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7890	Dune	Dune (franchise)\|\|Dune (disambiguation)}} .]] to the east of Liwa Oasis, United Arab Emirates]] A dune is a landform composed of wind- or water-driven sand. It typically takes the form of a mound, ridge, or hill. An area with dunes is called a dune system or a dune complex. A large dune complex is called a dune field, while broad, flat regions covered with wind-swept sand or dunes, with little or no vegetation, are called ergs or sand seas. Dunes occur in different shapes and sizes, but most kinds of dunes are longer on the stoss (upflow) side, where the sand is pushed up the dune, and have a shorter slip face in the lee side. The valley or trough between dunes is called a dune slack. Dunes are most common in desert environments, where the lack of moisture hinders the growth of vegetation that would otherwise interfere with the development of dunes. However, sand deposits are not restricted to deserts, and dunes are also found along sea shores, along streams in semiarid climates, in areas of glacial outwash, and in other areas where poorly cemented sandstone bedrock disintegrates to produce an ample supply of loose sand. Subaqueous dunes can form from the action of water flow (fluvial processes) on sand or gravel beds of rivers, estuaries, and the sea-bed. Some coastal areas have one or more sets of dunes running parallel to the shoreline directly inland from the beach. In most cases, the dunes are important in protecting the land against potential ravages by storm waves from the sea. Artificial dunes are sometimes constructed to protect coastal areas. The dynamic action of wind and water can sometimes cause dunes to drift, which can have serious consequences. For example, the town of Eucla, Western Australia, had to be relocated in the 1890s because of dune drift. The modern word "dune" came into English from French around 1790, which in turn came from Middle Dutch dūne. which are all deposits of the same type of materials. Dunes are generally defined as greater than 7 cm tall and may have ripples, while ripples are deposits that are less than 3 cm tall. A draa is a very large aeolian landform, with a length of several kilometers and a height of tens to hundreds of meters, and which may have superimposed dunes. Dunes are made of sand-sized particles, and may consist of quartz, calcium carbonate, snow, gypsum, or other materials. The upwind/upstream/upcurrent side of the dune is called the stoss side; the downflow side is called the lee side. Sand is pushed (creep) or bounces (saltation) up the stoss side, and slides down the lee side. A side of a dune that the sand has slid down is called a slip face (or slipface). The Bagnold formula gives the speed at which particles can be transported. Aeolian dunes Aeolian dune shapes Five basic dune types are recognized: crescentic, linear, star, dome, and parabolic. Dune areas may occur in three forms: simple (isolated dunes of basic type), compound (larger dunes on which smaller dunes of same type form), and complex (combinations of different types). They form separate crescents when the sand supply is comparatively small. When the sand supply is greater, they may merge into barchanoid ridges, and then transverse dunes (see below).Transverse dunesAbundant barchan dunes may merge into barchanoid ridges, which then grade into linear (or slightly sinuous) transverse dunes, so called because they lie transverse, or across, the wind direction, with the wind blowing perpendicular to the ridge crest. Some linear dunes merge to form Y-shaped compound dunes.Parabolic U-shaped mounds of sand with convex noses trailed by elongated arms are parabolic dunes. These dunes are formed from blowout dunes where the erosion of vegetated sand leads to a U-shaped depression. The elongated arms are held in place by vegetation; the largest arm known on Earth reaches 12 km. Sometimes these dunes are called U-shaped, blowout, or hairpin dunes, and they are well known in coastal deserts. Unlike crescent shaped dunes, their crests point upwind. The bulk of the sand in the dune migrates forward. In plan view, these are U-shaped or V-shaped mounds of well-sorted, very fine to medium sand with elongated arms that extend upwind behind the central part of the dune. There are slipfaces that often occur on the outer side of the nose and on the outer slopes of the arms. These dunes often occur in semiarid areas where the precipitation is retained in the lower parts of the dune and underlying soils. The stability of the dunes was once attributed to the vegetative cover but recent research has pointed to water as the main source of parabolic dune stability. The vegetation that covers them—grasses, shrubs, and trees—help anchor the trailing arms. In inland deserts, parabolic dunes commonly originate and extend downwind from blowouts in sand sheets only partly anchored by vegetation. They can also originate from beach sands and extend inland into vegetated areas in coastal zones and on shores of large lakes. Most parabolic dunes do not reach heights higher than a few tens of metres except at their nose, where vegetation stops or slows the advance of accumulating sand. Simple parabolic dunes have only one set of arms that trail upwind, behind the leading nose. Compound parabolic dunes are coalesced features with several sets of trailing arms. Complex parabolic dunes include subsidiary superposed or coalesced forms, usually of barchanoid or linear shapes. Parabolic dunes, like crescent dunes, occur in areas where very strong winds are mostly unidirectional. Although these dunes are found in areas now characterized by variable wind speeds, the effective winds associated with the growth and migration of both the parabolic and crescent dunes probably are the most consistent in wind direction. The grain size for these well-sorted, very fine to medium sands is about 0.06 to 0.5 mm. Parabolic dunes have loose sand and steep slopes only on their outer flanks. The inner slopes are mostly well packed and anchored by vegetation, as are the corridors between individual dunes. Because all dune arms are oriented in the same direction, and, the inter-dune corridors are generally swept clear of loose sand, the corridors can usually be traversed in between the trailing arms of the dune. However to cross straight over the dune by going over the trailing arms, can be very difficult. Also, traversing the nose is very difficult as well because the nose is usually made up of loose sand without much if any vegetation. A type of extensive parabolic dune that lacks discernible slipfaces and has mostly coarse grained sand is known as a zibar. The term zibar comes from the Arabic word to describe "rolling transverse ridges ... with a hard surface". The dunes are small, have low relief, and can be found in many places across the planet from Wyoming (United States) to Saudi Arabia to Australia. Spacing between zibars ranges from 50 to 400 metres and they do not become more than 10 metres high. The dunes form at about ninety degrees to the prevailing wind which blows away the small, fine-grained sand leaving behind the coarser grained sand to form the crest. Reversing dunes Occurring wherever winds periodically reverse direction, reversing dunes are varieties of any of the above shapes. These dunes typically have major and minor slipfaces oriented in opposite directions. The minor slipfaces are usually temporary, as they appear after a reverse wind and are generally destroyed when the wind next blows in the dominant direction. After a draa has reached a certain size, it generally develops superimposed dune forms. They are thought to be more ancient and slower-moving than smaller dunes,Coastal dunes ; 2015]] Coastal dunes form when wet sand is deposited along the coast and dries out and is blown along the beach. Dunes form where the beach is wide enough to allow for the accumulation of wind-blown sand, and where prevailing onshore winds tend to blow sand inland. The three key ingredients for coastal dune formation are a large sand supply, winds to move said sand supply, and a place for the sand supply to accumulate. Obstacles—for example, vegetation, pebbles and so on—tend to slow down the wind and lead to the deposition of sand grains. These small "incipient dunes or "shadow dunes" tend to grow in the vertical direction if the obstacle slowing the wind can also grow vertically (i.e., vegetation). Coastal dunes expand laterally as a result of lateral growth of coastal plants via seed or rhizome. Models of coastal dunes suggest that their final equilibrium height is related to the distance between the water line and where vegetation can grow. Coastal dunes can be classified by where they develop, or begin to take shape. Dunes are commonly grouped into either the Primary Dune Group or the Secondary Dune Group. Different locations around the globe have dune formations unique to their given coastal profile. Coastal sand dunes can provide privacy and/or habitats to support local flora and fauna. Animals such as sand snakes, lizards, and rodents can live in coastal sand dunes, along with insects of all types. Often the vegetation of sand dunes is discussed without acknowledging the importance that coastal dunes have for animals. Further, some animals, such as foxes and feral pigs can use coastal dunes as hunting grounds to find food. Birds are also known to utilize coastal dunes as nesting grounds. All these species find the coastal environment of the sand dune vital to their species' survival. Over the course of time coastal dunes may be impacted by tropical cyclones or other intense storm activity, dependent on their location. Recent work has suggested that coastal dunes tend to evolve toward a high or low morphology depending on the growth rate of dunes relative to storm frequency. During a storm event, dunes play a significant role in minimizing wave energy as it moves onshore. As a result, coastal dunes, especially those in the foredune area affected by a storm surge, will retreat or erode. To counteract the damage from tropical activity on coastal dunes, short term post-storm efforts can be made by individual agencies through fencing to help with sand accumulation. How much a dune erodes during any storm surge is related to its location on the coastal shoreline and the profile of the beach during a particular season. In those areas with harsher winter weather, during the summer a beach tends to take on more of a convex appearance due to gentler waves, while the same beach in the winter may take on more of a concave appearance. As a result, coastal dunes can get eroded much more quickly in the winter than in the summer. The converse is true in areas with harsher summer weather. There are many threats to these coastal communities. Some coastal dunes, for example ones in San Francisco, have been completely altered by urbanization; reshaping the dune for human use. This puts native species at risk. Another danger, in California and places in the UK specifically, is the introduction of invasive species. Plant species, such as Carpobrotus edulis, were introduced from South Africa in an attempt to stabilize the dunes and provide horticultural benefits, but instead spread taking land away from native species. Ammophila arenaria, known as European beachgrass, has a similar story, though it has no horticulture benefits. It has great ground coverage and, as intended, stabilized the dunes but as an unintended side effect prevented native species from thriving in those dunes. One such example is the dune field at Point Reyes, California. There are now efforts to get rid of both of these invasive species.Ecological succession on coastal dunesAs a dune forms, plant succession occurs. The conditions on an embryo dune are harsh, with salt spray from the sea carried on strong winds. The dune is well drained and often dry, and composed of calcium carbonate from seashells. Rotting seaweed, brought in by storm waves adds nutrients to allow pioneer species to colonize the dune. For example, in the United Kingdom these pioneer species are often marram grass, sea wort grass and other sea grasses. These plants are well adapted to the harsh conditions of the foredune, typically having deep roots which reach the water table, root nodules that produce nitrogen compounds, and protected stoma, reducing transpiration. Also, the deep roots bind the sand together, and the dune grows into a foredune as more sand is blown over the grasses. The grasses add nitrogen to the soil, meaning other, less hardy plants can then colonize the dunes. Typically these are heather, heaths and gorses. These too are adapted to the low soil water content and have small, prickly leaves which reduce transpiration. Heather adds humus to the soil and is usually replaced by coniferous trees, which can tolerate low soil pH, caused by the accumulation and decomposition of organic matter with nitrate leaching. Coniferous forests and heathland are common climax communities for sand dune systems. Young dunes are called yellow dunes and dunes which have high humus content are called grey dunes. Leaching occurs on the dunes, washing humus into the slacks, and the slacks may be much more developed than the exposed tops of the dunes. It is usually in the slacks that more rare species are developed and there is a tendency for the dune slacks' soil to be waterlogged where only marsh plants can survive. In Europe these plants include: creeping willow, cotton grass, yellow iris, reeds, and rushes. As for vertebrates in European dunes, natterjack toads sometimes breed here. Coastal dune floral adaptations , Finland]] , Wales]] Dune ecosystems are extremely difficult places for plants to survive. This is due to a number of pressures related to their proximity to the ocean and confinement to growth on sandy substrates. These include: * Little available soil moisture * Little available soil organic matter/nutrients/water * Harsh winds * Salt spray * Erosion/shifting and sometimes burial or exposure (from shifting) * Tidal influences Plants have evolved many adaptations to cope with these pressures: * Deep taproot to reach water table (Pink Sand Verbena) * Shallow but extensive root systems Rhizomes Prostrate growth form to avoid wind/salt spray (Abronia spp., Beach Primrose) * Krummholz growth form (Monterrey Cypress-not a dune plant but deals with similar pressures) * Thickened cuticle/Succulence to reduce moisture loss and reduce salt uptake (Ambrosia/Abronia spp., Calystegia soldanella) * Pale leaves to reduce insolation (Artemisia/Ambrosia spp.) * Thorny/Spiky seeds to ensure establishment in vicinity of parent, reduces chances of being blown away or swept out to sea (Ambrosia chamissonis) Gypsum dunes , New Mexico, United States]] In deserts where large amounts of limestone mountains surround a closed basin, such as at White Sands National Park in south-central New Mexico, occasional storm runoff transports dissolved limestone and gypsum into a low-lying pan within the basin where the water evaporates, depositing the gypsum and forming crystals known as selenite. The crystals left behind by this process are eroded by the wind and deposited as vast white dune fields that resemble snow-covered landscapes. These types of dune are rare, and only form in closed arid basins that retain the highly soluble gypsum that would otherwise be washed into the sea. Nabkha dunes A nabkha, or coppice dune, is a small dune anchored by vegetation. They usually indicate desertification or soil erosion, and serve as nesting and burrow sites for animals. Sub-aqueous dunes Sub-aqueous (underwater) dunes form on a bed of sand or gravel under the actions of water flow. They are ubiquitous in natural channels such as rivers and estuaries, and also form in engineered canals and pipelines. Dunes move downstream as the upstream slope is eroded and the sediment deposited on the downstream or lee slope in typical bedform construction. In the case of sub-aqueous barchan dunes, sediment is lost by their extremities, known as horns. These dunes most often form as a continuous 'train' of dunes, showing remarkable similarity in wavelength and height. The shape of a dune gives information about its formation environment. For instance, rivers produce asymmetrical ripples, with the steeper slip face facing downstream. Ripple marks preserved in sedimentary strata in the geological record can be used to determine the direction of current flow, and thus an indication of the source of the sediments. Dunes on the bed of a channel significantly increase flow resistance, their presence and growth playing a major part in river flooding. Lithified dunes A lithified (consolidated) sand dune is a type of sandstone that is formed when a marine or aeolian sand dune becomes compacted and hardened. Once in this form, water passing through the rock can carry and deposit minerals, which can alter the colour of the rock. Cross-bedded layers of stacks of lithified dunes can produce the cross-hatching patterns, such as those seen in Zion National Park in the western United States. A slang term, used in the southwest US, for consolidated and hardened sand dunes is "slickrock", a name that was introduced by pioneers of the Old West because their steel-rimmed wagon wheels could not gain traction on the rock.Desertification Sand dunes can have a negative impact on humans when they encroach on human habitats. Sand dunes move via a few different means, all of them helped along by wind. One way that dunes can move is by saltation, where sand particles skip along the ground like a bouncing ball. When these skipping particles land, they may knock into other particles and cause them to move as well, in a process known as creep. With slightly stronger winds, particles collide in mid-air, causing sheet flows. In a major dust storm, dunes may move tens of metres through such sheet flows. Also as in the case of snow, sand avalanches, falling down the slipface of the dunes—that face away from the winds—also move the dunes forward. Sand threatens buildings and crops in Africa, the Middle East, and China. Drenching sand dunes with oil stops their migration, but this approach uses a valuable resource and is quite destructive to the dunes' animal habitats. Sand fences might also slow their movement to a crawl, but geologists are still analyzing results for the optimum fence designs. Preventing sand dunes from overwhelming towns, villages, and agricultural areas has become a priority for the United Nations Environment Programme. Planting dunes with vegetation also helps to stabilise them. Conservation of the Mojave Desert, California, USA]] Dune habitats provide niches for highly specialized plants and animals, including numerous rare species and some endangered species. Due to widespread human population expansion, dunes face destruction through land development and recreational usages, as well as alteration to prevent the encroachment of sand onto inhabited areas. Some countries, notably the United States, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Netherlands, and Sri Lanka have developed significant programs of dune protection through the use of sand dune stabilization. In the U.K., a Biodiversity Action Plan has been developed to assess dunes loss and to prevent future dunes destruction. Examples Africa , in the greater Namib-Naukluft National Park, Namibia. Note the trees being engulfed for scale.]] trees and bushes scattered on dunes in the Kalahari Desert in Namibia (2017)]] near Dakhla Oasis at sunset.]] * Alexandria Coastal Dunefields, in the Eastern Cape, South Africa * Witsand Nature Reserve in the Kalahari Desert, South Africa * The white dunes of De Hoop Nature Reserve, South Africa * The dunes of the Suguta Valley, a desert part of the Great Rift Valley in northwestern Kenya * The dunes of the Danakil Depression, northeastern Ethiopia toward the border with Eritrea * The dunes of Sossusvlei in the greater Namib-Naukluft National Park, Namibia * Chad Basin National Park in northern Nigeria * The coastal dunes of Iona National Park in the southwesternmost part of Angola * Khawa dunes in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, the southwesternmost part of Botswana * La Dune Rose in the city of Gao in northern Mali near the Niger River * Erg Aoukar in southeastern Mauritania extending into Mali * Erg Chech in southwestern Algeria and northern Mali * Erg Chebbi and Erg Chigaga in southern Morocco * Grand Erg Oriental in northeastern Algeria and southern Tunisia * Grand Erg Occidental in western Algeria * The Idehan Ubari and the Idehan Murzuq in southwestern Libya * The Corralejo dunes in the Canary Islands, Spain * The Rebiana Sand Sea in southeastern Libya * The Great Sand Sea in southeastern Libya and southwestern Egypt * The Selima Sand Sheet in northwestern Sudan * The dunes of the Bayuda Desert in northern Sudan * The dunes of the Lompoul Desert in northwestern Senegal * The coastal dunes of Bazaruto Island, Mozambique * Erg du Djourab in northern Chad * The dunes of the Mourdi Depression in northeastern Chad * The dunes of Tin Toumma Desert, in southeastern Niger * Grand Erg de Bilma in the Ténéré, in northern Niger * The dunes of Oursi in the Sahel Region, northern Burkina Faso * Tanzania's Shifting Sands near Olduvai Gorge (Sistan)]] Asia * Sunset view dunes in the Alankuda village on Kalpitiya peninsula in Sri Lanka. * The dunes in the Thar Desert in India and Pakistan * Tottori Sand Dunes, Tottori Prefecture, Japan * Rig-e Jenn in the Central Desert of Iran. * Rig-e Lut in the Southeast of Iran. * The Ilocos Norte Sand Dunes in the Philippines, particularly Paoay Sand Dunes. * Moreeb Dune in Liwa Oasis, United Arab Emirates, used as an arena for drag motor sports and Sandboarding. * Gumuk Pasir Parangkusumo near Parangtritis beach in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. * Lautan Pasir, a volcanic dune in Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park, Indonesia. * Mui Ne, Vietnam. * Wahiba Sands, Oman * Teri, red dune complex in southern India * The dunes of the Taklamakan Desert in southwest Xinjiang in Northwest China Tukulans of the Central Yakutian Lowland, Russia , Valencian Community, Spain]] Europe , Portugal]] The Dunes of Dyuni, near Pomorie, Bulgaria, vast area of sand dunes in the Burgas Province * The Dune of Pilat, not far from Bordeaux, France, is the largest known sand dune in Europe * The Dunes of Piscinas, in the south west of Sardinia island. * Sands of Forvie within the Ythan Estuary complex, Aberdeenshire, Scotland. * Oxwich Dunes, near Swansea, is on the Gower Peninsula in Wales. * Winterton Dunes – Norfolk, England * Słowiński National Park, Poland Siedlec Desert, Poland Starczynów Desert, now mostly forested dunes, Poland * Sand dunes of Lemnos, Lesbos Prefecture, Greece * Akrotiri Sand Dune, Lemesos, Cyprus * Råbjerg mile, Northern Jutland, Denmark * Thy National Park, North Denmark Region, Denmark * Dunes of Corrubedo, Spain * Cresmina Dune, Portugal * Northern Littoral Natural Park, Portugal * Dune of Salir, Portugal * São Jacinto Dunes Natural Reserve, Portugal * Rëra e Hedhur in Shëngjin, Albania * De Hoge Veluwe National Park, Veluwe, Netherlands * Kootwijkerzand, Veluwe, Netherlands, 