sabbatu > sabbitu, u li dà > ghi lu dà; final syllables often stressed and truncated: marinari > marinà, > panattè, castellu > castè, cuchjari > cuchjà), the Gravona area, Bastelica (which would be classified as Southern, but is also noted for its typical rhotacism: Basterga) and Solenzara, which did not preserve the Latin short vowels: seccu, peru, rossu, croci, pozzu. Southern Corsican The Southern Corsican macro variety (Suttanacciu, Suttanu, Pumuntincu or Oltramontano) is the most archaic and conservative group, spoken in the districts of Sartène and Porto-Vecchio. Unlike the Northern varieties and similarly to Sardinian, the group retains the distinction of the Latin short vowels ĭ and ŭ (e.g. pilu, bucca). It is also strongly marked by the presence of the voiced retroflex stop, like Sicilian (e.g. aceddu, beddu, quiddu, ziteddu, famidda), and the conditional mood formed in -ìa (e.g. (idda) amarìa "she would love"). All the Oltramontani dialects are from an area located to the South of Porticcio, Bastelica, Col di Verde and Solenzara. Notable dialects are those from around Taravo (retroflex -dd- only for historical : frateddu, suredda, beddu; preservation of the palatal lateral approximant: piglià, famiglia, figliolu, ; does not preserve the Latin short vowels: seccu, peru, rossu, croci, pozzu), Sartène (preserving the Latin short vowels: siccu, piru, russu, cruci, puzzu; changing historical -rn- to -rr-: forru, carri, corru; substituting the stop for the palatal lateral approximant: piddà, famidda, fiddolu, voddu; imperfect tense like cantàvami, cantàvani; masculine plurals ending in a: ''l'ochja, i poma; having eddu/edda/eddi as personal pronouns), the Alta Rocca (the most conservative area in Corsica, being very close to the varieties spoken in Northern Sardinia), and the Southern region located between the hinterlands of Porto-Vecchio and Bonifacio (masculine singulars always ending in u: fiumu, paesu, patronu; masculine plurals always ending in a: i letta, i solda, i ponta, i foca, i mura, i loca, i balcona; imperfect tense like cantàiami, cantàiani''). Sardinia \|Mario Pompeo Coradduzza, Il sistema del dialetto, 2004, Introduzione}} Some Italo-Romance languages that might have originated from Southern Corsican, but are also heavily influenced by the Sardinian language, are spoken in the neighbouring island of Sardinia. Gallurese is spoken in the extreme north of the island, including the region of Gallura, while Sassarese is spoken in Sassari and in its neighbourhood, in the northwest of Sardinia. Their geographical position in Sardinia has been theorised to be the result of different migration waves from the already tuscanized Corsicans and the Tuscans, who then proceeded to settle in Sardinia and slowly displace the indigenous Logudorese Sardinian varieties spoken therein (at present, Luras is the only town in the middle of Gallura that has retained the original language). On the Maddalena archipelago, which was culturally Corsican but had been annexed to the Savoyard Kingdom of Sardinia a short while before Corsica was ceded by Genoa to France in 1767, the local dialect (called isulanu or maddaleninu) was brought by fishermen and shepherds from Bonifacio over a long period of immigration in the 17th and 18th centuries. Though influenced by Gallurese, it has maintained the original characteristics of Southern Corsican. In the dialect of maddalenino, as it is known in Italian, there are also numerous words of Genoese and Ponzese origin..}} Although Gallurese and Sassarese both belong to Italo-Dalmatian, which is a group typologically different from Sardinian, it has long been a subject of debate whether the two should be included as dialects either of Corsican or of Sardinian or, in light of their historical development, even considered languages of their own. It has been argued that all these varieties should be placed in a single category, Southern Romance, but such classification has not garnered universal support among linguists. On 14 October 1997, Article 2 Item 4 of Law Number 26 of the Autonomous Region of Sardinia granted "the Sassarese and Gallurese dialects" («al dialetto sassarese e a quello gallurese») equal legal status with the other languages indigenous to Sardinia. Thus, even though they would technically not be covered by the national law pertaining to the historical linguistic minorities, among which is Sardinian, Sassarese and Gallurese are nonetheless recognized by the Sardinian government on a regional level. <!--THIS MATERIAL EDITED FOR ACCURACY RELEVANCE AND FORMAT SHOULD GO UNDER THE ARTICLES ON THOSE LANGUAGES: This is a transitional language with many similarities to Southern Corsican. This is transitional parlance between Italo-Dalmatian languages and Sardinian language. It has several similarities to Italian and in particular the old dialects of Italian from Tuscany. In 1980, about 70 percent of the island's population "had some command of the Corsican language." In 1990, out of a total population of about 254,000, the percentage had declined to 50 percent, with 10 percent of the island's residents using it as a first language. 28% of the overall population was able to speak Corsican well, while an additional 14% had a capacity to speak it "quite well." The percentage of those who had a solid oral understanding of the language varies between a minimum of 25 percent in the 25–34 age group and the maximum of 65 percent in the over-65 age group: almost a quarter of the former age group reported that they were not able to understand Corsican, while only a small minority of the older people did not understand it. The Corsican language is a key vehicle for Corsican culture, which is notably rich in proverbs and in polyphonic song. Governmental support ) names (often with their roots in Italian) being crossed out by some local nationalists.]] When the French Assembly passed the Deixonne Law in 1951, which made it possible for regional languages to be taught at school, Alsatian, Flemish and Corsican were not included on the ground of being classified as dialectes allogènes of German, Dutch and Italian respectively, i.e. dialects of foreign languages and not languages in themselves. Only in 1974 were they too politically recognized as regional languages for their teaching on a voluntary basis. The 1991 Joxe Statute, in setting up the Collectivité Territoriale de Corse, also provided for the Corsican Assembly, and charged it with developing a plan for the optional teaching of Corsican. The University of Corsica Pasquale Paoli at Corte, Haute-Corse took a central role in the planning. At the primary school level Corsican is taught up to a fixed number of hours per week (three in the year 2000) and is a voluntary subject at the secondary school level, but is required at the University of Corsica. It is available through adult education. It can be spoken in court or in the conduct of other government business if the officials concerned speak it. The Cultural Council of the Corsican Assembly advocates for its use, for example, on public signs. In 2023, in a judgement initiated by local prefect and going in opposite direction of recent trends, usage of the Corsican language in French public offices and the regional parliament was legally banned, the existence of the "Corsican people" was also deemed unconstitutional. Literature According to the anthropologist Dumenica Verdoni, writing new literature in modern Corsican, known as the Riacquistu, is an integral part of affirming Corsican identity. Some individuals have returned from careers in continental France to write in Corsican, including Dumenicu Togniotti, director of the Teatru Paisanu, which produced polyphonic musicals, 1973–1982, followed in 1980 by Michel Raffaelli's Teatru di a Testa Mora, and Saveriu Valentini's Teatru Cupabbia in 1984. Modern prose writers include Alanu di Meglio, Ghjacumu Fusina, Lucia Santucci, and Marcu Biancarelli. There were writers working in Corsican in the 1700s and 1800s. Ferdinand Gregorovius, a 19th-century traveller and enthusiast of Corsican culture, reported that the preferred form of the literary tradition of his time was the vocero, a type of polyphonic ballad originating from funeral obsequies. These laments were similar in form to the chorales of Greek drama except that the leader could improvise. Some performers were noted at this, such as the 1700s Mariola della Piazzole and Clorinda Franseschi. However, the trail of written popular literature of known date in Corsican currently goes no further back than the 17th century. An undated corpus of proverbs from communes may well precede it (see under External links below). Corsican has also left a trail of legal documents ending in the late 12th century. At that time the monasteries held considerable land on Corsica and many of the churchmen were notaries. Between 1200 and 1425 the monastery of Gorgona, which belonged to the Order of Saint Benedict for much of that time and was in the territory of Pisa, acquired about 40 legal papers of various sorts related to Corsica. As the church was replacing Pisan prelates with Corsican ones there, the legal language shows a transition from entirely Latin through partially Latin and partially Corsican to entirely Corsican. The first known surviving document containing some Corsican is a bill of sale from Patrimonio dated to 1220. These documents were moved to Pisa before the monastery closed its doors and were published there. Research into earlier evidence of Corsican is ongoing. Alphabet and spelling )]] Corsican is written in the standard Latin script, using 21 of the letters for native words. The letters j, k, w, x, and y are found only in foreign names and French vocabulary. The digraphs and trigraphs chj, ghj, sc and sg are also defined as "letters" of the alphabet in its modern scholarly form (compare the presence of ch or ll in the old Spanish alphabet) and appear respectively after c, g and s. The primary diacritic used is the grave accent, indicating word stress when it is not penultimate. In scholarly contexts, disyllables may be distinguished from diphthongs by use of the diaeresis on the former vowel (as in Italian and distinct from French and English). In older writing, the acute accent is sometimes found on stressed , the circumflex on stressed , indicating respectively () and () phonemes. Corsican has been regarded as a dialect of Italian historically, similar to the Romance lects developed on the Italian peninsula, and in writing, it also resembles Italian (with the generalised substitution of -u for final -o and the articles u and a for il/lo and la respectively; however, both the dialect of Cap Corse and Gallurese retain the original articles lu and la). On the other hand, the phonemes of the modern Corsican dialects have undergone complex and sometimes irregular phenomena depending on phonological context, so the pronunciation of the language for foreigners familiar with other Romance languages is not straightforward. Phonology Vowels As in Italian, the grapheme appears in some digraphs and trigraphs in which it does not represent the phonemic vowel. All vowels are pronounced except in a few well-defined instances. is not pronounced between and : sciarpa ; or initially in some words: istu Vowels may be nasalized before (which is assimilated to before or ) and the palatal nasal consonant represented by . The nasal vowels are represented by the vowel plus , or . The combination is a digraph or trigraph indicating the nasalized vowel. The consonant is pronounced in weakened form. The same combination of letters might not be the digraph or trigraph but might be just the non-nasal vowel followed by the consonant at full weight. The speaker must know the difference. Example of nasal: is pronounced and not . The Northern and central dialects in the vicinity of the Taravo river adopt the Italian seven-vowel system (the Italo-Western type and a unique type where the short high vowels of Latin are uniquely reflected as mid-low vowels), whereas all the Southern ones around the so-called "archaic zone" with its centre being the town of Sartène (including the Gallurese dialect spoken in Northern Sardinia) resort to a five-vowel system without length differentiation, like Sardinian. The vowel inventory, or collection of phonemic vowels (and the major allophones), transcribed in IPA symbols, is: {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Description ! Grapheme<br>(Minuscule) ! Phoneme ! Phone or<br>Allophones ! Usage ! Example \|- \| Open front unrounded<br> Near open \| style="text-align:center;"\| a \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style="text-align:center;"\|<br> \|<br>Occasional northern \|casa house<br>carta card \|- \| Close-mid front unrounded<br> Open-mid<br> Near-open<br> Open \| style="text-align:center;"\| e \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style="text-align:center;"\|<br><br><br> \| Inherited as<br>open or close<br>Occasional northern<br>Occasional southern \| u celu the sky<br>ci hè there is<br>mercuri wednesday<br>terra land \|- \| Close front unrounded \| style="text-align:center;"\| i \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style="text-align:center;"\|<br> \|<br>1st sound, diphthong \|dì say<br>fiume river \|- \| Close-mid back rounded<br> Open-mid \| style="text-align:center;"\| o \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style="text-align:center;"\|<br> \|Inherited as<br>open or close \|locu place<br>notte night \|- \| Close back rounded \| style="text-align:center;"\| u \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style="text-align:center;"\|<br><br> \|<br>1st sound, diphthong \|malu bad<br>quassù up there<br>què that \|} Consonants {\| class"wikitable" styletext-align:center \|- !colspan2 rowspan2\| !rowspan=2\| Bilabial !rowspan=2\| Labio-<br>dental !rowspan=2\| Alveolar<br>/Dental !rowspan=2\| Palato-<br>alveolar !rowspan=2\| Palatal !colspan=2\| Velar \|- ! ! \|- !colspan=2\| Nasal \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- !rowspan=2\| Plosive ! \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- ! \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- !rowspan=2\| Affricate ! \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- ! \| \|\| \| \| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- !rowspan=2\| Fricative ! \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- ! \| () \| \| \| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- !rowspan=2\| Approximant ! \| \| \| \| \| () \| \| () \|- ! \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- !colspan=2\| Trill \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|} See also * Corsican Wikipedia * Gallurese dialect * Languages of France * Paleo-Corsican language * Sassarese language Notes References Sources * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * External links * [http://omniglot.com/writing/corsican.htm Corsican language, alphabet and pronunciation] * * * Category:Languages of France Category:Languages of Sardinia	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corsican_language	2025-04-05T18:28:12.802006
7580	Commodore International	(=}} <br />Nassau, The Bahamas \| founders = Jack Tramiel and Irving Gould \| defunct = \| fate = Chapter 11 bankruptcy and Liquidation; inventory and intellectual property acquired by Escom AG on April 22, 1995 \| type = Public \| traded_as = \|AMEX: CDRL}} \| successor = Escom AG \| hq_location = 1200 Wilson Drive \| hq_location_city = West Chester, Pennsylvania \| industry = Electronics<br />Computer hardware<br />Computer software \| key_people = \| products = Commodore PET<br />VIC-20<br />Commodore 64<br />Commodore 16<br />Commodore 128<br />Amiga<br />CD32 \| subsid = Amiga Corporation<br />Commodore Semiconductor Group \| area_served = Worldwide \| hq_location_country = United States }} Commodore International Corporation was a home computer and electronics manufacturer with its head office in The Bahamas and its executive office in the United States founded in 1976 by Jack Tramiel and Irving Gould. It was the successor company to Commodore Business Machines (Canada) Ltd., established in 1958 by Tramiel and Manfred Kapp. Commodore International (CI), along with its U.S. subsidiary Commodore Business Machines, Inc. (CBM), was a significant participant in the development of the home computer industry, and at one point in the 1980s was the world's largest in the industry. The company released its first home computer, the Commodore PET, in 1977; it was followed by the VIC-20, the first ever computer to reach one million units of sales. In 1982, the company developed and marketed the world's best selling computer, the Commodore 64; its success made Commodore one of the world's largest personal computer manufacturers, with sales peaking in the last quarter of 1983 at $ (equivalent to $}} in ). However an internal struggle led to co-founder Tramiel quitting, then rivalling Commodore under Atari Corporation joined by a number of other employees. Commodore in 1985 launched the Amiga 1000 personal computer — running on AmigaOS featuring a full color graphical interface and preemptive multitasking — which would initially become a popular platform for computer games and creative software. The company did particularly well in European markets; in West Germany, Commodore machines were ubiquitous as of 1989. The company's position started declining in the late 1980s amid internal conflicts and mismanagement, and while the Amiga line was popular, newer models failed to keep pace against competing IBM PC-compatibles and Apple Macintosh. By 1992, MS-DOS and 16-bit video game consoles offered by Nintendo and Sega had eroded Amiga's status as a solid gaming platform. Under co-founding chairman Irving Gould and president Mehdi Ali, Commodore filed for bankruptcy on April 29, 1994 and was soon liquidated, with its assets purchased by German company Escom. The Amiga line was revitalized and continued to be developed by Escom until it too went bankrupt, in July 1996. Commodore's computer systems, mainly the C64 and Amiga series, retain a cult following decades after its demise. Commodore's assets have been passed through various companies since then. After Escom's demise and liquidation, its core assets were sold to Gateway 2000 while the Commodore brand name was eventually passed to Tulip Computers of the Netherlands, and remains under ownership of a Dutch company today. Gateway 2000 attempted but failed to market a modern Amiga, and eventually sold the copyrights, Amiga trademark and other intellectual properties to Amiga, Inc., while retaining the Commodore patents, which are now under Acer since its acquisition of Gateway. Amiga Corp., a sister company of Cloanto, owns the Amiga properties since 2019. Hyperion Entertainment of Belgium has continued development of AmigaOS (version 4) to this day under license, and have released AmigaOne computers based on PowerPC. History Commodore Business Machines (Canada) Ltd. (1954–1976) Jack Tramiel and Manfred Kapp met in the early 1950s while both employed by the Ace Typewriter Repair Company in New York City. In 1954, they partnered to sell used and reconditioned typewriters and used their profits to purchase the Singer Typewriter Company. After acquiring a local dealership selling Everest adding machines, Tramiel convinced Everest to give him and Kapp exclusive Canadian rights to its products and established Everest Office Machines in Toronto in 1955. By 1958, the adding machine business was slowing. Tramiel made a connection with an Everest agent in England who alerted him to a business opportunity to import portable typewriters manufactured by a Czechoslovakian company into Canada. On October 10, 1958, Tramiel and Kapp incorporated Commodore Portable Typewriter, Ltd. in Toronto to sell the imported typewriters., allegedly taking the name from a Hudson Commodore car that Tramiel spotted in Berlin. Commodore funded its operations through factoring over its first two years but faced a continual cash crunch. To bolster the company's financial condition, Tramiel and Kapp sold a portion of the company to Atlantic Acceptance Corporation, one of Canada's largest financing companies, and Atlantic President C. Powell Morgan became the chairman of Commodore. In 1962, the company went public on the Montreal Stock Exchange, under the name of Commodore Business Machines (Canada), Ltd. With the financial backing of Atlantic Acceptance, Commodore expanded rapidly in the early 1960s. It purchased a factory in West Germany to manufacture its typewriters, began distributing office furniture for a Canadian manufacturer, and sold Pearlsound radio and stereo equipment. In 1965, it purchased the furniture company for which it served as the distributor and moved its headquarters to its facilities on Warden Avenue in the Scarborough district of Toronto. That same year, the company made a deal with a Japanese manufacturer to produce adding machines for Commodore, and purchased the office supply retailer Wilson Stationers to serve as an outlet for its typewriters. In 1965, Atlantic Acceptance collapsed when it failed to make a routine payment. A subsequent investigation by a royal commission revealed a massive fraud scheme in which the company falsified financial records to acquire loans funneled into a web of subsidiaries where C. Powell Morgan held a personal stake. Morgan then pocketed the money or invested it in several unsuccessful ventures. Commodore was one of the Atlantic subsidiaries directly implicated in this scheme. Despite heavy suspicion, the commission could not find evidence of wrongdoing by Tramiel or Kapp. The scandal left Commodore in a worse financial position as it had borrowed heavily from Atlantic to purchase Wilson, and the loan was called in. Due to the financial scandal, Tramiel could only secure a bridge loan by paying interest well above the prime rate and putting the German factory up as collateral. Tramiel worked with a financier named Irving Gould to extricate himself, who brokered a deal to sell Wilson Stationers to an American company. Commodore now owed Gould money and still did not have sufficient capital to meet its payments, so Tramiel sold 17.9% of the company to Gould in 1966 for $ (equivalent to $}} in ). As part of the deal, Gould became the company's new chairman. Tramiel saw some of the first electronic calculators through his Japanese contacts in the late 1960s. He pivoted from adding machines to marketing calculators produced by companies like Casio under the Commodore brand name. In 1969, Commodore began manufacturing its electronic calculators. Commodore soon had a profitable calculator line and was one of the more popular brands in the early 1970s, producing both consumer and scientific/programmable calculators. However, in 1975, Texas Instruments, the leading supplier of calculator parts, entered the market directly and put out a line of machines priced at less than Commodore's cost for the parts. Commodore obtained an infusion of cash from Gould, which Tramiel used beginning in 1976 to purchase several second-source chip suppliers, including MOS Technology, Inc., to assure his supply. He agreed to buy MOS, which was having troubles of its own, on the condition that its chip designer Chuck Peddle join Commodore directly as head of engineering. In 1976, Commodore Business Machines (Canada) Ltd. was dissolved and replaced by the newly formed Bahamanian corporation Commodore International, which became the new parent of the Commodore group of companies. Entry into the computer market and success (1977–1984) Chuck Peddle convinced Jack Tramiel that calculators were a dead end business and that they should turn their attention to home computers. Peddle packaged his single-board computer design in a metal case, initially with a keyboard using calculator keys, later with a full-travel QWERTY keyboard, monochrome monitor, and tape recorder for program and data storage, to produce the Commodore PET (Personal Electronic Transactor). From PET's 1977 debut, Commodore was primarily a computer company. Commodore had been reorganized the year before into Commodore International, Ltd., moving its financial headquarters to the Bahamas and its operational base to West Chester, Pennsylvania, near the MOS Technology site. The operational headquarters, where research and development of new products occurred, retained the name Commodore Business Machines, Inc. In 1980, Commodore launched production for the European market in Braunschweig, Germany. This site once employed up to 2000 employees, and in February 2017 an exhibition room for about 200 Commodore products was opened here to commemorate its past. , West Germany, its large European HQ]] By 1980, Commodore was one of the three largest microcomputer companies and the largest in the Common Market. The company had lost its early domestic-market sales leadership, however by mid-1981 its US market share was less than 5% and US computer magazines rarely discussed Commodore products. BYTE stated "the lack of a marketing strategy by Commodore, as well as its past nonchalant attitude toward the encouragement and development of good software, has hurt its credibility, especially in comparison to the other systems on the market". Writing for Programming the PET/CBM, Raeto Collin West wrote "CBM's product manuals are widely recognized to be unhelpful; this is one of the reasons for the existence of this book." Commodore re-emphasized the US market with the VIC-20. The PET computer line was used primarily in schools, where its tough all-metal construction and ability to share printers and disk drives on a simple local area network were advantages, but PETs did not compete well in the home setting where graphics and sound were important. This was addressed with the VIC-20 in 1981, which was introduced at a cost of (equivalent to $}} in ) and sold in retail stores. Commodore bought aggressive advertisements featuring William Shatner asking consumers, "Why buy just a video game?" The strategy worked, and the VIC-20 became the first computer to ship more than one million units, with 2.5 million units sold over the machine's lifetime, which helped Commodore's sales in Canadian schools. In promotions aimed at schools and to reduce unsold inventory, PET models labeled 'Teacher's PET' were given away as part of a "buy 2 get 1 free" promotion. As of calendar year 1980, Commodore sales were $40 million, behind Apple Computer and Tandy Corporation in the market. In 1982, Commodore introduced the Commodore 64 (C64) as the successor to the VIC-20. Due to its chips designed by MOS Technology, the C64 possessed advanced sound and graphics for its time, and is often credited with starting the computer demo scene. Its (equivalent to $}} in ) price was high compared to that of the VIC-20 but was much less expensive than any other 64K computer. Early C64 advertisements boasted that "You can't buy a better computer at twice the price", with Australian adverts in the mid-1980s using the slogan "Are you keeping up with the Commodore? Because the Commodore is keeping up with you." In 1983, Tramiel decided to focus on market share and cut the price of the VIC-20 and C64 dramatically, starting the home computer war. TI responded by cutting prices on its 1981 TI-99/4A, leading to a price war involving most vendors other than Apple Computer, including Commodore, TI and Atari. Commodore began selling the VIC-20 and C64 through mass-market retailers such as K-Mart, in addition to traditional computer stores. By the end of this conflict, Commodore had shipped around 22 million C64s, making the C64 the best-selling computer, until the Raspberry Pi overtook it in 2019. main PCB (prototype), not used in the regular series model. According to Commodore computer engineer Bil Herd, this single-sided PCB was an extraordinary attempt of cost saving by Commodore, which probably failed due to technical problems.]] At the June 1983 Consumer Electronics Show, Commodore lowered the retail price of the C64 to , and stores sold it for as little as . At one point, the company was selling as many computers as the rest of the industry combined. Prices for the VIC-20 and C64 were $50 lower than Atari's prices for the 600XL and 800XL. Commodore's strategy was to, according to a spokesman, devote 50% of its efforts to the under- market, 30% on the market, and 20% on the over- market. Its vertical integration and Tramiel's focus on cost control helped Commodore do well during the price war, with in 1983 sales. Although the company and Tramiel's focus on cost cutting over product testing caused hardware defects in the initial C64, some resolved in later iterations. By early 1984, Synapse Software, the largest provider of third-party Atari 8-bit software, received 65% of sales from the Commodore market, and Commodore sold almost three times as many computers as Atari that year. Despite its focus on the lower end of the market, Commodore's computers were also sold in upmarket department stores such as Harrods. The company also attracted several high-profile customers. In 1984, the company's British branch became the first manufacturer to receive a royal warrant for computer business systems. NASA's Kennedy Space Center was another noted customer, with over 60 Commodore systems processing documentation, tracking equipment and employees, costing jobs, and ensuring the safety of hazardous waste.Departure of Tramiel, acquisition of Amiga and competition with Atari (1984–1987)By early 1984, Commodore was the most successful home computer company, with more than (equivalent to $}} in ) in annual revenue and (equivalent to $}} in ) in net income, whilst competitors had large losses. The company's revenue of $425 million in the fourth calendar quarter of 1983 more than doubled its revenue of a year earlier. Although Creative Computing compared the company to "a well-armed battleship [which] rules the micro waves" and threatened to destroy rivals like Atari and Coleco, Commodore's board of directors, affected by the price spiral, decided to exit the company. In January 1984, an internal power struggle resulted after Tramiel resigned due to disagreements with the board chairman, Irving Gould. Gould replaced Tramiel with Marshall F. Smith, a steel executive without a computer or consumer marketing experience. Tramiel's departure at the moment of Commodore's greatest financial success surprised the industry. (1984)]] In May 1984, Tramiel founded a new company, Tramel Technology, and hired several Commodore engineers to begin work on a next-generation computer design. That same year, Tramiel discovered Warner Communications wanted to sell Atari, which was rumored to be losing about a day. Interested in Atari's overseas manufacturing and worldwide distribution network for a new computer, he approached Atari and entered negotiations. After several talks with Atari in May and June 1984, Tramiel had secured funding and bought Atari's Consumer Division (which included the console and home computer departments) in July. In July 1984 Tramiel bought the consumer side of Atari Inc. from Warner Communications and released the Atari ST earlier in 1985 for about . As more executives and researchers left Commodore after the announcement to join Tramiel's new company Atari Corp., Commodore followed by filing lawsuits against four former engineers for theft of trade secrets in late July. This was intended, in effect, to bar Tramiel from releasing his new computer. One of Tramiel's first acts after forming Atari Corp. was to fire most of Atari's remaining staff and to cancel almost all ongoing projects to review their continued viability. In late July to early August, Tramiel representatives discovered the original Amiga contract from the previous fall. Seeing a chance to gain some leverage, Tramiel immediately used the agreement to counter-sue Commodore on August 13. The remaining Commodore management sought to salvage the company's fortunes and plan for the future, and did so by buying a small startup company called Amiga Corporation in August 1984 for ( in cash and $550,000 in common shares). Amiga became a subsidiary of Commodore, called Commodore-Amiga, Inc. During development in 1981, Amiga had exhausted venture capital and needed more financing. Jay Miner and his company had approached their former employer, the Warner-owned Atari, who paid Amiga to continue development work. In return, Atari received the exclusive use of the design as a video game console for one year, after which Atari would have the right to add a keyboard and market it as a complete Amiga computer. The Atari-Amiga contract and engineering logs identify the Atari-Amiga product was designated as the 1850XLD. As Atari was heavily involved with Disney at the time, it was later code-named "Mickey", and the 256K memory expansion board was codenamed "Minnie". Still suffering serious financial problems, Amiga sought more monetary support from investors that entire spring. At around the same time that Tramiel was negotiating with Atari, Amiga entered into discussions with Commodore. The discussions ultimately led to Commodore's intentions to purchase Amiga outright, which Commodore viewed would cancel any outstanding contracts including Atari Inc.'s. Tramiel counter-sued on the basis of this interpretation, and sought damages and an injunction to bar Amiga and effectively Commodore from producing any resembling technology, to render Commodore's new acquisition and the source for its next generation of computers useless. The resulting court case lasted several years. Commodore introduced a new 32-bit computer design to market in the fall of 1985 named the Amiga 1000 for , first demonstrated at the CES in 1984. An Atari-Commodore rivalry continued throughout the life of the ST and Amiga platforms. While the rivalry was a holdover from the competition between the C64 and Atari 800, the events leading to the launch of the ST and Amiga served to further alienate fans of each computer, who disagreed as to which platform was superior. This was reflected in sales numbers for the two platforms until the release of the Amiga 500 in 1987, which led the Amiga sales to exceed the ST by about 1.5 to 1, despite reaching the market later. However, neither platform captured a significant share of the world computer market, with only the Apple Macintosh surviving the industry-wide shift to Intel-based x86 computers using Microsoft Windows. Commodore and Atari both sought to compete in the workstation market, with Commodore announcing in 1988 a Transputer-driven system based on the Amiga 2000 in response to the Atari Transputer Workstation. Similarly, a Unix workstation based on the Amiga 2000, featuring the 68020 CPU, was detailed as Atari announced developer shipments of its own 68030-based Unix workstation within a claimed "to or three months". Atari's workstation, the TT030, eventually arrived in 1990 without a version of Unix available, this only eventually becoming available to developers in late 1991. Commodore's workstation arrived in 1990 in the form of the Amiga 3000UX.Decline and later years (1987–1994)Commodore suffered a poor reputation with its dealers and customers, and upon the 1987 introduction of the Amiga 2000, Commodore retreated from its earlier strategy of selling its computers to discount outlets and toy stores and favored authorized dealers. Adam Osborne stated in April 1981 that "the microcomputer industry abounds with horror stories describing the way Commodore treats its dealers and its customers." Commodore under Tramiel had a reputation for cannibalizing its own products with newer ones; Doug Carlston and others in the industry believed rumors in late 1983 that Commodore would discontinue the C64 despite its success because they disliked the company's business practices, including its poor treatment of dealers and introducing new computers incompatible with existing ones. A Boston reseller said, "It's too unsettling to be one of their dealers and not know where you stand with them." After Tramiel's departure, another journalist wrote that he "had never been able to establish excellent relations with computer dealers ... computer retailers have accused Commodore of treating them as harshly as if they were suppliers or competitors, and as a result, many have become disenchanted with Commodore and dropped the product line". Software developers also disliked the company, with one stating that "Dealing with Commodore was like dealing with Attila the Hun." At the 1987 Comdex, an informal InfoWorld survey found that none of the developers present planned to write for Commodore platforms. Commodore's software had a poor reputation; InfoWorld in 1984, for example, stated that "so far, the normal standard for Commodore software is mediocrity". Tramiel's successor, Marshall F. Smith, left the company in 1986, as did his successor Thomas Rattigan in 1987 after a failed boardroom coup. The head of Blue Chip Electronics, a former Commodore employee, described the company as "a well-known revolving door". Commodore faced the problem when marketing the Amiga of still being seen as the company that made cheap computers like the C64 and VIC. The C64 remained the company's cash cow but its technology was aging. By the late 1980s, the personal computer market had become dominated by the IBM PC and Apple Macintosh platforms. Commodore's marketing efforts for the Amiga were less successful in breaking the new computer into an established market compared to the success of its 8-bit line. The company put effort into developing and promoting consumer products that would not be in demand for years, such as an Amiga 500-based HTPC called CDTV. As early as 1986, the mainstream press was predicting Commodore's demise, and in 1990 Computer Gaming World wrote of its "abysmal record of customer and technical support in the past". Nevertheless, as profits and the stock price began to slide, ''The Philadelphia Inquirer's'' Top 100 Businesses Annual continued to list several Commodore executives among the highest-paid in the region and the paper documented the company's questionable hiring practices and large bonuses paid to executives amid shareholder discontent. Commodore failed to update the Amiga to keep pace as the PC platform advanced. CBM continued selling the Amiga 2000 with 7.14 MHz 68000 CPUs, even though the Amiga 3000 with its 25 MHz 68030 was on the market. Apple, by this time, was using the 68040 and had relegated the 68000 to its lowest-end model, the black and white Macintosh Classic. The 68000 was used in the Sega Genesis, one of the leading game consoles of the era, Computers fitted with high-color VGA graphics cards and SoundBlaster (or compatible) sound cards had also caught up with the Amiga's performance, and Commodore began to fade from the consumer market. Although the Amiga was originally conceived as a gaming machine, Commodore had always emphasized the Amiga's potential for professional applications, but the Amiga's high-performance sound and graphics were irrelevant to MS-DOS-based routine business word-processing and data-processing requirements, and the machine could not successfully compete with computers in a business market that was rapidly undergoing commoditization. Commodore introduced a range of PC compatible systems designed by its German division, and while the Commodore name was better known in the US than some of its competition, the systems' price and specifications were only average. Sales of the PC range were strong in Germany, however, seeing Commodore acquire a 28% share of this market segment in 1990, second only to IBM. Things were less rosy in the United States, where Commodore had a 6% share in the market segment as of 1989, down from 26% in 1984. Forbes<nowiki/>'s Evan McGlinn wrote regarding the firm's decline, citing management as the source cause: "the absentee-landlord management style of globe-trotting chairman and chief executive Irving Gould." Commodore attempted to develop new chipsets during the early 1990s, first the Advanced Amiga Architecture and later the Hombre. Funding problems meant that they did not materialize as ultimately the company would go bust. In 1992, the Amiga 600 replaced the Amiga 500, which removed the numeric keypad, Zorro expansion slot, and other functionality, but added IDE, PCMCIA, and intended as a cost-reduced design. Designed as the Amiga 300, a non-expandable model to sell for less than the Amiga 500, the 600 became a replacement for the 500 due to the unexpectedly higher cost of manufacture. Productivity developers increasingly moved to PC and Macintosh, while the console wars took over the gaming market. David Pleasance, managing director of Commodore UK, described the Amiga 600 as a "complete and utter screw-up". In the same year, Commodore released the Amiga 1200 and Amiga 4000 computers, which featured an improved graphics chipset, the AGA. The advent of PC games using 3D graphics such as Doom and Wolfenstein 3D spelled the end of Amiga as a gaming platform. In 1993, Commodore launched a 32-bit CD-ROM-based game console called the Amiga CD32, described as a 'make or break' system, according to Pleasance. The Amiga CD32 was not sufficiently profitable to return Commodore to solvency, however this was not a universal opinion at Commodore, with Commodore Germany hardware expert Rainer Benda stating "The CD32 was a year late for Commodore. In other words, here, too, it might have been better to focus on the core business than jump on a console and hope to sell 300,000 or more units quickly to avoid bankruptcy." In 1992, all UK servicing and warranty repairs were outsourced to Wang Laboratories, which was replaced by ICL after failing to meet repair demand during the Christmas rush in 1992. Commodore International's Canadian subsidiary authorized 3D Microcomputers of Ontario to manufacture IBM PC clones with the Commodore brand in late 1993. Commodore exited the IBM PC clone market entirely during the 1993 fiscal year, citing the low profitability of this market. PC sales had remained relatively stable and, accounting for 37% of revenue from sales in 1993, had grown modestly as declines in both unit sales and revenues were recorded for the Amiga and Commodore 64 product lines. By 1994, only Commodore's operations in Canada, Germany, and the United Kingdom were still profitable. Commodore announced voluntary bankruptcy and liquidation on April 29, 1994, causing the board of directors to "authorize the transfer of its assets to trustees for the benefit of its creditors", according to an official statement. With Commodore International having reported a quarterly loss in the US, hopes were expressed that European divisions might be able to continue trading and even survive the demise of the parent company, with a management buyout considered a possibility. Other possibilities included the sale of profitable parts of the company to other parties, with Philips and Samsung considered "likely choices". However, no sale was ever completed. After Commodore (1994–present) Sale to Escom and bankruptcy Commodore's former assets went separate ways following liquidation, with none of the descendant companies repeating Commodore's early success. Subsidiaries Commodore UK and Commodore B.V. (Netherlands) survived bankruptcy. The UK division filed a buyout proposal to the Supreme Court in the Bahamas and was considered the front runner in the bid due to press exposure at the time; the other initial bidders were Samsung, Philips and Amstrad in mid-1994. Commodore UK and Commodore BV stayed in business by selling old inventory and making computer speakers and other types of computer peripherals, however Commodore BV dissolved in early 1995. Commodore UK withdrew its bid at the start of the auction process after several larger companies, including Gateway Computers and Dell Inc., became interested, primarily for Commodore's patents relating to the Amiga. The only companies who entered bids at the end were Dell and Escom; Escom paid US$14 million for the assets of Commodore International. Commodore UK went into liquidation on August 30, 1995. Escom separated the Commodore and Amiga operations into separate divisions, the latter becoming Amiga Technologies GmbH, and quickly started using the Commodore brand name on a line of PCs sold in Europe while concepting and developing new Amiga computers. They also debuted a brand new logo for Amiga. Escom's Dutch arm, Escom B.V., survived bankruptcy and went on to purchase the Commodore brand from its bankrupt parent. The company then renamed itself to Commodore B.V. processor]] Brand name In September 1997, although it did not find much success. providing legal music downloads in the Netherlands, for €22 million, to be paid in instalments over several years until 2010. The sale was completed in March 2005 after months of negotiations; YMV would not become the sole owner until 2010 after buying the remaining shares from Tulip (by then renamed to Nedfield Holding B.V.) which had gone bankrupt. YMV soon renamed itself to Commodore International Corporation (CIC) — its operational office was in the Netherlands but had headquarters in California — and started an operation intended to relaunch the Commodore brand in the video gaming field. The company then launched its Gravel line of products: Gravel in Pocket personal multimedia players equipped with Wi-Fi and the Gravel in Home, hoping the Commodore brand would help them take off, introduced at CeBIT 2007 with a media "entertainment platform" called CommodoreWorld, and also launched gaming PCs running Windows Vista 64-bit. However the company did not find success with these products. On June 24, 2009, CIC in the United States renamed itself to Reunite Investments, Inc., with the Commodore brand retaining under ownership by its subsidiary CIC Europe Holding B.V. (which would later be renamed into C Holdings B.V.), trading as Commodore Consumer Electronics (CCE). CIC's founder, Ben van Wijhe, bought a Hong Kong-based company called Asiarim. Reunite Investments then sold the brand to Commodore Licensing B.V., a subsidiary of Asiarim, later in 2010. Copyrights and patents Ownership of the remaining assets of Commodore International, including the copyrights and patents, and the Amiga trademarks, passed from bankrupt Escom to Gateway 2000 in 1997. Jim Collas became director of Amiga Technologies and he assembled a new team to work on a new generation of Amiga computers and other products on a new platform, prototyping one called the Amiga MCC and planning a potential tablet computer. However when Jeffrey Weitzen was chosen to become CEO of Gateway, who was not convinced of Collas's plans, he informed that Amiga Technologies division will be sold. Gateway itself was acquired by Taiwanese Acer in 2007. On March 15, 2004, Amiga, Inc. announced that on April 23, 2003, it had transferred its rights over past and future versions of the AmigaOS (but not yet over other intellectual property) to Itec, LLC, later acquired by KMOS, Inc., a Delaware-based company. Shortly afterwards, based on loans and security agreements between Amiga, Inc. and Itec, LLC, the remaining intellectual property assets were transferred from Amiga, Inc. to KMOS, Inc. On March 16, 2005, KMOS, Inc. announced that it had completed all registrations with the State of Delaware to change its corporate name to Amiga, Inc. The Commodore/Amiga copyrights, including all their works up to 1993, were later sold to Cloanto in 2015. A number of legal challenges and lawsuits have involved these companies and Hyperion Entertainment, the Belgian software company that continues development of AmigaOS. Semiconductor subsidiary The Commodore Semiconductor Group (formerly MOS Technology, Inc.), the silicon wafer foundry and integrated circuit manufacturing unit of Commodore International, was bought by its former management in January 1995 and resumed operations under the name GMT Microelectronics, utilizing a troubled facility in Norristown, Pennsylvania that Commodore had closed in 1992. In 2001, the United States Environmental Protection Agency shut the plant down, and GMT ceased operations and was liquidated. Current and recent developments AmigaOS (as well as spin-offs MorphOS and AROS) is still maintained and updated by Hyperion Entertainment. The brand was acquired under license in 2010 by two young entrepreneurs to become Commodore USA in Florida, until 2013. On December 26, 2014, two Italian entrepreneurs licensed the brand and founded Commodore Business Machines Ltd. in London, to manufacture smartphones. Product line The product line consists of original Commodore products. Calculators 774D, 776M, 796M, 9R23, C108, C110, F4146R, F4902, MM3, Minuteman 6, P50, PR100, SR1800, SR4120D, SR4120R, SR4148D, SR4148R, SR4190R, SR4212, SR4912, SR4921RPN, SR5120D, SR5120R, SR5148D, SR5148R, SR5190R, SR59, SR7919, SR7949, SR9150R, SR9190R, US3, US8 and The Specialist series: M55 (The Mathematician), N60 (The Navigator), S61 (The Statistician). ]] 6502-based computers (listed chronologically) * KIM-1 single-board computer (1976); was produced by MOS Technology, which was bought by Commodore * Commodore PET/CBM range (1977) * VIC-20 a.k.a. VIC-1001 (1980 [VIC-1001] – 1984) (CBM); * Commodore CBM-II range a.k.a. B-range a.k.a. 600/700 range (1982–1984) * MAX Machine Predecessor to C64 (1982) * Commodore 64 including C64C (1982–1994) * Commodore Educator 64 64 in a PET 40xx case (1983) * Commodore SX-64 all-in-one portable C64 including screen and disk drive (1984–1986) * Commodore 16 including C116, incompatible with C64 (1984) * Commodore Plus/4 compatible with C16 (1984–1985) * Commodore LCD LCD-equipped laptop (never released) * Commodore 128 including 128D and 128DCR (1985–1989) * Commodore 65 C64 successor (never released, an unofficial recreation was released as MEGA65) Z8000 Based * Commodore 900 workstation (never released) Amiga * Amiga 1000 (1985–1987) * Amiga 500 incl. A500+ (1987–1991) * Amiga 2000 incl. A2000HD (1987–1991) * Amiga 2500 (1988–1991) * Amiga 1500 (1987–1991) * Commodore CDTV (1990) * Amiga 3000 incl. Amiga 3000UX & Amiga 3000T (1990–1992) * Amiga 4000 incl. A4000T (1992–1994), rereleased by Escom (1995–1997) * Amiga 600 (1992–1993) * Amiga 1200 (1992–1994), rereleased by Escom (1995–1996) x86 IBM PC compatibles * Commodore PC compatible systems Commodore Colt, PC1, PC10, PC20, PC30, PC40 (1987–1993) * Commodore PC laptops Commodore 286LT, 386SX-LT, 486SX-LTC, 486SX-LTF, (–1993) Pentium P120i Ultramedia, P166i Ultramedia and the P200i Ultramedia (1996–1997) Game consoles * Commodore TV Game 2000K/3000H (1975–1977) (, 1st-gen home consoles list) * MAX Machine predecessor to C64 (1982) * Commodore 64 Games System (1990) * Amiga CD32 (1993) Monitors 1000, 1024, 1070, 1080, 1081, 1083S, 1084, 1084S, 1084ST, 1085S, 1201, 1402, 1403, 1404, 1405, 1407, 1428, 1428x, 1432D, 1432V, 1701, 1702, 1703, 1801, 1802, 1803, 1900M/DM602, 1901/75BM13/M1, 1902, 1902A, 1930, 1930-II, 1930-III, 1934, 1935, 1936, 1936ALR, 1940, 1942, 1950, 1960, 1962, 2002, A2024, 2080, 76M13, CM-141, DM-14, DM602 Printers VIC 1520 plotter The VIC 1520 plotter used the ALPS mechanicals and four-color rotary pen setup that scrolled a 4¼" roll of paper. The ALPS mechanism was shared with several other 8 bit computers of the era, including Tandy, Atari, and Apple. Software * AmigaOS 32-bit operating system for the Amiga range; multitasking, micro kernel, with GUI * Amiga Unix Operating system for the Amiga, based on Unix System V Release 4 * Commodore BASIC BASIC interpreter for the 8-bit range, ROM resident; based on Microsoft BASIC * Commodore DOS Disk operating system for the 8-bit range; embedded in disk drive ROMs * KERNAL Core OS routines for the 8-bit range; ROM resident * Magic Desk Planned series of productivity software for the C64; only the first entry was released * Simons' BASIC BASIC extension for the C64; cartridge-based * Super Expander BASIC and memory extension for the VIC-20; cartridge-based * Super Expander 64 BASIC extension for the C64 References External links * [http://www.c64.com/ Software Archive] * [https://CSDb.dk The Commodore Scene Database] * [http://Lemon64.com Lemon64] - Commodore Fanbase * [http://zimmers.net/commie/docs/cbm-products.txt The Canonical List of Commodore Products] – by Jim Brain, maintained by Bo Zimmerman * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150112163043/http://articles.philly.com/keyword/irving-gould Philadelphia Inquirer articles about Irving Gould] * [https://thecommodorestory.com/ The Commodore Story] – documentary crowdfunded on Kickstarter Category:1954 establishments in Ontario Category:1994 disestablishments in Pennsylvania Category:American companies established in 1954 Category:American companies disestablished in 1994 Category:Defunct computer companies of the United States Category:Defunct computer hardware companies Category:Defunct computer systems companies Category:Electronics companies of Canada Category:Electronic calculator companies Category:Home computer hardware companies Category:Computer companies established in 1954 Category:Electronics companies established in 1954 Category:Technology companies established in 1954 Category:Computer companies disestablished in 1994 Category:Technology companies disestablished in 1994 Category:Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 1994 Category:Defunct companies based in Pennsylvania Category:West Chester, Pennsylvania Category:Re-established companies Category:Computer companies established in 2005 Category:British royal warrant holders Category:Canadian companies established in 1954	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_International	2025-04-05T18:28:12.858732
7581	Commodore (rank)	Commodore is a senior naval rank used in many navies which is equivalent to brigadier or brigadier general and air commodore. It is superior to a navy captain, but below a rear admiral. It is either regarded as the most junior of the flag officers rank or may not hold the jurisdiction of a flag officer at all depending on the officer's appointment. Non-English-speaking nations commonly use the rank of flotilla admiral, counter admiral, or senior captain as an equivalent, although counter admiral may also correspond to rear admiral lower half abbreviated as RDML. Traditionally, "commodore" is the title for any officer assigned to command more than one ship, even temporarily, much as "captain" is the traditional title for the commanding officer of a single ship even if the officer's official title in the service is a lower rank. As an official rank, a commodore typically commands a flotilla or squadron of ships as part of a larger task force or naval fleet commanded by an admiral. A commodore's ship is typically designated by the flying of a broad pennant, as compared to an admiral's flag. "Commodore" is typically regarded as a one-star rank with a NATO code of OF-6, known in the U.S. as "rear admiral (lower half)", but whether it is regarded as a flag rank varies among countries. It is sometimes abbreviated as "Cdre" in British Royal Navy, "CDRE" in the US Navy, "Cmdre" in the Royal Canadian Navy, "COMO" in the Spanish Navy and in some navies speaking the Spanish language, or "CMDE" as used in the Indian Navy and in navies of several other countries. Etymology The rank of commodore derives from the French commandeur, which was the second highest rank in the orders of knighthood, and in military orders the title of the knight in charge of a commandery. History The Dutch Navy also used the rank of commandeur from the end of the 16th century for a variety of temporary positions, until it became a conventional permanent rank in 1955. The Royal Netherlands Air Force has adopted the English spelling of "commodore" for an equivalent rank. In the Royal Navy, the position was introduced in the 17th century to combat the cost of appointing more admirals—a costly business with a fleet as large as the Royal Navy's at that time. The rank of commodore was at first a position created as a temporary title to be bestowed upon captains who commanded squadrons of more than one vessel. In many navies, the rank of commodore was merely viewed as a senior captain position, whereas other naval services bestowed upon the rank of commodore the prestige of flag officer status. United States In 1899, the substantive rank of commodore was discontinued in the United States Navy, but revived during World War II in both the United States Navy and United States Coast Guard. It was discontinued as a rank in these services during the postwar period, but as an appointment, the title "commodore" was then used to identify senior U.S. Navy captains who commanded squadrons of more than one vessel or functional air wings or air groups that were not part of a carrier air wing or carrier air group. Concurrently, until the early 1980s, U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard captains selected for promotion to the rank of rear admiral (lower half), would wear the same insignia as rear admiral (upper half), i.e., two silver stars for collar insignia or sleeve braid of one wide and one narrow gold stripe, even though they were actually only equivalent to one-star officers and paid at the one-star rate. To correct this inequity, the rank of commodore as a single-star flag officer was reinstated by both services in the early 1980s. This immediately caused confusion with those senior U.S. Navy captains commanding destroyer squadrons, submarine squadrons, functional air wings and air groups, and so on, who held the temporary "title" of commodore while in their major command billet. As a result of this confusion, the services soon renamed the new one-star rank commodore admiral (CADM) within the first six months following the rank's reintroduction. However, this was considered an awkward title and the one-star flag rank was renamed a few months later, giving it its current title of rear admiral (lower half), later abbreviated by the U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard as RDML. The United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps, and NOAA Commissioned Corps, whose rank structures follow the naval pattern, also use this title and abbreviation. The "title" of commodore continues to be used in the U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard for those senior captains in command of organizations consisting of groups of ships or submarines organized into squadrons; air wings or air groups of multiple aviation squadrons other than carrier air wings (the latter whose commanders still use the title "CAG"); explosive ordnance disposal (EOD), mine warfare and special warfare (SEAL) groups; Mobile Inshore Underwater Warfare (MIUW) groups; and construction (SeaBee) regiments. Although not flag officers, modern day commodores in the U.S. Navy rate a blue and white command pennant, also known as a broad pennant, that is normally flown at their headquarters facilities ashore or from ships that they are embarked aboard when they are the Senior Officer Present Afloat (SOPA). Argentina In the Argentine Navy, the position of commodore was created in the late 1990s, and is usually, but not always, issued to senior captains holding rear-admirals' positions. It is not a rank but a distinction and, as such, can be issued by the chief of staff without congressional approval. Its equivalents are colonel-major in the Army and commodore-major in the Air Force. It is usually—but incorrectly—referred to as "navy commodore", to avoid confusion with the "air force commodore", which is equivalent to the navy's captain and army's colonel. The sleeve lace is identical to that of the Royal Navy, and wears one star on the epaulette.Naval rank * Commodore (Canada) * Commodore (Finland) * Commodore (India) * Commodore (Sri Lanka) * Commodore (Royal Navy) * Commodore (United States) * Commodore (Pakistan) * Kommodore Gallery <gallery class="center"> File:Generic-Navy-9.svg\|<br />(Argentine Navy) File:Generic-Navy-9b.svg\|Commodore<br />(Royal Australian Navy) File:Generic-Navy-9b.svg\|Commodore<br />(Royal Bahamas Defence Force) File:Generic-Navy-9b.svg\|Commodore<br />(Bangladesh Navy) File:Generic-Navy-9.svg\|Commodore<br />(Barbados Coast Guard) File:Generic-Navy-9b.svg\|Commodore<br />}}<br />(Royal Canadian Navy) File:Generic-Navy-(star)-O8.svg\|<br />(Chilean Navy) File:Croatia-Navy-OF-6.svg\|<br />(Croatian Navy) File:Generic-Navy-9.svg\|<br />(Estonian Navy) File:Ethiopia-Navy-OF-6.svg\|<br /><br />(Ethiopian Navy) File:Generic-Navy-9.svg\|Commodore<br />(Republic of Fiji Navy) File:Finland-Navy-OF-5.svg\|<br />}}<br />(Finnish Navy) File:Generic-Navy-9b.svg\|Commodore<br />(Gambian Navy) File:Generic-Navy-9b.svg\|Commodore<br />(Ghana Navy) File:Generic-Navy-9b.svg\|Commodore<br />(Guyana Coast Guard) File:Generic-Navy-9b.svg\|Commodore<br />}}<br />(Indian Navy) File:Generic-Navy-(star)-O8.svg\|Commodore<br />)}}<br />(Irish Naval Service) File:Generic-Navy-9b.svg\|Commodore<br />(Jamaican Coast Guard) File:Montenegro-Navy-OF-6.svg\|<br />(Montenegrin Navy) File:Generic-Navy-9b.svg\|Commodore<br />(Royal New Zealand Navy) File:Generic-Navy-9.svg\|Commodore<br />(Nigerian Navy) File:Generic-Navy-9b.svg\|Commodore<br />}}<br />(Pakistan Navy) File:Generic-Navy-9.svg\|Commodore<br />(Papua New Guinea Maritime Element) File:PN CDRE BlkDr-Slv.svg\|Commodore<br />(Philippine Navy) File:Generic-Navy-9.svg\|<br />(Portuguese Navy) File:Generic-Navy-(star)-O9.svg\|<br /><br />(Serbian River Flotilla) File:Generic-Navy-9b.svg\|Commodore<br />(Sierra Leone Navy) File:Generic-Navy-9b.svg\|Commodore<br />(Sri Lanka Navy) File:Generic-Navy-9.svg\|Commodore<br />(Tanzania Naval Command) File:Generic-Navy-9.svg\|Commodore<br />(Tongan Maritime Force) File:Generic-Navy-9b.svg\|Commodore<br />(Trinidad and Tobago Coast Guard) File:Ukraine-Navy-OF-6.svg\|<br /><br />(Ukrainian Navy) File:Generic-Navy-9b.svg\|Commodore<br />(Royal Navy) File:13. Myanmar Navy BG.png\|ဗိုလ်မှူးချုပ် (Myanmar) </gallery> Air force ranks Commodore, in Spanish comodoro, is a rank in the Argentine Air Force. This rank is the equivalent of a colonel in the Argentine Army, and a colonel or group captain in other air forces of the world. The Argentine rank below commodore is the rank of vice-commodore (Spanish vicecomodoro) equivalent to a lieutenant-colonel in the Argentine Army, and a lieutenant-colonel or wing commander in other air forces. Commodore is a rank in the Royal Netherlands Air Force. It is a one-star rank and has essentially the same rank insignia as the British air commodore. Many air forces use the rank of air commodore. This rank was first used by the Royal Air Force and is now used in many countries such as Australia, Bangladesh, Greece, India, New Zealand, Nigeria, Pakistan, Thailand and Zimbabwe. It is the equivalent rank to the navy rank of "commodore", and the army ranks of brigadier and brigadier general. The German air force used the concept of a unit commodore for the commander of a wing, usually in the rank of colonel (OF-5). Merchant Service (Merchant Marine) rank and Yacht Club chief directors <!-- An internal link from RMS Titanic is targeted to this section. Please change the link on that page if you change the section name here! Thanks. --> Commodore is also a title held by many captains as recognition of exceptional navigation ability and seagoing seniority in the Merchant Service, and by the directors of a few yacht clubs and boating associations. Commodores 'in command' as Master aboard Merchant Marine ships wear distinctive rank and cap insignia denoting their honorific high rank position. In a few country the honorific high position of commodore it is indicated with the high rank denomination of senior captain. Traditionally, commodore is the title of the president of a yacht club. Convoy commodore During wartime, a shipping convoy will have a ranking officer—sometimes an active-duty naval officer, at other times a civilian master or retired naval officer—designated as the convoy commodore. This title is not related to the individuals military rank (if any), but instead is the title of the senior individual responsible for the overall operation of the merchant ships and naval auxiliary ships that make up the convoy. The convoy commodore does not command the convoy escort forces (if any), which are commanded by a naval officer who serves as escort commander. Civilian use Commodore in Yachting Leadership Civilian yacht clubs, yachting associations and fellowships with formal hierarchical structures, began to use the title "commodore" in countries around the world for their presidents in the early twentieth century along with "vice commodore" in the same manner as "vice president,"and "rear-commodore" and "port captain' or "international bridge member" in the same manner as board members. Commodores, vice-commodores and rear-commodores are also known as civilian flag officers because they have an epaulettes, regalia and maritime flags with designated symbols and number of stars for their ranks. Many of the clubs that are more than a century old, such as the Los Angeles Yacht Club have formal ceremonies, where commodores from more than 100 surrounding yacht clubs, flag officers of the US Navy and Coast Guard attend a ceremony at the beginning of the year. The ceremony includes a bagpipe entrance, a presentation of the country flag by commissioned officers of the country's navy and a cannon shot upon the raising of each individual officer's flags on a flag staff, (also known as flagpoles) for each flag officer (commodore, vice commodore, rear commodore) as their term of office officially begins. Sometimes a trumpet fanfare is also include for special occasions like ribbon cutting in 2019 for the 50th Transpacific Yacht Race. Salutes are given to commodores for special ceremonies, including opening days of the racing season. Other uses The U.S. Coast Guard Auxiliary also employs variants of the title of commodore. Members of the Auxiliary serve in the Coast Guard's uniformed auxiliary service and they do not have military rank, but who do wear modified U.S. Coast Guard uniforms and U.S. military-style officer rank insignia to indicate office. Auxiliary members who have been elected or appointed to positions in the highest levels of the organization, similar in nature to active and reserve rear admirals and vice admirals use the term commodore (e.g., district commodore, assistant national commodore, deputy national commodore, national commodore, etc.). These Coast Guard auxiliarists may permanently append the title commodore, sometimes abbreviated COMO, to their names (e.g., Commodore James A. Smith, National Commodore; or COMO Jim Smith, (NACO)). In the Philippine Coast Guard Auxiliary—PCGA—each of the directors in command of the ten Coast Guard Auxiliary districts are commodores, as well as most of the Deputy National Directors (some may be rear admirals). Commodore is abbreviated to COMMO in the PCGA. Vanderbilt University's intercollegiate athletics teams are nicknamed the "Commodores", a reference to Cornelius Vanderbilt's self-appointed title (he was the master of a large shipping fleet). In the U.S. Sea Scouting program (which is part of the Boy Scouts of America), all National, Regional, Area, and Council committee chairs are titled as commodore, while senior committee members are addressed as vice commodore. Ship committee chairs do not hold this recognition. See also * Commodore-in-Chief * Comparative military ranks References Category:Naval ranks Category:One-star officers	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_(rank)	2025-04-05T18:28:12.891130
7583	Cauchy–Riemann equations	In the field of complex analysis in mathematics, the Cauchy–Riemann equations, named after Augustin Cauchy and Bernhard Riemann, consist of a system of two partial differential equations which form a necessary and sufficient condition for a complex function of a complex variable to be complex differentiable. These equations are {{NumBlk\|\|<math display"block">\frac{\partial u}{\partial x} \frac{\partial v}{\partial y} </math>\|}} and {{NumBlk\|\|<math display"block">\frac{\partial u}{\partial y} -\frac{\partial v}{\partial x},</math>\|}} where and are real bivariate differentiable functions. Typically, and are respectively the real and imaginary parts of a complex-valued function of a single complex variable where and are real variables; and are real differentiable functions of the real variables. Then is complex differentiable at a complex point if and only if the partial derivatives of and satisfy the Cauchy–Riemann equations at that point. A holomorphic function is a complex function that is differentiable at every point of some open subset of the complex plane <math>\mathbb{C}</math>. It has been proved that holomorphic functions are analytic and analytic complex functions are complex-differentiable. In particular, holomorphic functions are infinitely complex-differentiable. This equivalence between differentiability and analyticity is the starting point of all complex analysis. History The Cauchy–Riemann equations first appeared in the work of Jean le Rond d'Alembert. Later, Leonhard Euler connected this system to the analytic functions. Cauchy then used these equations to construct his theory of functions. Riemann's dissertation on the theory of functions appeared in 1851. Simple example Suppose that <math>z x + iy</math>. The complex-valued function <math>f(z) z^2</math> is differentiable at any point in the complex plane. <math display"block">f(z) (x + iy)^2 = x^2 - y^2 + 2ixy</math> The real part <math>u(x,y)</math> and the imaginary part <math>v(x, y)</math> are <math display="block">\begin{align} u(x, y) &= x^2 - y^2 \\ v(x, y) &= 2xy \end{align}</math> and their partial derivatives are <math display"block">u_x 2x;\quad u_y -2y;\quad v_x 2y;\quad v_y = 2x</math> We see that indeed the Cauchy–Riemann equations are satisfied, <math>u_x v_y</math> and <math>u_y -v_x</math>. Interpretation and reformulation The Cauchy-Riemann equations are one way of looking at the condition for a function to be differentiable in the sense of complex analysis: in other words, they encapsulate the notion of function of a complex variable by means of conventional differential calculus. In the theory there are several other major ways of looking at this notion, and the translation of the condition into other language is often needed. Conformal mappings First, the Cauchy–Riemann equations may be written in complex form {{NumBlk\|\|<math display"block">{ i \frac{ \partial f }{ \partial x } } \frac{ \partial f }{ \partial y } . </math>\|}} In this form, the equations correspond structurally to the condition that the Jacobian matrix is of the form <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} a & -b \\ b & a \end{pmatrix},</math> where <math> a \partial u/\partial x \partial v/\partial y</math> and <math> b \partial v/\partial x -\partial u/\partial y</math>. A matrix of this form is the matrix representation of a complex number. Geometrically, such a matrix is always the composition of a rotation with a scaling, and in particular preserves angles. The Jacobian of a function takes infinitesimal line segments at the intersection of two curves in and rotates them to the corresponding segments in . Consequently, a function satisfying the Cauchy–Riemann equations, with a nonzero derivative, preserves the angle between curves in the plane. That is, the Cauchy–Riemann equations are the conditions for a function to be conformal. Moreover, because the composition of a conformal transformation with another conformal transformation is also conformal, the composition of a solution of the Cauchy–Riemann equations with a conformal map must itself solve the Cauchy–Riemann equations. Thus the Cauchy–Riemann equations are conformally invariant. Complex differentiability Let <math display"block"> f(z) u(z) + i \cdot v(z) </math> where <math display"inline">u</math> and <math>v</math> are real-valued functions, be a complex-valued function of a complex variable <math display"inline"> z x + i y</math> where <math display"inline"> x</math> and <math display"inline"> y</math> are real variables. <math display"inline"> f(z) f(x + iy) f(x,y)</math> so the function can also be regarded as a function of real variables <math display"inline">x</math> and <math display"inline"> y</math>. Then, the complex-derivative of <math display"inline"> f </math> at a point <math display"inline"> z_0=x_0+iy_0 </math> is defined by <math display"block"> f'(z_0)\lim_{\underset{h\in\Complex}{h\to 0}} \frac{f(z_0+h)-f(z_0)}{h} </math> provided this limit exists (that is, the limit exists along every path approaching <math display="inline"> z_{0} </math>, and does not depend on the chosen path). A fundamental result of complex analysis is that <math>f</math> is complex differentiable at <math>z_0</math> (that is, it has a complex-derivative), if and only if the bivariate real functions <math>u(x+iy)</math> and <math>v(x+iy)</math> are differentiable at <math>(x_0,y_0),</math> and satisfy the Cauchy–Riemann equations at this point. In fact, if the complex derivative exists at <math display"inline"> z_0</math>, then it may be computed by taking the limit at <math display"inline"> z_0</math> along the real axis and the imaginary axis, and the two limits must be equal. Along the real axis, the limit is <math display"block">\lim_{\underset{h\in\Reals}{h\to 0}} \frac{f(z_0+h)-f(z_0)}{h} \left. \frac{\partial f}{\partial x} \right \vert_{z_0}</math> and along the imaginary axis, the limit is <math display"block">\lim_{\underset{h\in \Reals}{h\to 0}} \frac{f(z_0+ih)-f(z_0)}{ih} \left. \frac{1}{i}\frac{\partial f}{\partial y} \right \vert _{z_0}.</math> So, the equality of the derivatives implies <math display"block">i \left. \frac{\partial f}{\partial x} \right \vert _{z_0} \left. \frac{\partial f}{\partial y} \right \vert _{z_0}</math> which is the complex form of Cauchy–Riemann equations () at <math display="inline"> z_0</math>. (Note that if <math>f</math> is complex differentiable at <math>z_0</math>, it is also real differentiable and the Jacobian of <math>f</math> at <math>z_0</math> is the complex scalar <math>f'(z_0)</math>, regarded as a real-linear map of <math>\mathbb C</math>, since the limit <math>\|f(z)-f(z_0)-f'(z_0)(z-z_0)\|/\|z-z_0\|\to 0</math> as <math>z\to z_0</math>.) Conversely, if is differentiable at <math display"inline"> z_{0} </math> (in the real sense) and satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations there, then it is complex-differentiable at this point. Assume that as a function of two real variables and is differentiable at (real differentiable). This is equivalent to the existence of the following linear approximation <math display"block"> \Delta f(z_0) f(z_0 + \Delta z) - f(z_0) f_x \,\Delta x + f_y \,\Delta y + \eta(\Delta z)</math>where <math display"inline"> f_x \left. \frac{\partial f}{\partial x}\right \vert _{z_0} </math>, <math display"inline"> f_y \left. \frac{\partial f}{\partial y} \right \vert _{z_0} </math>, , and <math display="inline">\eta(\Delta z) / \|\Delta z\| \to 0</math> as . Since <math display"inline"> \Delta z + \Delta \bar{z} 2 \, \Delta x </math> and <math display"inline"> \Delta z - \Delta \bar{z}2i \, \Delta y </math>, the above can be re-written as <math display"block"> \Delta f(z_0) \frac{f_x - if_y}{2} \, \Delta z + \frac{f_x + if_y}{2} \, \Delta \bar{z} + \eta(\Delta z)\, </math><math display"block">\frac{\Delta f}{\Delta z} \frac{f_x -i f_y}{2}+ \frac{f_x + i f_y}{2}\cdot \frac{\Delta\bar{z}}{\Delta z} + \frac{\eta(\Delta z)}{\Delta z}, \;\;\;\;(\Delta z \neq 0). </math> Now, if <math display"inline">\Delta z</math> is real, <math display"inline">\Delta\bar z/\Delta z 1</math>, while if it is imaginary, then <math display"inline">\Delta\bar z/\Delta z-1</math>. Therefore, the second term is independent of the path of the limit <math display"inline">\Delta z\to 0</math> when (and only when) it vanishes identically: <math display"inline">f_x + i f_y0</math>, which is precisely the Cauchy–Riemann equations in the complex form. This proof also shows that, in that case, <math display"block">\left.\frac{df}{dz}\right\|_{z_0} \lim_{\Delta z\to 0}\frac{\Delta f}{\Delta z} = \frac{f_x - i f_y}{2}.</math> Note that the hypothesis of real differentiability at the point <math>z_0</math> is essential and cannot be dispensed with. For example, the function <math>f(x,y) \sqrt{\|xy\|}</math>, regarded as a complex function with imaginary part identically zero, has both partial derivatives at <math>(x_0,y_0)=(0,0)</math>, and it moreover satisfies the Cauchy–Riemann equations at that point, but it is not differentiable in the sense of real functions (of several variables), and so the first condition, that of real differentiability, is not met. Therefore, this function is not complex differentiable. Some sources state a sufficient condition for the complex differentiability at a point <math>z_0</math> as, in addition to the Cauchy–Riemann equations, the partial derivatives of <math>u</math> and <math>v</math> be continuous at the point because this continuity condition ensures the existence of the aforementioned linear approximation. Note that it is not a necessary condition for the complex differentiability. For example, the function <math>f(z) z^2e^{i/\|z\|}</math> is complex differentiable at 0, but its real and imaginary parts have discontinuous partial derivatives there. Since complex differentiability is usually considered in an open set, where it in fact implies continuity of all partial derivatives (see below), this distinction is often elided in the literature. Independence of the complex conjugate The above proof suggests another interpretation of the Cauchy–Riemann equations. The complex conjugate of <math>z</math>, denoted <math display"inline">\bar{z}</math>, is defined by <math display"block">\overline{x + iy} : x - iy</math> for real variables <math>x</math> and <math>y</math>. Defining the two Wirtinger derivatives as<math display"block"> \frac{\partial}{\partial z} \frac{1}{2} \left( \frac{\partial}{\partial x} - i \frac{\partial}{\partial y} \right), \;\;\; \frac{\partial}{\partial\bar{z}} = \frac{1}{2} \left( \frac{\partial}{\partial x} + i \frac{\partial}{\partial y} \right), </math> the Cauchy–Riemann equations can then be written as a single equation <math display"block">\frac{\partial f}{\partial\bar{z}} 0,</math> and the complex derivative of <math display"inline">f</math> in that case is <math display"inline">\frac{df}{dz}\frac{\partial f}{\partial z}.</math> In this form, the Cauchy–Riemann equations can be interpreted as the statement that a complex function <math display"inline">f</math> of a complex variable <math display"inline">z</math> is independent of the variable <math display"inline">\bar{z}</math>. As such, we can view analytic functions as true functions of one complex variable (<math display"inline">z</math>) instead of complex functions of two real variables (<math display"inline">x</math> and <math display"inline">y</math>). Physical interpretation of a pair u and v satisfying the Cauchy–Riemann equations. Streamlines (v const, red) are perpendicular to equipotentials (u = const, blue). The point (0,0) is a stationary point of the potential flow, with six streamlines meeting, and six equipotentials also meeting and bisecting the angles formed by the streamlines.]] A standard physical interpretation of the Cauchy–Riemann equations going back to Riemann's work on function theory is that u represents a velocity potential of an incompressible steady fluid flow in the plane, and v is its stream function. Suppose that the pair of (twice continuously differentiable) functions u and v satisfies the Cauchy–Riemann equations. We will take u to be a velocity potential, meaning that we imagine a flow of fluid in the plane such that the velocity vector of the fluid at each point of the plane is equal to the gradient of u, defined by <math display"block">\nabla u \frac{\partial u}{\partial x}\mathbf i + \frac{\partial u}{\partial y}\mathbf j.</math> By differentiating the Cauchy–Riemann equations for the functions u and v, with the symmetry of second derivatives, one shows that u solves Laplace's equation: <math display"block">\frac{\partial^2u}{\partial x^2} + \frac{\partial^2u}{\partial y^2} 0.</math> That is, u is a harmonic function. This means that the divergence of the gradient is zero, and so the fluid is incompressible. The function v also satisfies the Laplace equation, by a similar analysis. Also, the Cauchy–Riemann equations imply that the dot product <math display"inline">\nabla u\cdot\nabla v 0</math> (<math display"inline">\nabla u\cdot\nabla v \frac{\partial u}{\partial x} \cdot \frac{\partial v}{\partial x} + \frac{\partial u}{\partial y} \cdot \frac{\partial v}{\partial y} \frac{\partial u}{\partial x} \cdot \frac{\partial v}{\partial x} - \frac{\partial u}{\partial x} \cdot \frac{\partial v}{\partial x} 0</math>), i.e., the direction of the maximum slope of u and that of v are orthogonal to each other. This implies that the gradient of u must point along the <math display"inline">v \text{const}</math> curves; so these are the streamlines of the flow. The <math display"inline">u \text{const}</math> curves are the equipotential curves of the flow. A holomorphic function can therefore be visualized by plotting the two families of level curves <math display"inline">u\text{const}</math> and <math display"inline">v\text{const}</math>. Near points where the gradient of u (or, equivalently, v) is not zero, these families form an orthogonal family of curves. At the points where <math display"inline">\nabla u0</math>, the stationary points of the flow, the equipotential curves of <math display"inline">u\text{const}</math> intersect. The streamlines also intersect at the same point, bisecting the angles formed by the equipotential curves. Harmonic vector field Another interpretation of the Cauchy–Riemann equations can be found in Pólya & Szegő. Suppose that u and v satisfy the Cauchy–Riemann equations in an open subset of R<sup>2</sup>, and consider the vector field <math display"block">\bar{f} \begin{bmatrix} u\\ -v \end{bmatrix}</math> regarded as a (real) two-component vector. Then the second Cauchy–Riemann equation () asserts that <math>\bar{f}</math> is irrotational (its curl is 0): <math display"block">\frac{\partial (-v)}{\partial x} - \frac{\partial u}{\partial y} 0.</math> The first Cauchy–Riemann equation () asserts that the vector field is solenoidal (or divergence-free): <math display"block">\frac{\partial u}{\partial x} + \frac{\partial (-v)}{\partial y}0.</math> Owing respectively to Green's theorem and the divergence theorem, such a field is necessarily a conservative one, and it is free from sources or sinks, having net flux equal to zero through any open domain without holes. (These two observations combine as real and imaginary parts in Cauchy's integral theorem.) In fluid dynamics, such a vector field is a potential flow. In magnetostatics, such vector fields model static magnetic fields on a region of the plane containing no current. In electrostatics, they model static electric fields in a region of the plane containing no electric charge. This interpretation can equivalently be restated in the language of differential forms. The pair u and v satisfy the Cauchy–Riemann equations if and only if the one-form <math>v\,dx + u\, dy</math> is both closed and coclosed (a harmonic differential form). Preservation of complex structure Another formulation of the Cauchy–Riemann equations involves the complex structure in the plane, given by <math display"block">J \begin{bmatrix} 0 & -1 \\ 1 & 0 \end{bmatrix}.</math> This is a complex structure in the sense that the square of J is the negative of the 2×2 identity matrix: <math>J^2 = -I</math>. As above, if u(x,y) and v(x,y) are two functions in the plane, put <math display"block">f(x,y) \begin{bmatrix}u(x,y)\\v(x,y)\end{bmatrix}.</math> The Jacobian matrix of f is the matrix of partial derivatives <math display"block">Df(x,y) \begin{bmatrix} \dfrac{\partial u}{\partial x} & \dfrac{\partial u}{\partial y} \\[5pt] \dfrac{\partial v}{\partial x} & \dfrac{\partial v}{\partial y} \end{bmatrix}</math> Then the pair of functions u, v satisfies the Cauchy–Riemann equations if and only if the 2×2 matrix Df commutes with J. This interpretation is useful in symplectic geometry, where it is the starting point for the study of pseudoholomorphic curves. Other representations Other representations of the Cauchy–Riemann equations occasionally arise in other coordinate systems. If () and () hold for a differentiable pair of functions u and v, then so do <math display="block"> \frac{\partial u}{\partial n} = \frac{\partial v}{\partial s},\quad \frac{\partial v}{\partial n} = -\frac{\partial u}{\partial s} </math> for any coordinate system such that the pair <math display"inline">(\nabla n,\nabla s)</math> is orthonormal and positively oriented. As a consequence, in particular, in the system of coordinates given by the polar representation <math>z r e^{i\theta}</math>, the equations then take the form <math display="block"> {\partial u \over \partial r} = {1 \over r}{\partial v \over \partial\theta},\quad {\partial v \over \partial r} = -{1 \over r}{\partial u \over \partial\theta}. </math> Combining these into one equation for gives <math display"block">{\partial f \over \partial r} {1 \over ir}{\partial f \over \partial\theta}.</math> The inhomogeneous Cauchy–Riemann equations consist of the two equations for a pair of unknown functions and of two real variables <math display="block">\begin{align} \frac{\partial u}{\partial x} - \frac{\partial v}{\partial y} &= \alpha(x, y) \\[4pt] \frac{\partial u}{\partial y} + \frac{\partial v}{\partial x} &= \beta(x, y) \end{align}</math> for some given functions and defined in an open subset of R<sup>2</sup>. These equations are usually combined into a single equation <math display"block">\frac{\partial f}{\partial\bar{z}} \varphi(z,\bar{z})</math> where f u + iv and 𝜑 (α + iβ)/2. If 𝜑 is C<sup>k</sup>, then the inhomogeneous equation is explicitly solvable in any bounded domain D, provided 𝜑 is continuous on the closure of D. Indeed, by the Cauchy integral formula, <math display"block">f\left(\zeta, \bar{\zeta}\right) \frac{1}{2\pi i} \iint_D \varphi\left(z, \bar{z}\right) \, \frac{dz\wedge d\bar{z}}{z - \zeta}</math> for all ζ ∈ D. Generalizations Goursat's theorem and its generalizations Suppose that is a complex-valued function which is differentiable as a function <math>f : \mathbb{R}^2 \rarr \mathbb{R}^2</math>. Then Goursat's theorem asserts that f is analytic in an open complex domain Ω if and only if it satisfies the Cauchy–Riemann equation in the domain. In particular, continuous differentiability of f need not be assumed. The hypotheses of Goursat's theorem can be weakened significantly. If is continuous in an open set Ω and the partial derivatives of f with respect to x and y exist in Ω, and satisfy the Cauchy–Riemann equations throughout Ω, then f is holomorphic (and thus analytic). This result is the Looman–Menchoff theorem. The hypothesis that f obey the Cauchy–Riemann equations throughout the domain Ω is essential. It is possible to construct a continuous function satisfying the Cauchy–Riemann equations at a point, but which is not analytic at the point (e.g., z<sup>4</sup>)}}. Similarly, some additional assumption is needed besides the Cauchy–Riemann equations (such as continuity), as the following example illustrates <math display"block">f(z) \begin{cases} \exp\left(-z^{-4}\right) & \text{if }z \not= 0\\ 0 & \text{if }z = 0 \end{cases}</math> which satisfies the Cauchy–Riemann equations everywhere, but fails to be continuous at z = 0. Nevertheless, if a function satisfies the Cauchy–Riemann equations in an open set in a weak sense, then the function is analytic. More precisely: : If is locally integrable in an open domain <math>\Omega \isin \mathbb{C},</math> and satisfies the Cauchy–Riemann equations weakly, then agrees almost everywhere with an analytic function in . This is in fact a special case of a more general result on the regularity of solutions of hypoelliptic partial differential equations. Several variables There are Cauchy–Riemann equations, appropriately generalized, in the theory of several complex variables. They form a significant overdetermined system of PDEs. This is done using a straightforward generalization of the Wirtinger derivative, where the function in question is required to have the (partial) Wirtinger derivative with respect to each complex variable vanish. Complex differential forms As often formulated, the d-bar operator <math display="block">\bar{\partial}</math> annihilates holomorphic functions. This generalizes most directly the formulation <math display"block">{\partial f \over \partial \bar z} 0,</math> where <math display"block">{\partial f \over \partial \bar z} {1 \over 2}\left({\partial f \over \partial x} + i{\partial f \over \partial y}\right).</math> Bäcklund transform Viewed as conjugate harmonic functions, the Cauchy–Riemann equations are a simple example of a Bäcklund transform. More complicated, generally non-linear Bäcklund transforms, such as in the sine-Gordon equation, are of great interest in the theory of solitons and integrable systems. Definition in Clifford algebra In the Clifford algebra <math>C\ell(2)</math>, the complex number <math>z x+iy </math> is represented as <math>z \equiv x + J y</math> where <math>J \equiv \sigma_1 \sigma_2</math>, (<math>\sigma_1^2\sigma_2^21, \sigma_1 \sigma_2 + \sigma_2 \sigma_1 0</math>, so <math>J^2-1</math>). The Dirac operator in this Clifford algebra is defined as <math>\nabla \equiv \sigma_1 \partial_x + \sigma_2\partial_y</math>. The function <math>fu + J v</math> is considered analytic if and only if <math>\nabla f = 0</math>, which can be calculated in the following way: <math display="block"> \begin{align} 0 & \nabla f ( \sigma_1 \partial_x + \sigma_2 \partial_y )(u + \sigma_1 \sigma_2 v) \\[4pt] & \sigma_1 \partial_x u + \underbrace{\sigma_1 \sigma_1 \sigma_2}_{\sigma_2} \partial_x v + \sigma_2 \partial_y u + \underbrace{\sigma_2 \sigma_1 \sigma_2}_{-\sigma_1} \partial_y v0 \end{align} </math> Grouping by <math>\sigma_1</math> and <math>\sigma_2</math>: <math display"block">\nabla f \sigma_1 ( \partial_x u - \partial_y v) + \sigma_2 ( \partial_x v + \partial_y u) = 0 \Leftrightarrow \begin{cases} \partial_x u - \partial_y v = 0\\[4pt] \partial_x v + \partial_y u = 0 \end{cases}</math> Hence, in traditional notation: <math display="block">\begin{cases} \dfrac{ \partial u }{ \partial x } = \dfrac{ \partial v }{ \partial y }\\[12pt] \dfrac{ \partial u }{ \partial y } = -\dfrac{ \partial v }{ \partial x } \end{cases}</math> Conformal mappings in higher dimensions Let Ω be an open set in the Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^n</math>. The equation for an orientation-preserving mapping <math>f:\Omega\to\mathbb{R}^n</math> to be a conformal mapping (that is, angle-preserving) is that <math display"block">Df^\mathsf{T} Df (\det(Df))^{2/n}I</math> where Df is the Jacobian matrix, with transpose <math>Df^\mathsf{T}</math>, and I denotes the identity matrix. For , this system is equivalent to the standard Cauchy–Riemann equations of complex variables, and the solutions are holomorphic functions. In dimension , this is still sometimes called the Cauchy–Riemann system, and Liouville's theorem implies, under suitable smoothness assumptions, that any such mapping is a Möbius transformation. Lie pseudogroups One might seek to generalize the Cauchy-Riemann equations instead by asking more generally when are the solutions of a system of PDEs closed under composition. The theory of Lie Pseudogroups addresses these kinds of questions. See also List of complex analysis topics Cauchy integral theorem Morera's theorem Wirtinger derivatives References Sources * * * * Further reading * * * External links * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061209102947/http://math.fullerton.edu/mathews/c2003/CauchyRiemannMod.html Cauchy–Riemann Equations Module by John H. Mathews] Category:Eponymous equations of mathematics Category:Partial differential equations Category:Complex analysis Category:Harmonic functions Category:Bernhard Riemann Category:Augustin-Louis Cauchy	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cauchy–Riemann_equations	2025-04-05T18:28:12.928621