7 km<sup>2</sup> * Dunes of Texel National Park, Texel, Netherlands * Zuid-Kennemerland National Park, North Holland, Netherlands * Berkheide, Netherlands * Ammothines Lemnou, Lemnos, Greece * Dunes of the Curonian Spit, Lithuania and Russia *Parnidis Dune, Vecekrugas Dune - Curonian Spit, Lithuania Oleshky Sands, Ukraine * Ullahau, Sweden, Big Parabel Dune and dune system North America ]] , California]] , California]] Canada * Victoria Island Sand Dunes,160 km North West of Cambridge Bay, Nunavut, Canada. Approximately 600 square kilometers, the largest in Canada, third largest in North America and the largest in the Arctic. There are two lakes with direct access to the Dunes from float planes. * The Athabasca Sand Dunes, located in the Athabasca Sand Dunes Provincial Park, Saskatchewan. * Carcross Desert near Carcross, Yukon United States * Alaska: Nogahabara Sand Dunes in western Alaska. Great Kobuk Sand Dunes, Kobuk Valley National Park, Alaska * California: The [https://web.archive.org/web/20160817155504/http://www.blm.gov/ca/st/en/fo/needles/wilderness/cadiz_dunes.html Cadiz Dunes] in the [https://web.archive.org/web/20160216044509/http://www.blm.gov/ca/st/en/prog/nlcs/Mojave_Trails.html Mojave Trails National Monument] in California. The Kelso Dunes in the Mojave Desert of California. Eureka Valley Sand Dunes and Mesquite Flat Sand Dunes in Death Valley National Park, California. Algodones Dunes near Brawley, California. Guadalupe-Nipomo Dunes, on the central coast of California. Cat Dune in the Cronese Mountains is a rare type of dune called a sand ramp. Great Sand Dunes National Park, Colorado. The Great Dune found in Cape Henlopen State Park in Lewes, Delaware. Bruneau Dunes State Park – Owyhee Desert, Idaho Indiana Dunes National Park, Indiana, on the south shore of Lake Michigan. Herring Cove, Race Point and The Province Lands bicycle path in Provincetown, Massachusetts as part of the US National Park Service of the Cape Cod National Seashore. Michigan: Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore, Michigan, on the east shore of Lake Michigan. Warren Dunes State Park, Michigan, on the east shore of Lake Michigan. Grand Sable Dunes, in the Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore, Michigan. Hoffmaster State Park – Muskegon, Michigan *Silver Lake State Park — a sand dunes that allows off-road vehicle use located near Mears, Michigan. Grey Cloud Dunes- Minnesota White Sands National Park, New Mexico. Jockey's Ridge State Park – on the Outer Banks, North Carolina. * Beaver Dunes State Park near Beaver, Oklahoma. * Oregon Dunes National Recreation Area near Florence, Oregon, on the Pacific Coast. Monahans Sandhills State Park near Odessa, Texas. Little Sahara Recreation Area, Utah. The Killpecker sand dunes of the Red Desert in southwestern Wyoming. Mexico Samalayuca Dunes, in the state of Chihuahua, Mexico South America , Maranhão, Brazil]] , São Paulo, Brazil]] ]] * Argentina: Duna Federico Kirbus in Catamarca Province, Argentina Villa Gesell in Buenos Aires Province, Argentina * Brazil: Lençóis Maranhenses National Park in the state of Maranhão, Brazil Ilha Comprida Environmental Protection Area in the state of São Paulo, Brazil Joaquina Beach Dunes in Florianópolis, in the state of Santa Catarina, Brazil Jericoacoara National Park, in the state of Ceará, Brazil ** Genipabu in Natal, Brazil * Chile: Cerro Medanoso in Atacama Region, Chile Colún Beach, Valdivian Coastal Reserve in Chile , Chile , urban dune in Iquique, Chile * Peru: Cerro Blanco in Nazca Province, Peru Huacachina in Ica Region, Peru * Medanos de Coro National Park near the town of Coro, in Falcón State, Venezuela ]] Oceania * Simpson Desert sand dunes in the Northern Territory, Queensland and South Australia, Australia * Coorong National Park in South Australia, Australia * Lincoln National Park in South Australia, Australia * Coffin Bay National Park in South Australia, Australia * Fraser Island in Queensland, Australia * Cronulla sand dunes in New South Wales, Australia * Stockton Beach in New South Wales, Australia * Lancelin sand dunes in Western Australia, Australia * Te Paki sand dunes near Cape Reinga, New Zealand World's highest dunes {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|+ Note: This table is partially based on estimates and incomplete information. \|- style=background:silver; color:black ! width"200"\|Dune !! width"130"\|Height from Base feet/metres !! width"160"\|Height from Sea Level feet/metres !! width"460"\|Location !! width="180"\|Notes \|- !Duna Federico Kirbus \|≈4,035/1,230\|\| ≈9,334/2,845 \|\| Bolsón de Fiambalá, Fiambalá, Catamarca Province, Argentina \|\| Highest in the world \|- !Cerro Blanco \|≈3,860/1,176\|\| ≈6,791/2,080 \|\| Nazca Province, Ica Region, Peru \|\| Highest in Peru, second highest in the world \|- !Badain Jaran Dunes \| ≈1,640/500 \|\| ≈6,640/2,020 \|\| Badain Jaran Desert, Alashan Plain, Inner Mongolia, Gobi Desert, China \|\| World's tallest stationary dunes and highest in Asia \|- !Rig-e Yalan Dune \| ≈1,542/470 \|\| ≈3,117/950 \|\| Lut Desert, Kerman, Iran\|\| Hottest place on Earth (Gandom Beryan) \|- \|- !Average Highest Area Dunes \| 1,410/430? \|\| ≈6,500/1,980? \|\| Isaouane-n-Tifernine Sand Sea, Algerian Sahara \|\| Highest in Africa \|- !Big Daddy/Dune 7<br />(Big Mama?) \| 1,256/383 \|\| ≈1,870/570 \|\| Sossusvlei Dunes, Namib Desert, Namibia / Near Walvis Bay Namib Desert, Namibia \|\| according to the Namibian Ministry of Environment & Tourism the highest dune in the world \|- !Mount Tempest \| ≈920/280 \|\| ≈920/280 \|\| Moreton Island, Brisbane, Australia \|\| Highest in Australia \|- !Star Dune \| >750/230 \|\| ≈8,950/2,730 \|\| Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve, Colorado, USA \|\| Highest in North America \|- !Dune of Pyla \| ≈345/105 \|\| ≈699/130 \|\| Bay of Arcachon, Aquitaine, France \|\| Highest in Europe \|- !Ming-Sha Dunes \| ? \|\| 5,660/1,725 \|\| Dunhuang Oasis, Taklamakan Desert, Gansu, China \|\| \|- !Medanoso Dune \| ≈1805/550 \|\| ≈5446/1,660 \|\| Atacama Desert, Chile \|\| Highest in Chile \|} Sand dune systems : in Michigan]](coastal dunes featuring succession) * Athabasca Sand Dunes Provincial Park, Alberta and Saskatchewan * Ashdod Sand Dune, Israel * Bamburgh Dunes, Northumberland, England * Bradley Beach, New Jersey * Circeo National Park, a Mediterranean dune area on the southwest coast of the Lazio region of Italy * Cronulla sand dunes, NSW, Australia * Crymlyn Burrows, Wales * Dawlish Warren, Devon, England * Fraser Island, Queensland Australia, largest sand island in the world * Indiana Dunes National Park, Indiana * Kenfig Burrows, Wales * Margam burrows, Wales * Murlough Sand Dunes, Newcastle, Co Down, Northern Ireland * Morfa Harlech sand dunes, Gwynedd, Wales * Newborough Warren, North Wales * Oregon Dunes National Recreation Area, near North Bend, Oregon * Penhale Sands, Cornwall, England * Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore, Michigan * Sandy Island Beach State Park, Richland, New York * Studland, Dorset, England * Thy National Park, North Denmark Region, Denmark * Winterton, Norfolk, England * Woolacombe, Devon, England * Ynyslas Sand Dunes, Wales Extraterrestrial dunes Dunes can likely be found in any environment where there is a substantial atmosphere, winds, and dust to be blown. Dunes are common on Mars and in the equatorial regions of Titan. Titan's dunes include large expanses with modal lengths of about 20–30 km. The regions are not topographically confined, resembling sand seas. These dunes are interpreted to be longitudinal dunes whose crests are oriented parallel to the dominant wind direction, which generally indicates west-to-east wind flow. The sand is likely composed of hydrocarbon particles, possibly with some water ice mixed in. Dunes are a popular theme in science fiction, featuring in depictions of dry Desert planets appearing as early as the 1956 film Forbidden Planet and Frank Herbert's 1965 novel Dune. The environment of the desert planet Arrakis (also known as Dune) in the Dune franchise Dune in turn inspired the Star Wars franchise, which includes prominent theme of dunes on fictional planets such as Tatooine, Geonosis, and Jakku. See also * Antidune * Devil's stovepipe * Ice dune * List of landforms * Masseira * Médanos * Sandhill * Sand wave * Singing sand * Strand plain Notes References * Further reading * * * * * * * External links [https://physicalgeography.org/sand-dunes-and-different-types-of-sand-dunes/ Types of Sand Dunes] [https://beginnorthadventures.com/loibor-seder-sand-dune-kenya/ Loibor Seder Kenya's Biggest Sand Dune] [https://web.archive.org/web/20060819172200/http://www.geography-site.co.uk/pages/physical/coastal/dunes.html Coastal Sand Dunes] [https://web.archive.org/web/20060308183125/http://www.tec.army.mil/research/products/desert_guide/lpisheet/lpdunes1.htm Dune pattern identification, U.S. Army] * Category:Aeolian landforms Category:Coastal and oceanic landforms Category:Coastal geography Category:Sedimentology	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dune	2025-04-05T18:28:17.632059
7891	David Lynch	\| birth_place = Missoula, Montana, U.S. \| death_date = \| death_place = Los Angeles, California,<!--Links not needed per MOS:OVERLINK--> U.S. \| resting_place = Hollywood Forever Cemetery \| other_names = Judas Booth \| alma_mater = Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts (dropped out) \| occupation = \| years_active = 1967–2025 \| style = \| works = \| spouse = * * * }} \| partner = \| children = 4, including Jennifer \| awards = Full list \| signature = David Lynch signature.svg \| signature_alt = David Lynch \| module }} David Keith Lynch (January 20, 1946 – January 16, 2025) was an American filmmaker, visual artist, musician, and actor. Widely considered one of the greatest filmmakers of all time, Lynch was often called a "visionary" and was acclaimed for films often distinguished by their surrealist and experimental qualities. In a career spanning more than five decades, he received numerous accolades, including the Golden Lion for Lifetime Achievement at the Venice Film Festival in 2006 and an Academy Honorary Award in 2019. Lynch studied painting and made short films before making his first feature, the independent body horror film Eraserhead (1977), which found success as a midnight movie. He earned critical acclaim and nominations for the Academy Award for Best Director for the biographical drama The Elephant Man (1980), the mystery thriller Blue Velvet (1986), and the neo-noir Mulholland Drive (2001). For his romantic crime drama Wild at Heart (1990), he received the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival. He also directed the space opera Dune (1984), the neo-noir Lost Highway (1997), the road movie The Straight Story (1999), and the experimental thriller Inland Empire (2006). Lynch and Mark Frost created the ABC surrealist horror-mystery series Twin Peaks (1990–91), for which he received five Primetime Emmy Award nominations, including Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series and Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series. Lynch co-wrote and directed its film prequel, Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me (1992) and a third season in 2017. His acting career included roles on Twin Peaks, The Cleveland Show (2010–13), and Louie (2012), and in the films Lucky (2017) and The Fabelmans (2022). He directed music videos for Chris Isaak, X Japan, Moby, Interpol, Nine Inch Nails and Donovan, and commercials for Dior, YSL, Gucci and the New York City Department of Sanitation. Lynch also worked as a musician, releasing solo albums, and as a furniture designer, cartoonist, animator, photographer, and author. A practitioner of Transcendental Meditation, he founded the David Lynch Foundation to fund meditation lessons for at-risk populations. A lifelong smoker, he died from complications of emphysema after being evacuated from his home due to the January 2025 Southern California wildfires.Early life and education The first film he saw was Henry King's Wait till the Sun Shines, Nellie (1952). His father, Donald Walton Lynch (1915–2007), was a research scientist working for the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), and his mother, Edwina "Sunny" Lynch (née Sundholm; 1919–2004), was an English language tutor. Two of Lynch's maternal great-grandparents were Finnish-Swedish immigrants who arrived in the U.S. during the 19th century. He recalled that his father "would drive me through the woods in his green Forest Service truck, over dirt roads, through the most beautiful forests where the trees are very tall and shafts of sunlight come down and in the mountain streams the rainbow trout leap out and their little trout sides catch glimpses of light. Then my father would drop me in the woods and go off. It was a weird, comforting feeling being in the woods." He was raised as a Presbyterian. The Lynch family often moved around according to where the USDA assigned Donald: Lynch moved with his parents to Sandpoint, Idaho, when he was two months old; two years later, after his brother John was born, the family moved to Spokane, Washington. Lynch's sister Martha was born there. The family then moved to Durham, North Carolina, Boise, Idaho, and Alexandria, Virginia. At Francis C. Hammond High School in Alexandria, Lynch did not excel academically, having little interest in schoolwork, but he was popular with other students, and after leaving he decided that he wanted to study painting at college. He began his studies at the Corcoran School of the Arts and Design in Washington, D.C., before transferring in 1964 to the School of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston with roommate musician Peter Wolf. He left after only a year, saying, "I was not inspired AT ALL in that place." He instead decided that he wanted to travel around Europe for three years with his friend Jack Fisk, who was similarly unhappy with his studies at Cooper Union. They had some hopes that they could train in Europe with Austrian expressionist painter Oskar Kokoschka at his school. Upon reaching Salzburg, however, they found that Kokoschka was not available. Disillusioned, they returned to the United States after spending only two weeks in Europe. which at the time he felt was a lot of money, to produce Six Men Getting Sick. This led to a commission from one of his fellow students, the wealthy H. Barton Wasserman, who offered him $1,000 () to create a film installation in his home. Spending $478 of that on the second-hand Bolex camera "of [his] dreams", Lynch produced a new animated short but, upon getting the film developed, realized that the result was a blurred, frameless print. He later said, "So I called up [Wasserman] and said, 'Bart, the film is a disaster. The camera was broken and what I've done hasn't turned out.' And he said, 'Don't worry, David, take the rest of the money and make something else for me. Just give me a print.' End of story." where he began studying filmmaking at the AFI Conservatory, a place he later called "completely chaotic and disorganized, which was great ... you quickly learned that if you were going to get something done, you would have to do it yourself. They wanted to let people do their thing." Not long into Eraserheads production, Lynch and Peggy amicably separated and divorced, and he began living full-time on set. In 1977, Lynch married Jack Fisk's sister Mary Fisk. Lynch tried to get it entered into the Cannes Film Festival, but while some reviewers liked it, others felt it was awful, and it was not selected for screening. Reviewers from the New York Film Festival also rejected it, but it screened at the Los Angeles Film Festival, where Ben Barenholtz, the distributor of the Elgin Theater, heard about it. Stanley Kubrick said it was one of his all-time favorite films. Lynch was still contractually obligated to produce two other projects for De Laurentiis, the first a planned sequel to Dune, which due to the film's failure never went beyond the script stage. Blue Velvet was a critical and commercial success, winning the National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Film and earning Lynch his second Academy Award nomination for Best Director. David Thomson recalls seeing it for the first time: "The occasion stood as the last moment of transcendence I had felt at the movies—until The Piano. What I mean by that is a kind of passionate involvement with both the story and the making of a film, so that I was simultaneously moved by the enactment on the screen and by discovering that a new director had made the medium alive and dangerous again." 1990–1999: Twin Peaks and film work ]] Lynch met the television producer Mark Frost and they started working together on a biopic of Marilyn Monroe based on Anthony Summers's book The Goddess: The Secret Lives of Marilyn Monroe, but it never got off the ground. After identifying the murderer and moving from Thursday to Saturday night, Twin Peaks continued for several more episodes, but was canceled after a ratings drop. Lynch, who disliked the direction that writers and directors took in the later episodes, directed the final episode. He ended it with a cliffhanger (like season one had), later saying, "that's not the ending. That's the ending that people were stuck with." Calling its plot a "strange blend" of "a road picture, a love story, a psychological drama and a violent comedy", Lynch departed substantially from the novel, changing the ending and incorporating numerous references to The Wizard of Oz. When it won the prize, audience members booed Lynch and the film. After Wild at Hearts success, Lynch returned to the world of the canceled Twin Peaks, this time without Frost, to make a film that was primarily a prequel but also in part a sequel. Lynch said, "I liked the idea of the story going back and forth in time." Meanwhile, Lynch worked on some new television shows. He and Frost created the comedy series On the Air (1992), which was canceled after three episodes aired, and he and Montgomery created the three-episode HBO miniseries Hotel Room (1993) about events that happen in one hotel room on different dates. After his unsuccessful TV ventures, Lynch returned to film. In 1997, he released the non-linear noiresque Lost Highway, which was co-written by Barry Gifford and stars Bill Pullman and Patricia Arquette. The film failed commercially and received a mixed response from critics. Lynch then began work on a film from a script by Mary Sweeney and John E. Roach, The Straight Story, based on the true story of Alvin Straight (Richard Farnsworth), an elderly man from Laurens, Iowa, who goes on a 300-mile journey to visit his sick brother (Harry Dean Stanton) in Mount Zion, Wisconsin, by riding lawnmower. Asked why he chose this script, Lynch said, "that's what I fell in love with next", and expressed his admiration of Straight, describing him as "like James Dean, except he's old". It was named one of the best films of the year by The New York Times; Janet Maslin wrote: "Somehow it took David Lynch to lead audiences past the ultimate frontier: into a G-rated parable of spirituality and decency, seen from the unfashionable vantage point of old age. Mr. Lynch accomplished the unthinkable by putting Richard Farnsworth, in a devastatingly real and rock-solid performance, on a lawnmower at five miles per hour and still building enough drama and emotion for a great chase. Burned out on the surreal and the grotesque, Mr. Lynch faced down inevitable realities about aging and conscience." 2000–2009: Mulholland Drive and beyond promoting Mulholland Drive]] In 1999, Lynch approached ABC again with ideas for a television drama. The network gave Lynch the go-ahead to shoot a two-hour pilot for the series Mulholland Drive, but disputes over content and running time led to the project being shelved indefinitely. With $7 million from the French production company StudioCanal, Lynch completed the pilot as a film, Mulholland Drive. The film, a nonlinear surrealist tale of Hollywood's dark side, stars Naomi Watts, Laura Harring, and Justin Theroux. It performed relatively well at the box office worldwide and was a critical success, earning Lynch Best Director at the 2001 Cannes Film Festival (shared with Joel Coen for ''The Man Who Wasn't There'') and Best Director from the New York Film Critics Association. He also received his third Academy Award nomination for Best Director. In 2016, the film was named the best film of the 21st century in a BBC poll of 177 film critics from 36 countries. Roger Ebert, who had dismissed much of Lynch's earlier work, wrote: "At last his experiment doesn't shatter the test tubes. The movie is a surrealist dreamscape in the form of a Hollywood film noir, and the less sense it makes, the more we can't stop watching it." With the rising popularity of the Internet, Lynch decided to use it as a distribution channel, releasing several new series he had created exclusively on his website, davidlynch.com, which went online on December 10, 2001. In 2002, he created a series of online shorts, DumbLand. Intentionally crude in content and execution, the eight-episode series was later released on DVD. The same year, Lynch released a surreal sitcom, Rabbits, about a family of humanoid rabbits. Later, he made his experiments with Digital Video available in the form of the Japanese-style horror short Darkened Room. In 2006, Lynch's feature film Inland Empire was released. At three hours, it is his longest film. Like Mulholland Drive and Lost Highway, it lacks a traditional narrative structure. It stars Laura Dern, Harry Dean Stanton, and Justin Theroux, with cameos by Naomi Watts and Laura Harring as the voices of Suzie and Jane Rabbit, and a performance by Jeremy Irons. Lynch called Inland Empire "a mystery about a woman in trouble". In an effort to promote it, he made appearances with a cow and a placard bearing the slogan "Without cheese there would be no Inland Empire". In 2009, Lynch produced a documentary Web series directed by his son Austin Lynch and friend Jason S., Interview Project. Interested in working with Werner Herzog, in 2009 Lynch collaborated on Herzog's film My Son, My Son, What Have Ye Done. With a nonstandard narrative, the film is based on a true story of an actor who committed matricide while acting in a production of the Oresteia, and stars Grace Zabriskie. In 2009, Lynch had plans to direct a documentary on Maharishi Mahesh Yogi consisting of interviews with people who knew him, but nothing came of it. 2010–2019: Return to television In 2010, Lynch began making guest appearances on the Family Guy spin-off The Cleveland Show as Gus the Bartender. He had been convinced to appear in the show by its lead actor, Mike Henry, a fan of Lynch who felt that his life had changed after he saw Wild at Heart. Lady Blue Shanghai is a 16-minute promotional film written, directed and edited by Lynch for Dior. It was released on the Internet in May 2010. Lynch directed a concert by English new wave band Duran Duran on March 23, 2011. The concert was streamed live on YouTube from the Mayan Theater in Los Angeles as the kickoff to the second season of Unstaged: An Original Series from American Express. "The idea is to try and create on the fly, layers of images permeating Duran Duran on the stage", Lynch said. "A world of experimentation and hopefully some happy accidents". The animated short I Touch a Red Button Man, a collaboration between Lynch and the band Interpol, played in the background during Interpol's concert at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival in April 2011. The short, which features Interpol's song "Lights", was later made available online. at the 2017 premiere of Twin Peakss third season]] It was believed that Lynch was going to retire from the film industry; according to Abel Ferrara, Lynch "doesn't even want to make films any more. I've talked to him about it, OK? I can tell when he talks about it." But in a June 2012 interview, Lynch said he lacked the inspiration to start a new movie project, but "If I got an idea that I fell in love with, I'd go to work tomorrow". In September 2012, he appeared in the three-part "Late Show" arc on FX's Louie as Jack Dahl. In November 2012, Lynch hinted at plans for a new film while attending Plus Camerimage in Bydgoszcz, Poland, saying, "something is coming up. It will happen but I don't know exactly when". At Plus Camerimage, Lynch received a lifetime achievement award and the Key to the City from Bydgoszcz's mayor, Rafał Bruski. In a January 2013 interview, Laura Dern confirmed that she and Lynch were planning a new project, and The New York Times later reported that Lynch was working on the script. Idem Paris, a short documentary film about the lithographic process, was released online in February 2013. On June 28, 2013, a video Lynch directed for the Nine Inch Nails song "Came Back Haunted" was released. He also did photography for the Dumb Numbers's self-titled album released in August 2013. On October 6, 2014, Lynch confirmed via Twitter that he and Frost would start shooting a new, nine-episode season of Twin Peaks in 2015, with the episodes expected to air in 2016 on Showtime. Lynch and Frost wrote all the episodes. On April 5, 2015, Lynch announced via Twitter that the project was still alive, but he was no longer going to direct because the budget was too low for what he wanted to do. On May 15, 2015, he said via Twitter that he would return to the revival, having sorted out his issues with Showtime. Showtime CEO David Nevins confirmed this, announcing that Lynch would direct every episode of the revival and that the original nine episodes had been extended to 18. Filming was completed by April 2016. The two-episode premiere aired on May 21, 2017. ]] While doing press for Twin Peaks, Lynch was again asked if he had retired from film and seemed to confirm that he had made his last feature film, responding, "Things changed a lot ... So many films were not doing well at the box office, even though they might have been great films and the things that were doing well at the box office weren't the things that I would want to do". Lynch later said that this statement had been misconstrued: "I did not say I quit cinema, simply that nobody knows what the future holds." 