7585	Chaim Topol	\| birth_place = Tel Aviv, Mandatory Palestine \| death_date \| death_place = Tel Aviv, Israel \| nationality = Israeli \| other_names = \| occupation = \| years_active = 1957–2015 \| notable_works \| spouse = \| children = 3 \| relatives = Yali Topol Margalith (granddaughter) \| awards = }} Chaim Topol (; 9 September 1935 – 8 March 2023), mononymously known as Topol, Topol began acting during his Israeli army service as a member of the Nahal entertainment troupe. He later toured Israel with kibbutz theatre and satirical theatre companies. He was a co-founder of the Haifa Theatre. His breakthrough film role came in 1964 as the title character in Sallah Shabati, by Israeli writer Ephraim Kishon, for which he won a Golden Globe for Most Promising Newcomer—Male. Topol went on to appear in more than 30 films in Israel and the United States, including Galileo (1975), Flash Gordon (1980), and For Your Eyes Only (1981). He was described as Israel's only internationally recognized entertainer from the 1960s through the 1980s. He won a Golden Globe for Best Actor and was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor for his 1971 film portrayal of Tevye, and was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Actor for a 1991 Broadway revival of Fiddler on the Roof. Topol was a founder of Variety Israel, an organization serving children with special needs, and Jordan River Village, a year-round camp for Arab and Jewish children with life-threatening illnesses, for which he served as chairman of the board. In 2015 he was awarded the Israel Prize for lifetime achievement. Biography Chaim Topol was born on September 9, 1935, in Tel Aviv, in what was then Mandatory Palestine. His father Jacob Topol was born in Russia and in the early 1930s immigrated to Mandatory Palestine, where he worked as a plasterer; he also served in the Haganah paramilitary organization. His mother Imrela "Rel" (née Goldman) Topol was a seamstress. Topol's parents had been members of the Betar Zionist youth movement in Warsaw. His father had Hasidic roots, with a mother coming from a family of Gerrer Hasidim and a father from Aleksander Hasidim. Topol and his two younger sisters grew up in the South Tel Aviv working-class neighborhood of Florentin. As a young child, although he wanted to become a commercial artist, his elementary school teacher, the writer Yemima Avidar-Tchernovitz, saw a theatrical side to him, and encouraged him to act in school plays and read stories to the class. On March 8, 2023, Topol's family notified the press that he was near death and "living his final hours", and asked the public to respect the family's privacy. He died overnight at the age of 87. The day before his burial at Kvutzat Shiller on March 10, a memorial was held at the Cameri Theater in Tel Aviv. Singing and acting career Between 1960 and 1964, Topol performed with the Batzal Yarok ("Green Onion") satirical theatre company, which also toured Israel. Adapted for the screen by Ephraim Kishon from his original play, the social satire depicts the hardships of a Sephardic immigrant family in the rough conditions of ma'abarot, immigrant absorption camps in Israel in the 1950s, satirizing "just about every pillar of Israeli society: the Ashkenazi establishment, the pedantic bureaucracy, corrupt political parties, rigid kibbutz ideologues and ... the Jewish National Fund's tree-planting program". Topol, who was 29 during the filming, was familiar playing the role of the family patriarch, having performed skits from the play with his Nahal entertainment troupe during his army years. and the 1972 David di Donatello for Best Foreign Actor, sharing the latter with Elizabeth Taylor. He was also nominated for the 1971 Academy Award for Best Actor, losing to Gene Hackman in The French Connection. As he was by then the approximate age of the character, he commented, "I didn't have to spend the energy playing the age". followed by an April 2006 production at the Lyric Theatre in Brisbane, and a June 2006 production at Her Majesty's Theatre in Melbourne. In May 2007, he starred in a production at the Auckland Civic Theatre. In 2009, Topol began a farewell tour of Fiddler on the Roof as Tevye, opening in Wilmington, Delaware. He was forced to withdraw from the tour in Boston owing to a shoulder injury, and was replaced by Theodore Bikel and Harvey Fierstein, both of whom had portrayed Tevye on Broadway. Other stage and film roles ]] In 1976, Topol played the lead role of the baker, Amiable, in the new musical The Baker's Wife'', but was fired after eight months by producer David Merrick. In her autobiography, Patti LuPone, his co-star in the production, claimed that Topol had behaved unprofessionally on stage and had a strained relationship with her off-stage. The show's composer, Stephen Schwartz, claimed that Topol's behavior greatly disturbed the cast and directors and resulted in the production not reaching Broadway as planned. In 1988, Topol starred in the title role in Ziegfeld at the London Palladium. He returned to the London stage in 2008 in the role of Honoré, played by Maurice Chevalier in the 1958 film Gigi. He was said to be Israel's "only internationally-recognized entertainer" from the 1960s through to the 1980s. A Hebrew-language documentary of his life, Chaim Topol – Life as a Film'', aired on Israel's Channel 1 in 2011, featuring interviews with his longtime actor friends in Israel and abroad.Mossad missionsAfter Topol's death, the family revealed that he had been involved in Mossad missions in the 1960s and 1970s. They said he went on unexplained trips abroad while equipped with a miniature state-of-the-art camera and tape recorder, and that he was in regular contact with Mossad officer Peter Malkin, who came on visits to the family home through the backyard in disguise. On several occasions, Topol carried out wiretapping and other operations with Malkin, using his international acclaim to divert attention from Malkin.Literary and art career by Topol]] His autobiography, Topol by Topol, was published in London by Weindenfel and Nicholson (1981). Philanthropy In 1967, Topol founded Variety Israel, an organization serving children with special needs. It was inspired by Paul Newman's Hole in the Wall Gang Camp. The village is operated almost entirely by volunteers. Topol described it as the project he was "most connected to." Awards and recognition award in arts and entertainment, 1964]] Topol was a recipient of Israel's Kinor David award in arts and entertainment in 1964. He received a Best Actor award from the San Sebastián International Film Festival for his performance in the 1972 film Follow Me! In 2014, the University of Haifa conferred upon Topol an honorary degree in recognition of his 50 years of activity in Israel's cultural and public life. In 2015, Chaim Topol was honoured by the Chief Rabbi of Ukraine, Rabbi Moshe Reuven Azman and the Ukrainian Jewish Community. Topol's portrayal of Tevye in Fiddler on the Roof led to the inspiration for the Anatevka Refugee Village which was named in commemoration of the fictional village.LegacyShortly after Topol's death, President Isaac Herzog issued a statement honouring "one of the most prominent Israeli stage artists, a gifted actor who conquered many stages in Israel and overseas, filled the cinema screens with his presence and, above all, deeply entered our hearts". Prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu stated "his wide smile, warm voice, and unique sense of humour made him a folk hero who won the hearts of the people" and former prime minister Yair Lapid remarked "He and his smile will continue to accompany Israeli culture, his rich legacy will forever remain a part of Israel". Filmography {\|class"wikitable" style"font-size: 100%;" \|- !Year !Title !Role !Notes \|- \|1961 \|I Like Mike \|Mikha \| rowspan="2" \| \|- \|1962 \|Etz O Palestina (The True Story of Palestine) \|Narrator \|- \|1963 \|El Dorado \|Benny Sherman \|Credited as Haim Topol \|- \|1964 \| Sallah Shabati \|Sallah Shabati \|Credited as Haym Topol.<br>Golden Globe Award for Most Promising Newcomer – Male<br>San Francisco International Film Festival Award for Best Actor \|- \|1966 \|Cast a Giant Shadow \|Abou Ibn Kader \| \|- \|1967 \| Ervinka \|Ervinka \|Credited as Haim Topol. Also co-producer. \|- \|rowspan="2"\|1968 \| Kol Mamzer Melekh (Every Bastard a King) \| \| rowspan="2" \|Co-producer \|- \|Ha-Shehuna Shelanu (Fish, Football, and Girls) \| \|- \|rowspan="2"\|1969 \|Before Winter Comes \|Janovic \| rowspan="2" \| \|- \|A Talent for Loving \|General Molina \|- \|1970 \| Nikki: Wild Dog of the North \|Narrator \|Hebrew dub \|- \|rowspan="3"\|1971 \| Fiddler on the Roof \|Tevye \|David di Donatello Award for Best Foreign Actor<br>Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy<br>Sant Jordi Award for Best Performance in a Foreign Film<br>Nominated – Academy Award for Best Actor \|- \| The Going Up of David Lev \|Chaim \|TV movie \|- \|Hatarnegol (The Boys Will Never Believe It; The Rooster) \|Gadi Zur \|Also co-producer \|- \|1972 \|Follow Me! \|Julian Cristoforou \|San Sebastián International Film Festival award for Best Actor \|- \|1975 \|Galileo \|Galileo Galilei \| \|- \|1979 \|The House on Garibaldi Street \|Michael \|TV movie \|- \|1980 \|Flash Gordon \|Dr. Hans Zarkov \| rowspan="2" \| \|- \|1981 \|For Your Eyes Only \|Milos Columbo \|- \|1983 \| The Winds of War \|Berel Jastrow \|TV miniseries \|- \|1985 \| Roman Behemshechim (Again, Forever) \|Effi Avidar \| \|- \|1987 \| Queenie \|Dimitri Goldner \|TV movie \|- \|rowspan="2"\|1988 \|Tales of the Unexpected \|Professor Max Kelada \|Episode: Mr. Know-All \|- \|The Jungle Book \|Bagheera \|Hebrew dub \|- \|1988–1989 \|War and Remembrance \|Berel Jastrow \|TV miniseries, 11 episodes \|- \|1993 \| SeaQuest DSV \|Dr. Rafik Hassan \|Episode: Treasure of the Mind \|- \|rowspan="2"\|1998 \|Left Luggage \|Mr. Apfelschnitt \| rowspan="2" \| \|- \|Time Elevator \|Shalem \|- \|2000 \| Inside For Your Eyes Only \| \| rowspan="2" \|Documentary \|- \|rowspan="2"\|2001 \| Fiddler on the Roof: 30 Years of Tradition \| \|- \|''Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone \|rowspan="2"\|Rubeus Hagrid \|rowspan="3"\|Hebrew dub \|- \|2002 \|Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets \|- \|2003 \|The Jungle Book 2 \|Bagheera \|- \|2019 \|Fiddler: A Miracle of Miracles'' \| \|Documentary \|- \| colspan"4" style"text-align: center;" \| Sources: \|} See also * Cinema of Israel * Culture of Israel * Theater of Israel References Sources * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * External links * * * 0\|Chaim Topol}} * }} Category:1935 births Category:2023 deaths Category:Male actors from Tel Aviv Category:Singers from Tel Aviv Category:Israeli male film actors Category:Israeli male musical theatre actors Category:Israeli male stage actors Category:Israeli male voice actors Category:Israeli male comedians Category:Israeli film producers Category:Israeli baritones Category:Israeli illustrators Category:Israeli people of Russian-Jewish descent Category:Israeli Ashkenazi Jews Category:Ashkenazi Jews in Mandatory Palestine Category:English-language singers from Israel Category:Jewish Israeli male actors Category:Jewish Israeli singers Category:Jewish Israeli comedians Category:Israel Prize recipients Category:New Star of the Year (Actor) Golden Globe winners Category:Best Musical or Comedy Actor Golden Globe (film) winners Category:David di Donatello winners Category:Deaths from Alzheimer's disease in Israel Category:20th-century Israeli male actors Category:21st-century Israeli male actors Category:20th-century Israeli male singers Category:21st-century Israeli male singers Category:20th-century Israeli male writers Category:21st-century Israeli male writers Category:20th-century Israeli comedians Category:21st-century Israeli comedians Category:20th-century Israeli Jews Category:21st-century Israeli Jews	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaim_Topol	2025-04-05T18:28:12.981852
7586	Christadelphians	The Christadelphians () are a restorationist and nontrinitarian (Biblical Unitarian) Christian denomination. The name means 'brothers and sisters in Christ', from the Greek words for Christ (Christos) and brothers (adelphoi). Christadelphians believe in the inspiration of the Bible, the Virgin Birth, the status of Jesus as the son of God, believer's baptism, the resurrection of the dead, the second coming of Christ, and the future kingdom of God on earth. However, they reject a number of mainstream Christian doctrines, for example the Trinity and the immortality of the soul, believing these to be corruptions of original Christian teaching. The movement developed in the United Kingdom and North America in the 19th century around the teachings of John Thomas and they were initially found predominantly in the developed English-speaking world, expanding in developing countries after the Second World War. In 2009, the BBC estimated there were approximately 50,000 Christadelphians in around 120 countries. Congregations are traditionally referred to as "ecclesias". History Background 19th century The Christadelphian movement traces its origins to John Thomas (1805–1871). He initially associated with emerging Restoration Movement in the United States but later separated from them. The Christadelphian community in the United Kingdom effectively dates from Thomas's first lecturing tour of Britain (May 1848 – October 1850). During this period, he wrote Elpis Israel in which he laid out his understanding of the main doctrines of the Bible. Since his medium for bringing change was print and debate, it was natural for the origins of the Christadelphian body to be associated with books and journals, such as Thomas's Herald of the Kingdom. His message was particularly welcomed in Scotland, and Campbellite, Unitarian and Adventist friends separated to form groups of "Baptised Believers". He was not alone in his desire to establish Biblical truth and test orthodox Christian beliefs through independent scriptural study. Among other churches, he had links with the Adventist movement and with Benjamin Wilson (who later set up the Church of God of the Abrahamic Faith in the 1860s). Although the Christadelphian movement originated through the activities of John Thomas, he never saw himself as making his own disciples. He believed rather that he had rediscovered 1st-century beliefs from the Bible alone, and sought to prove that through a process of challenge and debate and writing journals. Through that process a number of people became convinced and set up various fellowships that had sympathy with that position. Groups associated with John Thomas met under multiple names, including Believers, Baptised Believers, the Royal Association of Believers, Baptised Believers in the Kingdom of God, Nazarines (or Nazarenes), and The Antipas which he did in 1869. His editorship of the magazine continued with some assistance until his death in 1898. In church matters, Roberts was prominent in the period following the death of John Thomas in 1871 and helped craft the structures of the Christadelphian body. Initially, the denomination grew in the English-speaking world, particularly in the English Midlands and parts of North America. Two-thirds of ecclesias and members in Britain before 1864 were in Scotland. In the early days after the death of John Thomas, the group could have moved in a number of directions. Doctrinal issues arose, debates took place, and statements of faith were created and amended as other issues arose. These attempts were felt necessary by many to both settle and define a doctrinal stance for the newly emerging denomination and to keep out error. As a result of these debates, several groups separated from the main body of Christadelphians, most notably the Suffolk Street fellowship in 1885 (with members believing that the whole of the Bible was not inspired) and the Unamended fellowship. 20th century The Christadelphian position on conscientious objection came to the fore with the introduction of conscription during the First World War. Varying degrees of exemption from military service were granted to Christadelphians in the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and the United States. In the Second World War, this frequently required the person seeking exemption to undertake civilian work under the direction of the authorities. During the Second World War, the Christadelphians in Britain assisted in the Kindertransport, helping to relocate several hundred Jewish children away from Nazi persecution by founding a hostel, Elpis Lodge, for that purpose. In Germany, the small Christadelphian community founded by Albert Maier went underground from 1940 to 1945, and a leading brother, Albert Merz, was imprisoned as a conscientious objector and later executed. After the Second World War, moves were made to try to reunite various earlier divisions. By the end of the 1950s, most Christadelphians had united into one community, but a number of small groups remained separate. Today The post-war and post-reunions periods saw an increase in co-operation and interaction between ecclesias, resulting in the establishment of a number of week-long Bible schools and the formation of national and international organisations such as the Christadelphian Bible Mission (for preaching and pastoral support overseas), the Christadelphian Support Network (for counselling), and the Christadelphian Meal-A-Day Fund (for charity and humanitarian work). The period following the reunions was accompanied by expansion in the developing world, which now accounts for around 40% of Christadelphians. Beliefs The Christadelphian body has no central authority or co-ordinating organisation to establish and maintain a standardised set of beliefs, but there are core doctrines accepted by most Christadelphians. In the formal statements of faith a more complete list is found; for instance, the Birmingham Amended Statement of Faith has 30 doctrines to be accepted and 35 to be rejected. The Bible Christadelphians state that their beliefs are based wholly on the Bible, and they do not see other works as inspired by God. They regard the Bible as inspired by God and, therefore, believe that in its original form, it is error-free apart from errors in later copies due to errors of transcription or translation. God Christadelphians believe that God, Jehovah, is the creator of all things and the father of true believers, and that he is a separate being from his son, Jesus (who is subordinate to him). They reject the doctrine of the Trinity. , United Kingdom]] Jesus Christadelphians believe that Jesus was the promised Jewish Messiah in whom the prophecies and promises of the Old Testament (Hebrew Bible) find their fulfilment. They believe he is the Son of Man—in that he inherited human nature (with its inclination to sin) from his mother—and the Son of God by virtue of his miraculous conception by the power of God. Christadelphians reject the doctrine of Pre-existence of Christ. They teach that he was part of God's plans from the beginning and was foreshadowed in the Old Testament, but was not an independent being prior to his human birth. The faith posits that, though he was tempted, Jesus committed no sin, and was, therefore, a perfect representative sacrifice to bring salvation to sinful humankind. They also believe that the phrase Holy Spirit sometimes refers to God's character/mind, depending on the context in which the phrase appears, but reject the view that people need strength, guidance and power from the Holy Spirit to live a Christian life, believing instead that the spirit a believer needs within themselves is the mind/character of God, which is developed in a believer by their reading of the Bible (which, they believe, contains words God gave by his Spirit) and trying to live by what it says during the events of their lives which God uses to help shape their character. Christadelphians deny the personhood of the Holy Spirit This includes the belief that the coming Kingdom will be the restoration of God's first Kingdom of Israel, which was under David and Solomon. For Christadelphians, this is the focal point of the gospel taught by Jesus and the Twelve Apostles. They believe that the Kingdom will be centred upon Israel, but Jesus will also reign over all the other nations on the Earth. Old Paths Christadelphians continue to believe that the Kingdom of God is to be restored to the land of Israel promised to Abraham and ruled over in the past by David, with a worldwide empire. The Devil Christadelphians believe that the word devil is a reference in the scriptures to sin and human nature in opposition to God, while the word satan is merely a reference to an adversary or opponent (be it good or bad) and is frequently applied to human beings. According to Christadelphians, these terms are used in reference to specific political systems or individuals in opposition or conflict and not to an independent spiritual being or fallen angel. Accordingly, they do not define Hell as a place of eternal torment for sinners, but as a state of eternal death and non-existence due to annihilation of body and mind. Salvation Christadelphians believe that people are separated from God because of their sins but that humankind can be reconciled to him by becoming disciples of Jesus. This is by belief in the Gospel, through repentance, and through baptism by total immersion in water. They reject assurance of salvation, believing instead that salvation comes as a result of remaining "in Christ". After death, believers are in a state of non-existence, knowing nothing until the Resurrection at the return of Jesus. Following the judgement, the "accepted" receive the gift of immortality and live with Jesus on a restored Earth, assisting his establishment of the Kingdom of God and rule over the remaining population for a millennium. Christadelphians deny the immortality of the soul. Life in Christ The Commandments of Christ demonstrates the community's recognition of the importance of biblical teaching on morality. Marriage and family life are important. Most Christadelphians believe that sexual relationships should be limited to heterosexual marriage, ideally between baptised believers. Organisation General organisation In the absence of centralised organisation, some differences exist amongst Christadelphians on matters of belief and practice. This is because each congregation (commonly styled 'ecclesias') is organised autonomously, typically following common practices which have altered little since the 19th century. Many avoid the word "church" due to its association with mainstream Christianity, and its focus on the building as opposed to the congregation. Most ecclesias have a constitution, which includes a 'Statement of Faith', a list of 'Doctrines to be Rejected' and a formalised list of 'The Commandments of Christ'. With no central authority, individual congregations are responsible for maintaining orthodoxy in belief and practice, and the statement of faith is seen by many as useful to this end. The statement of faith acts as the official standard of most ecclesias to determine fellowship within and between ecclesias, and as the basis for co-operation between ecclesias. Congregational discipline and conflict resolution are applied using various forms of consultation, mediation, and discussion, with disfellowship (similar to excommunication) being the final response to those with unorthodox practices or beliefs. The relative uniformity of organisation and practice is undoubtedly due to the influence of a booklet, written early in Christadelphian history by Robert Roberts, called A Guide to the Formation and Conduct of Christadelphian Ecclesias. It recommends a basically democratic arrangement by which congregational members elect 'brothers' to do arranging and serving duties, and includes guidelines for the organisation of committees, as well as conflict resolution between congregational members and between congregations. Christadelphians do not have paid ministers. Male members (and increasingly female in some places) are assessed by the congregation for their eligibility to teach and perform other duties, which are usually assigned on a rotation basis, as opposed to having a permanently appointed preacher. Congregational polity typically follows a democratic model, with an elected arranging committee for each individual ecclesia. This unpaid committee is responsible for the day-to-day running of the ecclesia and is answerable to the rest of the ecclesia's members. Inter-ecclesial organisations co-ordinate the running of, among other things, Christadelphian schools and elderly care homes, the Christadelphian Isolation League (which cares for those prevented by distance or infirmity from attending an ecclesia regularly) and the publication of Christadelphian magazines. Adherents No official membership figures are published, but the Columbia Encyclopaedia gives an estimated figure of 50,000 Christadelphians, spread across approximately 120 countries. Estimates for the main centers of Christadelphian population are as follows: Mozambique (17,800), Australia (9,734), the United Kingdom (8,200), Malawi (7,000), United States (6,500), Canada (3,000), Kenya (2,700), India (2,300) and New Zealand (1,785),. Figures from Christadelphian mission organisations are as follows: Africa (32,500), Asia (4,000), the Caribbean (400), Europe (including Russia) (700), Latin America (275), The term "Central" came into use around 1933 to identify ecclesias worldwide who were in fellowship with the Birmingham (Central) Ecclesia. These were previously known as the "Temperance Hall Fellowship". The "Suffolk Street Fellowship" arose in 1885 over disagreements surrounding the inspiration of the Bible. Meanwhile, in Australia, division concerning the nature of Jesus Christ resulted in the formation of the "Shield Fellowship". Discussions in 1957–1958 resulted in a worldwide reunion between the Central, Suffolk Street and Shield Fellowships. The Unamended Fellowship, consisting of around 1,850 members, is found in the East Coast and Midwest USA and Ontario, Canada. This group separated in 1898 as a result of differing views on who would be raised to judgement at the return of Christ. The majority of Christadelphians believe that the judgement will include anyone who had sufficient knowledge of the gospel message, and is not limited to baptised believers. The majority in England, Australia and North America amended their statement of faith accordingly. Those who opposed the amendment became known as the "Unamended Fellowship" and allowed the teaching that God either could not or would not raise those who had no covenant relationship with him. Opinions vary as to what the established position was on this subject prior to the controversy. Prominent in the formation of the Unamended Fellowship was Thomas Williams, editor of the Christadelphian Advocate magazine. The majority of the Unamended Fellowship outside North America joined the Suffolk Street Fellowship before its eventual incorporation into Central Fellowship. There is also some co-operation between the Central (Amended) and Unamended Fellowships in North America – most recently in the Great Lakes region, where numerous Amended and Unamended ecclesias are working together to unify their ecclesias. The Central Fellowship in North America is still often referred to today as the Amended Fellowship. The Berean Fellowship was formed in 1923 as a result of varying views on military service in England, and on the atonement in North America. The majority of the North American Bereans re-joined the main body of Christadelphians in 1952. A number continue as a separate community, numbering around 200 in Texas, 100 in Kenya and 30 in Wales. Most of the divisions still in existence within the Christadelphian community today stem from further divisions of the Berean Fellowship. ]] The Dawn Fellowship are the result of an issue which arose in 1942 among the Berean Fellowship regarding divorce and remarriage. The stricter party formed the Dawn Fellowship who, following re-union on the basis of unity of belief with the Lightstand Fellowship in Australia in 2007 increased in number. There are now thought to be around 800 members in England, Australia, Canada, India, Jamaica, Poland, the Philippines, Russia and Kenya. The Old Paths Fellowship was formed in 1957 in response to the reunion of the Central and Suffolk Street Fellowships. A minority from the Central Fellowship held that the reasons for separation remained and that full unity of belief on all fundamental principles of Bible teaching was necessary; thus reunion was only possible with the full agreement and understanding of all members rather than a decision by majority vote. Ecclesias forming the Old Paths Fellowship arose in England, Australia, New Zealand and Canada numbering around 500 members in total. They now number around 250 members in total, with members in Australia, England, Mexico and New Zealand. They maintain that they hold to the original Central Fellowship position held prior to the 1957 Reunion. Other fellowships (ranging in numbers from as few as 10 to over 200 members) include the Watchman Fellowship, the Companion Fellowship and the Pioneer Fellowship. According to Bryan Wilson, functionally the definition of a "fellowship" within Christadelphian history has been mutual or unilateral exclusion of groupings of ecclesias from the breaking of bread. This functional definition still holds true in North America, where the Unamended Fellowship and the Church of God of the Abrahamic Faith are not received by most North American Amended ecclesias. But outside North America this functional definition no longer holds. Many articles and books on the doctrine and practice of fellowship now reject the notion itself of separate "fellowships" among those who recognise the same baptism, viewing such separations as schismatic. Many ecclesias in the Central fellowship would not refuse a baptised Christadelphian from a minority fellowship from breaking bread; the exclusion is more usually the other way. They tend to operate organisationally fairly similarly, although there are different emphases. Despite their differences, the Central, Old Paths, Dawn and Berean fellowships generally subscribe to the Birmingham Amended Statement of Faith (BASF), though the latter two have additional clauses or supporting documents to explain their position. Most Unamended ecclesias use the Birmingham Unamended Statement of Faith (BUSF) with one clause being different. Within the Central fellowship individual ecclesias also may have their own statement of faith, whilst still accepting the statement of faith of the larger community. Some ecclesias have statements around their positions, especially on divorce and re-marriage, making clear that offence would be caused by anyone in that position seeking to join them at the 'Breaking of Bread' service. Others tolerate a degree of divergence from commonly held Christadelphian views. While some communities of Christadelphian origin have viewed previous statements of faith as set in stone, others have felt it necessary to revise them in order to meet contemporary issues, update language or add supporting Biblical quotations. For each fellowship, anyone who publicly assents to the doctrines described in the statement and is in good standing in their "home ecclesia" is generally welcome to participate in the activities of any other ecclesia. Related groups There are a number of groups who, while sharing a common heritage and many Christadelphian teachings, have adopted alternative names in order to dissociate themselves from what they believe to be false teachings and/or practice within the main Christadelphian body. Ranging in size from two or three members in size to around 50, each group restricts fellowship to its own members. These include the Nazarene Fellowship, the Ecclesia of Christ, the Remnant of Christ's Ecclesia, the Apostolic Fellowship of Christ and the Apostolic Ecclesia. The Church of God of the Abrahamic Faith (CGAF) also has common origins with Christadelphians and shares Christadelphian beliefs. Numbering around 400 (primarily Ohio and Florida, USA), they are welcomed into fellowship by some "Central" Christadelphians and are currently involved in unity talks. Historical antecedents One criticism of the Christadelphian movement has been over the claim of John Thomas and Robert Roberts to have "re-discovered" scriptural truth. However one might argue that all Protestant groups make the same claims to some extent. Although both men believed that they had "recovered" the true doctrines for themselves and contemporaries, they also believed there had always existed a group of true believers throughout the ages, albeit marred by the apostasy. The most notable Christadelphian attempts to find a continuity of those with doctrinal similarities since that point have been geographer Alan Eyre's two books The Protesters (1975) and Brethren in Christ (1982) in which he shows that many individual Christadelphian doctrines had been previously believed. Eyre focused in particular on the Radical Reformation, and also among the Socinians and other early Unitarians and the English Dissenters. In this way, Eyre was able to demonstrate substantial historical precedents for individual Christadelphian teachings and practices, and believed that the Christadelphian community was the 'inheritor of a noble tradition, by which elements of the Truth were from century to century hammered out on the anvil of controversy, affliction and even anguish'. Although noting in the introduction to 'The Protestors' that 'Some recorded herein perhaps did not have "all the truth" — so the writer has been reminded', and that 'In faith and outlook they were far closer to the early springing shoots of first-century Christianity and the penetrating spiritual challenge of Jesus himself than much that has passed for the religion of the Nazarene in the last nineteen centuries'. Eyre's research has been criticized by some of his Christadelphian peers, and as a result Christadelphian commentary on the subject has subsequently been more cautious and circumspect, with caveats being issued concerning Eyre's claims, and the two books less used and publicised than in previous years. Nevertheless, even with most source writings of those later considered heretics destroyed, evidence can be provided that since the first century BC there have been various groups and individuals who have held certain individual Christadelphian beliefs or similar ones. For example, all the distinctive Christadelphian doctrines (with the exception of the non-literal devil), down to interpretations of specific verses, can be found particularly among sixteenth century Socinian writers (e.g. the rejection of the doctrines of the trinity, pre-existence of Christ, immortal souls, a literal hell of fire, original sin). Early English Unitarian writings also correspond closely to those of Christadelphians. Also, recent discoveries and research have shown a large similarity between Christadelphian beliefs and those held by Isaac Newton who, among other things, rejected the doctrines of the trinity, immortal souls, a personal devil and literal demons. Further examples are as follows: * The typical Old Testament belief in unconsciousness until resurrection, instead of the immortality of the soul, has been held marginally throughout the history of both Judaism and Christianity; such sources include certain Jewish pseudepigraphal works, rabbinical works, Clement of Rome, Arnobius in the third to fourth century, a succession of Arabic and Syrian Christians from the third to the eighth century including Aphrahat, Ephrem, Narsai, Isaac of Nineveh (d.700), and Jacob of Sarug, Jewish commentators such as Abraham Ibn Ezra (1092–1167), Maimonides (1135–1204), and Joseph Albo (1380–1444), and later Christians such as John Wycliffe, Michael Sattler, and many Anabaptists, long before Martin Luther challenged Roman Catholic views on heaven and hell with his teaching of "soul sleep". * The Christadelphian denial of the pre-existence of Christ, and interpretation of verses such as "I came down from heaven" (John 6:38) as relating to the virgin birth and Christ's mission only, are found in the teachings of: the early Jewish Christians, the Ebionites, the Nazoreans (or Nazarenes), the Theodotians of Theodotus the Cobbler (who believed Jesus was supernaturally begotten but a man nonetheless), Artemon, Paul of Samosata, the Pseudo-Clementines, naturally however, given that non-Trinitarian beliefs were punishable with death from the fourth century to the seventeenth, it would be foolish to expect to discover any consistent line of people or groups holding such beliefs. Such attempts become possible only after the Protestant Reformation. Christadelphian Christology is found from the publication of Lelio Sozzini's commentary on John (1561) through to the increasing resistance to the miraculous among English Unitarians after 1800. * Affinities with the Christadelphian concept of the devil and/or demons are found in a range of early Jewish and later Christian sources such as: Jonathan ben Uzziel (100s AD); Joshua Ben Karha (135–160); Levi ben Gershon (d. 1344); David Kimhi (1160); Saadia ben Joseph (892–942); Shimon ben Lakish (230–270), David Joris (1501-1556), Lelio Sozzini (1525-1562), Fausto Sozzini (1539-1604), Gerrard Winstanley (1609-1676), Joseph Mede (1640), Jacob Bauthumley (1650), Thomas Hobbes (1651), Lodowick Muggleton (1669), Dr. Anthonie van Dale (1685), Emanuel Swedenborg (1688-1772), Balthasar Bekker (1695), Isaac Newton; Christian Thomasius (1704), Arthur Ashley Sykes (1737), Nathaniel Lardner (1742), The New-Light Quakers of Lynn and New Bedford (1800s), Elias Hicks (1748-1830), Dr. Richard Mead (1755), Hugh Farmer (at least in the account of Christ's temptation; 1761), William Ashdowne (1791), John Simpson (1804), John Epps (1842) and Primitive Baptist Universalists also known No-Hellers (1907 to present) Organised worship in England for those whose beliefs anticipated those of Christadelphians only truly became possible in 1779 when the Act of Toleration 1689 was amended to permit denial of the Trinity, and only fully when property penalties were removed in the Doctrine of the Trinity Act 1813. This is only 35 years before John Thomas' 1849 lecture tour in Britain which attracted significant support from an existing non-Trinitarian Adventist base, particularly, initially, in Scotland where Arian, Socinian, and unitarian (with a small 'u' as distinct from the Unitarian Church of Theophilus Lindsey) views were prevalent. Practices and worship ]] Christadelphians are organised into local congregations, that commonly call themselves ecclesias, which is taken from usage in the New Testament and is Greek for gathering of those summoned. Congregational worship, which usually takes place on Sunday, centres on the remembrance of the death and celebration of the resurrection of Jesus Christ by the taking part in the "memorial service". Additional meetings are often organised for worship, prayer, preaching and Bible study. Ecclesias are typically involved in preaching the gospel (evangelism) in the form of public lectures on Bible teaching, college-style seminars on reading the Bible, and Bible Reading Groups. Correspondence courses are also used widely, particularly in areas where there is no established Christadelphian presence. Some ecclesias, organisations or individuals also preach through other media like video, and internet forums. There are also a number of Bible Education/Learning Centres around the world. Only baptised (by complete immersion in water) believers are considered members of the ecclesia. Ordinarily, baptism follows someone making a "good confession" (cf. 1 Tim. 6:12) of their faith before two or three nominated elders of the ecclesia they are seeking to join. The good confession has to demonstrate a basic understanding of the main elements – "first principles" – of the faith of the community. The children of members are encouraged to attend Christadelphian Sunday schools and youth groups. Interaction between youth from different ecclesias is encouraged through regional and national youth gatherings, conferences and camping holidays. Christadelphians understand the Bible to teach that male and female believers are equal in God's sight, and also that there is a distinction between the roles of male and female members. Women are typically not eligible to teach in formal gatherings of the ecclesia when male believers are present, are expected to cover their heads (using hat or scarf, etc.) during formal services, and do not sit on the main ecclesial arranging (organising) committees. They do, however: participate in other ecclesial and inter-ecclesial committees; participate in discussions; teach children in Sunday schools as well as at home, teach other women and non-members; perform music; discuss and vote on business matters; and engage in the majority of other activities. Generally, at formal ecclesial and inter-ecclesial meetings the women wear head coverings when there are acts of worship and prayer. There are ecclesially accountable committees for co-ordinated preaching, youth and Sunday school work, conscientious objection issues, care of the elderly, and humanitarian work. These do not have any legislative authority, and are wholly dependent upon ecclesial support. Ecclesias in an area may regularly hold joint activities combining youth groups, fellowship, preaching, and Bible study. Christadelphians refuse to participate in any military or police force because they are conscientious objectors (not to be confused with pacifists). There is a strong emphasis on personal Bible reading and study and many Christadelphians use the Bible Companion to help them systematically read the Bible each year. Hymnody and music Christadelphian hymnody makes considerable use of the hymns of the Anglican and English Protestant traditions (even in US ecclesias the hymnody is typically more English than American). In many Christadelphian hymn books a sizeable proportion of hymns are drawn from the Scottish Psalter and non-Christadelphian hymn-writers including Isaac Watts, Charles Wesley, William Cowper and John Newton. Despite incorporating non-Christadelphian hymns however, Christadelphian hymnody preserves the essential teachings of the community. The earliest hymn book published was the "Sacred Melodist" which was published by Benjamin Wilson in Geneva, Illinois in 1860. The next was the hymn book published for the use of Baptised Believers in the Kingdom of God (an early name for Christadelphians) by George Dowie in Edinburgh in 1864. In 1865 Robert Roberts published a collection of Scottish psalms and hymns called The Golden Harp (which was subtitled "Psalms, Hymns, and Spiritual Songs, compiled for the use of Immersed Believers in 'The Things concerning the Kingdom of God and the Name of Jesus Christ). This was replaced only five years later by the first "Christadelphian Hymn Book" (1869), compiled by J. J. and A. Andrew, and this was revised and expanded in 1874, 1932 and 1964. A thorough revision by the Christadelphian Magazine and Publishing Association resulted in the latest (2002) edition which is almost universally used by English-speaking Christadelphian ecclesias. In addition some Christadelphian fellowships have published their own hymn books. Some ecclesias use the Praise the Lord songbook. It was produced with the aim of making contemporary songs which are consistent with Christadelphian theology more widely available. Another publication, the "Worship" book is a compilation of songs and hymns that have been composed only by members of the Christadelphian community. This book was produced with the aim of providing extra music for non-congregational music items within services (e.g. voluntaries, meditations, et cetera) but has been adopted by congregations worldwide and is now used to supplement congregational repertoire. In the English-speaking world, worship is typically accompanied by organ or piano, though in recent years a few ecclesias have promoted the use of other instruments (e.g. strings, wind and brass as mentioned in the Psalms). This trend has also seen the emergence of some Christadelphian bands and the establishment of the Christadelphian Art Trust to support performing, visual and dramatic arts within the Christadelphian community. In other countries, hymn books have been produced in local languages, sometimes resulting in styles of worship which reflect the local culture. It has been noted that Christadelphian hymnody has historically been a consistent witness to Christadelphian beliefs, and that hymnody occupies a significant role in the community. Notes ReferencesFurther reading * Bibliography of Christadelphians * Fred Pearce, Who are the Christadelphians? Introducing a Bible Based Community (Birmingham: CMPA). Available https://thechristadelphianjournal.com/read-booklets-online/who-are-the-christadelphians/ online] * Stephen Hill, The Life of Brother John Thomas – 1805 to 1871 (2006). * Peter Hemingray, John Thomas, His Friends and His Faith (Canton, Michigan: The Christadelphian Tidings, 2003, ). * Andrew R. Wilson, The History of the Christadelphians 1864–1885 The Emergence of a Denomination (Shalom Publications, 1997, ). * Charles H. Lippy, The Christadelphians in North America, Studies in American Religion Volume 43 (Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 1989, ). 1-895605-32-6. * Lorri MacGregor, Christadelphians & Christianity (Nelson, B.C.: MacGregor Ministries, 1989, ). * Robert Roberts, ''Christendom Astray: Popular Christianity (Both in Faith and Practice) Shewn to Be Unscriptural, and the True Nature of the Ancient Apostolic Faith Exhibited: Eighteen Lectures [on Christadelphian doctrine], Originally Published as 'Twelve Lectures on the True Teaching of the Bible (Birmingham, Eng.: C.C. Walker, 1932). * Harry Tennant, The Christadelphians: What they believe and preach (Birmingham, England: The Christadelphian, 1986, ). Also titled What the Bible Teaches'' (see '[https://www.thechristadelphian.com/shop/books/foundations/the-christadelphians-what-they-believe-and-preach-paperback/ CMPA Bookshop]). * Bryan R. Wilson, Sects and Society: A Sociological Study of the Elim Tabernacle, Christian Science and Christadelphians (London: Heinemann, 1961; Berkeley/Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1961). * BBC article, "Religion & Ethics—Christianity: Subdivisions: Christadelphians". Available [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/subdivisions/christadelphians_1.shtml online]. * Rachel Hocking, A Study of Christadelphian Hymnody: Singing with the Spirit and with the Understanding, 2000. Available [https://web.archive.org/web/20110725145209/http://www.catonline.org/node/327 online] External links * [https://christadelphianvideo.org/ Christadelphian Videos - video-based material highlighting the beliefs of Central Christadelphians worldwide] * [https://thechristadelphian.com/ The Christadelphian Magazine and Publishing Association] * Old Paths Christadelphians [http://www.gospeltruth.info/gospel.htm online] * [https://christadelphian.org.au/ Australian Christadelphians] * [http://www.thechristadelphians.org.uk/ The Christadelphians (UK)] * [http://www.christadelphia.org/ Christadelphia World Wide] * [https://www.cbm.org.uk/ Christadelphian Bible Mission UK] * [https://acbm.org.au/ Asia Pacific Christadelphian Bible Mission] * [http://cbma.net/ Christadelphian Bible Mission of the Americas] Category:1848 establishments in the United Kingdom Category:Christian groups with annihilationist beliefs Category:Nontrinitarian denominations Category:Religious organizations established in 1848 Category:Restorationism (Christianity) Category:Religious identity	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christadelphians	2025-04-05T18:28:13.018062
7587	Cable television	thumb \|A coaxial cable used to carry cable television onto subscribers' premises thumb \|upright=0.9 \|A set-top box, an electronic device which cable subscribers use to connect the cable signal to their television sets. Presented unit is a Cisco RNG200N for QAM digital cable television system used in North America. Cable television is a system of delivering television programming to consumers via radio frequency (RF) signals transmitted through coaxial cables, or in more recent systems, light pulses through fibre-optic cables. This contrasts with broadcast television, in which the television signal is transmitted over-the-air by radio waves and received by a television antenna, or satellite television, in which the television signal is transmitted over-the-air by radio waves from a communications satellite and received by a satellite dish on the roof. FM radio programming, high-speed Internet, telephone services, and similar non-television services may also be provided through these cables. Analog television was standard in the 20th century, but since the 2000s, cable systems have been upgraded to digital cable operation. A cable channel (sometimes known as a cable network) is a television network available via cable television. Many of the same channels are distributed through satellite television. Alternative terms include non-broadcast channel or programming service, the latter being mainly used in legal contexts. The abbreviation CATV is used in the US for cable television and originally stood for community antenna television, from cable television's origins in 1948; in areas where over-the-air TV reception was limited by distance from transmitters or mountainous terrain, large community antennas were constructed, and cable was run from them to individual homes. In 1968, 6.4% of Americans had cable television. The number increased to 7.5% in 1978. By 1988, 52.8% of all households were using cable. The number further increased to 62.4% in 1994. Distribution thumb\|A cable television distribution box (left) in the basement of a building in Germany (Kabel BW network, now Vodafone), with a splitter (right) which supplies the signal to separate cables which go to different rooms To receive cable television at a given location, cable distribution lines must be available on the local utility poles or underground utility lines. Coaxial cable brings the signal to the customer's building through a service drop, an overhead or underground cable. If the subscriber's building does not have a cable service drop, the cable company will install one. The standard cable used in the U.S. is RG-6, which has a 75 ohm impedance, and connects with a type F connector. The cable company's portion of the wiring usually ends at a distribution box on the building exterior, and built-in cable wiring in the walls usually distributes the signal to jacks in different rooms to which televisions are connected. Multiple cables to different rooms are split off the incoming cable with a small device called a splitter. There are two standards for cable television; older analog cable, and newer digital cable which can carry data signals used by digital television receivers such as high-definition television (HDTV) equipment. All cable companies in the United States have switched to or are in the course of switching to digital cable television since it was first introduced in the late 1990s. Most cable companies require a set-top box (cable converter box) or a slot on one's TV set for conditional access module cards to view their cable channels, even on newer televisions with digital cable QAM tuners, because most digital cable channels are now encrypted, or scrambled, to reduce cable service theft. A cable from the jack in the wall is attached to the input of the box, and an output cable from the box is attached to the television, usually the RF-IN or composite input on older TVs. Since the set-top box only decodes the single channel that is being watched, each television in the house requires a separate box. Some unencrypted channels, usually traditional over-the-air broadcast networks, can be displayed without a receiver box. The cable company will provide set-top boxes based on the level of service a customer purchases, from basic set-top boxes with a standard-definition picture connected through the standard coaxial connection on the TV, to high-definition wireless digital video recorder (DVR) receivers connected via HDMI or component. Older analog television sets are cable ready and can receive the old analog cable without a set-top box. To receive digital cable channels on an analog television set, even unencrypted ones, requires a different type of box, a digital television adapter supplied by the cable company or purchased by the subscriber. Another new distribution method that takes advantage of the low cost high quality DVB distribution to residential areas, uses TV gateways to convert the DVB-C, DVB-C2 stream to IP for distribution of TV over IP network in the home. Many cable companies offer internet access through DOCSIS. Principle of operation thumb\|upright=1.8\|Diagram of a modern hybrid fiber-coaxial cable television system. At the regional headend, the TV channels are sent multiplexed on a light beam which travels through optical fiber trunklines, which fan out from distribution hubs to optical nodes in local communities. Here the light signal from the fiber is translated to a radio frequency electrical signal, which is distributed through coaxial cable to individual subscriber homes. In the most common system, multiple television channels (as many as 500, although this varies depending on the provider's available channel capacity) are distributed to subscriber residences through a coaxial cable, which comes from a trunkline supported on utility poles originating at the cable company's local distribution facility, called the headend. Many channels can be transmitted through one coaxial cable by a technique called frequency division multiplexing. At the headend, each television channel is translated to a different frequency. By giving each channel a different frequency slot on the cable, the separate television signals do not interfere with each other. At an outdoor cable box on the subscriber's residence, the company's service drop cable is connected to cables distributing the signal to different rooms in the building. At each television, the subscriber's television or a set-top box provided by the cable company translates the desired channel back to its original frequency (baseband), and it is displayed onscreen. Due to widespread cable theft in earlier analog systems, the signals are typically encrypted on modern digital cable systems, and the set-top box must be activated by an activation code sent by the cable company before it will function, which is only sent after the subscriber signs up. If the subscriber fails to pay their bill, the cable company can send a signal to deactivate the subscriber's box, preventing reception. There are also usually upstream channels on the cable to send data from the customer box to the cable headend, for advanced features such as requesting pay-per-view shows or movies, cable internet access, and cable telephone service. The downstream channels occupy a band of frequencies from approximately 50 MHz to 1 GHz, while the upstream channels occupy frequencies of 5 to 42 MHz. Subscribers pay with a monthly fee. Subscribers can choose from several levels of service, with premium packages including more channels but costing a higher rate. At the local headend, the feed signals from the individual television channels are received by dish antennas from communication satellites. Additional local channels, such as local broadcast television stations, educational channels from local colleges, and community access channels devoted to local governments (PEG channels) are usually included on the cable service. Commercial advertisements for local business are also inserted in the programming at the headend (the individual channels, which are distributed nationally, also have their own nationally oriented commercials). Hybrid fiber-coaxial Modern cable systems are large, with a single network and headend often serving an entire metropolitan area. Most systems use hybrid fiber-coaxial (HFC) distribution; this means the trunklines that carry the signal from the headend to local neighborhoods are optical fiber to provide greater bandwidth and also extra capacity for future expansion. At the headend, the electrical signal is translated into an optical signal and sent through the fiber. The fiber trunkline goes to several distribution hubs, from which multiple fibers fan out to carry the signal to boxes called optical nodes in local communities. At the optical node, the optical signal is translated back into an electrical signal and carried by coaxial cable distribution lines on utility poles, from which cables branch out to a series of signal amplifiers and line extenders. These devices carry the signal to customers via passive RF devices called taps. History thumb\|300px\|Demonstration of a 30-channel cable TV system in the Netherlands in March 1981. The very first cable networks were operated locally, notably in 1936 by Rediffusion in London in the United Kingdom and the same year in Berlin in Germany, notably for the Olympic Games, and from 1948 onwards in the United States and Switzerland. This type of local cable network was mainly used to relay terrestrial channels in geographical areas poorly served by terrestrial television signals. In the United States Cable television began in the United States as a commercial business in 1950s. The early systems simply received weak (broadcast) channels, amplified them, and sent them over unshielded wires to the subscribers, limited to a community or to adjacent communities. The receiving antenna would be taller than any individual subscriber could afford, thus bringing in stronger signals; in hilly or mountainous terrain it would be placed at a high elevation. At the outset, cable systems only served smaller communities without television stations of their own, and which could not easily receive signals from stations in cities because of distance or hilly terrain. In Canada, however, communities with their own signals were fertile cable markets, as viewers wanted to receive American signals. Rarely, as in the college town of Alfred, New York, U.S. cable systems retransmitted Canadian channels. Although early (VHF) television receivers could receive 12 channels (2–13), the maximum number of channels that could be broadcast in one city was 7: channels 2, 4, either 5 or 6, 7, 9, 11 and 13, as receivers at the time were unable to receive strong (local) signals on adjacent channels without distortion. (There were frequency gaps between 4 and 5, and between 6 and 7, which allowed both to be used in the same city). As equipment improved, all twelve channels could be utilized, except where a local VHF television station broadcast. Local broadcast channels were not usable for signals deemed to be a priority, but technology allowed low-priority signals to be placed on such channels by synchronizing their blanking intervals. TVs were unable to reconcile these blanking intervals and the slight changes due to travel through a medium, causing ghosting. The bandwidth of the amplifiers also was limited, meaning frequencies over 250 MHz were difficult to transmit to distant portions of the coaxial network, and UHF channels could not be used at all. To expand beyond 12 channels, non-standard midband channels had to be used, located between the FM band and Channel 7, or superband beyond Channel 13 up to about 300 MHz; these channels initially were only accessible using separate tuner boxes that sent the chosen channel into the TV set on Channel 2, 3 or 4. Initially, UHF broadcast stations were at a disadvantage because the standard TV sets in use at the time were unable to receive their channels. With the passage of the All-Channel Receiver Act in 1964, all new television sets were required to include a UHF tuner, nonetheless, it would still take a few years for UHF stations to become competitive. Before being added to the cable box itself, these midband channels were used for early incarnations of pay TV, e.g. The Z Channel (Los Angeles) and HBO but transmitted in the clear i.e. not scrambled as standard TV sets of the period could not pick up the signal nor could the average consumer de-tune the normal stations to be able to receive it. Once tuners that could receive select mid-band and super-band channels began to be incorporated into standard television sets, broadcasters were forced to either install scrambling circuitry or move these signals further out of the range of reception for early cable-ready TVs and VCRs. However, once consumer sets had the ability to receive all 181 FCC allocated channels, premium broadcasters were left with no choice but to scramble. The descrambling circuitry was often published in electronics hobby magazines such as Popular Science and Popular Electronics allowing anybody with anything more than a rudimentary knowledge of broadcast electronics to be able to build their own and receive the programming without cost. Later, the cable operators began to carry FM radio stations, and encouraged subscribers to connect their FM stereo sets to cable. Before stereo and bilingual TV sound became common, Pay-TV channel sound was added to the FM stereo cable line-ups. About this time, operators expanded beyond the 12-channel dial to use the midband and superband VHF channels adjacent to the high band 7–13 of North American television frequencies. Some operators as in Cornwall, Ontario, used a dual distribution network with Channels 2–13 on each of the two cables. During the 1980s, United States regulations not unlike public, educational, and government access (PEG) created the beginning of cable-originated live television programming. As cable penetration increased, numerous cable-only TV stations were launched, many with their own news bureaus that could provide more immediate and more localized content than that provided by the nearest network newscast. Such stations may use similar on-air branding as that used by the nearby broadcast network affiliate, but the fact that these stations do not broadcast over the air and are not regulated by the FCC, their call signs are meaningless. These stations evolved partially into today's over-the-air digital subchannels, where a main broadcast TV station e.g. NBC 37* would – in the case of no local CBS or ABC station being available – rebroadcast the programming from a nearby affiliate but fill in with its own news and other community programming to suit its own locale. Many live local programs with local interests were subsequently created all over the United States in most major television markets in the early 1980s. This evolved into today's many cable-only broadcasts of diverse programming, including cable-only produced television movies and miniseries. Cable specialty channels, starting with channels oriented to show movies and large sporting or performance events, diversified further, and narrowcasting became common. By the late 1980s, cable-only signals outnumbered broadcast signals on cable systems, some of which by this time had expanded beyond 35 channels. By the mid-1980s in Canada, cable operators were allowed by the regulators to enter into distribution contracts with cable networks on their own. By the 1990s, tiers became common, with customers able to subscribe to different tiers to obtain different selections of additional channels above the basic selection. By subscribing to additional tiers, customers could get specialty channels, movie channels, and foreign channels. Large cable companies used addressable descramblers to limit access to premium channels for customers not subscribing to higher tiers, however the above magazines often published workarounds for that technology as well. During the 1990s, the pressure to accommodate the growing array of offerings resulted in digital transmission that made more efficient use of the VHF signal capacity; fibre optics was common to carry signals into areas near the home, where coax could carry higher frequencies over the short remaining distance. Although for a time in the 1980s and 1990s, television receivers and VCRs were equipped to receive the mid-band and super-band channels. Because the descrambling circuitry was for a time present in these tuners, depriving the cable operator of much of their revenue, such cable-ready tuners are rarely used now – requiring a return to the set-top boxes used from the 1970s onward. The digital television transition in the United States has put all signals, broadcast and cable, into digital form, rendering analog cable television service a rarity, found in an ever-dwindling number of markets. Analog television sets are accommodated, their tuners mostly obsolete and dependent entirely on the set-top box. Deployments by continent Cable television is mostly available in North America, Europe, Australia, Asia and South America. Cable television has had little success in Africa, as it is not cost-effective to lay cables in sparsely populated areas. Multichannel multipoint distribution service, a microwave-based system, may be used instead. Other cable-based services Coaxial cables are capable of bi-directional carriage of signals as well as the transmission of large amounts of data. Cable television signals use only a portion of the bandwidth available over coaxial lines. This leaves plenty of space available for other digital services such as cable internet, cable telephony and wireless services, using both unlicensed and licensed spectra. Broadband internet access is achieved over coaxial cable by using cable modems to convert the network data into a type of digital signal that can be transferred over coaxial cable. One problem with some cable systems is the older amplifiers placed along the cable routes are unidirectional thus in order to allow for uploading of data the customer would need to use an analog telephone modem to provide for the upstream connection. This limited the upstream speed to 31.2 Kbp/s and prevented the always-on convenience broadband internet typically provides. Many large cable systems have upgraded or are upgrading their equipment to allow for bi-directional signals, thus allowing for greater upload speed and always-on convenience, though these upgrades are expensive. In North America, Australia and Europe, many cable operators have already introduced cable telephone service, which operates just like existing fixed line operators. This service involves installing a special telephone interface at the customer's premises that converts the analog signals from the customer's in-home wiring into a digital signal, which is then sent on the local loop (replacing the analog last mile, or plain old telephone service (POTS) to the company's switching center, where it is connected to the public switched telephone network (PSTN). The biggest obstacle to cable telephone service is the need for nearly 100% reliable service for emergency calls. One of the standards available for digital cable telephony, PacketCable, seems to be the most promising and able to work with the quality of service (QOS) demands of traditional analog plain old telephone service (POTS) service. The biggest advantage to digital cable telephone service is similar to the advantage of digital cable, namely that data can be compressed, resulting in much less bandwidth used than a dedicated analog circuit-switched service. Other advantages include better voice quality and integration to a Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) network providing cheap or unlimited nationwide and international calling. In many cases, digital cable telephone service is separate from cable modem service being offered by many cable companies and does not rely on Internet Protocol (IP) traffic or the Internet. Traditional cable television providers and traditional telecommunication companies increasingly compete in providing voice, video and data services to residences. The combination of television, telephone and Internet access is commonly called triple play, regardless of whether CATV or telcos offer it. See also AllVid CableCARD Cable news Closed-circuit television (CCTV), not to be confused with CATV DOCSIS DVB-C European cable television frequencies List of cable television companies Multichannel television North American television frequencies Private cable operator QAM (television) Satellite television Society of Cable Telecommunications Engineers Switched video Tru2way References Further reading The history of Rediffusion by Gerald K Clode Eisenmann, Thomas R., "Cable TV: From Community Antennas to Wired Cities", Harvard Business School Weekly Newsletter, July 10, 2000 Moss, Mitchell L.; Payne, Frances, "Can Cable Keep Its Promise?", New York Affairs, Volume 6, Number 4. New York University. 1981 Smith, Ralph Lee, "The Wired Nation", The Nation magazine, May 18, 1970 Smith, Ralph Lee, The Wired Nation; Cable TV: the electronic communications highway. New York, Harper & Row, 1972. External links Category:British inventions	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable_television	2025-04-05T18:28:13.041260
7591	Cholera	million bacteria must typically be ingested to cause cholera in a normal healthy adult. Any individual, even a healthy adult in middle age, can undergo a severe case, and each person's case should be measured by the loss of fluids, preferably in consultation with a professional health care provider. The cystic fibrosis genetic mutation known as delta-F508 in humans has been said to maintain a selective heterozygous advantage: heterozygous carriers of the mutation (who are not affected by cystic fibrosis) are more resistant to V. cholerae infections. In this model, the genetic deficiency in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator channel proteins interferes with bacteria binding to the intestinal epithelium, thus reducing the effects of an infection. Mechanism in the intestinal colonization of Vibrio cholerae]] When consumed, most bacteria do not survive the acidic conditions of the human stomach. Once the cholera bacteria reach the intestinal wall, they no longer need the flagella to move. The bacteria stop producing the protein flagellin to conserve energy and nutrients by changing the mix of proteins that they express in response to the changed chemical surroundings. On reaching the intestinal wall, V. cholerae start producing the toxic proteins that give the infected person a watery diarrhea. This carries the multiplying new generations of V. cholerae bacteria out into the drinking water of the next host if proper sanitation measures are not in place. The cholera toxin (CTX or CT) is an oligomeric complex made up of six protein subunits: a single copy of the A subunit (part A), and five copies of the B subunit (part B), connected by a disulfide bond. The five B subunits form a five-membered ring that binds to GM1 gangliosides on the surface of the intestinal epithelium cells. The A1 portion of the A subunit is an enzyme that ADP-ribosylates G proteins, while the A2 chain fits into the central pore of the B subunit ring. Upon binding, the complex is taken into the cell via receptor-mediated endocytosis. Once inside the cell, the disulfide bond is reduced, and the A1 subunit is freed to bind with a human partner protein called ADP-ribosylation factor 6 (Arf6). Binding exposes its active site, allowing it to permanently ribosylate the Gs alpha subunit of the heterotrimeric G protein. This results in constitutive cAMP production, which in turn leads to the secretion of water, sodium, potassium, and bicarbonate into the lumen of the small intestine and rapid dehydration. The gene encoding the cholera toxin was introduced into V. cholerae by horizontal gene transfer. Virulent strains of V. cholerae carry a variant of a temperate bacteriophage called CTXφ. Microbiologists have studied the genetic mechanisms by which the V. cholerae bacteria turn off the production of some proteins and turn on the production of other proteins as they respond to the series of chemical environments they encounter, passing through the stomach, through the mucous layer of the small intestine, and on to the intestinal wall. Of particular interest have been the genetic mechanisms by which cholera bacteria turn on the protein production of the toxins that interact with host cell mechanisms to pump chloride ions into the small intestine, creating an ionic pressure which prevents sodium ions from entering the cell. The chloride and sodium ions create a salt-water environment in the small intestines, which through osmosis can pull up to six liters of water per day through the intestinal cells, creating the massive amounts of diarrhea. The host can become rapidly dehydrated unless treated properly. By inserting separate, successive sections of V. cholerae DNA into the DNA of other bacteria, such as E. coli that would not naturally produce the protein toxins, researchers have investigated the mechanisms by which V. cholerae responds to the changing chemical environments of the stomach, mucous layers, and intestinal wall. Researchers have discovered a complex cascade of regulatory proteins controls expression of V. cholerae virulence determinants. In responding to the chemical environment at the intestinal wall, the V. cholerae bacteria produce the TcpP/TcpH proteins, which, together with the ToxR/ToxS proteins, activate the expression of the ToxT regulatory protein. ToxT then directly activates expression of virulence genes that produce the toxins, causing diarrhea in the infected person and allowing the bacteria to colonize the intestine. Antibiotic resistance In many areas of the world, antibiotic resistance is increasing within cholera bacteria. In Bangladesh, for example, most cases are resistant to tetracycline, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, and erythromycin. New generation antimicrobials have been discovered which are effective against cholera bacteria in in vitro studies. Diagnosis A rapid dipstick test is available to determine the presence of V. cholerae. Stool and swab samples collected in the acute stage of the disease, before antibiotics have been administered, are the most useful specimens for laboratory diagnosis. If an epidemic of cholera is suspected, the most common causative agent is V. cholerae O1. If V. cholerae serogroup O1 is not isolated, the laboratory should test for V. cholerae O139. However, if neither of these organisms is isolated, it is necessary to send stool specimens to a reference laboratory. Infection with V. cholerae O139 should be reported and handled in the same manner as that caused by V. cholerae O1. The associated diarrheal illness should be referred to as cholera and must be reported in the United States. Prevention The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends focusing on prevention, preparedness, and response to combat the spread of cholera. Cholera is mainly a risk in developing countries in those areas where access to WASH (water, sanitation and hygiene) infrastructure is still inadequate. Effective sanitation practices, if instituted and adhered to in time, are usually sufficient to stop an epidemic. There are several points along the cholera transmission path at which its spread may be halted: * Sterilization: Proper disposal and treatment of all materials that may have come into contact with the feces of other people with cholera (e.g., clothing, bedding, etc.) are essential. These should be sanitized by washing in hot water, using chlorine bleach if possible. Hands that touch cholera patients or their clothing, bedding, etc., should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected with chlorinated water or other effective antimicrobial agents. * Sewage and fecal sludge management: In cholera-affected areas, sewage and fecal sludge need to be treated and managed carefully in order to stop the spread of this disease via human excreta. Provision of sanitation and hygiene is an important preventative measure. In many cholera affected zones, there is a low degree of sewage treatment. Therefore, the implementation of dry toilets that do not contribute to water pollution, as they do not flush with water, may be an interesting alternative to flush toilets. * Sources: Warnings about possible cholera contamination should be posted around contaminated water sources with directions on how to decontaminate the water (boiling, chlorination etc.) for possible use. * Water purification: All water used for drinking, washing, or cooking should be sterilized by either boiling, chlorination, ozone water treatment, ultraviolet light sterilization (e.g., by solar water disinfection), or antimicrobial filtration in any area where cholera may be present. Chlorination and boiling are often the least expensive and most effective means of halting transmission. Cloth filters or sari filtration, though very basic, have significantly reduced the occurrence of cholera when used in poor villages in Bangladesh that rely on untreated surface water. Better antimicrobial filters, like those present in advanced individual water treatment hiking kits, are most effective. Public health education and adherence to appropriate sanitation practices are of primary importance to help prevent and control transmission of cholera and other diseases. Handwashing with soap or ash after using a toilet and before handling food or eating is also recommended for cholera prevention by WHO Africa. <gallery class"center" widths"225px" heights="200px"> File:Unsafe disposal of faecal sludge or sewage in Haiti (6458176073).jpg\|Dumping of sewage or fecal sludge from a UN camp into a lake in the surroundings of Port-au-Prince is thought to have contributed to the spread of cholera after the Haiti earthquake in 2010, killing thousands. File:A SOIL EkoLakay toilet customer. (15921409131).jpg\|Example of a urine-diverting dry toilet in a cholera-affected area in Haiti. This type of toilet stops transmission of disease via the fecal-oral route due to water pollution. File:Cholera hospital in Dhaka.jpg\|Cholera hospital in Dhaka, showing typical "cholera beds" </gallery> Surveillance Surveillance and prompt reporting allow for containing cholera epidemics rapidly. Cholera exists as a seasonal disease in many endemic countries, occurring annually mostly during rainy seasons. Surveillance systems can provide early alerts to outbreaks, therefore leading to coordinated response and assist in preparation of preparedness plans. Efficient surveillance systems can also improve the risk assessment for potential cholera outbreaks. Understanding the seasonality and location of outbreaks provides guidance for improving cholera control activities for the most vulnerable. For prevention to be effective, it is important that cases be reported to national health authorities. His vaccine and inoculation was rather controversial and was rejected by his peers and several investigation commissions but it ended up demonstrating its effectiveness and being recognized for it: out of the 30 thousand people he vaccinated only 54 died. Russian-Jewish bacteriologist Waldemar Haffkine also developed a human cholera vaccine in July 1892. He conducted a massive inoculation program in British India. Persons who survive an episode of cholera have long-lasting immunity for at least 3 years (the period tested). The World Health Organization (WHO) has three prequalified oral cholera vaccines (OCVs): Dukoral, Sanchol, and Euvichol. Dukoral, an orally administered, inactivated whole-cell vaccine, has an overall efficacy of about 52% during the first year after being given and 62% in the second year, with minimal side effects. The vaccine that the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends, Vaxchora, is an oral attenuated live vaccine, that is effective for adults aged 18–64 as a single dose. One injectable vaccine was found to be effective for two to three years. The protective efficacy was 28% lower in children less than five years old. However, , it has limited availability. The WHO recommends immunization of high-risk groups, such as children and people with HIV, in countries where this disease is endemic. OCV has been recognized as an adjunct tool for prevention and control of cholera. The WHO has prequalified three bivalent cholera vaccines—Dukoral (SBL Vaccines), containing a non-toxic B-subunit of cholera toxin and providing protection against V. cholerae O1; and two vaccines developed using the same transfer of technology—ShanChol (Shantha Biotec) and Euvichol (EuBiologics Co.), which have bivalent O1 and O139 oral killed cholera vaccines. Oral cholera vaccination could be deployed in a diverse range of situations from cholera-endemic areas and locations of humanitarian crises, but no clear consensus exists. Sari filtration , washing utensils and vegetables. The woman on the right is putting a sari filter onto a water-collecting pot (or kalash) to filter water for drinking.\|thumb\|240px]] Developed for use in Bangladesh, the "sari filter" is a simple and cost-effective appropriate technology method for reducing the contamination of drinking water. Used sari cloth is preferable but other types of used cloth can be used with some effect, though the effectiveness will vary significantly. Used cloth is more effective than new cloth, as the repeated washing reduces the space between the fibers. Water collected in this way has a greatly reduced pathogen count—though it will not necessarily be perfectly safe, it is an improvement for poor people with limited options. In Bangladesh this practice was found to decrease rates of cholera by nearly half. It involves folding a sari four to eight times. A nylon cloth appears to work as well but is not as affordable. Fluids The most common error in caring for patients with cholera is to underestimate the speed and volume of fluids required. In most cases, cholera can be successfully treated with oral rehydration therapy (ORT), which is highly effective, safe, and simple to administer. Large volumes and continued replacement until diarrhea has subsided may be needed. Despite widespread beliefs, fruit juices and commercial fizzy drinks like cola are not ideal for rehydration of people with serious infections of the intestines, and their excessive sugar content may even harm water uptake. If commercially produced oral rehydration solutions are too expensive or difficult to obtain, solutions can be made. One such recipe calls for 1 liter of boiled water, 1/2 teaspoon of salt, 6 teaspoons of sugar, and added mashed banana for potassium and to improve taste. Electrolytes As there frequently is initially acidosis, the potassium level may be normal, even though large losses have occurred. People will recover without them, however, if sufficient hydration is maintained. Doxycycline is typically used first line, although some strains of V. cholerae have shown resistance. Fluoroquinolones, such as ciprofloxacin, also may be used, but resistance has been reported. Antibiotics improve outcomes in those who are both severely and not severely dehydrated. Azithromycin and tetracycline may work better than doxycycline or ciprofloxacin. Supplementation appears to be also effective in both treating and preventing infectious diarrhea due to other causes among children in the developing world. Prognosis If people with cholera are treated quickly and properly, the mortality rate is less than 1%; however, with untreated cholera, the mortality rate rises to 50–60%. For certain genetic strains of cholera, such as the one present during the 2010 epidemic in Haiti and the 2004 outbreak in India, death can occur within two hours of becoming ill. Epidemiology Cholera affects an estimated 2.8 million people worldwide, and causes approximately 95,000 deaths a year (uncertainty range: 21,000–143,000) . This occurs mainly in the developing world. In the early 1980s, death rates are believed to have still been higher than three million a year. As of 2004, cholera remained both epidemic and endemic in many areas of the world. WHO called it "the worst cholera outbreak in the world". In 2019, 93% of the reported 923,037 cholera cases were from Yemen (with 1911 deaths reported). This was followed by the 2010s Haiti cholera outbreak and another outbreak of cholera in Haiti amid the 2018–2023 Haitian crisis. the disease is endemic in Africa and some areas of eastern and western Asia (Bangladesh, India and Yemen). (The "Indorum" of the title refers to the East Indies. He also gave first European descriptions of other diseases.) But at the time, the word "cholera" was historically used by European physicians to refer to any gastrointestinal upset resulting in yellow diarrhea. De Bondt thus used a common word already in regular use to describe the new disease. This was a frequent practice of the time. It was not until the 1830s that the name for severe yellow diarrhea changed in English from "cholera" to "cholera morbus" to differentiate it from what was then known as "Asiatic cholera", or that associated with origins in India and the East. Early outbreaks in the Indian subcontinent are believed to have been the result of crowded, poor living conditions, as well as the presence of pools of still water, both of which provide ideal conditions for cholera to thrive. The first cholera pandemic occurred in the Bengal region of India, near Calcutta starting in 1817 through 1824. The disease dispersed from India to Southeast Asia, the Middle East, Europe, and Eastern Africa. The movement of British Army and Navy ships and personnel is believed to have contributed to the range of the pandemic, since the ships carried people with the disease to the shores of the Indian Ocean, from Africa to Indonesia, and north to China and Japan. The second pandemic lasted from 1826 to 1837 and particularly affected North America and Europe. Advancements in transport and global trade, and increased human migration, including soldiers, meant that more people were carrying the disease more widely. The third pandemic erupted in 1846, persisted until 1860, extended to North Africa, and reached North and South America. It was introduced to North America at Quebec, Canada, via Irish immigrants from the Great Famine. In this pandemic, Brazil was affected for the first time. The fourth pandemic lasted from 1863 to 1875, spreading from India to Naples and Spain, and reaching the United States at New Orleans, Louisiana in 1873. It spread throughout the Mississippi River system on the continent. The fifth pandemic was from 1881 to 1896. It started in India and spread to Europe, Asia, and South America. The sixth pandemic ran from 1899 to 1923. These epidemics had a lower number of fatalities because physicians and researchers had a greater understanding of the cholera bacteria. Egypt, the Arabian peninsula, Persia, India, and the Philippines were hit hardest during these epidemics. Other areas, such as Germany in 1892 (primarily the city of Hamburg, where more than 8.600 people died) and Naples from 1910 to 1911, also had severe outbreaks. The seventh pandemic originated in 1961 in Indonesia and is marked by the emergence of a new strain, nicknamed El Tor, which still persists () in developing countries. This pandemic had initially subsided about 1975 and was thought to have ended, but, as noted, it has persisted. There were a rise in cases in the 1990s and since. Cholera became widespread in the 19th century. Since then it has killed tens of millions of people. In Russia alone, between 1847 and 1851, more than one million people died from the disease. It killed 150,000 Americans during the second pandemic. Between 1900 and 1920, perhaps eight million people died of cholera in India. Cholera officially became the first reportable disease in the United States due to the significant effects it had on health. Historically many different claimed remedies have existed in folklore. Many of the older remedies were based on the miasma theory, that the disease was transmitted by bad air. Some believed that abdominal chilling made one more susceptible, and flannel and cholera belts were included in army kits. In the 1854–1855 outbreak in Naples, homeopathic camphor was used according to Hahnemann. Dr. Hahnemann laid down three main remedies that would be curative in that disease; in early and simple cases camphor; in later stages with excessive cramping, cuprum or with excessive evacuations and profuse cold sweat, veratrum album. These are the Trio Cholera remedies used by homoeopaths around the world. T. J. Ritter's ''Mother's Remedies book lists tomato syrup as a home remedy from northern America. Elecampane was recommended in the United Kingdom, according to William Thomas Fernie. The first effective human vaccine was developed in 1885, and the first effective antibiotic was developed in 1948. Cholera cases are much less frequent in developed countries where governments have helped to establish water sanitation practices and effective medical treatments. In the 19th century the United States, for example, had a severe cholera problem similar to those in some developing countries. It had three large cholera outbreaks in the 1800s, which can be attributed to Vibrio cholerae'' spread through interior waterways such as the Erie Canal and the extensive Mississippi River valley system, as well as the major ports along the Eastern Seaboard and their cities upriver. The island of Manhattan in New York City touches the Atlantic Ocean, where cholera collected from river waters and ship discharges just off the coast. At this time, New York City did not have as effective a sanitation system as it developed in the later 20th century, so cholera spread through the city's water supply. Cholera morbus is a historical term that was used to refer to gastroenteritis rather than specifically to what is now defined as the disease of cholera. <gallery> File:Cholera.jpg\|Drawing of Death bringing cholera, in Le Petit Journal (1912) File:Pedro II of Brazil and ministers of state.JPG\|Emperor Pedro II of Brazil visiting people with cholera in 1855 File:Cholera 395.1.jpg\|Hand bill from the New York City Board of Health, 1832—the outdated public health advice demonstrates the lack of understanding of the disease and its causative factors. </gallery> Research (third from the right) on a cholera research expedition in Egypt in 1884, one year after he identified V. cholerae]] ; August 1849]] One of the major contributions to fighting cholera was made by the physician and pioneer medical scientist John Snow (1813–1858), who in 1854 found a link between cholera and contaminated drinking water. Dr. Snow proposed a microbial origin for epidemic cholera in 1849. In his major "state of the art" review of 1855, he proposed a substantially complete and correct model for the cause of the disease. In two pioneering epidemiological field studies, he was able to demonstrate human sewage contamination was the most probable disease vector in two major epidemics in London in 1854. His model was not immediately accepted, but it was increasingly seen as plausible as medical microbiology developed over the next 30 years or so. For his work on cholera, John Snow is often regarded as the "Father of Epidemiology". The bacterium was isolated in 1854 by Italian anatomist Filippo Pacini, but its exact nature and his results were not widely known. In the same year, the Catalan Joaquim Balcells i Pascual discovered the bacterium. In 1856 António Augusto da Costa Simões and José Ferreira de Macedo Pinto, two Portuguese researchers, are believed to have done the same. Between the mid-1850s and the 1900s, cities in developed nations made massive investment in clean water supply and well-separated sewage treatment infrastructures. This eliminated the threat of cholera epidemics from the major developed cities in the world. In 1883, Robert Koch identified V. cholerae with a microscope as the bacillus causing the disease. Hemendra Nath Chatterjee, a Bengali scientist, was the first to formulate and demonstrate the effectiveness of oral rehydration salt (ORS) to treat diarrhea. In his 1953 paper, published in The Lancet, he states that promethazine can stop vomiting during cholera and then oral rehydration is possible. The formulation of the fluid replacement solution was 4 g of sodium chloride, 25 g of glucose and 1000 ml of water. , who discovered the cholera toxin and successfully demonstrated the transmission of cholera pathogen by bacterial enteric toxin]] Indian medical scientist Sambhu Nath De discovered the cholera toxin, the animal model of cholera, and successfully demonstrated the method of transmission of cholera pathogen Vibrio cholerae. Robert Allan Phillips, working at US Naval Medical Research Unit Two in Southeast Asia, evaluated the pathophysiology of the disease using modern laboratory chemistry techniques. He developed a protocol for rehydration. His research led the Lasker Foundation to award him its prize in 1967. More recently, in 2002, Alam, et al., studied stool samples from patients at the International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease in Dhaka, Bangladesh. From the various experiments they conducted, the researchers found a correlation between the passage of V. cholerae through the human digestive system and an increased infectivity state. Furthermore, the researchers found the bacterium creates a hyperinfected state where genes that control biosynthesis of amino acids, iron uptake systems, and formation of periplasmic nitrate reductase complexes were induced just before defecation. These induced characteristics allow the cholera vibrios to survive in the "rice water" stools, an environment of limited oxygen and iron, of patients with a cholera infection. Global Strategy In 2017, the WHO launched the "Ending Cholera: a global roadmap to 2030" strategy which aims to reduce cholera deaths by 90% by 2030. The strategy was developed by the Global Task Force on Cholera Control (GTFCC) which develops country-specific plans and monitors progress. The approach to achieve this goal combines surveillance, water sanitation, rehydration treatment and oral vaccines. Even though humans are the only host of cholera, the bacterium can persist in the environment without a human host. While global eradication is not possible, elimination of human to human transmission may be possible. The GTFCC targets 47 countries, 13 of which have established vaccination campaigns. Society and culture Health policy In many developing countries, cholera still reaches its victims through contaminated water sources, and countries without proper sanitation techniques have greater incidence of the disease. Governments can play a role in this. In 2008, for example, the Zimbabwean cholera outbreak was due partly to the government's role, according to a report from the James Baker Institute. Similarly, South Africa's cholera outbreak was exacerbated by the government's policy of privatizing water programs. The wealthy elite of the country were able to afford safe water while others had to use water from cholera-infected rivers. According to Rita R. Colwell of the James Baker Institute, if cholera does begin to spread, government preparedness is crucial. A government's ability to contain the disease before it extends to other areas can prevent a high death toll and the development of an epidemic or even pandemic. Effective disease surveillance can ensure that cholera outbreaks are recognized as soon as possible and dealt with appropriately. Oftentimes, this will allow public health programs to determine and control the cause of the cases, whether it is unsanitary water or seafood that have accumulated a lot of Vibrio cholerae specimens. These task forces promoted the boiling of water to obtain safe water, and provided chlorine and oral rehydration salts. According to Colwell, the quality and inclusiveness of a country's health care system affects the control of cholera, as it did in the Zimbabwean cholera outbreak. The speed with which government leaders respond to cholera outbreaks is important. Besides contributing to an effective or declining public health care system and water sanitation treatments, government can have indirect effects on cholera control and the effectiveness of a response to cholera. A country's government can impact its ability to prevent disease and control its spread. A speedy government response backed by a fully functioning health care system and financial resources can prevent cholera's spread. This limits cholera's ability to cause death, or at the very least a decline in education, as children are kept out of school to minimize the risk of infection. Notable cases was a famous victim of cholera.]] <!-- References are essential and unreferenced additions will be removed. --> * Tchaikovsky's death has traditionally been attributed to cholera, most probably contracted through drinking contaminated water several days earlier. Tchaikovsky's mother died of cholera, and his father became sick with cholera at this time but made a full recovery. Some scholars, however, including English musicologist and Tchaikovsky authority David Brown and biographer Anthony Holden, have theorized that his death was a suicide. * 2010s Haiti cholera outbreak. Ten months after the 2010 earthquake, an outbreak swept over Haiti, traced to a United Nations base of peacekeepers from Nepal. This marks the worst cholera outbreak in recent history, as well as the best documented cholera outbreak in modern public health. * Adam Mickiewicz, Polish poet and novelist, is thought to have died of cholera in Istanbul in 1855. * Sadi Carnot, physicist, a pioneer of thermodynamics (d. 1832) * Charles X, King of France (d. 1836) * James K. Polk, eleventh president of the United States (d. 1849) * Carl von Clausewitz, Prussian soldier and German military theorist (d. 1831) * Elliot Bovill, Chief Justice of the Straits Settlements (1893) Nikola Tesla, Serbian-American inventor, engineer and futurist known for his contributions to the design of the modern alternating current (AC) electricity supply system, contracted cholera in 1873 at the age of 17. He was bedridden for nine months, and near death multiple times, but survived and fully recovered. In popular culture Unlike tuberculosis ("consumption") which in literature and the arts was often romanticized as a disease of denizens of the demimonde or those with an artistic temperament, cholera is a disease which almost entirely affects the poor living in unsanitary conditions. This, and the unpleasant course of the disease – which includes voluminous "rice-water" diarrhea, the hemorrhaging of liquids from the mouth, and violent muscle contractions which continue even after death – has discouraged the disease from being romanticized, or even being factually presented in popular culture. In Gabriel Garcia Márquez's 1985 novel Love in the Time of Cholera, cholera is "a looming background presence rather than a central figure requiring vile description." The novel was adapted in 2007 for the film of the same name directed by Mike Newell. * In The Secret Garden, Mary Lennox's parents die from cholera. Country examples Zambia In Zambia, widespread cholera outbreaks have occurred since 1977, most commonly in the capital city of Lusaka. In 2017, an outbreak of cholera was declared in Zambia after laboratory confirmation of Vibrio cholerae O1, biotype El Tor, serotype Ogawa, from stool samples from two patients with acute watery diarrhea. There was a rapid increase in the number of cases from several hundred cases in early December 2017 to approximately 2,000 by early January 2018. With intensification of the rains, new cases increased on a daily basis reaching a peak on the first week of January 2018 with over 700 cases reported. In collaboration with partners, the Zambia Ministry of Health (MoH) launched a multifaceted public health response that included increased chlorination of the Lusaka municipal water supply, provision of emergency water supplies, water quality monitoring and testing, enhanced surveillance, epidemiologic investigations, a cholera vaccination campaign, aggressive case management and health care worker training, and laboratory testing of clinical samples. <big>Nigeria</big> In June 2024, the Nigeria Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (NCDC) announced a total of 1,141 suspected and 65 confirmed cases of cholera with 30 deaths from 96 Local Government Areas (LGAs) in 30 states of the country. NCDC, in its public health advisory, said Abia, Bayelsa, Bauchi, Cross River, Delta, Imo, Katsina, Lagos, Nasarawa and Zamfara states were the 10 states that contributed 90 percent of the burden of cholera in the country at the time. India suffers from frequent cholera outbreaks.]] The city of Kolkata, India, in the state of West Bengal in the Ganges delta, has been described as the "homeland of cholera", with regular outbreaks and pronounced seasonality. In India, where the disease is endemic, cholera outbreaks occur every year between dry seasons and rainy seasons. India is also characterized by high population density, unsafe drinking water, open drains, and poor sanitation, which provide an optimal niche for survival, sustenance, and transmission of Vibrio cholerae. Democratic Republic of Congo In Goma in the Democratic Republic of Congo, cholera has left an enduring mark on human and medical history. Cholera pandemics in the 19th and 20th centuries led to the growth of epidemiology as a science and in recent years it has continued to press advances in the concepts of disease ecology, basic membrane biology, and transmembrane signaling and in the use of scientific information and treatment design. Explanatory notes References Further reading * * * Bilson, Geoffrey. A Darkened House: Cholera in Nineteenth-Century Canada (U of Toronto Press, 1980). * * * * * Gilbert, Pamela K. "Cholera and Nation: Doctoring the Social Body in Victorian England" (SUNY Press, 2008). * * * * * * * * Longmate, Norman. King Cholera: The biography of a disease'' (1966), in British history. * \|doi10.1353/bhm.2012.0050 \|pmid23241908 \|jstor26305866 \|s2cid=207267413 }} * * * Snowden, Frank M. Naples in the Time of Cholera, 1884–1911 (Cambridge UP, 1995). * Vinten-Johansen, Peter, ed. Investigating Cholera in Broad Street: A History in Documents (Broadview Press, 2020). regarding 1850s in England. * Vinten-Johansen, Peter, et al. Cholera, chloroform, and the science of medicine: a life of John Snow (2003). External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130622144054/http://www.who.int/cholera/technical/prevention/control/en/ Prevention and control of cholera outbreaks: WHO policy and recommendations] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060324155246/http://www.who.int/cholera/ Cholera]World Health Organization * [https://www.cdc.gov/cholera/index.html Cholera – Vibrio cholerae infection]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention * \|ICD10 = \|ICD9 = \|MedlinePlus = 000303 \|eMedicineSubj = med \|eMedicineTopic = 351 \|eMedicine_mult \|MeshID D002771 \|Orphanet = 173 }} Category:Diarrhea Category:Foodborne illnesses Category:Gastrointestinal tract disorders Category:Intestinal infectious diseases Category:Tropical diseases Category:Epidemics Category:Pandemics Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate Category:Wikipedia emergency medicine articles ready to translate Category:Sanitation Category:Waterborne diseases Category:Vaccine-preventable diseases	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholera	2025-04-05T18:28:13.114068
7592	Caldera	thumb\|right\|Mount Mazama's eruption timeline, an example of caldera formation A caldera ( ) is a large cauldron-like hollow that forms shortly after the emptying of a magma chamber in a volcanic eruption. An eruption that ejects large volumes of magma over a short period of time can cause significant detriment to the structural integrity of such a chamber, greatly diminishing its capacity to support its own roof, and any substrate or rock resting above. The ground surface then collapses into the emptied or partially emptied magma chamber, leaving a large depression at the surface (from one to dozens of kilometers in diameter). Although sometimes described as a crater, the feature is actually a type of sinkhole, as it is formed through subsidence and collapse rather than an explosion or impact. Compared to the thousands of volcanic eruptions that occur over the course of a century, the formation of a caldera is a rare event, occurring only a few times within a given window of 100 years. with a caldera collapse at Kīlauea, Hawaii in 2018. Volcanoes that have formed a caldera are sometimes described as "caldera volcanoes". Etymology The term caldera comes from Spanish , and Latin , meaning "cooking pot". In some texts the English term cauldron is also used, in 1815), but also during effusive eruptions on the flanks of a volcano (see Piton de la Fournaise in 2007) or in a connected fissure system (see Bárðarbunga in 2014–2015). If enough magma is ejected, the emptied chamber is unable to support the weight of the volcanic edifice above it. A roughly circular fracture, the "ring fault", develops around the edge of the chamber. Ring fractures serve as feeders for fault intrusions which are also known as ring dikes. Secondary volcanic vents may form above the ring fracture. As the magma chamber empties, the center of the volcano within the ring fracture begins to collapse. The collapse may occur as the result of a single cataclysmic eruption, or it may occur in stages as the result of a series of eruptions. The total area that collapses may be hundreds of square kilometers. One of the world's best-preserved mineralized calderas is the Sturgeon Lake Caldera in northwestern Ontario, Canada, which formed during the Neoarchean era about 2.7 billion years ago. In the San Juan volcanic field, ore veins were emplaced in fractures associated with several calderas, with the greatest mineralization taking place near the youngest and most silicic intrusions associated with each caldera. Types of caldera Explosive caldera eruptions Explosive caldera eruptions are produced by a magma chamber whose magma is rich in silica. Silica-rich magma has a high viscosity, and therefore does not flow easily like basalt. When the magma approaches the surface of the Earth, the drop in confining pressure causes the trapped gases to rapidly bubble out of the magma, fragmenting the magma to produce a mixture of volcanic ash and other tephra with the very hot gases. The mixture of ash and volcanic gases initially rises into the atmosphere as an eruption column. However, as the volume of erupted material increases, the eruption column is unable to entrain enough air to remain buoyant, and the eruption column collapses into a tephra fountain that falls back to the surface to form pyroclastic flows. Eruptions of this type can spread ash over vast areas, so that ash flow tuffs emplaced by silicic caldera eruptions are the only volcanic product with volumes rivaling those of flood basalts. Eruptions forming even larger calderas are known, such as the La Garita Caldera in the San Juan Mountains of Colorado, where the Fish Canyon Tuff was blasted out in eruptions about 27.8 million years ago. The caldera produced by such eruptions is typically filled in with tuff, rhyolite, and other igneous rocks. The caldera is surrounded by an outflow sheet of ash flow tuff (also called an ash flow sheet). If magma continues to be injected into the collapsed magma chamber, the center of the caldera may be uplifted in the form of a resurgent dome such as is seen at the Valles Caldera, Lake Toba, the San Juan volcanic field, Cerro Galán, Yellowstone, and many other calderas. or Mount Pinatubo in 1991, may result in significant local destruction and a noticeable drop in temperature around the world. Large calderas may have even greater effects. The ecological effects of the eruption of a large caldera can be seen in the record of the Lake Toba eruption in Indonesia. At some points in geological time, rhyolitic calderas have appeared in distinct clusters. The remnants of such clusters may be found in places such as the Eocene Rum Complex of Scotland, Valles thumb\|Valle Caldera, New Mexico For their 1968 paper and it remains one of the best studied examples of a resurgent caldera. Toba About 74,000 years ago, this Indonesian volcano released about dense-rock equivalent of ejecta. This was the largest known eruption during the ongoing Quaternary period (the last 2.6 million years) and the largest known explosive eruption during the last 25 million years. In the late 1990s, anthropologist Stanley Ambrose proposed that a volcanic winter induced by this eruption reduced the human population to about 2,000–20,000 individuals, resulting in a population bottleneck. More recently, Lynn Jorde and Henry Harpending proposed that the human species was reduced to approximately 5,000–10,000 people. There is no direct evidence, however, that either theory is correct, and there is no evidence for any other animal decline or extinction, even in environmentally sensitive species. There is evidence that human habitation continued in India after the eruption. thumb\|right\|Satellite photograph of the summit caldera on Fernandina Island in the Galápagos archipelago thumb\|right\|Oblique aerial photo of Nemrut Caldera, Van Lake, Eastern Turkey Non-explosive calderas thumb\|Sollipulli Caldera, located in central Chile near the border with Argentina, filled with ice. The volcano is in the southern Andes Mountains within Chile's Parque Nacional Villarica. Some volcanoes, such as the large shield volcanoes Kīlauea and Mauna Loa on the island of Hawaii, form calderas in a different fashion. The magma feeding these volcanoes is basalt, which is silica poor. As a result, the magma is much less viscous than the magma of a rhyolitic volcano, and the magma chamber is drained by large lava flows rather than by explosive events. The resulting calderas are also known as subsidence calderas and can form more gradually than explosive calderas. For instance, the caldera atop Fernandina Island collapsed in 1968 when parts of the caldera floor dropped . Extraterrestrial calderas Since the early 1960s, it has been known that volcanism has occurred on other planets and moons in the Solar System. Through the use of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft, volcanism has been discovered on Venus, Mars, the Moon, and Io, a satellite of Jupiter. None of these worlds have plate tectonics, which contributes approximately 60% of the Earth's volcanic activity (the other 40% is attributed to hotspot volcanism). Caldera structure is similar on all of these planetary bodies, though the size varies considerably. The average caldera diameter on Venus is . The average caldera diameter on Io is close to , and the mode is ; Tvashtar Paterae is likely the largest caldera with a diameter of . The average caldera diameter on Mars is , smaller than Venus. Calderas on Earth are the smallest of all planetary bodies and vary from as a maximum. The Moon The Moon has an outer shell of low-density crystalline rock that is a few hundred kilometers thick, which formed due to a rapid creation. The craters of the Moon have been well preserved through time and were once thought to have been the result of extreme volcanic activity, but are currently believed to have been formed by meteorites, nearly all of which took place in the first few hundred million years after the Moon formed. Around 500 million years afterward, the Moon's mantle was able to be extensively melted due to the decay of radioactive elements. Massive basaltic eruptions took place generally at the base of large impact craters. Also, eruptions may have taken place due to a magma reservoir at the base of the crust. This forms a dome, possibly the same morphology of a shield volcano where calderas universally are known to form. Mars The volcanic activity of Mars is concentrated in two major provinces: Tharsis and Elysium. Each province contains a series of giant shield volcanoes that are similar to what we see on Earth and likely are the result of mantle hot spots. The surfaces are dominated by lava flows, and all have one or more collapse calderas. Venus Because there is no plate tectonics on Venus, heat is mainly lost by conduction through the lithosphere. This causes enormous lava flows, accounting for 80% of Venus' surface area. Many of the mountains are large shield volcanoes that range in size from in diameter and high. More than 80 of these large shield volcanoes have summit calderas averaging across. Lvinaya Past (Kuril Islands) Tao-Rusyr Caldera (Kuril Islands) Uzon (Kamchatka Peninsula) Zavaritski Caldera (Kuril Islands) Yankicha/Ushishir (Kuril Islands) Chegem Caldera (Kabardino-Balkarian Republic, North Caucasus) Europe thumb\|3D CGI aerial spinning view over Santorini, Greece thumb\|Aerial view of the Laacher See, Germany thumb\|View of the Phlegraean Fields near Naples, Italy thumb\|Caldeira do Faial on the Caldeira Volcano, Faial Island, Azores Georgia Bakuriani/Didveli Caldera Samsari Germany Laacher See Greece Santorini Nisyros Iceland Askja Grímsvötn Bárðarbunga Katla Krafla Italy Phlegraean Fields Lake Bracciano Lake Bolsena Mount Somma which contains Mount Vesuvius Portugal Lagoa das Sete Cidades & Furnas (São Miguel, the Azores) Caldeira do Faial (Faial) Caldeirão do Corvo (Corvo) United Kingdom Glen Coe (Scotland) Scafell Caldera (Lake District, England) Slovakia Banská Štiavnica Spain Las Cañadas (Tenerife, Canary Islands) North and Central America thumb\|Coatepeque Caldera, El Salvador crater lake thumb\|Crater Lake, Oregon, formed around 5,680 BC thumb\|Aniakchak-caldera, Alaska Canada Silverthrone Caldera (British Columbia) Mount Edziza (British Columbia) Bennett Lake Volcanic Complex (British Columbia/Yukon) Mount Pleasant Caldera (New Brunswick) Sturgeon Lake Caldera (Ontario) Mount Skukum Volcanic Complex (Yukon) Blake River Megacaldera Complex (Quebec/Ontario) New Senator Caldera (Quebec) Misema Caldera (Ontario/Quebec) Noranda Caldera (Quebec) Mexico La primavera Caldera (Jalisco) Amealco Caldera (Querétaro) Las Cumbres Caldera (Veracruz-Puebla) Los Azufres Caldera (Michoacán) Los Humeros Caldera (Veracruz-Puebla) Mazahua Caldera (Mexico State) El Salvador Lake Ilopango Lake Coatepeque Guatemala Lake Amatitlán Lake Atitlán Xela Barahona Nicaragua Masaya (Nicaragua) United States Mount Aniakchak (Aniakchak National Monument and Preserve) (Alaska) Cochetopa Caldera (Colorado) Crater Lake on Mount Mazama (Crater Lake National Park, Oregon) Mount Katmai (Alaska) Kīlauea (Hawaii) Mauna Loa (Hawaii) La Garita Caldera (Colorado) Long Valley (California) Henry's Fork Caldera (Idaho) Island Park Caldera (Idaho, Wyoming) Newberry Volcano (Oregon) McDermitt Caldera (Oregon) Medicine Lake Volcano (California) Mount Okmok (Alaska) Valles Caldera (New Mexico) Yellowstone Caldera (Wyoming) Indian Ocean Cirque de Cilaos (Réunion) Cirque de Mafate (Réunion) Cirque de Salazie (Réunion) Enclos Fouqué (Réunion) Oceania thumb\|Mokuʻāweoweo, Mauna Loa's summit caldera, covered in snow thumb\|right\|Satellite photo of Lake Taupō Australia Cerberean Cauldron Mount Warning Prospect Hill Hawaii Kilauea (Hawaii, US) Moku‘āweoweo Caldera on Mauna Loa (Hawaii, US) New Zealand Kapenga Lake Ohakuri Lake Okataina Lake Rotorua Lake Taupō Maroa Otago Harbour Reporoa caldera Papua New Guinea Dakataua Polynesia Rano Kau (Easter Island, Chile) South America thumb\|Aerial photograph of Sollipulli caldera, looking east Argentina Aguas Calientes, Salta Province Caldera del Atuel, Mendoza Province Galán, Catamarca Province Bolivia Pastos Grandes Colombia Arenas crater caldera, Nevado del Ruiz volcano, Caldas Department Laguna Verde caldera, Azufral volcano, Narino Department Chile Chaitén Cordillera Nevada Caldera Laguna del Maule Pacana Caldera Sollipulli Ecuador Pululahua Geobotanical Reserve Cuicocha Quilotoa Fernandina Island, Galápagos Islands Sierra Negra (Galápagos) Chacana Caldera Extraterrestrial volcanic calderas Mars Olympus Mons caldera Venus Maat Mons caldera Erosion calderas Americas Guaichane-Mamuta (Chile) Mount Tehama (California, US) Europe Caldera de Taburiente (Spain) Oceania Tweed Valley (New South Wales, Queensland, Australia) Asia Chegem Caldera (Kabardino-Balkarian Republic, Northern Caucasus Region, Russia) Taal volcano (Philippines) Batangas Province See also Explanatory notes References Further reading Kokelaar, B. P; and Moore, I. D; 2006. Glencoe caldera volcano, Scotland. . Pub. British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottinghamshire. There is an associated 1:25000 solid geology map. Lipman, P; 1999. "Caldera". In Haraldur Sigurdsson, ed. Encyclopedia of Volcanoes. Academic Press. External links USGS page on calderas List of Caldera Volcanoes Collection of references on collapse calderas (43 pages) The Caldera of the Tweed Volcano – Australia Largest Explosive Eruptions: New results for the 27.8 Ma Fish Canyon Tuff and the La Garita caldera, San Juan volcanic field, Colorado Supervolcanoes Time-lapse video of Kīlauea caldera collapse, 2018 Category:Depressions (geology) Category:Igneous rocks Category:Volcanism Category:Volcanic landforms .	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caldera	2025-04-05T18:28:13.210259
7593	Calculator	liquid-crystal display (LCD) that can perform arithmetic operations]] ]] An electronic calculator is typically a portable electronic device used to perform calculations, ranging from basic arithmetic to complex mathematics. The first solid-state electronic calculator was created in the early 1960s. Pocket-sized devices became available in the 1970s, especially after the Intel 4004, the first microprocessor, was developed by Intel for the Japanese calculator company Busicom. Modern electronic calculators vary from cheap, give-away, credit-card-sized models to sturdy desktop models with built-in printers. They became popular in the mid-1970s as the incorporation of integrated circuits reduced their size and cost. By the end of that decade, prices had dropped to the point where a basic calculator was affordable to most and they became common in schools. In addition to general purpose calculators, there are those designed for specific markets. For example, there are scientific calculators, which include trigonometric and statistical calculations. Some calculators even have the ability to do computer algebra. Graphing calculators can be used to graph functions defined on the real line, or higher-dimensional Euclidean space. , basic calculators cost little, but scientific and graphing models tend to cost more. Computer operating systems as far back as early Unix have included interactive calculator programs such as dc and hoc, and interactive BASIC could be used to do calculations on most 1970s and 1980s home computers. Calculator functions are included in most smartphones, tablets, and personal digital assistant (PDA) type devices. With the very wide availability of smartphones and the like, dedicated hardware calculators, while still widely used, are less common than they once were. In 1986, calculators still represented an estimated 41% of the world's general-purpose hardware capacity to compute information. By 2007, this had diminished to less than 0.05%. Design Input Electronic calculators contain a keyboard with buttons for digits and arithmetical operations; some even contain "00" and "000" buttons to make larger or smaller numbers easier to enter. Most basic calculators assign only one digit or operation on each button; however, in more specific calculators, a button can perform multi-function working with key combinations. Display output Calculators usually have liquid-crystal displays (LCD) as output in place of historical light-emitting diode (LED) displays and vacuum fluorescent displays (VFD); details are provided in the section Technical improvements. Large-sized figures are often used to improve readability; while using decimal separator (usually a point rather than a comma) instead of or in addition to vulgar fractions. Various symbols for function commands may also be shown on the display. Fractions such as }} are displayed as decimal approximations, for example rounded to . Also, some fractions (such as }}, which is ; to 14 significant figures) can be difficult to recognize in decimal form; as a result, many scientific calculators are able to work in vulgar fractions or mixed numbers. Memory Calculators also have the ability to save numbers into computer memory. Basic calculators usually store only one number at a time; more specific types are able to store many numbers represented in variables. Usually these variables are named ans or ans(0). The variables can also be used for constructing formulas. Some models have the ability to extend memory capacity to store more numbers; the extended memory address is termed an array index. Power source Power sources of calculators are batteries, solar cells or mains electricity (for old models), turning on with a switch or button. Some models even have no turn-off button but they provide some way to put off (for example, leaving no operation for a moment, covering solar cell exposure, or closing their lid). Crank-powered calculators were also common in the early computer era. Key layout The following keys are common to most pocket calculators. While the arrangement of the digits is standard, the positions of other keys vary from model to model; the illustration is an example. {\| class"wikitable" style"clear:right" \|+ Calculator buttons and their meanings \|- \| MC or CM \|\| Memory Clear \| rowspan"15" \| \|- \| MR, RM, or MRC \|\| Memory Recall \|- \| M− \|\| Memory Subtraction \|- \| M+ \|\| Memory Addition \|- \| C or AC \|\| All Clear \|- \| CE \|\| Clear (last) Entry; sometimes called CE/C: a first press clears the last entry (CE), a second press clears all (C) \|- \| ± or CHS \|\| Toggle positive/negative number aka CHange Sign \|- \| % \|\| Percent \|- \| ÷ \|\| Division \|- \| × \|\| Multiplication \|- \| − \|\| Subtraction \|- \| + \|\| Addition \|- \| . \|\| Decimal point \|- \| √ \|\| Square root \|- \| = \|\| Result \|} The arrangement of digits on calculator and other numeric keypads with the -- keys two rows above the -- keys is derived from calculators and cash registers. It is notably different from the layout of telephone Touch-Tone keypads which have the -- keys on top and -- keys on the third row. Internal workings In general, a basic electronic calculator consists of the following components: * Power source (mains electricity, battery and/or solar cell) * Keypad (input device) – consists of keys used to input numbers and function commands (addition, multiplication, square root, etc.) * Display panel (output device) – displays input numbers, commands and results. Liquid-crystal displays (LCDs), vacuum fluorescent displays (VFDs), and light-emitting diode (LED) displays use seven segments to represent each digit in a basic calculator. Advanced calculators may use dot matrix displays. ** A printing calculator, in addition to a display panel, has a printing unit that prints results in ink onto a roll of paper, using a printing mechanism. * Processor chip (microprocessor or central processing unit). FX-991s calculator]] {\| class="wikitable" \|+Processor chip's contents !Unit !Function \|- \|Scanning (Polling) unit \|When a calculator is powered on, it scans the keypad waiting to pick up an electrical signal when a key is pressed. \|- \|Encoder unit \|Converts the numbers and functions into binary code. \|- \|X register and Y register \|They are number stores where numbers are stored temporarily while doing calculations. All numbers go into the X register first; the number in the X register is shown on the display. \|- \|Flag register \|The function for the calculation is stored here until the calculator needs it. \|- \|Permanent memory (ROM) \|The instructions for in-built functions (arithmetic operations, square roots, percentages, trigonometry, etc.) are stored here in binary form. These instructions are programs, stored permanently, and cannot be erased. \|- \|User memory (RAM) \|The store where numbers can be stored by the user. User memory contents can be changed or erased by the user. \|- \|Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) \|The ALU executes all arithmetic and logic instructions, and provides the results in binary coded form. \|- \|Binary decoder unit \|Converts binary code into decimal numbers which can be displayed on the display unit. \|} Clock rate of a processor chip refers to the frequency at which the central processing unit (CPU) is running. It is used as an indicator of the processor's speed, and is measured in clock cycles per second or hertz (Hz). For basic calculators, the speed can vary from a few hundred hertz to the kilohertz range. Example A basic explanation as to how calculations are performed in a simple four-function calculator: To perform the calculation , one presses keys in the following sequence on most calculators: }}. :* When is entered, it is picked up by the scanning unit; the number 25 is encoded and sent to the X register; :* Next, when the key is pressed, the "addition" instruction is also encoded and sent to the flag or the status register; :* The second number is encoded and sent to the X register. This "pushes" (shifts) the first number out into the Y register; :* When the }} key is pressed, a "message" (signal) from the flag or status register tells the permanent or non-volatile memory that the operation to be done is "addition"; :* The numbers in the X and Y registers are then loaded into the ALU and the calculation is carried out following instructions from the permanent or non-volatile memory; :* The answer, 34 is sent (shifted) back to the X register. From there, it is converted by the binary decoder unit into a decimal number (usually binary-coded decimal), and then shown on the display panel. Other functions are usually performed using repeated additions or subtractions. Numeric representation Most pocket calculators do all their calculations in binary-coded decimal (BCD) rather than binary. BCD is common in electronic systems where a numeric value is to be displayed, especially in systems consisting solely of digital logic, and not containing a microprocessor. By employing BCD, the manipulation of numerical data for display can be greatly simplified by treating each digit as a separate single sub-circuit. This matches much more closely the physical reality of display hardware—a designer might choose to use a series of separate identical seven-segment displays to build a metering circuit, for example. If the numeric quantity were stored and manipulated as pure binary, interfacing to such a display would require complex circuitry. Therefore, in cases where the calculations are relatively simple, working throughout with BCD can lead to a simpler overall system than converting to and from binary. (For example, CDs keep the track number in BCD, limiting them to 99 tracks.) The same argument applies when hardware of this type uses an embedded microcontroller or other small processor. Often, smaller code results when representing numbers internally in BCD format, since a conversion from or to binary representation can be expensive on such limited processors. For these applications, some small processors feature BCD arithmetic modes, which assist when writing routines that manipulate BCD quantities. Where calculators have added functions (such as square root, or trigonometric functions), software algorithms are required to produce high precision results. Sometimes significant design effort is needed to fit all the desired functions in the limited memory space available in the calculator chip, with acceptable calculation time. History Precursors to the electronic calculator The first known tools used to aid arithmetic calculations were: bones (used to tally items), pebbles, and counting boards, and the abacus, known to have been used by Sumerians and Egyptians before 2000 BC. Except for the Antikythera mechanism (an "out of the time" astronomical device), development of computing tools arrived near the start of the 17th century: the geometric-military compass (by Galileo), logarithms and Napier bones (by Napier), and the slide rule (by Edmund Gunter). The Renaissance saw the invention of the mechanical calculator by Wilhelm Schickard in 1623, and later by Blaise Pascal in 1642. A device that was at times somewhat over-promoted as being able to perform all four arithmetic operations with minimal human intervention. Pascal's calculator could add and subtract two numbers directly and thus, if the tedium could be borne, multiply and divide by repetition. Schickard's machine, constructed several decades earlier, used a clever set of mechanised multiplication tables to ease the process of multiplication and division with the adding machine as a means of completing this operation. There is a debate about whether Pascal or Shickard should be credited as the known inventor of a calculating machine due to the differences (like the different aims) of both inventions. Schickard and Pascal were followed by Gottfried Leibniz who spent forty years designing a four-operation mechanical calculator, the stepped reckoner, inventing in the process his leibniz wheel, but who couldn't design a fully operational machine. There were also five unsuccessful attempts to design a calculating clock in the 17th century. The 18th century saw the arrival of some notable improvements, first by Poleni with the first fully functional calculating clock and four-operation machine, but these machines were almost always one of a kind. Luigi Torchi invented the first direct multiplication machine in 1834: this was also the second key-driven machine in the world, following that of James White (1822). It was not until the 19th century and the Industrial Revolution that real developments began to occur. Although machines capable of performing all four arithmetic functions existed prior to the 19th century, the refinement of manufacturing and fabrication processes during the eve of the industrial revolution made large scale production of more compact and modern units possible. The Arithmometer, invented in 1820 as a four-operation mechanical calculator, was released to production in 1851 as an adding machine and became the first commercially successful unit; forty years later, by 1890, about 2,500 arithmometers had been sold plus a few hundreds more from two arithmometer clone makers (Burkhardt, Germany, 1878 and Layton, UK, 1883) and Felt and Tarrant, the only other competitor in true commercial production, had sold 100 comptometers. It wasn't until 1902 that the familiar push-button user interface was developed, with the introduction of the Dalton Adding Machine, developed by James L. Dalton in the United States. In 1921, Edith Clarke invented the "Clarke calculator", a simple graph-based calculator for solving line equations involving hyperbolic functions. This allowed electrical engineers to simplify calculations for inductance and capacitance in power transmission lines. The Curta calculator was developed in 1948 and, although costly, became popular for its portability. This purely mechanical hand-held device could do addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. By the early 1970s electronic pocket calculators ended manufacture of mechanical calculators, although the Curta remains a popular collectable item. Development of electronic calculators The first mainframe computers, initially using vacuum tubes and later transistors in the logic circuits, appeared in the 1940s and 1950s. Electronic circuits developed for computers also had application to electronic calculators. The Casio Computer Company, in Japan, released the Model 14-A calculator in 1957, which was the world's first all-electric (relatively) compact calculator. It did not use electronic logic but was based on relay technology, and was built into a desk. The IBM 608 plugboard programmable calculator was IBM's first all-transistor product, released in 1957; this was a console type system, with input and output on punched cards, and replaced the earlier, larger, vacuum-tube IBM 603. (LED) display from the 1970s (USSR)]] In October 1961, the world's first all-electronic desktop calculator, the British Bell Punch/Sumlock Comptometer ANITA (A New Inspiration To Arithmetic/Accounting) was announced. This machine used vacuum tubes, cold-cathode tubes and Dekatrons in its circuits, with 12 cold-cathode "Nixie" tubes for its display. Two models were displayed, the Mk VII for continental Europe and the Mk VIII for Britain and the rest of the world, both for delivery from early 1962. The Mk VII was a slightly earlier design with a more complicated mode of multiplication, and was soon dropped in favour of the simpler Mark VIII. The ANITA had a full keyboard, similar to mechanical comptometers of the time, a feature that was unique to it and the later Sharp CS-10A among electronic calculators. The ANITA weighed roughly due to its large tube system. Bell Punch had been producing key-driven mechanical calculators of the comptometer type under the names "Plus" and "Sumlock", and had realised in the mid-1950s that the future of calculators lay in electronics. They employed the young graduate Norbert Kitz, who had worked on the early British Pilot ACE computer project, to lead the development. The ANITA sold well since it was the only electronic desktop calculator available, and was silent and quick. The tube technology of the ANITA was superseded in June 1963 by the U.S. manufactured Friden EC-130, which had an all-transistor design, a stack of four 13-digit numbers displayed on a cathode-ray tube (CRT), and introduced Reverse Polish Notation (RPN) to the calculator market for a price of $2200, which was about three times the cost of an electromechanical calculator of the time. Like Bell Punch, Friden was a manufacturer of mechanical calculators that had decided that the future lay in electronics. In 1964 more all-transistor electronic calculators were introduced: Sharp introduced the CS-10A, which weighed and cost 500,000 yen ($), and Industria Macchine Elettroniche of Italy introduced the IME 84, to which several extra keyboard and display units could be connected so that several people could make use of it (but apparently not at the same time). The Victor 3900 was the first to use integrated circuits in place of individual transistors, but production problems delayed sales until 1966. from 1967]] There followed a series of electronic calculator models from these and other manufacturers, including Canon, Mathatronics, Olivetti, SCM (Smith-Corona-Marchant), Sony, Toshiba, and Wang. The early calculators used hundreds of germanium transistors, which were cheaper than silicon transistors, on multiple circuit boards. Display types used were CRT, cold-cathode Nixie tubes, and filament lamps. Memory technology was usually based on the delay-line memory or the magnetic-core memory, though the Toshiba "Toscal" BC-1411 appears to have used an early form of dynamic RAM built from discrete components. Already there was a desire for smaller and less power-hungry machines. Bulgaria's ELKA 6521, introduced in 1965, was developed by the Central Institute for Calculation Technologies and built at the Elektronika factory in Sofia. The name derives from ELektronen KAlkulator, and it weighed around . It is the first calculator in the world which includes the square root function. Later that same year were released the ELKA 22 (with a luminescent display) and the ELKA 25, with an built-in printer. Several other models were developed until the first pocket model, the ELKA 101, was released in 1974. The writing on it was in Roman script, and it was exported to western countries.Programmable calculators , an early commercial programmable calculator produced by Olivetti in 1964]] The first desktop programmable calculators were produced in the mid-1960s. They included the Mathatronics Mathatron (1964) and the Olivetti Programma 101 (late 1965) which were solid-state, desktop, printing, floating point, algebraic entry, programmable, stored-program electronic calculators. Both could be programmed by the end user and print out their results. The Programma 101 saw much wider distribution and had the added feature of offline storage of programs via magnetic cards. The Monroe Epic programmable calculator came on the market in 1967. A large, printing, desk-top unit, with an attached floor-standing logic tower, it could be programmed to perform many computer-like functions. However, the only branch instruction was an implied unconditional branch (GOTO) at the end of the operation stack, returning the program to its starting instruction. Thus, it was not possible to include any conditional branch (IF-THEN-ELSE) logic. During this era, the absence of the conditional branch was sometimes used to distinguish a programmable calculator from a computer. The first Soviet programmable desktop calculator ISKRA 123, powered by the power grid, was released at the start of the 1970s. 1970s to mid-1980s <!-- Deleted image removed: --> The electronic calculators of the mid-1960s were large and heavy desktop machines due to their use of hundreds of transistors on several circuit boards with a large power consumption that required an AC power supply. There were great efforts to put the logic required for a calculator into fewer and fewer integrated circuits (chips) and calculator electronics was one of the leading edges of semiconductor development. U.S. semiconductor manufacturers led the world in large scale integration (LSI) semiconductor development, squeezing more and more functions into individual integrated circuits. This led to alliances between Japanese calculator manufacturers and U.S. semiconductor companies: Canon Inc. with Texas Instruments, Hayakawa Electric (later renamed Sharp Corporation) with North-American Rockwell Microelectronics (later renamed Rockwell International), Busicom with Mostek and Intel, and General Instrument with Sanyo. Pocket calculators used a crank instead of electronics.. The Curta remained the finest pocket calculator available for a quarter of a century. By 1970, a calculator could be made using just a few chips of low power consumption, allowing portable models powered from rechargeable batteries. The first handheld calculator was a 1967 prototype called Cal Tech, whose development was led by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments in a research project to produce a portable calculator. It could add, multiply, subtract, and divide, and its output device was a paper tape. As a result of the "Cal-Tech" project, Texas Instruments was granted master patents on portable calculators. The first commercially produced portable calculators appeared in Japan in 1970, and were soon marketed around the world. These included the Sanyo ICC-0081 "Mini Calculator", the Canon Pocketronic, and the Sharp QT-8B "micro Compet". The Canon Pocketronic was a development from the "Cal-Tech" project. It had no traditional display; numerical output was on thermal paper tape. Sharp put in great efforts in size and power reduction and introduced in January 1971 the Sharp EL-8, also marketed as the Facit 1111, which was close to being a pocket calculator. It weighed 1.59 pounds (721 grams), had a vacuum fluorescent display, rechargeable NiCad batteries, and initially sold for US$395. However, integrated circuit development efforts culminated in early 1971 with the introduction of the first "calculator on a chip", the MK6010 by Mostek, followed by Texas Instruments later in the year. Although these early hand-held calculators were very costly, these advances in electronics, together with developments in display technology (such as the vacuum fluorescent display, LED, and LCD), led within a few years to the cheap pocket calculator available to all. In 1971, Pico Electronics and General Instrument also introduced their first collaboration in ICs, a full single chip calculator IC for the Monroe Royal Digital III calculator. Pico was a spinout by five GI design engineers whose vision was to create single chip calculator ICs. Pico and GI went on to have significant success in the burgeoning handheld calculator market. The first truly pocket-sized electronic calculator was the Busicom LE-120A "HANDY", which was marketed early in 1971. Made in Japan, this was also the first calculator to use an LED display, the first hand-held calculator to use a single integrated circuit (then proclaimed as a "calculator on a chip"), the Mostek MK6010, and the first electronic calculator to run off replaceable batteries. Using four AA-size cells the LE-120A measures . The first European-made pocket-sized calculator, DB 800 was made in May 1971 by Digitron in Buje, Croatia (former Yugoslavia) with four functions and an eight-digit display and special characters for a negative number and a warning that the calculation has too many digits to display. The first American-made pocket-sized calculator, the Bowmar 901B (popularly termed The Bowmar Brain), measuring , came out in the Autumn of 1971, with four functions and an eight-digit red LED display, for , while in August 1972 the four-function Sinclair Executive became the first slimline pocket calculator measuring and weighing . It retailed for around £79 ( at the time). By the end of the decade, similar calculators were priced less than £5 ($). Following protracted development over the course of two years including a botched partnership with Texas Instruments, Eldorado Electrodata released five pocket calculators in 1972. One called the Touch Magic was "no bigger than a pack of cigarettes" according to Administrative Management. The first Soviet Union made pocket-sized calculator, the Elektronika B3-04 was developed by the end of 1973 and sold at the start of 1974. One of the first low-cost calculators was the Sinclair Cambridge, launched in August 1973. It retailed for £29.95 ($), or £5 ($) less in kit form, and later models included some scientific functions. The Sinclair calculators were successful because they were far cheaper than the competition; however, their design led to slow and less accurate computations of transcendental functions (maximum three decimal places of accuracy). Scientific pocket calculators Meanwhile, Hewlett-Packard (HP) had been developing a pocket calculator. Launched in early 1972, it was unlike the other basic four-function pocket calculators then available in that it was the first pocket calculator with scientific functions that could replace a slide rule. The $395 HP-35, along with nearly all later HP engineering calculators, uses reverse Polish notation (RPN), also called postfix notation. A calculation like "8 plus 5" is, using RPN, performed by pressing , , , and ; instead of the algebraic infix notation: , , , }}. It had 35 buttons and was based on Mostek Mk6020 chip. The first Soviet scientific pocket-sized calculator the "B3-18" was completed by the end of 1975. In 1973, Texas Instruments (TI) introduced the SR-10, (SR signifying slide rule) an algebraic entry pocket calculator using scientific notation for $150. Shortly after the SR-11 featured an added key for entering pi (π). It was followed the next year by the SR-50 which added log and trig functions to compete with the HP-35, and in 1977 the mass-marketed TI-30 line which is still produced. In 1978, a new company, Calculated Industries arose which focused on specialized markets. Their first calculator, the Loan Arranger (1978) was a pocket calculator marketed to the Real Estate industry with preprogrammed functions to simplify the process of calculating payments and future values. In 1985, CI launched a calculator for the construction industry called the Construction Master which came preprogrammed with common construction calculations (such as angles, stairs, roofing math, pitch, rise, run, and feet-inch fraction conversions). This would be the first in a line of construction related calculators. <gallery widths"200px" heights"200px"> File:Calculator Adler 81S.jpg\|Adler 81S pocket calculator with vacuum fluorescent display (VFD) from the mid-1970s. File:Casio cm602.jpg\|The Casio CM-602 Mini electronic calculator provided basic functions in the 1970s. File:SinclairExecutive-01.jpg\|The 1972 Sinclair Executive pocket calculator. File:Hp-35 1972.jpg\|The HP-35, the world's first scientific pocket calculator by Hewlett Packard (1972). File:Canon Pocketronic.jpg\|Canon Pocketronic calculator prints output using paper tape (1971). </gallery> Programmable pocket calculators The first programmable pocket calculator was the HP-65, in 1974; it had a capacity of 100 instructions, and could store and retrieve programs with a built-in magnetic card reader. Two years later the HP-25C introduced continuous memory, i.e., programs and data were retained in CMOS memory during power-off. In 1979, HP released the first alphanumeric, programmable, expandable calculator, the HP-41C. It could be expanded with random-access memory (RAM, for memory) and read-only memory (ROM, for software) modules, and peripherals like bar code readers, microcassette and floppy disk drives, paper-roll thermal printers, and miscellaneous communication interfaces (RS-232, HP-IL, HP-IB). , the first programmable pocket calculator (1974)]] The first Soviet pocket battery-powered programmable calculator, Elektronika B3-21, was developed by the end of 1976 and released at the start of 1977. The successor of B3-21, the Elektronika B3-34 wasn't backward compatible with B3-21, even if it kept the reverse Polish notation (RPN). Thus B3-34 defined a new command set, which later was used in a series of later programmable Soviet calculators. Despite very limited abilities (98 bytes of instruction memory and about 19 stack and addressable registers), people managed to write all kinds of programs for them, including adventure games and libraries of calculus-related functions for engineers. Hundreds, perhaps thousands, of programs were written for these machines, from practical scientific and business software, which were used in real-life offices and labs, to fun games for children. The Elektronika MK-52 calculator (using the extended B3-34 command set, and featuring internal EEPROM memory for storing programs and external interface for EEPROM cards and other periphery) was used in Soviet spacecraft program (for Soyuz TM-7 flight) as a backup of the board computer. This series of calculators was also noted for a large number of highly counter-intuitive mysterious undocumented features, somewhat similar to "synthetic programming" of the American HP-41, which were exploited by applying normal arithmetic operations to error messages, jumping to nonexistent addresses and other methods. A number of respected monthly publications, including the popular science magazine Nauka i Zhizn (Наука и жизнь, Science and Life), featured special columns, dedicated to optimization methods for calculator programmers and updates on undocumented features for hackers, which grew into a whole esoteric science with many branches, named "yeggogology" ("еггогология"). The error messages on those calculators appear as a Russian word "YEGGOG" ("ЕГГОГ") which, unsurprisingly, is translated to "Error". A similar hacker culture in the US revolved around the HP-41, which was also noted for a large number of undocumented features and was much more powerful than B3-34. Technical improvements Through the 1970s the hand-held electronic calculator underwent rapid development. The red LED and blue/green vacuum fluorescent displays consumed a lot of power and the calculators either had a short battery life (often measured in hours, so rechargeable nickel-cadmium batteries were common) or were large so that they could take larger, higher capacity batteries. In the early 1970s liquid-crystal displays (LCDs) were in their infancy and there was a great deal of concern that they only had a short operating lifetime. Busicom introduced the Busicom LE-120A "HANDY" calculator, the first pocket-sized calculator and the first with an LED display, and announced the Busicom LC with LCD. However, there were problems with this display and the calculator never went on sale. The first successful calculators with LCDs were manufactured by Rockwell International and sold from 1972 by other companies under such names as: Dataking LC-800, Harden DT/12, Ibico 086, Lloyds 40, Lloyds 100, Prismatic 500 (a.k.a. P500), Rapid Data Rapidman 1208LC. The LCDs were an early form using the Dynamic Scattering Mode DSM with the numbers appearing as bright against a dark background. To present a high-contrast display these models illuminated the LCD using a filament lamp and solid plastic light guide, which negated the low power consumption of the display. These models appear to have been sold only for a year or two. A more successful series of calculators using a reflective DSM-LCD was launched in 1972 by Sharp Inc with the Sharp EL-805, which was a slim pocket calculator. This, and another few similar models, used Sharp's Calculator On Substrate (COS) technology. An extension of one glass plate needed for the liquid crystal display was used as a substrate to mount the needed chips based on a new hybrid technology. The COS technology may have been too costly since it was only used in a few models before Sharp reverted to conventional circuit boards. (1987)]] In the mid-1970s the first calculators appeared with field-effect, twisted nematic (TN) LCDs with dark numerals against a grey background, though the early ones often had a yellow filter over them to cut out damaging ultraviolet rays. The advantage of LCDs is that they are passive light modulators reflecting light, which require much less power than light-emitting displays such as LEDs or VFDs. This led the way to the first credit-card-sized calculators, such as the Casio Mini Card LC-78 of 1978, which could run for months of normal use on button cells. There were also improvements to the electronics inside the calculators. All of the logic functions of a calculator had been squeezed into the first "calculator on a chip" integrated circuits (ICs) in 1971, but this was leading edge technology of the time and yields were low and costs were high. Many calculators continued to use two or more ICs, especially the scientific and the programmable ones, into the late 1970s. The power consumption of the integrated circuits was also reduced, especially with the introduction of CMOS technology. Appearing in the Sharp "EL-801" in 1972, the transistors in the logic cells of CMOS ICs only used any appreciable power when they changed state. The LED and VFD displays often required added driver transistors or ICs, whereas the LCDs were more amenable to being driven directly by the calculator IC itself. With this low power consumption came the possibility of using solar cells as the power source, realised around 1978 by calculators such as the Royal Solar 1, Sharp EL-8026, and Teal Photon. <gallery widths"200px" heights"200px"> File:CasioFX20-inside.jpg\|The interior of a Casio fx-20 scientific calculator from the mid-1970s, using a VFD. The processor integrated circuit (IC) is made by NEC (marked μPD978C). Discrete electronic components like capacitors and resistors and the IC are mounted on a printed circuit board (PCB). This calculator uses a battery pack as a power source. File:Sharp el-323 ic 1ae.jpg\|The processor chip (integrated circuit package) inside a 1980s Sharp pocket calculator, marked SC6762 1•H. An LCD is directly under the chip. This was a PCB-less design. No discrete components are used. The battery compartment at the top can hold two button cells. File:Casio fx-992VB interior both aa1.JPG\|Inside a Casio scientific calculator from the mid-1990s, showing the processor chip (small square; top-middle; left), keypad contacts, right (with matching contacts on the left), the back of the LCD (top; marked 4L102E), battery compartment, and other components. The solar cell assembly is under the chip. File:Citizen se-733 int 1ac.jpg\|The interior of a newer () pocket calculator. It uses a button battery in combination with a solar cell. The processor is a "Chip on Board" type, covered with dark epoxy. </gallery> Mass-market phase At the start of the 1970s, hand-held electronic calculators were very costly, at two or three weeks' wages, and so were a luxury item. The high price was due to their construction requiring many mechanical and electronic components which were costly to produce, and production runs that were too small to exploit economies of scale. Many firms saw that there were good profits to be made in the calculator business with the margin on such high prices. However, the cost of calculators fell as components and their production methods improved, and the effect of economies of scale was felt. By 1976, the cost of the cheapest four-function pocket calculator had dropped to a few dollars, about 1/20 of the cost five years before. The results of this were that the pocket calculator was affordable, and that it was now difficult for the manufacturers to make a profit from calculators, leading to many firms dropping out of the business or closing. The firms that survived making calculators tended to be those with high outputs of higher quality calculators, or producing high-specification scientific and programmable calculators.Mid-1980s to present was a programmable RPN-style calculator that accepted extension modules; it was manufactured in the Soviet Union from 1985 to 1992]] The first calculator capable of symbolic computing was the HP-28C, released in 1987. It could, for example, solve quadratic equations symbolically. The first graphing calculator was the Casio fx-7000G released in 1985. The two leading manufacturers, HP and TI, released increasingly feature-laden calculators during the 1980s and 1990s. At the turn of the millennium, the line between a graphing calculator and a handheld computer was not always clear, as some very advanced calculators such as the TI-89, the Voyage 200 and HP-49G could differentiate and integrate functions, solve differential equations, run word processing and PIM software, and connect by wire or IR to other calculators/computers. The HP 12c financial calculator is still produced. It was introduced in 1981 and is still being made with few changes. The HP 12c featured the reverse Polish notation mode of data entry. In 2003 several new models were released, including an improved version of the HP 12c, the "HP 12c platinum edition" which added more memory, more built-in functions, and the addition of the algebraic mode of data entry. Calculated Industries competed with the HP 12c in the mortgage and real estate markets by differentiating the key labeling; changing the "I", "PV", "FV" to easier labeling terms such as "Int", "Term", "Pmt", and not using the reverse Polish notation. However, CI's more successful calculators involved a line of construction calculators, which evolved and expanded in the 1990s to present. According to Mark Bollman, a mathematics and calculator historian and associate professor of mathematics at Albion College, the "Construction Master is the first in a long and profitable line of CI construction calculators" which carried them through the 1980s, 1990s, and to the present. Use in education In most countries, students use calculators for schoolwork. There was some initial resistance to the idea out of fear that basic or elementary arithmetic skills would suffer. There remains disagreement about the importance of the ability to perform calculations in the head, with some curricula restricting calculator use until a certain level of proficiency has been obtained, while others concentrate more on teaching estimation methods and problem-solving. Research suggests that inadequate guidance in the use of calculating tools can restrict the kind of mathematical thinking that students engage in. Others have argued that calculator use can even cause core mathematical skills to atrophy, or that such use can prevent understanding of advanced algebraic concepts. In December 2011 the UK's Minister of State for Schools, Nick Gibb, voiced concern that children can become "too dependent" on the use of calculators. As a result, the use of calculators is to be included as part of a review of the Curriculum. Personal computers Personal computers often come with a calculator utility program that emulates the appearance and functions of a calculator, using the graphical user interface to portray a calculator. Examples include the Windows Calculator, Apple's Calculator, and KDE's KCalc. Most personal data assistants (PDAs) and smartphones also have such a feature. Calculators compared to computers The fundamental difference between a calculator and computer is that a computer can be programmed in a way that allows the program to take different branches according to intermediate results, while calculators are pre-designed with specific functions (such as addition, multiplication, and logarithms) built in. The distinction is not clear-cut: some devices classed as programmable calculators have programming functions, sometimes with support for programming languages (such as RPL or TI-BASIC). For instance, instead of a hardware multiplier, a calculator might implement floating point mathematics with code in read-only memory (ROM), and compute trigonometric functions with the CORDIC algorithm because CORDIC does not require much multiplication. Bit serial logic designs are more common in calculators whereas bit parallel designs dominate general-purpose computers, because a bit serial design minimizes chip complexity, but takes many more clock cycles. This distinction blurs with high-end calculators, which use processor chips associated with computer and embedded systems design, more so the Z80, MC68000, and ARM architectures, and some custom designs specialized for the calculator market. See also * Calculator spelling * Comparison of HP graphing calculators * Comparison of Texas Instruments graphing calculators * Formula calculator * HP calculators * History of computing hardware * Scientific calculator * Software calculator * Solar-powered calculator * Photomath Notes References Sources * * * * * * Further reading * – Complex computer – G. R. Stibitz, Bell Laboratories, 1954 (filed 1941, refiled 1944), electromechanical (relay) device that could calculate complex numbers, record, and print results. * – Miniature electronic calculator – J. S. Kilby, Texas Instruments, 1974 (originally filed 1967), handheld () battery operated electronic device with thermal printer * – Floating Point Calculator With RAM Shift Register – 1977 (originally filed GB March 1971, US July 1971), very early single chip calculator claim. * – Extended Numerical Keyboard with Structured Data-Entry Capability – J. H. Redin, 1997 (originally filed 1996), Usage of Verbal Numerals as a way to enter a number. * [http://ep.espacenet.com European Patent Office Database] – Many patents about mechanical calculators are in classifications G06C15/04, G06C15/06, G06G3/02, G06G3/04 * Collectors Guide to Pocket Calculators. by Guy Ball and Bruce Flamm, 1997, – includes an extensive history of early pocket calculators and highlights over 1,500 different models from the early 1970s. Book still in print. * (64 pages) External links * [http://sharp-world.com/corporate/info/his/h_company/1994/ 30th Anniversary of the Calculator] – From Sharp's web presentation of its history; including a picture of the CS-10A desktop calculator * [http://www.hpmuseum.org The Museum of HP calculators] ([http://www.hpmuseum.org/prehp.htm Slide Rules and Mechanical Calculators section]) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110720142104/http://www.spingal.plus.com/micro/ Microprocessor and single chip calculator history; foundations in Glenrothes, Scotland] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220211065021/http://home.citycable.ch/pierrefleur/Jacques-Laporte/HP%2035%20Saga.htm HP-35] – A thorough analysis of the HP-35 firmware including the Cordic algorithms and the bugs in the early ROM * [http://www.anita-calculators.info/ Bell Punch Company and the development of the Anita calculator] – The story of the first electronic desktop calculator * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220121122943/http://www.dentaku-museum.com/ Dentaku-Museum] – Shows mainly Japanese calculators but also others. Category:American inventions Category:Mathematical tools Category:Office equipment Category:20th-century inventions Category:Electronic calculators	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculator	2025-04-05T18:28:13.246741
7594	Cash register	]] A cash register, sometimes called a till or automated money handling system, is a mechanical or electronic device for registering and calculating transactions at a point of sale. It is usually attached to a drawer for storing cash and other valuables. A modern cash register is usually attached to a printer that can print out receipts for record-keeping purposes. History s and centimes]] An early mechanical cash register was invented by James Ritty and John Birch following the American Civil War. James was the owner of a saloon in Dayton, Ohio, US, and wanted to stop employees from pilfering his profits. The Ritty Model I was invented in 1879 after seeing a tool that counted the revolutions of the propeller on a steamship. With the help of James' brother John Ritty, they patented it in 1879. It was called ''Ritty's Incorruptible Cashier'' and it was invented to stop cashiers from pilfering and eliminate employee theft and embezzlement. Early mechanical registers were entirely mechanical, without receipts. The employee was required to ring up every transaction on the register, and when the total key was pushed, the drawer opened and a bell would ring, alerting the manager to a sale taking place. Those original machines were nothing but simple adding machines. For example, the Rittys’ patent application filed in 1879 for their “improved cash register” describes the device as follows: “The machine consists, essentially, of an inclosed case or frame provided with an index dial and indicator operated by a system of levers or keys and connected with a series of co-operating disks marked with numbers on their peripheries, a row of which numbers are disclosed by a transverse opening or openings in the case to show at a glance the sum-total of cash receipts.” Since the registration is done with the process of returning change, according to Bill Bryson odd pricing came about because by charging odd amounts like 49 and 99 cents (or 45 and 95 cents when nickels are more used than pennies), the cashier very probably had to open the till for the penny change and thus announce the sale. Shortly after the patent, Ritty became overwhelmed with the responsibilities of running two businesses, so he sold all of his interests in the cash register business to Jacob H. Eckert of Cincinnati, a china and glassware salesman, who formed the National Manufacturing Company. In 1884 Eckert sold the company to John H. Patterson, who renamed the company the National Cash Register Company and improved the cash register by adding a paper roll to record sales transactions, thereby creating the journal for internal bookkeeping purposes, and the receipt for external bookkeeping purposes. The original purpose of the receipt was enhanced fraud protection. The business owner could read the receipts to ensure that cashiers charged customers the correct amount for each transaction and did not embezzle the cash drawer. It also prevents a customer from defrauding the business by falsely claiming receipt of a lesser amount of change or a transaction that never happened in the first place. The first evidence of an actual cash register was used in Coalton, Ohio, at the old mining company. In 1906, while working at the National Cash Register company, inventor Charles F. Kettering designed a cash register with an electric motor. A leading designer, builder, manufacturer, seller and exporter of cash registers from the 1950s until the 1970s was London-based (and later Brighton-based) Gross Cash Registers Ltd., founded by brothers Sam and Henry Gross. Their cash registers were particularly popular around the time of decimalisation in Britain in early 1971, Henry having designed one of the few known models of cash register which could switch currencies from £sd to £p so that retailers could easily change from one to the other on or after Decimal Day. Sweda also had decimal-ready registers where the retailer used a special key on Decimal Day for the conversion.In current use In some jurisdictions the law also requires customers to collect the receipt and keep it at least for a short while after leaving the shop, again to check that the shop records sales, so that it cannot evade sales taxes. Often cash registers are attached to scales, barcode scanners, checkstands, and debit card or credit card terminals. Increasingly, dedicated cash registers are being replaced with general purpose computers with POS software. Today, point of sale systems scan the barcode (usually EAN or UPC) for each item, retrieve the price from a database, calculate deductions for items on sale (or, in British retail terminology, "special offer", "multibuy" or "buy one, get one free"), calculate the sales tax or VAT, calculate differential rates for preferred customers, actualize inventory, time and date stamp the transaction, record the transaction in detail including each item purchased, record the method of payment, keep totals for each product or type of product sold as well as total sales for specified periods, and do other tasks as well. These POS terminals will often also identify the cashier on the receipt, and carry additional information or offers. Currently, many cash registers are individual computers. They may be running traditionally in-house software or general purpose software such as DOS. Many of the newer ones have touch screens. They may be connected to computerized point of sale networks using any type of protocol. Such systems may be accessed remotely for the purpose of obtaining records or troubleshooting. Many businesses also use tablet computers as cash registers, utilizing the sale system as downloadable app-software. Cash drawer Museum, British Columbia, Canada]]A cash drawer is usually a compartment underneath a cash register in which the cash from transactions is kept. The drawer typically contains a removable till. The till is usually a plastic or wooden tray divided into compartments used to store each denomination of bank notes and coins separately in order to make counting easier. The removable till allows money to be removed from the sales floor to a more secure location for counting and creating bank deposits. Some modern cash drawers are individual units separate from the rest of the cash register. A cash drawer is usually of strong construction and may be integral with the register or a separate piece that the register sits atop. It slides in and out of its lockable box and is secured by a spring-loaded catch. When a transaction that involves cash is completed, the register sends an electrical impulse to a solenoid to release the catch and open the drawer. Cash drawers that are integral to a stand-alone register often have a manual release catch underneath to open the drawer in the event of a power failure. More advanced cash drawers have eliminated the manual release in favor of a cylinder lock, requiring a key to manually open the drawer. The cylinder lock usually has several positions: locked, unlocked, online (will open if an impulse is given), and release. The release position is an intermittent position with a spring to push the cylinder back to the unlocked position. In the "locked" position, the drawer will remain latched even when an electric impulse is sent to the solenoid. Some cash drawers are designed to store notes upright & facing forward, instead of the traditional flat and front to back position. This allows more varieties of notes to be stored. Some cash drawers are flip top in design, where they flip open instead of sliding out like an ordinary drawer, resembling a cashbox instead. A cash register's drawer can only be opened by an instruction from the cash register except when using special keys, generally held by the owner and some employees (e.g. manager). This reduces the amount of contact most employees have with cash and other valuables. It also reduces risks of an employee taking money from the drawer without a record and the owner's consent, such as when a customer does not expressly ask for a receipt but still has to be given change (cash is more easily checked against recorded sales than inventory). Cash registers include a key labeled "No Sale", abbreviated "NS" on many modern electronic cash registers. Its function is to open the drawer, printing a receipt stating "No Sale" and recording in the register log that the register was opened. Some cash registers require a numeric password or physical key to be used when attempting to open the till.Management functionsAn often used non-sale function is the aforementioned "no sale". In case of needing to correct change given to the customer, or to make change from a neighboring register, this function will open the cash drawer of the register. Where non-management staff are given access, management can scrutinize the count of "no sales" in the log to look for suspicious patterns. Generally requiring a management key, besides programming prices into the register, are the report functions. An X-report will read the current sales figures from memory and produce a paper printout. A Z-report will act like an "X" report, except that counters will be reset to zero.Manual inputRegisters will typically feature a numerical pad, QWERTY or custom keyboard, touch screen interface, or a combination of these input methods for the cashier to enter products and fees by hand and access information necessary to complete the sale. For older registers as well as at restaurants and other establishments that do not sell barcoded items, the manual input may be the only method of interacting with the register. While customization was previously limited to larger chains that could afford to have physical keyboards custom-built for their needs, the customization of register inputs is now more widespread with the use of touch screens that can display a variety of point of sale software. Scanner branch in Kota Damansara, Malaysia]] Modern cash registers may be connected to a handheld or stationary barcode reader so that a customer's purchases can be more rapidly scanned than would be possible by keying numbers into the register by hand. The use of scanners should also help prevent errors that result from manually entering the product's barcode or pricing. At grocers, the register's scanner may be combined with a scale for measuring product that is sold by weight.Receipt printerCashiers are often required to provide a receipt to the customer after a purchase has been made. Registers typically use thermal printers to print receipts, although older dot matrix printers are still in use at some retailers. Alternatively, retailers can forgo issuing paper receipts in some jurisdictions by instead asking the customer for an email to which their receipt can be sent. The receipts of larger retailers tend to include unique barcodes or other information identifying the transaction so that the receipt can be scanned to facilitate returns or other customer services. Security deactivation In stores that use electronic article surveillance, a pad or other surface will be attached to the register that deactivates security devices embedded in or attached to the items being purchased. This will prevent a customer's purchase from setting off security alarms at the store's exit.Remote peripheralsIn settings like a restaurant, remote pheripherals are sometimes used to speed up processing of orders. These include printers or screens in the kitchen to show staff the incoming orders. Waiters often use mobile devices like phones or tablets connected to a central cash register to takes orders and can use small, mobile bluetooth printers to print receipts directly at the table. Self-service cash register store, Pin Oak, Houston, Texas]] Some corporations and supermarkets have introduced self-checkout machines, where the customer is trusted to scan the barcodes (or manually identify uncoded items like fruit), and place the items into a bagging area. The bag is weighed, and the machine halts the checkout when the weight of something in the bag does not match the weight in the inventory database. Normally, an employee is watching over several such checkouts to prevent theft or exploitation of the machines' weaknesses (for example, intentional misidentification of expensive produce or dry goods). Payment on these machines is accepted by debit card/credit card, or cash via coin slot and bank note scanner. Store employees are also needed to authorize "age-restricted" purchases, such as alcohol, solvents or knives, which can either be done remotely by the employee observing the self-checkout, or by means of a "store login" which the operator has to enter.Gallery See also Credit card terminal EFTPOS Point of sale Point of sale display References Category:Retail store elements Category:1884 introductions Category:American inventions Category:Cash Category:19th-century inventions	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cash_register	2025-04-05T18:28:13.256616
7595	Chronometer	Chronometer is a name for certain types of clock. It may refer to: Chronomètre of Loulié, a precursor to the metronome Chronometer watch, a highly accurate watch Marine chronometer, a timekeeper used for marine navigation, as in Longitude by chronometer Observatory chronometer, a device certified by an observatory to be extremely accurate Railroad chronometer, a specialized timepiece once used for safe operation of trains See also Chronometry, the science of timekeeping Hydrochronometer, a water clock Chronograph Chronoscope	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronometer	2025-04-05T18:28:13.265996
7597	Processor design	Processor design is a subfield of computer science and computer engineering (fabrication) that deals with creating a processor, a key component of computer hardware. The design process involves choosing an instruction set and a certain execution paradigm (e.g. VLIW or RISC) and results in a microarchitecture, which might be described in e.g. VHDL or Verilog. For microprocessor design, this description is then manufactured employing some of the various semiconductor device fabrication processes, resulting in a die which is bonded onto a chip carrier. This chip carrier is then soldered onto, or inserted into a socket on, a printed circuit board (PCB). The mode of operation of any processor is the execution of lists of instructions. Instructions typically include those to compute or manipulate data values using registers, change or retrieve values in read/write memory, perform relational tests between data values and to control program flow. Processor designs are often tested and validated on one or several FPGAs before sending the design of the processor to a foundry for semiconductor fabrication. Details Basics CPU design is divided into multiple components. Information is transferred through datapaths (such as ALUs and pipelines). These datapaths are controlled through logic by control units. Memory components include register files and caches to retain information, or certain actions. Clock circuitry maintains internal rhythms and timing through clock drivers, PLLs, and clock distribution networks. Pad transceiver circuitry with allows signals to be received and sent and a logic gate cell library which is used to implement the logic. Logic gates are the foundation for processor design as they are used to implement most of the processor's components. CPUs designed for high-performance markets might require custom (optimized or application specific (see below)) designs for each of these items to achieve frequency, power-dissipation, and chip-area goals whereas CPUs designed for lower performance markets might lessen the implementation burden by acquiring some of these items by purchasing them as intellectual property. Control logic implementation techniques (logic synthesis using CAD tools) can be used to implement datapaths, register files, and clocks. Common logic styles used in CPU design include unstructured random logic, finite-state machines, microprogramming (common from 1965 to 1985), and Programmable logic arrays (common in the 1980s, no longer common). Implementation logic Device types used to implement the logic include: Individual vacuum tubes, individual transistors and semiconductor diodes, and transistor-transistor logic small-scale integration logic chips – no longer used for CPUs Programmable array logic and programmable logic devices – no longer used for CPUs Emitter-coupled logic (ECL) gate arrays – no longer common CMOS gate arrays – no longer used for CPUs CMOS mass-produced ICs – the vast majority of CPUs by volume CMOS ASICs – only for a minority of special applications due to expense Field-programmable gate arrays (FPGA) – common for soft microprocessors, and more or less required for reconfigurable computing A CPU design project generally has these major tasks: Programmer-visible instruction set architecture, which can be implemented by a variety of microarchitectures Architectural study and performance modeling in ANSI C/C++ or SystemC High-level synthesis (HLS) or register transfer level (RTL, e.g. logic) implementation RTL verification Circuit design of speed critical components (caches, registers, ALUs) Logic synthesis or logic-gate-level design Timing analysis to confirm that all logic and circuits will run at the specified operating frequency Physical design including floorplanning, place and route of logic gates Checking that RTL, gate-level, transistor-level and physical-level representations are equivalent Checks for signal integrity, chip manufacturability Re-designing a CPU core to a smaller die area helps to shrink everything (a "photomask shrink"), resulting in the same number of transistors on a smaller die. It improves performance (smaller transistors switch faster), reduces power (smaller wires have less parasitic capacitance) and reduces cost (more CPUs fit on the same wafer of silicon). Releasing a CPU on the same size die, but with a smaller CPU core, keeps the cost about the same but allows higher levels of integration within one very-large-scale integration chip (additional cache, multiple CPUs or other components), improving performance and reducing overall system cost. As with most complex electronic designs, the logic verification effort (proving that the design does not have bugs) now dominates the project schedule of a CPU. Key CPU architectural innovations include index register, cache, virtual memory, instruction pipelining, superscalar, CISC, RISC, virtual machine, emulators, microprogram, and stack. Microarchitectural concepts Research topics A variety of new CPU design ideas have been proposed, including reconfigurable logic, clockless CPUs, computational RAM, and optical computing. Performance analysis and benchmarking Benchmarking is a way of testing CPU speed. Examples include SPECint and SPECfp, developed by Standard Performance Evaluation Corporation, and ConsumerMark developed by the Embedded Microprocessor Benchmark Consortium EEMBC. Some of the commonly used metrics include: Instructions per second - Most consumers pick a computer architecture (normally Intel IA32 architecture) to be able to run a large base of pre-existing pre-compiled software. Being relatively uninformed on computer benchmarks, some of them pick a particular CPU based on operating frequency (see Megahertz Myth). FLOPS - The number of floating point operations per second is often important in selecting computers for scientific computations. Performance per watt - System designers building parallel computers, such as Google, pick CPUs based on their speed per watt of power, because the cost of powering the CPU outweighs the cost of the CPU itself. Some system designers building parallel computers pick CPUs based on the speed per dollar. System designers building real-time computing systems want to guarantee worst-case response. That is easier to do when the CPU has low interrupt latency and when it has deterministic response. (DSP) Computer programmers who program directly in assembly language want a CPU to support a full featured instruction set. Low power - For systems with limited power sources (e.g. solar, batteries, human power). Small size or low weight - for portable embedded systems, systems for spacecraft. Environmental impact - Minimizing environmental impact of computers during manufacturing and recycling as well during use. Reducing waste, reducing hazardous materials. (see Green computing). There may be tradeoffs in optimizing some of these metrics. In particular, many design techniques that make a CPU run faster make the "performance per watt", "performance per dollar", and "deterministic response" much worse, and vice versa. Markets There are several different markets in which CPUs are used. Since each of these markets differ in their requirements for CPUs, the devices designed for one market are in most cases inappropriate for the other markets. General-purpose computing , in the general-purpose computing market, that is, desktop, laptop, and server computers commonly used in businesses and homes, the Intel IA-32 and the 64-bit version x86-64 architecture dominate the market, with its rivals PowerPC and SPARC maintaining much smaller customer bases. Yearly, hundreds of millions of IA-32 architecture CPUs are used by this market. A growing percentage of these processors are for mobile implementations such as netbooks and laptops. Since these devices are used to run countless different types of programs, these CPU designs are not specifically targeted at one type of application or one function. The demands of being able to run a wide range of programs efficiently has made these CPU designs among the more advanced technically, along with some disadvantages of being relatively costly, and having high power consumption. High-end processor economics In 1984, most high-performance CPUs required four to five years to develop. Scientific computing Scientific computing is a much smaller niche market (in revenue and units shipped). It is used in government research labs and universities. Before 1990, CPU design was often done for this market, but mass market CPUs organized into large clusters have proven to be more affordable. The main remaining area of active hardware design and research for scientific computing is for high-speed data transmission systems to connect mass market CPUs. Embedded design As measured by units shipped, most CPUs are embedded in other machinery, such as telephones, clocks, appliances, vehicles, and infrastructure. Embedded processors sell in the volume of many billions of units per year, however, mostly at much lower price points than that of the general purpose processors. These single-function devices differ from the more familiar general-purpose CPUs in several ways: Low cost is of high importance. It is important to maintain a low power dissipation as embedded devices often have a limited battery life and it is often impractical to include cooling fans. To give lower system cost, peripherals are integrated with the processor on the same silicon chip. Keeping peripherals on-chip also reduces power consumption as external GPIO ports typically require buffering so that they can source or sink the relatively high current loads that are required to maintain a strong signal outside of the chip. Many embedded applications have a limited amount of physical space for circuitry; keeping peripherals on-chip will reduce the space required for the circuit board. The program and data memories are often integrated on the same chip. When the only allowed program memory is ROM, the device is known as a microcontroller. For many embedded applications, interrupt latency will be more critical than in some general-purpose processors. Embedded processor economics The embedded CPU family with the largest number of total units shipped is the 8051, averaging nearly a billion units per year. The 8051 is widely used because it is very inexpensive. The design time is now roughly zero, because it is widely available as commercial intellectual property. It is now often embedded as a small part of a larger system on a chip. The silicon cost of an 8051 is now as low as US$0.001, because some implementations use as few as 2,200 logic gates and take 0.4730 square millimeters of silicon. As of 2009, more CPUs are produced using the ARM architecture family instruction sets than any other 32-bit instruction set. The ARM architecture and the first ARM chip were designed in about one and a half years and 5 human years of work time. The 32-bit Parallax Propeller microcontroller architecture and the first chip were designed by two people in about 10 human years of work time. The 8-bit AVR architecture and first AVR microcontroller was conceived and designed by two students at the Norwegian Institute of Technology. The 8-bit 6502 architecture and the first MOS Technology 6502 chip were designed in 13 months by a group of about 9 people. Research and educational CPU design The 32-bit Berkeley RISC I and RISC II processors were mostly designed by a series of students as part of a four quarter sequence of graduate courses. This design became the basis of the commercial SPARC processor design. For about a decade, every student taking the 6.004 class at MIT was part of a team—each team had one semester to design and build a simple 8 bit CPU out of 7400 series integrated circuits. One team of 4 students designed and built a simple 32 bit CPU during that semester. Some undergraduate courses require a team of 2 to 5 students to design, implement, and test a simple CPU in a FPGA in a single 15-week semester. The MultiTitan CPU was designed with 2.5 man years of effort, which was considered "relatively little design effort" at the time. 24 people contributed to the 3.5 year MultiTitan research project, which included designing and building a prototype CPU. Soft microprocessor cores For embedded systems, the highest performance levels are often not needed or desired due to the power consumption requirements. This allows for the use of processors which can be totally implemented by logic synthesis techniques. These synthesized processors can be implemented in a much shorter amount of time, giving quicker time-to-market. See also Amdahl's law Central processing unit Comparison of instruction set architectures Complex instruction set computer CPU cache Electronic design automation Heterogeneous computing High-level synthesis History of general-purpose CPUs Integrated circuit design Microarchitecture Microprocessor Minimal instruction set computer Moore's law Reduced instruction set computer System on a chip Network on a chip Process design kit – a set of documents created or accumulated for a semiconductor device production process Uncore References General references Processor Design: An Introduction Category:Central processing unit Category:Computer engineering Category:Design engineering	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Processor_design	2025-04-05T18:28:13.283123