2020–2025: Weather reports and final projects Lynch did weather reports on his now-defunct website in the 2000s. He returned to doing weather reports in 2020 from his apartment in Los Angeles, along with two new series, What is David Lynch Working on Today?, which detailed him making collages, and ''Today's Number Is..., in which he picked a random number from 1 to 10 each day from a jar containing ten numbered ping-pong balls. In one of his weather reports, Lynch detailed a dream he had about being a German soldier shot by an American soldier on D-Day. Most of his Weather Reports featured Lynch saying he was "thinking about" songs, including songs by The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, The Everly Brothers, and The Platters. After his final weather report on December 16, 2022, Lynch said in an April 2023 interview that the series, along with What is David Lynch Working on Today? and Today's Number Is...'', would not return, adding: "Now I can sleep longer in the morning. I had to get up very early to consult the real weather bulletin. In two years I have not missed a single one." (pictured, 1973) in Steven Spielberg's The Fabelmans (2022).]] In June 2020, Lynch rereleased his 2002 web series Rabbits on YouTube. On July 17, 2020, his store for merchandise released a set of face masks with Lynch's art on them for the COVID-19 pandemic. In February 2022, it was announced that Lynch had been cast in Steven Spielberg's semi-autobiographical film The Fabelmans in a role Variety called "a closely guarded secret". Lynch played John Ford, whom the young Spielberg met, an encounter Spielberg considers formative. Gabriel LaBelle played Spielberg's alter ego Sammy Fabelman, and Lynch as Ford offers the young man advice on filmmaking. Lynch and the cast were nominated for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture. J. Hoberman wrote: "Mr. Lynch never made a conventional, crowd-pleasing Hollywood movie. But in 2022, he agreed to a cameo in one: Mr. Spielberg's autobiographical feature The Fabelmans, where the enigmatic if not eldritch Mr. Lynch was cast as John Ford, the maker of westerns and the grand old curmudgeon of American cinema. It was a sentimental gesture that one can only call Lynchian." The Angriest Dog in the World In 1983, Lynch began writing and drawing a comic strip, The Angriest Dog in the World, that featured unchanging graphics of a tethered dog so angry it could not move, alongside cryptic philosophical references. It was published from 1983 to 1992 in The Village Voice, Creative Loafing, and other tabloid and alternative publications. Lynch's alma mater, the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, presented an exhibition of his work called "The Unified Field", which ran from September 12, 2014, to January 2015. Lynch was represented by Kayne Griffin Corcoran in Los Angeles, and began exhibiting his paintings, drawings, and photography with the gallery in 2011. Lynch considered the 20th-century Irish-born British artist Francis Bacon his "number one kinda hero painter", saying, "Normally I only like a couple of years of a painter's work, but I like everything of Bacon's. The guy, you know, had the stuff."MusicLynch was involved in several music projects, many of them related to his films, including sound design for some of his films (sometimes alongside collaborators Alan Splet, Dean Hurley, and Angelo Badalamenti). His album genres included experimental rock, ambient soundscapes and, most recently, avant-garde electropop music. He produced and wrote lyrics for Julee Cruise's first two albums, Floating into the Night (1989) and The Voice of Love (1993), in collaboration with Badalamenti, who wrote the music and also produced. In 1991, Lynch directed a 30-second teaser trailer for Michael Jackson's album Dangerous at Jackson's request. He also worked on the 1998 Jocelyn Montgomery album Lux Vivens (Living Light), The Music of Hildegard von Bingen. Lynch wrote music for Wild at Heart, Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me, Mulholland Drive, and Rabbits. In 2001, he released BlueBob, a blues album performed by Lynch and John Neff. The album is notable for Lynch's unusual guitar playing style. He plays "upside down and backwards, like a lap guitar", and relies heavily on effects pedals. Lynch wrote several pieces for Inland Empire, including two songs, "Ghost of Love" and "Walkin' on the Sky", in which he made his public debut as a singer. In 2009, his book-CD set Dark Night of the Soul was released. In 2008, he started his own record label, David Lynch MC, which first released Fox Bat Strategy: A Tribute to Dave Jaurequi in early 2009. In November 2010, Lynch released two electropop music singles, "Good Day Today" and "I Know", on the independent British label Sunday Best Recordings. Of the songs, he said, "I was just sitting and these notes came and then I went down and started working with Dean [Hurley] and then these few notes, 'I want to have a good day, today' came and the song was built around that". The singles were followed by an album, Crazy Clown Time, which was released in November 2011 and described as an "electronic blues album". The songs were sung by Lynch, with guest vocals on one track by Karen O of the Yeah Yeah Yeahs, and composed and performed by Lynch and Hurley. On September 29, 2011, Lynch released This Train with vocalist and longtime musical collaborator Chrystabell on the La Rose Noire label. Lynch's third studio album, The Big Dream, was released in 2013 and included the single "I'm Waiting Here", with Swedish singer-songwriter Lykke Li. The Big Dreams release was preceded by TBD716, an enigmatic 43-second video featured on Lynch's YouTube and Vine accounts. For Record Store Day 2014, Lynch released The Big Dream Remix EP, which featured four songs from his album remixed by various artists. This included the track "Are You Sure" remixed by the band Bastille, which is known to have been inspired by Lynch's work for its songs and videos, especially the song "Laura Palmer". In November 2018, a collaborative album by Lynch and Badalamenti, Thought Gang, was released on vinyl and compact disc. The album was recorded around 1993 but not released at the time. Two tracks from it appear on the soundtrack for Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me and three others were used for Twin Peaks: The Return. In May 2019, Lynch provided guest vocals on the track "Fire is Coming" by Flying Lotus. He also co-wrote the track that appears on Flying Lotus's album Flamagra. A video accompanying the song was released on April 17, 2019. In May 2021, Lynch produced a track, "I Am the Shaman", by Scottish artist Donovan. The song was released on May 10, Donovan's 75th birthday. Lynch also directed the accompanying video. In August 2024, Lynch released his final album, Cellophane Memories, a collaboration between him and Chrystabell. He also directed videos for two tracks on the album, "Sublime Eternal Love" and "The Answers to the Questions". Design Lynch designed and constructed furniture for his 1997 film Lost Highway, including the small table in the Madison house and the VCR case. In April 1997, he presented a furniture collection at the prestigious Milan Furniture Fair. "Design and music, art and architecture—they all belong together", he said. Working with designer Raphael Navot, architectural agency Enia, and light designer Thierry Dreyfus, Lynch conceived and designed a nightclub in Paris, Silencio. It opened in October 2011, and is a private members' club, but is free to the public after midnight. Patrons have access to concerts, films, and other performances by artists and guests. Inspired by the club of the same name in Mulholland Drive, the underground space consists of a series of rooms, each dedicated to a certain purpose or atmosphere. "Silencio is something dear to me. I wanted to create an intimate space where all the arts could come together. There won't be a Warhol-like guru, but it will be open to celebrated artists of all disciplines to come here to program or create what they want." Literature In 2006, Lynch wrote a short book, Catching the Big Fish: Meditation, Consciousness, and Creativity, which describes his creative processes, stories from his career, and the benefits he realized from his practice of Transcendental Meditation. He describes the metaphor behind the title in the introduction: The book weaves a nonlinear autobiography with descriptions of Lynch's experiences during Transcendental Meditation. Lynch also narrated it in an audiobook. Working with Kristine McKenna, Lynch published a biography-memoir hybrid, Room to Dream, in June 2018. Website Lynch designed his personal website, a site exclusive to paying members, where he posted short videos, his absurdist series Dumbland, interviews, and other items. The site also featured a daily weather report where Lynch gave a brief description of the weather in Los Angeles, where he resided. He continued to broadcast this report (usually no longer than 30 seconds) on his personal YouTube channel, DAVID LYNCH THEATER, along with "TODAY'S NUMBER", where he drew a random number between one and ten out of a bingo cage. Lynch also created a short film, "Rabbits", for his website. Lynch was a coffee drinker and had his own line of special organic blends available for purchase on his website and at Whole Foods. Called "David Lynch Signature Cup", the coffee has been advertised via flyers included with several Lynch-related DVD releases, including Inland Empire and the Gold Box edition of Twin Peaks. The brand's tagline is "It's all in the beans ... and I'm just full of beans", a line Justin Theroux's character says in Inland Empire.Personal lifeRelationships at the 1990 Cannes Film Festival.]] Lynch had several long-term relationships. In January 1968, he married Peggy Reavey, They filed for divorce in 1974. In June 1977, Lynch married Mary Fisk, with whom he had one child, Austin Jack Lynch, in 1982. They separated in 1985 and divorced in 1987. Sweeney also worked as Lynch's producer and co-wrote and produced The Straight Story. The two married in May 2006, but filed for divorce that June. In 2009, Lynch married actress Emily Stofle, Stofle filed for divorce in 2023. A divorce settlement agreement was reached on December 20, 2024, but the court had not issued a final divorce decree at the time of Lynch's death.Political and public viewsIn 2009, Lynch signed a petition in support of director Roman Polanski after Polanski was detained while traveling to a film festival arrest on his 1977 sexual abuse charges. The petition argued the arrest would undermine the tradition of film festivals as a place for works to be shown "freely and safely", and that arresting filmmakers traveling to neutral countries could open the door "for actions of which no-one can know the effects." Lynch said he was "not a political person" and knew little about politics. Describing his political philosophy in 2006, he said, "at that time [the 1990s], I thought of myself as a libertarian. I believed in next to zero government. And I still would lean toward no government and not so many rules, except for traffic lights and things like this. I really believe in traffic regulations." He continued: "I'm a Democrat now. And I've always been a Democrat, really. But I don't like the Democrats a lot, either, because I'm a smoker, and I think a lot of the Democrats have come up with these rules for non-smoking." In the 2016 U.S. presidential election, Lynch endorsed Bernie Sanders, whom he described as "for the people". He voted for Sanders in the 2016 Democratic primaries and for Libertarian nominee Gary Johnson in the general election. In a June 2018 interview with The Guardian, Lynch said that Donald Trump could go down as "one of the greatest presidents in history because he has disrupted the [country] so much. No one is able to counter this guy in an intelligent way." He added: "Our so-called leaders can't take the country forward, can't get anything done. Like children, they are. Trump has shown all this." Lynch later clarified on Facebook that his words were taken out of context, saying that Trump would "not have a chance to go down in history as a great president" if he continued on the course of "causing suffering and division" and advising him to "treat all the people as you would like to be treated". In one of his daily weather report videos in 2020, Lynch expressed support for Black Lives Matter protests following the murder of George Floyd. In a 2022 weather report, he condemned the Russian invasion of Ukraine and addressed Russian president Vladimir Putin directly, telling him there was "no room for this kind of absurdity anymore" and that Putin would reap what he had sown, lifetime after lifetime. Lynch was present with other Boy Scouts outside the White House at the inauguration of President John F. Kennedy, which took place on Lynch's 15th birthday.]] Lynch advocated Transcendental Meditation as a spiritual practice. He was initiated into Transcendental Meditation in July 1973, and practiced the technique consistently thereafter. Lynch said he met Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, the founder of the TM movement, for the first time in 1975 at the Spiritual Regeneration Movement center in Los Angeles. He became close with the Maharishi during a month-long "Millionaire's Enlightenment Course" held in 2003, the fee for which was $1 million. In July 2005, Lynch launched the David Lynch Foundation for Consciousness-Based Education and Peace, established to help finance scholarships for students in middle and high schools who are interested in learning Transcendental Meditation and to fund research on the technique and its effects on learning. Together with John Hagelin and Fred Travis, a brain researcher from Maharishi University of Management (MUM), Lynch promoted his vision on college campuses with a tour that began in September 2005. Lynch was on MUM's board of trustees and hosted an annual "David Lynch Weekend for World Peace and Meditation" there, beginning in 2005. The foundation has also funded meditation lessons for veterans and other "at-risk" populations. Lynch was working for the building and establishment of seven buildings in which 8,000 salaried people would practice advanced meditation techniques, "pumping peace for the world". He estimated the cost at US$7 billion. As of December 2005, he had spent $400,000 of his money and raised $1 million in donations. In 2009, Lynch went to India to film interviews with people who knew the Maharishi as part of a biographical documentary. In 2009, Lynch organized a benefit concert at Radio City Music Hall for the David Lynch Foundation. On April 4, 2009, the "Change Begins Within" concert featured Paul McCartney, Ringo Starr, Donovan, Sheryl Crow, Eddie Vedder, Moby, Bettye LaVette, Ben Harper, and Mike Love. David Wants to Fly is a 2010 documentary by German filmmaker David Sieveking "that follows the path of his professional idol, David Lynch, into the world of Transcendental Meditation (TM)". At the end of the film, Sieveking becomes disillusioned with the TM movement. An independent project starring Lynch called Beyond The Noise: My Transcendental Meditation Journey, directed by Dana Farley, who has severe dyslexia and attention deficit disorder, was shown at film festivals in 2011, including the Marbella Film Festival. Filmmaker Kevin Sean Michaels is one of the producers. In 2013, Lynch wrote: "Transcendental Meditation leads to a beautiful, peaceful revolution. A change from suffering and negativity to happiness and a life more and more free of any problems." In April 2022, Lynch announced a $500 million transcendental meditation world peace initiative to fund transcendental meditation for 30,000 college students. In September 2024, Lynch made his last published broadcast speech at Meditate America 2024. He discussed the Beatles' (particularly John Lennon's) practice of TM during their visit to India in 1968 and played a cover of "Across the Universe".Illness and deathIn August 2024, Lynch said in an interview that he had been diagnosed with emphysema in 2020 after a lifetime of smoking and had become housebound due to health risks, which he surmised would likely prevent him from directing any new projects. Three months later, he told People that he had quit smoking in 2022, having started when he was eight years old; he said he was reliant on supplemental oxygen for most daily activities and could "hardly walk across a room". Lynch also said he could no longer leave his house, meaning that he would only be able to direct remotely. He said a project for Netflix, with working titles Wisteria and Unrecorded Night, had fallen through, but that he would like to see his unrealized projects ''Antelope Don't Run No More and Snootworld'' realized. Lynch said that month that he was working on existing projects as much as he could, and that he was in good health except for emphysema, and had no plans to retire. In January 2025, Lynch was evacuated from his Los Angeles home due to the Southern California wildfires. These events preceded a terminal decline in his health, and he died at his daughter's home in Los Angeles on the morning of January 16, aged 78. His family posted a message reading: His death certificate, publicly reported in February 2025, concluded that the immediate cause of death was cardiac arrest, with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease cited as the underlying cause. Dehydration was also mentioned as a significant contributor. The death certificate said he was cremated, with his ashes buried at Hollywood Forever Cemetery.TributesLynch's collaborators Nicolas Cage, Laura Dern, Kyle MacLachlan, Naomi Watts, and Ray Wise wrote tributes to him. MacLachlan honored Lynch with a tribute in The New York Times. He wrote: "I was willing to follow him anywhere because joining him on the journey of discovery, searching and finding together, was the whole point. I stepped out into the unknown because I knew David was floating out there with me... I will miss my dear friend. He has made my world—all of our worlds—both wonderful and strange". Steven Spielberg wrote of directing Lynch in The Fabelmans: "Here was one of my heroes—David Lynch—playing one of my heroes [...] The world is going to miss such an original and unique voice. His films have already stood the test of time and they always will." Martin Scorsese wrote a statement that read in part, "He put images on the screen unlike anything that I or anybody else had ever seen—he made everything strange, uncanny, revelatory and new." Tributes were also paid by Judd Apatow, Mel Brooks, Francis Ford Coppola, Terry Gilliam, James Gunn, Ron Howard, Patton Oswalt, Pedro Pascal, Billy Corgan, Questlove, and Ben Stiller. Critic Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian eulogized Lynch as "the great American surrealist". Critic Richard Brody of The New Yorker wrote, "many films are called revelatory and visionary, but Lynch's films seem made to exemplify these terms", citing his "audacious invention and exquisite realization of symbolic details and uncanny realms". Lynch's oft-chosen self-description was "Eagle Scout, Missoula, Montana". }} Lynch's distinctive style blends surrealism with classic Hollywood storytelling and "pulpy" romanticism, often employing experimental filmmaking techniques alongside elements from commercial genres such as film noir, supernatural horror, soap opera, camp comedy, and erotic thriller. Critic Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian called Lynch "the great American surrealist" and described his subversive narratives as "splitting and swirling in non sequiturs and Escher loops". Ryan Gilbey described him as "the greatest cinematic surrealist since [[Luis Buñuel\|[Luis] Buñuel]]" and "the most original film-maker to emerge in postwar America". J. Hoberman called Lynch's approach "more intuitive" than that of his surrealist precursors, and suggested that his art synthesized the disparate styles of Hollywood filmmaker Frank Capra and modernist author Franz