7598	Carinatae	Carinatae is the group of all birds and their extinct relatives to possess a keel, or "carina", on the underside of the breastbone used to anchor large flight muscles. Definition Traditionally, Carinatae were defined as all birds whose sternum (breast bone) has a keel (carina). The keel is a strong median ridge running down the length of the sternum. This is an important area for the attachment of flight muscles. Thus, all flying birds have a pronounced keel. Ratites, all of which are flightless, lack a strong keel. Thus, living birds were divided into carinatae (keeled) and ratites (from ratis, "raft", referring to the flatness of the sternum). The difficulty with this scheme phylogenetically was that some flightless birds, without strong keels, are descended directly from ordinary flying birds possessing one. Examples include the kākāpō, a flightless parrot, and the dodo, a columbiform (the pigeon family). Neither of these birds are a ratite. Thus, this supposedly distinctive feature was easy to use, but had nothing to do with actual phylogenetic relationship. Beginning in the 1980s, Carinatae was given several phylogenetic definitions. The first was as a node-based clade uniting Ichthyornis with modern birds. }} Category:Euornithes	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carinatae	2025-04-05T18:28:13.287306
7599	Cocktail	served in a cocktail glass]] A cocktail is a mixed drink, usually alcoholic. Most commonly, a cocktail is a combination of one or more spirits mixed with other ingredients, such as juices, flavored syrups, tonic water, shrubs, and bitters. Cocktails vary widely across regions of the world, and many websites publish both original recipes and their own interpretations of older and more famous cocktails. History A well-known 'cocktail' in ancient Greece was named kykeon. It is mentioned in the Homeric texts and was used in the Eleusinian Mysteries. 'Cocktail' accessories are exposed in the Museum of the Royal Tombs of Aigai (Greece). They were used in the court of Philip II of Macedon to prepare and serve mixtures of wine, water, honey as well as extracts of aromatic herbs and flowers, during the banquets. In the United States, a written mention of 'cocktail' as a beverage appeared in The Farmers Cabinet, 1803. The first definition of a cocktail as an alcoholic beverage appeared three years later in The Balance and Columbian Repository (Hudson, New York) May 13, 1806. Traditionally, cocktail ingredients included spirits, sugar, water and bitters; By 2023, the so-called "cocktail in a can" had proliferated (at least in the United States) to become a common item in liquor stores. In the modern world and the Information Age, cocktail recipes are widely shared online on websites. Cocktails and restaurants that serve them are frequently covered and reviewed in tourism magazines and guides. Some cocktails, such as the Mojito, Manhattan, and Martini, have become staples in restaurants and pop culture. Components In general terms the most important elements consist of the base, a modifying, smoothing or aromatizing agent, and an additional special flavouring or coloring agent. The base will always be the most dominant ingredient. It constitutes at least 50% of the entire volume of the cocktail, and always consists of spirit based liquors or wine based liquors. The type of base will determine the style of liquor, thus gin based cocktails, such as the Martini, will differ from whisky based cocktails, such as the Manhattan. The modifying agent functions as a buffer for the sharp bite of the base, and adds character to its natural flavour. Modifiers can be classified into the three categories of aromatics and bitters, fruit juices (with or without sugar), and smoothing agents (such as cream, sugar or eggs). Like the modifiers, special care must be taken so that the special flavouring agent does not overpower the base. For this reason quantities are often limited to drops and dashes. When a combined drink contains only a distilled spirit and a mixer, such as soda or fruit juice, it is a highball. Many of the International Bartenders Association Official Cocktails are highballs. When a mixed drink contains only a distilled spirit and a liqueur, it is a duo, and when it adds cream or a cream-based liqueur, it is a trio. Additional ingredients may be sugar, honey, milk, cream, and various herbs. Mixed drinks without alcohol that resemble cocktails can be known as "zero-proof" or "virgin" cocktails or "mocktails". Etymology The origin of the word "cocktail" is disputed. It is presumably from "cock-tail", meaning "with tail standing up, like a cock's", in particular of a horse, but how this came to be applied to alcoholic mixed drinks is unclear. The most prominent theories are that it refers to a stimulant, hence a stimulating drink, or to a non-purebred horse, hence a mixed drink. Cocktail historian David Wondrich speculates that "cocktail" is a reference to gingering, a practice for perking up an old horse by means of a ginger suppository so that the animal would "cock its tail up and be frisky", hence by extension a stimulating drink, like pick-me-up. This agrees with usage in early citations (1798: "'cock-tail' (vulgarly called ginger)", 1803: drink at 11 a.m. to clear the head, 1806: "stimulating liquor"), and suggests that a cocktail was initially considered a medicinal drink, which accords with the use of bitters. Etymologist Anatoly Liberman endorses as "highly probable" the theory advanced by Låftman (1946), which Liberman summarizes as follows: [...] They were called cocktailed horses, later simply cocktails. By extension, the word cocktail was applied to a vulgar, ill-bred person raised above his station, assuming the position of a gentleman but deficient in gentlemanly breeding.[...] Of importance [in the 1806 citation above] is[...] the mention of water as an ingredient.[...] Låftman concluded that cocktail was an acceptable alcoholic drink, but diluted, not a "purebred", a thing "raised above its station". Hence the highly appropriate slang word used earlier about inferior horses and sham gentlemen.}} Citations The first recorded use of cocktail not referring to a horse is found in The Morning Post and Gazetteer in London, England, March 20, 1798: The Oxford English Dictionary cites the word as originating in the U.S. The first recorded use of cocktail as a beverage (possibly non-alcoholic) in the United States appears in ''The Farmer's Cabinet'', April 28, 1803: ]] The first definition of cocktail known to be an alcoholic beverage appeared in The Balance and Columbian Repository (Hudson, New York) May 13, 1806; editor Harry Croswell answered the question, "What is a cocktail?": Folk etymologies Other origins have been suggested, as corruptions of other words or phrases. These can be dismissed as folk etymologies, given the well-attested term "cock-tail" for a horse. Dale DeGroff hypothesizes that the word evolved from the French , for an eggcup in which Antoine A. Peychaud, creator of Peychaud's Bitters, allegedly used to serve his guests a mix of cognac with a dash of his bitters. Several authors have theorized that "cocktail" may be a corruption of "cock ale". Development , served in a glass of the same name.]] There is a lack of clarity on the origins of cocktails. Traditionally cocktails were a mixture of spirits, sugar, water, and bitters. By the 1860s, however, a cocktail frequently included a liqueur. for "cocktails". A key ingredient distinguishing cocktails from other drinks in this compendium was the use of bitters. Mixed drinks popular today that conform to this original meaning of "cocktail" include the Old Fashioned whiskey cocktail, the Sazerac cocktail, and the Manhattan cocktail. The ingredients listed (spirits, sugar, water, and bitters) match the ingredients of an Old Fashioned, which originated as a term used by late 19th-century bar patrons to distinguish cocktails made the "old-fashioned" way from newer, more complex cocktails. The term highball appears during the 1890s to distinguish a drink composed only of a distilled spirit and a mixer. Published in 1902 by Farrow and Jackson, "Recipes of American and Other Iced Drinks" contains recipes for nearly two dozen cocktails, some still recognizable today. The first "cocktail party" ever thrown was allegedly by Julius S. Walsh Jr. of St. Louis, Missouri, in May 1917. Walsh invited 50 guests to her home at noon on a Sunday. The party lasted an hour until lunch was served at 1p.m. The site of this first cocktail party still stands. In 1924, the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of St. Louis bought the Walsh mansion at 4510 Lindell Boulevard, and it has served as the local archbishop's residence ever since. During Prohibition in the United States (1920–1933), when alcoholic beverages were illegal, cocktails were still consumed illegally in establishments known as speakeasies. The quality of the liquor available during Prohibition was much worse than previously. There was a shift from whiskey to gin, which does not require aging and is, therefore, easier to produce illicitly. Honey, fruit juices, and other flavorings served to mask the foul taste of the inferior liquors. Sweet cocktails were easier to drink quickly, an important consideration when the establishment might be raided at any moment. With wine and beer less readily available, liquor-based cocktails took their place, even becoming the centerpiece of the new cocktail party. Cocktails became less popular in the late 1960s and through the 1970s, until resurging in the 1980s with vodka often substituting for the original gin in drinks such as the martini. Traditional cocktails began to make a comeback in the 2000s, and by the mid-2000s there was a renaissance of cocktail culture in a style typically referred to as mixology that draws on traditional cocktails for inspiration but uses novel ingredients and often complex flavors.<ref name"Mixellany"/> See also * The Museum of the American Cocktail Lists * List of beverages * List of cocktails * List of IBA official cocktails * List of national drinks References Further reading * Bibliography * Burns, Walter. "The ultimate cocktail encyclopedia". San Diego, CA: Thunder Bay Press, 2014. * Love Food Editors. "The art of mixology: Classic cocktails and curious concoctions". Bath: Parragon Books, 2015. * Polinsky, Simon. "The complete encyclopedia of cocktails: Cocktails old and new, with and without alcohol". Netherlands: Rebo International, 2003. * Regan, Mardee Haidin. "The bartender's best friend: A complete guide to cocktails, martinis, and mixed drinks". Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2003. * Thomas, Jerry. "How to mix drinks, or, The bon vivant's companion". London: Hesperus, 2012. External links *	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocktail	2025-04-05T18:28:13.307923
7601	Coptic Orthodox Church	<br />}} \| native_name_lang = cop \| image = CairoAbbasiyaMarkEntrance.jpg \| imagewidth \| alt \| caption = Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral, Cairo, Egypt \| main_classification = Oriental Orthodoxy \| orientation = Eastern Christianity \| scripture = Septuagint, New Testament, Coptic versions \| theology = Oriental Orthodox theology \| polity = Episcopal \| governance = Holy Synod of the Coptic Orthodox Church \| leader_title = Head \| leader_name = Pope Tawadros II \| area = Egypt, Libya, Sudan, Middle East, and diaspora \| language = Coptic, Greek, Arabic, Dialectal Arabic, Tamazight (minority) \| liturgy = Coptic Rite \| headquarters = Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral, Cairo, Egypt \| founder = St. Mark the Evangelist (traditional) \| founded_date = 42 A.D \| founded_place = Alexandria, Egypt \| separations = Coptic Catholic Church (1895) <br /> British Orthodox Church (2015) \| members 10 million \| other_names = Coptic Church<br />Coptic Orthodox Church \| website = https://copticorthodox.church/en }} <nowiki/>The Coptic Orthodox Church (), also known as the Coptic Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria, is an Oriental Orthodox Christian church based in Egypt. The head of the church and the See of Alexandria is the pope of Alexandria on the Holy Apostolic See of Saint Mark, who also carries the title of Father of fathers, Shepherd of shepherds, Ecumenical Judge and the 13th among the Apostles. The See of Alexandria is titular. The Coptic pope presides from Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral in the Abbassia District in Cairo. The church follows the Coptic Rite for its liturgy, prayer and devotional patrimony. Adherents of the Coptic Orthodox Church make up Egypt's largest and most significant minority population, and the largest population of Christians in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). They make up the largest share of the approximately 20 million Christians in Egypt. The Coptic Orthodox Church was established by Mark, an apostle and evangelist, during the middle of the 1st century (). Due to disputes concerning the nature of Christ, the Oriental Orthodox Churches and the Eastern Orthodox Church were in schism after the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451, resulting in a conflict with the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria. After AD 639, Egypt was ruled by its Islamic conquerors from Arabia. In the 12th century, the church relocated its seat from Alexandria to Cairo. The same century also saw the Copts become a religious minority. During the 14th and 15th centuries, Nubian Christianity was supplanted by Islam. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the larger body of ethnic Egyptian Christians began to call themselves Coptic Orthodox, to distinguish themselves from the Catholic Copts and from the Eastern Orthodox, who are mostly Greek. In 1959, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church was granted autocephaly. This was extended to the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church in 1998 following the successful Eritrean War of Independence from Ethiopia. Since the 2011 Egyptian revolution, Coptic Christians have suffered increased religious discrimination and violence. History Apostolic foundation According to tradition, the Coptic Church was founded by Mark the Evangelist , and regards itself as the subject of many prophecies in the Old Testament. However, most Copts speak Arabic, the official language of Egypt. The theological college of the catechetical school was re-established in 1893. The school became a leading center of the allegorical method of biblical interpretation, espoused a rapprochement between Greek culture and Christian faith, and attempted to assert orthodox Christian teachings against heterodox views in an era of doctrinal flux. Role and participation in the ecumenical councils Council of Nicaea In the 4th century, an Alexandrian presbyter named Arius began a theological dispute about the nature of Christ that spread throughout the Christian world and is now known as Arianism. The Council of Nicea in AD 325 was convened by Emperor Constantine I after Pope Alexander I of Alexandria requested to hold a council to respond to heresies, under the presidency of Hosius of Cordova to resolve the dispute. This eventually led to the formulation of the Symbol of Faith, also known as the Nicene Creed. Council of Constantinople In AD 381, Pope Timothy I of Alexandria presided over the second ecumenical council known as the First Council of Constantinople, to judge Macedonius, who denied the Divinity of the Holy Spirit. This council completed the Nicene Creed with this confirmation of the divinity of the Holy Spirit: <blockquote>We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the Giver of Life, who proceeds from the Father, who with the Father and the Son is worshiped and glorified who spoke by the Prophets and in One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic church. We confess one Baptism for the remission of sins and we look for the resurrection of the dead and the life of the coming age, Amen</blockquote> Council of Ephesus , Jerusalem]] Another theological dispute in the 5th century occurred over the teachings of Nestorius, the patriarch of Constantinople who taught that God the Word was not hypostatically joined with human nature, but rather dwelt in the man Jesus. As a consequence of this, he denied the title "Mother of God" (Theotokos) to the Virgin Mary, declaring her instead to be "Mother of Christ" Christotokos. The council confirmed the teachings of Athanasius and confirmed the title of Mary as "Mother of God". It also clearly stated that anyone who separated Christ into two hypostases was anathema, as Cyril had said that there is "One Nature for God the Word Incarnate" (Mia Physis tou Theou Logou Sesarkōmenē). The introduction to the creed is formulated as follows: <blockquote>We magnify you O Mother of the True Light and we glorify you O saint and Mother of God (Theotokos) for you have borne unto us the Saviour of the world. Glory to you O our Master and King: Christ, the pride of the Apostles, the crown of the martyrs, the rejoicing of the righteous, firmness of the churches and the forgiveness of sins. We proclaim the Holy Trinity in One Godhead: we worship Him, we glorify Him, Lord have mercy, Lord have mercy, Lord bless us, Amen. When, in AD 451, Emperor Marcian attempted to heal divisions in the church, the response of Pope Dioscorus–the Pope of Alexandria who was later exiled–was that the emperor should not intervene in the affairs of the church. It was at Chalcedon that the emperor, through the imperial delegates, enforced harsh disciplinary measures against Pope Dioscorus in response to his boldness. In AD 449, Pope Dioscorus headed the 2nd Council of Ephesus, called the "Robber Council" by Chalcedonian historians. It held to the Miaphysite formula which upheld the Christology of "One Incarnate Nature of God the Word" (Greek: μία φύσις Θεοῦ Λόγου σεσαρκωμένη (mia physis Theou Logou sesarkōmenē)). By anathematizing Pope Leo because of the tone and content of his tome, as per Alexandrine Theology perception, Pope Dioscorus was found guilty of doing so without due process; in other words, the Tome of Leo was not a subject of heresy in the first place, but it was a question of questioning the reasons behind not having it either acknowledged or read at the Second Council of Ephesus in AD 449. Pope Dioscorus of Alexandria was never labeled as a heretic by the council's canons. Copts also believe that the pope of Alexandria was forcibly prevented from attending the third congregation of the council from which he was ousted, apparently the result of a conspiracy tailored by the Roman delegates. Before the current positive era of Eastern and Oriental Orthodox dialogues, Chalcedonians sometimes used to call the non-Chalcedonians "Monophysites", though the Coptic Orthodox Church in reality regards Monophysitism as a heresy. The Chalcedonian doctrine in turn came to be known as "Dyophysite". A term that comes closer to Coptic Orthodoxy is Miaphysite, which refers to a conjoined nature for Christ, both human and divine, united indivisibly in the Incarnate Logos. From Chalcedon to the Arab conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of Egypt n wall painting depicting a Nubian bishop and Virgin Mary (11th century)]] The Muslim invasion of Egypt took place in AD 639. Relying on eyewitness testimony, Bishop John of Nikiu in his Chronicle provides a graphic account of the invasion from a Coptic perspective. Although the Chronicle has only been preserved in an Ethiopic (Ge'ez) text, some scholars believe that it was originally written in Coptic. John's account is critical of the invaders who he says "despoiled the Egyptians of their possessions and dealt cruelly with them", and he details the atrocities committed by the Muslims against the native population during the conquest:<blockquote>And when with great toil and exertion they had cast down the walls of the city, they forthwith made themselves masters of it, and put to the sword thousands of its inhabitants and of the soldiers, and they gained an enormous booty, and took the women and children captive and divided them amongst themselves, and they made that city a desolation.</blockquote> Though critical of the Muslim commander (Amr ibn al-As), who, during the campaign, he says "had no mercy on the Egyptians, and did not observe the covenant they had made with him, for he was of a barbaric race", he does note that following the completion of the conquest, Amr "took none of the property of the Churches, and he committed no act of spoilation or plunder, and he preserved them throughout all his days." Despite the political upheaval, the Egyptian population remained mainly Christian. However, gradual conversions to Islam over the centuries had changed Egypt from a Christian to a largely Muslim country by the end of the 12th century. Another scholar writes that a combination of "repression of Coptic revolts", Arab-Muslim immigration, and Coptic conversion to Islam resulted in the demographic decline of the Copts. Egypt's Umayyad rulers taxed Christians at a higher rate than Muslims, driving merchants towards Islam and undermining the economic base of the Coptic Church. Although the Coptic Church did not disappear, the Umayyad tax policies made it difficult for the church to retain the Egyptian elites. Under Islamic rule (640–1800) In 969, Egypt entered the Fatimid dynasty (in Egypt from 969 to 1171), who adopted a largely favorable attitude toward the Christians. The major exception to this was the persecution led by Caliph al-Hakim between 1004 and 1013, which included clothing regulations, prohibition of publicly celebrating Christian festivals, and dismissal of Christian and Jewish functionaries. However, at the end of his reign al-Hakim rescinded these measures, allowing the Copts to regain privileged positions within the administration. The Coptic patriarchal residence moved from Alexandria to Cairo during the patriarchate of Cyril II (1078–92). This move was at the demand of the grand vizier Badr al-Jamali, who insisted that the pope establish himself in the capital. In 1798, the French invaded Egypt unsuccessfully and the British helped the Turks to regain power over Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty. From the 19th century to the 1952 revolution The position of Copts began to improve early in the 19th century under the stability and tolerance of the Muhammad Ali Dynasty. The Coptic community ceased to be regarded by the state as an administrative unit. In 1855 the jizya tax was abolished by Sa'id Pasha. Shortly thereafter, the Copts started to serve in the Egyptian army. Towards the end of the 19th century, the Coptic Church underwent phases of new development. In 1853, Pope Cyril IV established the first modern Coptic schools, including the first Egyptian school for girls. He also founded a printing press, which was only the second national press in the country. The pope established very friendly relations with other denominations, to the extent that when the Greek Patriarch in Egypt had to absent himself from the country for a long period of time, he left his church under the guidance of the Coptic patriarch. In the summer of 2001, the Coptic Orthodox and Greek Orthodox patriarchates of Alexandria agreed to mutually recognize baptisms performed in each other's churches, making re-baptisms unnecessary, and to recognize the sacrament of marriage as celebrated by the other. In Tahrir Square, Cairo, on Wednesday 2 February 2011, Coptic Christians joined hands to provide a protective cordon around their Muslim neighbors during salat (prayers) in the midst of the 2011 Egyptian Revolution. Modern persecution While Copts have cited instances of persecution throughout their history, Human Rights Watch has noted growing religious intolerance and sectarian violence against Coptic Christians in recent years, and a failure by the Egyptian government to effectively investigate properly and prosecute those responsible. More than a hundred Egyptian copts were killed in sectarian clashes from 2011 to 2017, and many homes and businesses destroyed. In Minya, 77 cases of sectarian attacks on Copts between 2011 and 2016 were documented by the Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights. Coptic Christian women and girls are often abducted and disappear. In 2015, 21 men traveled to Libya to support their families. There, they would be kidnapped and beheaded by the Islamic State in Libya. Recent church reforms Under Pope Shenouda, from 1971 to 2012, the church underwent a large transformation. Writing in 2013, the theologian Samuel Tadros stated "Today's Coptic Church as an institution is built solely on his vision". For the first time in its history, the synod codified its internal laws. It also established numerous coptic institutions within and outside of Egypt. Shenouda raised the number of bishops from 26 to 117 and ordained hundreds of priests, which greatly reduced the influence of any one bishop. Shenouda also instituted a yearly meeting of the synod, which greatly expanded the number of laws governing the church. This included instituting church curriculums for the education of new priests, new deacons, and newly weds. For the first time in the Coptic Church's modern history, women could become ordained as deacons. The synod also adopted a model for community development, dramatically increasing the scope of community services provided by the church, including: hospitals, adult literacy schools, orphanages, libraries, and community centres. Much of this work was fuelled by donations from wealthy Coptic industrialists and Copts from abroad. Shenouda also held talks with the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches, in an effort to promote ecumenism . Pope Shenouda III also increased the Church's involvement in politics, seeing it as a way to advocate for the interest of Copts, during the rise of Islamism in Egypt and increase in terrorist attacks. The president of Egypt, Anwar Sadat ordered that Shenouda be put into exile in a Coptic Monastery far away from Cairo in 1981. This exile was short lived, ending when Sadat was assassinated by Muslim extremists a few months later. Under president Hosni Mubarak, Shenouda continued his political stance and often protested persecution of Copts by leaving Cairo and staying in seclusion, which often caused the regime to quickly address issues. Shenouda's political involvement drew criticism from some church members, including the prominent monk Father Matta El Meskeen. On 17 March 2012, the Coptic Orthodox Pope, Pope Shenouda III died, leaving many Copts mourning and worrying as tensions rose with Muslims. Pope Shenouda III constantly met with Muslim leaders in order to create peace. Many were worried about Muslims controlling Egypt as the Muslim Brotherhood won 70% of the parliamentary elections. Shenouda's approach to church leadership has, in part, been adopted by the current patriarch. Pope Tawadros II of Alexandria maintains relations with the Egyptian government and other churches. However, while Shenouda was critical of the expanded influence of Protestant teaching and books in Coptic churches, Tawadros has increased ecumenical dialogue with several Protestant churches. Tawadros is also not as involved political protests and does not publicly criticize the Egyptian regime, often resorting to advocacy instead. In 2020, a woman in Florida accused a former priest of sexual assault when she was a minor. She claimed that he was defrocked in 2014, but continued presenting himself as a priest. In response, the synod issued a public statement disavowing him and instituted anti-abuse measures. Several diocese in North America and Europe, issued statements in support of sexual assault survivors. On 10 May 2023, Pope Tawadros visited the Vatican to celebrate Coptic Catholic Friendship day and the 50 year anniversary of the meeting between Pope Paul VI and Pope Shenouda. Pope Francis announced that the 21 Coptic Martyrs killed by ISIS in Libya in 2015 would be added to the Catholic Roman Martyrology. Pope Tawadros gifted relics from each of the 21 martyrs to the Vatican. Fasts, feasts, liturgy and canonical hours is a breviary used in Coptic Orthodox Christianity to pray the canonical hours at seven fixed prayer times of the day, in the eastward direction. Church bells enjoin Christians to pray at these hours. Before praying, they wash their hands and face to be clean before and present their best to God; shoes are removed to acknowledge that one is offering prayer before a holy God. During each of the seven fixed prayer times, Coptic Orthodox Christians pray "prostrating three times in the name of the Trinity; at the end of each Psalm … while saying the 'Alleluia';" and 41 times for each of the Kyrie eleisons present in a canonical hour. The Coptic Orthodox Church observes days of ritual purification. However, while meat that still contains blood after cooking is discouraged from being eaten, the Coptic Church does not forbid its members from consuming any particular type of food, unlike in Islam or Judaism..]] All churches of the Coptic Orthodox Church are designed to face the eastward direction of prayer and efforts are made to remodel churches obtained from other Christian denominations that are not built in this fashion. In Coptic Orthodox Christianity, fasting is defined as going without meat or dairy. With respect to Eucharistic discipline, Coptic Orthodox Christians fast from midnight onwards (or at least nine hours) prior to receiving the sacrament of Holy Communion. Coptic Christmas, which usually falls on January 6 or 7 is a major feast. Other major feasts are Epiphany, Palm Sunday, Easter, Pentecost, Ascension, and Annunciation. These are known in the Coptic world as the Seven Major Feasts. Major feasts are always preceded by fasts. Additionally, the Coptic Orthodox Church also has Seven Minor Feasts: the Circumcision of the Lord, Entrance into the Temple, Entrance into Egypt, Transfiguration, Maundy Thursday, Thomas Sunday, and Great Lent. Furthermore, there are several indigenous feasts of the Theotokos. There are also other feasts commemorating the martyrdom of important saints from Coptic history. Demographics Available Egyptian census figures and other third-party survey reports have not reported more than 4 million Coptic Orthodox Christians in Egypt. Egyptian Copts are the biggest Christian community in the Arab world. Estimates of their numbers vary, but generally range between 4.7 and 7.1 million. The majority of them live in Egypt under the jurisdiction of the Coptic Orthodox Church. Since 2006, Egyptian censuses have not reported on religion and church leaders have alleged that Christians were under-counted in government surveys. In 2017, a government owned newspaper Al Ahram estimated the percentage of Copts at 10 to 15% and the membership claimed by the Coptic Orthodox Church is in the range of 20 to 25 million. There are also significant numbers in the diaspora outside Africa in countries such as the United States, Canada, Australia, France, and Germany. The exact number of Egyptian born Coptic Orthodox Christians in the diaspora is hard to determine and is roughly estimated to be close to 1 million. There are between 150,000 and 200,000 adherents in Sudan. Jurisdiction outside Egypt in a Coptic icon]] Besides Egypt, the Church of Alexandria has jurisdiction over all of Africa. The following autocephalous churches have strong historical ties to the Coptic Orthodox Church. Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church Tradition holds that Ethiopia was first evangelized by St. Matthew and St. Bartholomew in the 1st century ce, and the first Ethiopian convert is thought to have been the eunuch in Jerusalem mentioned in The Acts of the Apostles (8:27–40). Ethiopia was further Christianized in the 4th century ce by two men (likely brothers) from Tyre—St. Frumentius. Ever since the conversion of Ezana of Axum to Christianity by Frumentius in 325 AD, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church has received its archbishops from the Coptic Orthodox Church. Until the mid-twentieth century, the metropolitans of the Ethiopian church were ethnic Copts. Joseph II consecrated Archbishop Abuna Basilios as the first native head of the Ethiopian Church on 14 January 1951. In 1959, Pope Cyril VI of Alexandria crowned Abuna Basilios as the first Patriarch of Ethiopia. Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church Following the independence of Eritrea from Ethiopia in 1993, the newly independent Eritrean government appealed to Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria for Eritrean Orthodox autocephaly. In 1994, Pope Shenouda ordained Abune Phillipos as first Archbishop of Eritrea. Episcopal titles , the 117th Patriarch of Alexandria on the Holy Apostolic See of Saint Mark the Evangelist (1971–2012).]] Administration The Coptic Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria is governed by its Holy Synod, which is headed by the Patriarch of Alexandria. Under his authority are the metropolitan archbishops, metropolitan bishops, diocesan bishops, patriarchal exarchs, missionary bishops, auxiliary bishops, suffragan bishops, assistant bishops, chorbishops and the patriarchal vicars for the Church of Alexandria. See also * Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church * General Congregation Council List of Coptic Orthodox churches in Egypt Copts * List of Coptic saints * Coptic architecture * Institute of Coptic Studies * Coptic Orphans * Oriental Orthodox Churches Orthodox Tewahedo * Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church *** Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church * Christian influences on the Islamic world * Christianity and Islam * Christianity in Africa * Christianity in the Middle East * Arab Christians * Flight into Egypt * Zabbaleen * 2011 Alexandria bombing * Nag Hammadi massacre * Persecution of Copts References Bibliography * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Wolfgang Kosack, Novum Testamentum Coptice. Neues Testament, Bohairisch, ediert von Wolfgang Kosack. Novum Testamentum, Bohairice, curavit Wolfgang Kosack. / Wolfgang Kosack. neue Ausgabe, Christoph Brunner, Basel 2014. . * External links * * * Category:1st-century establishments in Egypt Category:Apostolic sees Category:Oriental Orthodoxy in Egypt Category:Coptic Christianity Category:Members of the World Council of Churches	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox_Church	2025-04-05T18:28:13.368025
7602	The Family International	--> \| other_names = \| language = English \| founder = David Berg \| founded_date = 1968 \| founded_place = Huntington Beach, California \| type = Christian cult \| main_classification = Christianity \| leader_title = Leader \| leader_name = Karen Zerby (1994–present) \| key_people \| website }} The Family International (TFI) is an American new religious movement founded in 1968 by David Brandt Berg. The group has gone under a number of different names since its inception, including Teens for Christ, The Children of God (COG), The Family of Love, or simply The Family. A British court case found the group was an authoritarian cult which engaged in the systematic physical and sexual abuse of children, The group has also been accused of targeting vulnerable people. Overview According to the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, "at its height" the Family movement had "tens of thousands of members, including River and Joaquin Phoenix, Rose McGowan, and Jeremy Spencer". it began a method of evangelism called Flirty Fishing that used sex to "show God's love and mercy" and win converts, resulting in controversy. TFI's founder and prophetic leader, David Berg—who adopted the name "Moses David" while in Laurentide, Canada, and was also referred to "Father David" by members After his death, his widow Karen Zerby became the leader of TFI, taking the titles of "Queen" and "Prophetess". Zerby married Steve Kelly (also known as Peter Amsterdam), an assistant of Berg's whom Berg had handpicked as her "consort". Kelly took the title of "King Peter" and became the face of TFI, speaking in public more often than either Berg or Zerby. There have been multiple allegations of child sexual abuse made by past members. Berg preached a combination of traditional Christian evangelism, with elements popular with the counterculture of the 1960s. There was much "end-of-the-world imagery" found in the Book of Revelation of the New Testament, preaching of impending doom for America and the ineffectiveness of established churches. Berg "urged a return to the early Christian community described in the Bible's Book of Acts, in which believers lived together and shared all," Berg started in 1968 as an evangelical preacher with a following of "born-again hippies" who gathered at a coffeehouse in Huntington Beach, in Orange County, California. In 1969, after having a revelation "that California would be hit by a major earthquake", he left Huntington Beach and "took his followers on the road". In a letter written in January 1972, Berg stated that he was God's prophet for the contemporary world, attempting to further solidify his spiritual authority within the group. Berg's letters also contained public acknowledgement of his own failings and weaknesses, for example, he issued a Mo Letter entitled "My confession -- I was an alcoholic!" (ML #1406 Summer 1982) relating his depression after some of his closest supporters quit in 1978. and by the mid-1970s, it had "colonies" in an estimated 70 countries. Berg reorganized the movement, dismissing "more than 300 leading members after hearing unspecified 'reports of serious misconduct and abuse of their positions." The Family of Love era was characterized by international expansion. After 1978 Flirty Fishing "increased drastically" and became common practice within the group. A Mo Letter from 1980 (ML #999 May 1980) for example was headlined "The Devil Hates Sex! --- But God Loves It!". In some areas flirty fishers used escort agencies to meet potential converts. According to TFI "over 100,000 received God's gift of salvation through Jesus, and some chose to live the life of a disciple and missionary" as a result of Flirty Fishing. The Family (1982–1994) According to the Family's official history, the group had "far fewer common standards of conduct" during The Family of Love stage than it had previously. In the late 1980s the group "tightened its standards" "to ensure that all member communities provide a very wholesome environment for all, particularly the children", and changed its name to "The Family". In January 2005, Claire Borowik, a spokesperson for TFI, stated: <blockquote> Due to the fact that our current zero-tolerance policy regarding sexual interaction between adults and underage minors was not in our literature published before 1986, we came to the realization that during a transitional stage of our movement, from 1978 until 1986, there were cases when some minors were subject to sexually inappropriate advances ... This was corrected officially in 1986, when any contact between an adult and minor (any person under 21 years of age) was declared an excommunicable offense.</blockquote> After a 1993 expose in the Los Angeles Times, the group broke "years of virtual silence" and began "inviting reporters and religious scholars" to visit its commune in La Habra, California, where at least a Washington Post journalist (Gustav Niebuhr) found its members to be "a clean-cut bunch, friendly and courteous". At that time The Family claimed to have "about 9,000 members worldwide, with about 750 scattered across the United States". The group emphasized its mainstream Christian opposition to abortion, homosexuality, drugs and drunkenness and its respect for Rev. Billy Graham. which defined the rights and responsibilities of Charter Members and Homes. The Charter also included the Fundamental Family Rules, a summary of rules and guidelines from past TF publications which were still in effect. In the 1994–95 British court case, the Rt. Hon. Lord Justice Alan Ward ruled that the group, including some of its top leaders, had in the past engaged in abusive sexual practices involving minors and had also used severe corporal punishment and sequestration of minors. He found that by 1995 TF had abandoned these practices and concluded that they were a safe environment for children. Nevertheless, he did require that the group cease all corporal punishment of children in the United Kingdom and denounce any of Berg's writings that were "responsible for children in TF having been subjected to sexually inappropriate behaviour". The Family International (2004–present) The Love Charter is The Family's set governing document that entails each member's rights, responsibilities and requirements, while the Missionary Member Statutes and Fellow Member Statutes were written for the governance of TFI's Missionary member and Fellow Member circles, respectively. FD Homes were reviewed every six months against a published set of criteria. The Love Charter increased the number of single family homes as well as homes that relied on jobs such as self-employment. Recent teachings TFI's recent teachings are based on beliefs which they term the "new [spiritual] weapons". TFI members believe that they are soldiers in the spiritual war of good versus evil for the souls and hearts of men. Spirit Helpers "Spirit Helpers" include angels, other religious and mythical figures, and departed humans, including celebrities; for example the goddess Aphrodite, the Snowman, Merlin, the Sphinx, Elvis, Marilyn Monroe, Audrey Hepburn, Richard Nixon, and Winston Churchill. The Keys of the Kingdom TFI believes that the Biblical passage "I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatsoever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatsoever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven" (Matthew 16:19), refers to an increasing amount of spiritual authority that was given to Peter and the early disciples. According to TFI beliefs, this passage refers to keys that were hidden and unused in the centuries that followed, but were again revealed through Karen Zerby as more power to pray and obtain miracles. TFI members call on the various Keys of the Kingdom for extra effect during prayer. The Keys, like most TFI beliefs, were published in magazines that looked like comic-books in order to make them teachable to children. Loving Jesus "Loving Jesus" is a term TFI members use to describe their intimate, sexual relationship with Jesus. TFI describes its "Loving Jesus" teaching as a radical form of bridal theology. They believe the church of followers is Christ's bride, called to love and serve him with wifely fervor; however, this bridal theology is taken further, encouraging members to imagine Jesus is joining them during sexual intercourse and masturbation. Male members are cautioned to visualize themselves as women, in order to avoid a homosexual relationship with Jesus. Many TFI publications, and spirit messages claimed to be from Jesus himself, elaborate this intimate, sexual relation they believe Jesus desires and needs. TFI imagines itself as his special "bride" in graphic poetry, guided visualizations, artwork, and songs. Some TFI literature is not brought into conservative countries for fear it may be classified at customs as pornography. The literature outlining this view of Jesus and his desire for a sexual relationship with believers was edited for younger teens, then further edited for children. Criticism The Family has been found liable in a British court, and also criticized by the press and the anti-cult movement. Ex-members have accused the Family's leadership of following "a policy of lying to outsiders", being "steeped in a history of sexual deviance" and even meddling "in Third World politics". The Family replies that it is a victim of "persecution". on their lives in TFI. In 1971, an organization called FREECOG was founded by concerned parents and others, including deprogrammer Ted Patrick to free members of the COG from their involvement in the group. At least one individual growing up in the family (Verity Carter) during the Children of God era described being sexually abused "from the age of four by members of the... cult, including her own father". She blames the philosophy of David Berg, who told members that "God was love and love was sex", so that sex should not be limited by age or relationship. Carter also complains of being "repeatedly beaten and whipped for the smallest of transgressions", being denied "music or television or culture", or other "contact with the outside world", so that she had "no idea how the world worked" other than how to manipulate the "systemites" (outsiders), like social workers. Author Don Lattin interviewed numerous members of the Family for his book Jesus Freaks. In a review of his book, Paul Burgarino describes Berg as "drawing from the remnants of hippie life—people with nothing to lose, nowhere to go, and no Christian background" to alert them to deviations in Berg's preaching. Raised in the COG and later left * Christopher Owens: musician, of US indie band Girls, was brought up in TFI by his parents. * Rose McGowan: film actress, described her TFI childhood in interviews with Howard Stern, People magazine, and later in her book Brave. * River Phoenix, Joaquin Phoenix, Rain Phoenix, Liberty Phoenix, and Summer Phoenix, actors, were members of the group from 1972 to 1978. River Phoenix, who died of a drug overdose in 1993, told Details magazine in November 1991 that "they're ruining people's lives." * Susan Justice: American pop rock singer-songwriter and guitarist, known best for her debut self-recorded album, The Subway Recordings. * Tina Dupuy: American journalist and syndicated columnist. * Ricky Rodriguez: subject of the suppressed manual advocating adult-child sexual contact, committed a murder-suicide in 2005, killing one of the women who raised and allegedly sexually abused him, then himself. * Juliana Buhring: first woman to bicycle around the world and co-author of Not Without My Sister along with Celeste and Kristina Jones. * Lauren Hough: author of ''Leaving Isn't the Hardest Thing'', brought up in TFI. * Flor Edwards, author, who was raised inside the group before her parents moved out. * Dawn Watson: victim of sexual abuse while living in a TFI community. raised in the group from age 12 until she left in her 20's with her two children. Bexy Cameron: British child member who left aged 15 and later wrote a book about her experiences. Faith Jones: a lawyer, was raised in the group in Macau before leaving. She wrote about her life in the book Sex Cult Nun. Autobiographical accounts * Davis, Deborah (Linda Berg) (1984). THE CHILDREN OF GOD: The Inside Story. Zondervan Books, Grand Rapids, Michigan. . Expose by the founder's eldest daughter who left the cult. * Expose by a senior member who left after 20+ years. * Young was born and raised in The Children of God cult. She's the eldest daughter of a second generation cult member who was 14 when she was impregnated by an older cult member. * Hough was born and raised in the Children of God. Her 2021 essay collection is a New York Times Bestseller. Media featuring the group * The Jesus Trip (1971): a documentary by Denis Tuohy that has interviews with Children of God members. * Children of God (1994): a 63-minute Channel 4 documentary by John Smithson; detailing the Padilla family and the abuse of their three underage daughters and the death of another. * Children of God: Lost and Found: a 75-minute documentary by Noah Thomson, featured at the 2007 Slamdance Film Festival. * Cult Killer: The Rick Rodriguez Story: a 53-minute UK documentary with a transcript. * In the first episode of ''Louis Theroux's Weird Weekends, "Born Again Christians", Louis visits a Texas TFI family. * The Parcast Podcast Cults: Episodes 11 and 12. * Citizen Rose: A five part documentary series shown on the E! Channel. The first episode premiered on January 30, 2018. The series follows actress Rose McGowan who was born into the cult. * The Last Podcast on the Left'' did a four part series on the cult: Episodes 248-251 * Dan Cummins' podcast Timesuck covered the cult in episode 104, "The Children of God Sex Cult". AJJ released a song entitled "Children of God" on their 2014 album Christmas Island. A&E's Cults and Extreme Belief, episode 3 (2018) is about the Children of God. See also * Comet Kohoutek was viewed by David Berg as a prophetic sign of imminent disaster. * Jim Palosaari co-formed the Jesus People Army, left it before the group joined the Children of God, and tried to convince Linda Meissner not to join it. * Love bombing describes a manipulative style of recruitment. * Panton Hill, Victoria is the location of one of the communes, where a large government raid occurred and many children were removed by social services. References Further reading Academic * Chancellor, James (2000). Life in The Family: An Oral History of the Children of God. University of Syracuse Press, Syracuse, NY. * Bainbridge, William Sims (2002). The Endtime Family: Children of God. State University of New York Press. . * Bainbridge, William Sims (1996). The Sociology of Religious Movements. Routledge. . * Barker, Eileen. (1989). New Religious Movements, A Practical Introduction. Her Majesty's Stationery Office. . * Barker, Eileen. (2021). [https://www.cdamm.org/articles/children-of-god "Children of God/The Family International Armageddon"] . In James Crossley and Alastair Lockhart (eds.) Critical Dictionary of Apocalyptic and Millenarian Movements. * Barrett, DV (1996). Sects, Cults and Alternative Religions. Blandford A. Cassell. . * * * * * Lewis, James R, and Melton, J. Gordon (eds). (1994). Sex, Slander, and Salvation: Investigating The Family/Children of God. Center for Academic Press, Stanford, CA. * Lynch, Dalva, and Paul Carden (1990). [http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/cri/cri-jrnl/web/crj0075a.html "Inside the 'Heavenly Elite': The Children of God Today."] . Christian Research Journal, pp 16. * McFarland, Robert (1994). [https://web.archive.org/web/20041209223047/http://www.vote.org/ramsey/cults.htm "The Children of God."] The Journal of Psychohistory 4(21). * Melton, J. Gordon (2004). [https://archive.today/20060323035923/http://www.signaturebooks.com/children.htm The Children of God, "The Family" (Studies in Contemporary Religion vol. 7)]. Signature Books. . * Melton, J. Gordon (2004). [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/701799/The-Family-International The Family International Britannica Article] * Melton, J. Gordon and Robert L. Moore (1982). The Cult Experience: Responding to the New Religious Pluralism. The Pilgrim Press, New York, USA. * Palmer, Susan J. (1994). [https://archive.today/20121228093207/http://www.thefamily.org/dossier/books/book1/chapter1.htm "Heaven's Children: The Children of God's Second Generation"] in Sex, Slander, and Salvation, op. cit. * Palmer, Susan J., and Charlotte Hardman eds. (1999). Children in New Religions (3rd ed.). Rutgers University Press. . * Shepherd, Gary, and Lawrence Lilliston (1994). [http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20020914213946/http://www.thefamily.org/dossier/books/book1/chapter5.htm "Field Observations of Young People's Experience and Role in The Family"] in Sex, Slander, and Salvation, op. cit. * Shepherd, Gary, and Shepherd, Gordon (August 2005). [http://caliber.ucpress.net/doi/abs/10.1525/nr.2005.9.1.067 "Accommodation and Reformation in The Family/Children of God"] , Nova Religio (Journal of the University of California) * Shepherd, Gary and Shepherd, Gordon (Spring 2000).[https://web.archive.org/web/20051026005804/http://www2.oakland.edu/oujournal/files/Shepherd.pdf "The Moral Career of a New Religious Movement"] The Oakland Journal. * Wilson, Bryan and Jamie Cresswell, eds. (1999). New Religious Movements: Challenge and Response. Routledge, London, UK. * Wright, Stuart (1987). Leaving Cults: The Dynamics of Defection. Society for the Scientific Study of Religion. Washington, D.C., USA. (Contains interviews with ex-members of three groups, among others the Children of God) * Van Zandt, David (1991). Living in the Children of God. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey. * Young, Shawn David, Hippies, Jesus Freaks, and Music (Ann Arbor: Xanedu/Copley Original Works, 2005). . Journalistic and popular * * Jones, Faith (2021). Sex Cult Nun. HarperCollins. . * Lattin, Don. Jesus Freaks: A True Story of Murder and Madness on the Evangelical Edge. HarperOne. . * Mahoney, Mary (2020). Abnormal Normal: My Life in the Children of God. . * McManus, Una (1980). Not for a Million Dollars. Impact Books. . * * Rivenburg, Roy (March 21, 1993). [https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1993-03-21-vw-13345-story.html "A True Conversion?"] Los Angeles Times. * * Williams, Miriam (1999). ''Heaven's Harlots: My Fifteen Years as a Sacred Prostitute in the Children of God Cult''. Quill. . External links * Category:The Family International Category:1968 establishments in California Category:Christian organizations established in 1968 Category:Jesus movement Category:Religious organizations established in 1968 Category:Christian denominations founded in the United States	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Family_International	2025-04-05T18:28:13.396330
7603	CIT	CIT or cit may refer to: Organizations Center for Information Technology, of the US government CIT Group, an American banking and financial services company Compagnia Italiana Turismo, an Italian travel agency Confederación Interamericana de Trabajadores, an inter-American trade union confederation Conflict Intelligence Team, open-source independent investigative organisation originating from Russia Educational institutions CIT School, a senior secondary boys' school in Kolkata, West Bengal, India Canadian Institute of Technology, Tirana, Albania Canberra Institute of Technology Carnegie Institute of Technology, the former name for Carnegie Mellon University Cebu Institute of Technology – University, Cebu City, Philippines Central Institute of Technology, a corporate parent of the Wellington Institute of Technology in New Zealand Changchun Institute of Technology, Jilin, China Changshu Institute of Technology, Jiangsu, China Chiba Institute of Technology, Japan Chungyu Institute of Technology, Keelung, Taiwan Coimbatore Institute of Technology, India Cork Institute of Technology, Ireland Chartered Institute of Transport, London California Institute of Technology (Caltech), Pasadena, California, United States Places Çit, Kemaliye Çit, Taşköprü, a village in Turkey Science and medicine Canine infectious tracheobronchitis or "kennel cough" β-CIT ( RTI-55), phenyltropane-based psychostimulant CIT (gene), citron kinase CIT Program Tumor Identity Cards, a programme for characterising tumours Collagen induction therapy, an aesthetic medical procedure Transport infrastructure Chislehurst railway station (National Rail station code CIT) Shymkent International Airport (IATA: CIT) Other uses Cash-in-transit, the physical transfer of banknotes, coins, credit cards and items of value Cit (consciousness), Sanskrit for consciousness or awareness; alternately spelled chit citation Closed inflatable trampoline CollegeInsider.com Postseason Tournament, in basketball Corporate Income Tax Counselor-in-Training, at a summer camp Crisis intervention training Critical incident technique Customer interaction tracker See also	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIT	2025-04-05T18:28:13.401405
7604	Code of Hammurabi	1792–1750 BC (middle chronology) \| date_presented \| date_ratified \| date_effective \| date_repeal \| location_of_document = \| commissioned \| writer King Hammurabi of Babylon \| signers \| media_type Basalt stele \| subject = Law, justice \| purpose = Debated: legislation, law report, or jurisprudence \| wikisource = Code of Hammurabi }} The Code of Hammurabi is a Babylonian legal text composed during 1755–1750 BC. It is the longest, best-organized, and best-preserved legal text from the ancient Near East. It is written in the Old Babylonian dialect of Akkadian, purportedly by Hammurabi, sixth king of the First Dynasty of Babylon. The primary copy of the text is inscribed on a basalt stele tall. The stele was rediscovered in 1901 at the site of Susa in present-day Iran, where it had been taken as plunder six hundred years after its creation. The text itself was copied and studied by Mesopotamian scribes for over a millennium. The stele now resides in the Louvre Museum. The top of the stele features an image in relief of Hammurabi with Shamash, the Babylonian sun god and god of justice. Below the relief are about 4,130 lines of cuneiform text: one fifth contains a prologue and epilogue in poetic style, while the remaining four fifths contain what are generally called the laws. In the prologue, Hammurabi claims to have been granted his rule by the gods "to prevent the strong from oppressing the weak". The laws are casuistic, expressed as "if... then" conditional sentences. Their scope is broad, including, for example, criminal law, family law, property law, and commercial law. Modern scholars responded to the Code with admiration at its perceived fairness and respect for the rule of law, and at the complexity of Old Babylonian society. There was also much discussion of its influence on the Mosaic Law. Scholars quickly identified —the "eye for an eye" principle—underlying the two collections. Debate among Assyriologists has since centred around several aspects of the Code: its purpose, its underlying principles, its language, and its relation to earlier and later law collections. Despite the uncertainty surrounding these issues, Hammurabi is regarded outside Assyriology as an important figure in the history of law and the document as a true legal code. The U.S. Capitol has a relief portrait of Hammurabi alongside those of other historic lawgivers. There are replicas of the stele in numerous institutions, including the headquarters of the United Nations in New York City and the Pergamon Museum in Berlin. Background Hammurabi ian territory before (red) and after (orange) Hammurabi's reign]] Hammurabi (or Hammurapi), the sixth king of the Amorite First Dynasty of Babylon, ruled from 1792 to 1750 BC (middle chronology). He secured Babylonian dominance over the Mesopotamian plain through military prowess, diplomacy, and treachery. When Hammurabi inherited his father Sin-Muballit's throne, Babylon held little local sway; the local hegemon was Rim-Sin of Larsa. Hammurabi waited until Rim-Sin grew old, then conquered his territory in one swift campaign, leaving his organisation intact. Later, Hammurabi betrayed allies in Eshnunna, Elam, and Mari to gain their territories. Hammurabi had an aggressive foreign policy, but his letters suggest he was concerned with the welfare of his many subjects and was interested in law and justice. He commissioned extensive construction works, and in his letters, he frequently presents himself as his people's shepherd. Justice is also a theme of the prologue to the Code, and "the word translated 'justice' []... is one whose root runs through both prologue and epilogue". Earlier law collections Although Hammurabi's Code was the first Mesopotamian law collection to be discovered, it was not the first written; several earlier collections survive. These collections were written in Sumerian and Akkadian. They also purport to have been written by rulers. There were almost certainly more such collections, as statements of other rulers suggest the custom was widespread. The similarities between these law collections make it tempting to assume a consistent underlying legal system. As with the Code of Hammurabi, however, it is difficult to interpret the purpose and underlying legal systems of these earlier collections, prompting numerous scholars to question whether this should be attempted. Extant collections include: * The Code of Ur-Nammu of Ur. * The Code of Lipit-Ishtar of Isin. * The Laws of Eshnunna (written by Bilalama or by Dadusha). * The "Laws of X," which, rather than a distinct collection, may be the end of the Code of Ur-Nammu. There are additionally thousands of documents from the practice of law, from before and during the Old Babylonian period. These documents include contracts, judicial rulings, letters on legal cases, and reform documents such as that of Urukagina, king of Lagash in the mid-3rd millennium BC, whose reforms combatted corruption. Mesopotamia has the most comprehensive surviving legal corpus from before the Digest of Justinian, even compared to those from ancient Greece and Rome.CopiesLouvre stele The first copy of the text found, and still the most complete, is on a stele. The stele is now displayed on the ground floor of the Louvre, in Room 227 of the Richelieu wing. At the top is an image of Hammurabi with Shamash, the Babylonian sun god and god of justice. Below the image are about 4,130 lines of cuneiform text: One-fifth contains a prologue and epilogue, while the remaining four-fifths contain what are generally called the laws. Near the bottom, seven columns of the laws, each with more than eighty lines, were polished and erased in antiquity. The stele was found in three large fragments and reconstructed. It is high, with a circumference is at the summit and at the base. Hammurabi's image is high and wide. The Louvre stele was found at the site of the ancient Elamite city of Susa. Susa is in modern-day Khuzestan Province, Iran (Persia at the time of excavation). The stele was excavated by the French Archaeological Mission under the direction of Jacques de Morgan. Father Jean-Vincent Scheil published the initial report in the fourth volume of the Reports of the Delegation to Persia (). According to Scheil, the stele's fragments were found on the tell of the Susa acropolis (), between December 1901 and January 1902. The few, large fragments made assembly easy. Scheil hypothesised that the stele had been taken to Susa by the Elamite king Shutruk-Nakhunte and that he had commissioned the erasure of several columns of laws to write his legend there. It has been proposed that the relief portion of the stele, especially the beards of Hammurabi and Shamash, was reworked at the same time. Roth suggests the stele was taken as plunder from Sippar, where Hammurabi lived towards the end of his reign.Other copiesFragments of a second and possibly third stele recording the Code were found along with the Louvre stele at Susa. Over fifty manuscripts containing the laws are known. They were found not only in Susa but also in Babylon, Nineveh, Assur, Borsippa, Nippur, Sippar, Ur, Larsa, and more. Copies were created during Hammurabi's reign, and also after it, since the text became a part of the scribal curriculum. Copies have been found dating from one thousand years after the stele's creation, and a catalog from the library of Neo-Assyrian king Ashurbanipal (685–631 BC) lists a copy of the "judgments of Hammurabi". The additional copies fill in most of the stele's original text, including much of the erased section.Early scholarship , first modern editor of the Code]] The of the Code was published by Father Jean-Vincent Scheil in 1902, in the fourth volume of the Reports of the Delegation to Persia (). After a brief introduction with details of the excavation, Scheil gave a transliteration and a free translation into French, as well as a selection of images. Editions in other languages soon followed: in German by Hugo Winckler in 1902, in English by C. H. W. Johns in 1903, and in Italian by Pietro Bonfante, also in 1903. The Code was thought to be the earliest Mesopotamian law collection when it was rediscovered in 1902—for example, C. H. W. Johns' 1903 book was titled The Oldest Code of Laws in the World. The English writer H. G. Wells included Hammurabi in the first volume of The Outline of History, and to Wells too the Code was "the earliest known code of law". However, three earlier collections were rediscovered afterwards: the Code of Lipit-Ishtar in 1947, the Laws of Eshnunna in 1948, and the Code of Ur-Nammu in 1952. Early commentators dated Hammurabi and the stele to the 23rd century BC. However, this is an earlier estimate than even the "ultra-long chronology" would support. The Code was compiled near the end of Hammurabi's reign. This was deduced partly from the list of his achievements in the prologue. Scheil enthused about the stele's importance and perceived fairness, calling it "a moral and political masterpiece". C. H. W. Johns called it "one of the most important monuments in the history of the human race". He remarked that "there are many humanitarian clauses and much protection is given the weak and the helpless", and even lauded a "wonderful modernity of spirit". John Dyneley Prince called the Code's rediscovery "the most important event which has taken place in the development of Assyriological science since the days of Rawlinson and Layard". Charles Francis Horne commended the "wise law-giver" and his "celebrated code". James Henry Breasted noted the Code's "justice to the widow, the orphan, and the poor", but remarked that it "also allows many of the old and naïve ideas of justice to stand". Commentators praised the advanced society they believed the Code evinced. Several singled out perceived secularism: Owen Jenkins, for example, but even Charles Souvay for the Catholic Encyclopedia, who opined that unlike the Mosaic Law the Code was "founded upon the dictates of reason". The question of the Code's influence on the Mosaic Law received much early attention. Scholars also identified Hammurabi with the Biblical figure Amraphel, but this proposal has since been abandoned. Frame Relief on the Louvre stele]] The relief appears to show Hammurabi standing before a seated Shamash. Shamash wears the horned crown of divinity and has a solar attribute, flames, spouting from his shoulders. Contrastingly, Scheil, in his , identified the seated figure as Hammurabi and the standing figure as Shamash. Scheil also held that the scene showed Shamash dictating to Hammurabi while Hammurabi held a scribe's stylus, gazing attentively at the god. Martha Roth lists other interpretations: "that the king is offering the laws to the god; that the king is accepting or offering the emblems of sovereignty of the rod and ring; or—most probably—that these emblems are the measuring tools of the rod-measure and rope-measure used in temple-building". Hammurabi may even be imitating Shamash. It is certain, though, that the draughtsman showed Hammurabi's close links to the divine realm, using composition and iconography.PrologueThe prologue and epilogue together occupy one-fifth of the text. Out of around 4,130 lines, the prologue occupies 300 lines and the epilogue occupies 500. They are in ring composition around the laws, though there is no visual break distinguishing them from the laws. Both are written in poetic style, and, as William W. Davies wrote, "contain much... which sounds very like braggadocio". The 300-line prologue begins with an etiology of Hammurabi's royal authority (1–49). Anum, the Babylonian sky god and king of the gods, granted rulership over humanity to Marduk. Marduk chose the centre of his earthly power to be Babylon, which in the real world worshipped him as its tutelary god. Marduk established the office of kingship within Babylon. Finally, Anum, along with the Babylonian wind god Enlil, chose Hammurabi to be Babylon's king. Hammurabi was to rule "to prevent the strong from oppressing the weak" (37–39: ). He was to rise like Shamash over the Mesopotamians (the , literally the "black-headed people") and illuminate the land (40–44). Hammurabi then lists his achievements and virtues (50–291). These are expressed in noun form, in the Akkadian first person singular nominal sentence construction "[noun]... " ("I am [noun]"). The first nominal sentence (50–53) is short: "I am Hammurabi, the shepherd, selected by the god Enlil" (). Then Hammurabi continues for over 200 lines in a single nominal sentence with the delayed to the very end (291). In the Digesta seu Pandectae (533), the second volume of the codification of laws ordered by Justinian I (527–565) of the Eastern Roman Empire, a legal opinion written by the Roman jurist Paulus at the beginning of the Crisis of the Third Century in 235 AD was included about the Lex Rhodia ("Rhodian law") that articulates the general average principle of marine insurance established on the island of Rhodes in approximately 1000 to 800 BC as a member of the Doric Hexapolis, plausibly by the Phoenicians during the proposed Dorian invasion and emergence of the purported Sea Peoples during the Greek Dark Ages (c. 1100 – c. 750) that led to the proliferation of the Doric Greek dialect. The law of general average constitutes the fundamental principle that underlies all insurance.<ref name"Prudential pp. 5–6" /> Reception outside Assyriology , by Thomas Hudson Jones]] The Code is often referred to in legal scholarship, where its provisions are assumed to be laws, and the document is assumed to be a true code of laws. This is also true outside academia. There is a relief portrait of Hammurabi over the doors to the House Chamber of the U.S. Capitol, along with portraits of 22 others "noted for their work in establishing the principles that underlie American law". There are replicas of the Louvre stele in institutions around the world, including the Headquarters of the United Nations in New York City and the Peace Palace in The Hague (seat of the International Court of Justice).Medico-legal legacy and political implications Hammurabi's Code is notable for its comprehensive approach to law, covering subjects from criminal acts to medical practices. The Code includes specific rules that regulate medical treatments, set surgery fees, and punish malpractice. For instance, if a physician caused the death of a noble during surgery, they would be severely punished, sometimes having their hand cut off. This harshness portrays how seriously medical responsibility was taken even in ancient times. From a political science perspective, Hammurabi's Code is valuable and fundamental because it demonstrates how law was used to reinforce social hierarchies and maintain control. writes that the Code's laws were applied differently depending on a person's social class, so nobles received greater protection than commoners and enslaved people. This legal stratification reflects the power dynamic of Babylonian society and shows how law was used not just to govern but also to preserve the social order. Finally, the Hammurabi's Code could be considered impressive by its power (despite its modern irrelevancy) and severity. The harsh punishments may seem extreme by modern standards, but they were likely necessary to maintain order in a society where survival depended on strict adherence to rules. At the same time, Hammurabi's Code represents a significant step forward in the development of law, medicine and the medico-legal system. By codifying laws and making them public, Hammurabi established a system that would influence generations so that the principles of justice, fairness, and accountability that underpin the Code continue to resonate today. See also * History of institutions in Mesopotamia References Notes Citations SourcesBooks and journals * * * * * \|volume \|date1903 \|publisherSocietà Editrice Libraria \|locationMilan, Italy \|oclc458622280}} * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * \|pages \|access-date18 February 2021 \|archive-date28 October 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211028235715/https://www.academia.edu/4476875 \|url-statuslive}} * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * \|journalDie Welt Als Geschichte \|volume2 \|issue\|pages411–505, 509–557}} * * * * * * * * * Web * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * External links * [https://cdli.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/artifacts/464358 CDLI's transliteration, normalisation, and translation] * [https://archive.org/stream/mmoires04franuoft#page/n6/mode/1up Scheil's ] (in French) * [http://www.general-intelligence.com/library/hr.pdf King's translation] * [https://www.gutenberg.org/files/17150/17150-h/17150-h.htm Johns' translation] * [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Code_of_Hammurabi_(Harper_translation) Harper's translation (Wikisource)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20201205050436/http://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/law-code-hammurabi-king-babylon The Louvre's page] Category:First Babylonian Empire Category:Legal codes Category:Jurisprudence Category:Legal history Category:Comparative law Category:Ancient Near East law Category:Ancient Near East steles Category:18th-century BC steles Category:Akkadian inscriptions Category:Akkadian literature Category:Babylonia Category:Babylon Category:Susa Category:1901 archaeological discoveries Category:1901 in Iran Category:Archaeological discoveries in Iran Category:Near Eastern and Middle Eastern antiquities in the Louvre Category:Hammurabi	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_of_Hammurabi	2025-04-05T18:28:13.467692
7605	Rum and Coke	Rum and Coke, or the Cuba libre ( , ; literally "Free Cuba"), is a highball cocktail consisting of cola, rum, and in many recipes lime juice on ice. Traditionally, the cola ingredient is Coca-Cola ("Coke") and the alcohol is a light rum such as Bacardi; however, the drink may be made with various types of rums and cola brands, and lime juice may or may not be included. The cocktail originated in the early 20th century in Cuba, after the country won independence in the Spanish–American War. It subsequently became popular across Cuba, the United States, and other countries. Its simple recipe and inexpensive, ubiquitous ingredients have made it one of the world's most-popular alcoholic drinks. Drink critics often consider the drink mediocre, but it has been noted for its historical significance. History The drink was created in Cuba in the early 1900s, but its exact origins are not certain. It became popular shortly after 1900, when bottled Coca-Cola was first imported into Cuba from the United States. Its origin is associated with the heavy U.S. presence in Cuba following the Spanish–American War of 1898; the drink's traditional name, "Cuba libre" (Free Cuba), was the slogan of the Cuban independence movement. The Cuba libre is sometimes said to have been created during the Spanish–American War. However, this predates the first distribution of Coca-Cola to Cuba in 1900. A drink called a "Cuba libre" was indeed known in 1898, but this was a mix of water and brown sugar. Fausto Rodriguez, a Bacardi advertising executive, claimed to have been present when the drink was first poured, and produced a notarized affidavit to that effect in 1965. According to Rodriguez, this took place in August 1900, when he was a 14-year-old messenger working for a member of the U.S. Army Signal Corps in Havana. One day at a local bar, Rodriguez's employer ordered Bacardi rum mixed with Coca-Cola. This intrigued a nearby group of American soldiers, who ordered a round for themselves, giving birth to a popular new drink. Bacardi published Rodriguez's affidavit in a Life magazine ad in 1966. However, Rodriguez's status as a Bacardi executive has led some commentators to doubt the veracity of his story. Another story states that the drink was first created in 1902 at Havana's El Floridita restaurant to celebrate the anniversary of Cuban independence. The drink became a staple in Cuba, catching on due to the pervasiveness of its ingredients. Havana was already known for its iced drinks in the 19th century, as it was one of the few warm-weather cities that had abundant stores of ice shipped down from colder regions. Bacardi and other Cuban rums also boomed after independence brought in large numbers of foreign tourists and investors, as well as new opportunities for exporting alcohol. Light rums such as Bacardi became favored for cocktails as they were considered to mix well. Coca-Cola had been a common mixer in the United States ever since it was first bottled in 1886, and it became a ubiquitous drink in many countries after it was first exported in 1900. Rum and Coke quickly spread from Cuba to the United States. In the early 20th century the cocktail, like Coca-Cola itself, was most popular in the Southern United States. During the Prohibition era from 1922 to 1933, Coca-Cola became a favored mixer for disguising the taste of low-quality rums, as well as other liquors. In 1921 H. L. Mencken jokingly wrote of a South Carolina variant called the "jump stiddy", which consisted of Coca-Cola mixed with denatured alcohol drained from automobile radiators. After Prohibition, rum and Coke became prevalent in the northern and western U.S. as well, and in both high-brow and low-brow circles. Rum and Coke achieved a new level of popularity during World War II. Starting in 1940, the United States established a series of outposts in the British West Indies to defend against the German Navy. The American presence created cross-cultural demand, with American servicemen and the locals developing tastes for each other's products. In particular, American military personnel took to Caribbean rum due to its inexpensiveness, while Coca-Cola became especially prevalent in the islands thanks to the company shipping it out with the military. Within the United States, imported rum became increasingly popular, as government quotas for industrial alcohol reduced the output of American distillers of domestic liquors. In 1943, Lord Invader's Calypso song "Rum and Coca-Cola" drew further attention to the drink in Trinidad. The song was an adaptation of Lionel Belasco's 1904 composition "L'Année Passée" with new lyrics about American soldiers in Trinidad cavorting with local girls and drinking rum and Coke. Comedian Morey Amsterdam plagiarized "Rum and Coca-Cola" and licensed it to the Andrews Sisters as his own work. The Andrews Sisters' version was a major hit in 1945 and further boosted the popularity of rum and Coke, especially in the military. Lord Invader and the owners of Belasco's composition successfully sued Amsterdam for the song's rights. During the Cuban Revolution in 1959, Bacardi fled to Puerto Rico. The following year, the U.S. placed an embargo against Cuba, which made Cuban-made rum unavailable in the U.S. and Coca-Cola largely unavailable in Cuba. As such, it became difficult to make a rum and Coke with its traditional ingredients in either country. Popularity and reception thumb\|right\|A Cuba libre with Coca-Cola and lime The rum and Coke is very popular; Bacardi says that it is the world's second-most-popular alcoholic drink. Its popularity derives from the ubiquity and low cost of the main ingredients, and the fact that it is very easy to make. As it can be made with any quantity or style of rum, it is simple to prepare and difficult to ruin. Drink critics often have a low opinion of the cocktail. Writer Wayne Curtis called it "a drink of inspired blandness", while Jason Wilson of The Washington Post called it "a lazy person's drink". However, any amount and proportion of rum and cola may be used. Additionally, while light rum is traditional, dark rums and other varieties are also common. Coca-Cola is the conventional cola in the drink, to the point that customers rarely order anything else. This dates back to the origin of the drink in Cuba and was solidified in the 1920s when Coca-Cola emerged as the primary cola brand following the bankruptcy of Pepsi and Chero-Cola, and therefore the preferred cola mixer in alcoholic drinks. Pepsi's later attempts to enter the cocktail market were unsuccessful, especially after the song "Rum and Coca-Cola" solidified the association in the public imagination. Nonetheless, different colas are sometimes used. In Cuba, as Coca-Cola has not been imported since the U.S. embargo of 1960, the domestic TuKola is used in Cuba libres. Other common variants call for Mexican Coke (which uses cane sugar instead of high-fructose corn syrup), Moxie, Diet Coke (the Cuba Lite or rum and Diet) and Dr. Pepper (the Captain and Pepper, featuring Captain Morgan spiced rum). Some modern recipes inspired by older ones include additional ingredients such as bitters. More elaborate variants with further ingredients include the cinema highball, which uses rum infused with buttered popcorn and mixed with cola. Another is the Mandeville cocktail, which includes light and dark rum, cola, and citrus juice along with Pernod absinthe and grenadine. See also Piscola, a similarly constructed cocktail made of pisco and cola Whiskey and Coke Notes References External links Category:Coca-Cola Category:Cuban cocktails Category:Caribbean drinks Category:Bacardi Category:Cocktails with cola Category:Cocktails with light rum Category:Cuban inventions Category:Three-ingredient cocktails Category:Caffeinated alcoholic drinks	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rum_and_Coke	2025-04-05T18:28:13.484994
7607	Collagen helix	, , }} image of collagen fibres.]] In molecular biology, the collagen triple helix or type-2 helix is the main secondary structure of various types of fibrous collagen, including type I collagen. In 1954, Ramachandran & Kartha (13, 14) advanced a structure for the collagen triple helix on the basis of fiber diffraction data. It consists of a triple helix made of the repetitious amino acid sequence glycine-X-Y, where X and Y are frequently proline or hydroxyproline. Collagen folded into a triple helix is known as tropocollagen. Collagen triple helices are often bundled into fibrils which themselves form larger fibres, as in tendons. Structure Glycine, proline, and hydroxyproline must be in their designated positions with the correct configuration. For example, hydroxyproline in the Y position increases the thermal stability of the triple helix, but not when it is located in the X position. The thermal stabilization is also hindered when the hydroxyl group has the wrong configuration. Due to the high abundance of glycine and proline contents, collagen fails to form a regular α-helix and β-sheet structure. Three left-handed helical strands twist to form a right-handed triple helix. A collagen triple helix has 3.3 residues per turn. Each of the three chains is stabilized by the steric repulsion due to the pyrrolidine rings of proline and hydroxyproline residues. The pyrrolidine rings keep out of each other's way when the polypeptide chain assumes this extended helical form, which is much more open than the tightly coiled form of the alpha helix. The three chains are hydrogen bonded to each other. The hydrogen bond donors are the peptide NH groups of glycine residues. The hydrogen bond acceptors are the CO groups of residues on the other chains. The OH group of hydroxyproline does not participate in hydrogen bonding but stabilises the trans isomer of proline by stereoelectronic effects, therefore stabilizing the entire triple helix. The rise of the collagen helix (superhelix) is 2.9 Å (0.29 nm) per residue. The center of the collagen triple helix is very small and hydrophobic, and every third residue of the helix must have contact with the center. Due to the very tiny and tight space at the center, only the small hydrogen of the glycine side chain is capable of interacting with the center.<ref name"BB" /> This contact is impossible even when a slightly bigger amino acid residue is present other than glycine.References Category:Protein structural motifs Category:Helices Category:Protein folds	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collagen_helix	2025-04-05T18:28:13.490268
7609	Cosmic censorship hypothesis	The weak and the strong cosmic censorship hypotheses are two mathematical conjectures about the structure of gravitational singularities arising in general relativity. Singularities that arise in the solutions of Einstein's equations are typically hidden within event horizons, and therefore cannot be observed from the rest of spacetime. Singularities that are not so hidden are called naked. The weak cosmic censorship hypothesis was conceived by Roger Penrose in 1969 and posits that no naked singularities exist in the universe. Basics Since the physical behavior of singularities is unknown, if singularities can be observed from the rest of spacetime, causality may break down, and physics may lose its predictive power. The issue cannot be avoided, since according to the Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems, singularities are inevitable in physically reasonable situations. Still, in the absence of naked singularities, the universe, as described by the general theory of relativity, is deterministic: it is possible to predict the entire evolution of the universe (possibly excluding some finite regions of space hidden inside event horizons of singularities), knowing only its condition at a certain moment of time (more precisely, everywhere on a spacelike three-dimensional hypersurface, called the Cauchy surface). Failure of the cosmic censorship hypothesis leads to the failure of determinism, because it is yet impossible to predict the behavior of spacetime in the causal future of a singularity. Cosmic censorship is not merely a problem of formal interest; some form of it is assumed whenever black hole event horizons are mentioned. The hypothesis was first formulated by Roger Penrose in 1969, and it is not stated in a completely formal way. In a sense it is more of a research program proposal: part of the research is to find a proper formal statement that is physically reasonable, falsifiable, and sufficiently general to be interesting. Because the statement is not a strictly formal one, there is sufficient latitude for (at least) two independent formulations: a weak form, and a strong form. Weak and strong cosmic censorship hypothesis The weak and the strong cosmic censorship hypotheses are two conjectures concerned with the global geometry of spacetimes. The weak cosmic censorship hypothesis asserts there can be no singularity visible from future null infinity. In other words, singularities need to be hidden from an observer at infinity by the event horizon of a black hole. Mathematically, the conjecture states that, for generic initial data, the causal structure is such that the maximal Cauchy development possesses a complete future null infinity. The strong cosmic censorship hypothesis asserts that, generically, general relativity is a deterministic theory, in the same sense that classical mechanics is a deterministic theory. In other words, the classical fate of all observers should be predictable from the initial data. Mathematically, the conjecture states that the maximal Cauchy development of generic compact or asymptotically flat initial data is locally inextendible as a regular Lorentzian manifold. Taken in its strongest sense, the conjecture suggests locally inextendibility of the maximal Cauchy development as a continuous Lorentzian manifold [very Strong Cosmic Censorship]. This strongest version was disproven in 2018 by Mihalis Dafermos and Jonathan Luk for the Cauchy horizon of an uncharged, rotating black hole. The two conjectures are mathematically independent, as there exist spacetimes for which weak cosmic censorship is valid but strong cosmic censorship is violated and, conversely, there exist spacetimes for which weak cosmic censorship is violated but strong cosmic censorship is valid. Example The Kerr metric, corresponding to a black hole of mass <math>M</math> and angular momentum <math>J</math>, can be used to derive the effective potential for particle orbits restricted to the equator (as defined by rotation). This potential looks like: <math display"block"> V_{\rm{eff}}(r,e,\ell)-\frac{M}{r}+\frac{\ell^2-a^2(e^2-1)}{2r^2}-\frac{M(\ell-a e)^2}{r^3},~~~ a\equiv \frac{J}{M} </math> where <math>r</math> is the coordinate radius, <math>e</math> and <math>\ell</math> are the test-particle's conserved energy and angular momentum respectively (constructed from the Killing vectors). To preserve cosmic censorship, the black hole is restricted to the case of <math>a < 1</math>. For there to exist an event horizon around the singularity, the requirement <math>a < 1</math> must be satisfied. Counter-example An exact solution to the scalar-Einstein equations <math>R_{ab}2\phi_a\phi_b</math> which forms a counterexample to many formulations of the cosmic censorship hypothesis was found by Mark D. Roberts in 1985: <math display"block">ds^2-(1+2\sigma)\,dv^2+2\,dv\,dr+r(r-2\sigma v)\left(d\theta^2 + \sin^2 \theta \,d\phi^2\right),\quad \varphi = \frac{1}{2} \ln\left(1 - \frac{2\sigma v}{r}\right),</math> where <math>\sigma</math> is a constant. See also Black hole information paradox Chronology protection conjecture Firewall (physics) Fuzzball (string theory) Thorne–Hawking–Preskill bet References Further reading * * * External links [https://web.archive.org/web/20051217081439/http://www.theory.caltech.edu/people/preskill/old_naked_bet.html The old bet] (conceded in 1997) *[https://web.archive.org/web/20040606135525/http://www.theory.caltech.edu/people/preskill/new_naked_bet.html The new bet] Category:Black holes Category:General relativity Category:Roger Penrose	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_censorship_hypothesis	2025-04-05T18:28:13.498644