Kafka. Lynch's films have been said to evoke a "dreamlike quality of mystery or menace" through striking visual imagery, and frequently combine "surreal or sinister elements with mundane, everyday environments". Film analyst Jennifer Hudson wrote, "Like most surrealists, Lynch's language of the unexplained is the fluid language of dreams". Hoberman wrote that Lynch's work is characterized by "troubling juxtapositions, outlandish non sequiturs and eroticized derangement of the commonplace". Nick De Semlyen of Empire described his films as moving "back and forth between violent chaos and otherworldly beauty", and suggested that "while other filmmakers tried to wrestle order out of chaos, compacting their stories into neat three-act structures, Lynch revelled in the tumult—that feeling that life is a beautiful, terrifying mystery." Themes and motifs Lynch was noted for his collaborations with various production artists and composers on his films and other productions. He frequently worked with composer Angelo Badalamenti, film editor Mary Sweeney, casting director Johanna Ray, and actors Harry Dean Stanton, Jack Nance, Kyle MacLachlan, Catherine Coulson, Laura Dern, Naomi Watts, Isabella Rossellini, and Grace Zabriskie.Legacy Lynch was often called a "visionary". In 2007, a panel of critics convened by The Guardian announced that "after all the discussion, no one could fault the conclusion that David Lynch is the most important film-maker of the current era", and AllMovie called him "the Renaissance man of modern American filmmaking". Film critic Pauline Kael called Lynch "the first populist surrealist". \|- \| 1980 \| The Elephant Man \| Paramount Pictures \|- \| 1984 \| Dune \| Universal Pictures \|- \| 1986 \| Blue Velvet \| De Laurentiis Entertainment Group \|- \| 1990 \| Wild at Heart \| The Samuel Goldwyn Company \|- \| 1992 \| Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me \| New Line Cinema \|- \| 1997 \| Lost Highway \| October Films \|- \| 1999 \| The Straight Story \| Buena Vista Pictures (under the Walt Disney Pictures banner) \|- \| 2001 \| Mulholland Drive \| Universal Pictures \|- \| 2006 \| Inland Empire \| Absurda, 518 Media \|} Web series Television {\| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" ! scope="col" \| Year ! scope="col" \| Title ! scope="col" \| Network ! scope="col" \| Notes ! scope="col" \| \|- \| 1990–1991 \| Twin Peaks \| rowspan=2\| ABC \| 30 episodes \| style"text-align:center;" \| Discography ; Studio albums * Crazy Clown Time (2011) * The Big Dream (2013) ; Collaborative albums * Lux Vivens (with Jocelyn Montgomery) (1998) * BlueBOB (with John Neff) (2001) * The Air Is On Fire (with Dean Hurley) (2007) * Polish Night Music (with Marek Zebrowski) (2007) * This Train (with Chrystabell) (2011) * Somewhere in the Nowhere (with Chrystabell) (2016) * Thought Gang (with Angelo Badalamenti) (recorded 1992/93) (2018) * Cellophane Memories (with Chrystabell) (2024) Solo exhibitions Notes <references group"lower-alpha" />ReferencesBibliography * \|titleRoom to Dream \|last2McKenna \|first2Kristine \|date2018 \|publisherRandom House \|isbn978-0-399-58919-5 \|locationNew York \|author-mask1=2}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20190206201316/http://lynchconference.hbk-bs.de/ David Lynch: The Art of the Real], the website of a 2012 Berlin conference on the artistic work of David Lynch with all lectures in text form. * \|titleDavid Lynch: The Unified Field \|last2Rockwell \|first2Alethea \|date2014 \|publisherUniversity of California Press \|isbn978-0-520-28396-1 \|locationOakland}} * \|titleThe Passion of David Lynch: Wild at Heart in Hollywood \|date1997 \|publisherUniversity of Texas Press \|isbn978-0-292-75566-6 \|locationAustin}} * \|titleThe Complete Lynch \|date2001 \|publisherVirgin \|isbn978-0-7535-0598-4 \|locationLondon}} * * * \|titlePervert in the Pulpit: Morality in the Works of David Lynch \|date2004 \|publisherMcFarland & Company \|isbn978-0-7864-1753-7 \|locationJefferson, N.C.}} * * \|titleDavid Lynch: Beautiful Dark \|date2008 \|publisherScarecrow Press \|isbn978-0-8108-5917-3 \|seriesFilmmakers \|locationLanham, Md \|oclc212410238}} * * * * \|titleDavid Lynch: Un Cinéma du Maléfique \|date2010 \|publisherCamion blanc \|isbn978-2-35779-086-5 \|seriesCamion noir \|location=Rosières-en-Haye}} * * * * External links * * [https://www.youtube.com/c/DAVIDLYNCHTHEATER/ Official YouTube Channel] * * [http://www.moviefone.com/celebrity/david-lynch/1031718/main David Lynch] at Moviefone * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20180815141223/http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/lynch.html Bibliography of books and articles about Lynch (archived 2018)] via UC Berkeley Media Resources Center }} Category:1946 births Category:2025 deaths Category:20th-century American male musicians Category:20th-century American male writers Category:20th-century American screenwriters Category:21st-century American male musicians Category:21st-century American male writers Category:21st-century American screenwriters Category:21st-century American memoirists Category:Academy Honorary Award recipients Category:AFI Conservatory alumni Category:American comic strip cartoonists Category:American experimental filmmakers Category:American experimental musicians Category:American film producers Category:American founders Category:American furniture designers Category:American horror film directors Category:American libertarians Category:American lyricists Category:American male painters Category:American male 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Category:Television show creators Category:Transcendental Meditation exponents Category:Writers from Los Angeles Category:Writers from Missoula, Montana Category:Writers from Philadelphia	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Lynch	2025-04-05T18:28:17.749158
7892	David Cronenberg	\| image = David Cronenberg 2012-03-08.jpg \| caption = Cronenberg in 2012 \| other_names = The Baron of Blood<br/>King of Venereal Horror \| birth_name = David Paul Cronenberg \| birth_date = \| birth_place = Toronto, Ontario, Canada \| education = University of Toronto (BA) \| occupation = \| years_active = 1966present \| spouse = * }} \| children = 3, including Brandon and Caitlin \| relatives = Denise Cronenberg (sister)<br/>Aaron Woodley (nephew) }} David Paul Cronenberg (born March 15, 1943) is a Canadian film director, screenwriter, producer and actor. He is a principal originator of the body horror genre, with his films exploring visceral bodily transformation, infectious diseases, and the intertwining of the psychological, physical, and technological. Cronenberg is best known for exploring these themes through sci-fi horror films such as Shivers (1975), Scanners (1981), Videodrome (1983) and The Fly (1986), though he has also directed dramas, psychological thrillers and gangster films. Cronenberg's films have polarized critics and audiences alike; he has earned critical acclaim and has sparked controversy for his depictions of gore and violence. The Village Voice called him "the most audacious and challenging narrative director in the English-speaking world". His films have won numerous awards, including the Special Jury Prize for Crash at the 1996 Cannes Film Festival, a unique award that is distinct from the Jury Prize as it is not given annually, but only at the request of the official jury, who in this case gave the award "for originality, for daring, and for audacity". From the 2000s to the 2020s, Cronenberg collaborated on several films with Viggo Mortensen, including A History of Violence (2005), Eastern Promises (2007), A Dangerous Method (2011) and Crimes of the Future (2022). Seven of his films were selected to compete for the Palme d'Or, the most recent being The Shrouds (2024), which was screened at the 2024 Cannes Film Festival. Early life and education David Cronenberg was born in Toronto, Ontario, on March 15, 1943. He was raised in a "middle-class progressive Jewish family". His father was born in Baltimore, Maryland, and his mother was born in Toronto; all of his grandparents were Jews from Lithuania. Milton wrote some short stories for True Detective and had a column in the Toronto Telegram for around thirty years. The Cronenberg household was full of a wide variety of books, and Cronenberg's father tried to introduce his son to art films such as The Seventh Seal, although at the time Cronenberg was more interested in western and pirate films, showing a particular affinity for those featuring Burt Lancaster. A voracious reader from an early age, Cronenberg started off enjoying science fiction magazines like The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction, Galaxy, and Astounding, where he first encountered authors who would prove influential on his own work, including Ray Bradbury and Isaac Asimov, although he wouldn't encounter his primary influence, Philip K. Dick, until much later. Cronenberg also read comic books, noting his favorites were Tarzan, Little Lulu, Uncle Scrooge, Blackhawk, Plastic Man, Superman, and the original Fawcett Comics version of Captain Marvel, later known as Shazam. Although as an adult, Cronenberg feels superhero films are artistically limited, he maintains a fondness for Captain Marvel/Shazam, criticizing how he feels the character had been neglected. Cronenberg also read horror comics published by EC, which in contrast to the others, he described as "scary and bizarre and violent and nasty—the ones your mother didn't want you to have." Early films that later proved influential on Cronenberg's career include avant-garde, horror, science fiction, and thriller films, such as Un Chien Andalou, Vampyr, War of the Worlds, Freaks, Creature from the Black Lagoon, Alphaville, Performance, and Duel. He also cited less obvious films as influences, including comedies like The Bed Sitting Room, as well as Disney cartoons such as Bambi and Dumbo. Cronenberg said he found these two Disney animated films, as well as Universal's live-action Blue Lagoon, "terrifying" which influenced his approach to horror. Cronenberg went on to say that Bambi was the "first important film" he ever saw, citing the moment when Bambi's mother died as particularly powerful. Cronenberg even wished to screen Bambi as part of a museum exhibition of his influences, but Disney refused him permission. In terms of conventional horror films that frightened him, Cronenberg cited ''Don't Look Now. Cronenberg made two short films, Transfer and From the Drain, with a few hundred dollars. Cronenberg, Ivan Reitman, Bob Fothergill, and Iain Ewing were inspired by Jonas Mekas and formed the Toronto Film Co-op.Career 1969–1979: Film debut and early work After two short sketch films and two short art-house features (the black-and-white Stereo and the colour Crimes of the Future) Cronenberg went into partnership with Ivan Reitman. The Canadian government provided financing for his films throughout the 1970s. That same year he directed The Dead Zone (1983), based on Stephen King's novel of the same name, starring Christopher Walken. Cronenberg directed The Fly (1986), starring Jeff Goldblum and Geena Davis. The film is loosely based on George Langelaan's 1957 short story of the same name and the 1958 film of the same name. It was distributed by 20th Century Fox and was a box office hit, making $60 million. Cronenberg has not generally worked within the world of big-budget, mainstream Hollywood filmmaking, although he has had occasional near misses. At one stage he was considered by George Lucas as a possible director for Return of the Jedi (1983) but turned down the offer. Peter Suschitzky was the director of photography for The Empire Strikes Back (1980), and Cronenberg remarked that Suschitzky's work in that film "was the only one of those movies that actually looked good", which was a motivating factor to work with him on Dead Ringers (1988). Since Dead Ringers, Cronenberg has worked with Suschitzky on each of his films (see List of film director and cinematographer collaborations). Cronenberg has collaborated with composer Howard Shore on all of his films since The Brood (1979), (see List of film director and composer collaborations) with the exception of The Dead Zone (1983), which was scored by Michael Kamen. Other regular collaborators include actor Robert A. Silverman, art director Carol Spier (also his sister) sound editor Bryan Day, film editor Ronald Sanders, his sister, costume designer Denise Cronenberg, and, from 1979 until 1988, cinematographer Mark Irwin. In 2008, Cronenberg directed Shore's first opera, The Fly. 1991–2002: Career fluctuations in 2002]] Perhaps the best example of a film that straddles the line between Cronenberg's works of personal chaos and psychological confusion is his 1991 "adaptation" of Naked Lunch (1959), his literary hero William S. Burroughs' most controversial book. The novel was considered "unfilmable", and Cronenberg acknowledged that a straight translation into film would "cost 400 million dollars and be banned in every country in the world". Instead—much like in his earlier film, Videodrome—he consistently blurred the lines between what appeared to be reality and what appeared to be hallucinations brought on by the main character's drug addiction. Some of the book's "moments" (as well as incidents loosely based upon Burroughs' life) are presented in this manner within the film. Cronenberg stated that while writing the screenplay for Naked Lunch (1991), he felt a moment of synergy with Burroughs' writing style. He felt the connection between his screenwriting style and Burroughs' prose style was so strong, that he jokingly remarked that should Burroughs pass on, he might write his next novel. Cronenberg has also appeared as an actor in other directors' films. Most of his roles are cameo appearances, as in the films Into the Night (1985), Blood and Donuts (1995), To Die For (1995), and Jason X (2002) and the television series Alias, but on occasion he has played major roles, as in Nightbreed (1990) and Last Night (1998). He has not had major roles in any of his own films, but he did put in a brief appearance as a gynecologist in The Fly; he can also be glimpsed among the sex-crazed hordes in Shivers; he can be heard as an unseen car-pound attendant in Crash; his hands can be glimpsed in eXistenZ (1999); and he appeared as a stand-in for James Woods in Videodrome. Cronenberg has said that his films should be seen "from the point of view of the disease", and that in Shivers, for example, he identifies with the characters after they become infected with the anarchic parasites. Disease and disaster, in Cronenberg's work, are less problems to be overcome than agents of personal transformation. Of his characters' transformations, Cronenberg said, "But because of our necessity to impose our own structure of perception on things we look on ourselves as being relatively stable. But, in fact, when I look at a person I see this maelstrom of organic, chemical and electron chaos; volatility and instability, shimmering; and the ability to change and transform and transmute." Similarly, in Crash (1996), people who have been injured in car crashes attempt to view their ordeal as "a fertilizing rather than a destructive event". In 2005, Cronenberg publicly disagreed with Paul Haggis' choice of the same name for the latter's Oscar-winning film Crash (2004), arguing that it was "very disrespectful" to the "important and seminal" J. G. Ballard novel on which Cronenberg's film was based. 2005–present: Resurgence ]] His thriller A History of Violence (2005) is one of his highest budgeted and most accessible to date. He has said that the decision to direct it was influenced by his having had to defer some of his salary on the low-budgeted Spider (2002), but it was one of his most critically acclaimed films to date, along with Eastern Promises (2007), a film about the struggle of one man to gain power in the Russian Mafia. Although Cronenberg has worked with a number of Hollywood stars, he remains a staunchly Canadian filmmaker, with nearly all of his films (including major studio vehicles The Dead Zone and The Fly) having been filmed in his home province Ontario. Notable exceptions include M. Butterfly (1993), most of which was shot in China, Spider, and Eastern Promises (2007), which were both filmed primarily in England, and A Dangerous Method (2011), which was filmed in Germany and Austria. Rabid and Shivers were shot in and around Montreal. Most of his films have been at least partially financed by Telefilm Canada, and Cronenberg, a vocal supporter of government-backed film projects, has said: "Every country needs [a system of government grants] to have a national cinema in the face of Hollywood". In 2008, Cronenberg realized two extra-cinematographic projects: the exhibition Chromosomes at the Rome Film Fest, and the opera The Fly at the LaOpera in Los Angeles and Theatre Châtelet in Paris. In July 2010, Cronenberg completed production on A Dangerous Method (2011), an adaptation of Christopher Hampton's play The Talking Cure, starring Keira Knightley, Michael Fassbender, Vincent Cassel, and frequent collaborator Viggo Mortensen. The film was produced by independent British producer Jeremy Thomas. On television, he has appeared in the recurring roles of Dr. Brezzel in Season 3 of Alias, and Kovich in seasons 3, 4, and 5 of Star Trek: Discovery. He has also had main roles as Reverend Verrenger in Alias Grace, and Spencer Galloway in Slasher: Flesh & Blood. in 2014]] In 2012, his film Cosmopolis competed for the Palme d'Or at the 2012 Cannes Film Festival. Filming for Cronenberg's next film, a satire drama entitled Maps to the Stars (2014)—with Julianne Moore, Mia Wasikowska, John Cusack, and Robert Pattinson—began on July 8, 2013, in Toronto, Ontario and Los Angeles. This was the first time Cronenberg filmed in the United States. On June 26, 2014, Cronenberg's short film The Nest was published on YouTube. The film was commissioned for "David Cronenberg – The Exhibition" at EYE Film Institute in Amsterdam and was available on YouTube for the duration of the exhibition, until September 14, 2014. Also in 2014, Cronenberg published his first novel, Consumed. In a May 2016 interview, Viggo Mortensen revealed that Cronenberg is considering retiring due to difficulty financing his film projects. Cronenberg appears as himself in the minute-long short film The Death of David Cronenberg, shot by his daughter Caitlin, which was released digitally on September 19, 2021. In February 2021, Mortensen said Cronenberg had refined an older script he had written and hopes to film it with Mortensen that summer. He further hinted that it is a "strange film noir" and resembles Cronenberg's earlier body horror films. In April 2021, the title was revealed to be Crimes of the Future. It was shot in Greece during the summer of 2021, and competed for the Palme d'Or at the 2022 Cannes Film Festival. Cronenberg's next film The Shrouds is set to premier at the 2024 Cannes Film Festival in competition, and be released theatrically in September 2024. Unrealized projects One of Cronenberg's earliest unproduced film concepts was Roger Pagan, Gynecologist, about a neurotic man who impersonates a medical expert. The project was initially conceived in the early 1970s in the form of a novel. In the early 1980s Cronenberg attempted to make a film adaption of Mary Shelley's Frankenstein that took place in the modern day. Cronenberg wrote an original script for Universal after Videodrome titled Six Legs, but the film was never made although aspects were incorporated into The Fly and Naked Lunch. Cronenberg was offered the role of director for Witness while it was under the name Come Home, but declined as he "could never be a fan of the Amish". He was also offered the director's position for Return of the Jedi, Flashdance, Top Gun, and Beverly Hills Cop. Marc Boyman offered Cronenberg the position of director for The Incubus, but declined although this led to Boyman producing The Fly and Dead Ringers. Cronenberg also worked for nearly a year on a version of Total Recall (1990), but experienced "creative differences" with producers Dino De Laurentiis and Ronald Shusett; a different version of the film was eventually made by Paul Verhoeven. Cronenberg related in his 1992 memoir, Cronenberg on Cronenberg that, as a fan of Philip K. Dick—author of "We Can Remember it For You Wholesale", the short story upon which the film was based— his dissatisfaction with what he envisioned the film to be and what it ended up being pained him so greatly that, for a time, he suffered a migraine just thinking about it, akin to a needle piercing his eye. In 1993, Cronenberg signed a deal with Paragon Entertainment Corporation in which he would create a six-part television series called Crimes Against Nature for CBC Television. Cronenberg described the series as "William Burroughs meets Jean-Luc Godard's Alphaville." He started writing it on August 1, and filming was meant to begin in February 1994 using 35 mm film. The show was set in 2010 and was about members of the "Flesh Squad" police force. Carol Reynolds, the president of Paragon Entertainment, stated that each episode would cost between $500,000-600,000. In the mid-1990s, he was attached to direct a version of American Psycho, with a screenplay adaptation by the author himself Bret Easton Ellis and with Brad Pitt starring in the role of Patrick Bateman. Cronenberg's vision of the film would have concluded with a musical number involving Barry Manilow's "Daybreak" and Bateman on the World Trade Center. In 1999, Cronenberg was reportedly interested in taking the helm of Charlie Kaufman's adaptation of Confessions of Dangerous Mind, with Sean Penn at that time circling to star. The following year, he was circling to direct Basic Instinct 2 for which he had a "good script" and Rupert Everett in the lead, but MGM said no because the actor is gay. At one stage, Cronenberg was going to make The Singing Detective as a horror film, with Al Pacino starring. In 2004, Cronenberg was attached to direct London Fields, based on Martin Amis' 1991 novel of the same name. In the mid-2000s, Cronenberg had adapted and was planning to direct an adaptation of The White Hotel by D. M. Thomas. For a time it appeared that, as Eastern Promises producer Paul Webster told Screen International, a sequel was in the works that would reunite the key team of Cronenberg, Steven Knight, and Viggo Mortensen. It was slated for production by Webster's new company Shoebox Films in collaboration with Focus Features, and shot in early 2013. In 2012, Cronenberg said the Eastern Promises sequel had fallen through due to budget disagreement with Focus Features. In 2010, it was announced that Cronenberg would be directing an adaption of As She Climbed Across the Table by Jonathan Lethem. The following year, Media Rights Capital picked up the project, with Bruce Wagner set to write the script. In the October 2011 edition of Rue Morgue, Cronenberg stated that he has written a companion piece to his 1986 remake of The Fly, which he would like to direct if given the chance. He has stated that it is not a traditional sequel, but rather a "parallel story".Personal