7610	Catholic (term)	Ignatius of Antioch in his Letter to the Smyrnaeans (circa 110 AD). Ignatius of Antioch is also attributed the earliest recorded use of the term "Christianity" () in 100 AD He died in Rome, with his relics located in the Basilica of San Clemente al Laterano.]] The word catholic (derived via Late Latin , from the ancient Greek adjective () ) comes from the Greek phrase () , and is a combination of the Greek words () and () . The first known use of "Catholic" was by the church father Ignatius of Antioch in his Letter to the Smyrnaeans (circa 110 AD). In the context of Christian ecclesiology, it has a rich history and several usages. <!-- ↓switched order↑ --> The word in English can mean either "of the Catholic faith" or "relating to the historic doctrine and practice of the Western Church". "Catholicos", the title used for the head of some churches in Eastern Christian traditions, is derived from the same linguistic origin. In non-ecclesiastical use, it derives its English meaning directly from its root, and is currently used to mean the following: * including a wide variety of things, or all-embracing; * universal or of general interest; * having broad interests, or wide sympathies; * inclusive, inviting. The term has been incorporated into the name of the largest Christian communion, the Roman Catholic Church. All of the three main branches of Christianity in the East – Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodox Church and Church of the East – had always identified themselves as Catholic in accordance with apostolic traditions and the Nicene Creed. Lutherans, Reformed, Anglicans and Methodists also believe that their churches are "Catholic" in the sense that they too are in continuity with the original universal church founded by the Apostles. However, each church defines the scope of the "Catholic Church" differently. The Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox churches, and Church of the East, all maintain that their own denomination is identical with the original universal church, from which all other denominations broke away. An early definition for what is "catholic" was summarized in what is known as the Vincentian Canon in the 5th century Commonitory: "what has been believed everywhere, always, and by all." Distinguishing beliefs of Catholicity, the beliefs of most Christians who call themselves "Catholic", include the episcopal polity, that bishops are considered the highest order of ministers within the Christian religion, found in the line of the Nicene Creed: "I believe in one holy catholic and apostolic Church." During the medieval and modern times, additional distinctions arose regarding the use of the terms Western Catholic and Eastern Catholic. Before the East–West Schism of 1054, those terms had just the basic geographical meanings, since only one undivided Catholicity existed, uniting the Latin-speaking Christians of West and the Greek-speaking Christians of the East. After the Schism, terminology became much more complicated, resulting in the creation of parallel and conflicting terminological systems.Etymology The Greek adjective katholikos, the origin of the term catholic, means 'universal'. Directly from the Greek, or via Late Latin catholicus, the term catholic entered many other languages, becoming the base for the creation of various theological terms such as catholicism and catholicity (Late Latin catholicismus, catholicitas). The term catholicism is the English form of Late Latin catholicismus, an abstract noun based on the adjective catholic. The Modern Greek equivalent is back-formed and usually refers to the Catholic Church.<!--did the people citing "καθολικισμός" even check a dictionary?--> The terms catholic, catholicism, and catholicity are closely related to the use of the term Catholic Church. (See Catholic Church (disambiguation) for more uses.) The earliest evidence of the use of that term is the Letter to the Smyrnaeans that Ignatius of Antioch wrote in about 107 to Christians in Smyrna. Exhorting Christians to remain closely united with their bishop, he wrote: "Wherever the bishop shall appear, there let the multitude [of the people] also be; even as, wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the Catholic Church." From the second half of the second century, the word "catholic" began to be used to mean "orthodox" (non-heretical), "because Catholics claimed to teach the whole truth, and to represent the whole Church, while heresy arose out of the exaggeration of some one truth and was essentially partial and local". In 380, Emperor Theodosius I limited use of the term "Catholic Christian" exclusively to those who followed the same faith as Pope Damasus I of Rome and Pope Peter of Alexandria. Numerous other early writers including Cyril of Jerusalem (c. 315–386), Augustine of Hippo (354–430) further developed the use of the term "catholic" in relation to Christianity. The 5th century Vincentian Canon, published in Commonitory, defined "catholic" as "what has been believed everywhere, always, and by all."}} Of the meaning for Ignatius of this phrase J.H. Srawley wrote: <blockquote>This is the earliest occurrence in Christian literature of the phrase 'the Catholic Church' (ἡ καθολικὴ ἐκκλησία). The original sense of the word is 'universal'. Thus Justin Martyr (Dial. 82) speaks of the 'universal or general resurrection', using the words ἡ καθολικὴ ἀνάστασις. Similarly here the Church universal is contrasted with the particular Church of Smyrna. Ignatius means by the Catholic Church 'the aggregate of all the Christian congregations' (Swete, Apostles Creed, p. 76). So too the letter of the Church of Smyrna is addressed to all the congregations of the Holy Catholic Church in every place. And this primitive sense of 'universal' the word has never lost, although in the latter part of the second century it began to receive the secondary sense of 'orthodox' as opposed to 'heretical'. Thus it is used in an early Canon of Scripture, the Muratorian fragment (circa 170 A.D.), which refers to certain heretical writings as 'not received in the Catholic Church'. So too Cyril of Jerusalem, in the fourth century, says that the Church is called Catholic not only 'because it is spread throughout the world', but also 'because it teaches completely and without defect all the doctrines which ought to come to the knowledge of men'. This secondary sense arose out of the original meaning because Catholics claimed to teach the whole truth, and to represent the whole Church, while heresy arose out of the exaggeration of some one truth and was essentially partial and local.</blockquote> By Catholic Church Ignatius designated the universal church. Ignatius considered that certain heretics of his time, who disavowed that Jesus was a material being who actually suffered and died, saying instead that "he only seemed to suffer" (Smyrnaeans, 2), were not really Christians. Martyrdom of Polycarp The term is also used in the Martyrdom of Polycarp (AD 156): Muratorian fragment The Muratorian fragment (AD 177) mentions: Tertullian The term is employed by Tertullian (AD 200): Clement of Alexandria Clement of Alexandria (AD 202) cites: Cyprian of Carthage Cyprian of Carthage (AD 254) wrote a large number of epistles where he makes use of the term: In addition to epistles 66, 69 and 70, the term is also found in the epistles 19, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 50, 51, 54, 63, 68, 71, 72, 74, 75. Cyril of Jerusalem As mentioned in the above quotation from J.H. Srawley, Cyril of Jerusalem (c. 315–386), who is venerated as a saint by the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Anglican Communion, distinguished what he called the "Catholic Church" from other groups who could also refer to themselves as an ἐκκλησία (assembly or church): <blockquote>Since the word Ecclesia is applied to different things (as also it is written of the multitude in the theatre of the Ephesians, And when he had thus spoken, he dismissed the Assembly (Acts 19:41), and since one might properly and truly say that there is a Church of evil doers, I mean the meetings of the heretics, the Marcionists and Manichees, and the rest, for this cause the Faith has securely delivered to you now the Article, "And in one Holy Catholic Church"; that you may avoid their wretched meetings, and ever abide with the Holy Church Catholic in which you were regenerated. And if ever you are sojourning in cities, inquire not simply where the Lord's House is (for the other sects of the profane also attempt to call their own dens houses of the Lord), nor merely where the Church is, but where is the Catholic Church. For this is the peculiar name of this Holy Church, the mother of us all, which is the spouse of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Only-begotten Son of God(Catechetical Lectures, XVIII, 26).</blockquote> Theodosius I .]] Theodosius I, Emperor from 379 to 395, declared "Catholic" Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire, declaring in the Edict of Thessalonica of 27 February 380: <blockquote>It is our desire that all the various nations which are subject to our clemency and moderation, should continue the profession of that religion which was delivered to the Romans by the divine Apostle Peter, as it has been preserved by faithful tradition and which is now professed by the Pontiff Damasus and by Peter, Bishop of Alexandria, a man of apostolic holiness. According to the apostolic teaching and the doctrine of the Gospel, let us believe in the one Deity of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit, in equal majesty and in a holy Trinity. We authorize the followers of this law to assume the title Catholic Christians; but as for the others, since in our judgment they are foolish madmen, we decree that they shall be branded with the ignominious name of heretics, and shall not presume to give their conventicles the name of churches. They will suffer in the first place the chastisement of the divine condemnation, and in the second the punishment which our authority, in accordance with the will of heaven, will decide to inflict. Theodosian Code XVI.i.2</blockquote> Jerome Jerome wrote to Augustine of Hippo in 418: "You are known throughout the world; Catholics honour and esteem you as the one who has established anew the ancient Faith" Augustine of Hippo .]] Only slightly later, Augustine of Hippo (354–430) also used the term "Catholic" to distinguish the "true" church from heretical groups: <blockquote>In the Catholic Church, there are many other things which most justly keep me in her bosom. The consent of peoples and nations keeps me in the Church; so does her authority, inaugurated by miracles, nourished by hope, enlarged by love, established by age. The succession of priests keeps me, beginning from the very seat of the Apostle Peter, to whom the Lord, after His resurrection, gave it in charge to feed His sheep (Jn 21:15–19), down to the present episcopate.</blockquote> <blockquote>And so, lastly, does the very name of Catholic, which, not without reason, amid so many heresies, the Church has thus retained; so that, though all heretics wish to be called Catholics, yet when a stranger asks where the Catholic Church meets, no heretic will venture to point to his own chapel or house.</blockquote> <blockquote>Such then in number and importance are the precious ties belonging to the Christian name which keep a believer in the Catholic Church, as it is right they should ... With you, where there is none of these things to attract or keep me... No one shall move me from the faith which binds my mind with ties so many and so strong to the Christian religion... For my part, I should not believe the gospel except as moved by the authority of the Catholic Church. —St. Augustine (354–430): Against the Epistle of Manichaeus called Fundamental, chapter 4: Proofs of the Catholic Faith. :— St. Augustine (354–430): Against the Epistle of Manichaeus called Fundamental, chapter 4: Proofs of the Catholic Faith.</blockquote> Vincent of Lerins A contemporary of Augustine, Vincent of Lerins, wrote in 434 (under the pseudonym Peregrinus) a work known as the Commonitoria ("Memoranda"). While insisting that, like the human body, church doctrine develops while truly keeping its identity (sections 54–59, chapter XXIII), he stated: Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church In the early centuries of Christian history, the majority of Christians who followed doctrines represented in Nicene Creed were bound by one common and undivided Catholicity that united the Latin-speaking Christians of the west and the Greek-speaking Christians of the east. In those days, the terms "eastern Catholic" and "western Catholic" had geographical meanings, generally corresponding to existing linguistic distinctions between Greek east and Latin west. In spite of various theological and ecclesiastical disagreements between Christian sees, a common Catholicity was preserved. A great dispute arose between the 9th and 11th century. After the East–West Schism, the notion of common Catholicity was broken and each side started to develop its own terminological practice.}} On the other side of the widening rift, Eastern Orthodox were considered by western theologians to be Schismatics. Relations between East and West were further estranged by the tragic events of the Massacre of the Latins in 1182 and Sack of Constantinople in 1204. Those bloody events were followed by several failed attempts to reach reconciliation (see: Second Council of Lyon, Council of Florence, Union of Brest, Union of Uzhhorod). During the late medieval and early modern period, terminology became much more complicated, resulting in the creation of parallel and confronting terminological systems that exist today in all of their complexity. During the Early Modern period, a special term "Acatholic" was widely used in the West to mark all those who were considered to hold heretical theological views and irregular ecclesiastical practices. In the time of Counter-Reformation the term Acatholic was used by zealous members of the Catholic Church to designate Protestants as well as Eastern Orthodox Christians. The term was considered to be so insulting that the Council of the Serbian Orthodox Church, held in Temeswar in 1790, decided to send an official plea to emperor Leopold II, begging him to ban the use of the term "Acatholic". Lutheranism The Augsburg Confession found within the Book of Concord, a compendium of belief of the Lutheranism, teaches that "the faith as confessed by Luther and his followers is nothing new, but the true catholic faith, and that their churches represent the true catholic or universal church". When the Lutherans presented the Augsburg Confession to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor in 1530, they believe to have "showed that each article of faith and practice was true first of all to Holy Scripture, and then also to the teaching of the church fathers and the councils".<ref name"Ludwig2016"/> See also * Anglo-Catholicism * Anglican Catholic Church * Anglican Use * Christianity * Liberal Catholic Church * List of popes Notes and references Notes ReferencesExternal links Category:Christian terminology Category:Religious identity	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_(term)	2025-04-05T18:28:13.537855
7611	Crystal Eastman	\| death_place = Erie, Pennsylvania, United States \| other_names \| parents Samuel Elijah Eastman<br/> Annis Bertha Ford \| relatives = Max Eastman (brother) \| spouse = \| children = Jeffrey Fuller<br/> Annis Fuller \| known_for = Feminism, socialism, Congressional Union for Woman Suffrage, The Liberator, and as a co-founder of both the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom and American Union Against Militarism \| occupation = Lawyer }} Crystal Catherine Eastman (June 25, 1881 – July 28, 1928) was an American lawyer, antimilitarist, feminist, socialist, and journalist. She was a leader in the fight for women's suffrage, a co-founder and co-editor with her brother Max Eastman of the radical arts and politics magazine The Liberator, co-founder of the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom, and co-founder in 1920 of the American Civil Liberties Union. In 2000, she was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame in Seneca Falls, New York. Early life and education Crystal Eastman was born in Marlborough, Massachusetts, on June 25, 1881, the third of four children. Her oldest brother, Morgan, was born in 1878 and died in 1884. The second brother, Anstice Ford Eastman, who became a general surgeon, was born in 1878 and died in 1937. Max was the youngest, born in 1883. In 1883, their parents, Samuel Elijah Eastman and Annis Bertha Ford, moved the family to Canandaigua, New York. In 1889, their mother became one of the first women ordained as a Protestant minister in America when she became a minister of the Congregational church. Her father was also a Congregational minister, and the two served as pastors at the church of Thomas K. Beecher near Elmira. Mark Twain's family also attended the church and it was this shared association that young Crystal also became acquainted with him. The siblings lived together on 11th Street in New York City's Greenwich Village among other radical activists for several years. The group, including Ida Rauh, Inez Milholland, Floyd Dell, and Doris Stevens, also spent summers and weekends in Croton-on-Hudson, where Max bought a house in 1916. Eastman graduated from Vassar College in 1903 and received a Master of Arts degree in sociology (then a relatively new field) from Columbia University in 1904. She then attended New York University Law School, graduating in 1907 as the second in her class. She advocated for "motherhood endowments" whereby mothers of young children would receive monetary benefits. She argued it would reduce forced dependence of mothers on men, as well as economically empower women.EmancipationWallace J. Benedict was an insurance agent in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and so when Eastman married him in 1911, she moved there after the wedding. She served as president of the New York City branch. This group sought to remove profiteering from arms manufacturing and campaigned against conscription, imperial adventures, and military intervention. The NCLB grew into the American Civil Liberties Union(ACLU), with Baldwin at the head and Eastman functioning as attorney-in-charge. Eastman is credited as a founding member of the ACLU, but her role as founder of the NCLB may have been largely ignored by posterity because of her personal differences with Baldwin. Marriage and family In 1916, Eastman married the British editor and antiwar activist Walter Fuller, who had come to the United States to direct his sisters' singing of folksongs. They had two children, Jeffrey Fuller born in 1917 and Annis Fuller born in 1921. After Max Eastman's periodical The Masses was forced to close by government censorship in 1917, he and Crystal co-founded a radical journal of politics, art, and literature: the Liberator, in early 1918.Post-WarAfter the war, Eastman organized the First Feminist Congress in 1919. Works Papers Eastman's papers are housed at Harvard University.Publications The Library of Congress has the following publications by Eastman in its collection, many of them published posthumously: * '' 'Employers' Liability,' a Criticism Based on Facts (1909) * Work-accidents and the Law (1910) * Mexican-American Peace Committee (Mexican-American league) (1916) * Work accidents and the Law (1969) * Toward the Great Change: Crystal and Max Eastman on Feminism, Antimilitarism, and Revolution, edited by Blanche Wiesen Cook (1976) * Crystal Eastman on Women and Revolution,'' edited by Blanche Wiesen Cook (1978) * "Crystal Eastman: A Revolutionary Life," by Amy Aronson (2020) See also People * Alice Paul * Lucy Burns * Jane Addams * Lillian D. Wald * Roger Baldwin * Norman Thomas * Walter Fuller * Jeffrey Fuller * Max Eastman Political groups * National Woman's Party * Women's International League for Peace and Freedom * Woman's Peace Party * Women's International League for Peace and Freedom * American Union Against Militarism * National Civil Liberties Bureau/American Civil Liberties Union Other * List of peace activists * The Pittsburgh Survey * Workers' compensation * U.S. Commission on Industrial Relations * 19th Amendment * Equal Rights Amendment * The Liberator Footnotes Further reading * Amy Aronson, Crystal Eastman: A Revolutionary Life, Oxford University Press, 2019. * Blanche Wiesen Cook, ed., Crystal Eastman on Women and Revolution. (1978). * Cook, Blanche Wiesen, "Radical Women of Greenwich Village," in Greenwich Village, eds. Rick Beard and Leslie Cohen Berlowitz. Newark: Rutgers University Press, 1993. * Sochen, June, The New Woman in Greenwich Village, 1910–1920. New York: Quadrangle Books, 1972. * Read J., Phyllis; Witlieb L., Bernard: ''The Book of Women's Firsts. New York Random House 1992. * Kerber K., Linda; Sherron DeHart, Jane: Women's America: Refocusing The Past'', Oxford University Press, 1995, 4th Edition. External links * * [http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:RAD.SCHL:sch00562 Crystal Eastman Papers Finding Aid], Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University. * [https://crystaleastman.org/ crystaleastman.org] Category:1881 births Category:1928 deaths Category:20th-century American journalists Category:20th-century American women journalists Category:20th-century American lawyers Category:20th-century American women lawyers Category:American anti–World War I activists Category:American Civil Liberties Union people Category:American magazine editors Category:American pacifists Category:American political activists Category:Suffragists from Massachusetts Category:Columbia Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni Category:Journalists from Massachusetts Category:Journalists from New York (state) Category:Massachusetts socialists Category:National Woman's Party activists Category:New York (state) socialists Category:New York University School of Law alumni Category:American opinion journalists Category:Pacifist feminists Category:People from Canandaigua, New York Category:People from Croton-on-Hudson, New York Category:People from Greenwich Village Category:People from Marlborough, Massachusetts Category:American socialist feminists Category:Vassar College alumni Category:Women's International League for Peace and Freedom people Category:American women magazine editors Category:Female Christian socialists Category:Women Christian religious leaders Category:Proponents of Christian feminism Category:Equal Rights Amendment activists Category:Deaths from nephritis Category:Suffragists from New York (state) Category:American women founders	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_Eastman	2025-04-05T18:28:13.550665
7612	Christopher Alexander	\| birth_place = Vienna, Austria \| death_date \| death_place = Binsted, Sussex, United Kingdom \| significant_buildings \| significant_projects Pattern languages \| alma_mater = Oundle School<br/>Trinity College, Cambridge<br/>Harvard University (PhD)<br/>Massachusetts Institute of Technology \| awards = Vincent Scully Prize<br/>Global Award for Sustainable Architecture \| signature = }} Christopher Wolfgang John Alexander (4 October 1936 – 17 March 2022) was an Austrian-born British-American architect and design theorist. He was an emeritus professor at the University of California, Berkeley. His theories about the nature of human-centered design have affected fields beyond architecture, including urban design, software, and sociology. Alexander designed and personally built over 100 buildings, both as an architect and a general contractor. In software, Alexander is regarded as the father of the pattern language movement. The first wiki—the technology behind Wikipedia—led directly from Alexander's work, according to its creator, Ward Cunningham. Alexander's work has also influenced the development of agile software development. However, Alexander was controversial among some mainstream architects and critics, in part because his work was often harshly critical of much of contemporary architectural theory and practice. Alexander is best known for his 1977 book A Pattern Language, a perennial seller some four decades after publication. Reasoning that users are more sensitive to their needs than any architect could be, he collaborated with his students Sara Ishikawa, Murray Silverstein, Max Jacobson, Ingrid King, and Shlomo Angel to produce a pattern language that would empower anyone to design and build at any scale. His other books include Notes on the Synthesis of Form, A City is Not a Tree (first published as a paper and re-published in book form in 2015), The Timeless Way of Building, A New Theory of Urban Design, and The Oregon Experiment. More recently he published the four-volume The Nature of Order: An Essay on the Art of Building and the Nature of the Universe, about his newer theories of "morphogenetic" processes, and The Battle for the Life and Beauty of the Earth, about the implementation of his theories in a large building project in Japan. Personal life Alexander was born in Vienna, Austria. His father, Ferdinand Johann Alfred Alexander, was Catholic and his mother, Lilly Edith Elizabeth (Deutsch) Alexander was Jewish. As a young child Alexander emigrated in fall 1938 with his parents from Austria to England, when his parents were forced to flee the Nazi regime. (They worked as German language teachers.) He spent much of his childhood in Chichester and Oxford, England, where he began his education in the sciences. He moved from England to the United States in 1958 to study at Harvard University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He moved to Berkeley, California in 1963 to accept an appointment as Professor of Architecture, a position he would hold for almost 40 years. In 2002, after his retirement, Alexander moved to Arundel, England, where he continued to write, teach and build up to the time of his illness and death. Alexander was married to Margaret Moore Alexander, and he had two daughters, Sophie and Lily, by his former wife Pamela Patrick. Alexander held both British and American citizenship. On 17 March 2022, Alexander died peacefully in his home in Binsted, near Arundel, United Kingdom, following a long illness. He was elected fellow at Harvard. During the same period he worked at MIT in transportation theory and computer science, and worked at Harvard in cognition and cognitive studies. Honors Alexander was elected to the Society of Fellows, Harvard University 1961–64; awarded the First Medal for Research by the American Institute of Architects, 1972; elected member of the Swedish Royal Academy of Arts, 1980; winner of the Best Building in Japan award, 1985; winner of the ACSA (Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture) Distinguished Professor Award, 1986 and 1987; invited to present the Louis Kahn Memorial Lecture, 1992; elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1996; and 1994 Seaside Prize recipient.CareerAuthor The Timeless Way of Building (1979) described the perfection of use to which buildings could aspire: A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction (1977), co-authored with Sara Ishikawa and Murray Silverstein, described a practical architectural system in a form that a theoretical mathematician or computer scientist might call a generative grammar. The work originated from an observation that many medieval cities are attractive and harmonious. The authors said that this occurs because they were built to local regulations that required specific features, but freed the architect to adapt them to particular situations. The book provides rules and pictures, and leaves decisions to be taken from the precise environment of the project. It describes exact methods for constructing practical, safe, and attractive designs at every scale, from entire regions, through cities, neighborhoods, gardens, buildings, rooms, built-in furniture, and fixtures down to the level of doorknobs. A notable value is that the architectural system consists only of classic patterns tested in the real world and reviewed by multiple architects for beauty and practicality. A New Theory of Urban Design (1987) coincided with a renewal of interest in urbanism among architects, but stood apart from most other expressions of this by assuming a distinctly anti-masterplanning stance. An account of a design studio conducted with University of California Berkeley students on a site in San Francisco, it shows how convincing urban networks can be generated by requiring individual actors to respect only local rules, in relation to neighbours. A vastly undervalued part of the Alexander canon, A New Theory is important in understanding the generative processes which give rise to the shanty towns latterly championed by Stewart Brand, Robert Neuwirth, and Charles III, the then Prince of Wales (2001). There have been critical reconstructions of Alexander's design studio based on the theories put forward in A New Theory of Urban Design. The Nature of Order: An Essay on the Art of Building and the Nature of the Universe (2003–04), which includes The Phenomenon of Life, The Process of Creating Life, A Vision of a Living World and The Luminous Ground, is Alexander's most comprehensive and elaborate work. In it, he put forth a new theory about the nature of space and described how this theory influences thinking about architecture, building, planning, and the way in which we view the world in general. The mostly static patterns from A Pattern Language were amended by more dynamic sequences, which describe how to work towards patterns (which can roughly be seen as the result of sequences). Sequences, like patterns, promise to be tools of wider scope than building (just as his theory of space goes beyond architecture). The online publication Katarxis 3 (September 2004) includes several essays by Christopher Alexander, as well as a debate between Alexander and Peter Eisenman from 1982. Alexander's final book published while he was alive, The Battle for the Life and Beauty of the Earth: A Struggle Between Two World-Systems (2012), is the story of the largest project he and his colleagues had ever tackled, the construction of a new High School/College campus in Japan. He also used the project to connect with themes in his four-volume series. He contrasted his approach, (System A) with the construction processes endemic in the U.S. and Japanese economies (System B). As Alexander describes it, System A is focused on enhancing the life/spirit of spaces within given constraints (land, budget, client needs, etc.) (drawings are sketches – decisions on placing buildings, materials used, finish and such are made in the field as construction proceeds, with adjustments as needed to meet overall budget); System B ignores, and tends to diminish or destroy that quality because there is an inherent flaw: System A is a generally a product of a different Economic System than we live in now. When the architect is only responsible for concept and casual field drawings (which the builder uses to build structures at the lowest possible [competitive] cost), the builder finds that System A can not produce acceptable results at the lowest market cost. Except for a culture where land and material costs are low or first world clients who are sensitive, patient and wealthy. In most cases, the economically motivated builder must use a hybrid system. In the best case, System AB, the builder uses the processes of System A to differentiate, improve and inform his work. Or there are no economic considerations and the builder is the architect and is building for himself. In the last few chapters he described "centers" as a way of thinking about the connections among spaces, and about what brings more wholeness and life to a space.Works of architecture ]] Among Alexander's most notable built works are the Eishin Campus near Tokyo (the building process of which is outlined in his 2012 book The Battle for the Life and Beauty of the Earth); the West Dean Visitors Centre in West Sussex, England; the Julian Street Inn (a homeless shelter) in San Jose, California (both described in Nature of Order); the Sala House and the Martinez House (experimental houses in Albany and Martinez, California made of lightweight concrete); the low-cost housing in Mexicali, Mexico (described in The Production of Houses); and several private houses (described and illustrated in The Nature of Order). Alexander's built work is characterized by a special quality (which he used to call "the quality without a name", but named "wholeness" in Nature of Order) that relates to human beings and induces feelings of belonging to the place and structure. This quality is found in the most loved traditional and historic buildings and urban spaces, and is precisely what Alexander has tried to capture with his sophisticated mathematical design theories. Paradoxically, achieving this connective human quality has also moved his buildings away from the abstract imageability valued in contemporary architecture, and this is one reason why his buildings are under-appreciated at present.TeachingIn addition to his lengthy teaching career as a professor at UC Berkeley (during which a number of international students began to appreciate and apply his methods), Alexander was a key faculty member at both The Prince of Wales's Summer Schools in Civil Architecture (1990–1994) and The Prince's Foundation for the Built Environment. He also initiated the process which led to the international Building Beauty post-graduate school for architecture, which launched in Sorrento, Italy for the 2017–18 academic year. Influence Architecture Alexander's work has widely influenced architects; among those who acknowledge his influence are Sarah Susanka, Andres Duany, and Witold Rybczynski. Robert Campbell, the Pulitzer Prize-winning architecture critic for the Boston Globe, stated that Alexander "has had an enormous critical influence on my life and work, and I think that's true of a whole generation of people."}} Many urban development projects continue to incorporate Alexander's ideas. For example, in the UK the developers Living Villages have been highly influenced by Alexander's work and used A Pattern Language as the basis for the design of The Wintles in Bishops Castle, Shropshire. Sarah Susanka's "Not So Big House" movement adapts and popularizes Alexander's patterns and outlook. in the 1960s and 1970s on programming language design, modular programming, object-oriented programming, software engineering and other design methodologies. Alexander's mathematical concepts and orientation were similar to Edsger Dijkstra's influential A Discipline of Programming. The greatest influence of A Pattern Language in computer science is the design patterns movement. Alexander's philosophy of incremental, organic, coherent design also influenced the extreme programming movement. The Wiki was invented Will Wright wrote that Alexander's work was influential in the origin of the SimCity computer games, and in his later game Spore. Alexander often led his own software research, such as the 1996 Gatemaker project with Greg Bryant. Alexander discovered and conceived a recursive structure, so called wholeness, which is defined mathematically, exists in space and matter physically, and reflects in our minds and cognition psychologically. He had his idea of wholeness back to early 1980s when he finished his first version of The Nature of Order. His idea of wholeness or degree of wholeness relying on a recursive structure of centers resemble aspects of Google's PageRank. Religion The fourth volume of The Nature of Order approaches religious questions from a scientific and philosophical rather than mystical direction, focusing in human feelings, well-being and nature interaction rather than metaphysics. In it, Alexander describes deep ties between the nature of matter, human perception of the universe, and the geometries people construct in buildings, cities, and artifacts. He suggests a crucial link between traditional practices and beliefs, and recent scientific advances. Despite his leanings toward Deism, and his naturalistic and anthropologic approach to religion, Alexander maintained that he was a practicing member of the Catholic Church, which he believed to have accumulated, within its knowledge, a great deal of human truth.Design scienceThe life's work of Alexander is dedicated to turn design from unselfconscious behavior to selfconscious behavior, so called design science. In his very first book Notes on the Synthesis of Forms, he set what he wanted to do. He was inspired by traditional buildings, and tried to derive some 253 patterns for architectural design. Later on, he further distilled 15 geometric properties to characterize living structure in The Nature of Order. The design principles are differentiation and adaptation. Complex networks In his classic A City is Not a Tree, he already had some primary ideas of complex networks, although he used semilattice rather than complex networks. In his 1964 book Notes on the Synthesis of Form (p. 65), he prefigured community structure in complex networks, a topic that emerged around 2004.Published works Alexander's published works include: * Community and Privacy, with Serge Chermayeff (1963) * Notes on the Synthesis of Form (1964) * A City is Not a Tree (1965) * The Atoms of Environmental Structure (1967) * A Pattern Language which Generates Multi-service Centers, with Ishikawa and Silverstein (1968) * Houses Generated by Patterns (1969) * The Grass Roots Housing Process (1973) * The Center for Environmental Structure Series, made up of: The Oregon Experiment (1975) A Pattern Language, with Ishikawa and Silverstein (1977) The Timeless Way of Building (1979) The Linz Cafe (1981) The Production of Houses, with Davis, Martinez, and Corner (1985) A New Theory of Urban Design, with Neis, Anninou, and King (1987) Foreshadowing of 21st Century Art: The Color and Geometry of Very Early Turkish Carpets (1993) The Mary Rose Museum, with Black and Tsutsui (1995) * The Nature of Order Book 1: The Phenomenon of Life (2002) * The Nature of Order Book 2: The Process of Creating Life (2002) * The Nature of Order Book 3: A Vision of a Living World (2005) * The Nature of Order Book 4: The Luminous Ground (2004) * The Battle for the Life and Beauty of the Earth: A Struggle between Two World-Systems, with Hans Joachim Neis and Maggie More Alexander (2012) Unpublished: * Sustainability and Morphogenesis (working title)See also* Pattern gardeningReferencesFurther reading * Grabow, Stephen: Christopher Alexander: The Search for a New Paradigm in Architecture, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London and Boston, 1983. * Leitner, Helmut: Pattern Theory: Introduction and Perspectives on the Tracks of Christopher Alexander, Graz, 2015, . * Mehaffy, Michael: Cities Alive: Jane Jacobs, Christopher Alexander, and the Roots of the New Urban Renaissance, Sustasis Press, 2017, . External links * [http://www.patternlanguage.com/ Official website for Alexander's Pattern Language] * [http://www.natureoforder.com/ Official website of Christopher Alexander, on his 4-volume book The Nature of Order] * [http://zeta.math.utsa.edu/~yxk833/Chris.text.html "Some Notes on Christopher Alexander"] , by Nikos Salingaros * [http://www.pps.org/info/placemakingtools/placemakers/calexander Introduction to Christopher Alexander] * [https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4469331 Radio interview with Christopher Alexander] by NPR's Jennifer Ludden * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110306024503/http://www.nbm.org/about-us/national-building-museum-online/alexander-mehaffy-interview.html National Building Museum interviews Michael Mehaffy] on the occasion of Christopher Alexander receiving the 2009 Scully Prize * Category:1936 births Category:2022 deaths Category:20th-century American architects Category:20th-century American male writers Category:20th-century American non-fiction writers Category:20th-century Austrian architects Category:20th-century Roman Catholics Category:21st-century American architects Category:21st-century American male writers Category:21st-century American non-fiction writers Category:21st-century Roman Catholics Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge Category:American male non-fiction writers Category:American Roman Catholic writers Category:Architectural theoreticians Category:Artists from Vienna Category:Austrian emigrants to the United Kingdom Category:British emigrants to the United States Category:British Roman Catholics Category:Design researchers Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Category:Harvard Fellows Category:Harvard Graduate School of Design alumni Category:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Arts Category:New Classical architects Category:People educated at Oundle School Category:UC Berkeley College of Environmental Design faculty Category:Urban theorists	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Alexander	2025-04-05T18:28:13.571197
7614	Clabbers	Clabbers is a game played by tournament Scrabble players for fun, or occasionally at Scrabble variant tournaments. The name derives from the fact that the words CLABBERS and SCRABBLE form an anagram pair. Rules The rules are identical to those of Scrabble, except that valid plays are only required to form anagrams of acceptable words; in other words, the letters in a word do not need to be placed in the correct order. If a word is challenged, the player who played the word must then name an acceptable word that anagrams to the tiles played. Because the number of "words" that can be formed is vastly larger than in standard English, the board usually ends up tightly packed in places, and necessarily quite empty in others. Game scores will often be much higher than in standard Scrabble, due to the relative ease of making high-scoring overlap plays and easier access to premium squares. Web version The Internet Scrabble Club offers the ability to play Clabbers online. Example game (SOWPODS) thumb\|400px\|An example board from a game of SOWPODS Clabbers Horizontal words from top to bottom (# denotes words that exist in the Collins English Dictionary but not the TWL). Some of the words below have multiple anagrams: ALI = AIL TOD = DOT ISNAETCR = CANISTER WOPL = PLOW DEER = DEER ZIF = FIZ SIATX = TAXIS BTADEI = BAITED MGU = GUM EMING = MINGE# ECOPU = COUPE RATHE = HEART IQ = QI VUEJ = JUVE# EWY = WYE ODOR = ODOR ASSGEOU = GASEOUS ROH = RHO Vertical words from left to right ATIW = WAIT KAMER = MAKER LOSODF = FLOODS GCALINS = SCALING IDNPE = PINED UOT = OUT ALEZ = LAZE PHA = HAP RSITOUEN = ROUTINES FIAR = FAIR EBRYE = BEERY XIM = MIX NAV = VAN UO = OU# GULNED = LUNGED JOR = JOR# RO = OR References Mentions of Clabbers on the National Scrabble Association (USA) website An A-Z of Variants, Association of British Scrabble Players "V-A-K-I-L: 'VAKIL' is a word? No way! Scrabble for the serious at District 14", The Boston Globe, October 7, 2001 Category:Scrabble variants	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clabbers	2025-04-05T18:28:13.584169
7616	Canopus (disambiguation)	Canopus (or Alpha Carinae) is the brightest star in the southern constellation of Carina. Canopus may also refer to: Canopus (insect), Neotropical bug genus Canopus (mythology), in Homeric myth, the pilot of King Menelaus's ship Canopus (nuclear test) was the name given to the first test of the French hydrogen bomb, in 1968, with a yield of 2.8 megatons Canopus (Thrace), a town of ancient Thrace, a suburb of Byzantium Canopus, Egypt, an ancient Egyptian city near modern-day Abu Qir, in the Nile Delta Canopus 2, an Argentine sounding rocket Canopus Corporation, a manufacturer of video editing cards and video editing software Canopus G-ADHL, a Short Empire flying boat Canopus in Argos, a series of space fiction by Doris Lessing Canopic jar, ancient Egyptian vessel for storing organs removed by mummification procedure Canopus Lake, a lake in Clarence Fahnestock State Park in New York State, USA HMS Canopus, two ships of the Royal Navy USS Canopus, three ships of the United States Navy	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canopus_(disambiguation)	2025-04-05T18:28:13.587306
7617	Corum Jhaelen Irsei	Corum Jhaelen Irsei (known also as "the Prince in the Scarlet Robe" and "Corum of the Silver Hand") is a fictional fantasy hero in a series of novels written by Michael Moorcock. The character was introduced in the novel The Knight of Swords, published in 1971. This was followed by two other books published during the same year, The Queen of Swords and The King of Swords. The three novels are collectively known as the "Corum Chronicles trilogy" or "the Chronicles of Corum". Both The Knight of the Swords and The King of the Swords won the August Derleth Award in 1972 and 1973 respectively. The character then starred in three books making up the "Silver Hand trilogy", and has appeared in other stories taking place in Moorcock's multiverse. Corum is a hero with disabilities, losing his left hand and right eye early in his first story. The hand and eye are later replaced by the Eye of Rhynn and the six-fingered Hand of Kwll, powerful artifacts that help Corum against his enemies. Corum is usually reluctant to use these two artifacts, as they involve methods and dark forces that conflict with his personal morality. Since the Eye of Rhynn causes Corum to see multiple planes of reality simultaneously, he often wears an eye patch over it to keep from being overwhelmed. After he loses both artifacts, Corum relies on a normal eyepatch and a silver prosthetic hand. Corum is one of many incarnations of Michael Moorcock's "Eternal Champion", a soul who is reborn frequently throughout the multiverse and usually fights to restore or maintain the Cosmic Balance between Chaos and Law. In some stories, Corum's adventures allow him to meet other aspects of the Eternal Champion, such as Elric of Melniboné, Erekosë, and Dorian Hawkmoon. While Elric famously owes allegiance to the chaos god Arioch, Corum follows the cause of Law and begins his adventures by opposing the plans of Arioch (or his universe's version of the same being). Fictional character biography Corum lives during an age before recorded history, when human beings are rising on Earth and beginning to war with the planet's older societies. Corum's race, the Vadhagh, understands advanced science regarding the nature of reality. Through force of will, they are able to perceive and even shift through different dimensional planes for different purposes. The primitive humans of the age mistake these scientific tricks for sorcery and believe the Vadhagh engage in demonic rituals and witchcraft. Corum's people are long-lived and believe they have nothing to fear from humans. Over the centuries, they become complacent and ignorant of the world around them. As a result, they are taken by surprise when a human tribe hunts them down and slaughters them. The last survivor as far as he knows, Corum is tortured and mutilated by the human barbarians, losing an eye and a hand before he escapes. He wants vengeance against all humanity, but later learns humans make up many societies of different beliefs and moralities. After encountering sorcerers and god-like beings, Corum learns all reality is influenced by the forces of Chaos and Law. Corum dedicates himself to maintaining balance between both forces, as disaster and death occur if either side holds too much influence. Collections The Swords Trilogy This trilogy consists of The Knight of the Swords (1971), The Queen of the Swords (1971), and The King of the Swords (1971). In the United Kingdom it has been collected as an omnibus edition titled Corum, Swords of Corum and most recently Corum: The Prince in the Scarlet Robe (vol. 30 of Orion's Fantasy Masterworks series). In the United States the first trilogy has been published as Corum: The Coming of Chaos. Plot Prince Corum is a Vadhagh, one of a race of long-lived beings with limited magical abilities dedicated to peaceful pursuits such as art and poetry. Corum's father sends him away from their home, Castle Erorn, on a quest to learn the fate of their kinsmen. Corum eventually discovers that a group of "Mabden" (men), led by the savage Earl Glandyth-a-Krae, have raided all of the Vadhaugh's castles, and raped and slaughtered all of the Vadhaugh therein, including Corum's entire family. Arming himself, Corum attacks and kills several of the Mabden before being captured and tortured. After having his left hand cut off and right eye put out, Corum escapes by moving into another plane of existence, becoming invisible to the Mabden. They depart, and Corum is found by The Brown Man, a dweller of the forest of Laahr able to see Corum while out of phase. The Brown Man takes Corum to a being called The Giant of Laahr, who treats his wounds and explains he has a higher purpose. Travelling to Moidel's Castle (a likely incarnation of Mont-Saint-Michel), Corum encounters his future lover, the Margravine Rhalina, a Mabden woman of the civilized land of Lwym an Esh. Having found out Corum's location by torturing and killing the Brown Man of Laahr, Glandyth-a-Krae marshalled his allies to Moidel's Castle. Glandyth had kept Corum's former hand and eye as souvenirs, and showed them to Corum to provoke a reaction. Rhalina uses sorcery (a ship summoned from the depths of the ocean and manned by her drowned dead husband and crew) to ward off an attack by Glandyth-a-Krae. Determined to restore himself, Corum and Rhalina travel to the island of Shool, a near immortal and mad sorcerer. During the journey Corum observes the Wading God, a mysterious giant who trawls the ocean with a net. Upon arriving at the island, Shool takes Rhalina hostage, and then provides Corum with two artifacts to replace his lost hand and eye: the Hand of Kwll and the Eye of Rhynn. The Eye of Rhynn allows Corum to see into an undead netherworld where the last beings killed by Corum exist until summoned by the Hand of Kwll. Shool then explains that Corum's ill fortune has been caused by the Chaos God Arioch, the Knight of the Swords. When Arioch and his fellow Chaos Lords conquered the Fifteen Planes, the balance between the forces of Law and Chaos tipped in favor of Chaos, and their minions - such as Glandyth-a-Krae - embarked on a bloody rampage. Shool sends Corum to Arioch's fortress to steal the Heart of Arioch, which the sorcerer intends to use to attain greater power. Corum confronts Arioch, and learns Shool is nothing more than a pawn of the Chaos God. Arioch then ignores Corum, who discovers the location of the Heart. Corum is then attacked by Arioch, but the Hand of Kwll crushes the Heart and banishes the Chaos God forever. Before fading from existence, Arioch warns Corum that he has now earned the enmity of the Sword Rulers. Corum then meets with The Giant of Laahr, who reveals himself to be Lord Arkyn, the godlike Lord of Law whose realm had been taken over by Arioch. Arkyn tells Corum the destruction of Arioch is the first step towards Law regaining control of the Fifteen Planes. Corum returns to the island to rescue Rhalina, and discovers Shool has become a powerless moron. Shool is devoured by his own creations soon afterwards. On another five planes, the forces of Chaos - led by Xiombarg, Queen of the Swords - reign supreme and are on the verge on eradicating the last resistance from the forces of Law. The avatars of the Bear and Dog gods plot with Earl Glandyth-a-Krae to murder Corum and return Arioch to the Fifteen Planes. Guided by Arkyn, Corum, Rhalina and companion Jhary-a-Conel cross the planes and encounter the King Without A Country, the last of his people who in turn is seeking the City in the Pyramid. The group locate the City, which is in fact a floating arsenal powered by advanced technology and inhabited by a people originally from Corum's world and his distant kin. Besieged by the forces of Chaos, the City requires certain rare minerals to continue to power their weapons. Corum and Jhary attempt to locate the minerals and also encounter Xiombarg, who learns of Corum's identity. Corum slows Xiombarg's forces by defeating their leader, Prince Gaynor the Damned. Xiombarg is goaded into attacking the City directly in revenge for Arioch's banishment. Arkyn provides the minerals and confronts Xiombarg, who has manifested in a vulnerable state. As Arkyn banishes Xiombarg, Corum and his allies devastate the forces of Chaos. Glandyth-a-Krae, however, escapes and seeks revenge. A spell - determined to have been cast by the forces of Chaos - forces the inhabitants of Corum's plane to war with each other (including the City in the Pyramid). Desperate to stop the slaughter, Corum, Rhalina and Jhary-a-Conel travel to the last five planes, ruled by Mabelode, the King of the Swords. Rhalina is taken hostage by the forces of Chaos and Corum has several encounters with the forces of Chaos, including Earl Glandyth-a-Krae. Corum also meets two other aspects of the Eternal Champion: Elric and Erekosë, with all three seeking the mystical city of Tanelorn for their own purposes. After a brief adventure in the "Vanishing Tower", the other heroes depart and Corum and Jhary arrive at their version of Tanelorn. Corum discovers one of the "Lost Gods", the being Kwll, who is imprisoned and cannot be freed until whole. Corum offers Kwll his hand, on the condition that he aid them against Mabelode. Kwll accepts the terms, but reneges on the bargain until persuaded to assist. Corum is also stripped of his artificial eye, which belongs to Kwll's brother, the Lost God Rhynn. Kwll transports Corum and Jhary to the court of Mabelode, with the pair fleeing with Rhalina when Kwll directly challenges the Chaos God. On Kwll's instruction, Corum tosses the eye into the sea. It is recovered by the mysterious Wading God Corum had previously encountered, who is revealed to be Rhynn, which distracts Glandyth-a-Krae during his duel with Corum. In a final battle, Corum avenges his family by killing Glandyth-a-Krae and decimating the last of Chaos' mortal forces. Kwll later appears to Corum and reveals that all the gods - of both Chaos and Law - have been slain in order to free humanity and allow it to shape its own destiny. The Silver Hand Trilogy This trilogy consists of The Bull and the Spear (1973), The Oak and the Ram (1973), and The Sword and the Stallion (1974). It was titled The Prince with the Silver Hand in the United Kingdom and The Chronicles of Corum in the United States respectively. The previous trilogy hinted at a Celtic or proto-Celtic setting for the stories - the terms mabden (human beings) and shefanhow (demons) occurring in these books are both Cornish language words. The Silver Hand trilogy is more explicit in its Celtic connections, with overt borrowings from Celtic mythology. Plot Set eighty years after the defeat of the Sword Rulers, Corum has become despondent and alone since the death of his Mabden bride Rhalina. Plagued by voices at night, Corum believes he has gone insane until old friend Jhary-a-Conel advises Corum it is in fact a summons from another world. Listening to the voices allows Corum to pass to the other world, which is in fact the distant future. The descendants of Rhalina's folk, the Tuha-na-Cremm Croich (see: Crom Cruach), who call Corum "Corum Llew Ereint" (see: Lludd Llaw Eraint), face extinction by the Fhoi Myore (Fomorians). The Fhoi Myore, seven powerful but diseased and barely sentient giants, with the aid of their allies have conquered the land and plunged it into eternal winter. Allying himself with King Mannach, ruler of the Tuha-na-Cremm Croich, Corum falls in love with his daughter Medhbh (see: Medb). Corum also hears the prophecy of a seeress, who claims Corum should fear a brother (who will apparently slay him), a harp and above all, beauty. Corum seeks the lost artifacts of the Tuha-na-Cremm Croich - a sacred Bull, a spear, an oak, a ram, a sword and a stallion - which will restore the land. Corum gains new allies, Goffanon (a blacksmith and diminutive giant, a member of the Sidhe race) and Goffanon's cousin and true giant Illbrec. They battle the Fhoi Myore, who themselves have allies: a returned Prince Gaynor, the wizard Calatin and his clone of Corum, the Brothers of the Pine, the undead Ghoolegh and a host of giant demonic dogs. After being instrumental in the death of two of the Fhoi Myore and restoring to his senses the encircled Amergin, the High King and Chief Druid of the Tuha-na-Cremm Croich, Corum and his allies fight a final battle in which all their foes are destroyed. Corum decides not to return his own world, and is attacked by his clone, whom he defeats with the aid of a spell placed on his silver hand by Medhbh. Medhbh, however, attacks and wounds Corum, having been told by the being the Dagdah that their world must be free of all gods and demi-gods if they are to flourish as a people. Corum is then killed with his own sword by his animated silver hand, thereby fulfilling the prophecy. Bibliography The Swords trilogy: The Knight of the Swords (1971) The Queen of the Swords (1971) The King of the Swords (1971) The Silver Hand trilogy: The Bull and the Spear (1973) The Oak and the Ram (1973) The Sword and the Stallion (1974) Additional appearances: The Vanishing Tower (1971) The Sailor on the Seas of Fate (1976) The Quest for Tanelorn (1976) Awards The August Derleth Award won by: The Knight of the Swords - won in 1972 The King of the Swords - won in 1973 The Sword and the Stallion - won in 1975 In other media Comics First Comics published The Chronicles of Corum, a twelve issue limited series (Jan. 1986 - Dec. 1988) that adapted the "Swords Trilogy", and was followed by the four issue limited series Corum: The Bull and the Spear (Jan. - July (bi-monthly) 1989), which adapted the first book in the second trilogy. These have been reprinted in 4 hardcover volumes by Titan Comics. Role-playing game Darcsyde Productions produced a supplement for use with Chaosium's Stormbringer (2001) role-playing game adapting the characters and settings from the Corum series for role-playing. eBooks Gollancz released the entire Corum stories in both print and ebook form, commencing in 2013. The ebooks are available via Gollancz's SF Gateway site. Audiobooks In 2016, GraphicAudio produced dramatized audiobook versions of Corum. References External links Moorcock's Miscellany (formerly Tanelorn, Multiverse.org & Moorcock's Weekly Miscellany) Michael Moorcock's Comics Compendium incl. Corum adaptations Category:Eternal Champion (character) Category:Michael Moorcock characters Category:Fiction about deicide	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corum_Jhaelen_Irsei	2025-04-05T18:28:13.594734
7618	Cumberland (disambiguation)	Cumberland is one of the historic counties of England. Cumberland may also refer to: Places Australia Cumberland, Queensland, a ghost town west of Georgetown Cumberland County, New South Wales, containing most of the Sydney metropolitan area Cumberland Council, New South Wales Cumberland Islands (Queensland) Cumberland Park, South Australia, a suburb south of Adelaide Cumberland Land District, Tasmania Cumberland Plain, a biogeographical region in Sydney Cumberland Plain Woodland, a woodland community in Sydney Canada Cumberland (Edmonton), Alberta, a neighbourhood Cumberland (federal electoral district), former district in Nova Scotia Cumberland (Nova Scotia provincial electoral district), former district Cumberland (Saskatchewan provincial electoral district), current district Cumberland (territorial electoral district), former district in what is now Saskatchewan Cumberland, British Columbia Cumberland, Ontario (disambiguation), three locations within the Canadian province of Ontario Cumberland County, Nova Scotia Cumberland House, Saskatchewan Cumberland House Provincial Park, Saskatchewan Cumberland Lake, Saskatchewan Cumberland Sound, an inlet into Baffin Island United States Place names by state Cumberland County (disambiguation), in 10 of the United States, as well as in Canada and Australia Cumberland, Georgia, an edge city of Atlanta, business district, and neighborhood Cumberland Island, in Eastern Georgia, a geographical feature and a town Cumberland Island National Seashore Cumberland, Indiana Cumberland, Iowa Cumberland, Kentucky Cumberland, Maine in Cumberland County Cumberland Center, Maine Cumberland, Maryland Cumberland Narrows Cumberland Bone Cave, a fossil-filled cave, Wills Mountain, Allegany County, Maryland Cumberland, New Jersey Cumberland Head, New York Cumberland, Ohio Cumberland, Oklahoma Cumberland Township, Adams County, Pennsylvania Cumberland Township, Greene County, Pennsylvania Cumberland, Rhode Island, a town Cumberland Hill, Rhode Island, within the town Cumberland Gap, Tennessee, a town within Cumberland Gap National Historical Park Cumberland Gap National Historical Park (see also below) Cumberland City, Tennessee, in Stewart County on the Cumberland River Cumberland, Virginia in Cumberland County Cumberland, New Kent County, Virginia Cumberland (New Kent, Virginia), a historic farm property Cumberland, Washington Cumberland, Wisconsin, a city Cumberland, Barron County, Wisconsin, a town Regional features Cumberland Gap, a pass through the Appalachian Mountains near junction of Kentucky, Virginia, and Tennessee. Cumberland Mountains in Tennessee and Kentucky Cumberland Plateau in Tennessee and Kentucky Cumberland River in Tennessee and Kentucky Cumberland Falls Lake Cumberland, an artificial lake on the Cumberland River Cumberland Road, a historical road, part of the National Road, the first US federal highway Cumberland Valley, in Pennsylvania and Maryland Cumberland Valley AVA, wine region Other places Cumberland (unitary authority), Cumbria, England, covering a similar area to the historic county Cumberland, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Cumberland (ward), one of the ancient divisions of the county of Cumberland, England Cumberland River (disambiguation) People Cumberland (surname) Duke of Cumberland, a former and currently suspended peerage of England, Great Britain and the United Kingdom Earl of Cumberland, a former peerage of England Companies Cumberland Drugs, a defunct chain of pharmacies located in Quebec and eastern Ontario Cumberland Farms, a chain of convenience stores found primarily in the northeastern United States Cumberland Records, a record label Education Cumberland School of Law, in Birmingham, Alabama Cumberland University, in Lebanon, Tennessee University of the Cumberlands in Williamsburg, Kentucky Food Cumberland sauce, a fruit-based sauce Cumberland sausage, a traditional sausage recipe in Britain Healthcare institutions Cumberland Infirmary, a hospital in Carlisle West Cumberland Hospital, a hospital in Whitehaven Ships Cumberland (ship), four merchant ships HMS Cumberland, eleven ships of the Royal Navy USS Cumberland, three ships of the United States Navy Sports Cumberland (rugby league team), a team in the inaugural New South Wales Rugby League competition Cumberland United, an Association Football club in Adelaide, Australia Other uses 1964 Cumberland B-52 crash, an accident involving a nuclear bomber Army of the Cumberland, part of the Union Army in the American Civil War Cumberland Arms, a pub in Adelaide, South Australia Cumberland Building Society, a building society Cumberland Presbyterian Church, a Presbyterian denomination in Protestant Christianity Cumberland station (disambiguation), stations of the name	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumberland_(disambiguation)	2025-04-05T18:28:13.601303
7619	Capella (disambiguation)	Capella is a bright star in the constellation of Auriga. Capella may also refer to: Places Capella, Queensland, a town in the Central Highlands Region, Australia Capella, Aragon, a municipality in Huesca, Spain Capella Island, a minor island of the U.S. Virgin Islands Hotels Capella Bangkok Capella Resort, Singapore Science and technology Capella (crater), an impact crater on the Moon Capella (engineering), an open-source engineering solution Capella Space, an American space company Music Capella (music), a musical ensemble Capella (notation program), a program by capella Software AG Transportation and industry Mazda Capella, a model of automobile USS Capella, a cargo ship of the United States Navy Capella (concrete ship), a concrete ship built in World War II Capella Aircraft, an American aircraft manufacturer Other uses Capella University, an online academic institution based in Minneapolis, Minnesota Gallinago or Capella, a genus of snipes People with the name Martianus Capella, writer and astronomer of late antiquity See also A cappella (disambiguation) Capela (disambiguation) Cappella (disambiguation) Capelle (disambiguation) Kapella (disambiguation)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capella_(disambiguation)	2025-04-05T18:28:13.604745
7622	Complex instruction set computer	A complex instruction set computer (CISC ) is a computer architecture in which single instructions can execute several low-level operations (such as a load from memory, an arithmetic operation, and a memory store) or are capable of multi-step operations or addressing modes within single instructions. The term was retroactively coined in contrast to reduced instruction set computer (RISC) and has therefore become something of an umbrella term for everything that is not RISC, where the typical differentiating characteristic is that most RISC designs use uniform instruction length for almost all instructions, and employ strictly separate load and store instructions. Examples of CISC architectures include complex mainframe computers to simplistic microcontrollers where memory load and store operations are not separated from arithmetic instructions. Specific instruction set architectures that have been retroactively labeled CISC are System/360 through z/Architecture, the PDP-11 and VAX architectures, and many others. Well known microprocessors and microcontrollers that have also been labeled CISC in many academic publications include the Motorola 6800, 6809 and 68000 families; the Intel 8080, iAPX 432, x86 and 8051 families; the Zilog Z80, Z8 and Z8000 families; the National Semiconductor NS320xx family; the MOS Technology 6502 family; and others. Some designs have been regarded as borderline cases by some writers. For instance, the Microchip Technology PIC has been labeled RISC in some circles and CISC in others. Incitements and benefits Before the RISC philosophy became prominent, many computer architects tried to bridge the so-called semantic gap, i.e., to design instruction sets that directly support high-level programming constructs such as procedure calls, loop control, and complex addressing modes, allowing data structure and array accesses to be combined into single instructions. Instructions are also typically highly encoded in order to further enhance the code density. The compact nature of such instruction sets results in smaller program sizes and fewer main memory accesses (which were often slow), which at the time (early 1960s and onwards) resulted in a tremendous saving on the cost of computer memory and disc storage, as well as faster execution. It also meant good programming productivity even in assembly language, as high level languages such as Fortran or Algol were not always available or appropriate. Indeed, microprocessors in this category are sometimes still programmed in assembly language for certain types of critical applications. New instructions In the 1970s, analysis of high-level languages indicated compilers produced some complex corresponding machine language. It was determined that new instructions could improve performance. Some instructions were added that were never intended to be used in assembly language but fit well with compiled high-level languages. Compilers were updated to take advantage of these instructions. The benefits of semantically rich instructions with compact encodings can be seen in modern processors as well, particularly in the high-performance segment where caches are a central component (as opposed to most embedded systems). This is because these fast, but complex and expensive, memories are inherently limited in size, making compact code beneficial. Of course, the fundamental reason they are needed is that main memories (i.e., dynamic RAM today) remain slow compared to a (high-performance) CPU core. Design issues While many designs achieved the aim of higher throughput at lower cost and also allowed high-level language constructs to be expressed by fewer instructions, it was observed that this was not always the case. For instance, low-end versions of complex architectures (i.e. using less hardware) could lead to situations where it was possible to improve performance by not using a complex instruction (such as a procedure call or enter instruction) but instead using a sequence of simpler instructions. One reason for this was that architects (microcode writers) sometimes "over-designed" assembly language instructions, including features that could not be implemented efficiently on the basic hardware available. There could, for instance, be "side effects" (above conventional flags), such as the setting of a register or memory location that was perhaps seldom used; if this was done via ordinary (non duplicated) internal buses, or even the external bus, it would demand extra cycles every time, and thus be quite inefficient. Even in balanced high-performance designs, highly encoded and (relatively) high-level instructions could be complicated to decode and execute efficiently within a limited transistor budget. Such architectures therefore required a great deal of work on the part of the processor designer in cases where a simpler, but (typically) slower, solution based on decode tables and/or microcode sequencing is not appropriate. At a time when transistors and other components were a limited resource, this also left fewer components and less opportunity for other types of performance optimizations. The RISC idea The circuitry that performs the actions defined by the microcode in many (but not all) CISC processors is, in itself, a processor which in many ways is reminiscent in structure to very early CPU designs. In the early 1970s, this gave rise to ideas to return to simpler processor designs in order to make it more feasible to cope without (then relatively large and expensive) ROM tables and/or PLA structures for sequencing and/or decoding. An early (retroactively) RISC-labeled processor (IBM 801 IBM's Watson Research Center, mid-1970s) was a tightly pipelined simple machine originally intended to be used as an internal microcode kernel, or engine, in CISC designs, but also became the processor that introduced the RISC idea to a somewhat larger audience. Simplicity and regularity also in the visible instruction set would make it easier to implement overlapping processor stages (pipelining) at the machine code level (i.e. the level seen by compilers). However, pipelining at that level was already used in some high-performance CISC "supercomputers" in order to reduce the instruction cycle time (despite the complications of implementing within the limited component count and wiring complexity feasible at the time). Internal microcode execution in CISC processors, on the other hand, could be more or less pipelined depending on the particular design, and therefore more or less akin to the basic structure of RISC processors. The CDC 6600 supercomputer, first delivered in 1965, has also been retroactively described as RISC. It had a load–store architecture which allowed up to five loads and two stores to be in progress simultaneously under programmer control. It also had multiple function units which could operate at the same time. Superscalar In a more modern context, the complex variable-length encoding used by some of the typical CISC architectures makes it complicated, but still feasible, to build a superscalar implementation of a CISC programming model directly; the in-order superscalar original Pentium and the out-of-order superscalar Cyrix 6x86 are well-known examples of this. The frequent memory accesses for operands of a typical CISC machine may limit the instruction-level parallelism that can be extracted from the code, although this is strongly mediated by the fast cache structures used in modern designs, as well as by other measures. Due to inherently compact and semantically rich instructions, the average amount of work performed per machine code unit (i.e. per byte or bit) is higher for a CISC than a RISC processor, which may give it a significant advantage in a modern cache-based implementation. Transistors for logic, PLAs, and microcode are no longer scarce resources; only large high-speed cache memories are limited by the maximum number of transistors today. Although complex, the transistor count of CISC decoders do not grow exponentially like the total number of transistors per processor (the majority typically used for caches). Together with better tools and enhanced technologies, this has led to new implementations of highly encoded and variable-length designs without load–store limitations (i.e. non-RISC). This governs re-implementations of older architectures such as the ubiquitous x86 (see below) as well as new designs for microcontrollers for embedded systems, and similar uses. The superscalar complexity in the case of modern x86 was solved by converting instructions into one or more micro-operations and dynamically issuing those micro-operations, i.e. indirect and dynamic superscalar execution; the Pentium Pro and AMD K5 are early examples of this. It allows a fairly simple superscalar design to be located after the (fairly complex) decoders (and buffers), giving, so to speak, the best of both worlds in many respects. This technique is also used in IBM z196 and later z/Architecture microprocessors. CISC and RISC terms The terms CISC and RISC have become less meaningful with the continued evolution of both CISC and RISC designs and implementations. The first highly (or tightly) pipelined x86 implementations, the 486 designs from Intel, AMD, Cyrix, and IBM, supported every instruction that their predecessors did, but achieved maximum efficiency only on a fairly simple x86 subset that was only a little more than a typical RISC instruction set (i.e., without typical RISC load–store limits). The Intel P5 Pentium generation was a superscalar version of these principles. However, modern x86 processors also (typically) decode and split instructions into dynamic sequences of internally buffered micro-operations, which helps execute a larger subset of instructions in a pipelined (overlapping) fashion, and facilitates more advanced extraction of parallelism out of the code stream, for even higher performance. Contrary to popular simplifications (present also in some academic texts,) not all CISCs are microcoded or have "complex" instructions. As CISC became a catch-all term meaning anything that's not a load–store (RISC) architecture, it's not the number of instructions, nor the complexity of the implementation or of the instructions, that define CISC, but that arithmetic instructions also perform memory accesses. Compared to a small 8-bit CISC processor, a RISC floating-point instruction is complex. CISC does not even need to have complex addressing modes; 32- or 64-bit RISC processors may well have more complex addressing modes than small 8-bit CISC processors. A PDP-10, a PDP-8, an Intel 80386, an Intel 4004, a Motorola 68000, a System z mainframe, a Burroughs B5000, a VAX, a Zilog Z80000, and a MOS Technology 6502 all vary widely in the number, sizes, and formats of instructions, the number, types, and sizes of registers, and the available data types. Some have hardware support for operations like scanning for a substring, arbitrary-precision BCD arithmetic, or transcendental functions, while others have only 8-bit addition and subtraction. But they are all in the CISC category. because they have "load-operate" instructions that load and/or store memory contents within the same instructions that perform the actual calculations. For instance, the PDP-8, having only 8 fixed-length instructions and no microcode at all, is a CISC because of how the instructions work, PowerPC, which has over 230 instructions (more than some VAXes), and complex internals like register renaming and a reorder buffer, is a RISC, while Minimal CISC has 8 instructions, but is clearly a CISC because it combines memory access and computation in the same instructions. See also Explicitly parallel instruction computing Minimal instruction set computer Reduced instruction set computer One-instruction set computer Zero instruction set computer Very long instruction word Microcode Comparison of instruction set architectures References General references Tanenbaum, Andrew S. (2006) Structured Computer Organization, Fifth Edition, Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. Further reading Category:Classes of computers	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_instruction_set_computer	2025-04-05T18:28:13.615847
7624	CISC	CISC may refer to: Caribbean Island Swimming Championships Chongqing Iron and Steel Company Clean intermittent self-catheterisation, a form of urinary catheterization Complex instruction set computer Criminal Intelligence Service Canada CRTC Interconnection Steering Committee	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CISC	2025-04-05T18:28:13.618374
7626	Cetacea	Early Eocene – Present \| image = \| taxon = Cetacea \| authority = Brisson, 1762 \| subdivision_ranks = Subgroups \| subdivision = †Pakicetidae †Ambulocetidae †Remingtonocetidae †Protocetidae (paraphyletic) Pelagiceti <small>Uhen, 2008</small> †Basilosauridae (paraphyletic) †Kekenodontidae Neoceti <small>Fordyce & de Muizon, 2001</small> Mysticeti Odontoceti (see text for families) \| diversity = Around 94 species \| diversity_link = List of cetaceans }} Cetacea (; , )\|huge fish, sea monster}}) is an infraorder of aquatic mammals belonging to the order Artiodactyla that includes whales, dolphins and porpoises. Key characteristics are their fully aquatic lifestyle, streamlined body shape, often large size and exclusively carnivorous diet. They propel themselves through the water with powerful up-and-down movement of their tail which ends in a paddle-like fluke, using their flipper-shaped forelimbs to maneuver. While the majority of cetaceans live in marine environments, a small number reside solely in brackish water or fresh water. Having a cosmopolitan distribution, they can be found in some rivers and all of Earth's oceans, and many species inhabit vast ranges where they migrate with the changing of the seasons. Cetaceans are famous for their high intelligence, complex social behaviour, and the enormous size of some of the group's members. For example, the blue whale reaches a maximum confirmed length of and a weight of 173 tonnes (190 short tons), making it the largest animal ever known to have existed. There are approximately 89 living species split into two parvorders: Odontoceti or toothed whales (containing porpoises, dolphins, other predatory whales like the beluga and the sperm whale, and the poorly understood beaked whales) and the filter feeding Mysticeti or baleen whales (which includes species like the blue whale, the humpback whale and the bowhead whale). Despite their highly modified bodies and carnivorous lifestyle, genetic and fossil evidence places cetaceans as nested within even-toed ungulates, most closely related to hippopotamus within the clade Whippomorpha. Cetaceans have been extensively hunted for their meat, blubber and oil by commercial operations. Although the International Whaling Commission has agreed on putting a halt to commercial whaling, whale hunting is still going on, either under IWC quotas to assist the subsistence of Arctic native people or in the name of scientific research, although a large spectrum of non-lethal methods are now available to study marine mammals in the wild. Cetaceans also face severe environmental hazards from underwater noise pollution, entanglement in abandoned ropes and nets, collisions with ships, plastic and heavy metals build-up, to accelerating climate change, but how much they are affected varies widely from species to species, from minimally in the case of the southern bottlenose whale to the baiji (Chinese river dolphin) which is considered to be functionally extinct due to human activity. Baleen whales and toothed whales The two parvorders, baleen whales (Mysticeti) and toothed whales (Odontoceti), are thought to have diverged around thirty-four million years ago. Baleen whales have bristles made of keratin instead of teeth. The bristles filter krill and other small invertebrates from seawater. Grey whales feed on bottom-dwelling mollusks. Rorqual family (balaenopterids) use throat pleats to expand their mouths to take in food and sieve out the water. Balaenids (right whales and bowhead whales) have massive heads that can make up 40% of their body mass. Most mysticetes prefer the food-rich colder waters of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, migrating to the Equator to give birth. During this process, they are capable of fasting for several months, relying on their fat reserves. The parvorder of Odontocetes – the toothed whales – include sperm whales, beaked whales, orcas, dolphins and porpoises. Generally their teeth have evolved to catch fish, squid or other marine invertebrates, not for chewing them, so prey is swallowed whole. Teeth are shaped like cones (dolphins and sperm whales), spades (porpoises), pegs (belugas), tusks (narwhals) or variable (beaked whale males). Female beaked whales' teeth are hidden in the gums and are not visible, and most male beaked whales have only two short tusks. Narwhals have vestigial teeth other than their tusk, which is present on males and 15% of females and has millions of nerves to sense water temperature, pressure and salinity. A few toothed whales, such as some orcas, feed on mammals such as pinnipeds and other whales. Toothed whales have well-developed senses – their eyesight and hearing are adapted for both air and water, and they have advanced sonar capabilities using their melon. Their hearing is so well-adapted for both air and water that some blind specimens can survive. Some species, such as sperm whales, are well adapted for diving to great depths. Several species of toothed whales show sexual dimorphism, in which the males differ from the females, usually for purposes of sexual display or aggression. Anatomy Cetacean bodies are generally similar to those of fish, which can be attributed to their lifestyle and the habitat conditions. Their body is well-adapted to their habitat, although they share essential characteristics with other higher mammals (Eutheria). They have a streamlined shape, and their forelimbs are flippers. Almost all have a dorsal fin on their backs, but this can take on many forms, depending on the species. A few species, such as the beluga whale, lack them. Both the flipper and the fin are for stabilization and steering in the water. The male genitals and the mammary glands of females are sunken into the body. The male genitals are attached to a vestigial pelvis. The body is wrapped in a thick layer of fat, known as blubber. This provides thermal insulation and gives cetaceans their smooth, streamlined body shape. In larger species, it can reach a thickness up to . Sexual dimorphism evolved in many toothed whales. Sperm whales, narwhals, many members of the beaked whale family, several species of the porpoise family, orcas, pilot whales, eastern spinner dolphins and northern right whale dolphins show this characteristic. Males in these species developed external features absent in females that are advantageous in combat or display. For example, male sperm whales are up to 63% percent larger than females, and many beaked whales possess tusks used in competition among males. Hind legs are not present in cetaceans, nor are any other external body attachments such as a pinna and hair. Head Whales have an elongated head, especially baleen whales, due to the wide overhanging jaw. Bowhead whale plates can be long. Their nostril(s) make up the blowhole, with one in toothed whales and two in baleen whales. The nostrils are located on top of the head above the eyes so that the rest of the body can remain submerged while surfacing for air. The back of the skull is significantly shortened and deformed. By shifting the nostrils to the top of the head, the nasal passages extend perpendicularly through the skull. The teeth or baleen in the upper jaw sit exclusively on the maxilla. The braincase is concentrated through the nasal passage to the front and is correspondingly higher, with individual cranial bones that overlap. In toothed whales, connective tissue exists in the melon as a head buckle. This is filled with air sacs and fat that aid in buoyancy and biosonar. The sperm whale has a particularly pronounced melon; this is called the spermaceti organ and contains the eponymous spermaceti, hence the name "sperm whale". Even the long tusk of the narwhal is a vice-formed tooth. In many toothed whales, the depression in their skull is due to the formation of a large melon and multiple, asymmetric air bags. River dolphins, unlike most other cetaceans, can turn their head 90°. Most other cetaceans have fused neck vertebrae and are unable to turn their head at all. The baleen of baleen whales consists of long, fibrous strands of keratin. Located in place of the teeth, it has the appearance of a huge fringe and is used to sieve the water for plankton and krill. Brain , considered the largest brain in the world]] Sperm whales have the largest brain mass of any animal on Earth, averaging and in mature males. The brain to body mass ratio in some odontocetes, such as belugas and narwhals, is second only to humans. In some whales, however, it is less than half that of humans: 0.9% versus 2.1%. In cetaceans, evolution in the water has caused changes to the head that have modified brain shape such that the brain folds around the insula and expands more laterally than in terrestrial mammals. As a result, the cetacean prefrontal cortex (compared to that in humans) rather than frontal is laterally positioned. Brain size was previously considered a major indicator of intelligence. Since most of the brain is used for maintaining bodily functions, greater ratios of brain to body mass may increase the amount of brain mass available for cognitive tasks. Allometric analysis of the relationship between mammalian brain mass (weight) and body mass for different species of mammals shows that larger species generally have larger brains. However, this increase is not fully proportional. Typically the brain mass only increases in proportion to somewhere between the two-thirds power (or the square of the cube root) and the three-quarters power (or the cube of the fourth root) of the body mass. <big>m<sub>brain</sub> ∝ (m<sub>body</sub>)<sup>k</sup></big> where k is between two-thirds and three-quarters. Thus if Species B is twice the size of Species A, its brain size will typically be somewhere between 60% and 70% higher. Comparison of a particular animal's brain size with the expected brain size based on such an analysis provides an encephalization quotient that can be used as an indication of animal intelligence. The neocortex of many cetaceans is home to elongated spindle neurons that, prior to 2019, were known only in hominids. In humans, these cells are thought to be involved in social conduct, emotions, judgment and theory of mind. Cetacean spindle neurons are found in areas of the brain homologous to where they are found in humans, suggesting they perform a similar function. Skeleton The cetacean skeleton is largely made up of cortical bone, which stabilizes the animal in the water. For this reason, the usual terrestrial compact bones, which are finely woven cancellous bone, are replaced with lighter and more elastic material. In many places, bone elements are replaced by cartilage and even fat, thereby improving their hydrostatic qualities. The ear and the muzzle contain a bone shape that is exclusive to cetaceans with a high density, resembling porcelain. This conducts sound better than other bones, thus aiding biosonar. The number of vertebrae that make up the spine varies by species, ranging from forty to ninety-three. The cervical spine, found in all mammals, consists of seven vertebrae which, however, are reduced or fused. This fusion provides stability during swimming at the expense of mobility. The fins are carried by the thoracic vertebrae, ranging from nine to seventeen individual vertebrae. The sternum is cartilaginous. The last two to three pairs of ribs are not connected and hang freely in the body wall. The stable lumbar and tail include the other vertebrae. Below the caudal vertebrae is the chevron bone. The front limbs are paddle-shaped with shortened arms and elongated finger bones, to support movement. They are connected by cartilage. The second and third fingers display a proliferation of the finger members, a so-called hyperphalangy. The shoulder joint is the only functional joint in all cetaceans except for the Amazon river dolphin. The collarbone is completely absent. Fluke <!--Fluke (tail) redirects directly here.