lifeCronenberg lives in Toronto. He married his first wife, Margaret Hindson, in 1972: their seven-year marriage ended in 1979 amidst personal and professional differences. They had one daughter, Cassandra Cronenberg. His second wife was film editor Carolyn Zeifman, to whom he was married from 1979 until her death in 2017. The couple met on the set of Rabid while she was working as a production assistant. In the book Cronenberg on Cronenberg (1992), he revealed that The Brood was inspired by events that occurred during the unraveling of his first marriage, which caused both Cronenberg and his daughter Cassandra a great deal of turmoil. The character Nola Carveth, mother of the brood, is based on Cassandra's mother. Cronenberg said that he found the shooting of the climactic scene, in which Nola was strangled by her husband, to be "very satisfying". In a September 2013 interview, Cronenberg revealed that film director Martin Scorsese admitted to him that he was intrigued by Cronenberg's early work but was subsequently "terrified" to meet him in person. Cronenberg responded to Scorsese: "You're the guy who made Taxi Driver and you're afraid to meet me?" In Cronenberg's later films (e.g. A History of Violence, Eastern Promises and A Dangerous Method) openly religious characters become more common. During an interview for A History of Violence, Cronenberg even chose to identify as a materialist rather than an atheist, stating, "I'm not an atheist, but for me to turn away from any aspect of the human body to me is a philosophical betrayal. And there's a lot of art and religion whose whole purpose is to turn away from the human body. I feel in my art that my mandate is to not do that." Filmography {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|+Directed features ! Year ! Title ! Distribution \|- \| 1969 \| Stereo \| Film Canada Presentations \|- \| 1970 \| Crimes of the Future \| New Cinema Enterprises \|- \| 1975 \| Shivers \| Cinépix Film Properties \|- \| 1977 \| Rabid \| Cinépix Film Properties / New World Pictures \|- \|rowspan=2\| 1979 \| Fast Company \| Admit One Presentations / Danton Films \|- \| data-sort-value="Brood, The" \| The Brood \| New World Pictures \|- \| 1981 \| Scanners \| New World Pictures / Manson International \|- \|rowspan=2\| 1983 \| Videodrome \| Universal Pictures \|- \| data-sort-value="Dead Zone, The" \| The Dead Zone \| Paramount Pictures \|- \| 1986 \| data-sort-value="Fly, The" \| The Fly \|rowspan=3\| 20th Century Fox \|- \| 1988 \| Dead Ringers \|- \| 1991 \| Naked Lunch \|- \| 1993 \| M. Butterfly \| Warner Bros. \|- \| 1996 \| Crash \| Alliance Communications \|- \| 1999 \| eXistenZ \| Alliance Atlantis \|- \| 2002 \| Spider \| Cineplex Films \|- \| 2005 \| data-sort-value="History of Violence, A" \| A History of Violence \| New Line Cinema \|- \| 2007 \| Eastern Promises \| Focus Features \|- \| 2011 \| data-sort-value="Dangerous Method, A" \| A Dangerous Method \| Sony Pictures Classics \|- \| 2012 \| Cosmopolis \| Entertainment One \|- \| 2014 \| Maps to the Stars \| Focus World \|- \| 2022 \| Crimes of the Future \|rowspan=2\| Sphere Films \|- \| 2024 \| data-sort-value="Shrouds, The" \| The Shrouds \|- \|} Awards and recognition Cronenberg has appeared on various "Greatest Director" lists. In 2004, Science Fiction magazine Strange Horizons named him the second greatest director in the history of the genre, ahead of better known directors such as Steven Spielberg, James Cameron, Jean-Luc Godard, and Ridley Scott. In the same year, The Guardian listed him 9th on their list of "The world's 40 best directors". In 2007, Total Film named him as the 17th greatest director of all time. Film professor Charles Derry, in his overview of the horror genre Dark Dreams, called the director one of the most important in his field, and that "no discussion of contemporary horror film can conclude without reference to the films of David Cronenberg." Cronenberg received the Special Jury Prize at the 1996 Cannes Film Festival for Crash. In 1999, he was inducted onto Canada's Walk of Fame, awarded the Silver Bear Award at the 49th Berlin International Film Festival. and that November received the Governor General's Performing Arts Award, Canada's highest honour in the performing arts. In 2002, he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada, and was promoted to Companion of the Order of Canada (the order's highest rank) in 2014. In 2006 he was awarded the Cannes Film Festival's lifetime achievement award, the Carrosse d'Or. In 2009 Cronenberg received the Légion d'honneur from the government of France. The following year Cronenberg was named an honorary patron of the University Philosophical Society, Trinity College Dublin. In 2012, he received the Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal. The opening of the "David Cronenberg: Evolution" Toronto International Film Festival (TIFF) exhibition occurred on October 30, 2013. Held at the TIFF Bell Lightbox venue, the exhibition paid tribute to the director's entire filmmaking career and the festival's promotional material referred to Cronenberg as "one of Canada's most prolific and iconic filmmakers". The exhibition was shown internationally following the conclusion of the TIFF showing on January 19, 2014. In 2014, he was made a Member of the Order of Ontario in recognition for being "Canada's most celebrated internationally acclaimed filmmaker". In April 2018, it was announced that Cronenberg would receive the honorary Golden Lion at the 75th Venice International Film Festival.British Academy Film Awards{\| class"wikitable" \|- ! Year ! Nominated work ! Category ! Result \|- \|2008 \|Eastern Promises \|Outstanding British Film \| \|- \|} Berlin International Film Festival {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Year ! Nominated work ! Category ! Result \|- \|1992 \|Naked Lunch \|rowspan=2\|Golden Bear \| \|- \|rowspan=2\|1999 \|rowspan=2\|eXistenZ \| \|- \|Silver Bear for an outstanding artistic contribution \| \|- \|} Cannes Film Festival {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Year ! Nominated work ! Category ! Result \|- \|rowspan=2\|1996 \|rowspan=2\|Crash \|Jury Prize \| \|- \|rowspan=3\|Palme d'Or \| \|- \|2002 \|Spider \| \|- \|2005 \|A History of Violence \| \|- \|2006 \| \|Golden Coach \| \|- \|2012 \|Cosmopolis \| rowspan="4" \|Palme d'Or \| \|- \|2014 \|Maps to the Stars \| \|- \|2022 \|Crimes of the Future \| \|- \|2024 \|The Shrouds \| \|} Academy of Canadian Cinema and Television Best Picture {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Year ! Nominated work ! Result \|- \|1988 \|Dead Ringers \| \|- \|1996 \|Crash \| \|- \|1999 \|eXistenZ \| \|- \|} Best Director {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Year ! Nominated work ! Result \|- \|1981 \|Scanners \| \|- \|1983 \|Videodrome \| \|- \|1988 \|Dead Ringers \| \|- \|1991 \|Naked Lunch \| \|- \|1996 \|Crash \| \|- \|2002 \|Spider \| \|- \|2007 \|Eastern Promises \| \|- \|2011 \|A Dangerous Method \| \|- \|2014 \|Maps to the Stars \| \|- \|} Best Screenplay {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Year ! Nominated work ! Result \|- \|1981 \|Scanners \| \|- \|1983 \|Videodrome \| \|- \|1988 \|Dead Ringers \| \|- \|1991 \|Naked Lunch \| \|- \|1996 \|Crash \| \|- \|2012 \|Cosmopolis \| \|- \|} Saturn Awards {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Year ! Nominated work ! Category ! Result \|- \|1983 \|The Dead Zone \|rowspan=2\|Best Director \| \|- \|1986 \|The Fly \| \|- \|rowspan=2\|1988 \|rowspan=2\|Dead Ringers \|Best Horror Film \| \|- \|Best Writing \| \|- \|1999 \|eXistenZ \|Best Science Fiction Film \| \|- \|} References Bibliography * * * * * * * * * * * * * External links * * [http://litreactor.com/columns/behold-the-unfilmable-the-literary-adaptations-of-david-cronenberg/ The Literary Adaptations of David Cronenberg] (via LitReactor, 2011) * [http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/cronenberg.html David Cronenberg Bibliography] (via UC Berkeley) * [https://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/18/magazine/18cronenberg.html?pagewanted=all David Cronenberg Profile] by The New York Times Magazine (September 2005) * [http://www.channel4.com/film/media/video/I/italian_machine_lg_01.ram Teleplay episode "The Italian Machine" online] at the Channel4 website (RealMedia) }} Category:1943 births Category:Living people Category:20th-century Canadian male actors Category:21st-century Canadian male actors Category:20th-century Canadian male writers Category:21st-century Canadian male writers Category:20th-century Canadian screenwriters Category:21st-century Canadian screenwriters Category:Advertising directors Category:Best Director Genie and Canadian Screen Award winners Category:Best Screenplay Genie and Canadian Screen Award winners Category:Canadian atheists Category:Canadian experimental filmmakers Category:Canadian male film actors Category:Canadian male screenwriters Category:Canadian male television actors Category:Canadian male voice actors Category:Canadian people of American descent Category:Canadian people of Lithuanian-Jewish descent Category:Canadian surrealist artists Category:Canadian critics of religions Category:Companions of the Order of Canada Category:English-language film directors Category:Film directors from Toronto Category:Canadian horror film directors Category:Jewish atheists Category:Jewish film people Category:Jewish Canadian male actors Category:Male actors from Toronto Category:Members of the Order of Ontario Category:Postmodernist filmmakers Category:Canadian recipients of the Legion of Honour Category:Canadian science fiction film directors Category:University of Toronto alumni Category:Screenwriters from Toronto Category:Producers of Best Picture Genie and Canadian Screen Award winners Category:Governor General's Award winners Category:Golden Lion for Lifetime Achievement recipients	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Cronenberg	2025-04-05T18:28:17.792774
7893	Dale Earnhardt	\|birth_place = Kannapolis, North Carolina, U.S. \|death_date = \|death_place Daytona Beach, Florida, U.S. \|death_cause = Basilar skull fracture sustained from 2001 Daytona 500 crash \|height \|weight \|achievements = \|1995 Brickyard 400 winner\|1987, 1989, 1990 Southern 500 winner\|1986, 1992, 1993 Coca-Cola 600 winner\|1990, 1994, 1999, 2000 Winston 500 winner\|The Winston winner (1987, 1990, 1993)\|Led Winston Cup Series in wins in 1987 and 1990\|Led Winston Cup Series in poles in 1990\|Winner of the first ever Budweiser Late Model Sportsman Series race in 1982}} \|awards = \|Total_Cup_Races = 676 \|Years_In_Cup = 27 \|Prev_Cup_Pos = 57th \|Previous_Year = 2001 \|Best_Cup_Pos = 1st (1980, 1986, 1987, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994) \|First_Cup_Race = 1975 World 600 (Charlotte) \|Last_Cup_Race = 2001 Daytona 500 (Daytona) \|First_Cup_Win = 1979 Southeastern 500 (Bristol) \|Last_Cup_Win = 2000 Winston 500 (Talladega) \|Cup_Wins = 76 \|Cup_Top_Tens = 428 \|Cup_Poles = 22 \|Total_Busch_Races = 136 \|Years_In_Busch = 13 \|Best_Busch_Pos = 21st (1982) \|First_Busch_Race = 1982 Goody's 300 (Daytona) \|Last_Busch_Race = 1994 All Pro 300 (Charlotte) \|First_Busch_Win = 1982 Goody's 300 (Daytona) \|Last_Busch_Win = 1994 Goody's 300 (Daytona) \|Busch_Wins = 21 \|Busch_Top_Tens = 75 \|Busch_Poles = 7 \|module1 }} Ralph Dale Earnhardt (; April 29, 1951February 18, 2001) was an American professional stock car driver and racing team owner, who raced from 1975 to 2001 in the former NASCAR Winston Cup Series (now called the NASCAR Cup Series), most notably driving the No.3 Chevrolet for Richard Childress Racing. His aggressive driving style earned him the nicknames "the Intimidator", "the Man in Black" and "Ironhead"; after his son Dale Earnhardt Jr. joined the Cup Series circuit in 1999, Earnhardt was generally known by the retronyms Dale Earnhardt Sr. and Dale Sr. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest drivers in NASCAR history and was named as one of the NASCAR's 50 Greatest Drivers class in 1998. The third child of racing driver Ralph Earnhardt and Martha Earnhardt, he began his career in 1975 in the World 600. Earnhardt won a total of 76 Winston Cup races over the course of his 26-year career, including crown jewel victories in four Winston 500s (1990, 1994, 1999, and 2000), three Cola-Cola 600s (1986, 1992, and 1993), three Southern 500s (1987, 1989, and 1990), the Brickyard 400 in 1995, and the 1998 Daytona 500. Along with his 76 career points wins, he has also won 24 non-points exhibition events, bringing his overall Winston Cup win total to 100, one of only four drivers in NASCAR history to do so. He is the only driver in NASCAR history to score at least one win in four different and consecutive decades (scoring his first career win in 1979, 38 wins in the 1980s, 35 wins in the 1990s, & scoring his final two career wins in 2000). He also earned seven Winston Cup championships, a record held with Richard Petty and Jimmie Johnson. On February 18, 2001, Earnhardt died as a result of a basilar skull fracture sustained in a sudden last-lap crash during the Daytona 500. His death was regarded in the racing industry as being a crucial moment in improving safety in all aspects of car racing, especially NASCAR. He was 49 years old. Earnhardt has been inducted into numerous halls of fame, including the NASCAR Hall of Fame inaugural class in 2010.BiographyEarly and personal lifeRalph Dale Earnhardt was born on April 29, 1951, in the suburb of Kannapolis, North Carolina, as the third child of Martha ( Coleman, 1930–2021) and Ralph Earnhardt (1928–1973). Earnhardt's father was one of the best short-track drivers in North Carolina at the time and won his first and only NASCAR Sportsman Championship in 1956 at Greenville Pickens Speedway in Greenville, South Carolina. In 1963 at the age of 12, Dale Earnhardt secretly drove his father's car in one of his races and had a near victory against one of his father's closest competitors. In 1972, he raced his father at Metrolina Speedway in a race with cars from semi mod and sportsman divisions. Although Ralph did not want his son to pursue a career as a race car driver, Dale dropped out of school to pursue his dreams. Ralph was a hard teacher for Dale, and after Ralph suddenly died of a heart attack at his home in 1973 at age 45, it took many years before Dale felt as though he had finally "proven" himself to his father. Earnhardt had four siblings: two brothers, Danny (died 2021) and Randy (died 2013); and two sisters, Cathy and Kaye. Earnhardt was married three times. In 1968, at the age of 17, Earnhardt married his first wife, Latane Brown. With her, Earnhardt fathered his first son, Kerry, a year later. Earnhardt and Brown divorced in 1970. In 1971, Earnhardt married his second wife, Brenda Gee, the daughter of NASCAR car builder Robert Gee. In his marriage with Gee, Earnhardt had two children: a daughter, Kelley King Earnhardt, in 1972, and a son, Dale Earnhardt Jr., in 1974. Not long after Dale Jr. was born, Earnhardt and Gee divorced. Earnhardt then married his third wife, Teresa Houston, in 1982. She gave birth to their daughter, Taylor Nicole Earnhardt, in 1988. NASCAR career Early Winston Cup career (1975–1978) Earnhardt began his professional career in the NASCAR Winston Cup Series in 1975, making his points race debut at Charlotte Motor Speedway in North Carolina in the longest race on the Cup circuit—the 1975 World 600. He had made his Grand National debut in 1974 in an unofficial invitational exhibition race at Metrolina Speedway, where with eight laps to go he got under Richard Childress and spun out when battling for third. He drove the No. 8 Ed Negre Dodge Charger and finished 22nd in that race, just one spot ahead of his future car owner, Richard Childress. Earnhardt competed in eight more races until 1979.Rod Osterlund Racing (1979–1980)When he joined car owner Rod Osterlund Racing in a season that included a rookie class of future stars including Earnhardt, Harry Gant, and Terry Labonte in his rookie season, Earnhardt won one race at Bristol, captured four poles, scored eleven Top 5s and seventeen Top 10s, and finished seventh in the points standings despite missing four races due to a broken collarbone, winning Rookie of the Year honors. During his sophomore season, Earnhardt, now with 20-year-old Doug Richert as his crew chief, began the season winning the Busch Clash. With wins at Atlanta, Bristol, Nashville, Martinsville, and Charlotte, Earnhardt won his first Winston Cup points championship. He is the only driver in NASCAR Cup history to follow a Rookie of the Year title with a NASCAR Winston Cup Championship the next season. He was also the third driver in NASCAR history to win both the Rookie of the Year and Winston Cup Series championship, following David Pearson (1960, 1966) and Richard Petty (1959, 1964). Ten drivers have since joined this exclusive club: Rusty Wallace (1984, 1989), Alan Kulwicki (1986, 1992), Jeff Gordon (1993, 1995), Tony Stewart (1999, 2002), Matt Kenseth (2000, 2003), Kevin Harvick (2001, 2014), Kyle Busch (2005, 2015), Joey Logano (2009, 2018, 2022, 2024), Chase Elliott (2016, 2020), and Kyle Larson (2014, 2021). Rod Osterlund Racing, Stacy Racing, and Richard Childress Racing (1981) 1981 would prove to be tumultuous for the defending Winston Cup champion. Sixteen races into the season, Rod Osterlund suddenly sold his team to Jim Stacy, an entrepreneur from Kentucky who entered NASCAR in 1977. After just four races, Earnhardt fell out with Stacy and left the team. Earnhardt finished out the year driving Pontiacs for Richard Childress Racing and managed to place seventh in the final points standings. Earnhardt departed RCR at the end of the season, citing a lack of chemistry. Earnhardt was also a color commentator for the Busch Clash, while he also drove on that same day. Bud Moore Engineering (1982–1983) The following year, at Childress's suggestion, Earnhardt joined car owner Bud Moore for the 1982 and 1983 seasons driving the No. 15 Wrangler Jeans-sponsored Ford Thunderbird (the only full-time Ford ride in his career). During the 1982 season, Earnhardt struggled. Although he won at Darlington, he failed to finish 18 of the 30 races and ended the season 12th in points, the worst of his career. He also suffered a broken kneecap at Pocono Raceway when he flipped after contact with Tim Richmond. In 1983, Earnhardt rebounded and won his first of 12 Twin 125 Daytona 500 qualifying races. He won at Nashville and at Talladega, finishing eighth in the points standings, despite failing to finish 13 of the 30 races. Return to Richard Childress Racing (1984–2001) 1984–1985 After the 1983 season, Earnhardt returned to Richard Childress Racing, replacing Ricky Rudd in the No. 3. Rudd went to Bud Moore's No. 15, replacing Earnhardt. Wrangler sponsored both drivers at their respective teams. During the 1984 and 1985 seasons, Earnhardt went to victory lane six times, at Talladega, Atlanta, Richmond, Bristol (twice), and Martinsville, where he finished fourth and eighth in the season standings respectively. 1986–1987 The 1986 season saw Earnhardt win his second career Winston Cup Championship and the first owner's championship for Richard Childress Racing. He won five races and had 16 top-fives and 23 top-10s. Earnhardt successfully defended his championship the following year, going to victory lane 11 times and winning the championship by 489 points over Bill Elliott. In the process, Earnhardt set a NASCAR modern-era record of four consecutive wins and won five of the first seven races. In the 1987 season, he earned the nickname "the Intimidator", due in part to the 1987 Winston All-Star Race. During this race, Earnhardt was briefly forced into the infield grass but kept control of his car and returned to the track without giving up his lead. The maneuver is now referred to as the "Pass in the Grass", even though Earnhardt did not pass anyone while he was off the track. After The Winston, an angry fan sent Bill France Jr. a letter threatening to kill Earnhardt at Pocono, Watkins Glen, or Dover, prompting the FBI to provide security for Earnhardt on the three tracks. The investigation was closed after the races at the three tracks finished without incident. Many of Earnhardt's competitors on the racetrack disliked his personal driving style. Earnhardt's relentless pursuit of victory on the racetrack combined with his uniquely offensive driving ability led to many rivalries with fellow drivers and fines levied by NASCAR. In 1987, NASCAR began to implement a measure that was designed to incentivize less aggressive driving styles by forcing drivers who cause these undesired hazardous racing conditions to be subjected to time at the garage region during the race. 1988–1989 The 1988 season saw Earnhardt racing with a new sponsor, GM Goodwrench, after Wrangler Jeans dropped its sponsorship in 1987. During this season, he changed the color of his paint scheme from blue and yellow to the signature black in which the No. 3 car was painted for the rest of his life. He won three races in 1988, finishing third in the points standings behind Bill Elliott in first and Rusty Wallace in second. The following year, Earnhardt won five races, but a late spin out at North Wilkesboro arguably cost him the 1989 championship, as Rusty Wallace edged him out for it by 12 points (Earnhardt won the final race, but Wallace finished 15th when needing to finish at least 18th to win). It was his first season for the GM Goodwrench Chevrolet Lumina. 1990–1995 The 1990 season started for Earnhardt with victories in the Busch Clash and his heat of the Gatorade Twin 125's. Near the end of the Daytona 500, he had a dominant forty-second lead when the final caution flag came out with a handful of laps to go. When the green flag waved, Earnhardt was leading Derrike Cope. On the final lap, Earnhardt ran over a piece of metal, which was later revealed as a bell housing, in turn 3, cutting down a tire. Cope, in an upset, won the race while Earnhardt finished fifth after leading 155 of the 200 laps. The No. 3 Goodwrench-sponsored Chevy team took the flat tire that cost them the win and hung it on the shop wall as a reminder of how close they had come to winning the Daytona 500. Earnhardt won nine races that season and won his fourth Winston Cup title, beating Mark Martin by 26 points. He also became the first multiple winner of the annual all-star race, The Winston. The 1991 season saw Earnhardt win his fifth Winston Cup championship. This season, he scored four wins and won the championship by 195 points over Ricky Rudd. One of his wins came at North Wilkesboro, in a race where Harry Gant had a chance to set a single-season record by winning his fifth consecutive race, breaking a record held by Earnhardt. Late in the race, Gant lost his brakes, which gave Earnhardt the chance he needed to make the pass for the win and maintain his record. Earnhardt's only win of the 1992 season came at Charlotte, in the Coca-Cola 600, ending a 13-race win streak by Ford teams. Earnhardt finished a career-low 12th in the points for the second time in his career, with three last place finishes (Daytona and Talladega in July and Martinsville in September), and the only time he had finished that low since joining Richard Childress Racing. He still made the trip to the annual Awards Banquet with Rusty Wallace but did not have the best seat in the house. Wallace stated he and Earnhardt had to sit on the backs of their chairs to see, and Earnhardt said, "This sucks, I should have gone hunting." At the end of the year, longtime crew chief Kirk Shelmerdine left to become a driver. Andy Petree took over as crew chief. Hiring Petree turned out to be beneficial, as Earnhardt returned to the front in 1993. He once again came close to a win at the Daytona 500 and dominated Speedweeks before finishing second to Dale Jarrett on a last-lap pass. Earnhardt scored six wins en route to his sixth Winston Cup title, including wins in the first prime-time Coca-Cola 600 and The Winston, both at Charlotte, and the Pepsi 400 at Daytona. He beat Rusty Wallace for the championship by 80 points. On November 14, 1993, after the season-ending Hooters 500 at Atlanta, the race winner Wallace and 1993 series champion Earnhardt ran a dual Polish Victory Lap together while carrying #28 and #7 flags commemorating 1992 Daytona 500 winner Davey Allison and 1992 NASCAR Winston Cup Series champion Alan Kulwicki respectively, who both had died in separate plane accidents during the season. racecar]] In 1994, Earnhardt achieved a feat that he himself had believed to be impossible—he scored his seventh Winston Cup championship, tying Richard Petty. He was very consistent, scoring four wins, and after Ernie Irvan was sidelined due to a near-deadly crash at Michigan (the two were neck-and-neck at the top of the points up until the crash), won the title by over 400 points over Mark Martin. Earnhardt sealed the deal at Rockingham by winning the race over Rick Mast. It was his final NASCAR championship and his final season for the GM Goodwrench Chevrolet Lumina. Earnhardt started off the 1995 season by finishing second in the Daytona 500 to Sterling Marlin. He won five races in 1995, including his first road course victory at Sears Point. He also won the Brickyard 400 at Indianapolis Motor Speedway, a win he called the biggest of his career. But in the end, Earnhardt lost the championship to Jeff Gordon by 34 points. The GM Goodwrench racing team changed to Chevrolet Monte Carlos. Earnhardt almost was ready to leave the #3 at the end of the 1995 season, according to his former crew chief Larry McReynolds. At the time, McReynolds was the crew chief for the #28 Havoline Ford Thunderbird at Robert Yates Racing. Earnhardt had actually been approached by Yates to drive the #28 for the 1995 season in place of Ernie Irvan, who was injured in a crash during the 1994 season. Instead, Robert Yates signed Dale Jarrett to a one-year deal to drive the #28. During the 1995 season, Yates was being pressed by his manufacturer to start a second team and sent a contract to Earnhardt to drive it. Earnhardt never returned the contract, and according to McReynolds the reason he did not sign was because he only wanted to drive the #28 for Yates; the team fully intended to put Irvan back behind the wheel of his old car once he was able to resume driving. Instead, Earnhardt stayed with RCR and the #3, while Jarrett was signed to drive Yates' new car, numbered 88. 1996–1999 .]] 1996 for Earnhardt started just like it had done in 1993—he dominated Speedweeks, only to finish second in the Daytona 500 to Dale Jarrett for the second time. He won early in the year, scoring consecutive victories at Rockingham and Atlanta. On July 28 in the DieHard 500 at Talladega, he was second in points and looking for his eighth season title, despite the departure of crew chief Andy Petree. Late in the race, Ernie Irvan lost control of his No. 28 Havoline-sponsored Ford Thunderbird, made contact with the No. 4 Kodak-sponsored Chevy Monte Carlo of Sterling Marlin, and ignited a crash that saw Earnhardt's No. 3 Chevrolet hit the tri-oval wall nearly head-on at almost 200 mph. After hitting the wall, Earnhardt's car flipped and slid across the track, in front of race traffic. His car was hit in the roof and windshield. This accident, as well as a similar accident that led to the death of Russell Phillips at Charlotte, led NASCAR to mandate the "Earnhardt Bar", a metal brace located in the center of the windshield that reinforces the roof in case of a similar crash. This bar is also required in NASCAR-owned United SportsCar Racing and its predecessors for road racing. Rain delays had canceled the live telecast of the race, and most fans first learned of the accident during the night's sports newscasts. Video of the crash showed what appeared to be a fatal incident, but once medical workers arrived at the car, Earnhardt climbed out and waved to the crowd, refusing to be loaded onto a stretcher despite a broken collarbone, sternum, and shoulder blade. Although the incident looked like it would end his season early, Earnhardt refused to stay out of the car. The next week at Indianapolis, he started the race but exited the car on the first pit stop, allowing Mike Skinner to take the wheel. When asked, Earnhardt said that vacating the No. 3 car was the hardest thing he had ever done. The following weekend at Watkins Glen, he drove the No. 3 Goodwrench Chevrolet to the fastest time in qualifying, earning the "True Grit" pole. T-shirts emblazoned with Earnhardt's face were quickly printed up, brandishing the caption, "It Hurt So Good". Earnhardt led for most of the race and looked to have victory in hand, but fatigue took its toll and he ended up sixth behind race winner Geoff Bodine. Earnhardt did not win again in 1996 but still finished fourth in the standings behind Terry Labonte, Jeff Gordon, and Dale Jarrett, with 2 wins, 13 top fives, 17 top tens, and his last 2 career poles, with an average finish of 10.6. David Smith departed as crew chief of the No. 3 team and RCR at the end of the year for personal reasons, and he was replaced by Larry McReynolds. In 1997, Earnhardt went winless for only the second time in his career. The only (non-points) win came during Speedweeks at Daytona in the Twin 125-mile qualifying race, his record eighth-straight win in the event. Once again in the hunt for the Daytona 500 with 10 laps to go, Earnhardt was taken out of contention by a late crash which sent his car upside down on the backstretch. He hit the low point of his year when he blacked out early in the Mountain Dew Southern 500 at Darlington in September, causing him to hit the wall. Afterward, he was disoriented, and it took several laps before he could find his pit stall. When asked, Earnhardt complained of double vision which made it difficult to pit. Mike Dillon (Richard Childress's son-in-law) was brought in to relieve Earnhardt for the remainder of the race. Earnhardt was evaluated at a local hospital and cleared to race the next week, but the cause of the blackout and double vision was never determined. Despite no wins, Earnhardt finished the season fifth in the final standings with 7 top fives and 16 top tens, with an average finish of 12.1. -winning No. 3 Goodwrench Chevrolet Monte Carlo]] On February 15, 1998, Earnhardt finally won the Daytona 500 in his 20th attempt after failing to win in his previous 19 attempts. He began the season by winning his Twin 125-mile qualifier race for the ninth straight year, and the week before was the first to drive around the track under the newly installed lights, for coincidentally 20 laps. On race day, he showed himself to be a contender early. Halfway through the race, however, it seemed that Jeff Gordon had the upper hand. But by lap 138, Earnhardt had taken the lead and thanks to a push by teammate Mike Skinner, he maintained it. Earnhardt made it to the caution-checkered flag before Bobby Labonte. Afterwards, there was a large show of respect for Earnhardt, in which every crew member of every team lined pit road to shake his hand as he made his way to victory lane. Earnhardt then drove his No. 3 into the infield grass, starting a trend of post-race celebrations. He spun the car twice, throwing grass and leaving tire tracks in the shape of a No. 3 in the grass. He then spoke about the victory, saying, "I have had a lot of great fans and people behind me all through the years and I just can't thank them enough. The Daytona 500 is ours. We won it, we won it, we won it!" The rest of the season did not go as well, and the Daytona 500 was his only victory that year. Despite that, he did almost pull off a Daytona sweep, where he was one of the contenders for the win in the first nighttime Pepsi 400, but a pit stop late in the race in which a rogue tire cost him the race win. He slipped to 12th in the point standings halfway through the season, and Richard Childress decided to make a crew chief change, taking Mike Skinner's crew chief Kevin Hamlin and putting him with Earnhardt while giving Skinner Larry McReynolds (Earnhardt's crew chief). Earnhardt finished the 1998 season eighth in the final points standings, with 1 win, 5 top fives, and 13 top tens, with an average finish of 16.2. Before the 1999 season, fans began discussing Earnhardt's age and speculating that with his son, Dale Jr., making his Winston Cup debut, Earnhardt might be contemplating retirement. Earnhardt swept both races for the year at Talladega, leading some to conclude that his talent had become limited to the restrictor plate tracks, which require a unique skill set and an exceptionally powerful racecar to win. But halfway through the year, Earnhardt began to show some of the old spark. In the August race at Michigan, he led laps late in the race and nearly pulled off his first win on a non-restrictor-plate track since 1996. One week later, he provided NASCAR with one of its most controversial moments. At the Bristol night race, Earnhardt found himself in contention to win his first short track race since Martinsville in 1995. When a caution came out with 15 laps to go, leader Terry Labonte got hit from behind by the lapped car of Darrell Waltrip. His spin put Earnhardt in the lead with five cars between him and Labonte with five laps to go. Labonte had four fresh tires, and Earnhardt was driving on old tires, which made Earnhardt's car considerably slower. Labonte caught Earnhardt and passed him coming to the white flag, but Earnhardt drove hard into turn two, bumping Labonte and spinning him around. Earnhardt collected the win while spectators booed and made obscene gestures. "I didn't mean to turn him around, I just wanted to rattle his cage," Earnhardt said of the incident. He finished seventh in the standings that year, with 3 wins, 7 top fives, and 21 top tens, with an average finish of 12.0. 2000 missile as he competes in a load crew competition at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia, September 2000. Coincidentally, this position on a load crew is known unofficially as "Jammer Driver" or officially as Number 3 man.]] In the 2000 season, Earnhardt had a resurgence, which was commonly attributed to neck surgery he underwent to correct a lingering injury from his 1996 Talladega crash. He scored what were considered the two most exciting wins of the year—winning by 0.010 seconds over Bobby Labonte at Atlanta, then gaining seventeen positions in the final four laps to win at Talladega, claiming his only No Bull million-dollar bonus along with his record 10th win at the track. Earnhardt also had second-place runs at Richmond and Martinsville, tracks where he had struggled through the late 1990s. On the strength of those performances, Earnhardt got to second in the standings. However, poor performances at the road course of Watkins Glen, where he wrecked coming out of the chicane, a wreck with Kenny Irwin Jr. while leading the spring race at Bristol, and mid-pack runs at intermediate tracks like Charlotte and Dover in a season dominated by the Ford Taurus in those tracks from Roush, Yates, and Penske, coupled with Bobby Labonte's extreme consistency, denied Earnhardt an eighth championship title. Earnhardt finished 2000 with two wins, 13 top fives, 24 top tens, an average finish of 9.4, and was the only driver besides Labonte to finish the season with zero DNF's. Death (No. 36) have just made contact with each other.]] During the Daytona 500 at Daytona International Speedway on February 18, 2001, Earnhardt was killed in a three-car crash on the final lap of the race. He collided with Ken Schrader after making small contact with Sterling Marlin and hit the outside wall head-on. He had been blocking Schrader on the outside and Marlin on the inside at the time of the crash. Earnhardt's and Schrader's cars both slid off the track's asphalt banking into the infield grass just inside of turn 4. Seconds later, his driver Michael Waltrip won the race, with Waltrip's teammate and Earnhardt's son Dale Earnhardt Jr. finishing second. Earnhardt was pronounced dead at the Halifax Medical Center at 5:16 pm Eastern Standard Time (22:16 UTC); he was 49 years old. NASCAR president Mike Helton confirmed Earnhardt's death in a statement to the press. An autopsy conducted on February 19, 2001, concluded that Earnhardt sustained a fatal basilar skull fracture. Four days later, on February 22, public funeral services for Earnhardt were held at the Calvary Church in Charlotte, North Carolina. Aftermath Several press conferences were held in the days following Earnhardt's death. After driver Sterling Marlin and his relatives received hate mail and death threats from angry fans, Waltrip and Earnhardt Jr. absolved him of any responsibility. The Daytona Beach Police Department and NASCAR opened two investigations about the crash; nearly every detail of the crash was made public. The allegations of seatbelt failure resulted in Bill Simpson's resignation from the company bearing his name, which manufactured the seatbelts used in Earnhardt's car and nearly every other NASCAR driver's car. In October 2001, NASCAR mandated drivers from its three national series to use the HANS device, which Earnhardt had refused to wear after finding it restrictive and uncomfortable. Team owner Richard Childress made a public pledge that the number 3 would never again adorn the side of a black race car with a GM Goodwrench sponsorship, and the car was re-numbered as the #29. Childress's second-year Busch Series driver Kevin Harvick was named as Earnhardt's replacement, beginning with the 2001 Dura Lube 400 at North Carolina Speedway. Special pennants bearing the No. 3 were distributed to everyone at the track to honor Earnhardt, and the Childress team wore blank uniforms out of respect, something which disappeared quickly and was soon replaced by the previous GM Goodwrench Service Plus uniforms. Harvick's car always displayed the Earnhardt stylized number 3 on the "B" posts (metal portion on each side of the car to the rear of the front windows) above the number 29 until the end of 2013, when he departed for Stewart-Haas Racing. The number 3 returned for the 2014 season, this time not sponsored by GM Goodwrench (which was rebranded GM Certified Service in 2011), driven by Childress's grandson Austin Dillon.<!-- --> Fans began honoring Earnhardt by holding three fingers aloft on the third lap of every race, a black screen of No. 3 in the beginning of NASCAR Thunder 2002 before the EA Sports logo, and the television coverage of NASCAR on Fox and NASCAR on NBC went silent for each third lap from Rockingham to the following year's race there in honor of Earnhardt, unless on-track incidents brought out the caution flag on the third lap. Three weeks after Earnhardt's death, Harvick, driving a car that had been prepared for Earnhardt, scored his first career Cup win at Atlanta. On the final lap of the 2001 Cracker Barrel Old Country Store 500, he beat Jeff Gordon by .006 seconds (the margin being 0.004 of a second closer than Earnhardt had won over Bobby Labonte at the same race a year ago) in an identical photo finish, and the images of Earnhardt's longtime gas man Danny "Chocolate" Myers crying after the victory, Harvick's tire-smoking burnout on the front stretch with three fingers held aloft outside the driver's window. Harvick would win another race at the inaugural event at Chicagoland en route to a ninth-place finish in the final points and won Rookie of the Year honors along with the 2001 NASCAR Busch Series Championship. Dale Earnhardt, Inc. won five races in the 2001 season, beginning with Steve Park's victory in the race at Rockingham just one week after Earnhardt's death. Earnhardt Jr. and Waltrip finished first and second in the series' return to Daytona in July for the Pepsi 400, a reverse of the finish in the Daytona 500. Earnhardt Jr. also won the fall races at Dover (first post 9/11 race) and Talladega and came to an eighth-place points finish. Earnhardt's remains were interred at his estate in Mooresville, North Carolina after a private funeral service on February 21, 2001. Dillon and his younger brother Ty Dillon drove the No. 3 in various lower level competitions for several years, including the Camping World East Series. In 2012, Austin Dillon began driving in the Nationwide Series full-time, using the No. 3; he had previously used the No. 33 while driving in that series part-time. Richard Childress Racing entered a No. 3 in the Daytona truck race on February 13, 2010, with sponsorship from Bass Pro Shops driven by Austin Dillon. It was involved in a wreck almost identical to that which took the life of Earnhardt: being spun out, colliding with another vehicle, and being turned into the outside wall in turn number four. Dillon again returned to a No. 3 marked racecar when he started fifth in the 2012 Daytona Nationwide Series opener in an Advocare-sponsored black Chevrolet Impala. On December 11, 2013, RCR announced that Austin Dillon would drive the No. 3 car in the upcoming 2014 Sprint Cup season, bringing the number back to the series for the first time in 13 years. Only the former International Race of Champions actually retired the No. 3, which they did in a rule change effective in 2004. Until the series folded in 2007, anyone wishing to use the No. 3 again had to use No. 03 instead. Formula One driver Daniel Ricciardo chose the number 3 as his permanent racing number when F1's rules changed to allow drivers to choose their own numbers for 2014 and stated on Twitter that part of the reason for his choice was that he was a fan of Earnhardt's, while his helmet design features the number stylized in the same way.Legacy"Earnhardt Tower", a seating section at Daytona International Speedway was opened and named in his honor a month before his death at the track. Earnhardt has several roads named after him, including a street in his hometown Kannapolis. Dale Earnhardt Boulevard (originally Earnhardt Road) is marked as exit 60 off Interstate 85, northeast of Charlotte. Dale Earnhardt Drive is also the start of The Dale Journey Trail, a self-guided driving tour of landmarks in the lives of Earnhardt and his family. The North Carolina Department of Transportation switched the designation of a road between Kannapolis and Mooresville near the headquarters of DEI (that used to be called NC 136) with NC 3, which was in Currituck County. In addition, exit 72 off Interstate 35W, one of the entrances to Texas Motor Speedway, is named "Dale Earnhardt Way". Between the 2004 and 2005 JGTC (renamed Super GT from 2005) season, Hasemi Sport competed in the series with a sole black G'Zox-sponsored Nissan 350Z with the same number and letterset as Earnhardt on the roof. During the NASCAR weekend races at Talladega Superspeedway on April 29, 2006 – May 1, 2006, the DEI cars competed in identical special black paint schemes on Dale Earnhardt Day, which is held annually on his birthday—April 29. Martin Truex Jr., won the Aaron's 312 in the black car, painted to reflect Earnhardt's Intimidating Black No. 3 NASCAR Busch Grand National series car. In the Nextel Cup race on May 1, No. 8 Dale Earnhardt Jr.; No. 1 Martin Truex Jr.; and No. 15 Paul Menard competed in cars with the same type of paint scheme. On June 18, 2006, at Michigan for the 3M Performance 400, Earnhardt Jr. ran a special vintage Budweiser car to honor his father and his grandfather Ralph Earnhardt. He finished third after rain caused the race to be cut short. The car was painted to resemble Ralph's 1956 dirt cars, and carried 1956-era Budweiser logos to complete the throwback look. In the summer of 2007, Dale Earnhardt, Inc. (DEI) with the Dale Earnhardt Foundation, announced it will fund an annual undergraduate scholarship at Clemson University in Clemson, South Carolina, for students interested in motorsports and automotive engineering. Scholarship winners are also eligible to work at DEI in internships. The first winner was William Bostic, a senior at Clemson majoring in mechanical engineering. In 2008, on the 50th anniversary of the first Daytona 500 race, DEI and RCR teamed up to make a special COT sporting Earnhardt's 1998 Daytona 500 paint scheme to honor the tenth anniversary of his Daytona 500 victory. In a tribute to all previous Daytona 500 winners, the winning drivers appeared in a lineup on stage, in chronological order. The throwback No. 3 car stood in the infield, in the approximate position Earnhardt would have taken in the processional. The throwback car featured the authentic 1998-era design on a current-era car, a concept similar to modern throwback jerseys in other sports. The car was later sold in 1:64 and 1:24 scale models. In 2010, the Intimidator 305 roller coaster opened at Kings Dominion in Doswell, Virginia. Named after Earnhardt, the ride's trains were modeled after his black-and-red Chevrolet. Another Intimidator coaster also opened at Carowinds in North Carolina the same year. Both were themed to Earnhardt's legacy, featuring signs, flags, various artwork, as well as replicas of the cars he drove at each location. The "Intimidator" name and all Earnhardt branding were removed from both rides in 2024 as a result of an expiring licensing agreement. Atlanta Braves assistant coach Ned Yost was a friend of Earnhardt, and Richard Childress. When Yost was named Milwaukee Brewers manager, he changed jersey numbers, from No. 5 to No. 3 in Earnhardt's honor. (No. 3 is retired by the Braves in honor of outfielder Dale Murphy, so Yost could not make the change while in Atlanta.) When Yost was named Kansas City Royals assistant coach, he wore No. 2 for the 2010 season, even when he was named manager in May 2010, but for the 2011 season, he switched back to No. 3. During the third lap of the 2011 Daytona 500 (a decade since Earnhardt's death), and 2021 Daytona 500 (two decades since Earnhardt's death) the commentators on FOX fell silent while fans raised three fingers in a similar fashion to the tributes throughout 2001. The north entrance to New Avondale City Center in Arizona will bear the name Dale Earnhardt Drive. Avondale is where Earnhardt won a Cup race in 1990. His helmet from the 1998 season is at the National Museum of American History in the Smithsonian museum in Washington D.C. Weedeater, a sludge metal band from North Carolina, paid tribute to Earnhardt on their 2003 album Sixteen Tons, with the song "No. 3". The song is played with audio clips from television broadcasts about Earnhardt mixed in the background. He is also mentioned in a 2001 song composed by John Hiatt entitled The Tiki Bar Is Open, along with his legendary race number. On February 28, 2016, after winning the Folds of Honor QuikTrip 500 at Atlanta Motor Speedway, during his victory lap, driver Jimmie Johnson held his hand out of his window, with three fingers extended in tribute to Earnhardt. This was following Johnson's 76th Cup Series win, which tied the career mark of Earnhardt's. This is also the track where Earnhardt claimed his sixth Winston Cup Series title. In the week of the 2021 United States Grand Prix, McLaren driver Daniel Ricciardo drove the iconic Wrangler car from 1984 as Ricciardo has been a fan of Earnhardt since he was a child. The opportunity came after he won the Italian Grand Prix that year, and McLaren CEO Zak Brown, who owns the car, promised him that he would give him a chance to drive it. A star is named after him through International Star Registry. The star, officially named "Dale Earnhardt, Sr.," is located in the Aquila constellation at coordinates RA 19h 1m 36.36s D 16° 34′ 25.00″. Media Earnhardt appeared as himself in the movie, Stroker Ace. He also voiced himself in King of the Hill in the episode titled, "Life in the Fast Lane, Bobby's Saga". Awards ]] * He was awarded the Order of the Long Leaf Pine by North Carolina Governor Jim Hunt in 1994. * He was inducted into the North Carolina Sports Hall of Fame in 1994. * Earnhardt was named one of NASCAR's 50 Greatest Drivers in 1998. * Earnhardt was posthumously named "NASCAR's Most Popular Driver" in 2001. This was the only time he received the award. * He was posthumously inducted into the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America in 2002, a year after his death. * He was posthumously inducted in the Oceanside Rotary Club Stock Car Racing Hall of Fame at Daytona Beach in 2004. * He was posthumously inducted in the International Motorsports Hall of Fame in 2006. * Earnhardt was named first on ESPN's list of "NASCAR's 20 Greatest Drivers" in 2007 in front of Richard Petty. * He was posthumously inducted into the Automotive Hall of Fame in 2006. * He was posthumously inducted in the Inaugural Class of the NASCAR Hall of Fame on May 23, 2010. * He was posthumously inducted into the Indianapolis Motor Speedway Hall of Fame in 2020. Motorsports career results NASCAR (key) (<span style"font-size:85%">Bold – Pole position awarded by qualifying time. Italics – Pole position earned by points standings or practice time. * – Most laps led.