--> Cetaceans have a cartilaginous fluke at the end of their tails that is used for propulsion. The fluke is set horizontally on the body and used with vertical movements, unlike fish and ichthyosaurs, which have vertical tails which move horizontally. Physiology Circulation Cetaceans have powerful hearts. Blood oxygen is distributed effectively throughout the body. They are warm-blooded, i.e., they hold a nearly constant body temperature. Respiration Cetaceans have lungs, meaning they breathe air. An individual can last without a breath from a few minutes to over two hours depending on the species. Cetacea are deliberate breathers who must be awake to inhale and exhale. When stale air, warmed from the lungs, is exhaled, it condenses as it meets colder external air. As with a terrestrial mammal breathing out on a cold day, a small cloud of 'steam' appears. This is called the 'spout' and varies across species in shape, angle and height. Species can be identified at a distance using this characteristic. The structure of the respiratory and circulatory systems is of particular importance for the life of marine mammals. The oxygen balance is effective. Each breath can replace up to 90% of the total lung volume. For land mammals, in comparison, this value is usually about 15%. During inhalation, about twice as much oxygen is absorbed by the lung tissue as in a land mammal. As with all mammals, the oxygen is stored in the blood and the lungs, but in cetaceans, it is also stored in various tissues, mainly in the muscles. The muscle pigment, myoglobin, provides an effective bond. This additional oxygen storage is vital for deep diving, since beyond a depth around , the lung tissue is almost completely compressed by the water pressure. Abdominal organs The stomach consists of three chambers. The first region is formed by a loose gland and a muscular forestomach (missing in beaked whales); this is followed by the main stomach and the pylorus. Both are equipped with glands to help digestion. A bowel adjoins the stomachs, whose individual sections can only be distinguished histologically. The liver is large and separate from the gall bladder. The kidneys are long and flattened. The salt concentration in cetacean blood is lower than that in seawater, requiring kidneys to excrete salt. This allows the animals to drink seawater. The urinary bladder is proportionally smaller in cetaceans than in land mammals. The testes are located internally, without an external scrotum. The uterus is bicornuate. Electroreception At least one species, the tucuxi or Guiana dolphin, is able to use electroreception to sense prey. Ears Cetaceans are known to possess excellent hearing. ]] The external ear has lost the pinna (visible ear), but still retains a narrow ear canal. The three small bones or ossicles that transmit sound within each ear are dense and compact, and differently shaped from those of land mammals. The semicircular canals are much smaller relative to body size than in other mammals. A bony structure of the middle and inner ear, the auditory bulla, is composed of two compact and dense bones (the periotic and tympanic). It is housed in a cavity in the middle ear; in the Odontoceti (apart from in the physeterids, this cavity is filled with dense foam and completely surrounds the bulla, which is connected to the skull only by ligaments. This may isolate the ear from sounds transmitted through the bones of the skull, something that also happens in bats. Cetaceans use sound to communicate, using groans, moans, whistles, clicks or the 'singing' of the humpback whale. They can discern the size, shape, surface characteristics, distance and movement of an object. They can search for, chase and catch fast-swimming prey in total darkness. Most Odontoceti can distinguish between prey and nonprey (such as humans or boats); captive Odontoceti can be trained to distinguish between, for example, balls of different sizes or shapes. Echolocation clicks also contain characteristic details unique to each animal, which may suggest that toothed whales can discern between their own click and that of others. While differences in ear structure associated with echolocating abilities are found amongst Cetacea, cranial asymmetry has also been found to be a factor in the ability to produce sounds used in echolocation. Mysticeti, who don't have the ability to echolocate, possess general symmetry of the skull and facial region, while Odontoceti display a nasofacial asymmetry that is linked to their echolocating abilities. Differences in the level of asymmetry also seem to correlate with differences in the types of sounds produced. Chromosomes The initial karyotype includes a set of chromosomes from 2n 44. They have four pairs of telocentric chromosomes (whose centromeres sit at one of the telomeres), two to four pairs of subtelocentric and one or two large pairs of submetacentric chromosomes. The remaining chromosomes are metacentric—the centromere is approximately in the middle—and are rather small. All cetaceans have chromosomes 2n 44, except the sperm whales and pygmy sperm whales, which have 2n 42. Ecology Range and habitat Cetaceans are found in many aquatic habitats. While many marine species, such as the blue whale, the humpback whale and the orca, have a distribution area that includes nearly the entire ocean, some species occur only locally or in broken populations. These include the vaquita, which inhabits a small part of the Gulf of California and Hector's dolphin, which lives in some coastal waters in New Zealand. Most river dolphin species live exclusively in fresh water. Many species inhabit specific latitudes, often in tropical or subtropical waters, such as Bryde's whale or Risso's dolphin. Others are found only in a specific body of water. The southern right whale dolphin and the hourglass dolphin live only in the Southern Ocean. The narwhal and the beluga live only in the Arctic Ocean. Sowerby's beaked whale and the Clymene dolphin exist only in the Atlantic and the Pacific white-sided dolphin and the northern straight dolphin live only in the North Pacific. Cosmopolitan species may be found in the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans. However, northern and southern populations become genetically separated over time. In some species, this separation leads eventually to a divergence of the species, such as produced the southern right whale, North Pacific right whale and North Atlantic right whale. Migratory species' reproductive sites often lie in the tropics and their feeding grounds in polar regions. Thirty-two species are found in European waters, including twenty-five toothed and seven baleen species. Whale migration Many species of whales migrate on a latitudinal basis to move between seasonal habitats. For example, the gray whale migrates round trip. The journey begins at winter birthing grounds in warm lagoons along Baja California, and traverses of coastline to summer feeding grounds in the Bering, Chuckchi and Beaufort seas off the coast of Alaska. Behaviour Sleep Conscious breathing cetaceans sleep but cannot afford to be unconscious for long, because they may drown. While knowledge of sleep in wild cetaceans is limited, toothed cetaceans in captivity have been recorded to exhibit unihemispheric slow-wave sleep (USWS), which means they sleep with one side of their brain at a time, so that they may swim, breathe consciously and avoid both predators and social contact during their period of rest. A 2008 study found that sperm whales sleep in vertical postures just under the surface in passive shallow 'drift-dives', generally during the day, during which whales do not respond to passing vessels unless they are in contact, leading to the suggestion that whales possibly sleep during such dives. Diving While diving, the animals reduce their oxygen consumption by lowering the heart activity and blood circulation; individual organs receive no oxygen during this time. Some rorquals can dive for up to 40 minutes, sperm whales between 60 and 90 minutes and bottlenose whales for two hours. Diving depths average about . Species such as sperm whales can dive to , although more commonly . Social relations Most cetaceans are social animals, although a few species live in pairs or are solitary. A group, known as a pod, usually consists of ten to fifty animals, but on occasion, such as mass availability of food or during mating season, groups may encompass more than one thousand individuals. Inter-species socialization can occur. Pods have a fixed hierarchy, with the priority positions determined by biting, pushing or ramming. The behavior in the group is aggressive only in situations of stress such as lack of food, but usually it is peaceful. Contact swimming, mutual fondling and nudging are common. The playful behavior of the animals, which is manifested in air jumps, somersaults, surfing, or fin hitting, occurs more often than not in smaller cetaceans, such as dolphins and porpoises. Hunting Pod groups also hunt, often with other species. Many species of dolphins accompany large tunas on hunting expeditions, following large schools of fish. The orca hunts in pods and targets belugas and even larger whales. Humpback whales, among others, form in collaboration bubble carpets to herd krill or plankton into bait balls before lunging at them. Smaller cetaceans, such as dolphins and porpoises, engage in complex play behavior, including such things as producing stable underwater toroidal air-core vortex rings or "bubble rings". The two main methods of bubble ring production are rapid puffing of air into the water and allowing it to rise to the surface, forming a ring, or swimming repeatedly in a circle and then stopping to inject air into the helical vortex currents thus formed. They also appear to enjoy biting the vortex rings, so that they burst into many separate bubbles and then rise quickly to the surface. Whales produce bubble nets to aid in herding prey. ]] Larger whales are also thought to engage in play. The southern right whale elevates its tail fluke above the water, remaining in the same position for a considerable time. This is known as "sailing". It appears to be a form of play and is most commonly seen off the coast of Argentina and South Africa. Humpback whales also display this behaviour. Self-awareness appears to be a sign of abstract thinking. Self-awareness, although not well-defined, is believed to be a precursor to more advanced processes such as metacognitive reasoning (thinking about thinking) that humans exploit. Dolphins appear to possess self-awareness. The most widely used test for self-awareness in animals is the mirror test, in which a temporary dye is placed on an animal's body and the animal is then presented with a mirror. Researchers then explore whether the animal shows signs of self-recognition. Critics claim that the results of these tests are susceptible to the Clever Hans effect. This test is much less definitive than when used for primates. Primates can touch the mark or the mirror, while dolphins cannot, making their alleged self-recognition behavior less certain. Skeptics argue that behaviors said to identify self-awareness resemble existing social behaviors, so researchers could be misinterpreting self-awareness for social responses. Advocates counter that the behaviors are different from normal responses to another individual. Dolphins show less definitive behavior of self-awareness, because they have no pointing ability. They showed dolphins real-time footage of themselves, recorded footage and another dolphin. They concluded that their evidence suggested self-awareness rather than social behavior. While this particular study has not been replicated, dolphins later "passed" the mirror test. Little is known about how these decisions work, though studies have found evidence messy consensus decisions in groups of sperm whales and leadership in other species like bottlenose dolphins and killer whales. Life history Reproduction and brooding Most cetaceans sexually mature at seven to 10 years. An exception to this is the La Plata dolphin, which is sexually mature at two years, but lives only to about 20. The sperm whale reaches sexual maturity within about 20 years and has a lifespan between 50 and 100 years. After birth, the mother carries the infant to the surface for its first breath. At birth, they are about one-third of their adult length and tend to be independently active, comparable to terrestrial mammals. Suckling Like other placental mammals, cetaceans give birth to well-developed calves and nurse them with milk from their mammary glands. When suckling, the mother actively splashes milk into the mouth of the calf, using the muscles of her mammary glands, as the calf has no lips. This milk usually has a high-fat content, ranging from 16 to 46%, causing the calf to increase rapidly in size and weight. This reproductive strategy provides a few offspring that have a high survival rate. Lifespan Among cetaceans, whales are distinguished by an unusual longevity compared to other higher mammals. Some species, such as the bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus), can reach over 200 years. Based on the annual rings of the bony otic capsule, the age of the oldest known specimen is a male determined to be 211 years at the time of death. Death Upon death, whale carcasses fall to the deep ocean and provide a substantial habitat for marine life. Evidence of whale falls in present-day and fossil records shows that deep-sea whale falls support a rich assemblage of creatures, with a global diversity of 407 species, comparable to other neritic biodiversity hotspots, such as cold seeps and hydrothermal vents. Deterioration of whale carcasses happens through three stages. Initially, organisms such as sharks and hagfish scavenge the soft tissues at a rapid rate over a period of months and as long as two years. This is followed by the colonization of bones and surrounding sediments (which contain organic matter) by enrichment opportunists, such as crustaceans and polychaetes, throughout a period of years. Finally, sulfophilic bacteria reduce the bones releasing hydrogen sulfide enabling the growth of chemoautotrophic organisms, which in turn, support organisms such as mussels, clams, limpets and sea snails. This stage may last for decades and supports a rich assemblage of species, averaging 185 per site. Disease Brucellosis affects almost all mammals. It is distributed worldwide, while fishing and pollution have caused porpoise population density pockets, which risks further infection and disease spreading. Brucella ceti, most prevalent in dolphins, has been shown to cause chronic disease, increasing the chance of failed birth and miscarriages, male infertility, neurobrucellosis, cardiopathies, bone and skin lesions, strandings and death. Until 2008, no case had ever been reported in porpoises, but isolated populations have an increased risk and consequentially a high mortality rate. Evolution Fossil history Origins The direct ancestors of today's cetaceans are probably found within the Dorudontidae whose most famous member, Dorudon, lived at the same time as Basilosaurus. Both groups had already developed some of the typical anatomical features of today's whales, such as the fixed bulla, which replaces the mammalian eardrum, as well as sound-conducting elements for submerged directional hearing. Their wrists were stiffened and probably contributed to the typical build of flippers. The hind legs existed, however, but were significantly reduced in size and with a vestigial pelvis connection. One of the oldest members of ancient cetaceans (Archaeoceti) is Pakicetus from the Middle Eocene of Pakistan. This is an animal the size of a wolf, whose skeleton is known only partially. It had functioning legs and lived near the shore. This suggests the animal could still move on land. The long snout had carnivorous dentition. The snout was elongated with overhead nostrils and eyes. The tail was strong and supported movement through water. Ambulocetus probably lived in mangroves in brackish water and fed in the riparian zone as a predator of fish and other vertebrates. Dating from about 45 million years ago are species such as Indocetus, Kutchicetus, Rodhocetus and Andrewsiphius, all of which were adapted to life in water. The hind limbs of these species were regressed and their body shapes resemble modern whales. Protocetidae family member Rodhocetus is considered the first to be fully aquatic. The body was streamlined and delicate with extended hand and foot bones. The merged pelvic lumbar spine was present, making it possible to support the floating movement of the tail. It was likely a good swimmer, but could probably move only clumsily on land, much like a modern seal. External phylogeny Molecular biology, immunology, and fossils show that cetaceans are phylogenetically closely related with the even-toed ungulates (Artiodactyla). Whales' direct lineage began in the early Eocene, around 55.8 million years ago, with early artiodactyls. Since the fossil record suggests that the morphologically distinct hippo lineage dates back only about 15 million years, Cetacea and hippos apparently diverged from a common ancestor that was morphologically distinct from either. The most striking common feature is the talus, a bone in the upper ankle. Early cetaceans, archaeocetes, show double castors, which occur only in even-toed ungulates. Corresponding findings are from Tethys Sea deposits in northern India and Pakistan. The Tethys Sea was a shallow sea between the Asian continent and northward-bound Indian plate. as streamlined swimmers with fish and aquatic reptiles. ]] Molecular and morphological evidence suggests that artiodactyls as traditionally defined are paraphyletic with respect to cetaceans. Cetaceans are deeply nested within the artiodactyls; the two groups together form a clade, a natural group with a common ancestor, for which the name Cetartiodactyla is sometimes used. Modern nomenclature divides Artiodactyla (or Cetartiodactyla) into four subordinate taxa: camelids (Tylopoda), pigs and peccaries (Suina), ruminants (Ruminantia), and hippos plus whales (Whippomorpha). The Cetacea's presumed location within Artiodactyla can be represented in the following cladogram:<!--why have we got a heap of refs for a single cladogram?--> \|label2=Cetancodonta/Whippomorpha \|sublabel2=54 mya \|2= }} }} }} }} Internal phylogeny Within Cetacea, the two parvorders are baleen whales (Mysticeti) which owe their name to their baleen, and toothed whales (Odontoceti), which have teeth shaped like cones, spades, pegs, or tusks, and can perceive their environment through biosonar. \|align=left \|cladogram= "></span> \|2= }} }} }} \|label2=Odontoceti \|sublabel2=(toothed whales) \|2= \|2= }} \|label2=Delphinoidea \|2= }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} The terms whale and dolphin are informal: Mysticeti: :Whales, with four families: Balaenidae (right and bowhead whales), Cetotheriidae (pygmy right whales), Balaenopteridae (rorquals), Eschrichtiidae (grey whales) Odontoceti: :Whales: with four families: Monodontidae (belugas and narwhals), Physeteridae (sperm whales), Kogiidae (dwarf and pygmy sperm whales), and Ziphiidae (beaked whales) :Dolphins, with five families: Delphinidae (oceanic dolphins), Platanistidae (South Asian river dolphins), Lipotidae (old world river dolphins) Iniidae (new world river dolphins), and Pontoporiidae (La Plata dolphins) :Porpoises, with one family: Phocoenidae The term 'great whales' covers those currently regulated by the International Whaling Commission: the Odontoceti families Physeteridae (sperm whales), Ziphiidae (beaked whales), and Kogiidae (pygmy and dwarf sperm whales); and Mysticeti families Balaenidae (right and bowhead whales), Cetotheriidae (pygmy right whales), Eschrichtiidae (grey whales), as well as part of the family Balaenopteridae (minke, Bryde's, sei, blue and fin; not Eden's and Omura's whales). Threats The primary threats to cetaceans come from people, both directly from whaling or drive hunting and indirect threats from fishing and pollution. Whaling Whaling is the practice of hunting whales, mainly baleen and sperm whales. This activity has gone on since the Stone Age. In the Middle Ages, reasons for whaling included their meat, oil usable as fuel and the jawbone, which was used in house construction. At the end of the Middle Ages, early whaling fleets aimed at baleen whales, such as bowheads. In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Dutch fleet had about 300 whaling ships with 18,000 crewmen. In the 18th and 19th centuries, baleen whales especially were hunted for their baleen, which was used as a replacement for wood, or in products requiring strength and flexibility such as corsets and crinoline skirts. In addition, the spermaceti found in the sperm whale was used as a machine lubricant and the ambergris as a material for pharmaceutical and perfume industries. In the second half of the 19th century, the explosive harpoon was invented, leading to a massive increase in the catch size. Large ships were used as "mother" ships for the whale handlers. In the first half of the 20th century, whales were of great importance as a supplier of raw materials. Whales were intensively hunted during this time; in the 1930s, 30,000 whales were killed. This increased to over 40,000 animals per year up to the 1960s, when stocks of large baleen whales collapsed. Most hunted whales are now threatened, with some great whale populations exploited to the brink of extinction. Atlantic and Korean gray whale populations were completely eradicated and the North Atlantic right whale population fell to some 300–600. The blue whale population is estimated to be around 14,000. The first efforts to protect whales came in 1931. Some particularly endangered species, such as the humpback whale (which then numbered about 100 animals), were placed under international protection and the first protected areas were established. In 1946, the International Whaling Commission (IWC) was established, to monitor and secure whale stocks. Whaling of 14 large species for commercial purposes was prohibited worldwide by this organization from 1985 to 2005, though some countries do not honor the prohibition. The stocks of species such as humpback and blue whales have recovered, though they are still threatened. The United States Congress passed the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 sustain the marine mammal population. It prohibits the taking of marine mammals except for several hundred per year taken in Alaska. Japanese whaling ships are allowed to hunt whales of different species for ostensibly scientific purposes. Aboriginal whaling is still permitted. About 1,200 pilot whales were taken in the Faroe Islands in 2017, and about 900 narwhals and 800 belugas per year are taken in Alaska, Canada, Greenland, and Siberia. About 150 minke are taken in Greenland per year, 120 gray whales in Siberia and 50 bowheads in Alaska, as aboriginal whaling, besides the 600 minke taken commercially by Norway, 300 minke and 100 sei taken by Japan and up to 100 fin whales taken by Iceland. Iceland and Norway do not recognize the ban and operate commercial whaling. Norway and Japan are committed to ending the ban. Dolphins and other smaller cetaceans are sometimes hunted in an activity known as dolphin drive hunting. This is accomplished by driving a pod together with boats, usually into a bay or onto a beach. Their escape is prevented by closing off the route to the ocean with other boats or nets. Dolphins are hunted this way in several places around the world, including the Solomon Islands, the Faroe Islands, Peru and Japan (the most well-known practitioner). Dolphins are mostly hunted for their meat, though some end up in dolphinaria. Despite the controversy thousands of dolphins are caught in drive hunts each year. Fishing made of baleen]] Dolphin pods often reside near large tuna shoals. This is known to fishermen, who look for dolphins to catch tuna. Dolphins are much easier to spot from a distance than tuna, since they regularly breathe. The fishermen pull their nets hundreds of meters wide in a circle around the dolphin groups, in the expectation that they will net a tuna shoal. When the nets are pulled together, the dolphins become entangled under water and drown. Line fisheries in larger rivers are threats to river dolphins. A greater threat than by-catch for small cetaceans is targeted hunting. In Southeast Asia, they are sold as fish-replacement to locals, since the region's edible fish promise higher revenues from exports. In the Mediterranean, small cetaceans are targeted to ease pressure on edible fish. Climate change influences the major wind systems and ocean currents, which also lead to cetacean strandings. Researchers studying strandings on the Tasmanian coast from 1920 to 2002 found that greater strandings occurred at certain time intervals. Years with increased strandings were associated with severe storms, which initiated cold water flows close to the coast. In nutrient-rich, cold water, cetaceans expect large prey animals, so they follow the cold water currents into shallower waters, where the risk is higher for strandings. Whales and dolphins who live in pods may accompany sick or debilitated pod members into shallow water, stranding them at low tide. Environmental hazards Heavy metals, residues of many plant and insect venoms and plastic waste flotsam are not biodegradable. Sometimes, cetaceans consume these hazardous materials, mistaking them for food items. As a result, the animals are more susceptible to disease and have fewer offspring. Vessel traffic also increases noise in the oceans. Such noise can disrupt cetacean behavior such as their use of biosonar for orientation and communication. Severe instances can panic them, driving them to the surface. This leads to bubbles in blood gases and can cause decompression sickness. Naval exercises with sonar regularly results in fallen cetaceans that wash up with fatal decompression. Sounds can be disruptive at distances of more than . Damage varies across frequency and species. Relationship to humans Research history In Aristotle's time, the fourth century BCE, whales were regarded as fish due to their superficial similarity. Aristotle, however, observed many physiological and anatomical similarities with the terrestrial vertebrates, such as blood (circulation), lungs, uterus and fin anatomy. His detailed descriptions were assimilated by the Romans, but mixed with a more accurate knowledge of the dolphins, as mentioned by Pliny the Elder in his Natural history. In the art of this and subsequent periods, dolphins are portrayed with a high-arched head (typical of porpoises) and a long snout. The harbour porpoise was one of the most accessible species for early cetologists; because it could be seen close to land, inhabiting shallow coastal areas of Europe. Much of the findings that apply to all cetaceans were first discovered in porpoises. One of the first anatomical descriptions of the airways of a harbor porpoise dates from 1671 by John Ray. It nevertheless referred to the porpoise as a fish. In the 10th edition of Systema Naturae (1758), Swedish biologist and taxonomist Carl Linnaeus asserted that cetaceans were mammals and not fish. His groundbreaking binomial system formed the basis of modern whale classification. Culture , 1865]] riding a dolphin]] Stone Age petroglyphs, such as those in Roddoy and Reppa (Norway), and the Bangudae Petroglyphs in South Korea, depict them. Whale bones were used for many purposes. In the Neolithic settlement of Skara Brae on Orkney sauce pans were made from whale vertebrae. The whale was first mentioned in ancient Greece by Homer. There, it is called Ketos, from which was derived the Roman word for whale, Cetus. In the Bible especially, the leviathan plays a role as a sea monster. The prophet Jonah, on his flight from the city of Nineveh, is swallowed by a whale. Dolphins are mentioned far more often than whales. Aristotle discusses the sacred animals of the Greeks in his Historia Animalium. The Greeks admired the dolphin as a "king of the aquatic animals" and referred to them erroneously as fish. Dolphins appear in Greek mythology. Because of their intelligence, they rescued multiple people from drowning. They were said to love music, probably because of their own song, and in the legends they saved famous musicians, such as Arion of Lesbos from Methymna. Dolphins belong to the domain of Poseidon and led him to his wife Amphitrite. Dolphins are associated with other gods, such as Apollo, Dionysus and Aphrodite. The Greeks paid tribute to both whales and dolphins with their own constellation. The constellation of the Whale (Ketos, lat. Cetus) is located south of the Dolphin (Delphi, lat. Delphinus) north of the zodiac. Ancient art often included dolphin representations, including the Cretan Minoans. A particularly popular representation is that of Arion or Taras riding on a dolphin. In early Christian art, the dolphin is a popular motif, at times used as a symbol of Christ. Middle Ages to the 19th century St. Brendan described in his travel story Navigatio Sancti Brendani an encounter with a whale, between the years 565–573. Most descriptions of large whales from the Middle Ages until the whaling era, beginning in the 17th century, were of beached whales. Raymond Gilmore documented seventeen sperm whales in the estuary of the Elbe from 1723 to 1959 and thirty-one animals on the coast of Great Britain in 1784. In 1827, a blue whale beached itself off the coast of Ostend. Whales were used as attractions in museums and traveling exhibitions. Whalers from the 17th to 19th centuries depicted whales in drawings and recounted tales of their occupation. Although they knew that whales were harmless giants, they described battles with harpooned animals. These included descriptions of sea monsters, including huge whales, sharks, sea snakes, giant squid and octopuses. Among the first whalers who described their experiences on whaling trips was Captain William Scoresby from Great Britain, who published the book Northern Whale Fishery, describing the hunt for northern baleen whales. This was followed by Thomas Beale, a British surgeon, in his book Some observations on the natural history of the sperm whale in 1835; and Frederick Debell Bennett's The tale of a whale hunt in 1840. Whales were described in narrative literature and paintings, most famously in the novels Moby Dick by Herman Melville and Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas by Jules Verne. Baleen was used to make vessel components such as the bottom of a bucket in the Scottish National Museum. The Norsemen crafted ornamented plates from baleen. In the Canadian Arctic (east coast) in Punuk and Thule culture (1000–1600 C.E.), baleen was used to construct houses in place of wood as roof support for winter houses. Modern culture s and false killer whales]] In the 20th century, perceptions of cetaceans changed. They transformed from monsters into creatures of wonder, as science revealed them to be intelligent and peaceful animals. Hunting was replaced by whale and dolphin tourism. This change is reflected in films and novels. For example, the protagonist of the series Flipper was a bottle-nose dolphin. The TV series SeaQuest DSV (1993–1996), the movies Free Willy and Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home, and the book series ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy by Douglas Adams are examples. The study of whale songs also produced a popular album, Songs of the Humpback Whale''. Captivity Whales and dolphins have been kept in captivity for use in education, research and entertainment since the 19th century. Belugas Beluga whales were the first whales to be kept in captivity. Other species were too rare, too shy or too big. The first was shown at Barnum's Museum in New York City in 1861. For most of the 20th century, Canada was the predominant source. Russia then became the largest provider. As of 2006, 30 belugas lived in Canada and 28 in the United States. 42 deaths in captivity had been reported. Orcas The orca's intelligence, trainability, striking appearance, playfulness in captivity and sheer size have made it a popular exhibit at aquaria and aquatic theme parks. From 1976 to 1997, fifty-five whales were taken from the wild in Iceland, nineteen from Japan and three from Argentina. These figures exclude animals that died during capture. Live captures fell dramatically in the 1990s and by 1999, about 40% of the forty-eight animals on display in the world were captive-born. Organizations such as World Animal Protection and the Whale and Dolphin Conservation campaign against the practice of keeping them in captivity. In captivity, they often develop pathologies, such as the dorsal fin collapse seen in 60–90% of captive males. Captives have reduced life expectancy, on average only living into their 20s, although some live longer, including several over 30 years old and two, Corky II and Lolita, in their mid-40s. In the wild, females who survive infancy live 46 years on average and up to 70–80 years. Wild males who survive infancy live 31 years on average and can reach 50–60 years. Captivity usually bears little resemblance to wild habitat and captive whales' social groups are foreign to those found in the wild. Critics claim captive life is stressful due to these factors and the requirement to perform circus tricks that are not part of wild orca behavior. Wild orca may travel up to in a day and critics say the animals are too big and intelligent to be suitable for captivity. Captives occasionally act aggressively towards themselves, their tankmates, or humans, which critics say is a result of stress. Orcas are well known for their performances in shows, but the number of orcas kept in captivity is small, especially when compared to the number of bottlenose dolphins, with only forty-four captive orcas being held in aquaria as of 2012. Each country has its own tank requirements; in the US, the minimum enclosure size is set by the Code of Federal Regulations, 9 CFR E § 3.104, under the Specifications for the Humane Handling, Care, Treatment and Transportation of Marine Mammals. ]] Aggression among captive orcas is common. They attack each other and their trainers as well. In 2013, SeaWorld's treatment of orcas in captivity was the basis of the movie Blackfish, which documents the history of Tilikum, an orca at SeaWorld Orlando, who had been involved in the deaths of three people. The film led to proposals by some lawmakers to ban captivity of cetaceans, and led SeaWorld to announce in 2016 that it would phase out its orca program. Others pilot whale with trainers]] Dolphins and porpoises are kept in captivity. Bottlenose dolphins are the most common, as they are relatively easy to train, have a long lifespan in captivity and have a friendly appearance. Bottlenose dolphins live in captivity across the world, though exact numbers are hard to determine. Other species kept in captivity are spotted dolphins, false killer whales and common dolphins, Commerson's dolphins, as well as rough-toothed dolphins, but all in much lower numbers. There are also fewer than ten pilot whales, Amazon river dolphins, Risso's dolphins, spinner dolphins, or tucuxi in captivity. Two unusual and rare hybrid dolphins, known as wolphins, are kept at Sea Life Park in Hawaii, which is a cross between a bottlenose dolphin and a false killer whale. Also, two common/bottlenose hybrids reside in captivity at Discovery Cove and SeaWorld San Diego. In repeated attempts in the 1960s and 1970s, narwhals kept in captivity died within months. A breeding pair of pygmy right whales were retained in a netted area. They were eventually released in South Africa. In 1971, SeaWorld captured a California gray whale calf in Mexico at Scammon's Lagoon. The calf, later named Gigi, was separated from her mother using a form of lasso attached to her flukes. Gigi was displayed at SeaWorld San Diego for a year. She was then released with a radio beacon affixed to her back; however, contact was lost after three weeks. Gigi was the first captive baleen whale. JJ, another gray whale calf, was kept at SeaWorld San Diego. JJ was an orphaned calf that beached itself in April 1997 and was transported two miles to SeaWorld. The calf was a popular attraction and behaved normally, despite separation from his mother. A year later, the then whale though smaller than average, was too big to keep in captivity, and was released on April 1, 1998. A captive Amazon river dolphin housed at Acuario de Valencia is the only trained river dolphin in captivity. References External links * * * [http://www.crru.org.uk/ Scottish Cetacean Research & Rescue] – see page on [http://www.crru.org.uk/taxonomy.asp Taxonomy] * * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110227051045/http://www.eia-international.org/campaigns/species/cetaceans/ EIA Cetacean campaign]: Reports and latest info. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20101121062046/http://www.eia-global.org/species_in_peril/ EIA in USA]: reports etc. Category:Extant Ypresian first appearances Category:Mammal infraorders Category:Taxa named by Mathurin Jacques Brisson Category:Taxa described in 1762	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cetacea	2025-04-05T18:28:13.678401
7627	The Canterbury Tales	(unfinished at Chaucer's death) \| english_pub_date \| published \| media_type \| pages \| awards \| isbn \| isbn_note \| oclc \| dewey =821.1 \| congress =PR1870 .A1 \| preceded_by \| followed_by \| wikisource = The Canterbury Tales \| notes \| exclude_cover \| website = }} The Canterbury Tales () in John Lydgate's 1421–1422 prologue to the Siege of Thebes.}} is a collection of 24 stories written in Middle English by Geoffrey Chaucer between 1387 and 1400. The book presents the tales, which are mostly written in verse, as part of a fictional storytelling contest held by a group of pilgrims travelling together from London to Canterbury to visit the shrine of Saint Thomas Becket at Canterbury Cathedral. The Tales are widely regarded as Chaucer's magnum opus. They had a major effect upon English literature and may have been responsible for the popularisation of the English vernacular in mainstream literature, as opposed to French or Latin. English had, however, been used as a literary language centuries before Chaucer's time, and several of Chaucer's contemporaries—John Gower, William Langland, the Gawain Poet, and Julian of Norwich—also wrote major literary works in English. It is unclear to what extent Chaucer was seminal in this evolution of literary preference. The Canterbury Tales is generally thought to have been incomplete at the end of Chaucer's life. In the General Prologue, some 30 pilgrims are introduced. According to the Prologue, Chaucer's intention was to write four stories from the perspective of each pilgrim, two each on the way to and from their ultimate destination, St. Thomas Becket's shrine (making for a total of about 120 stories). It is revered as one of the most important works in English literature. Text The question of whether The Canterbury Tales is a finished work has not been answered to date. There are 84 manuscripts and four incunabula (printed before 1500) editions of the work, which is more than for any other vernacular English literary text with the exception of Prick of Conscience. This comparison should not be taken as evidence of the Tales' popularity in the century after Chaucer's death, because, according to Derek Pearsall, it is unfair considering that Prick of Conscience had all the benefit of the "preservation of a dogmatic religious subject-matter". Fifty-five of these manuscripts are thought to have been originally complete, while 28 are so fragmentary that it is difficult to ascertain whether they were copied individually or as part of a set. The Tales vary in both minor and major ways from manuscript to manuscript; many of the minor variations are due to copyists' errors, while it is suggested that in other cases Chaucer both added to his work and revised it as it was being copied and possibly as it was being distributed. There are no manuscripts of the Canterbury Tales surviving in Chaucer's own hand. The two earliest known manuscripts, which both appear to have been copied by the same scribe, are MS Peniarth 392 D (called "Hengwrt"), and the Ellesmere Manuscript, a deluxe, illustrated manuscript. Until the 1940s, scholars tended to prefer the Ellesmere manuscript as closer to Chaucer's intentions; following John M. Manly and Edith Rickert, scholars increasingly favoured Hengwrt. The first version of The Canterbury Tales to be published in print was William Caxton's 1476 edition. It was one of the first books to be printed by Caxton, the first person in England to print books using a printing press. Only 10 copies of this edition are known to exist, including one held by the British Library and one held by the Folger Shakespeare Library. The copyist of the Hengwrt and Ellesmere manuscripts has been identified as a scrivener named Adam Pinkhurst. Since a poem, apparently by Chaucer, identifies his scribe as a man named "Adam", this has led to the hypothesis that the scribe who copied these two important manuscripts worked with Chaucer and knew him personally. This identification has been the subject of much controversy in the field of Middle English palaeography, though it is widely accepted as plausible. Order There is no consensus as to whether a complete version of the Tales exists, and also no consensus regarding Chaucer's intended order of the stories. Textual and manuscript clues have been adduced to support the two most popular modern methods of ordering the tales. Some scholarly editions divide the Tales into ten "Fragments". The tales that make up a Fragment are closely related and contain internal indications of their order of presentation, usually with one character speaking to and then stepping aside for another character. However, between Fragments, the connection is less obvious. Consequently, there are several possible orders; the one most frequently seen in modern editions follows the numbering of the Fragments (ultimately based on the Ellesmere order). : : : : :'Weeping and wailing, care and other sorrow :I know enough, in the evening and in the morning,' :quoth the Merchant, 'and so do many others :who have been married.' </div></div> No manuscript exists in Chaucer's own hand; all extant copies were made by scribes. Because the final -e sound was lost soon after Chaucer's time, scribes did not accurately copy it, and this gave scholars the impression that Chaucer himself was inconsistent in using it. It has now been established, however, that -e'' was an important part of Chaucer's grammar, and helped to distinguish singular adjectives from plural and subjunctive verbs from indicative. Sources ]] No other work prior to Chaucer's is known to have set a collection of tales within the framework of pilgrims on a pilgrimage. It is obvious, however, that Chaucer borrowed portions, sometimes very large portions, of his stories from earlier stories, and that his work was influenced by the general state of the literary world in which he lived. Storytelling was the main entertainment in England at the time, and storytelling contests had been around for hundreds of years. In 14th-century England, the English Pui was a group with an appointed leader who would judge the songs of the group. The winner received a crown and, as with the winner of The Canterbury Tales, a free dinner. It was common for pilgrims on a pilgrimage to have a chosen "master of ceremonies" to guide them and organise the journey. Harold Bloom suggests that the structure is mostly original, but inspired by the "pilgrim" figures of Dante and Virgil in The Divine Comedy. New research suggests that the General Prologue, in which the innkeeper and host Harry Bailey introduces each pilgrim, is a pastiche of the historical Harry Bailey's surviving 1381 poll-tax account of Southwark's inhabitants. The Canterbury Tales contains more parallels to the Decameron, by Giovanni Boccaccio, than any other work. Like the Tales, the Decameron features a frame tale in which several different narrators tell a series of stories. In the Decameron, the characters have fled to the countryside to escape the Black Death. It ends with an apology by Boccaccio, much like Chaucer's Retraction to the Tales. A quarter of the tales in The Canterbury Tales parallel a tale in the Decameron, although most of them have closer parallels in other stories. Some scholars thus find it unlikely that Chaucer had a copy of the work on hand, surmising instead that he may have merely read the Decameron at some point. Chaucer may have read the Decameron during his first diplomatic mission to Italy in 1372. Chaucer used a wide variety of sources, but some, in particular, were used frequently over several tales, among them the Bible, Classical poetry by Ovid, and the works of contemporary Italian writers Petrarch and Dante. Chaucer was the first author to use the work of these last two. Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy appears in several tales, as do the works of John Gower, a friend of Chaucer's. Chaucer also seems to have borrowed from numerous religious encyclopaedias and liturgical writings, such as John Bromyard's Summa praedicantium, a preacher's handbook, and Jerome's Adversus Jovinianum. Many scholars say there is a good possibility Chaucer met Petrarch or Boccaccio.Genre and structure from the north west c. 1890–1900 (retouched from a black & white photograph)]] The Canterbury Tales is a collection of stories built around a frame tale, a common and already long established genre in this period. Chaucer's Tales differs from most other story "collections" in this genre chiefly in its intense variation. Most story collections focused on a theme, usually a religious one. Even in the Decameron, storytellers are encouraged to stick to the theme decided on for the day. The idea of a pilgrimage to get such a diverse collection of people together for literary purposes was also unprecedented, though "the association of pilgrims and storytelling was a familiar one". Introducing a competition among the tales encourages the reader to compare the tales in all their variety, and allows Chaucer to showcase the breadth of his skill in different genres and literary forms. While the structure of the Tales is largely linear, with one story following another, it is also much more than that. In the General Prologue, Chaucer describes not the tales to be told, but the people who will tell them, making it clear that structure will depend on the characters rather than a general theme or moral. This idea is reinforced when the Miller interrupts to tell his tale after the Knight has finished his. Having the Knight go first gives one the idea that all will tell their stories by class, with the Monk following the Knight. However, the Miller's interruption makes it clear that this structure will be abandoned in favour of a free and open exchange of stories among all classes present. General themes and points of view arise as the characters tell their tales, which are responded to by other characters in their own tales, sometimes after a long lapse in which the theme has not been addressed. Lastly, Chaucer does not pay much attention to the progress of the trip, to the time passing as the pilgrims travel, or to specific locations along the way to Canterbury. His writing of the story seems focused primarily on the stories being told, and not on the pilgrimage itself. Style , .]] The variety of Chaucer's tales shows the breadth of his skill and his familiarity with many literary forms, linguistic styles, and rhetorical devices. Medieval schools of rhetoric at the time encouraged such diversity, dividing literature (as Virgil suggests) into high, middle, and low styles as measured by the density of rhetorical forms and vocabulary. Another popular method of division came from St. Augustine, who focused more on audience response and less on subject matter (a Virgilian concern). Augustine divided literature into "majestic persuades", "temperate pleases", and "subdued teaches". Writers were encouraged to write in a way that kept in mind the speaker, subject, audience, purpose, manner, and occasion. Chaucer moves freely between all of these styles, showing favouritism to none. He not only considers the readers of his work as an audience, but the other pilgrims within the story as well, creating a multi-layered rhetoric. With this, Chaucer avoids targeting any specific audience or social class of readers, focusing instead on the characters of the story and writing their tales with a skill proportional to their social status and learning. However, even the lowest characters, such as the Miller, show surprising rhetorical ability, although their subject matter is more lowbrow. Vocabulary also plays an important part, as those of the higher classes refer to a woman as a "lady", while the lower classes use the word "wenche", with no exceptions. At times the same word will mean entirely different things between classes. The word "pitee", for example, is a noble concept to the upper classes, while in the ''Merchant's Tale it refers to sexual intercourse. Again, however, tales such as the Nun's Priest's Tale show surprising skill with words among the lower classes of the group, while the Knight's Tale is at times extremely simple. Chaucer uses the same meter throughout almost all of his tales, with the exception of Sir Thopas'' and his prose tales. This is a line characterised by five stressed syllables, usually alternating with unstressed syllables to produce lines usually of ten syllables, but often eleven and occasionally nine; occasionally a caesura can be identified around the middle of a line. This metre was probably inspired by French and Italian forms. Chaucer's meter would later develop into the heroic meter of the 15th and 16th centuries sometimes known as riding rhyme, and is an ancestor of iambic pentameter. Chaucer's verse is usually also characterised by couplet rhyme, but he avoided allowing couplets to become too prominent in The Canterbury Tales, and four of the tales (the Man of Law's, Clerk's, Prioress', and Second Nun's) use rhyme royal. Historical context and themes of 1381 is mentioned in the Tales.]] In 1386, Chaucer became Controller of Customs and Justice of the Peace and, in 1389, Clerk of the King's Works. It was during these years that Chaucer began working on The Canterbury Tales. The end of the fourteenth century was a turbulent time in English history. The Catholic Church was in the midst of the Western Schism and, although it was still the only Christian authority in Western Europe, it was the subject of heavy controversy. Lollardy, an early English religious movement led by John Wycliffe, is mentioned in the Tales, which also mention a specific incident involving pardoners (sellers of indulgences, which were believed to relieve the temporal punishment due for sins that were already forgiven in the Sacrament of Confession) who nefariously claimed to be collecting for St. Mary Rouncesval hospital in England. The Canterbury Tales is among the first English literary works to mention paper, a relatively new invention that allowed dissemination of the written word never before seen in England. Political clashes, such as the 1381 Peasants' Revolt and clashes ending in the deposing of King Richard II, further reveal the complex turmoil surrounding Chaucer in the time of the Tales' writing. Many of his close friends were executed and he himself moved to Kent to get away from events in London. While some readers look to interpret the characters of The Canterbury Tales as historical figures, other readers choose to interpret its significance in less literal terms. After analysis of Chaucer's diction and historical context, his work appears to develop a critique of society during his lifetime. Within a number of his descriptions, his comments can appear complimentary in nature, but through clever language, the statements are ultimately critical of the pilgrim's actions. It is unclear whether Chaucer would intend for the reader to link his characters with actual persons. Instead, it appears that Chaucer creates fictional characters to be general representations of people in such fields of work. With an understanding of medieval society, one can detect subtle satire at work. Religion The Tales reflect diverse views of the Church in Chaucer's England. After the Black Death, many Europeans began to question the authority of the established Church. Some turned to Lollardy, while others chose less extreme paths, starting new monastic orders or smaller movements exposing church corruption in the behaviour of the clergy, false church relics or abuse of indulgences. Several characters in the Tales are religious figures, and the very setting of the pilgrimage to Canterbury is religious (although the prologue comments ironically on its merely seasonal attractions), making religion a significant theme of the work. Two characters, the Pardoner and the Summoner, whose roles apply the Church's secular power, are both portrayed as deeply corrupt, greedy, and abusive. Pardoners in Chaucer's day were those people from whom one bought Church "indulgences" for forgiveness of sins, who were guilty of abusing their office for their own gain. Chaucer's Pardoner openly admits the corruption of his practice while hawking his wares. Summoners were Church officers who brought sinners to the Church court for possible excommunication and other penalties. Corrupt summoners would write false citations and frighten people into bribing them to protect their interests. Chaucer's Summoner is portrayed as guilty of the very kinds of sins for which he is threatening to bring others to court, and is hinted as having a corrupt relationship with the Pardoner. In The Friar's Tale, one of the characters is a summoner who is shown to be working on the side of the devil, not God. ]] Churchmen of various kinds are represented by the Monk, the Prioress, the Nun's Priest, and the Second Nun. Monastic orders, which originated from a desire to follow an ascetic lifestyle separated from the world, had by Chaucer's time become increasingly entangled in worldly matters. Monasteries frequently controlled huge tracts of land on which they made significant sums of money, while peasants worked in their employ. The Second Nun is an example of what a Nun was expected to be: her tale is about a woman whose chaste example brings people into the church. The Monk and the Prioress, on the other hand, while not as corrupt as the Summoner or Pardoner, fall far short of the ideal for their orders. Both are expensively dressed, show signs of lives of luxury and flirtatiousness and show a lack of spiritual depth. The Prioress's Tale is an account of Jews murdering a deeply pious and innocent Christian boy, a blood libel against Jews that became a part of English literary tradition. The story did not originate in the works of Chaucer and was well known in the 14th century. Pilgrimage was a very prominent feature of medieval society. The ultimate pilgrimage destination was Jerusalem, but within England Canterbury was a popular destination. Pilgrims would journey to cathedrals that preserved relics of saints, believing that such relics held miraculous powers. Saint Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, had been murdered in Canterbury Cathedral by knights of Henry II during a disagreement between Church and Crown. Miracle stories connected to his remains sprang up soon after his death, and the cathedral became a popular pilgrimage destination. The pilgrimage in the work ties all of the stories together and may be considered a representation of Christians' striving for heaven, despite weaknesses, disagreement, and diversity of opinion. Social class and convention ' Dilemma – he chooses to save a maiden rather than his brother Lionel]] The upper class or nobility, represented chiefly by the Knight and his Squire, was in Chaucer's time steeped in a culture of chivalry and courtliness. Nobles were expected to be powerful warriors who could be ruthless on the battlefield yet mannerly in the King's Court and Christian in their actions. Knights were expected to form a strong social bond with the men who fought alongside them, but an even stronger bond with a woman whom they idealised to strengthen their fighting ability. Though the aim of chivalry was to noble action, its conflicting values often degenerated into violence. Church leaders frequently tried to place restrictions on jousts and tournaments, which at times ended in the death of the loser. The Knight's Tale shows how the brotherly love of two fellow knights turns into a deadly feud at the sight of a woman whom both idealise. To win her, both are willing to fight to the death. Chivalry was on the decline in Chaucer's day, and it is possible that The Knight's Tale was intended to show its flaws, although this is disputed. Chaucer himself had fought in the Hundred Years' War under Edward III, who heavily emphasised chivalry during his reign. Two tales, Sir Topas and The Tale of Melibee, are told by Chaucer himself, who is travelling with the pilgrims in his own story. Both tales seem to focus on the ill-effects of chivalry—the first making fun of chivalric rules and the second warning against violence. The Tales constantly reflect the conflict between classes. For example, the division of the three estates: the characters are all divided into three distinct classes, the classes being "those who pray" (the clergy), "those who fight" (the nobility), and "those who work" (the commoners and peasantry). Most of the tales are interlinked by common themes, and some "quit" (reply to or retaliate against) other tales. Convention is followed when the Knight begins the game with a tale, as he represents the highest social class in the group. But when he is followed by the Miller, who represents a lower class, it sets the stage for the Tales to reflect both a respect for and a disregard for upper class rules. Helen Cooper, as well as Mikhail Bakhtin and Derek Brewer, call this opposition "the ordered and the grotesque, Lent and Carnival, officially approved culture and its riotous, and high-spirited underside." Several works of the time contained the same opposition.LiminalityThe concept of liminality figures prominently within The Canterbury Tales. The notion of a pilgrimage is itself a liminal experience, because it centres on travel between destinations and because pilgrims undertake it hoping to become more holy in the process. Thus, the structure of The Canterbury Tales itself is liminal; it not only covers the distance between London and Canterbury, but the majority of the tales refer to places entirely outside the geography of the pilgrimage. Jean Jost summarises the function of liminality in The Canterbury Tales, Liminality is also evident in the individual tales. An obvious instance of this is The Friar's Tale in which the yeoman devil is a liminal figure because of his transitory nature and function; it is his purpose to issue souls from their current existence to hell, an entirely different one. The Franklin's Tale is a Breton Lai tale, which takes the tale into a liminal space by invoking not only the interaction of the supernatural and the mortal, but also the relation between the present and the imagined past. Reception While Chaucer clearly states the addressees of many of his poems (the Book of the Duchess is believed to have been written for John of Gaunt on the occasion of his wife's death in 1368), the intended audience of The Canterbury Tales is more difficult to determine. Chaucer was a courtier, leading some to believe that he was mainly a court poet who wrote exclusively for the nobility. He is referred to as a noble translator and poet by Eustache Deschamps and by his contemporary John Gower. It has been suggested that the poem was intended to be read aloud, which is probable as this was a common activity at the time. However, it also seems to have been intended for private reading, since Chaucer frequently refers to himself as the writer, rather than the speaker, of the work. Determining the intended audience directly from the text is even more difficult, since the audience is part of the story. This makes it difficult to tell when Chaucer is writing to the fictional pilgrim audience or the actual reader. Chaucer's works may have been distributed in some form during his lifetime in part or in whole. Scholars speculate that manuscripts were circulated among his friends, but likely remained unknown to most people until after his death. However, the speed with which copyists strove to write complete versions of his tale in manuscript form shows that Chaucer was a famous and respected poet in his own day. The Hengwrt and Ellesmere manuscripts are examples of the care taken to distribute the work. More manuscript copies of the poem exist than for any other poem of its day except The Prick of Conscience, causing some scholars to give it the medieval equivalent of bestseller status. Even the most elegant of the illustrated manuscripts, however, is not nearly as highly decorated as the work of authors of more respectable works such as John Lydgate's religious and historical literature. 15th century John Lydgate and Thomas Occleve were among the first critics of Chaucer's Tales, praising the poet as the greatest English poet of all time and the first to show what the language was truly capable of poetically. This sentiment was universally agreed upon by later critics into the mid-15th century. Glosses included in The Canterbury Tales manuscripts of the time praised him highly for his skill with "sentence" and rhetoric, the two pillars by which medieval critics judged poetry. The most respected of the tales was at this time the Knight's, as it was full of both. Literary additions and supplements The incompleteness of the Tales led several medieval authors to write additions and supplements to the tales to make them more complete. Some of the oldest existing manuscripts of the tales include new or modified tales, showing that even early on, such additions were being created. These emendations included various expansions of the ''Cook's Tale, which Chaucer never finished, The Plowman's Tale, The Tale of Gamelyn, the Siege of Thebes, and the Tale of Beryn. The Tale of Beryn, written by an anonymous author in the 15th century, is preceded by a lengthy prologue in which the pilgrims arrive at Canterbury and their activities there are described. While the rest of the pilgrims disperse throughout the town, the Pardoner seeks the affections of Kate the barmaid, but faces problems dealing with the man in her life and the innkeeper Harry Bailey. As the pilgrims turn back home, the Merchant restarts the storytelling with Tale of Beryn. In this tale, a young man named Beryn travels from Rome to Egypt to seek his fortune only to be cheated by other businessmen there. He is then aided by a local man in getting his revenge. The tale comes from the French tale Bérinus and exists in a single early manuscript of the tales, although it was printed along with the tales in a 1721 edition by John Urry. John Lydgate wrote The Siege of Thebes in about 1420. Like the Tale of Beryn'', it is preceded by a prologue in which the pilgrims arrive in Canterbury. Lydgate places himself among the pilgrims as one of them and describes how he was a part of Chaucer's trip and heard the stories. He characterises himself as a monk and tells a long story about the history of Thebes before the events of the ''Knight's Tale''. John Lydgate's tale was popular early on and exists in old manuscripts both on its own and as part of the Tales. It was first printed as early as 1561 by John Stow, and several editions for centuries after followed suit. There are actually two versions of ''The Plowman's Tale, both of which are influenced by the story Piers Plowman'', a work written during Chaucer's lifetime. Chaucer describes a Plowman in the General Prologue of his tales, but never gives him his own tale. One tale, written by Thomas Occleve, describes the miracle of the Virgin and the Sleeveless Garment. Another tale features a pelican and a griffin debating church corruption, with the pelican taking a position of protest akin to John Wycliffe's ideas. The Tale of Gamelyn was included in an early manuscript version of the tales, Harley 7334, which is notorious for being one of the lower-quality early manuscripts in terms of editor error and alteration. It is now widely rejected by scholars as an authentic Chaucerian tale, although some scholars think he may have intended to rewrite the story as a tale for the Yeoman. Dates for its authorship vary from 1340 to 1370. Later adaptations and homages Books * The most well-known work of the 18th century writer Harriet Lee was called The Canterbury Tales, and consists of twelve stories, related by travellers thrown together by untoward accident. In turn, Lee's version had a profound influence on Lord Byron. * E. Nesbit's 1901 book The Wouldbegoods includes an episode where the children protagonists re-enact the pilgrimage, taking on some of the character roles. * Henry Dudeney's 1907 book The Canterbury Puzzles contains a part reputedly lost from what modern readers know as Chaucer's tales. * Historical-mystery novelist P.C. Doherty wrote a series of novels based on The Canterbury Tales, making use of both the story frame and Chaucer's characters. * Science-fiction writer Dan Simmons wrote his Hugo Award winning 1989 novel Hyperion based on an extra-planetary group of pilgrims. * Evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins used The Canterbury Tales as a structure for his 2004 non-fiction book about evolution titled ''The Ancestor's Tale: A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Evolution. His animal pilgrims are on their way to find the common ancestor, each telling a tale about evolution. * Canadian author Angie Abdou translates The Canterbury Tales to a cross section of people, all snow-sports enthusiasts but from different social backgrounds, converging on a remote back-country ski cabin in British Columbia in the 2011 novel The Canterbury Trail''. * British poet and performer Patience Agbabi is one of fourteen authors who worked together to tell the stories and experiences of refugees, detainees, and asylum seekers in a book titled [https://www.refugeetales.org/books Refugee Tales]. The collaborative efforts of the writers and displaced people create stories modeled after Chaucer's tale of journey in The Canterbury Tales. This project is rooted in the efforts of the [https://www.gdwg.org.uk Gatwick Detainees Welfare Group], a non-partisan advocacy group for detained people. Stage adaptations * The Two Noble Kinsmen, by William Shakespeare and John Fletcher, a retelling of "The Knight's Tale", was first performed in 1613 or 1614 and published in 1634. * In 1961, Erik Chisholm completed his opera, The Canterbury Tales. The opera is in three acts: The Wyf of Bath's Tale, The Pardoner's Tale and The Nun's Priest's Tale. * Nevill Coghill's modern English version formed the basis of a musical version that was first staged in 1964. * In 2021, Zadie Smith debuted her first play, The Wife of Willesden, adapting the Wife of Bath's Prologue and Tale as told at a contemporary bar crawl, with the tale set in 17th century Jamaica. The work was originally performed in London and at the American Repertory Theater in Cambridge, Massachusetts in 2023. Film and television * A Canterbury Tale, a 1944 film, jointly written and directed by Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger, is loosely based on the narrative frame of Chaucer's tales. The movie opens with a group of medieval pilgrims journeying through the Kentish countryside as a narrator speaks the opening lines of the General Prologue. The scene then makes a now-famous transition to the time of World War II. From that point on, the film follows a group of strangers, each with their own story and in need of some kind of redemption, who are making their way to Canterbury together. The film's main story takes place in an imaginary town in Kent and ends with the main characters arriving at Canterbury Cathedral, bells pealing and Chaucer's words again resounding. A Canterbury Tale is recognised as one of the Powell-Pressburger team's most poetic and artful films. It was produced as wartime propaganda, using Chaucer's poetry, referring to the famous pilgrimage, and offering photography of Kent to remind the public of what made Britain worth fighting for. In one scene, a local historian lectures an audience of British soldiers about the pilgrims of Chaucer's time and the vibrant history of England. * Pier Paolo Pasolini's 1972 film The Canterbury Tales features several of the tales, some of which cohere to the original tale and others which are embellished. "The Cook's Tale", for instance, which is incomplete in the original version, is expanded into a full story, and "The Friar's Tale" extends the scene in which the Summoner is dragged down to hell. The film includes these two tales as well as "The Miller's Tale", "The Summoner's Tale", "The Wife of Bath's Tale", and "The Merchant's Tale". "The Tale of Sir Topas" was also filmed and dubbed; however, it was later removed by Pasolini, and is now considered lost. * Alan Plater retold the stories in a series of plays for BBC2 in 1975: Trinity Tales. * On 26 April 1986, American radio personality Garrison Keillor opened "The News from Lake Wobegon" portion of the first live TV broadcast of his A Prairie Home Companion radio show with a reading of the original Middle English text of the General Prologue. He commented, "Although those words were written more than 600 years ago, they still describe spring." * Jonathan Myerson directed an animated version of The Canterbury Tales in three parts from 1998 to 2000. The series was nominated for an Oscar (as animated short film) in 1999 and won the BAFTA Award for Best Animated Film in addition to four Primetime Emmys. * The 2001 film ''A Knight's Tale'', starring Heath Ledger, takes its title from Chaucer's "The Knight's Tale" and features Chaucer as a character. * In 2003, the BBC again featured modern re-tellings of selected tales in their six-episode series Canterbury Tales. Music * British Psychedelic rock band Procol Harum's 1967 hit "A Whiter Shade of Pale" is often assumed to be referencing the Canterbury Tales through the line, "as the miller told his tale." However, lyricist Keith Reid has denied this, saying he had never read Chaucer when he wrote the line. * The title of Sting's 1993 album ''Ten Summoner's Tales'' alludes to "The Summoner's Tale" and to Sting's birth name, Gordon Sumner. <gallery class="center"> File:The Knight - Ellesmere Chaucer.jpg\|The Knight File:The Squire - Ellesmere Chaucer.jpg\|The Squire File:The Reeve - Ellesmere Chaucer.jpg\|Oswald The Reeve File:Canterbury Tales - The Miller - f. 34v detail - Robin with the Bagpype - early 1400s Chaucer.png\|Robin The Miller File:Chaucer cook.jpg\|Roger The Cook File:Wife-of-Bath-ms-2.jpg\|Alison The Wife of Bath File:The Franklin - Ellesmere Chaucer.jpg\|The Franklin File:The Shipman - Ellesmere Chaucer.jpg\|The Shipman File:The Manciple - Ellesmere Chaucer.jpg\|The Manciple File:The Merchant - Ellesmere Chaucer.jpg\|The Merchant File:The Clerk of Oxford from the “Ellesmere Chaucer” (Huntington Library, San Marino).jpg\|The Clerk of Oxford File:The Man of Law from the EllsMan of Law from the “Ellesmere Chaucer” (Huntington Library, San Marino).jpg\|The Sergeant of Law File:The Physician - Ellesmere Chaucer.jpg\|The Physician File:The Parson - Ellesmere Chaucer.jpg\|The Parson File:The Monk - Ellesmere Chaucer.jpg\|The Monk File:The Prioress - Ellesmere Chaucer.jpg\|Madame Eglantine The Prioress File:The Second Nun - Ellesmere Chaucer.jpg\|The Second Nun File:The Nun's Priest - Ellesmere Chaucer.jpg\|The Nun's Priest File:Friar-canterbury-tales.jpg\|Hubert The Friar File:The Summoner - Ellesmere Chaucer.jpg\|The Summoner File:The Pardoner - Ellesmere Chaucer.jpg\|The Pardoner File:The Canon's Yeoman - Ellesmere Chaucer.jpg\|The Canon Yeoman File:Ellesmere Chaucer, mssEL 26 C 9, folio 153v, warmer image.jpg\|Geoffrey Chaucer </gallery> References Bibliography * * * * Further reading* * * * * * * * Nicholls, Jonathan. "Review: Chaucer's Narrators by David Lawton", The Modern Language Review,2017. * Pugh, Tison. "Gender, Vulgarity, and the Phantom Debates of Chaucer's Merchant's Tale", Studies in Philology, Vol. 114 Issue 3, 473–96, 2017. External links General * [https://chaucer.fas.harvard.edu/pages/text-and-translations Texts and translations at Harvard University] * [https://www.canterburytalesproject.org/ The Canterbury Tales Project]: publishing transcripts, images, collations and analysis of all surviving 15th-century copies * [http://www.hs-augsburg.de/~harsch/anglica/Chronology/14thC/Chaucer/cha_ca00.html The Canterbury Tales at the Bibliotheca Augustana] * Online texts * * * Facsimiles * [https://www.library.wales/discover-learn/digital-exhibitions/manuscripts/the-middle-ages/the-hengwrt-chaucer The Hengwrt Manuscript]: the oldest manuscript copy * [http://openn.library.upenn.edu/Data/0028/html/ms_1084_002.html MS 1084/2 Canterbury tales at OPenn] * [http://hdl.huntington.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15150coll7/id/2838 Ellesmere Chaucer] * [https://bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?ref=Harley_MS_7334 British Library, Harley MS 7334] * [https://bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?ref=Harley_MS_1758 British Library, Harley MS 1758] * [https://bl.uk/treasures/caxton/ Caxton's Chaucer]: scans of William Caxton's two editions of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales Category:1400 books Category:14th-century poems Category:Short stories about adultery Category:Arthurian literature in Middle English Category:Canterbury Category:Censored books Category:Frame stories Category:Middle English poems Category:Narrative poems Category:Novels set in Kent Category:Unfinished poems Category:Unfinished novels	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Canterbury_Tales	2025-04-05T18:28:13.727162
7628	Christine de Pizan	\| death_place = Poissy, Kingdom of France \| education \| occupation Writer \| spouse \| parents = Tommaso di Benvenuto da Pizzano \| children = 3 }} Christine de Pizan or Pisan (, ; born Cristina da Pizzano; September 1364 – ), was an Italian-born French court writer for King Charles VI of France and several French royal dukes, in both prose and poetry. Christine de Pizan served as a court writer in medieval France after the death of her husband. Christine's patrons included dukes Louis I of Orleans, Philip the Bold of Burgundy, and his son John the Fearless. Considered to be some of the earliest feminist writings, her work includes novels, poetry, and biography, and she also penned literary, historical, philosophical, political, and religious reviews and analyses. Her best known works are The Book of the City of Ladies and The Treasure of the City of Ladies, both prose works written when she worked for John the Fearless of Burgundy. Her books of advice to princesses, princes, and knights remained in print until the 16th century. Life Early life and family (1364–1389) Christine de Pizan was born in 1364 in the Republic of Venice, Italy. She was the daughter of Tommaso di Benvenuto da Pizzano. Her father became known as Thomas de Pizan, named for the family's origins in the village of Pizzano (currently part of the municipality of Monterenzio), southeast of Bologna. Her father worked as a physician, court astrologer and Councillor of the Republic of Venice. Thomas de Pizan accepted an appointment to the court of Charles V of France as the king's astrologer and in 1368 Christine moved to Paris. In 1379 Christine de Pizan married the notary and royal secretary Etienne du Castel. She had three children. Her daughter became a nun at the Dominican in 1397 as a companion to the King's daughter Marie. Christine's husband died of the plague in 1389, a year after her father had died. On 4 June 1389, in a judgment concerning a lawsuit filed against her by the archbishop of Sens and François Chanteprime, councillors of the King, Christine was called "damoiselle" and "widow of Estienne du Castel". Writing career (1389–1405) After her husband Etienne died, Christine was left to support her mother and her children. When she tried to collect money from her husband's estate, she faced complicated lawsuits regarding the recovery of salaries still owed to her husband. Through this, Christine became a court writer. By 1393, she was writing love ballads, which caught the attention of wealthy patrons within the court. Christine became a prolific writer. Her involvement in the production of her books and her skillful use of patronage in turbulent political times has earned her the title of the first professional woman of letters in Europe. with her army of Amazons coming to the aid of the Trojan army, illustrating ''L'Épître Othéa a Hector]] Although Venetian by birth, Christine expressed a fervent nationalism for France. Affectively and financially she became attached to the French royal family, donating or dedicating her early ballads to its members, including Isabeau of Bavaria, Louis I, Duke of Orléans, and Marie of Berry. Patronage changed in the late Middle Ages. Texts were still produced and circulated as continuous roll manuscripts, but were increasingly replaced by the bound codex. Members of the royal family became patrons of writers by commissioning books. As materials became cheaper a book trade developed, so writers and bookmakers produced books for the French nobility, who could afford to establish their own libraries. Christine thus had no single patron who consistently supported her financially and became associated with the royal court and the different factions of the royal family – the Burgundy, Orleans and Berry – each having their own respective courts. Throughout her career Christine undertook concurrent paid projects for individual patrons and subsequently published these works for dissemination among the nobility of France. France was ruled by Charles VI who since 1392 experienced a series of mental breakdowns, causing a crisis of leadership for the French monarchy. He was often absent from court and could eventually only make decisions with the approval of a royal council. Queen Isabeau was nominally in charge of governance when her husband was absent from court but could not extinguish the quarrel between members of the royal family. In the past, Blanche of Castile had played a central role in the stability of the royal court and had acted as regent of France. Christine published a series of works on the virtues of women, referencing Queen Blanche and dedicating them to Queen Isabeau. In 1402 she described Queen Isabeau as "High, excellent crowned Queen of France, very redoubtable princess, powerful lady, born at a lucky hour". Christine believed that France had been founded by the descendants of the Trojans and that its governance by the royal family adhered to the Aristotelian ideal. In 1400 Christine published L'Épistre de Othéa a Hector (Letter of Othea to Hector). When first published, the book was dedicated to Louis of Orléans, the brother of Charles VI, who was at court seen as potential regent of France. In L'Épistre de Othéa a Hector Hector of Troy is tutored in statecraft and the political virtues by the goddess of wisdom Othéa. Christine produced richly illustrated luxury editions of L'Épistre de Othéa a Hector'' in 1400. Between 1408 and 1415 Christine produced further editions of the book. Throughout her career she produced rededicated editions of the book with customised prologues for patrons, including an edition for Philip the Bold in 1403, and editions for Jean of Berry and Henry IV of England in 1404. In 1402, Christine became involved in a renowned literary controversy, the "Querelle du Roman de la Rose". Christine questioned the literary merits of Jean de Meun's popular Romance of the Rose, which satirizes the conventions of courtly love while critically depicting women as nothing more than seducers. In the midst of the Hundred Years' War between French and English kings, Christine wrote the dream allegory Le Chemin de long estude in 1403. Writing in the first-person, she and the Cumaean Sibyl travel together and witness a debate on the state of the world between the four allegories – Wealth, Nobility, Chivalry and Wisdom. Christine suggests that justice could be brought to earth by a single monarch who had the necessary qualities. In 1404, Christine chronicled the life of Charles V, portraying him as the ideal king and political leader, in Le Livre des fais et bonnes meurs du sage roy Charles V. The chronicle had been commissioned by Philip the Bold of Burgundy and in the chronicle, Christine passed judgment on the state of the royal court. When praising the efforts of Charles V in studying Latin, Christine lamented that her contemporaries had to resort to strangers to read the law to them. Before the book was completed, Philip the Bold died, and Christine offered the book to Jean, Duke of Berry in 1405 in an attempt to find a new patron. She was paid 100 livres for the book by Philip the Bold's successor John the Fearless in 1406 and would receive payments from his court for books until 1412. In 1405, Christine published Le Livre de la cité des dames (The Book of the City of Ladies) and Le Livre des trois vertus (Book of Three Virtues, known as The Treasure of the City of Ladies). In Le Livre de la cité des dames Christine presented intellectual and royal female leaders, such as Queen Zenobia. Christine dedicated Le Livre des trois vertus to the dauphine Margaret of Nevers, advising the young princess on what she had to learn. As Queen Isabeau's oldest son Louis of Guyenne came of age Christine addressed three works to him with the intention of promoting wise and effective government. The earliest of the three works has been lost. In Livre du Corps de policie (The Book of the Body Politic), published in 1407 and dedicated to the dauphin, Christine set out a political treatise which analysed and described the customs and governments of late medieval European societies. Christine favoured hereditary monarchies, arguing in reference to Italian city-states that were governed by princes or trade guilds, that "such governance is not profitable at all for the common good". Christine also devoted several chapters to the duties of a king as a military leader and she described in detail the role of the military class in society. Civil war (1405–1430) In the beginning of 1405, France was on the verge of a full-scale civil war. In 1407 John I of Burgundy, also known as John the Fearless, plunged France into a crisis when he ordered the assassination of Louis of Orléans. The Duke of Burgundy fled Paris when his complicity in the assassination became known, but was appointed regent of France on behalf of Charles VI in late 1408 after his military victory in the Battle of Othee. It is not certain who commissioned Christine to write a treatise on military warfare, but in 1410 Christine published the manual on chivalry, entitled ''Livre des fais d'armes et de chevalerie (The Book of Feats of Arms and of Chivalry). In early 1411, Christine was paid 200 livres from the royal reasury for the book. In the preface Christine explained that she published the manual in French so that it could be read by practitioners of war not well versed in Latin. The book opened with a discussion of the just war theory advanced by Honoré Bonet. Christine also referenced classical writers on military warfare, such as Vegetius, Frontinus and Valerius Maximus. Christine discussed contemporary matters relating to what she termed the Laws of War, such as capital punishment, the payment of troops, as well as the treatment of noncombatants and prisoners of war. Christine opposed trial by combat, but articulated the medieval belief that God is the lord and governor of battle and that wars are the proper execution of justice. Nevertheless, she acknowledged that in a war "many great wrongs, extortions, and grievous deeds are committed, as well as raping, killings, forced executions, and arsons". Christine limited the right to wage war to sovereign kings because as head of states they were responsible for the welfare of their subjects. In 1411 the royal court published an edict prohibiting nobles from raising an army. After civil war had broken out in France, Christine in 1413 offered guidance to the young dauphin on how to govern well, publishing Livre de la paix (The Book of Peace). Livre de la paix'' was to be Christine's last major work and contained detailed formulations of her thoughts on good governance. The period was marked by bouts of civil war and failed attempts to bring John the Fearless to justice for assassinating his cousin. Christine addressed Louis of Guyenne directly, encouraging him to continue the quest for peace in France. She argued that "Every kingdom divided in itself will be made desolate, and every city and house divided against itself will not stand". Christine was acquainted with William of Tignonville, an ambassador to the royal court, and referenced Tignonville's speeches on the Armagnac–Burgundian Civil War. Christine drew a utopian vision of a just ruler, who could take advice from those older or wiser. In arguing that peace and justice were possible on earth as well as in heaven, Christine was influenced by Dante, whom she had referenced in Le Chemin de long estude. Christine encouraged the dauphin to deserve respect, by administering justice promptly and living by worthy example. Christine urged young princes to make themselves available to their subjects, avoid anger and cruelty, to act liberally, mercifully and truthfully. Christine's interpretation of the virtuous Christian prince built on the advice to rulers by St Benedict, Peter Abelard and Cicero. , Queen of France.]] In 1414, Christine presented Queen Isabeau with a lavishly decorated collection of her works (now known as British Library Harley 4431). The bound book contained 30 of Christine's writings and 130 miniatures. She had been asked by the queen to produce the book. The work is noted for its quality miniature illuminations; Christine herself and her past royal patrons are depicted. As a mark of ownership and authorship the opening frontispiece depicts Queen Isabeau being presented with the book by Christine. In 1418, Christine published a consolation for women who had lost family members in the Battle of Agincourt under the title Epistre de la prison de vie Humaine (Letter Concerning the Prison of Human Life). In it, Christine did not express any optimism or hope that peace could be found on earth; instead, she expressed the view that the soul was trapped in the body and imprisoned in hell. The previous year she had presented the Epistre de la prison de vie Humaine to Marie of Berry, the administrator of the Duchy of Bourbon whose husband was held in English captivity. Historians assume that Christine spent the last ten years of her life in the Dominican convent of Poissy because of the civil war and the occupation of Paris by the English. Away from the royal court her literary activity ceased. However, in 1429, after Joan of Arc's military victory over the English, Christine published the poem ''Ditié de Jehanne d'Arc (The Tale of Joan of Arc''). Published just a few days after the coronation of Charles VII, Christine expressed renewed optimism. She cast Joan as the fulfilment of prophecies by Merlin, the Cumaean Sibyl and Saint Bede, helping Charles VII to fulfill the predictions of Charlemagne. Christine is believed to have died in 1430, before Joan was tried and executed by the English. After her death the political crisis in France was resolved when Queen Isabeau's only surviving son Charles VII and John the Fearless' successor as Duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good, signed the Peace of Arras in 1435. Works jousting, illustrating 'Le Duc des vrais amants', from a collection of works presented in 1414 by Christine to Isabeau of Bavaria.]] from The Book of the City of Ladies. Christine is shown before the personifications of Rectitude, Reason, and Justice in her study, and working alongside Justice to build the 'Cité des dames'.]] Christine produced a large number of vernacular works, in both prose and verse. Her works include political treatises, mirrors for princes, epistles, and poetry. Christine's book Le Dit de la Rose (The Tale of the Rose) was published in 1402 as a direct attack on Jean de Meun's extremely popular book Romance of the Rose which was a continuation of the version by Guillaume de Lorris and characterised women as seducers. Christine claimed that Meun's views were misogynistic, vulgar, immoral, and slanderous to women. Christine sparked a debate over the literary merits of the work when she confronted the royal secretary, Jean de Montreuil, who had written a short treatise praising the work. The debate continued between Christine and two other male royal secretaries who defended Jean in a heated exchange. At the height of the exchange Christine published Querelle du Roman de la Rose (Letters on the Debate of the Rose). In this particular apologetic response, Christine belittles her own writing style, employing a rhetorical strategy by writing against the grain of her meaning, also known as antiphrasis. By 1405, Christine had completed her most famous literary works, The Book of the City of Ladies (Le Livre de la cité des dames) and The Treasure of the City of Ladies (Le Livre des trois vertus). The first of these shows the importance of women's past contributions to society, and the second strives to teach women of all estates how to cultivate useful qualities. In The Book of the City of Ladies Christine created a symbolic city in which women are appreciated and defended. She constructed three allegorical figures – Reason, Justice, and Rectitude – in the common pattern of literature in that era when many books and poetry used stock allegorical figures to express ideas or emotions. She enters into a dialogue, a movement between question and answer, with these allegorical figures that is from a completely female perspective. Together, they create a forum to speak on issues of consequence to all women. Only female voices, examples and opinions provide evidence within this text. Through Lady Reason in particular Christine argues that stereotypes of women can be sustained only if women are prevented from entering into the conversation. In City of Ladies Christine deliberated on the debate of whether the virtues of men and women differ, a frequently debated topic in late medieval Europe, particularly in the context of Aristotelian virtue ethics and his views on women. Christine repeatedly used the theological argument that men and women are created in God's image and both have souls capable of embracing God's goodness. Among the inhabitants of the City of Ladies are female saints, women from the Old Testament and virtuous women from the pagan antiquity as portrayed by Giovanni Boccaccio. Within her allegorical city of illustrious ladies, she reimagines the mythological figure, Medusa. Christine de Pizan's Medusa, in stark contrast to the typical portrayal in classical texts, is not a monstrous and deadly creature, but a woman deserving of safety from male harm. De Pizan is the first to provide a feminist revisionist perspective of the ancient myth. In The Treasure of the City of Ladies Christine addressed the "community" of women with the stated objective of instructing them on the means of achieving virtue. She took the position that all women were capable of humility, diligence and moral rectitude, and that duly educated all women could become worthy residents of the imaginary City of Ladies. Drawing on her own life, Christine advised women on how to navigate the perils of early 15th-century French society. With reference to Augustine of Hippo and other saints Christine offered advice on how the noble lady could achieve the love of God. Christine speaks through the allegorical figures of God's daughters – Reason, Rectitude and Justice – who represent the Three Virtues most important to women's success. Through secular examples of these three virtues, Christine urged women to discover meaning and achieve worthy acts in their lives. Christine argued that women's success depends on their ability to manage and mediate by speaking and writing effectively. Christine specifically sought out other women to collaborate in the creation of her work. She makes special mention of a manuscript illustrator we know only as Anastasia, whom she described as the most talented of her day. Legacy Early French influence addressing her troops holding her baby. Miniature from a 1475 Dutch translation of The Book of the City of Ladies. Published under the title De Stede der Vrouwen (The Praise of Women).]] Christine published 41 known pieces of poetry and prose in her lifetime and she gained fame across Europe as the first professional woman writer. She achieved such credibility that royalty commissioned her prose and contemporary intellectuals kept copies of her works in their libraries. After her death in 1430, Christine's influence was acknowledged by a variety of authors and her writings remained popular. While de Pizan's mixture of classical philosophy and humanistic ideals was in line with the style of other popular authors at the time, her outspoken defence of women was an anomaly. In her works she vindicated women against popular misogynist texts, such as Ovid's Art of Love, Jean de Meun's Romance of the Rose and Matheolus's Lamentations. Her book Le Livre de la cité des dames remained in print. Christine's Le Livre des trois vertus (The Treasure of the City of Ladies) became an important reference point for royal women in the 15th and 16th centuries; French editions were still being printed in 1536. Anne of France, who acted as regent of France, used it as a basis for her 1504 book of Enseignemens, written for her daughter Suzanne Duchess of Bourbon, who as agnatic heir to the Bourbon lands became co-regent. Christine's advice to princesses was translated and circulated as manuscripts or printed books among the royal families of France and Portugal. The City of Ladies was acknowledged and referenced by 16th century French women writers, including Anne de Beaujeu, Gabrielle de Bourbon, Marguerite de Navarre and Georgette de Montenay. Christine's political writings received some attention too. Livre de la paix was referenced by the humanist Gabriel Naudé and Christine was given large entries in encyclopedias by Denis Diderot, Louis Moréri and Prosper Marchand. In 1470 Jean V de Bueil reproduced Christine's detailed accounts of the armies and material needed to defend a castle or town against a siege in Le Jouvence. ''Livre des fais d'armes et de chevalerie'' was published in its entirety by the book printer Antoine Vérard in 1488, but Vérard claimed that it was his translation of Vegetius. Philippe Le Noir authored an abridged version of Christine's book in 1527 under the title ''L'Arbre des Batailles et fleur de chevalerie (The tree of battles and flower of chivalry). Outside France .]] A Dutch edition of Le Livre de la cité des dames exists from the 15th century. In 1521 The Book of the City of Ladies was published in English. Livre des fais d'armes et de chevalerie was translated into English by William Caxton for Henry VII in 1489 and was published under the title The Book of Feats of Arms and of Chivalry as print one year later, attributing Christine as author. English editions of The Book of the City of Ladies and Livre du corps de policie (The Book of the Body Politic) were printed in 1521 without referencing Christine as the author. Elizabeth I had in her court library copies of The Book of the City of Ladies, L'Épistre de Othéa a Hector (Letter of Othea to Hector) and The Book of Feats of Arms and of Chivalry. Among the possessions of the English queen were tapestries with scenes from the City of Ladies''. 19th to 21st centuries In the early 19th century Raimond Thomassy published an overview of Christine's political writings and noted that modern editions of these writings were not published and that as a political theorist Christine was descending into obscurity. Similarly, Mathilde Laigle and Marie-Josephe Pinet are credited with reviving the work of de Pizan in the early 20th century, as a writer who had been forgotten in France but noted elsewhere. Laigle noticed for instance that Spanish writers had borrowed extensively from de Pizan's work, even though it had not been translated into that language. Her activism has also drawn the fascination of modern feminists. Simone de Beauvoir wrote in 1949 that ''Épître au Dieu d'Amour'' was "the first time we see a woman take up her pen in defence of her sex". Beginning in the 1950s, scholarly work by Suzanne Solente further bolstered Christine's reputation. Judy Chicago's 1979 artwork The Dinner Party features a place setting for Christine de Pizan. In the 1980s Sandra Hindman published a study of the political events referenced in the illuminations of Christine's published works. In recent decades, Christine's work has continued to grow in reputation by the efforts of scholars such as Charity Cannon Willard and Earl Jeffrey Richards. In the opening cermenony of the 2024 Summer Olympics in Paris, Christine was one of the 10 pioneering female contributors to French history honoured by gold-coloured statues which rose from giant pedestals along the river Seine. List of works * Enseignements moraux (1395) ("Moral Teachings") * ''L'Épistre au Dieu d'amours (1399) ("Epistle to the God of Love") * L'Épistre de Othéa a Hector (1399–1400) ("Epistle of Othéa to Hector")" * Dit de la Rose (1402) ("Tale of the Rose") * Cent Ballades d'Amant et de Dame, Virelays, Rondeaux (1402) ("One Hundred Ballads, Virelays, and Rondeaus of Lover and Lady") * Le Chemin de long estude (1403) ("Book of the Long Study") * Livre de la mutation de fortune'' (1403) ("Book of Fortune's Transformation") * La Pastoure (1403) ("The Pasture") * Le Livre des fais et bonnes meurs du sage roy Charles V (1404) ("The Book of the Deeds and Good Morals of the Wise King Charles V") * Le Livre de la cité des dames (1405) ("Book of the City of the Ladies") * Le Livre des trois vertus (1405) ("Book of the Three Virtues", known in English as "Treasure of the City of the Ladies") * ''L'Avision de Christine (1405) ("The Vision of Christine") * Livre du corps de policie (1407) ("Book of the Body Politic") * Livre des fais d'armes et de chevalerie (1410) ("Book of the Deeds of Arms and Chivalry", or "Treatise on Fortifications") * Livre de paix (1413) ("Book of Peace") * Epistre de la prison de vie humaine (1418) ("Epistle on the Prison of Human Life") * Les sept psaumes allégorisés ("The Seven Psalms, Allegorized") * Ditié de Jehanne d'Arc'' (1429) ("The Tale of Joan of Arc") See also Antoine Vérard List of French-language poets Vernacular literature Women's history Notes Bibliography * . . * . * . * . * . * . * . * . * * * }} * * . * . * . * . * . * . * . * . * . * . * . * . * . * . * . * . * . * External links * * [http://www.arlima.net/ad/christine_de_pizan.html Comprehensive bibliography of her works, including listings of the manuscripts, editions, translations, and essays.] in French at [http://www.arlima.net/ Archives de littérature du Moyen Âge (Arlima)] [http://www.pizan.lib.ed.ac.uk The Making of the Queen's Manuscript] [https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b84497041/f11.item Livre des faits et bonnes moeurs du sage roi Charles V] [https://historyofwomenphilosophers.org/project/directory-of-women-philosophers/pizan-christine-de-1364-1430/ Christine de Pisan: bibliographical and biographical references.] – Center for the History of Women Philosophers and Scientists *[https://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-NEWNHAM-00005/7 Epistre Othea (Cambridge, Newnham College, MS 5)], digitised on Cambridge Digital Library <!-- though LOC Authorities suggests sorting by "Christine" --> Category:1364 births Category:1430 deaths Category:14th-century French philosophers Category:14th-century French poets Category:14th-century French women writers Category:14th-century Italian philosophers Category:14th-century Italian poets Category:14th-century Italian women writers Category:15th-century French philosophers Category:15th-century French poets Category:15th-century French women writers Category:15th-century Italian philosophers Category:15th-century Italian poets Category:15th-century Italian women writers Category:Feminism and history Category:French women philosophers Category:French women poets Category:Italian emigrants to France Category:Italian women philosophers Category:Italian women poets Category:Medieval women poets Category:Republic of Venice philosophers Category:Rhetoricians Category:Year of death uncertain	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christine_de_Pizan	2025-04-05T18:28:13.752437