</span>)Winston Cup Series{\| class"wikitable" style="text-align:center; font-size:75%" \|- !colspan=45\| NASCAR Winston Cup Series results \|- ! Year ! Team ! No. ! Make ! 1 ! 2 ! 3 ! 4 ! 5 ! 6 ! 7 ! 8 ! 9 ! 10 ! 11 ! 12 ! 13 ! 14 ! 15 ! 16 ! 17 ! 18 ! 19 ! 20 ! 21 ! 22 ! 23 ! 24 ! 25 ! 26 ! 27 ! 28 ! 29 ! 30 ! 31 ! 32 ! 33 ! 34 ! 35 ! 36 ! ! Pts ! Ref \|- ! 1975 ! Negre Racing ! 8 ! Dodge \| RSD \| DAY \| RCH \| CAR \| BRI \| ATL \| NWS \| DAR \| MAR \| TAL \| NSV \| DOV \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| CLT<br> \| RSD \| MCH \| DAY \| NSV \| POC \| TAL \| MCH \| DAR \| DOV \| NWS \| MAR \| CLT \| RCH \| CAR \| BRI \| ATL \| ONT \| colspan=6\| ! NA ! 0 ! \|- !rowspan=2\| 1976 ! Ballard Racing ! 30 ! Chevy \| RSD \| DAY \| CAR \| RCH \| BRI \| ATL \| NWS \| DAR \| MAR \| TAL \| NSV \| DOV \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| CLT<br> \| RSD \| MCH \| DAY \| NSV \| POC \| TAL \| MCH \| BRI \| DAR \| RCH \| DOV \| MAR \| NWS \| CLT \| CAR \| colspan=8\| ! rowspan=2\| 103rd ! rowspan=2\| 70 ! rowspan2\| \|- ! Johnny Ray ! 77 ! Chevy \| colspan=28\| \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| ATL<br> \| ONT \| colspan=6\| \|- ! 1977 ! Gray Racing ! 19 ! Chevy \| RSD \| DAY \| RCH \| CAR \| ATL \| NWS \| DAR \| BRI \| MAR \| TAL \| NSV \| DOV \| CLT \| RSD \| MCH \| DAY \| NSV \| POC \| TAL \| MCH \| BRI \| DAR \| RCH \| DOV \| MAR \| NWS \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| CLT<br> \| CAR \| ATL \| ONT \| colspan=6\| ! 118th ! 49 ! \|- !rowspan=2\| 1978 ! Cronkrite Racing ! 96 ! Ford \| RSD \| DAY \| RCH \| CAR \| ATL \| BRI \| DAR \| NWS \| MAR \| TAL \| DOV \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| CLT<br> \| NSV \| RSD \| MCH \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| DAY<br> \| NSV \| POC \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| TAL<br> \| MCH \| BRI \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| DAR<br> \| RCH \| DOV \| MAR \| NWS \| CLT \| CAR \| colspan=8\| ! rowspan=2\| 43rd ! rowspan=2\| 558 ! rowspan2\| \|- ! rowspan=7\| Osterlund Racing ! 98 !rowspan=2\| Chevy \| colspan=28\| \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| ATL<br> \| ONT \| colspan=6\| \|- !rowspan=3\| 1979 ! rowspan=7\| 2 \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| RSD<br> \| \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| RCH<br> \| \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| NWS<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| MAR<br> \| \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| NSV<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| TWS<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| RSD<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| MCH<br> \| \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| NSV<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| POC<br> \| TAL \| MCH \| BRI \| DAR \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| NWS<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| ATL<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| ONT<br> \| colspan=5\| ! rowspan=3\| 7th ! rowspan=3\| 3749 ! rowspan3\| \|- ! Buick \| \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| DAY<br> \| colspan=2\| \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| ATL<br> \| colspan=4\| \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| TAL<br> \| colspan=26\| \|- ! Olds \| colspan=16\| \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAY<br> \| colspan=19\| \|- !rowspan=2\| 1980 ! Chevy \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RSD<br> \| \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| ATL<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| NWS<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| MAR<br> \| \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| NSV<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| TWS<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RSD<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| NSV<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| POC<br> \| \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| NWS<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| ATL<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| ONT<br> \| colspan=5\| ! rowspan=2\| 1st ! rowspan=2\| 4661 ! rowspan2\| \|- ! Olds \| \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAY<br> \| colspan=7\| \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| TAL<br> \| colspan=9\| \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| TAL<br> \| colspan=16\| \|- !rowspan=3\| 1981 !rowspan=2\| Pontiac \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RSD<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| ATL<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| NWS<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| NSV<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| TWS<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RSD<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| MCH<br> \| colspan=20\| ! rowspan=3\| 7th ! rowspan=3\| 3975 ! rowspan3\| \|- ! Jim Stacy Racing \| colspan=16\| \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| NSV<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| TAL<br> \| colspan=16\| \|- ! Richard Childress Racing ! 3 ! Pontiac \| colspan=20\| \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| NWS<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| ATL<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RSD<br> \| colspan=5\| \|- ! 1982 !rowspan=2\| Bud Moore Engineering !rowspan=2\| 15 !rowspan=2\| Ford \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| ATL<br><small>28</small> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| NWS<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| NSV<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| CLT<br><small>30</small> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RSD<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| NSV<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| NWS<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| ATL<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| RSD<br> \| colspan=6\| ! 12th ! 3402 ! \|- ! 1983 \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| ATL<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| NWS<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| NSV<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RSD<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| NSV<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| NWS<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| ATL<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RSD<br> \| colspan=6\| ! 8th ! 3732 ! \|- ! 1984 ! rowspan=18 nowrap\| Richard Childress Racing ! rowspan=18 \| 3 ! rowspan=18 \| Chevy \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| ATL<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| NWS<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| NSV<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RSD<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| NSV<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| NWS<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| ATL<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| RSD<br> \| colspan=6\| ! 4th ! 4265 ! \|- ! 1985 \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| ATL<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| NWS<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| RSD<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DAR<br><small>19</small> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| NWS<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| ATL<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RSD<br> \| colspan=8\| ! 8th ! 3561 ! \|- ! 1986 \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| ATL<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| NWS<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RSD<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DAY<br><small>27</small> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| TAL<br><small>26</small> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| GLN<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| NWS<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| ATL<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RSD<br> \| colspan=7\| ! 1st ! 4468 ! \|- ! 1987 \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| ATL<br><small>16</small> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| NWS<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| RSD<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| GLN<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| NWS<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| RSD<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| ATL<br> \| colspan=7\| ! 1st ! 4696 ! \|- ! 1988 \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| RCH<br><small>10</small> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| ATL<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| NWS<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RSD<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| GLN<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| CLT<br><small>17</small> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| NWS<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| PHO<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| ATL<br> \| colspan=7\| ! 3rd ! 4256 ! \|- ! 1989 \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| ATL<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| NWS<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| SON<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| GLN<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| NWS<br><small>10</small> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| PHO<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| ATL<br> \| colspan=7\| ! 2nd ! 4164 ! \|- ! 1990 \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAY<br><small>5</small> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| ATL<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| NWS<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| SON<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| GLN<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| BRI<br><small>8</small> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| NWS<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| PHO<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| ATL<br> \| colspan=7\| ! 1st ! 4430 ! \|- ! 1991 \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| ATL<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| NWS<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| SON<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| GLN<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| NWS<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| PHO<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| ATL<br> \| colspan=7\| ! 1st ! 4287 ! \|- ! 1992 \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| ATL<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| NWS<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| SON<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| GLN<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| NWS<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| PHO<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| ATL<br> \| colspan=7\| ! 12th ! 3574 ! \|- ! 1993 \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| ATL<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| NWS<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| SON<br><small>6</small> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| NHA<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| GLN<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| NWS<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| PHO<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| ATL<br> \| colspan=6\| ! 1st ! 4526 ! \|- ! 1994 \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| ATL<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| NWS<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| SON<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| NHA<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| IND<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| GLN<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| NWS<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| PHO<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| ATL<br> \| colspan=5\| ! 1st ! 4694 ! \|- ! 1995 \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| ATL<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| NWS<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| SON<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| NHA<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| IND<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| GLN<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| NWS<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| PHO<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| ATL<br> \| colspan=5\| ! 2nd ! 4580 ! \|- ! 1996 \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| ATL<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| NWS<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| SON<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| NHA<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| TAL<br><small>28</small> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| IND<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| GLN<br><small>6</small> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| NWS<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| PHO<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| ATL<br> \| colspan=5\| ! 4th ! 4327 ! \|- ! 1997 \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| ATL<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| TEX<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| SON<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| CAL<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| NHA<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| IND<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| GLN<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| NHA<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| PHO<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| ATL<br> \| colspan=4\| ! 5th ! 4216 ! \|- ! 1998 \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| LVS<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| ATL<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| TEX<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| CAL<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| SON<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| NHA<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| IND<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| GLN<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| NHA<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| PHO<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| ATL<br> \| colspan=3\| ! 8th ! 3928 ! \|- ! 1999 \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| LVS<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| ATL<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| TEX<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| CAL<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| SON<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| NHA<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| IND<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| GLN<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| NHA<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| PHO<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| HOM<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| ATL<br> \| colspan=2\| ! 7th ! 4492 ! \|- ! 2000 \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| LVS<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| ATL<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| TEX<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| CAL<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| SON<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| NHA<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| POC<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| IND<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| GLN<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| NHA<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| DOV<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| MAR<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| PHO<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| HOM<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| ATL<br> \| colspan=2\| ! 2nd ! 4865 ! \|- ! 2001 \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DAY<br> \| CAR \| LVS \| ATL \| DAR \| BRI \| TEX \| MAR \| TAL \| CAL \| RCH \| CLT \| DOV \| MCH \| POC \| SON \| DAY \| CHI \| NHA \| POC \| IND \| GLN \| MCH \| BRI \| DAR \| RCH \| DOV \| KAN \| CLT \| MAR \| TAL \| PHO \| CAR \| HOM \| ATL \| NHA ! 57th ! 132 ! \|} Daytona 500 <div style="max-width:100%; overflow:auto;"> {\| class"wikitable" style"font-size: 90%;" \|- ! Year ! Team ! Manufacturer ! Start ! Finish \|- \| 1979 \|rowspan=3\|Osterlund Racing \| Buick \|align=center\| 10 \|aligncenter style"background:#FFDF9F;"\| 8 \|- \| 1980 \| Oldsmobile \|align=center\| 32 \|aligncenter style"background:#DFDFDF;"\| 4 \|- \| 1981 \| Pontiac \|align=center\| 7 \|aligncenter style"background:#DFDFDF;"\| 5 \|- \| 1982 \|rowspan=2\|Bud Moore Engineering \|rowspan=2\|Ford \|align=center\| 10 \|aligncenter style"background:#EFCFFF;"\| 36 \|- \| 1983 \|align=center\| 3 \|aligncenter style"background:#EFCFFF;"\| 35 \|- \| 1984 \| rowspan=18 nowrap\| Richard Childress Racing \| rowspan=18 \| Chevrolet \|align=center\| 29 \|aligncenter style"background:#DFDFDF;"\| 2 \|- \| 1985 \|align=center\| 18 \|aligncenter style"background:#EFCFFF;"\| 32 \|- \| 1986 \|align=center\| 4 \|aligncenter style"background:#EFCFFF;"\| 14 \|- \| 1987 \|align=center\| 13 \|aligncenter style"background:#DFDFDF;"\| 5 \|- \| 1988 \|align=center\| 6 \|aligncenter style"background:#FFDF9F;"\| 10 \|- \| 1989 \|align=center\| 8 \|aligncenter style"background:#DFDFDF;"\| 3 \|- \| 1990 \|align=center\| 2 \|aligncenter style"background:#DFDFDF;"\| 5 \|- \| 1991 \|align=center\| 4 \|aligncenter style"background:#DFDFDF;"\| 5 \|- \| 1992 \|align=center\| 3 \|aligncenter style"background:#FFDF9F;"\| 9 \|- \| 1993 \|align=center\| 4 \|aligncenter style"background:#DFDFDF;"\| 2 \|- \| 1994 \|align=center\| 2 \|aligncenter style"background:#FFDF9F;"\| 7 \|- \| 1995 \|align=center\| 2 \|aligncenter style"background:#DFDFDF;"\| 2 \|- \| 1996 \|aligncenter style"background:#FFFFBF;"\| 1 \|aligncenter style"background:#DFDFDF;"\| 2 \|- \| 1997 \|align=center\| 4 \|aligncenter style"background:#CFCFFF;"\| 31 \|- \| 1998 \|align=center \| 4 \|aligncenter style"background:#FFFFBF;"\| 1 \|- \| 1999 \|align=center\| 4 \|aligncenter style"background:#DFDFDF;"\| 2 \|- \| 2000 \|align=center\| 21 \|aligncenter style"background:#CFCFFF;"\| 21 \|- \| 2001 \|align=center\| 7 \|aligncenter style"background:#EFCFFF;"\| 12 \|} </div> Busch Series {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center; font-size:75%" !colspan=42\| NASCAR Busch Series results \|- ! Year ! Team ! No. ! Make ! 1 ! 2 ! 3 ! 4 ! 5 ! 6 ! 7 ! 8 ! 9 ! 10 ! 11 ! 12 ! 13 ! 14 ! 15 ! 16 ! 17 ! 18 ! 19 ! 20 ! 21 ! 22 ! 23 ! 24 ! 25 ! 26 ! 27 ! 28 ! 29 ! 30 ! 31 ! 32 ! 33 ! 34 ! 35 ! ! Pts ! Ref \|- !rowspan=4\| 1982 ! Robert Gee ! 15 ! Pontiac \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| DAY<br> \| RCH \| colspan=2\| \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DAR<br> \| HCY \| SBO \| colspan=3\| \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DOV<br> \| HCY \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CLT<br> \| ASH \| HCY \| SBO \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CAR<br> \| CRW \| SBO \| HCY \| LGY \| IRP \| colspan=2\| \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| RCH<br> \| MAR \|style="background:#FFCFCF;"\| CLT<br> \| HCY \| MAR \| colspan=6\| ! rowspan=4\| 21st ! rowspan=4\| 1188 ! rowspan4\| \|- ! Robert Gee ! 45 ! Pontiac \| colspan=2\| \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| BRI<br> \| MAR \| colspan=31\| \|- ! Robert Gee !rowspan=3\| 15 ! Olds \| colspan=7\| \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| CRW<br> \| RCH \| LGY \| colspan=25\| \|- ! Whitaker Racing !rowspan=2\| Pontiac \| colspan=22\| \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| BRI<br> \| HCY \| colspan=11\| \|- ! 