7630	Catharism	The Albigenses (novel)}} Kathar}} Catharism ( ; from the , "the pure ones") was a Christian quasi-dualist or pseudo-Gnostic movement, which thrived in the anti-materialist revival in Southern Europe, particularly in northern Italy and southern France, between the 12th and 14th centuries. Denounced as a heretical sect by the Catholic Church, its followers were attacked first by the Albigensian Crusade and later by the Medieval Inquisition, which eradicated the sect by 1350. Many thousands were slaughtered, hanged, or burnt at the stake, sometimes without regard for age or sex. Followers were known as Cathars or Albigensians, after the French city Albi where the movement first took hold, but referred to themselves as Good Christians. They famously believed that there were not one, but two Godsthe good God of Heaven and the evil god of this age (). According to tradition, Cathars believed that the good God was the God of the New Testament faith and creator of the spiritual realm. Many Cathars identified the evil god as Satan, the master of the physical world. The Cathars believed that human souls were the sexless spirits of angels trapped in the material realm of the evil god. They thought these souls were destined to be reincarnated until they achieved salvation through the "consolamentum", a form of baptism performed when death is imminent. At that moment, they believed they would return to the good God as "Cathar Perfect". Catharism was initially taught by ascetic leaders who set few guidelines, leading some Catharist practices and beliefs to vary by region and over time. The first mention of Catharism by chroniclers was in 1143; four years later the Catholic Church denounced Cathar practices, particularly the consolamentum ritual. From the beginning of his reign, Pope Innocent III attempted to end Catharism by sending missionaries and persuading the local authorities to act against the Cathars. In 1208, Pierre de Castelnau, Innocent's papal legate, was murdered while returning to Rome after excommunicating Count Raymond VI of Toulouse, who, in his view, was too lenient with the Cathars. Pope Innocent III then declared de Castelnau a martyr and launched the Albigensian Crusade in 1209. The nearly twenty-year campaign succeeded in vastly weakening the movement. The Medieval Inquisition that followed ultimately eradicated Catharism. There is academic controversy about whether Catharism was a real and organized religion or whether the medieval Church imagined or exaggerated it. The lack of any central organisation among Cathars, regional differences in beliefs and practices, and the small number of sources from the Cathars themselves, have prompted some scholars to question whether the Church exaggerated its threat, and others to wonder whether it even existed.TermThough the term Cathar () has been used for centuries to identify the movement, whether it identified itself with the name is debated. In Cathar texts, the terms Good Men (), Good Women (), or Good Christians () are the common terms of self-identification. In the testimony of suspects who were put to the question by the Inquisition, the term Cathar was not used amongst the group of accused heretics themselves. The word Cathar (also appearing as Gazarri, etc.) is coined by Catholic theologians and used exclusively by the inquisition or by authors otherwise identified with the Orthodox church—for example in the anonymous pamphlet of 1430, }} ('Errors of the Cathars'). The full title of this treatise in English is "The errors of the Gazarri, or of those who travel riding a broom or a stick." However the presence of a variety of beliefs and spiritual practices in the French countryside of the 12th and 13th centuries that came to be seen as heterodox relative to the Church in Rome is not actually in question, as the primary documents of the period exhaustively demonstrate. Several of these groups under other names, e.g. the Waldensians or Valdeis, bear a close similarity to the 'creed' or matrix of beliefs and folk-traditions pieced together under the umbrella of the term 'Catharism.' As the scholar Claire Taylor puts it, "[This issue] matters at an ethical level, because by being cleverly iconoclastic and populist in suggesting that those using 'Cathar' have made 2+25, Pegg and Moore [re: scholars questioning whether or not the Cathars exist] make 2+23 by denying the existence of the persecuted group. The missing element is a dissident religious doctrine, for which historians using a fuller range of sources believe thousands of people were prepared to suffer extreme persecution and an agonising death." Authors believe that their conception of Jesus resembled Docetism, believing him the human form of an angel, whose physical body was only an appearance. Bernard of Clairvaux's biographer and other sources accuse some Cathars of Arianism, and some scholars see Cathar Christology as having traces of earlier Arian roots. Some communities might have believed in the existence of a spirit realm created by the good God, the "Land of the Living", whose history and geography would have served as the basis for the evil god's corrupt creation. Under this view, the history of Jesus would have happened roughly as told, only in the spirit realm. The physical Jesus from the material world would have been evil, a false messiah and a lustful lover of the material Mary Magdalene. However, the true Jesus would have influenced the physical world in a way similar to the Harrowing of Hell, only by inhabiting the body of Paul. 13th century chronicler Pierre des Vaux-de-Cernay recorded those views. Other beliefs ]] Some Cathars told a version of the Enochian narrative, according to which Eve's daughters copulated with Satan's demons and bore giants. The Deluge would have been provoked by Satan, who disapproved of the demons revealing he was not the real god, or alternatively, an attempt by the Invisible Father to destroy the giants. The Holy Spirit was sometimes counted as one single entity, but to others it was considered the collective groups of unfallen angels who had not followed Satan in his rebellion. Cathars believed that the sexual allure of women impeded a man's ability to reject the material world. Despite this stance on sex and reproduction, some Cathar communities made exceptions. In one version, the Invisible Father had two spiritual wives, Collam and Hoolibam (identified with Oholah and Oholibah), and would himself have provoked the war in heaven by seducing the wife of Satan, or perhaps the reverse. Cathars adhering to this story would believe that having families and sons would not impede them from reaching God's kingdom. Some communities also believed in a Day of Judgment that would come when the number of the just equalled that of angels who fell, when the believers would ascend to the spirit realm, while the sinners would be thrown to everlasting fire along with Satan. The Cathars ate a pescatarian diet. They did not eat cheese, eggs, meat, or milk because these are all by-products of sexual intercourse. The Cathars believed that animals were carriers of reincarnated souls, and forbade the killing of all animal life, apart from fish, which they believed were produced by spontaneous generation. The Cathars could be seen as prefiguring Protestantism in that they denied transubstantiation, purgatory, prayers for the dead and prayers to saints. They also believed that the scriptures should be read in the vernacular. Texts The alleged sacred texts of the Cathars, besides the New Testament, included the Bogomil text The Gospel of the Secret Supper (also called ''John's Interrogation), a modified version of Ascension of Isaiah, and the Cathar original work The Book of the Two Principles'' (possibly penned by Italian Cathar John Lugio of Bergamo). They regarded the Old Testament as written by Satan, except for a few books which they accepted, and considered the Book of Revelation not a prophecy about the future, but an allegorical chronicle of what had transpired in Satan's rebellion. Their reinterpretation of those texts contained numerous elements characteristic of Gnostic literature. Organization Sacraments Cathars, in general, formed an anti-sacerdotal party in opposition to the pre-Reformation Catholic Church, protesting against what they perceived to be the moral, spiritual and political corruption of the Church. In contrast, the Cathars had but one central rite, the Consolamentum, or Consolation. This involved a brief spiritual ceremony to remove all sin from the believer and to induct him into the next higher level as a Perfect. Many believers would receive the Consolamentum as death drew near, performing the ritual of liberation at a moment when the heavy obligations of purity required of Perfecti would be temporally short. Some of those who received the sacrament of the consolamentum upon their death-beds may thereafter have shunned further food with an exception of cold water until death. This has been termed the . It was claimed by some of the church writers that when a Cathar, after receiving the Consolamentum, began to show signs of recovery he or she would be smothered in order to ensure his or her entry into paradise. Other than extreme cases, little evidence exists to suggest this was a common Cathar practice. portraying the story of a disputation between Saint Dominic and the Cathars (Albigensians), in which the books of both were thrown on a fire and Dominic's books were miraculously preserved from the flames]] The Cathars also refused the sacrament of the eucharist, saying that it could not possibly be the body of Christ. They also refused to partake in the practice of Baptism by water. The following two quotes are taken from the Inquisitor Bernard Gui's experiences with the Cathar practices and beliefs: Of baptism, they assert that the water is material and corruptible and is therefore the creation of the evil power, and cannot sanctify the spirit, but that the churchmen sell this water out of avarice, just as they sell earth for the burial of the dead, and oil to the sick when they anoint them, and as they sell the confession of sins as made to the priests.}} Social relationships Killing was abhorrent to the Cathars. Consequently, abstention from all animal food, sometimes exempting fish, was enjoined of the Perfecti. The Perfecti avoided eating anything considered to be a by-product of sexual reproduction. War and capital punishment were condemned—an abnormality in medieval Europe, For example, the Papal Legate, Pierre de Castelnau, was assassinated in January 1208 in Provence. To the Cathars, reproduction was a moral evil to be avoided, as it continued the chain of reincarnation and suffering in the material world. Such was the situation that a charge of heresy levelled against a suspected Cathar was usually dismissed if the accused could show he was legally married. Despite the implicit anti-Semitism of their views on the Old Testament God, the Cathars had little hostility to Jews as people and Jews probably had a higher status in Cathar territories than they had anywhere else in Europe at the time. Cathars appointed Jews as bailiffs and to other roles as public officials, which further increased the Catholic Church's anger at the Cathars. Despite their condemnation of reproduction, the Cathars grew in numbers in southeastern France. By 1207, shortly before the murder of the Papal Legate Castelnau, many towns in that region, i.e. Provence and its vicinity, were almost completely populated by Cathari, By about 1140, liturgy and a system of doctrine had been established. They created a number of bishoprics, first at Albi around 1165 and after the 1167 Council at Saint-Félix-Lauragais sites at Toulouse, Carcassonne, and Agen, so that four bishoprics were in existence by 1200. In about 1225, during a lull in the Albigensian Crusade, the bishopric of Razès was added. Bishops were supported by their two assistants: a (typically the successor) and a , who were further assisted by deacons. The were the spiritual elite, highly respected by many of the local people, leading a life of austerity and charity. In the apostolic fashion, they ministered to the people and travelled in pairs. Role of women in 1209]] Catharism has been seen as giving women the greatest opportunities for independent action, since women were found as being believers as well as Perfecti, who were able to administer the sacrament of the consolamentum. Cathars believed that a person would be repeatedly reincarnated until they committed to self-denial of the material world. A man could be reincarnated as a woman and vice versa. The spirit was of utmost importance to the Cathars and was described as being immaterial and sexless. Because of this belief, the Cathars saw women as equally capable of being spiritual leaders. Women accused of being heretics in early medieval Christianity included those labelled Gnostics, Cathars, and, later, the Beguines, as well as several other groups that were sometimes "tortured and executed". Cathars, like the Gnostics who preceded them, assigned more importance to the role of Mary Magdalene in the spread of early Christianity than the church previously did. Her vital role as a teacher contributed to the Cathar belief that women could serve as spiritual leaders. Women were included in the Perfecti in significant numbers, with numerous receiving the after being widowed. Having reverence for the Gospel of John, the Cathars saw Mary Magdalene as perhaps even more important than Saint Peter, the founder of the church. Catharism attracted numerous women with the promise of a leadership role that the Catholic Church did not allow. Catharism let women become a Perfect. These female Perfects were required to adhere to a strict and ascetic lifestyle, but were still able to have their own houses. Although many women found something attractive in Catharism, not all found its teachings convincing. A notable example is Hildegard of Bingen, who in 1163 gave a rousing exhortation against the Cathars in Cologne. During this discourse, Hildegard announced God's eternal damnation on all who accepted Cathar beliefs. While women Perfects rarely travelled to preach the faith, they still played a vital role in the spreading of Catharism by establishing group homes for women. Though it was extremely uncommon, there were isolated cases of female Cathars leaving their homes to spread the faith. In Cathar communal homes (ostals), women were educated in the faith. These women would go on to bear children who would then become believers. Through this pattern, the faith grew exponentially through the efforts of women, as each generation passed. Despite women having a role in the growth of the faith, Catharism was not completely equal. For example, the belief that one's last incarnation had to be experienced as a man to break the cycle. This belief was inspired by later French Cathars, who taught that women must be reborn as men in order to achieve salvation. Toward the end of the Cathar movement, Catharism became less equal and started the practice of excluding women Perfects. However, this trend remained limited. For example, later on, Italian Perfects still included women. Suppression , as depicted by the Spanish artist Pedro Berruguete]] In 1147, Pope Eugene III sent a legate to the Cathar district in order to arrest the progress of the Cathars. The few isolated successes of Bernard of Clairvaux could not obscure the poor results of this mission, which clearly showed the power of the sect in the Languedoc at that period. The missions of Cardinal Peter of Saint Chrysogonus to Toulouse and the Toulousain in 1178, and of Henry of Marcy, cardinal-bishop of Albano, in 1180–81, obtained merely momentary successes. Henry's armed expedition, which took the stronghold at Lavaur, did not extinguish the movement. Decisions of Catholic Church councils—in particular, those of the Council of Tours (1163) and of the Third Council of the Lateran (1179)—had scarcely more effect upon the Cathars. When Pope Innocent III came to power in 1198, he was resolved to deal with them. At first, Innocent tried peaceful conversion, and sent a number of legates into the Cathar regions. They had to contend not only with the Cathars, the nobles who protected them, and the people who respected them, but also with many of the bishops of the region, who resented the considerable authority the Pope had conferred upon his legates. In 1204, Innocent III suspended a number of bishops in Occitania. In 1205, he appointed a new and vigorous bishop of Toulouse, the former troubadour Foulques. In 1206, Diego of Osma and his canon, the future Saint Dominic, began a programme of conversion in Languedoc. As part of this, Catholic–Cathar public debates were held at Verfeil, Servian, Pamiers, Montréal and elsewhere. Dominic met and debated with the Cathars in 1203 during his mission to the Languedoc. He concluded that only preachers who displayed real sanctity, humility and asceticism could win over convinced Cathar believers. The institutional Church as a general rule did not possess these spiritual warrants. His conviction eventually led to the establishment of the Dominican Order in 1216. The order was to live up to the terms of his rebuke, "Zeal must be met by zeal, humility by humility, false sanctity by real sanctity, preaching falsehood by preaching truth." However, even Dominic managed only a few converts among the Cathars. Albigensian Crusade excommunicating the Albigensians (left), massacre of the Albigensians by the crusaders (right)]] In January 1208, the papal legate, Pierre de Castelnau, a Cistercian monk, theologian and canon lawyer, was sent to meet the ruler of the area, Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse. Known for excommunicating noblemen who protected the Cathars, Castelnau excommunicated Raymond for abetting heresy, following an allegedly fierce argument during which Raymond supposedly threatened Castelnau with violence. Shortly thereafter, Castelnau was murdered as he returned to Rome, Raymond of Toulouse was excommunicated, the second such instance, in 1209. in 2007]] This war pitted the nobles of France against those of the Languedoc. The widespread northern enthusiasm for the Crusade was partially inspired by a papal decree that permitted the confiscation of lands owned by Cathars and their supporters. This angered not only the lords of the south, but also the King Philip II of France, who was at least nominally the suzerain of the lords whose lands were now open to seizure. King Philip II wrote to Pope Innocent in strong terms to point this out—but Pope Innocent refused to change his decree. As the Languedoc was supposedly teeming with Cathars and Cathar sympathisers, this made the region a target for northern French noblemen looking to acquire new fiefs. The first target for the barons of the North were the lands of the Trencavel, powerful lords of Carcassonne, Béziers, Albi, and the Razes. Little was done to form a regional coalition, and the crusading army was able to take Carcassonne, the Trencavel capital, incarcerating Raymond Roger Trencavel in his own citadel, where he died within three months. Champions of the Occitan cause claimed that he was murdered. Simon de Montfort was granted the Trencavel lands by Pope Innocent, thus incurring the enmity of Peter II of Aragon, who previously had been aloof from the conflict, even acting as a mediator at the time of the siege of Carcassonne. The remainder of the first of the two Cathar wars now focused on Simon de Monfort's attempt to hold on to his gains through the winters. With a small force of confederates operating from the main winter camp at Fanjeaux, he was faced with the desertion of local lords who had sworn fealty to him out of necessity—and attempts to enlarge his newfound domain during the summer. His forces were then greatly augmented by reinforcements from northern France, Germany, and elsewhere. De Montfort's summer campaigns recaptured losses sustained in winter months, in addition to attempts to widen the crusade's sphere of operation. Notably he was active in the Aveyron at St. Antonin and on the banks of the Rhône at Beaucaire. Simon de Monfort's greatest triumph was the victory against superior numbers at the Battle of Muret in 1213 — a battle in which de Montfort's much smaller force, composed entirely of cavalry, decisively defeated the much-larger, by some estimates 5-10 times larger and combined-force allied armies of Raymond of Toulouse, his Occitan allies, and Peter II of Aragon. The battle saw the death of Peter II, which effectively ended the ambitions and influence of the house of Aragon/Barcelona in the Languedoc. In 1214, Philip II's victory at Bouvines near Lille ended the Anglo-French War of 1213–1214, dealt a death blow to the Angevin Empire, and freed Philip II to concentrate more of his attentions to the Albigensian Crusade underway in the south of France. In addition, the victory at Bouvines was against an Anglo-German force that was attempting to undermine the power of the French crown. An Anglo-German victory would have been a serious setback to the crusade. Full French royal intervention in support of the crusade occurred in early 1226, when Louis VIII of France led a substantial force into southeastern France. Massacre The crusader army came under the command, both spiritually and militarily, of the papal legate Arnaud Amalric, Abbot of Cîteaux. In the first significant engagement of the war, the town of Béziers was besieged on 22 July 1209. The Catholic inhabitants of the city were granted the freedom to leave unharmed, but many refused and opted to stay and fight alongside the Cathars. The townsmen spent much of 1209 fending off the crusaders. The Béziers army attempted a sortie but was quickly defeated, then pursued by the crusaders back through the gates and into the city. Arnaud Amalric, the Cistercian abbot-commander, wrote to Pope Innocent III, that during negotiations the boys in his camp (runaways, servants, thieves, young monks) had taken the initiative without waiting for orders. The doors of the church of St Mary Magdalene were broken down and the refugees dragged out and slaughtered. Reportedly, at least 7,000 men, women and children were killed there by Catholic forces, though some scholars dispute this number. Elsewhere in the town, many more thousands were mutilated and killed. Prisoners were blinded, dragged behind horses, and used for target practice. What remained of the city was razed by fire. Arnaud Amalric wrote "to our amazement, our boys[...] put twenty thousand heretics to the sword,[...]regardless of rank, age, or sex." The permanent population of Béziers at that time was then between 10,000 and 14,500, but local refugees seeking shelter within the city walls could conceivably have increased the number to 20,000, though scholars dispute the figure as figurative. According to a report thirty years later by a non-witness, Arnaud Amalric is supposed to have been asked how to tell Cathars from Catholics. His alleged reply, according to Caesarius of Heisterbach, a fellow Cistercian, was —"Kill them all, the Lord will recognise His own". After the success of his siege of Carcassonne, which followed the massacre at Béziers in 1209, Simon de Montfort was designated as leader of the Crusader army. Prominent opponents of the Crusaders were Raymond Roger Trencavel, viscount of Carcassonne, and his feudal overlord Peter II of Aragon, who held fiefdoms and had a number of vassals in the region. Peter died fighting against the crusade on 12 September 1213 at the Battle of Muret. Simon de Montfort was killed on 25 June 1218 after maintaining a siege of Toulouse for nine months. Treaty and persecution The official war ended in the Treaty of Paris (1229), by which the king of France dispossessed the House of Toulouse of the greater part of its fiefs, and the house of the Trencavels of the whole of their fiefs. The independence of the princes of the Languedoc was at an end. In spite of the wholesale massacre of Cathars during the war, Catharism was not yet extinguished, and Catholic forces would continue to pursue Cathars. In 1215, the bishops of the Catholic Church met at the Fourth Council of the Lateran under Pope Innocent III. Part of the agenda was combating the Cathar heresy. The Inquisition was established in 1233 to uproot the remaining Cathars. Operating in the south at Toulouse, Albi, Carcassonne and other towns during the whole of the 13th century, and a great part of the 14th, it succeeded in crushing Catharism as a popular movement, driving its remaining adherents underground. Cathars who refused to recant or relapsed were hanged, or burnt at the stake. On Friday 13 May 1239, in Champagne, 183 men and women convicted of Catharism were burned at the stake on the orders of the Dominican inquisitor and former Cathar Perfect . Mount Guimar, in northeastern France, had already been denounced as a place of heresy in a letter of the Bishop of Liège to Pope Lucius II in 1144. From May 1243 to March 1244, the Cathar fortress of Montségur was besieged by the troops of the seneschal of Carcassonne and the archbishop of Narbonne. On 16 March 1244, a large and symbolically important massacre took place, wherein over 200 Cathar Perfects were burnt in an enormous pyre at the ("field of the burned") near the foot of the castle. The Church, at the 1235 Council of Narbonne, decreed lesser chastisements against laymen suspected of sympathy with Cathars. A popular though as yet unsubstantiated belief holds that a small party of Cathar Perfects escaped from the fortress prior to the massacre at . It is widely held in the Cathar region to this day that the escapees took with them "the Cathar treasure".<!-- Translated from the French "le trésor cathar" - obvious meaning, no need to use French here --> What this treasure consisted of has been a matter of considerable speculation: claims range from sacred Gnostic texts to the Cathars' accumulated wealth, which might have included the Holy Grail according to Nazi legend-making (see below). Hunted by the Inquisition and deserted by the nobles of their districts, the Cathars became more and more scattered fugitives, meeting surreptitiously in forests and mountain wilds. Later insurrections broke out under the leadership of Roger-Bernard II, Count of Foix, Aimery III of Narbonne, and Bernard Délicieux, a Franciscan friar later prosecuted for his adherence to another heretical movement, that of the Spiritual Franciscans at the beginning of the 14th century. By this time, the Inquisition had grown very powerful. Consequently, many presumed to be Cathars were summoned to appear before it. Precise indications of this are found in the registers of the Inquisitors Bernard of Caux, Jean de St Pierre, Geoffroy d'Ablis, and others. The perfects, it was said, only rarely recanted, and hundreds were burnt. Repentant lay believers were punished, but their lives were spared as long as they did not relapse. Having recanted, they were obliged to sew yellow crosses onto their outdoor clothing and to live apart from other Catholics, at least for a time. Annihilation After several decades of harassment and re-proselytising, and, perhaps even more important, the systematic destruction of their religious texts, the sect was exhausted and could find no more adepts. In April 1310, the leader of a Cathar revival in the Pyrenean foothills, Peire Autier, was captured and executed in Toulouse. After 1330, the records of the Inquisition contain very few proceedings against Cathars. In the autumn of 1321, the last known Cathar perfect in the Languedoc, Guillaume Bélibaste, was executed. From the mid-12th century onwards, Italian Catharism came under increasing pressure from the Pope and the Inquisition, "spelling the beginning of the end." Other movements, such as the Waldensians and the pantheistic Brethren of the Free Spirit, which suffered persecution in the same area, survived in remote areas and in small numbers through the 14th and 15th centuries. The Waldensian movement continues today. Waldensian ideas influenced other proto-Protestant sects, such as the Hussites, Lollards, and the Moravian Church. Genocide Later history After the suppression of Catharism, the descendants of Cathars were discriminated against; at times, they were also required to live outside towns and their defences. They retained their Cathar identity, despite their reintegration into Catholicism. As such, any use of the term "Cathar" to refer to people after the suppression of Catharism in the 14th century is a cultural or ancestral reference and has no religious implication. Nevertheless, interest in the Cathars and their history, legacy and beliefs continues. was razed after 1244. The current fortress follows French military architecture of the 17th century.]] The term , French meaning "Cathar Country", is used to highlight the Cathar heritage and history of the region in which Catharism was traditionally strongest. The area is centered around fortresses such as Montségur and Carcassonne; also, the French département of the Aude uses the title in tourist brochures. The areas have ruins from the wars against the Cathars that are still visible today. The term "Pays cathare" has no historical legitimacy. No sources produced by the religious repression in the South of France during the medieval period use the term cathar. Interrogation of heretics In an effort to find the few remaining heretics in and around the village of Montaillou, Jacques Fournier, Bishop of Pamiers, future Pope Benedict XII, had those suspected of heresy interrogated in the presence of scribes who recorded their conversations. The late 13th- to early-14th-century document, the Fournier Register, discovered in the Vatican archives in the 1960s and edited by Jean Duvernoy, is the basis for Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie's work Montaillou: The Promised Land of Error. Historical and current scholarship Academic books in English first appeared at the beginning of the 21st century: for example, Malcolm Lambert's The Cathars and Malcolm Barber's The Cathars. Debate on the nature and existence of Catharism Starting in the 1990s and continuing to the present day, historians like R. I. Moore have challenged the extent to which Catharism, as an institutionalised religion, actually existed. and kings: that "ambitious authoritarians" invented Catharism "in the service of a grand process of social centralization." In 2016, Cathars in Question, edited by Antonio Sennis, presented a range of conflicting views by academics of medieval heresy, including Feuchter, Stoyanov, Sackville, Taylor, D'Avray, Biller, Moore, Bruschi, Pegg, Hamilton, Arnold, and Théry-Astruc, who had met at University College London and the Warburg Institute in London in April 2013. Sennis describes the debate as about "an issue which is highly controversial and hotly debated among scholars: the existence of a medieval phenomenon which we can legitimately call 'Catharism. Dr. Andrew Roach in The English Historical Review commented that "Reconciliation still seems some distance away [among the] distinguished, if sometimes cantankerous, scholars" who contributed to the volume. He said: }} Professor Rebecca Rist describes the academic controversy as the "heresy debate" – "some of it very heated" – about whether Catharism was a "real heresy with Balkans origins, or rather a construct of western medieval culture, whose authorities wanted to persecute religious dissidents." Rist adds that some historians say the group was an invention of the medieval Church, so there never was a Cathar heresy; while she agrees that the medieval Church exaggerated its threat, she says there is evidence of the heresy's existence. Professor Claire Taylor has called for a "post-revisionism" in the debate, saying that legacy historians assumed the heresy was a form of dualism and therefore a form of Bogomilism, whereas "revisionists" have focused on social origins to explain the dissent. Lucy Sackville has argued that while the revisionists rightly point to the Cathars' opaque origins and their branding as 'Manichaeans,' this does not mean we should disregard all evidence that their heresy had an organised theology. Pseudo-historical The publication of the early pseudo-scholarly book Crusade Against the Grail, by the young German and later SS officer, Otto Rahn in the 1930s, rekindled interest in the connection between the Cathars and the Holy Grail, especially in Germany. Rahn was convinced that the 13th-century work Parzival by Wolfram von Eschenbach was a veiled account of the Cathars. The philosopher and Nazi government official Alfred Rosenberg speaks favourably of the Cathars in The Myth of the Twentieth Century. In art and music The principal legacy of the Cathar movement is in the poems and songs of the Cathar troubadours, though this artistic legacy is only a smaller part of the wider Occitan linguistic and artistic heritage. The Occitan song Lo Boièr is particularly associated with Catharism. Recent artistic projects concentrating on the Cathar element in Provençal and troubadour art include commercial recording projects by Thomas Binkley, electric hurdy-gurdy artist Valentin Clastrier, La Nef, and Jordi Savall. In popular culture, Catharism has been linked with the Knights Templar, an active sect of monks founded after the First Crusade (1095–1099). This link has caused fringe theories about the Cathars and the possibility of their possession of the Holy Grail, such as in the pseudohistorical The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail. Reinterpretations Protestants Protestants such as John Foxe, in the 16th century, and Jean Duvernoy, in the 20th century, argued that Cathars followed Proto-Protestant theology, though they were criticised by many historians. Foxe argued that they followed Calvinist soteriology. Such have argued that Cathars did not follow dualism but instead argued that such accusations were either misinterpretations of Cathar theology, wrongly attributed to Cathars or merely hostile claims. Other historians have also argued that Cathars instead followed Protestant theology because the Reformation spread rapidly to the land in which Cathars mainly existed. They argued that the people "held Protestant ideas" well before the Reformation. However, such arguments are generally viewed as weak, for instance because of the need to downplay the dualism not present in Protestantism. Baptists Twentieth century Baptists have argued that the Cathars are part of Baptist successionism, placing the Cathars as forerunners of Baptist theology. James Milton Carroll claimed in his book The Trail of Blood that the Novatianists, or Cathari, were ascendants of Baptist groups. Writing for Catholic Answers, Dwight Longenecker, says there is no historical proof for Baptist successionism. Hisel Berlin, advocating for the Baptist successionist theory, argued that claims about the Cathars were mainly false and that they denied things such as infant baptism. Since the end of the 19th century, the trend in academic Baptist historiography has been away from the successionist viewpoint to the view that modern day Baptists are an outgrowth of 17th-century English Separatism. See also * Antonin Gadal * Athinganoi * Comparison of Catharism and Protestantism * Crusades ** Albigensian Crusade * Edmund Hamer Broadbent—The Pilgrim Church * Positive Christianity * Strigolniki Notes , and the collection of essays edited by for a consideration of the origins of the Cathars, and proof against identifying earlier heretics in the West, such as those identified in 1025 at Monforte, outside Milan, as being Cathars. Also see }} }} References General references * * * * * * * Brunn, Uwe (2006), ''Des contestataires aux "cathares" : Discours de réforme et propagande antihérétique dans les pays du Rhin et de la Meuse avant l'Inquisition'', Paris, Institut d'études augustiniennes * * * * * * * }} * }} * * [http://jean.duvernoy.free.fr/ Jean Duvernoy, Jean: transcriptions of inquisitorial manuscripts], many hitherto unpublished * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * }} * * * }} * * }} * * * * * . A collection of primary sources, some on Catharism. * * * * * * * * AVSA9873 A+C * * * * * \|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary}} * * * * * * * }} * * * * * * Further reading * * Deals with Catharism in the context of the Inquisition's evolution and analyses Inquisitorial practice as the construction of the "confessing subject". * A discussion of the command "Kill them all, God will know his own." recorded by a contemporary Cistercian Chronicler. * * * . A history of the Albigensian war told by a contemporary. * * * * * * * * * * * * * Mathieu, Albert, "[http://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb43633711v Ce lieu est terrible, le Mont-Aimé en Champagne]" Vendredi 13 mai 1239 Réf : Bibliothèque Nationale de France * * * * * * * * * * * * * External links * * , including the Lyon Ritual. * : Official website of the Cathar Temple * * : History, origins, theology and extirpation. * : details, histories, photographs, plans and maps of 30 Cathar castles. * * * * : Cathar history & theology * Category:Ascetic Gnostic sects Category:Christian mysticism Category:Gnostic religions and sects Category:History of Catholicism in France Category:History of Christianity in France Category:Medieval Gnostic sects Category:Nontrinitarianism Category:Religion in France Category:Persecution of Christian heretics	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catharism	2025-04-05T18:28:13.808551
7632	Cerebrospinal fluid	Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless transcellular body fluid found within the meningeal tissue that surrounds the vertebrate brain and spinal cord, and in the ventricles of the brain. CSF is mostly produced by specialized ependymal cells in the choroid plexuses of the ventricles of the brain, and absorbed in the arachnoid granulations. It is also produced by ependymal cells in the lining of the ventricles. In humans, there is about 125 mL of CSF at any one time, and about 500 mL is generated every day. CSF acts as a shock absorber, cushion or buffer, providing basic mechanical and immunological protection to the brain inside the skull. CSF also serves a vital function in the cerebral autoregulation of cerebral blood flow. CSF occupies the subarachnoid space (between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater) and the ventricular system around and inside the brain and spinal cord. It fills the ventricles of the brain, cisterns, and sulci, as well as the central canal of the spinal cord. There is also a connection from the subarachnoid space to the bony labyrinth of the inner ear via the perilymphatic duct where the perilymph is continuous with the cerebrospinal fluid. The ependymal cells of the choroid plexus have multiple motile cilia on their apical surfaces that beat to move the CSF through the ventricles. A sample of CSF can be taken from around the spinal cord via lumbar puncture. This can be used to test the intracranial pressure, as well as indicate diseases including infections of the brain or the surrounding meninges. Although noted by Hippocrates, it was forgotten for centuries, though later was described in the 18th century by Emanuel Swedenborg. In 1914, Harvey Cushing demonstrated that CSF is secreted by the choroid plexus. Structure Circulation In humans, there is about 125–150 mL of CSF at any one time. CSF moves in a single outward direction from the ventricles, but multidirectionally in the subarachnoid space. The flow of CSF through perivascular spaces in the brain (surrounding the cerebral arteries) is obtained through the pumping movements of the walls of the arteries. In general, globular proteins and albumin are in lower concentration in ventricular CSF compared to lumbar or cisternal fluid. This continuous flow into the venous system dilutes the concentration of larger, lipid-insoluble molecules penetrating the brain and CSF. CSF is normally free of red blood cells and at most contains fewer than 5 white blood cells per mm<sup>3</sup> (if the white cell count is higher than this it constitutes pleocytosis and can indicate inflammation or infection). Development At around the fifth week of its development, the embryo is a three-layered disc, covered with ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. A tube-like formation develops in the midline, called the notochord. The notochord releases extracellular molecules that affect the transformation of the overlying ectoderm into nervous tissue. Arachnoid villi are formed around the 35th week of development, with arachnoid granulations noted around the 39th, and continuing developing until 18 months of age. The brain therefore exists in neutral buoyancy, which allows the brain to maintain its density without being impaired by its own weight, which would cut off blood supply and kill neurons in the lower sections without CSF. Metabolic waste products diffuse rapidly into CSF and are removed into the bloodstream as CSF is absorbed. When this goes awry, CSF can become toxic, such as in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the most common form of motor neuron disease. Production {\|class="wikitable floatright" \|+ Comparison of serum and cerebrospinal fluid \|- ! Substance \|\| CSF \|\| Serum \|- \| Water content (% wt) \|\| 99 \|\| 93 \|- \| Protein (mg/dL) \|\| 35 \|\| 7000 \|- \| Glucose (mg/dL) \|\| 60 \|\| 90 \|- \| Osmolarity (mOsm/L) \|\| 295 \|\| 295 \|- \| Sodium (mEq/L) \|\| 138 \|\| 138 \|- \| Potassium (mEq/L) \|\| 2.8 \|\| 4.5 \|- \| Calcium (mEq/L) \|\| 2.1 \|\| 4.8 \|- \| Magnesium (mEq/L) \|\| 2.0–2.5 \|\| 1.7 \|- \| Chloride (mEq/L) \|\| 119 \|\| 102 \|- \| pH \|\| 7.33 \|\| 7.41 \|- \|colspan=3\| \|} The brain produces roughly 500 mL of cerebrospinal fluid per day at a rate of about 20 mL an hour. This transcellular fluid is constantly reabsorbed, so that only 125–150 mL is present at any one time. Additionally, the larger CSF volume may be one reason as to why children have lower rates of postdural puncture headache. <!--Sites of production-->Most (about two-thirds to 80%) of CSF is produced by the choroid plexus. CSF is mostly produced by the lateral ventricles. <!--Mechanism of production in choroid plexi-->CSF is produced by the choroid plexus in two steps. Firstly, a filtered form of plasma moves from fenestrated capillaries in the choroid plexus into an interstitial space, Cilia on the apical surfaces of the ependymal cells beat to help transport the CSF. <!--Second step-->Water and carbon dioxide from the interstitial fluid diffuse into the epithelial cells. Within these cells, carbonic anhydrase converts the substances into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions. These are exchanged for sodium and chloride on the cell surface facing the interstitium. As a result, to maintain electroneutrality blood plasma has a much lower concentration of chloride anions than sodium cations. CSF contains a similar concentration of sodium ions to blood plasma but fewer protein cations and therefore a smaller imbalance between sodium and chloride resulting in a higher concentration of chloride ions than plasma. This creates an osmotic pressure difference with the plasma. CSF has less potassium, calcium, glucose and protein. Choroid plexuses also secrete growth factors, iodine, vitamins B<sub>1</sub>, B<sub>12</sub>, C, folate, beta-2 microglobulin, arginine vasopressin and nitric oxide into CSF. There are circadian variations in CSF secretion, with the mechanisms not fully understood, but potentially relating to differences in the activation of the autonomic nervous system over the course of the day. In the fourth ventricle, CSF is produced from the arterial blood from the anterior inferior cerebellar artery (cerebellopontine angle and the adjacent part of the lateral recess), the posterior inferior cerebellar artery (roof and median opening), and the superior cerebellar artery.ReabsorptionCSF returns to the vascular system by entering the dural venous sinuses via arachnoid granulations. particularly those surrounding the nose via drainage along the olfactory nerve through the cribriform plate. The pathway and extent are currently not known, In newborns, CSF pressure ranges from 8 to 10 cmH<sub>2</sub>O (4.4–7.3 mmHg or 0.78–0.98 kPa). Most variations are due to coughing or internal compression of jugular veins in the neck. When lying down, the CSF pressure as estimated by lumbar puncture is similar to the intracranial pressure. Hydrocephalus is an abnormal accumulation of CSF in the ventricles of the brain. Hydrocephalus can occur because of obstruction of the passage of CSF, such as from an infection, injury, mass, or congenital abnormality. Hydrocephalus is usually treated through the insertion of a shunt, such as a ventriculo-peritoneal shunt, which diverts fluid to another part of the body. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension is a condition of unknown cause characterized by a rise in CSF pressure. It is associated with headaches, double vision, difficulties seeing, and a swollen optic disc. Medical imaging such as CT scans and MRI scans can be used to investigate for a presumed CSF leak when no obvious leak is found but low CSF pressure is identified. Caffeine, given either orally or intravenously, often offers symptomatic relief. Lumbar puncture is carried out under sterile conditions by inserting a needle into the subarachnoid space, usually between the third and fourth lumbar vertebrae. CSF is extracted through the needle, and tested. Baricity refers to the density of a substance compared to the density of human cerebrospinal fluid and is used in regional anesthesia to determine the manner in which a particular drug will spread in the intrathecal space.LiquorpheresisLiquorpheresis is the process of filtering the CSF in order to clear it from endogen or exogen pathogens. It can be achieved by means of fully implantable or extracorporeal devices, though the technique remains experimental today. CSF drug delivery CSF drug delivery refers to a number of methods designed to administer therapeutic agents directly into the CSF, bypassing the BBB to achieve higher drug concentrations in the CNS. This technique is particularly beneficial for treating neurological disorders such as brain tumors, infections, and neurodegenerative diseases. Intrathecal injection, where drugs are injected directly into the CSF via the lumbar region, and intracerebroventricular injection, targeting the brain's ventricles, are common approaches. These methods ensure that drugs can reach the CNS more effectively than systemic administration, potentially improving therapeutic outcomes and reducing systemic side effects. Advances in this field are driven by ongoing research into novel delivery systems and drug formulations, enhancing the precision and efficacy of treatments. Intrathecal pseudodelivery refers to a particular drug delivery method where the therapeutic agent is introduced into a reservoir connected to the intrathecal space, rather than being released into the CSF and distributed throughout the CNS. In this approach, the drug interacts with its target within the reservoir, allowing for changing the composition of the CSF without systemic release. This method can be advantageous for maximizing efficacy and minimizing systemic side effects. HistoryVarious comments by ancient physicians have been read as referring to CSF. Hippocrates discussed "water" surrounding the brain when describing congenital hydrocephalus, and Galen referred to "excremental liquid" in the ventricles of the brain, which he believed was purged into the nose. But for some 16 intervening centuries of ongoing anatomical study, CSF remained unmentioned in the literature. This is perhaps because of the prevailing autopsy technique, which involved cutting off the head, thereby removing evidence of CSF before the brain was examined. Albrecht von Haller, a Swiss physician and physiologist, made note in his 1747 book on physiology that the "water" in the brain was secreted into the ventricles and absorbed in the veins, and when secreted in excess, could lead to hydrocephalus. In humans and other mammals, cerebrospinal fluid turns over at a rate of 3–5 times a day.<ref nameREECE2013 /> Problems with CSF circulation, leading to hydrocephalus, can occur in other animals as well as humans.<ref nameREECE2013 /> See also * Neuroglobin * Pandy's test * Reissner's fiber * Syrinx (medicine) References External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150105122521/http://www.aboutkidshealth.ca/En/HowTheBodyWorks/IntroductiontotheBrain/WhatisCerebrospinalFluidCSF/Pages/CirculationofCerebrospinalFluidCSF.aspx Circulation of Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)] interactive tool * [https://neuropathology-web.org/chapter14/chapter14CSF.html Cerebrospinal fluid] course material in neuropathology * [https://web.archive.org/web/20171106060813/http://www.control.tfe.umu.se/Ian/CSF/ Identification of the Cerebrospinal Fluid System Dynamics] Category:Body fluids Category:Ventricular system Category:Neurology Category:Reference intervals	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebrospinal_fluid	2025-04-05T18:28:13.855781
7633	Cordial	Cordial may refer to: Food and drink Liqueur, an alcoholic beverage Cordial (candy), a type of candy that has a liquid filling inside a chocolate shell Cordial (medicine), a medicinal beverage Elderflower cordial, a non-alcoholic beverage, commonly called just "cordial" in Ireland Squash (drink), a non-alcoholic fruit drink concentrate sometimes known as cordial Other uses Cordial (album), an album by La Bottine Souriante Cordial (restaurant), a Michelin-starred restaurant in The Netherlands Agreeable, a personality trait also known as "cordiality" See also	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordial	2025-04-05T18:28:13.858689
7635	Charles F. Hockett	\| birth_place = Columbus, Ohio, U.S. \| death_date = \| death_place = Ithaca, New York, U.S. \| other_names \| occupation \| period \| known_for \| home_town \| title \| boards \| spouse Shirley Orlinoff \| partner \| children 5 \| parents \| relatives \| awards \| website \| education = \|Yale University }} \| alma_mater \| thesis_title The Potawatomi Language: A Descriptive Grammar \| thesis_url \| thesis_year 1939 \| school_tradition \| doctoral_advisor \| academic_advisors \| influences Leonard Bloomfield \| era \| discipline Linguist \| sub_discipline \| workplaces 1982)\|Rice University (19862000)}} \| doctoral_students \| notable_students \| main_interests = \| notable_works \| notable_ideas \| influenced \| signature \| signature_alt \| signature_size \| footnotes = }} Charles Francis Hockett (January 17, 1916 – November 3, 2000) was an American linguist who developed many influential ideas in American structuralist linguistics. He represents the post-Bloomfieldian phase of structuralism often referred to as "distributionalism" or "taxonomic structuralism". His academic career spanned over half a century at Cornell and Rice universities. Hockett was also a firm believer of linguistics as a branch of anthropology, making contributions that were significant to the field of anthropology as well. Professional and academic career Education At the age of 16, Hockett enrolled at Ohio State University in Columbus, Ohio where he received a Bachelor of Arts and Master of Arts in ancient history. While enrolled at Ohio State, Hockett became interested in the work of Leonard Bloomfield, a leading figure in the field of structural linguistics. Hockett continued his education at Yale University where he studied anthropology and linguistics and received his PhD in anthropology in 1939. While studying at Yale, Hockett studied with several other influential linguists such as Edward Sapir, George P. Murdock, and Benjamin Whorf. Hockett's dissertation was based on his fieldwork in Potawatomi; his paper on Potawatomi syntax was published in Language in 1939. In 1948 his dissertation was published as a series in the International Journal of American Linguistics. Following fieldwork in Kickapoo and Michoacán, Mexico, Hockett did two years of postdoctoral study with Leonard Bloomfield in Chicago and Michigan. Career Hockett began his teaching career in 1946 as an assistant professor of linguistics in the Division of Modern Languages at Cornell University where he was responsible for directing the Chinese language program. In 1957, Hockett became a member of Cornell's anthropology department and continued to teach anthropology and linguistics until he retired to emeritus status in 1982. In 1986, he took up an adjunct post at Rice University in Houston, Texas, where he remained active until his death in 2000. Achievements Charles Hockett held membership among many academic institutions such as the National Academy of Sciences the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the Society of Fellows at Harvard University. He served as president of both the Linguistic Society of America and the Linguistic Association of Canada and the United States. In addition to making many contributions to the field of structural linguistics, Hockett also considered such things as Whorfian Theory, jokes, the nature of writing systems, slips of the tongue, and animal communication and their relativeness to speech. Outside the realm of linguistics and anthropology, Hockett practiced musical performance and composition. Hockett composed a full-length opera called The Love of Doña Rosita which was based on a play by Federico García Lorca and premiered at Ithaca College by the Ithaca Opera. Hockett and his wife Shirley were vital leaders in the development of the Cayuga Chamber Orchestra in Ithaca, New York. In appreciation of the Hocketts' hard work and dedication to the Ithaca community, Ithaca College established the Charles F. Hockett Music Scholarship, the Shirley and Chas Hockett Chamber Music Concert Series, and the Hockett Family Recital Hall. View on linguistics In his paper "A Note on Structure", he proposes that linguistics can be seen as "a game and as a science." A linguist as a player in the game of languages has the freedom to experiment on all utterances of a language, but must ensure that "all the utterances of the corpus must be taken into account." Late in his career, he was known for his stinging criticism of Chomskyan linguistics. Key contributions Criticisms of Noam Chomsky and the Generative Programme Hockett was initially receptive to Generative grammar, hailing Chomsky's Syntactic Structures as "one of only four major breakthroughs in the history of modern linguistics" (1965). After carefully examining the generative school's proposed innovations in Linguistics, Hockett decided that this approach was of little value. His book The State of the Art outlined his criticisms of the generative approach. In his paraphrase a key principle of the Chomskyan paradigm is that there are an infinite number of grammatical sentences in any particular language. <blockquote>The grammar of a language is a finite system that characterizes an infinite set of (well-formed) sentences. More specifically, the grammar of a language is a well-defined system by definition not more powerful than a universal Turing machine (and, in fact, surely a great deal weaker).</blockquote> The crux of Hockett's rebuttal is that the set of grammatical sentences in a language is not infinite, but rather ill-defined. Hockett proposes that "no physical system is well-defined". Later in "Where the tongue slips, there slip I" he writes as follows. <blockquote> It is currently fashionable to assume that, underlying the actual more or less bumbling speech behavior of any human being, there is a subtle and complicated but determinate linguistic "competence": a sentence-generating cidevice whose design can only be roughly guessed at by any techniques so far available to us. This point of view makes linguistics very hard and very erudite, so that anyone who actually does discover facts about underlying "competence" is entitled to considerable kudos. Within this popular frame of reference, a theory of "performance" -- of the "generation of speech" -- must take more or less the following form. If a sentence is to be uttered aloud, or even thought silently to oneself, it must first be built by the internal "competence" of the speaker, the functioning of which is by definition such that the sentence will be legal ("grammatical") in every respect. But that is not enough; the sentence as thus constructed must then be performed, either overtly so that others may hear it, or covertly so that it is perceived only by the speaker himself. It is in this second step that blunders may appear. That which is generated by the speaker's internal "competence"is what the speaker "intends to say," and is the only real concern of linguistics: blunders in actually performed speech are instructions from elsewhere. Just if there are no such intrusions is what is performed an instance of "smooth speech". I believe this view is unmitigated nonsense, unsupported by any empirical evidence of any sort. In its place, I propose the following. All speech, smooth as well as blunderful, can be and must be accounted for essentially in terms of the three mechanisms we have listed: analogy, blending, and editing. An individual's language, at a given moment, is a set of habits--that is, of analogies, where different analogies are in conflict, one may appear as a constraint on the working of another. Speech actualizes habits--and changes the habits as it does so. Speech reflects awareness of norms; but norms are themselves entirely a matter of analogy (that is, of habit), not some different kind of thing. </blockquote> Despite his criticisms, Hockett always expressed gratitude to the generative school for seeing real problems in the preexisting approaches. <blockquote>There are many situations in which bracketing does not serve to disambiguate. As already noted, words that belong together cannot always be spoken together, and when they are not, bracketing is difficult or impossible. In the 1950s this drove some grammarians to drink and other to transformations, but both are only anodynes, not answers</blockquote> Design features of language One of Hockett's most important contributions was his development of the design-feature approach to comparative linguistics. He attempted to distinguish the similarities and differences among animal communication systems and human language. Hockett initially developed seven features, which were published in the 1959 paper “Animal ‘Languages’ and Human Language.” However, after many revisions, he settled on 13 design-features in the Scientific American "The Origin of Speech." Hockett argued that while every communication system has some of the 13 design features, only human, spoken language has all 13 features. In turn, that differentiates human spoken language from animal communication and other human communication systems such as written language. Hockett's 13 design features of language #Vocal-Auditory Channel: Much of human language is performed using the vocal tract and auditory channel. Hockett viewed this as an advantage for human primates because it allowed for the ability to participate in other activities while simultaneously communicating through spoken language. #Broadcast transmission and directional reception: All human language can be heard if it is within range of another person's auditory channel. Additionally, a listener has the ability to determine the source of a sound by binaural direction finding. #Rapid Fading (transitoriness): Wave forms of human language dissipate over time and do not persist. A hearer can receive specific auditory information only at the time it is spoken. #Interchangeability: A person has the ability to speak and hear the same signal. Anything that a person is able to hear can be reproduced in spoken language. #Total Feedback: Speakers can hear themselves speak and monitor their speech production and internalize what they are producing by language. #Specialization: Human language sounds are specialized for communication. When dogs pant it is to cool themselves off. When humans speak, it is to transmit information. #Semanticity: Specific signals can be matched with a specific meaning. #Arbitrariness: There is no limitation to what can be communicated about and no specific or necessary connection between the sounds used and the message being sent. #Discreteness: Phonemes can be placed in distinct categories which differentiate them from one another, like the distinct sound of /p/ versus /b/. #Displacement: People can refer to things in space and time and communicate about things that are not present. #Productivity: People can create new and unique meanings of utterances from previously existing utterances and sounds. #Traditional Transmission: Human language is not completely innate, and acquisition depends in part on the learning of a language. #Duality of patterning: Meaningless phonic segments (phonemes) are combined to make meaningful words, which, in turn, are combined again to make sentences. While Hockett believed that all communication systems, animal and human alike, share many of these features, only human language contains all 13 design features. Additionally, traditional transmission, and duality of patterning are key to human language. Design feature representation in other communication systems ;Honeybees Foraging honey bees communicate with other members of their hive when they have discovered a relevant source of pollen, nectar, or water. In an effort to convey information about the location and the distance of such resources, honeybees participate in a particular figure-eight dance known as the waggle dance. In Hockett's "The Origin of Speech", he determined that the honeybee communication system of the waggle dance holds the following design features: #Broadcast Transmission and Directional Reception: By the use of this dance, honeybees are able to send out a signal that informs other members of the hive as to what direction the source of food, or water can be located. #Semanticity: Evidence that the specific signals of a communication system can be matched with specific meanings is apparent because other members of the hive are able to locate the food source after a performance of the waggle dance. #Displacement: Foraging honeybees can communicate about a resource that is not currently present within the hive. #Productivity: Waggle dances change based on the direction, amount, and type of resource. Gibbons are small apes in the family Hylobatidae. While they share the same kingdom, phylum, class, and order of humans and are relatively close to man, Hockett distinguishes between the gibbon communication system and human language by noting that gibbons are devoid of the last four design features. Gibbons possess the first nine design features, but do not possess the last four (displacement, productivity, traditional transmission, and duality of patterning). #Displacement, according to Hockett, appears to be lacking in the vocal signaling of apes. #Productivity does not exist among gibbons because if any vocal sound is produced, it is one of a finite set of repetitive and familiar calls. #Hockett supports the idea that humans learn language extra genetically through the process of traditional transmission. Hockett distinguishes gibbons from humans by stating that despite any similarities in communication among a species of apes, one cannot attribute these similarities to acquisition through the teaching and learning (traditional transmission) of signals; the only explanation must be a genetic basis. #Finally, duality of patterning explains a human's ability to create multiple meanings from somewhat meaningless sounds. For example, the phonemes /t/, /a/, /c/ can be used to create the words "cat," "tack," and "act." Hockett states that no other Hominoid communication system besides human language maintains this ability. Later additions to the features In a report published in 1968 with anthropologist and scientist Stuart A. Altmann, Hockett derived three more Design Features, bringing the total to 16. These are the additional three: #<li value=14> Prevarication: A speaker can say falsehoods, lies, and meaningless statements. # Reflexiveness: Language can be used communicate about the very system it is, and language can discuss language # Learnability: A speaker of a language can learn another language Cognitive scientist and linguist at the University of Sussex Larry Trask offered an alternative term and definition for number 14, Prevarication: :14. (a) Stimulus Freedom: One can choose to say anything nothing in any given situationRelationship between design features and animal communicationChomsky theorized that humans are unique in the animal world because of their ability to utilize Design Feature 5: Total Feedback, or recursive grammar. This includes being able to correct oneself and insert explanatory or even non sequitur statements into a sentence, without breaking stride, and keeping proper grammar throughout. While there have been studies attempting to disprove Chomsky, Marcus states that, "An intriguing possibility is that the capacity to recognize recursion might be found only in species that can acquire new patterns of vocalization, for example, songbirds, humans and perhaps some cetaceans." This is in response to a [https://www.cbc.ca/news/science/starlings-sing-a-grammatical-tune-1.619082 study performed] by psychologist Timothy Gentner of the University of California at San Diego. Gentner's study found that starling songbirds use recursive grammar to identify “odd” statements within a given “song.” However, the study does not necessarily debunk Chomsky's observation because it has not yet been proven that songbirds have the semantic ability to generalize from patterns. [http://tuvalu.santafe.edu/~johnson/articles.chimp.html There is also thought] that symbolic thought is necessary for grammar-based speech, and thus Homo Erectus and all preceding “humans” would have been unable to comprehend modern speech. Rather, their utterances would have been halting and even quite confusing to us, today. The [http://www.phon.ox.ac.uk/jcoleman/design_features.htm]: Phonetics Laboratory Faculty of Linguistics, Philology and Phonetics published the following chart, detailing how Hockett's (and Altmann's) Design Features fit into other forms of communication, in animals: {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Feature !! Crickets !! Bee dancing !! Western meadowlark song !! Gibbon calls !! Signing apes !! Alex, a grey parrot !! Paralinguistic phenomena !! Human sign languages !! Spoken language \|- \| Vocal-Auditory Channel \|\| Auditory, not vocal \|\| No \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|\| No \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|\| No \|\| Yes \|- \| Broadcast Transmission and Directional Reception \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|- \| Rapid Fading \|\| Yes (repeating) \|\| ? \|\| Yes \|\| Yes (repeating) \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|- \| Interchangeability \|\| Limited \|\| Limited \|\| ? \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|\| Largely Yes \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|- \| Total Feedback \|\| Yes \|\| ? \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|\| No \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|\| No \|\| Yes \|- \| Specialization \|\| Yes? \|\| ? \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|\| Yes? \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|- \| Semanticity \|\| No? \|\| Yes \|\| In Part \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|\| Yes? \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|- \| Arbitrariness \|\| ? \|\| No \|\| If semantic, Yes \|\| Yes \|\| Largely Yes \|\| Yes \|\| In Part \|\| Largely Yes \|\| Yes \|- \| Discreteness \|\| Yes? \|\| No \|\| ? \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|\| Largely No \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|- \| Displacement \|\| – \|\| Yes, always \|\| ? \|\| No \|\| Yes \|\| No \|\| In Part \|\| Yes, often \|\| Yes, often \|- \| Productivity \|\| No \|\| Yes \|\| ? \|\| No \|\| Debatable \|\| Limited \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|- \| Traditional Transmission \|\| No? \|\| Probably not \|\| ? \|\| ? \|\| Limited \|\| Limited \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|- \| Duality of Patterning \|\| ? \|\| No \|\| ? \|\| No (Cotton-top Tamarin: Yes) \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|\| No \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|- \| Prevarication \|\| – \|\| – \|\| – \|\| – \|\| Yes \|\| No \|\| – \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|- \| Reflexiveness \|\| – \|\| – \|\| – \|\| – \|\| No? \|\| No \|\| – \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|- \| Learnability \|\| – \|\| – \|\| – \|\| – \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|\| – \|\| Yes \|\| Yes \|} Selected works * 1939: "Potowatomi Syntax", Language 15: 235–248. * 1942: "A System of Descriptive Phonology", Language 18: 3-21. * 1944: Spoken Chinese; Basic Course. With C. Fang. Holt, New York. * 1947: "Peiping phonology", in: Journal of the American Oriental Society, 67, pp. 253–267. [= Martin Joos (ed.), Readings in Linguistics, vol. I, 4th edition. Chicago and London 1966, pp. 217–228]. * 1947: "Problems of morphemic analysis", in: Language, 24, pp. 414–41. [= Readings in Linguistics, vol. I, pp. 229–242]. * 1948: "Biophysics, linguistics, and the unity of science", in: American Scientist, 36, pp. 558–572. * 1950: "Peiping morphophonemics", in: Language, 26, pp. 63–85. [= Readings in Linguistics, vol. I, pp. 315–328]. * 1954: "Two models of grammatical description", in: Word, 10, pp. 210–234. [= Readings in Linguistics, vol. I, pp. 386–399]. * 1955: A Manual of Phonology. Indiana University Publications in Anthropology and Linguistics 11. * 1958: A Course in Modern Linguistics. The Macmillan Company: New York. * 1960: "The Origin of Speech". in Scientific American, 203, pp. 89–97. * 1961: "Linguistic Elements and Their Relation" in Language, 37: 29–53. * 1967: The State of the Art. The Haag: Mouton * 1973: Man's Place in Nature. New York: McGraw-Hill. * 1977: The View From Language. Athens: The University of Georgia Press. * 1987: Refurbishing Our Foundations. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. See also * Animal communication * Design features of language * Language acquisition * Linguistic anthropology * Linguistic universals * Origin of language * Origin of speech References External links * [http://specgram.com/JLSSCNC.I.2/02.whitcomb.hockett.html Old Professor Hockett]: A poem written in honor of Hockett by one of his students during his 1991 visit to Rice University. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071023012311/http://listserv.linguistlist.org/cgi-bin/wa?A2ind0011b&Llinganth&D0&OA&P=723 Linguist List]: Obituary of Charles Hockett from the New York Times (November 13, 2000), reproduced on the Linguist List. The NY Times link to the obituary is at [https://www.nytimes.com/2000/11/13/national/13HOCK.html NY Times] * [https://books.google.com/books?idIs0UAAAAIAAJ&dqfour+traditional+grammar+historical+linguistics&pg=PA13 Essays in Honor of Charles F. Hockett] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070716054015/http://www.people.ex.ac.uk/bosthaus/Lecture/hockett1.htm Features of Human Language] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090306051026/http://books.nap.edu/html/biomems/chockett.pdf Charles Hockett-Biography] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110125091520/http://www.pdfqueen.com/html/aHR0cDovL2hvbWVwYWdlLnJ1aHItdW5pLWJvY2h1bS5kZS9VZG8uRmlnZ2UvZG93bmxvYWQvZGVzaWduZmVhdHVyZXMucGRm Design Features of Human Language, Udo L. Figge]: A brief analysis of the 16 Design Features of Language, as published by Hockett and Altmann in 1968 * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120425091558/http://www.searchinpdf.com/CHARLES-FRANCIS-HOCKETT-1916-2000 Charles Hockett Life Summary] [http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/hockett-charles.pdf James W. Gair, "Charles Francis Hockett", Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences (2006)] Falk, Julia S. 2003. "Turn to the history of linguistics : Noam Chomsky and Charles Hockett in the 1960s". Historiographia linguistica (international journal for the history of the language sciences) 30/1-2, pp. 129–185. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233602133_Turn_to_the_History_of_Linguistics_Noam_Chomsky_and_Charles_Hockett_in_the_1960s] Gair, James W. 2003. [Obituary] Charles F. Hockett. Language. 79, 600–613. Fox, Margalit 2003 (Obituary) "Champion of structural linguistics" The New York Times Category:1916 births Category:2000 deaths Category:People from Columbus, Ohio Category:Ohio State University College of Arts and Sciences alumni Category:Yale University alumni Category:Harvard Fellows Category:Cornell University faculty Category:Rice University faculty Category:Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences Category:Linguists of Algic languages Category:Linguistic Society of America presidents Category:20th-century American linguists	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_F._Hockett	2025-04-05T18:28:13.896141
7638	Consilience	In science and history, consilience (also convergence of evidence or concordance of evidence) is the principle that evidence from independent, unrelated sources can "converge" on strong conclusions. That is, when multiple sources of evidence are in agreement, the conclusion can be very strong even when none of the individual sources of evidence is significantly so on its own. Most established scientific knowledge is supported by a convergence of evidence: if not, the evidence is comparatively weak, and there will probably not be a strong scientific consensus. The principle is based on unity of knowledge; measuring the same result by several different methods should lead to the same answer. For example, it should not matter whether one measures distances within the Giza pyramid complex by laser rangefinding, by satellite imaging, or with a metre-stick – in all three cases, the answer should be approximately the same. For the same reason, different dating methods in geochronology should concur, a result in chemistry should not contradict a result in geology, etc. The word consilience was originally coined as the phrase "consilience of inductions" by William Whewell (consilience refers to a "jumping together" of knowledge). The word comes from Latin com- "together" and -siliens "jumping" (as in resilience). Description Consilience requires the use of independent methods of measurement, meaning that the methods have few shared characteristics. That is, the mechanism by which the measurement is made is different; each method is dependent on an unrelated natural phenomenon. For example, the accuracy of laser range-finding measurements is based on the scientific understanding of lasers, while satellite pictures and metre-sticks (or yardsticks) rely on different phenomena. Because the methods are independent, when one of several methods is in error, it is very unlikely to be in error in the same way as any of the other methods, and a difference between the measurements will be observed. If the scientific understanding of the properties of lasers was inaccurate, then the laser measurement would be inaccurate but the others would not. As a result, when several different methods agree, this is strong evidence that none of the methods are in error and the conclusion is correct. This is because of a greatly reduced likelihood of errors: for a consensus estimate from multiple measurements to be wrong, the errors would have to be similar for all samples and all methods of measurement, which is extremely unlikely. Random errors will tend to cancel out as more measurements are made, due to regression to the mean; systematic errors will be detected by differences between the measurements and will also tend to cancel out since the direction of the error will still be random. This is how scientific theories reach high confidence—over time, they build up a large degree of evidence which converges on the same conclusion. When results from different strong methods do appear to conflict, this is treated as a serious problem to be reconciled. For example, in the 19th century, the Sun appeared to be no more than 20 million years old, but the Earth appeared to be no less than 300 million years (resolved by the discovery of nuclear fusion and radioactivity, and the theory of quantum mechanics); or current attempts to resolve theoretical differences between quantum mechanics and general relativity. Significance Because of consilience, the strength of evidence for any particular conclusion is related to how many independent methods are supporting the conclusion, as well as how different these methods are. Those techniques with the fewest (or no) shared characteristics provide the strongest consilience and result in the strongest conclusions. This also means that confidence is usually strongest when considering evidence from different fields because the techniques are usually very different. For example, the theory of evolution is supported by a convergence of evidence from genetics, molecular biology, paleontology, geology, biogeography, comparative anatomy, comparative physiology, and many other fields. In fact, the evidence within each of these fields is itself a convergence providing evidence for the theory. As a result, to disprove evolution, most or all of these independent lines of evidence would have to be found to be in error. and is often used as an argument for scientific realism by philosophers of science. Each branch of science studies a subset of reality that depends on factors studied in other branches. Atomic physics underlies the workings of chemistry, which studies emergent properties that in turn are the basis of biology. Psychology is not separate from the study of properties emergent from the interaction of neurons and synapses. Sociology, economics, and anthropology are each, in turn, studies of properties emergent from the interaction of countless individual humans. The concept that all the different areas of research are studying one real, existing universe is an apparent explanation of why scientific knowledge determined in one field of inquiry has often helped in understanding other fields. Deviations Consilience does not forbid deviations: in fact, since not all experiments are perfect, some deviations from established knowledge are expected. However, when the convergence is strong enough, then new evidence inconsistent with the previous conclusion is not usually enough to outweigh that convergence. Without an equally strong convergence on the new result, the weight of evidence will still favor the established result. This means that the new evidence is most likely to be wrong. Science denialism (for example, AIDS denialism) is often based on a misunderstanding of this property of consilience. A denier may promote small gaps not yet accounted for by the consilient evidence, or small amounts of evidence contradicting a conclusion without accounting for the pre-existing strength resulting from consilience. More generally, to insist that all evidence converge precisely with no deviations would be naïve falsificationism, equivalent to considering a single contrary result to falsify a theory when another explanation, such as equipment malfunction or misinterpretation of results, is much more likely. In history Historical evidence also converges in an analogous way. For example: if five ancient historians, none of whom knew each other, all claim that Julius Caesar seized power in Rome in 49 BCE, this is strong evidence in favor of that event occurring even if each individual historian is only partially reliable. By contrast, if the same historian had made the same claim five times in five different places (and no other types of evidence were available), the claim is much weaker because it originates from a single source. The evidence from the ancient historians could also converge with evidence from other fields, such as archaeology: for example, evidence that many senators fled Rome at the time, that the battles of Caesar’s civil war occurred, and so forth. Consilience has also been discussed in reference to Holocaust denial. That is, individually the evidence may underdetermine the conclusion, but together they overdetermine it. A similar way to state this is that to ask for one particular piece of evidence in favor of a conclusion is a flawed question. Outside the sciences In addition to the sciences, consilience can be important to the arts, ethics and religion. Both artists and scientists have identified the importance of biology in the process of artistic innovation. More recent descriptions include: Edward O. Wilson Although the concept of consilience in Whewell's sense was widely discussed by philosophers of science, the term was unfamiliar to the broader public until the end of the 20th century, when it was revived in Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge, a 1998 book by the author and biologist E. O. Wilson, as an attempt to bridge the cultural gap between the sciences and the humanities that was the subject of C. P. Snow's The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution (1959). Wilson held that with the rise of the modern sciences, the sense of unity gradually was lost in the increasing fragmentation and specialization of knowledge in the last two centuries. He asserted that the sciences, humanities, and arts have a common goal: to give a purpose to understand the details, to lend to all inquirers "a conviction, far deeper than a mere working proposition, that the world is orderly and can be explained by a small number of natural laws." An important point made by Wilson is that hereditary human nature and evolution itself profoundly affect the evolution of culture, in essence, a sociobiological concept. Wilson's concept is a much broader notion of consilience than that of Whewell, who was merely pointing out that generalizations invented to account for one set of phenomena often account for others as well. A parallel view lies in the term universology, which literally means "the science of the universe." Universology was first promoted for the study of the interconnecting principles and truths of all domains of knowledge by Stephen Pearl Andrews, a 19th-century utopian futurist and anarchist. See also Notes References External links A conversation with Edward O. Wilson William Whewell in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Category:Concepts in epistemology Category:Concepts in the philosophy of science Category:Evidence Category:Science studies Category:Scientific method	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consilience	2025-04-05T18:28:13.908338
7642	Clarence Brown	\| birth_place = Clinton, Massachusetts, U.S. \| death_date = \| death_place = Santa Monica, California, U.S. \| years_active = 1915–1953 \| spouse = * * * }} \| children = 1 \| education = Knoxville High School<br>University of Tennessee}} Clarence Leon Brown (May 10, 1890 – August 17, 1987) was an American film director.Early lifeBorn in Clinton, Massachusetts, to Larkin Harry Brown, a cotton manufacturer, and Katherine Ann Brown (née Gaw), Brown moved to Tennessee when he was 11 years old. He attended Knoxville High School And the University of Tennessee, both in Knoxville, Tennessee, graduating from the university at the age of 19 with two degrees in engineering. An early fascination in automobiles led Brown to a job with the Stevens-Duryea Company, then to his own Brown Motor Car Company in Alabama. He later abandoned the car dealership after developing an interest in motion pictures around 1913. He was hired by the Peerless Studio at Fort Lee, New Jersey, and became an assistant to the French-born director Maurice Tourneur.CareerAfter serving as a fighter pilot and flight instructor in the United States Army Air Service during World War I, Brown was given his first co-directing credit (with Tourneur) for The Great Redeemer (1920). Later that year, he directed a major portion of The Last of the Mohicans after Tourneur was injured in a fall. Brown moved to Universal in 1924, and then to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, where he remained until the mid-1950s. At MGM he was one of the main directors of their major female stars, he directed Joan Crawford six times and Greta Garbo seven. Brown was nominated five times for six films (see below) for an Academy Award as a director, but he never received an Oscar. However, he won Best Foreign Film for Anna Karenina, starring Garbo at the 1935 Venice International Film Festival. Brown's films gained a total of 38 Academy Award nominations and earned nine Oscars. Brown himself received five Academy Award nominations for six films and in 1949, he won the British Academy Award for the film version of William Faulkner's Intruder in the Dust. In 1957, Brown was awarded The George Eastman Award, given by George Eastman House for distinguished contribution to the art of film. Brown retired a wealthy man due to his real estate investments, but refused to watch new movies. He feared they might cause him to restart his career. The Clarence Brown Theater, on the campus of the University of Tennessee, is named in his honor. He holds the record for most nominations for the Academy Award for Best Director without a win, with six.Personal lifeClarence Brown was married four times. His first marriage was to Paula Herndon Pratt in 1913, which lasted until their divorce in 1920. The couple produced a daughter, Adrienne Brown. His second marriage was to Ona Wilson, which lasted from 1922 until their divorce in 1927. He was engaged to Dorothy Sebastian and Mona Maris, although he did not marry either of them, with Maris later saying she ended their relationship because she had her "own ideas of marriage then." He married his third wife, Alice Joyce, in 1933 and they divorced in 1945. His last marriage was to Marian Spies in 1946, which lasted until his death in 1987. On February 8, 1960, Brown received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1752 Vine Street, for his contributions to the motion pictures industry. Selected filmography is entertained on the set of The Rains Came (1939) by director Clarence Brown (left) and Louis Bromfield, author of the novel on which the film was based.]] Director Trilby (1915) The Law of the Land (1917) The Blue Bird (1918) The Great Redeemer (1920) The Last of the Mohicans (1920) The Foolish Matrons (1921) The Light in the Dark (1922) ''Don't Marry for Money (1923) The Acquittal (1923) The Signal Tower (1924) Butterfly (1924) The Eagle (1925) The Goose Woman (1925) Smouldering Fires (1925) Flesh and the Devil (1926) Kiki (1926) A Woman of Affairs (1928) The Trail of '98 (1929) Navy Blues (1929) Wonder of Women (1929) Anna Christie (1930) – Academy Award nomination for Best Director Romance (1930) – Academy Award nomination for Best Director Inspiration (1931) Possessed (1931) A Free Soul (1931) – Academy Award nomination for Best Director Emma (1932) Letty Lynton (1932) The Son-Daughter (1932) Looking forward (1933) Night Flight (1933) Sadie McKee (1934) Chained (1934) Anna Karenina (1935) Ah, Wilderness! (1935) Wife vs. Secretary (1936) The Gorgeous Hussy (1936) Conquest (1937) Of Human Hearts (1938) Idiot's Delight (1939) The Rains Came (1939) Edison, the Man (1940) Come Live with Me (1941) They Met in Bombay (1941) The Human Comedy (1943) – Academy Award nominations for Best Director and for Best Picture The White Cliffs of Dover (1944) National Velvet (1944) – Academy Award nomination for Best Director The Yearling (1946) – Academy Award nomination for Best Director Song of Love (1947) Intruder in the Dust (1949) To Please a Lady (1950) Angels in the Outfield (1951) When in Rome (1952) Plymouth Adventure (1952) Actor The Signal Tower (1924) – Switch Man Ben-Hur (1925) – Chariot Race Spectator (uncredited) Navy Blues (1929) – Roller Coaster Rider (uncredited) Possessed (1931) – Man on Merry-Go-Round (uncredited) (final film role) Notes References Bibliography Brownlow, Kevin. "Clarence Brown" in The Parade's Gone By New York: Knopf (1968) * Estrin, Allen. "The Hollywood Professionals, Vol. 6: Frank Capra, George Cukor, Clarence Brown", AS Barnes (1980) * Bastarache, A.J. An Extraordinary Town, How one of America's smallest towns shaped the world – A Historical Marketing Book'' by A. J. Bastarache. * Young, Gwenda. 'Clarence Brown: From Knoxville to Hollywood and Back'. Journal of East Tennessee History', pp. 53–73 (2002) * * Young, Gwenda. Clarence Brown: Hollywood's Forgotten Master. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2018 * Neely, Jack. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110611213329/http://www.metropulse.com/news/2008/mar/06/clarence-brown-forgotten-director "Clarence Brown: The Forgotten Director"], Metro Pulse (March 2008) External links * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050725234425/http://www.extraordinarytown.com/ "An Extraordinary Town – Clinton, Massachusetts" (a book on Brown's birthplace, with an extensive section on Brown)], extraordinarytown.com * [http://www.oscars.org/awardsdatabase Information available on the actual dates and nominations, plus commentary on the nominations for multiple roles/films in 1929/1930] , oscars.org * [http://www.virtual-history.com/movie/person/4009/clarence-brown Clarence Brown profile], virtual-history.com Category:1890 births Category:1987 deaths Category:20th-century American male writers Category:20th-century American screenwriters Category:American film editors Category:American male screenwriters Category:Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale) Category:Deaths from kidney failure in California Category:Film directors from Massachusetts Category:Film directors from Tennessee Category:Film producers from Massachusetts Category:Film producers from Tennessee Category:Military personnel from Massachusetts Category:People from Clinton, Massachusetts Category:People from Knoxville, Tennessee Category:Screenwriters from Massachusetts Category:Screenwriters from Tennessee Category:United States Army Air Service pilots of World War I Category:MPAPAI members	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarence_Brown	2025-04-05T18:28:13.921388
7643	Conciliation	Conciliation is an alternative dispute resolution process whereby the parties to a dispute rely on a neutral third-party known as the conciliator, to assist them in solving their dispute. The conciliator, who may meet with the parties both separately and together, does this by; lowering tensions, improving communication, interpreting issues, and assisting parties in finding a mutually acceptable outcome. Unlike litigation or arbitration, conciliation is a voluntary, confidential, and flexible method aimed at resolving conflicts without the need for formal legal proceedings. The conciliation process has no legal standing and the decision made by the conciliator is not binding. The conciliator usually has no authority to seek evidence or call witnesses, usually writes no decision, and makes no award. Conciliation process The conciliation process begins when both parties agree to engage in it as a method of resolving a dispute. There are multiple uses for this form of alternative dispute resolution including transnational intellectual property, peace efforts, and other areas of community concern. This can be either part of an outline contract that was handled before the dispute arose or after a dispute arises. Conciliation is a preferred method of dispute resolution compared to litigation or binding arbitration. They select a conciliator by mutual consent or through an appointing institution. The conciliator then gathers information to understand the concerns and objectives of each side. The conciliator helps the parties move toward a resolution. In issues of international law this may include shuttle diplomacy. Most successful "conciliators" are usually highly skilled negotiators. or for governmental agencies such as the Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service in the United States. References Category:Dispute resolution pl:Ugoda	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conciliation	2025-04-05T18:28:13.929071
7645	Cyclone (programming language)	\| designer = AT&T Labs \| developer = Cornell University \| latest release version = 1.0 \| latest release date = \| latest preview version \| latest preview date <!-- --> \| typing \| implementations \| dialects \| influenced by C \| influenced = Rust, Project Verona \| programming language \| operating system \| license \| website \| wikibooks \| discontinued Yes }} The Cyclone programming language was intended to be a safe dialect of the C language. It avoids buffer overflows and other vulnerabilities that are possible in C programs by design, without losing the power and convenience of C as a tool for system programming. It is no longer supported by its original developers, with the reference tooling not supporting 64-bit platforms. The Rust language is mentioned by the original developers for having integrated many of the same ideas Cyclone had. Cyclone development was started as a joint project of Trevor Jim from AT&T Labs Research and Greg Morrisett's group at Cornell University in 2001. Version 1.0 was released on May 8, 2006.Language features Cyclone attempts to avoid some of the common pitfalls of C, while still maintaining its look and performance. To this end, Cyclone places the following limits on programs: * <code>NULL</code> checks are inserted to prevent segmentation faults * Pointer arithmetic is limited * Pointers must be initialized before use (this is enforced by definite assignment analysis) * Dangling pointers are prevented through region analysis and limits on <code>free()</code> * Only "safe" casts and unions are allowed * <code>goto</code> into scopes is disallowed * <code>switch</code> labels in different scopes are disallowed * Pointer-returning functions must execute <code>return</code> * <code>setjmp</code> and <code>longjmp</code> are not supported To maintain the tool set that C programmers are used to, Cyclone provides the following extensions: * Never-<code>NULL</code> pointers do not require <code>NULL</code> checks * "Fat" pointers support pointer arithmetic with run-time bounds checking * Growable regions support a form of safe manual memory management * Garbage collection for heap-allocated values * Tagged unions support type-varying arguments * Injections help automate the use of tagged unions for programmers * Polymorphism replaces some uses of <code>void </code> varargs are implemented as fat pointers * Exceptions replace some uses of <code>setjmp</code> and <code>longjmp</code> For a better high-level introduction to Cyclone, the reasoning behind Cyclone and the source of these lists, see [http://www.cs.umd.edu/projects/cyclone/papers/cyclone-safety.pdf this paper]. Cyclone looks, in general, much like C, but it should be viewed as a C-like language. Pointer types Cyclone implements three kinds of pointer: * <code></code> (the normal type) <code>@</code> (the never-<code>NULL</code> pointer), and * <code>?</code> (the only type with pointer arithmetic allowed, "fat" pointers). The purpose of introducing these new pointer types is to avoid common problems when using pointers. Take for instance a function, called <code>foo</code> that takes a pointer to an int: <syntaxhighlight lang="C"> int foo(int ); </syntaxhighlight> Although the person who wrote the function <code>foo</code> could have inserted <code>NULL</code> checks, let us assume that for performance reasons they did not. Calling <code>foo(NULL);</code> will result in undefined behavior (typically, although not necessarily, a SIGSEGV signal being sent to the application). To avoid such problems, Cyclone introduces the <code>@</code> pointer type, which can never be <code>NULL</code>. Thus, the "safe" version of <code>foo</code> would be: <syntaxhighlight lang="C"> int foo(int @); </syntaxhighlight> This tells the Cyclone compiler that the argument to <code>foo</code> should never be <code>NULL</code>, avoiding the aforementioned undefined behavior. The simple change of <code></code> to <code>@</code> saves the programmer from having to write <code>NULL</code> checks and the operating system from having to trap <code>NULL</code> pointer dereferences. This extra limit, however, can be a rather large stumbling block for most C programmers, who are used to being able to manipulate their pointers directly with arithmetic. Although this is desirable, it can lead to buffer overflows and other "off-by-one"-style mistakes. To avoid this, the <code>?</code> pointer type is delimited by a known bound, the size of the array. Although this adds overhead due to the extra information stored about the pointer, it improves safety and security. Take for instance a simple (and naïve) <code>strlen</code> function, written in C: <syntaxhighlight lang="C"> int strlen(const char s) { int i = 0; if (s NULL) return 0; while (s[i] != '\0') { i++; } return i; } </syntaxhighlight> This function assumes that the string being passed in is terminated by <code>'\0'</code>. However, what would happen if {{code\|stylewhite-space:nowrap\|2c\|1char buf[6] {'h','e','l','l','o','!'};}} were passed to this string? This is perfectly legal in C, yet would cause <code>strlen</code> to iterate through memory not necessarily associated with the string <code>s</code>. There are functions, such as <code>strnlen</code> which can be used to avoid such problems, but these functions are not standard with every implementation of ANSI C. The Cyclone version of <code>strlen</code> is not so different from the C version: <syntaxhighlight lang="C"> int strlen(const char ? s) { int i, n = s.size; if (s NULL) return 0; for (i = 0; i < n; i++, s++) if (s '\0') return i; return n; } </syntaxhighlight> Here, <code>strlen</code> bounds itself by the length of the array passed to it, thus not going over the actual length. Each of the kinds of pointer type can be safely cast to each of the others, and arrays and strings are automatically cast to <code>?</code> by the compiler. (Casting from <code>?</code> to <code></code> invokes a bounds check, and casting from <code>?</code> to <code>@</code> invokes both a <code>NULL</code> check and a bounds check. Casting from <code></code> to <code>?</code> results in no checks whatsoever; the resulting <code>?</code> pointer has a size of 1.) Dangling pointers and region analysis Consider the following code, in C: <syntaxhighlight lang="C"> char itoa(int i) { char buf[20]; sprintf(buf,"%d",i); return buf; } </syntaxhighlight> The function <code>itoa</code> allocates an array of chars <code>buf</code> on the stack and returns a pointer to the start of <code>buf</code>. However, the memory used on the stack for <code>buf</code> is deallocated when the function returns, so the returned value cannot be used safely outside of the function. While GNU Compiler Collection and other compilers will warn about such code, the following will typically compile without warnings: <syntaxhighlight lang="C"> char itoa(int i) { char buf[20], z; sprintf(buf,"%d",i); z = buf; return z; } </syntaxhighlight> GNU Compiler Collection can produce warnings for such code as a side-effect of option or , but there are no guarantees that all such errors will be detected. Cyclone does regional analysis of each segment of code, preventing dangling pointers, such as the one returned from this version of <code>itoa</code>. All of the local variables in a given scope are considered to be part of the same region, separate from the heap or any other local region. Thus, when analyzing <code>itoa</code>, the Cyclone compiler would see that <code>z</code> is a pointer into the local stack, and would report an error. See also C * ML * Rust References External links * [http://cyclone.thelanguage.org/ Cyclone homepage] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20111227232825/http://www.eecs.harvard.edu/~greg/cyclone/old_cyclone.html Old web site] * [http://cyclone.thelanguage.org/wiki/Download Cyclone - source code repositories] * [http://cyclone.thelanguage.org/wiki/Frequently%20Asked%20Questions Cyclone - FAQ] * [http://cyclone.thelanguage.org/wiki/Cyclone%20for%20C%20Programmers Cyclone for C programmers] * [http://cyclone.thelanguage.org/wiki/User%20Manual Cyclone user manual] * [http://www.cs.umd.edu/~mwh/papers/cyclone-cuj.pdf Cyclone: a Type-safe Dialect of C] by Dan Grossman, Michael Hicks, Trevor Jim, and Greg Morrisett - published January 2005 Presentations: * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110607170455/http://www.cs.kent.ac.uk/people/staff/rej/morrisett-4.2.03.ppt Cyclone: A Type-Safe Dialect of C] * [http://www.cs.washington.edu/homes/djg/slides/grossman_cyclone_jpl_05.ppt Cyclone: A Memory-Safe C-Level Programming Language] Category:C programming language family Category:Programming languages created in 2002	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclone_(programming_language)	2025-04-05T18:28:13.941036
7646	Cognitivism	Cognitivism may refer to: Cognitivism (ethics), the philosophical view that ethical sentences express propositions and are capable of being true or false Cognitivism (psychology), a psychological approach that argues that mental function can be understood as the internal manipulation of symbols Cognitivism (aesthetics), a view that cognitive psychology can help understand art and the response to it Anecdotal cognitivism, a psychological methodology for interpreting animal behavior in terms of mental states See also Cognition, the study of the human mind Cognitive anthropology Cognitive science Computationalism Philosophy of mind Situated cognition Socio-cognitive Symbol grounding	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitivism	2025-04-05T18:28:13.943867
7647	Counter (digital)	thumb\|Integrated circuit containing a digital counter (synchronous 4-bit decade counter, Signetics 74162N) In digital electronics, a counter is a sequential logic circuit that counts and stores the number of positive or negative transitions of a clock signal. A counter typically consists of flip-flops, which store a value representing the current count, and in many cases, additional logic to effect particular counting sequences, qualify clocks and perform other functions. Each clock pulse causes the value stored in the counter to increment or decrement (increase or decrease by one). A digital counter is a finite state machine, with a clock input signal and multiple output signals that collectively represent the state. The state indicates the current count, either directly as a binary number or in binary-coded decimal (BCD), or using encodings such as one-hot or Gray code. Most counters have a Reset input which is used to initialize the counter. Depending on the design, a counter may have additional inputs to control functions such as count enabling and parallel data loading. Digital counters are categorized in various ways, including by attributes such as modulus and output encoding, and by special capabilities such as data preloading and bidirectional (up and down) counting. Every counter is classified as either synchronous or asynchronous. Some counters, specifically ring counters and Johnson counters, are categorized according to their unique architectures. Counters are widely used in computers, device interfaces, and other applications. They are implemented as stand-alone integrated circuits and as integrated components in larger integrated circuits such as microcontrollers and FPGAs. Characteristics An electronic counter is a sequential logic circuit that has a clock input signal and a group of output signals that represent an integer "count" value. Upon each qualified clock edge, the circuit will increment (or decrement, depending on circuit design) the stored count. When the count reaches the end of the counting sequence (maximum count when incrementing; zero count when decrementing), the next clock will cause the count to overflow or underflow and the counting sequence will start over. Signals In addition to the clock input, many counters provide other input signals, such as: Reset – sets count to zero. Some IC manufacturers name this signal "clear" or "master reset (MR)". Depending on the counter design, this signal may be asynchronous or synchronous. Enable – allows or inhibits counting. Direction – determines whether count will increment or decrement. Data – parallel input data which represents a particular count value. Load – copies parallel input data to the counter. Some counters provide a Terminal Count output which indicates that the next clock will cause overflow or underflow. This is used in various ways, including: to implement counter cascading (combining two or more counters to create a single, larger counter) by connecting the Terminal Count output of one counter to the Enable input of the next counter. to dynamically change the counter modulus, by connecting Terminal Count to the counter’s Load input and applying an appropriate value to the Data inputs. Modulus The modulus of a counter is the number of states in its count sequence. A counter that has modulus value n is commonly referred to as a modulo-n or MOD-n counter. For example, a counter that counts up from 0 to 5 and then overflows is a MOD-6 counter because it has six states. The maximum possible modulus of a counter is determined by the number of flip-flops. More specifically, a counter with n flip-flops has a maximum possible modulus of . For example, a four-bit counter can have a modulus of up to 16 (). Some counters (e.g., binary counters) include all possible states in their count sequences. Other counters omit one or more possible states from their counting sequences; for example, a decade counter has ten states (0 to 9) and thus is a MOD-10 counter. Output encoding As it counts, every counter produces a sequence of output codes (bit patterns) on its flip-flop outputs. Many of these code sequences, either by design or due to the nature of the counter, conform to widely used encoding systems. Several types of output encoding are commonly used in counters, including binary, BCD, Gray code, and one-hot. Synchronous vs. asynchronous Counters are broadly categorized as either synchronous or asynchronous. In synchronous counters, all flip-flops share a common clock and change state at the same time. In asynchronous counters, each flip-flop has a unique clock, and the flip-flop states change at different times. Up/down counting An up/down counter is a digital counter which counts up or down as directed by a special input signal. In synchronous up/down counters, the control signal is a single digital input whose state indicates count direction (e.g., '1' count up; '0' count down). In asynchronous up/down counters the direction control may alternatively consist of two separate "up" and "down" clock inputs. Common types Binary counter A binary counter is a digital counter that directly represents the count as a binary number. A binary counter is a MOD- counter, where n is the number of flip-flops used to store the count. For example, the illustrations below show the behavior of a 5-bit binary counter, which has 32 () states and is therefore a MOD-32 counter: File:Binary counter.gif\|Count sequence of a 5-bit binary up-counter File:Bin counter timing d.jpg\|Voltage changes on the outputs of a 5-bit binary counter as it counts up from 0 to 31 (left to right), with most-significant bit on top row and successively less-significant bits in the rows below Asynchronous binary (ripple) counter An asynchronous binary counter, or binary ripple counter, is a "chain" of toggle (T) flip-flops in which the least-significant flip-flop (bit 0) is clocked by an external signal (the counter input clock), and all other flip-flops are clocked by the output of the nearest, less significant flip-flop (e.g., bit 0 clocks the bit 1 flip-flop, bit 1 clocks bit 2, etc.). When implemented with discrete flip-flops, ripple counters are commonly implemented with JK flip-flops, with each flip-flop configured to toggle when clocked (i.e., J and K are both connected to logic high). 400px\|border\|Schematic diagram of an n-bit ripple counter constructed from JK flip flops. In this counter, the first flip-flop is clocked by rising edges; all other flip-flops in the chain are clocked by falling clock edges. Each flip-flop is effectively a one-bit counter which increments its count (by toggling its output) once per clock cycle. It counts from zero to one and then, when the next clock arrives, it will overflow and start its count sequence over again at zero. Each output state persists for a full input clock cycle, and consequently the frequency of each flip-flop's output signal is exactly half that of its input clock. Additional flip-flops may be added to the chain to form a counter of any arbitrary word size (number of bits), with the output frequency of each bit equal to exactly half the frequency of its nearest, less significant bit. Each flip-flop introduces a delay from input clock edge to output toggle. This causes the counter bits to change at different times, thus producing a ripple effect and making the count unstable as the counter input clock propagates through the circuit. The duration of this instability (the output settling time) is proportional to the number of flip-flops. This makes ripple counters unsuitable for use in synchronous circuits that require the counter to have a fast output settling time. Also, it is often impractical to use ripple counter output bits as clocks for external circuits because the ripple effect causes timing skew between the bits. Ripple counters are commonly used as general-purpose counters and clock frequency dividers in applications where the instantaneous count and timing skew is unimportant. File:4020 Functional Diagram.svg\|Functional diagram of a CMOS 4020, 14-bit ripple counter IC File:RCA CD74HC4020E.jpg\|Photograph of a CMOS 4020, 14-bit ripple counter IC (RCA CD74HC4020E) Synchronous binary counter The circuit shown below is a synchronous, up-counting four-bit binary counter implemented with JK flip-flops. Upon clock rising edge, bit 0 will always toggle, whereas other bits will toggle only when all less-significant bits are at a logic high state (i.e., Q1 toggles if Q0 is logic high; Q2 toggles if Q0 and Q1 are both high; and Q3 toggles if Q0, Q1, and Q2 are all high). 400px\|border\|Synchronous 4-bit binary counter using JK flip-flops As in asynchronous counters, each flip-flop introduces a delay from input clock edge to output toggle, but in this case all flip-flops change state concurrently, and consequently the counter output will settle after only one flip-flop delay regardless of the number of bits. Decade counter A decade counter is a MOD-10 counter that counts from 0 to 9 and then overflows to zero. Depending on its design, the count may be represented in binary-coded decimal (BCD) (0000 to 1001) or other binary encodings. Decade counter BCD output states State Q0 Q1 Q2 Q3 0 0 0 0 0 11 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 0 31 1 0 0 4 0 0 1 0 51 0 1 0 6 0 1 1 0 71 1 1 0 8 0 0 0 1 91 0 0 1 Asynchronous decade counter The circuit shown below is an asynchronous decade counter with BCD output. It is a modified 4-bit binary ripple counter that uses a NAND gate to reset the count to zero (by resetting all flip-flops) when the binary count increments to 10 (binary 1010), thus resulting in 10 output states. As in all asynchronous counters, the stored count is unstable while the external clock propagates through the flip-flop chain (including the reset upon reaching count 10). 450px\|border\|A circuit decade counter using JK Flip-flops (74LS112D) Synchronous decade counter The circuit shown below is a synchronous decade counter with BCD output. Five logic gates are used to implement the next-state logic, thus facilitating faster operation than an asynchronous counter at the expense of additional circuitry. 450px\|border\|Synchronous decade counter with BCD output Ring counter A ring counter is a circular shift register which is initialized (via its reset input signal) such that one flip-flop (typically bit 0) stores a ‘1’ and all other flip-flops store a ‘0’. Each clock pulse causes the ‘1’ to shift to the next flip-flop. When the ‘1’ reaches the last flip-flop in the shift register, the next clock causes it to shift into the first flip-flop, thus restarting the counting sequence and effecting a counter overflow. At any particular time only one counter output bit is logic ‘1’, and consequently a ring counter is effectively a one-hot state machine. A ring counter is MOD-n, where n is the number of flip-flops. For example, the ring counter shown below has four flip-flops and therefore is a MOD-4 counter. In this counter, bit 0 is initially set and all other bits are cleared. 400px\|border\|4-bit ring counter with synchronous reset input, which initializes bit 0 to ‘1’ and all other bits to ‘0’ 4-bit ring counter output states Count Q0 Q1 Q2 Q3 01 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 3 0 0 0 1 Johnson counter A Johnson counter (also called switch-tail ring, twisted ring, walking ring, or Möbius counter) is a circular shift register in which the output of the last stage is inverted and connected to the data input of the first stage, and all bits are initialized to zero, thus producing a Gray code output sequence. It can be clocked at relatively high frequencies because there are no intermediate logic gates, and consequently the worst-case propagation delay is from clock to flip-flop output. A Johnson counter is MOD-2n, where n is the number of flip-flops. For example, the Johnson counter shown below has four flip-flops and therefore is a MOD-8 counter. 400px\|border\|4-bit Johnson counter using four D-type flip flops 4-bit Johnson counter output states State Q0 Q1 Q2 Q3 0 0 0 0 0 11 0 0 0 21 1 0 0 31 1 1 0 41 1 1 1 5 0 1 1 1 6 0 0 1 1 7 0 0 0 1 Johnson counters are commonly used in state machines and in specialized applications such as analog waveform generation (e.g., Davies sinusoidal generator). For example, the CMOS 4017 integrated circuit uses a 5-bit Johnson counter to cycle through 10 states, and thus implement a decade counter with one-hot encoded outputs: File:4017 Functional Diagram.svg\|Functional diagram of a CMOS 4017 IC, which combines a 5-bit Johnson counter and output decoder logic to implement a cascadable ten-state one-hot counter File:CMOS 4017 Diagram Logic Edge Up recadré v1.00.svg\|Internal logic of a CMOS 4017 IC; one output is active per state Implementation Counters are implemented in a variety of ways, including as dedicated MSI and LSI integrated circuits, as embedded counters within ASICs, as general-purpose counter and timer peripherals in microcontrollers, and as IP blocks in FPGAs. In the latter case, a counter is typically instantiated by synthesizing it from a description written in VHDL, Verilog or some other hardware description language. For example, the following VHDL code describes a 32-bit binary up/down counter with count enable and preload capability: entity bidirectional_counter is port ( -- counter input/output signals: CLK : in std_logic; -- clock RESET : in std_logic; -- asynchronous reset ENABLE : in std_logic; -- count enable LOAD_ENABLE : in std_logic; -- load enable COUNT_UP : in std_logic; -- '1' for up, '0' for down counting DATA_IN : in unsigned(31 downto 0); -- value to load into counter DATA_OUT : out unsigned(31 downto 0) -- current counter value ); end bidirectional_counter; architecture behavioral of bidirectional_counter is signal counter : unsigned(31 downto 0) :(others> '0'); -- counter register begin process(CLK, RESET) begin if RESET = '1' then -- if counter reset is requested counter '0'); -- reset the counter elsif rising_edge(CLK) then -- else upon rising clock edge if LOAD_ENABLE = '1' then -- if load is requested counter See also Asynchronous circuit Mechanical counter Synchronous circuit Time to digital converter Web counter References External links Category:Numeral systems Category:Digital circuits Category:Unary operations	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter_(digital)	2025-04-05T18:28:13.961457
7651	Coleridge (disambiguation)	Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772–1834) was an English poet, literary critic, philosopher and theologian. Coleridge may also refer to: Places Coleridge, an electoral ward of Cambridge, England Coleridge, Nebraska, U.S. Coleridge, North Carolina, U.S. Lake Coleridge, Canterbury, New Zealand Coleridge Hundred, an ancient subdivision of Devon, England Coleridge (New Zealand electorate), a former parliamentary electorate Coleridge (crater), a crater on planet Mercury Coldridge, Devon, England Other uses Coleridge (surname), a list of people with the surname Coleridge Baron Coleridge of Ottery St Mary in the County of Devon, a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom Coleridge Community College, Cambridge, England SS Empire Coleridge, a tanker ship See also Coleridge-Taylor (disambiguation)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coleridge_(disambiguation)	2025-04-05T18:28:13.968461
7655	Clay Mathematics Institute	}} \| type = Non-profit \| headquarters = Denver, Colorado, United States \| location = Oxford, United Kingdom \| membership \| language \| leader_title = President \| leader_name = Martin R. Bridson \| key_people = Landon T. Clay<br />Lavinia D. Clay<br />Thomas Clay \| num_staff \| budget \| website = }} The Clay Mathematics Institute (CMI) is a private, non-profit foundation dedicated to increasing and disseminating mathematical knowledge. Formerly based in Peterborough, New Hampshire, the corporate address is now in Denver, Colorado. CMI's scientific activities are managed from the President's office in Oxford, United Kingdom. It gives out various awards and sponsorships to promising mathematicians. The institute was founded in 1998 through the sponsorship of Boston businessman Landon T. Clay. Harvard mathematician Arthur Jaffe was the first president of CMI.GovernanceThe institute is run according to a standard structure comprising a scientific advisory committee that decides on grant-awarding and research proposals, and a board of directors that oversees and approves the committee's decisions. , the board is made up of members of the Clay family, whereas the scientific advisory committee is composed of Simon Donaldson, Michael Hopkins, Andrei Okounkov, Gigliola Staffilani, Andrew Wiles, and Martin R. Bridson. Bridson is the current president of CMI.2024 updates2024 Clay Research FellowsThe Clay Mathematics Institute has announced that Ishan Levy and Mehtaab Sawhney have been awarded the 2024 Clay Research Fellowships. Both are completing their PhDs at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and will start their five-year fellowships on July 1, 2024. 2024 Clay Research Conference and Workshops The 2024 Clay Research Conference was held on October 2, 2024, at the Mathematical Institute, University of Oxford. The conference was accompanied by workshops from September 30 to October 4, 2024. Notable workshops include: * New Advances in the Langlands Program: Geometry and Arithmetic * New Frontiers in Probabilistic and Extremal Combinatorics * The PW Conjecture in Non Abelian Hodge Theory Awards and recognitions Daniel Graham from the University of Surrey won the Gold Medal for Mathematical Sciences at the 2024 STEM for Britain competition for his work on quantum authentication methods. Millennium Prize Problems<!-- This section is linked from Convolution --> The institute is best known for establishing the Millennium Prize Problems on May 24, 2000. These seven problems are considered by CMI to be "important classic questions that have resisted solution over the years." For each problem, the first person to solve it will be awarded US$1,000,000 by the CMI. In announcing the prize, CMI drew a parallel to Hilbert's problems, which were proposed in 1900, and had a substantial impact on 20th century mathematics. Of the initial 23 Hilbert problems, most of which have been solved, only the Riemann hypothesis (formulated in 1859) is included in the seven Millennium Prize Problems. For each problem, the Institute had a professional mathematician write up an official statement of the problem, which will be the main standard against which a given solution will be measured. The seven problems are: * P versus NP * The Hodge conjecture * The Poincaré conjecture – solved, by Grigori Perelman * The Riemann hypothesis * Yang–Mills existence and mass gap * Navier–Stokes existence and smoothness * The Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture Some of the mathematicians who were involved in the selection and presentation of the seven problems were Michael Atiyah, Enrico Bombieri, Alain Connes, Pierre Deligne, Charles Fefferman, John Milnor, David Mumford, Andrew Wiles, and Edward Witten. Other awards The Clay Research Award In recognition of major breakthroughs in mathematical research, the institute has an annual prize – the Clay Research Award. Its recipients to date are Ian Agol, Manindra Agrawal, Yves Benoist, Manjul Bhargava, Tristan Buckmaster, Danny Calegari, Alain Connes, Nils Dencker, Alex Eskin, David Gabai, Ben Green, Mark Gross, Larry Guth, Christopher Hacon, Richard S. Hamilton, Michael Harris, Philip Isett, Jeremy Kahn, Nets Katz, Laurent Lafforgue, Gérard Laumon, Aleksandr Logunov, Eugenia Malinnikova, Vladimir Markovic, James McKernan, Jason Miller, Maryam Mirzakhani, Ngô Bảo Châu, Rahul Pandharipande, Jonathan Pila, Jean-François Quint, Peter Scholze, Oded Schramm, Scott Sheffield, Bernd Siebert, Stanislav Smirnov, Terence Tao, Clifford Taubes, Richard Taylor, Maryna Viazovska, Vlad Vicol, Claire Voisin, Jean-Loup Waldspurger, Andrew Wiles, Geordie Williamson, Edward Witten and Wei Zhang. Other activities Besides the Millennium Prize Problems, the Clay Mathematics Institute supports mathematics via the awarding of research fellowships (which range from two to five years and are aimed at younger mathematicians), as well as shorter-term scholarships for programs, individual research, and book writing. The institute also has a yearly Clay Research Award, recognizing major breakthroughs in mathematical research. Finally, the institute organizes a number of summer schools, conferences, workshops, public lectures, and outreach activities aimed primarily at junior mathematicians (from the high school to the postdoctoral level). CMI publications are available in PDF form at most six months after they appear in print. References <references/> Keith J. Devlin, The Millennium Problems: The Seven Greatest Unsolved Mathematical Puzzles of Our Time, Basic Books (October, 2002), . External links [http://www.claymath.org Official website] * [https://www.ams.org/notices/200606/fea-jaffe.pdf The Millennium Grand Challenge in Mathematics] * [http://www.claymath.org/millennium-problems Millennium Problems] * [http://www.claymath.org/node/262 Clay Mathematics Institute Online Library] Category:Organizations established in 1998 Category:Mathematical institutes Category:Research institutes in Colorado Category:1998 establishments in New Hampshire Category:Organizations based in Denver	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clay_Mathematics_Institute	2025-04-05T18:28:13.985942
7659	Cerebral arteriovenous malformation	A cerebral arteriovenous malformation (cerebral AVM, CAVM, cAVM, brain AVM, or BAVM) is an abnormal connection between the arteries and veins in the brain—specifically, an arteriovenous malformation in the cerebrum.Signs and symptomsThe most frequently observed problems related to a cerebral arteriovenous malformation (AVM) are headaches and seizures, cranial nerve afflictions including pinched nerve and palsy, Symptoms due to bleeding include loss of consciousness, sudden and severe headache, nausea, vomiting, incontinence, and blurred vision, amongst others. AVMs in certain critical locations may stop the circulation of the cerebrospinal fluid, causing it to accumulate within the skull and giving rise to a clinical condition called hydrocephalus. A stiff neck can occur as the result of increased pressure within the skull and irritation of the meninges. Pathophysiology A cerebral AVM is an abnormal anastomosis (connection) between the arteries and veins in the brain due to the lack of a capillary bed, and is most commonly of prenatal origin. The overall annual incidence of haemorrhage from a ruptured AVM is 2-4%. Smaller AVMs have a greater propensity for haemorrhaging, whereas larger AVMs tend to more often cause seizures instead.Diagnosis ]] from ventricular puncture, not to be mistaken for an aneurysmal malformation]] A cerebral AVM diagnosis is established by neuroimaging studies after a complete neurological and physical examination. Three main techniques are used to visualize the brain and search for an AVM: computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and cerebral angiography. This system was designed to assess the patient's risk of neurological deficit after open surgical resection (surgical morbidity), based on characteristics of the AVM itself. Based on this system, AVMs may be classified as grades 1–5. This system was not intended to characterize risk of hemorrhage. {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! AVM size !! Adjacent eloquent cortex !! Draining veins \|- \| < 3 cm 1 \|\| Non-eloquent 0 \|\| Superficial only = 0 \|- \| 3 – 6 cm 2 \|\| Eloquent* 1\|\| Deep veins = 1 \|- \| > 6 cm = 3 \|\| \|\| \|} "Eloquent" is defined as areas within the brain that, if removed will result in loss of sensory processing or linguistic ability, minor paralysis, or paralysis. These include the basal ganglia, language cortices, sensorimotor regions, and white matter tracts. Importantly, eloquent areas are often defined differently across studies where deep cerebellar nuclei, cerebral peduncles, thalamus, hypothalamus, internal capsule, brainstem, and the visual cortex could be included. The risk of post-surgical neurological deficit (difficulty with language, motor weakness, vision loss) increases with increasing Spetzler-Martin grade. Supplemented Spetzler-Martin (SM-supp, Lawton-Young) Grade A limitation of the Spetzler-Martin Grading system is that it does not include the following factors: Patient age, hemorrhage, diffuseness of nidus, and arterial supply. In 2010 a new supplemented Spetzler-Martin system (SM-supp, Lawton-Young) was devised adding these variables to the SM system. Under this new system AVMs are classified from grades 1–10. It has since been determined to have greater predictive accuracy than SM grades alone. {\| class="wikitable" ! rowspan="2" \|Variable ! colspan="2" \|Spetzler-Martin Grading Scale ! colspan="2" \|Supplemental Grading Scale \|- ! Definition ! Points ! Definition ! Points \|- \| rowspan="3" \|AVM size \| < 3 cm \| 1 \| \| \|- \| 3 – 6 cm \| 2 \| \| \|- \| > 6 cm \| 3 \| \| \|- \| Deep venous drainage \| No \| 0 \| \| \|- \| \| Yes \| 1 \| \| \|- \| Eloquence \| No \| 0 \| \| \|- \| \| Yes \| 1 \| \| \|- !SM Grade Subtotal ! !(1 - 5) ! ! \|- \| rowspan="3" \|Age \| \| \| < 20 years \| 1 \|- \| \| \| 20 – 40 years \| 2 \|- \| \| \| > 40 years \| 3 \|- \| rowspan="2" \|Unruptured presentation \| \| \| No \| 0 \|- \| \| \| Yes \| 1 \|- \| rowspan="2" \|Diffuse \| \| \| No \| 0 \|- \| \| \| Yes \| 1 \|- ! SM-Supp Grade Subtotal ! ! ! ! (1 – 5) \|- !SM-Supp Total ! ! ! !(1 – 10) \|} Treatment Treatment depends on the location and size of the AVM and whether there is bleeding or not. The treatment in the case of sudden bleeding is focused on restoration of vital function. Medical Anticonvulsant medications such as phenytoin are often used to control seizure; medications or procedures may be employed to relieve intracranial pressure. Eventually, curative treatment may be required to prevent recurrent hemorrhage. However, any type of intervention may also carry a risk of creating a neurological deficit. Surgical Surgical elimination of the blood vessels involved is the preferred curative treatment for many types of AVM. Radiosurgical Radiosurgery has been widely used on small AVMs with considerable success. The Gamma Knife is an apparatus used to precisely apply a controlled radiation dosage to the volume of the brain occupied by the AVM. While this treatment does not require an incision and craniotomy (with their own inherent risks), three or more years may pass before the complete effects are known, during which time patients are at risk of bleeding. Neuroendovascular therapy Embolization is performed by interventional neuroradiologists and the occlusion of blood vessels most commonly is obtained with ethylene vinyl alcohol copolymer (Onyx) or n-butyl cyanoacrylate. These substances are introduced by a radiographically guided catheter, and block vessels responsible for blood flow into the AVM. Embolization is frequently used as an adjunct to either surgery or radiation treatment. Risks A first-of-its-kind controlled clinical trial by the National Institutes of Health and National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke focuses on the risk of stroke or death in patients with an AVM who either did or did not undergo interventional eradication. Early results suggest that the invasive treatment of unruptured AVMs tends to yield worse results than the therapeutic (medical) management of symptoms. Citations \| ICD10 = \| ICD9 = \| ICDO \| OMIM 108010 \| MedlinePlus = 000779 \| eMedicineSubj = neuro \| eMedicineTopic = 21 \| eMedicine_mult = \| MeshID = D002538 }} Category:Anatomical pathology Category:Congenital vascular defects	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebral_arteriovenous_malformation	2025-04-05T18:28:14.008195
7660	Comparative method	of the Romance languages based on the comparative method. The family tree has been rendered here as an Euler diagram without overlapping subareas. The wave model allows overlapping regions.]] In linguistics, the comparative method is a technique for studying the development of languages by performing a feature-by-feature comparison of two or more languages with common descent from a shared ancestor and then extrapolating backwards to infer the properties of that ancestor. The comparative method may be contrasted with the method of internal reconstruction in which the internal development of a single language is inferred by the analysis of features within that language. Ordinarily, both methods are used together to reconstruct prehistoric phases of languages; to fill in gaps in the historical record of a language; to discover the development of phonological, morphological and other linguistic systems and to confirm or to refute hypothesised relationships between languages. The comparative method emerged in the early 19th century with the birth of Indo-European studies, then took a definite scientific approach with the works of the Neogrammarians in the late 19th–early 20th century. Here is Schleicher's explanation of why he offered reconstructed forms: <blockquote>In the present work an attempt is made to set forth the inferred Indo-European original language side by side with its really existent derived languages. Besides the advantages offered by such a plan, in setting immediately before the eyes of the student the final results of the investigation in a more concrete form, and thereby rendering easier his insight into the nature of particular Indo-European languages, there is, I think, another of no less importance gained by it, namely that it shows the baselessness of the assumption that the non-Indian Indo-European languages were derived from Old-Indian (Sanskrit).</blockquote> Definition Principles The aim of the comparative method is to highlight and interpret systematic phonological and semantic correspondences between two or more attested languages. If those correspondences cannot be rationally explained as the result of linguistic universals or language contact (borrowings, areal influence, etc.), and if they are sufficiently numerous, regular, and systematic that they cannot be dismissed as chance similarities, then it must be assumed that they descend from a single parent language called the 'proto-language'. A sequence of regular sound changes (along with their underlying sound laws) can then be postulated to explain the correspondences between the attested forms, which eventually allows for the reconstruction of a proto-language by the methodical comparison of "linguistic facts" within a generalized system of correspondences. Relation is considered to be "established beyond a reasonable doubt" if a reconstruction of the common ancestor is feasible. In some cases, this reconstruction can only be partial, generally because the compared languages are too scarcely attested, the temporal distance between them and their proto-language is too deep, or their internal evolution render many of the sound laws obscure to researchers. In such case, a relation is considered plausible, but uncertain.Terminology Descent is defined as transmission across the generations: children learn a language from the parents' generation and, after being influenced by their peers, transmit it to the next generation, and so on. For example, a continuous chain of speakers across the centuries links Vulgar Latin to all of its modern descendants. Two languages are genetically related if they descended from the same ancestor language. For example, Italian and French both come from Latin and therefore belong to the same family, the Romance languages. Having a large component of vocabulary from a certain origin is not sufficient to establish relatedness; for example, heavy borrowing from Arabic into Persian has caused more of the vocabulary of Modern Persian to be from Arabic than from the direct ancestor of Persian, Proto-Indo-Iranian, but Persian remains a member of the Indo-Iranian family and is not considered "related" to Arabic. However, it is possible for languages to have different degrees of relatedness. English, for example, is related to both German and Russian but is more closely related to the former than to the latter. Although all three languages share a common ancestor, Proto-Indo-European, English and German also share a more recent common ancestor, Proto-Germanic, but Russian does not. Therefore, English and German are considered to belong to a subgroup of Indo-European that Russian does not belong to, the Germanic languages. The division of related languages into subgroups is accomplished by finding shared linguistic innovations that differentiate them from the parent language. For instance, English and German both exhibit the effects of a collection of sound changes known as Grimm's Law, which Russian was not affected by. The fact that English and German share this innovation is seen as evidence of English and German's more recent common ancestor—since the innovation actually took place within that common ancestor, before English and German diverged into separate languages. On the other hand, shared retentions from the parent language are not sufficient evidence of a sub-group. For example, German and Russian both retain from Proto-Indo-European a contrast between the dative case and the accusative case, which English has lost. However, that similarity between German and Russian is not evidence that German is more closely related to Russian than to English but means only that the innovation in question, the loss of the accusative/dative distinction, happened more recently in English than the divergence of English from German. Origin and development In classical antiquity, Romans were aware of the similarities between Greek and Latin, but did not study them systematically. They sometimes explained them mythologically, as the result of Rome being a Greek colony speaking a debased dialect. Even though grammarians of Antiquity had access to other languages around them (Oscan, Umbrian, Etruscan, Gaulish, Egyptian, Parthian...), they showed little interest in comparing, studying, or just documenting them. Comparison between languages really began after classical antiquity. Early works In the 9th or 10th century AD, Yehuda Ibn Quraysh compared the phonology and morphology of Hebrew, Aramaic and Arabic but attributed the resemblance to the Biblical story of Babel, with Abraham, Isaac and Joseph retaining Adam's language, with other languages at various removes becoming more altered from the original Hebrew. In publications of 1647 and 1654, Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn first described a rigorous methodology for historical linguistic comparisons and proposed the existence of an Indo-European proto-language, which he called "Scythian", unrelated to Hebrew but ancestral to Germanic, Greek, Romance, Persian, Sanskrit, Slavic, Celtic and Baltic languages. The Scythian theory was further developed by Andreas Jäger (1686) and William Wotton (1713), who made early forays to reconstruct the primitive common language. In 1710 and 1723, Lambert ten Kate first formulated the regularity of sound laws, introducing among others the term root vowel. However, the origin of modern historical linguistics is often traced back to Sir William Jones, an English philologist living in India, who in 1786 made his famous <blockquote>The Sanscrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and the forms of grammar, than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong indeed, that no philologer could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists. There is a similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for supposing that both the Gothick and the Celtick, though blended with a very different idiom, had the same origin with the Sanscrit; and the old Persian might be added to the same family.</blockquote> Comparative linguistics The comparative method developed out of attempts to reconstruct the proto-language mentioned by Jones, which he did not name but subsequent linguists have labelled Proto-Indo-European (PIE). The first professional comparison between the Indo-European languages that were then known was made by the German linguist Franz Bopp in 1816. He did not attempt a reconstruction but demonstrated that Greek, Latin and Sanskrit shared a common structure and a common lexicon. In 1808, Friedrich Schlegel first stated the importance of using the eldest possible form of a language when trying to prove its relationships; in 1818, Rasmus Christian Rask developed the principle of regular sound-changes to explain his observations of similarities between individual words in the Germanic languages and their cognates in Greek and Jacob Grimm, better known for his Fairy Tales, used the comparative method in Deutsche Grammatik (published 1819–1837 in four volumes), which attempted to show the development of the Germanic languages from a common origin, which was the first systematic study of diachronic language change. Both Rask and Grimm were unable to explain apparent exceptions to the sound laws that they had discovered. Although Hermann Grassmann explained one of the anomalies with the publication of Grassmann's law in 1862, Karl Verner made a methodological breakthrough in 1875, when he identified a pattern now known as Verner's law, the first sound-law based on comparative evidence showing that a phonological change in one phoneme could depend on other factors within the same word (such as neighbouring phonemes and the position of the accent), which are now called conditioning environments. Neo-grammarian approach Similar discoveries made by the Junggrammatiker (usually translated as "Neogrammarians") at the University of Leipzig in the late 19th century led them to conclude that all sound changes were ultimately regular, resulting in the famous statement by Karl Brugmann and Hermann Osthoff in 1878 that "sound laws have no exceptions". That idea is fundamental to the modern comparative method since it necessarily assumes regular correspondences between sounds in related languages and thus regular sound changes from the proto-language. The Neogrammarian hypothesis led to the application of the comparative method to reconstruct Proto-Indo-European since Indo-European was then by far the most well-studied language family. Linguists working with other families soon followed suit, and the comparative method quickly became the established method for uncovering linguistic relationships. and Terry Crowley, who are both authors of introductory texts in historical linguistics. This abbreviated summary is based on their concepts of how to proceed. Step 1, assemble potential cognate lists This step involves making lists of words that are likely cognates among the languages being compared. If there is a regularly-recurring match between the phonetic structure of basic words with similar meanings, a genetic kinship can probably then be established. For example, linguists looking at the Polynesian family might come up with a list similar to the following (their actual list would be much longer): {\| class=wikitable ! Gloss ! one ! two ! three ! four ! five ! man ! sea ! taboo ! octopus ! canoe ! enter \|- \| Tongan \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \|- \| Samoan \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \|- \| Māori \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \|- \| Rapanui \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \|- \| Rarotongan \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \|- \| Hawaiian \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \|} Borrowings or false cognates can skew or obscure the correct data. For example, English taboo () is like the six Polynesian forms because of borrowing from Tongan into English, not because of a genetic similarity. That problem can usually be overcome by using basic vocabulary, such as kinship terms, numbers, body parts and pronouns. Nonetheless, even basic vocabulary can be sometimes borrowed. Finnish, for example, borrowed the word for "mother", , from Proto-Germanic aiþį̄ (compare to Gothic ). English borrowed the pronouns "they", "them", and "their(s)" from Norse. Thai and various other East Asian languages borrowed their numbers from Chinese. An extreme case is represented by Pirahã, a Muran language of South America, which has been controversially claimed to have borrowed all of its pronouns from Nheengatu.Step 2, establish correspondence sets The next step involves determining the regular sound-correspondences exhibited by the lists of potential cognates. For example, in the Polynesian data above, it is apparent that words that contain t in most of the languages listed have cognates in Hawaiian with k in the same position. That is visible in multiple cognate sets: the words glossed as 'one', 'three', 'man' and 'taboo' all show the relationship. The situation is called a "regular correspondence" between k in Hawaiian and t in the other Polynesian languages. Similarly, a regular correspondence can be seen between Hawaiian and Rapanui h, Tongan and Samoan f, Maori ɸ, and Rarotongan ʔ. Mere phonetic similarity, as between English day and Latin (both with the same meaning), has no probative value. English initial d- does not regularly match since a large set of English and Latin non-borrowed cognates cannot be assembled such that English d repeatedly and consistently corresponds to Latin d at the beginning of a word, and whatever sporadic matches can be observed are due either to chance (as in the above example) or to borrowing (for example, Latin and English devil, both ultimately of Greek origin). However, English and Latin exhibit a regular correspondence of t- : d- {\| class="wikitable" \| align=left \| English \| align=center \| ten \| align=center \| two \| align=center \| tow \| align=center \| tongue \| align=center \| tooth \|- \| align=left \| Latin \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \|} If there are many regular correspondence sets of this kind (the more, the better), a common origin becomes a virtual certainty, particularly if some of the correspondences are non-trivial or unusual. this is Grassmann's law, first described for Sanskrit by Sanskrit grammarian Pāṇini and promulgated by Hermann Grassmann in 1863. Second, it was found that sometimes sound changes occurred in contexts that were later lost. For instance, in Sanskrit velars (k-like sounds) were replaced by palatals (ch-like sounds) whenever the following vowel was i or e. Subsequent to this change, all instances of e were replaced by a. The situation could be reconstructed only because the original distribution of e and a could be recovered from the evidence of other Indo-European languages. For instance, the Latin suffix , "and", preserves the original e vowel that caused the consonant shift in Sanskrit: {\| class="wikitable" \| 1. \| align=center \| ke \| Pre-Sanskrit "and" \|- \| 2. \| align=center \| ce \| Velars replaced by palatals before i and e \|- \| 3. \| align=center \| ca \| The attested Sanskrit form: e has become a \|} Verner's Law, discovered by Karl Verner 1875, provides a similar case: the voicing of consonants in Germanic languages underwent a change that was determined by the position of the old Indo-European accent. Following the change, the accent shifted to initial position. Verner solved the puzzle by comparing the Germanic voicing pattern with Greek and Sanskrit accent patterns. This stage of the comparative method, therefore, involves examining the correspondence sets discovered in step 2 and seeing which of them apply only in certain contexts. If two (or more) sets apply in complementary distribution, they can be assumed to reflect a single original phoneme: "some sound changes, particularly conditioned sound changes, can result in a proto-sound being associated with more than one correspondence set". For example, the following potential cognate list can be established for Romance languages, which descend from Latin: {\| class="wikitable" ! ! Italian ! Spanish ! Portuguese ! French ! Gloss \|- \| 1. \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| body \|- \| 2. \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| raw \|- \| 3. \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| chain \|- \| 4. \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| to hunt \|} They evidence two correspondence sets, k : k and k : : {\| class="wikitable" ! ! Italian ! Spanish ! Portuguese ! French \|- \| 1. \| align=center \| k \| align=center \| k \| align=center \| k \| align=center \| k \|- \| 2. \| align=center \| k \| align=center \| k \| align=center \| k \| align=center \| \|} Since French occurs only before a where the other languages also have a, and French k occurs elsewhere, the difference is caused by different environments (being before a conditions the change), and the sets are complementary. They can, therefore, be assumed to reflect a single proto-phoneme (in this case k, spelled ⟨c⟩ in Latin). The original Latin words are , , and , all with an initial k. If more evidence along those lines were given, one might conclude that an alteration of the original k took place because of a different environment. A more complex case involves consonant clusters in Proto-Algonquian. The Algonquianist Leonard Bloomfield used the reflexes of the clusters in four of the daughter languages to reconstruct the following correspondence sets: {\| class="wikitable" ! ! Ojibwe ! Meskwaki ! Plains Cree ! Menomini \|- \| 1. \| align=center \| kk \| align=center \| hk \| align=center \| hk \| align=center \| hk \|- \| 2. \| align=center \| kk \| align=center \| hk \| align=center \| sk \| align=center \| hk \|- \| 3. \| align=center \| sk \| align=center \| hk \| align=center \| sk \| align=center \| \|- \| 4. \| align=center \| \| align=center \| \| align=center \| sk \| align=center \| sk \|- \| 5. \| align=center \| sk \| align=center \| \| align=center \| hk \| align=center \| hk \|} Although all five correspondence sets overlap with one another in various places, they are not in complementary distribution and so Bloomfield recognised that a different cluster must be reconstructed for each set. His reconstructions were, respectively, hk, xk, čk (), šk (), and çk'' (in which x and ç are arbitrary symbols, rather than attempts to guess the phonetic value of the proto-phonemes). Step 4, reconstruct proto-phonemes Typology assists in deciding what reconstruction best fits the data. For example, the voicing of voiceless stops between vowels is common, but the devoicing of voiced stops in that environment is rare. If a correspondence -t- : -d- between vowels is found in two languages, the proto-phoneme is more likely to be -t-, with a development to the voiced form in the second language. The opposite reconstruction would represent a rare type. However, unusual sound changes occur. The Proto-Indo-European word for two, for example, is reconstructed as dwō, which is reflected in Classical Armenian as erku. Several other cognates demonstrate a regular change dw- → erk- in Armenian. Similarly, in Bearlake, a dialect of the Athabaskan language of Slavey, there has been a sound change of Proto-Athabaskan ts → Bearlake . It is very unlikely that dw- changed directly into erk- and ts into , but they probably instead went through several intermediate steps before they arrived at the later forms. It is not phonetic similarity that matters for the comparative method but rather regular sound correspondences. {\| class="wikitable" ! Ojibwe ! Míkmaq ! Cree ! Munsee ! Blackfoot ! Arapaho \|- \| align=center \| m \| align=center \| m \| align=center \| m \| align=center \| m \| align=center \| m \| align=center \| b \|} The simplest reconstruction for this set would be either m or b. Both m → b and b → m are likely. Because m occurs in five of the languages and b in only one of them, if b is reconstructed, it is necessary to assume five separate changes of b → m, but if m is reconstructed, it is necessary to assume only one change of m → b and so m would be most economical. That argument assumes the languages other than Arapaho to be at least partly independent of one another. If they all formed a common subgroup, the development b → m would have to be assumed to have occurred only once. Step 5, examine the reconstructed system typologically In the final step, the linguist checks to see how the proto-phonemes fit the known typological constraints. For example, a hypothetical system, {\| class="wikitable" ! p ! t ! k \|- ! b ! ! \|- ! ! n ! ŋ \|- ! ! l ! \|} has only one voiced stop, b, and although it has an alveolar and a velar nasal, n and ŋ, there is no corresponding labial nasal. However, languages generally maintain symmetry in their phonemic inventories. In this case, a linguist might attempt to investigate the possibilities that either what was earlier reconstructed as b is in fact m or that the n and ŋ are in fact d and g. Even a symmetrical system can be typologically suspicious. For example, here is the traditional Proto-Indo-European stop inventory: {\| class="wikitable" ! ! Labials ! Dentals ! Velars ! Labiovelars ! Palatovelars \|- ! Voiceless \| align=center\|p \| align=center\|t \| align=center\|k \| align=center\| \| align=center\| \|- ! Voiced \| align=center\|(b) \| align=center\|d \| align=center\|g \| align=center\| \| align=center\| \|- ! Voiced aspirated \| align=center\| \| align=center\| \| align=center\| \| align=center\| \| align=center\| \|} An earlier voiceless aspirated row was removed on grounds of insufficient evidence. Since the mid-20th century, a number of linguists have argued that this phonology is implausible and that it is extremely unlikely for a language to have a voiced aspirated (breathy voice) series without a corresponding voiceless aspirated series. Thomas Gamkrelidze and Vyacheslav Ivanov provided a potential solution and argued that the series that are traditionally reconstructed as plain voiced should be reconstructed as glottalized: either implosive or ejective . The plain voiceless and voiced aspirated series would thus be replaced by just voiceless and voiced, with aspiration being a non-distinctive quality of both. That example of the application of linguistic typology to linguistic reconstruction has become known as the glottalic theory. It has a large number of proponents but is not generally accepted. The reconstruction of proto-sounds logically precedes the reconstruction of grammatical morphemes (word-forming affixes and inflectional endings), patterns of declension and conjugation and so on. The full reconstruction of an unrecorded protolanguage is an open-ended task. Complications The history of historical linguistics The limitations of the comparative method were recognized by the very linguists who developed it, but it is still seen as a valuable tool. In the case of Indo-European, the method seemed at least a partial validation of the centuries-old search for an Ursprache, the original language. The others were presumed to be ordered in a family tree, which was the tree model of the neogrammarians. The archaeologists followed suit and attempted to find archaeological evidence of a culture or cultures that could be presumed to have spoken a proto-language, such as Vere Gordon Childe's The Aryans: a study of Indo-European origins, 1926. Childe was a philologist turned archaeologist. Those views culminated in the Siedlungsarchaologie, or "settlement-archaeology", of Gustaf Kossinna, becoming known as "Kossinna's Law". Kossinna asserted that cultures represent ethnic groups, including their languages, but his law was rejected after World War II. The fall of Kossinna's Law removed the temporal and spatial framework previously applied to many proto-languages. Fox concludes: <blockquote>The Comparative Method as such is not, in fact, historical; it provides evidence of linguistic relationships to which we may give a historical interpretation.... [Our increased knowledge about the historical processes involved] has probably made historical linguists less prone to equate the idealizations required by the method with historical reality.... Provided we keep [the interpretation of the results and the method itself] apart, the Comparative Method can continue to be used in the reconstruction of earlier stages of languages.</blockquote> Proto-languages can be verified in many historical instances, such as Latin. Although no longer a law, settlement-archaeology is known to be essentially valid for some cultures that straddle history and prehistory, such as the Celtic Iron Age (mainly Celtic) and Mycenaean civilization (mainly Greek). None of those models can be or have been completely rejected, but none is sufficient alone. The Neogrammarian principle The foundation of the comparative method, and of comparative linguistics in general, is the Neogrammarians' fundamental assumption that "sound laws have no exceptions". When it was initially proposed, critics of the Neogrammarians proposed an alternate position that summarised by the maxim "each word has its own history". Several types of change actually alter words in irregular ways. Unless identified, they may hide or distort laws and cause false perceptions of relationship.BorrowingAll languages borrow words from other languages in various contexts. Loanwords imitate the form of the donor language, as in Finnic kuningas, from Proto-Germanic kuningaz ('king'), with possible adaptations to the local phonology, as in Japanese sakkā, from English soccer. At first sight, borrowed words may mislead the investigator into seeing a genetic relationship, although they can more easily be identified with information on the historical stages of both the donor and receiver languages. Inherently, words that were borrowed from a common source (such as English coffee and Basque kafe, ultimately from Arabic qahwah) do share a genetic relationship, although limited to the history of this word.Areal diffusionBorrowing on a larger scale occurs in areal diffusion, when features are adopted by contiguous languages over a geographical area. The borrowing may be phonological, morphological or lexical. A false proto-language over the area may be reconstructed for them or may be taken to be a third language serving as a source of diffused features. Several areal features and other influences may converge to form a Sprachbund, a wider region sharing features that appear to be related but are diffusional. For instance, the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area, before it was recognised, suggested several false classifications of such languages as Chinese, Thai and Vietnamese. Random mutations Sporadic changes, such as irregular inflections, compounding and abbreviation, do not follow any laws. For example, the Spanish words palabra ('word'), peligro ('danger') and milagro ('miracle') would have been parabla, periglo, miraglo by regular sound changes from the Latin parabŏla, perīcŭlum and mīrācŭlum, but the r and l changed places by sporadic metathesis.AnalogyAnalogy is the sporadic change of a feature to be like another feature in the same or a different language. It may affect a single word or be generalized to an entire class of features, such as a verb paradigm. An example is the Russian word for nine. The word, by regular sound changes from Proto-Slavic, should have been , but it is in fact . It is believed that the initial changed to under influence of the word for "ten" in Russian, . Gradual application Those who study contemporary language changes, such as William Labov, acknowledge that even a systematic sound change is applied at first inconsistently, with the percentage of its occurrence in a person's speech dependent on various social factors. The sound change seems to gradually spread in a process known as lexical diffusion. While it does not invalidate the Neogrammarians' axiom that "sound laws have no exceptions", the gradual application of the very sound laws shows that they do not always apply to all lexical items at the same time. Hock notes, "While it probably is true in the long run every word has its own history, it is not justified to conclude as some linguists have, that therefore the Neogrammarian position on the nature of linguistic change is falsified".Non-inherited featuresThe comparative method cannot recover aspects of a language that were not inherited in its daughter idioms. For instance, the Latin declension pattern was lost in Romance languages, resulting in an impossibility to fully reconstruct such a feature via systematic comparison. The tree model The comparative method is used to construct a tree model (German Stammbaum) of language evolution, in which daughter languages are seen as branching from the proto-language, gradually growing more distant from it through accumulated phonological, morpho-syntactic, and lexical changes. language family spoken throughout the southern and western United States and Mexico. Families are in bold, individual languages in italics. Not all branches and languages are shown.]] The presumption of a well-defined node has been proposed as an alternative to the tree model for representing language change. In this Venn diagram, each circle represents a "wave" or isogloss, the maximum geographical extension of a linguistic change as it propagated through the speaker population. These circles, which represent successive historical events of propagation, typically intersect. Each language in the family differs as to which isoglosses it belongs to: which innovations it reflects. The tree model presumes that all the circles should be nested and never crosscut, but studies in dialectology and historical linguistics show that assumption to be usually wrong and suggest that the wave-based approach may be more realistic than the tree model. A genealogical family in which isoglosses intersect is called a dialect continuum or a linkage.]] The tree model features nodes that are presumed to be distinct proto-languages existing independently in distinct regions during distinct historical times. The reconstruction of unattested proto-languages lends itself to that illusion since they cannot be verified, and the linguist is free to select whatever definite times and places seems best. Right from the outset of Indo-European studies, however, Thomas Young said:<blockquote>It is not, however, very easy to say what the definition should be that should constitute a separate language, but it seems most natural to call those languages distinct, of which the one cannot be understood by common persons in the habit of speaking the other.... Still, however, it may remain doubtfull whether the Danes and the Swedes could not, in general, understand each other tolerably well... nor is it possible to say if the twenty ways of pronouncing the sounds, belonging to the Chinese characters, ought or ought not to be considered as so many languages or dialects.... But,... the languages so nearly allied must stand next to each other in a systematic order…</blockquote> The assumption of uniformity in a proto-language, implicit in the comparative method, is problematic. Even small language communities always have differences in dialect, whether they are based on area, gender, class or other factors. The Pirahã language of Brazil is spoken by only several hundred people but has at least two different dialects, one spoken by men and one by women. Campbell points out: <blockquote>It is not so much that the comparative method 'assumes' no variation; rather, it is just that there is nothing built into the comparative method which would allow it to address variation directly.... This assumption of uniformity is a reasonable idealization; it does no more damage to the understanding of the language than, say, modern reference grammars do which concentrate on a language's general structure, typically leaving out consideration of regional or social variation.</blockquote> Different dialects, as they evolve into separate languages, remain in contact with and influence one another. Even after they are considered distinct, languages near one another continue to influence one another and often share grammatical, phonological, and lexical innovations. A change in one language of a family may spread to neighboring languages, and multiple waves of change are communicated like waves across language and dialect boundaries, each with its own randomly delimited range. If a language is divided into an inventory of features, each with its own time and range (isoglosses), they do not all coincide. History and prehistory may not offer a time and place for a distinct coincidence, as may be the case for Proto-Italic, for which the proto-language is only a concept. However, Hock observes: <blockquote>The discovery in the late nineteenth century that isoglosses can cut across well-established linguistic boundaries at first created considerable attention and controversy. And it became fashionable to oppose a wave theory to a tree theory.... Today, however, it is quite evident that the phenomena referred to by these two terms are complementary aspects of linguistic change....</blockquote> Subjectivity of the reconstruction The reconstruction of unknown proto-languages is inherently subjective. In the Proto-Algonquian example above, the choice of m as the parent phoneme is only likely, not certain. It is conceivable that a Proto-Algonquian language with b in those positions split into two branches, one that preserved b and one that changed it to m instead, and while the first branch developed only into Arapaho, the second spread out more widely and developed into all the other Algonquian tribes. It is also possible that the nearest common ancestor of the Algonquian languages used some other sound instead, such as p, which eventually mutated to b in one branch and to m in the other. Examples of strikingly complicated and even circular developments are indeed known to have occurred (such as Proto-Indo-European t > Pre-Proto-Germanic þ > Proto-Germanic ð > Proto-West-Germanic d > Old High German in > Modern German ), but in the absence of any evidence or other reason to postulate a more complicated development, the preference of a simpler explanation is justified by the principle of parsimony, also known as Occam's razor. Since reconstruction involves many such choices, some linguists prefer to view the reconstructed features as abstract representations of sound correspondences, rather than as objects with a historical time and place. The existence of proto-languages and the validity of the comparative method is verifiable if the reconstruction can be matched to a known language, which may be known only as a shadow in the loanwords of another language. For example, Finnic languages such as Finnish have borrowed many words from an early stage of Germanic, and the shape of the loans matches the forms that have been reconstructed for Proto-Germanic. Finnish 'king' and 'beautiful' match the Germanic reconstructions kuningaz and skauniz (> German 'king', 'beautiful').Additional models The wave model was developed in the 1870s as an alternative to the tree model to represent the historical patterns of language diversification. Both the tree-based and the wave-based representations are compatible with the comparative method. By contrast, some approaches are incompatible with the comparative method, including contentious glottochronology and even more controversial mass lexical comparison considered by most historical linguists to be flawed and unreliable. See also * Comparative linguistics * Historical linguistics * Lexicostatistics * Proto-language * Swadesh list Notes <!--See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the <ref(erences/)> tags--> References * . * . * * * * * * * * * * * * * . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * External links * * Category:Historical linguistics Category:Comparative linguistics Category:Methods in linguistics	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_method	2025-04-05T18:28:14.062346
7661	Council of Constance	The Council of Constance (; ) was an ecumenical council of the Catholic Church that was held from 1414 to 1418 in the Bishopric of Constance (Konstanz) in present-day Germany. This was the first time that an ecumenical council was convened in the Holy Roman Empire. The council ended the Western Schism by deposing or accepting the resignation of the remaining papal claimants and by electing Pope Martin V. It was the last papal election to take place outside of Italy. The council also condemned Jan Hus as a heretic and facilitated his execution; and it ruled on issues of national sovereignty and the rights of pagans and just war in response to a conflict between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Kingdom of Poland and the Order of the Teutonic Knights. The council is also important for its role in the debates over ecclesial conciliarism and papal supremacy. Constance issued two particularly significant decrees regarding the constitution of the Catholic Church: Haec sancta (1415), which asserted the superiority of ecumenical councils over popes in at least certain situations, and Frequens (1417), which provided for councils to be held automatically every ten years. The status of these decrees proved controversial in the centuries after the council, and Frequens was never put into practice. Though Haec sancta, at least, continued to be accepted as binding by much of the church up to the 19th century, present-day Catholic theologians generally regard these decrees as either invalid or as practical responses to a particular situation without wider implications.Origin and background , and their daughter, Elizabeth of Luxembourg, at the Council of Constance]] The council's main purpose was to end the Papal schism that had resulted from the confusion following the Avignon Papacy. Pope Gregory XI's return to Rome in 1377, followed by his death (in 1378) and the controversial election of his successor, Pope Urban VI, resulted in the defection of a number of cardinals and the election of a rival pope based at Avignon in 1378. After thirty years of schism, the rival courts convened the Council of Pisa, seeking to resolve the situation by deposing the two claimant popes and electing a new one. The council claimed that, in such a situation, a council of bishops had greater authority than just one bishop, even if he were the bishop of Rome. Though the elected Antipope Alexander V and his successor, Antipope John XXIII (not to be confused with the 20th-century Pope John XXIII), gained widespread support, especially at the cost of the Avignon antipope, the schism remained, now involving not two but three claimants: Gregory XII at Rome, Benedict XIII at Avignon, and John XXIII. Therefore, many voices, including Sigismund, King of the Romans and of Hungary (and later Holy Roman Emperor), pressed for another council to resolve the issue. That council was called by John XXIII and was held from 16 November 1414 to 22 April 1418 in Constance, Germany. The council was attended by roughly 29 cardinals, 100 "learned doctors of law and divinity", 134 abbots, and 183 bishops and archbishops.ParticipantsSigismund arrived on Christmas Eve 1414 and exercised a profound and continuous influence on the course of the council in his capacity of imperial protector of the church. An innovation at the council was that instead of voting as individuals, the bishops voted in national blocs. The vote by nations was in great measure the initiative of the English, German, and French members. The legality of this measure, in imitation of the "nations" of the universities, was more than questionable, but during February 1415 it carried and thenceforth was accepted in practice, though never authorized by any formal decree of the council. The four "nations" consisted of England, France, Italy, and Germany, with Poles, Hungarians, Danes, and Scandinavians counted with the Germans. While the Italian representatives made up half of those in attendance, they were equal in influence to the English, who sent twenty deputies and three bishops. The Spanish deputies (from Portugal, Castile, Navarre and Aragon), initially absent, joined the council at the twenty-first session, constituting upon arrival the fifth nation. Decrees and doctrinal status Many members of the new assembly (comparatively few bishops, but many doctors of theology and of canon and civil law, procurators of bishops, deputies of universities, cathedral chapters, provosts, etc., agents and representatives of princes, etc.) strongly favored the voluntary abdication of all three popes, as did King Sigismund. Although the Italian bishops who had accompanied John XXIII in large numbers supported his legitimacy, he grew increasingly more suspicious of the council. Partly in response to a fierce anonymous attack on his character from an Italian source, on 2 March 1415 he promised to resign. However, on 20 March he secretly fled the city and took refuge at Schaffhausen in territory of his friend Frederick, Duke of Austria-Tyrol. The famous decree Haec sancta synodus, which gave primacy to the authority of the council and thus became a source for ecclesial conciliarism, was promulgated in the fifth session, 6 April 1415: Haec sancta synodus marks the high-water mark of the Conciliar movement of reform. and }} }} Sources * * * * * * * * * } * * Welsh, Frank. The Battle for Christendom: The Council of Constance, 1415, and the Struggle to Unite Against Islam. Constable, 2008. External links [http://www.legionofmarytidewater.com/faith/ECUM16.HTM Council of Constance] *[http://www.medievalarchives.com/Constance Council of Constance: Heretics, Schism and the Teutonic Knights] on [http://www.medievalarchives.com/PodcastList Medieval Archives Podcast] Category:Catholic Church ecumenical councils Category:1410s establishments in the Holy Roman Empire Category:1414 establishments in Europe Category:1410s disestablishments in the Holy Roman Empire Category:1418 disestablishments in Europe Category:15th-century elections Category:1417 Category:Hussite Wars Category:15th-century Catholicism Constance Constance Category:Western Schism Category:History of Baden-Württemberg Category:Konstanz (district) Category:1410s in the Holy Roman Empire 1417 Category:Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Constance	2025-04-05T18:28:14.075009
7662	Churches Uniting in Christ	\| affiliations = Partnered with National Council of Churches, World Council of Churches, Graymoor Ecumenical & Interreligious Institute, and Samuel DeWitt Proctor Conference \| website = www.churchesuniting.org }} Churches Uniting in Christ (CUIC) is an ecumenical organization that brings together mainline American denominations (including both predominantly white and predominantly black churches), and was inaugurated on January 20, 2002, in Memphis, Tennessee on the balcony of the Lorraine Motel. It is the successor organization to the Consultation on Church Union. History Origins CUIC is the successor organization to the Consultation on Church Union (COCU), which had been founded in 1962. The original task of COCU was to negotiate a consensus between its nine (originally four) member communions (it also included three "advisory participant" churches). However, it never succeeded in this goal, despite making progress on several ecumenical fronts. At COCU's 18th plenary meeting in St. Louis, Missouri (January 1999), CUIC was proposed as a new relationship among the nine member communions. Each member communion voted to join CUIC over the next few years. Inauguration Heads of communion from each member of COCU (as well as the ELCA, a partner in mission and dialogue) inaugurated the group on the day before Martin Luther King Jr. Day in 2002 at the motel where he was killed. This particular location highlighted the group's focus on racism as a major dividing factor between and among churches. Task forces The Coordinating Council of CUIC created several task forces: Racial and Social Justice, Ministry, Young Adult and Local and Regional Ecumenism. Each task force represented an important part of early CUIC work. Local ecumenical liturgies were encouraged, and excitement initially built around "pilot programs" in Denver, Los Angeles, and Memphis. The Racial and Social Justice task force created gatherings and discussions on racial justice. The Ministry task force received much of the attention from church structures, however. The group had been given a mandate to complete work on reconciliation by 2007, and in 2003 began working on a document entitled "Mutual Recognition and Mutual Reconciliation of Ministries." Mutual Recognition and Mutual Reconciliation of Ministries (MRMRM) One of the most difficult issues concerning recognition and reconciliation of ministries was that of the historic episcopate. This was one of the issues that defeated proposals for union by COCU as well. The group approached this problem through dialogue, soliciting information from each member communion on the particularities of their theology and ecclesiology in order to come to a mutually acceptable conclusion. CUIC released the seventh and final draft of the MRMRM document in June 2005. Much work was done in 2006 on this document, which focused on "Episkope," the oversight of ministry. The work culminated in a consultation on episkope in St. Louis in October 2006 involving the heads of communion of the members of CUIC. At this consultation, the MRMRM document was met with resistance, and concern was raised in particular that CUIC was focusing too narrowly on reconciliation of ministries and "not taking seriously our commitment to working on those issues of systemic racism that remain at the heart of our continuing and separated life as churches here in the United States." Moravian Church (Northern Province) The nine churches which inaugurated CUIC in 2002 were joined by the Moravian Church, Northern Province. Neither body sent representatives to the CUIC plenary on January 11–14, 2008, though the AME Council of Bishops never voted to suspend membership officially. They felt the other churches were not doing enough to counter the history of racial injustice between black and white churches. In response to this, the remaining churches in CUIC decided in 2008 to suspend their work while they seek reconciliation with these churches. This work began with a group of representatives who revisited the 1999 document "Call to Christian Commitment and Action to Combat Racism," which is available on the current CUIC website. This also meant eliminating the position of Director as well as the suspension of the work of the CUIC task forces. Reconciliation efforts The African Methodist Episcopal Church resumed its participation by the February 2010 plenary meeting, where CUIC moved to refocus on its eight marks of commitment and a shared concern for racial justice as a major dividing factor facing ecumenism. Although the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church has not rejoined the group, efforts have continued to bring this communion back into membership. The Rev. Staccato Powell, an AMEZ pastor, preached at the 2011 CUIC plenary in Ft. Lauderdale, Florida as a part of these reconciliation efforts. Combating racism has again become a priority of CUIC. Concerns over the historic episcopate have been sidelined since 2008, though they may re-emerge. The group's focus on mutual reconciliation of ministries has been revisited in the light of racism and the impact that racism may have on exchanging ministers between denominations. Therefore, the coordinating council of CUIC created a consultation on race and ministry while also choosing to partner with the Samuel Dewitt Proctor Conference, a social justice organization involved in African American faith communities. Purpose The purpose of CUIC has always been unity (as reflected in their current slogan, "reconciling the baptized, seeking unity with justice"). This reflects one of the core scripture passages in the ecumenical movement, Jesus' prayer in John 17:21, "That they all may be one". CUIC has approached this goal of unity in various ways throughout its history. Racism Racism has been a primary focus of CUIC since 2002 (and, indeed, a primary focus of COCU alongside other forms of exclusion and prejudice, such as sexism and ableism). According to Dan Krutz, former president of CUIC, "Overcoming racism has been a focal point of CUIC since its beginning... Racism may be the biggest sin that divides churches." Even before the absence of the AME and AMEZ churches at the January 2011 plenary, some in CUIC had noticed the lack of commitment to racial reconciliation. Since 2008, however, racism has become an even more pressing concern. This has led CUIC to address issues of racism in the public sphere, including the killing of Trayvon Martin and the recovery from the 2010 Haiti earthquake. Marks of Commitment According to their website, one of the reasons for transitioning from COCU to CUIC is so that member churches "stop 'consulting' and start living their unity in Christ more fully." This means that each member communion in CUIC agrees to abide by the eight Marks of Commitment, which are summarized as follows: Receive each other as Christ's church Mutually recognize baptisms & members Affirm apostolic creeds Celebrate Eucharist together Engage in mission & anti-racism Promote wholeness & inclusion Structure accountability, consultation & decision-making Support ongoing theological dialogue Membership Full members African Methodist Episcopal Church African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) Christian Methodist Episcopal Church Episcopal Church (United States) International Council of Community Churches Moravian Church in North America Presbyterian Church (USA) United Church of Christ United Methodist Church Former partners in mission and dialogue Evangelical Lutheran Church in America Leadership Presidents {\| class="wikitable" \|- !President !Denomination!!Tenure \|- \| Bishop Melvin Talbert \|United Methodist Church\|\| 2002–2004 \|- \| The Rev. C. Dana Krutz \|Episcopal Church (United States)\|\| 2004–2006 \|- \| Suzanne Webb \|Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)\|\| 2006–2011 \|- \| Bishop Ronald Cunningham \|Christian Methodist Episcopal Church\|\| Jan 2011–Oct 2011 \|- \| The Rev. Robina M. Winbush \|Presbyterian Church (USA)\|\| Oct 2011–2019 \|- \| Bishop Teresa E. Jefferson-Snorton \|Christian Methodist Episcopal Church\|\| 2019–2023 \|- \|Rev. Dr. Jean Hawxhurst \|United Methodist Church \|2023– Current \|} Vice Presidents {\| class="wikitable" !President !Denomination !Tenure \|- \|Jacquelyn DuPont Walker \|African Methodist Episcopal Church \|?–present \|} Directors {\| class="wikitable" \|- !Director !Denomination!!Tenure \|- \| Bertrice Wood \|\|\| 2002–2005 \|- \| Thomas Dipko \|United Church of Christ\|\| 2005–2006 \|- \| Rev. Patrice Rosner \|Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)\|\| 2006–2008 \|} Networking partners National Council of Churches World Council of Churches Graymoor Ecumenical & Interreligious Institute Samuel DeWitt Proctor Conference See also Christian Churches Together Christian ecumenism Mainline Protestant United Church of Christ References External links [https://web.archive.org/web/20121107201146/http://churchesunitinginchrist.org/ Churches Uniting in Christ homepage] * [http://www.sdpconference.info/ Samuel DeWitt Proctor Conference] * [http://www.geii.org/ Graymoor Ecumenical and Interreligious Institute] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150903215920/http://www.churchesunitinginchrist.org/what-you-can-do/speeches/46-blake-s-sermon-pike-s-response Eugene Carson Blake, "A Proposal Toward the Reunion of Christ's Church," December 4, 1960] Category:Christian organizations based in the United States Category:United and uniting churches Category:Protestant ecumenism Category:Christian organizations established in 2002 Category:Protestant denominations established in the 21st century Category:2002 establishments in Tennessee Category:Christian ecumenical organizations	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Churches_Uniting_in_Christ	2025-04-05T18:28:14.105771

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.