1983 ! Robert Gee \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| DAY<br> \| RCH \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| CAR<br> \| HCY \| MAR \| NWS \| SBO \| GPS \| LGY \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DOV<br> \| BRI \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| CLT<br> \| SBO \| HCY \| ROU \| SBO \| ROU \| CRW \| ROU \| SBO \| HCY \| LGY \| IRP \| GPS \| BRI \| HCY \| DAR \| RCH \| NWS \| SBO \| MAR \| ROU \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CLT<br> \| HCY \| MAR ! 31st ! 790 ! \|- !rowspan=2\| 1984 ! Whitaker Racing ! 7 ! Olds \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RCH<br> \| CAR \| HCY \| MAR \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DAR<br> \| ROU \| NSV \| LGY \| MLW \| DOV \| colspan=24\| ! rowspan=2\| 39th ! rowspan=2\| 553 ! rowspan2\| \|- !rowspan=8 nowrap\| Dale Earnhardt, Inc. !rowspan=6\| 8 !rowspan=3\| Pontiac \| colspan=11\| \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CLT<br> \| SBO \| HCY \| ROU \| SBO \| ROU \| HCY \| IRP \| LGY \| SBO \| BRI \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DAR<br> \| RCH \| NWS \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| CLT<br> \| HCY \| CAR \| MAR \| colspan=6\| \|- ! 1985 \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| CAR<br> \| HCY \| BRI \| MAR \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DAR<br> \| SBO \| LGY \| DOV \| CLT \| SBO \| HCY \| ROU \| IRP \| SBO \| LGY \| HCY \| MLW \| BRI \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| RCH<br> \| NWS \| ROU \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CLT<br> \| HCY \| CAR \| MAR \| colspan=8\| ! 47th ! 391 ! \|- !rowspan=2\| 1986 \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| CAR<br> \| HCY \| MAR \| \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAR<br> \| SBO \| LGY \| JFC \| DOV \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| CLT<br> \| SBO \| HCY \| ROU \| colspan=9\| \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| DAR<br> \| colspan=4\| \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| CLT<br> \| CAR \| MAR \| colspan=4\| ! rowspan=2\| 25th ! rowspan=2\| 1611 ! rowspan2\| \|- !rowspan=3\| Chevy \| colspan=4\| \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| BRI<br> \| colspan=9\| \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| IRP<br> \| SBO \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RAL<br> \| OXF \| SBO \| HCY \| LGY \| ROU \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| BRI<br> \| \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| RCH<br> \| DOV \| MAR \| ROU \| colspan=7\| \|- ! 1987 \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DAY<br><small>27</small> \| HCY \| MAR \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| BRI<br> \| LGY \| SBO \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CLT<br><small>5</small> \| DOV \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| IRP<br> \| ROU \| JFC \| OXF \| SBO \| HCY \| RAL \| LGY \| ROU \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| BRI<br> \| JFC \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| RCH<br> \| DOV \| MAR \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CAR<br> \| MAR \| colspan=8\| ! 33rd ! 1107 ! \|- ! 1988 \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| HCY<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| CAR<br><small>27</small> \| MAR \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| BRI<br> \| LNG \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| NZH<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| SBO<br> \| NSV \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CLT<br> \| DOV \| ROU \| LAN \| LVL \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| MYB<br> \| OXF \| SBO \| HCY \| LNG \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| IRP<br> \| ROU \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DAR<br> \| RCH \| DOV \| MAR \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CAR<br> \| MAR \| colspan=5\| ! 25th ! 1633 ! \|- !rowspan=3\| 1989 !rowspan=2\| 3 ! Pontiac \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAY<br> \| colspan=34\| ! rowspan=3\| 25th ! rowspan=3\| 1637 ! rowspan3\| \|- ! Chevy \| \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CAR<br> \| MAR \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| HCY<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| NZH<br> \| SBO \| LAN \| NSV \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| CLT<br> \| colspan=5\| \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| SBO<br> \| HCY \| DUB \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| IRP<br> \| ROU \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RCH<br> \| DOV \| MAR \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| CLT<br> \| CAR \| MAR \| colspan=6\| \|- ! Baker-Schiff Racing ! 87 ! Pontiac \| colspan=11\| \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DOV<br> \| ROU \| LVL \| VOL \| MYB \| colspan=19\| \|- ! 1990 !rowspan=3\| Dale Earnhardt, Inc. !rowspan=3\| 3 !rowspan=3\| Chevy \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| CAR<br> \| MAR \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| HCY<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| BRI<br> \| LAN \| SBO \| NZH \| HCY \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| CLT<br> \| DOV \| ROU \| VOL \| MYB \| OXF \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| NHA<br> \| SBO \| DUB \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| IRP<br> \| ROU \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| BRI<br><small>24</small> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RCH<br> \| DOV \| MAR \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CLT<br> \| NHA \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CAR<br> \| MAR \| colspan=4\| ! 26th ! 1947 ! \|- ! 1991 \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CAR<br> \| MAR \| VOL \| HCY \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| BRI<br> \| LAN \| SBO \| NZH \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| CLT<br> \| DOV \| ROU \| HCY \| MYB \| GLN \| OXF \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| NHA<br> \| SBO \| DUB \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| IRP<br> \| ROU \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| BRI<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| RCH<br> \| DOV \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| CLT<br> \| NHA \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| CAR<br><small>6</small> \| MAR \| colspan=4\| ! 27th ! 1799 ! \|- !rowspan=2\| 1992 \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CAR<br> \| RCH \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| ATL<br> \| MAR \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| DAR<br> \| BRI \| colspan=4\| \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DOV<br> \| ROU \| MYB \| GLN \| VOL \| NHA \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| TAL<br> \| IRP \| ROU \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| NHA<br> \| BRI \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAR<br> \| RCH \| DOV \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| CLT<br> \| MAR \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| CAR<br> \| HCY \| colspan=4\| ! rowspan=2\| 23rd ! rowspan=2\| 1665 ! rowspan2\| \|- ! nowrap\| Ken Schrader Racing ! 15 ! Chevy \| colspan=7\| \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| HCY<br> \| LAN \| DUB \| NZH \| colspan=24\| \|- ! 1993 !rowspan=2\| Dale Earnhardt, Inc. !rowspan=2\| 3 !rowspan=2\| Chevy \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CAR<br> \| RCH \| DAR \| BRI \| HCY \| ROU \| MAR \| NZH \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| DOV<br> \| MYB \| GLN \| MLW \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| TAL<br> \| IRP \|style"background:#000000; color:white"\| <span style"color:white;">MCH</span><br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| NHA<br> \| BRI \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DAR<br> \| RCH \| DOV \| ROU \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| CLT<br> \| MAR \| CAR \| HCY \| style="background:#FFFFFF;"\| ATL<br> \| colspan=7\| ! 37th ! 989 ! \|- ! 1994 \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| CAR<br> \|style="background:#FFCFCF;"\| RCH<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| ATL<br> \| MAR \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| DAR<br> \| HCY \| BRI \| ROU \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| NHA<br> \| NZH \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DOV<br> \| MYB \| GLN \| MLW \| SBO \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| TAL<br> \| HCY \| IRP \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| MCH<br> \| BRI \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| RCH<br> \| DOV \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| CLT<br> \| MAR \| CAR \| colspan=7\| ! 34th ! 1188 ! \|- \| colspan=42\|<small><sup>†</sup> - Qualified but replaced by Neil Bonnett</small> \|} Winston West Series <div style="max-width:100%; overflow:auto;"> {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center; font-size:75%" \|+ ! colspan="21" \|NASCAR Winston West Series results \|- ! Year ! Team/Owner ! No. ! Make ! 1 ! 2 ! 3 ! 4 ! 5 ! 6 ! 7 ! 8 ! 9 ! 10 ! 11 ! 12 ! 13 ! 14 ! ! Pts ! Ref \|- ! 1981 ! nowrap\| Osterlund Racing ! 72 ! Pontiac \| RSD \| S99 \| AAS \| MMR \| RSD \| LAG \| style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| POR<br><small>19</small> \| WSP \| EVG \| SHA \| RSD \| SON \| RSD \| PHO ! 43rd ! 35 ! \|- ! 1985 ! Bill Schmidt ! 3 ! Chevy \| SON \| SHA \| RSD \| MMR \| style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| SIR<br><small>1</small> \| POR \| STA \| YAK \| EVG \| WSR \| MMR \| RSD \| colspan=2\| ! 33rd ! 60 ! \|} </div> Busch North Series {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center; font-size:75%" \|+ ! colspan="32" \|NASCAR Busch North Series results \|- ! Year ! Team/Owner ! No. ! Make ! 1 ! 2 ! 3 ! 4 ! 5 ! 6 ! 7 ! 8 ! 9 ! 10 ! 11 ! 12 ! 13 ! 14 ! 15 ! 16 ! 17 ! 18 ! 19 ! 20 ! 21 ! 22 ! 23 ! 24 ! 25 ! ! Pts ! Ref \|- ! 1988 ! Dale Shaw ! 68 ! Pontiac \| DAY \| CAR \| DAR \| NZH \| MND \| OXF \| OXF \| DOV \| OXF \| style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| JEN<br><small>20</small> \| CPA \| EPP \| TIO \| OXF \| JEN \| TMP \| IRP \| OXF \| RPS \| DAR \| RCH \| DOV \| OXF \| OXF \| EPP ! 56th ! 103 ! \|- ! 1993 ! nowrap\| Dale Earnhardt, Inc. ! 8 ! Chevrolet \| LEE \| NHA \| MND \| NZH \| HOL \| GLN \| JEN \| STA \| GLN \| style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| NHA<br><small>31</small> \| WIS \| NHA \| NHA \| RPS \| TMP \| WMM \| LEE \| EPP \| LRP \| colspan="6" \| ! 70th ! 70 ! \|} International Race of Champions <div style="max-width:100%; overflow:auto;"> (key) (<span style="font-size:85%">Bold – Pole position. * – Most laps led.</span>) {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center; font-size:75%" !colspan=12\| International Race of Champions results \|- ! Year ! Make ! Q1 ! Q2 ! Q3 ! 1 ! 2 ! 3 ! 4 ! Pos. ! Pts ! Ref \|- ! 1979−80 !rowspan=5\| Chevy \|style="background:#CFEAFF;"\| MCH<br> \| MCH \| RSD \| RSD \| ATL \| colspan=2\| ! NA ! 0 ! \|- ! 1984 \| colspan=3\| \|style="background:#CFEAFF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#CFEAFF;"\| CLE<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| MCH<br> ! 9th ! 31 ! \|- ! 1987 \| colspan=3\| \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#CFCFFF;"\| MOH<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#CFEAFF;"\| GLN<br> ! 10th ! 30 ! \|- ! 1988 \| colspan=3\| \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| RSD<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#CFEAFF;"\| GLN<br> ! 5th ! 45 ! \|- ! 1989 \| colspan=3\| \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#CFEAFF;"\| NZH<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| GLN<br> ! 4th ! 57 ! \|- ! 1990 !rowspan=6\| Dodge \| colspan=3\| \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| CLE<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| MCH<br> \| ! 1st ! 60 ! \|- ! 1991 \| colspan=3\| \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#CFEAFF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#CFEAFF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| GLN<br> ! 9th ! 27 ! \|- ! 1992 \| colspan=3\| \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| MCH<br> ! 2nd ! 63 ! \|- ! 1993 \| colspan=3\| \| DAY \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| MCH<br><small>5</small> ! NA ! 0 ! \|- ! 1994 \| colspan=3\| \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#CFEAFF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| MCH<br> ! 4th ! 56 ! \|- ! 1995 \| colspan=3\| \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| DAR<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| MCH<br> ! 1st ! 61 ! \|- ! 1996 !rowspan=6\| Pontiac \| colspan=3\| \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| CLT<br> \| MCH ! 8th ! 39 ! \|- ! 1997 \| colspan=3\| \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#CFEAFF;"\| CLT<br> \|style="background:#CFEAFF;"\| CAL<br> \|style="background:#CFEAFF;"\| MCH<br> ! 7th ! 35 ! \|- ! 1998 \| colspan=3\| \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#CFEAFF;"\| CAL<br> \|style="background:#DFFFDF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#CFEAFF;"\| IND<br> ! 7th ! 36 ! \|- ! 1999 \| colspan=3\| \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#CFEAFF;"\| IND<br> ! 1st ! 75 ! \|- ! 2000 \| colspan=3\| \|style="background:#FFFFBF;"\| DAY<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| TAL<br> \|style="background:#FFDF9F;"\| MCH<br> \|style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| IND<br> ! 1st ! 74 ! \|- ! 2001 \| colspan=3\| \|style="background:#CFEAFF;"\| DAY<br> \| TAL \| MCH \| IND ! NA ! 0 ! \|} </div> ARCA Hooters SuperCar Series <div style="max-width:100%; overflow:auto;"> (key) (<span style="font-size:85%">Bold – Pole position awarded by qualifying time. Italics – Pole position earned by points standings or practice time. – Most laps led.</span>) {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center; font-size:75%" \|- !colspan=45\| ARCA Hooters SuperCar Series results \|- ! Year ! Team ! No. ! Make ! 1 ! 2 ! 3 ! 4 ! 5 ! 6 ! 7 ! 8 ! 9 ! 10 ! 11 ! 12 ! 13 ! 14 ! 15 ! 16 ! 17 ! 18 ! 19 ! 20 ! ! Pts ! Ref \|- ! 1991 ! nowrap\| Dale Earnhardt, Inc. ! 3 ! Chevy \| DAY \| ATL \| KIL \| TAL \| TOL \| FRS \| POC \| MCH \| KIL \| FRS \| DEL \| POC \| TAL \| style="background:#EFCFFF;"\| HPT<br> \| MCH \| ISF \| TOL \| DSF \| TWS \| ATL ! 113th ! - ! \|- ! 1993 ! Dale Earnhardt, Inc. ! 3 ! Chevy \| DAY \| FIF \| style="background:#DFDFDF;"\| TWS<br> \| TAL \| KIL \| CMS \| FRS \| TOL \| POC \| MCH \| FRS \| POC \| KIL \| ISF \| DSF \| TOL \| SLM \| WIN \| ATL \| ! 109th ! - ! \|} </div> 24 Hours of Daytona <div style="max-width:100%; overflow:auto;"> (key) {\| class"wikitable" style"font-size:90%" !colspan=45\| 24 Hours of Daytona results \|-style="background:#abbbdd;" ! Year ! Class ! No ! Team ! Car ! Co-drivers ! Laps ! Position ! Class Pos. \|- ! 2001 \|align=center\| GTS \|align=center\| 3 \| nowrap\| Corvette Racing \| nowrap\| Chevrolet Corvette \| nowrap\| Andy Pilgrim<br> Dale Earnhardt Jr.<br> Kelly Collins \| 642 \| style"background:#DFFFDF;" aligncenter \| 4 \| style"background:#DFDFDF;" aligncenter\| 2 \|} </div> See also * Dale Earnhardt, Inc. * Ralph Earnhardt, father * Teresa Earnhardt, wife * Dale Earnhardt Jr., son * Kelly Earnhardt Miller, daughter * Jeffrey Earnhardt, grandson * Kerry Earnhardt, son * Bobby Earnhardt, grandson * Richard Childress Racing * List of Daytona 500 winners * List of Daytona 500 pole position winners * List of NASCAR Sprint Cup Series champions * List of all-time NASCAR Cup Series winners * List of members of the NASCAR Hall of Fame Notes References External links * * }} }} Category:24 Hours of Daytona drivers Category:1951 births Category:2001 deaths Category:Accidental deaths in Florida Category:American people of German descent Category:American Speed Association drivers Category:Dale Earnhardt Inc. drivers Dale Sr Category:Filmed deaths in sports Category:Filmed deaths in motorsport Category:Filmed deaths in the United States Category:International Motorsports Hall of Fame inductees Category:International Race of Champions drivers Category:NASCAR Cup Series champions Category:NASCAR drivers Category:NASCAR Hall of Fame inductees Category:NASCAR team owners Category:Sportspeople from Kannapolis, North Carolina Category:Racing drivers from Charlotte, North Carolina Category:Racing drivers who died while racing Category:Richard Childress Racing drivers Category:Rolex Sports Car Series drivers Category:Sports deaths in Florida Category:Daytona 500 winners	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dale_Earnhardt	2025-04-05T18:28:18.067935
7896	List of games based on Dune	A number of games have been published based on the Dune universe created by Frank Herbert. Card games Dune (1997): Collectible card game produced by Five Rings Publishing Group/Last Unicorn Games and later Wizards of the Coast. Each player leads a planetary house, "battling, conniving, and bribing its way to greatness ... players bid for powerful characters, search for the life-prolonging spice melange, avoid sandworms, engage in interstellar commerce, and, naturally, try to kill each other". Delayed by legal issues and then a corporate buyout of Last Unicorn by Wizards of the Coast, a "Limited Edition" run of 3000 copies of a core rule-book was initially published, pending Wizards of the Coast's conversion of the game to its d20 role-playing game system and a subsequent wider release. but was eventually published by Wizards of the Coast after the acquisition. Dune: Adventures in the Imperium (2021): Modiphius Entertainment. Its release coincided with the 2021 Dune film. Video games There have been six licensed Dune-related video games released. Dune (1992) 1992's Dune from Cryo Interactive/Virgin Interactive blends adventure with strategy. Loosely following the story of the 1965 Frank Herbert novel Dune and using many visual elements from the 1984 film of the same name by David Lynch, the game casts the player as Paul Atreides, with the ultimate goal of driving the Harkonnens from the planet Dune and taking control of its valuable export, the spice. Often considered to be the first "mainstream modern real-time strategy game", Dune II established many conventions of the genre. Though gameplay is similar to its predecessor, Dune 2000 features an enhanced storyline and functionality. A sequel to Dune 2000, the real-time strategy game features 3D graphics and live-action cutscenes, and casts players as Atreides, Harkonnens, or Ordos. Frank Herbert's Dune (2001) Released in 2001 by Cryo Interactive/DreamCatcher Interactive, Frank Herbert's Dune is a 3D video game based on the 2000 Sci Fi Channel miniseries of the same name. As Paul Muad'Dib Atreides, the player must become leader of the Fremen, seize control of Dune, and defeat the evil Baron Harkonnen. Dune Generations (2001, cancelled) right\|175px\|Dune Generations logo In 2001, Cryonetworks disclosed information about Dune Generations, an online, 3D real-time strategy game set in the Dune universe. An official website for the upcoming game featured concept images, a brief background story and description of the persistent gameworld, and a list of frequently asked questions. The game would be constructed using Cryo's own online multimedia development framework SCOL. Within "the infrastructure of a permanent and massive multiplayer world that exists online", Dune Generations would let players assume control of a dynasty in the Dune universe, with the goal of first mastering the natural resources of their own homeworlds and ultimately rising in power and influence through conflicts and alliances with other player dynasties. Each of the three available dynasty types - traders, soldiers, or mercenaries - would provide a different playing experience, all with the long-term goal of gaining control of Arrakis and its valuable spice. The game was still in the alpha testing stage in February 2002, and the project was ultimately halted after Cryo filed for bankruptcy in July. Dune: Spice Wars (2022) Dune: Spice Wars was released on Steam in Early Access by French development studio Shiro Games on April 26, 2022 before being fully released on September 14, 2023. The game is inspired by Dune and Dune 2 with a strong influence from the books rather than the films. It is a real-time strategy game with 4X elements. Dune: Awakening (2025) Dune: Awakening is an upcoming open world action survival massively multiplayer online game set on the planet Arrakis. It was announced by its publisher and developer Funcom on Gamescom Opening Night Live 2022; The first trailer was released on August 23, 2022. It is currently scheduled to be released on May 20, 2025 for PC, with ports for PlayStation 5 and Xbox Series X/S to follow. Online games There have also been many Dune-based MUDs (multi-user dimension) and browser-based online games, created and run by fans. Dune text room-based MMORPG Dune MUD is an unlicensed, online multiplayer game, a MUD active since 1992. DuneMUSH was an unlicensed, online multiplayer game, a MUSH active in the early 1990s. Dune II was an unlicensed, online multiplayer MUSH active in the early 1990s. Behind the Dune Behind the Dune is a pornographic, unlicensed, online flash single player game first released in 2016. The game is based on Dune (1992) by Cryo Interactive. References External links Frank Herbert's Dune games at uvlist.net Dune games at Dune2k.com Dune Dune	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_games_based_on_Dune	2025-04-05T18:28:18.096211
7900	List of Dune characters	's Dune (2021). From left to right: Chani (Zendaya), Gurney Halleck (Josh Brolin), Lady Jessica (Rebecca Ferguson), Stilgar (Javier Bardem), Paul Atreides (Timothée Chalamet), Duncan Idaho (Jason Momoa), Liet-Kynes (Sharon Duncan-Brewster) and Leto Atreides (Oscar Isaac).]] Dune is a science fiction media franchise that originated with the 1965 novel of the same name by American author Frank Herbert. Dune is frequently cited as the best-selling science fiction novel in history, and won the 1966 Hugo Award as well as the inaugural Nebula Award for Best Novel. Herbert wrote five sequels before his death in 1986: Dune Messiah (1969), Children of Dune (1976), God Emperor of Dune (1981), Heretics of Dune (1984) and Chapterhouse: Dune (1985). Dune follows Paul, the scion of House Atreides, as his family is thrown into the dangerous political intrigues centered on the desert planet Arrakis, only known source of the oracular spice melange, the most important and valuable substance in the universe. The series spans 5,000 years, focusing on Paul and then his various descendants. Dune was adapted as a 1984 film, and again in two parts, the films Dune (2021) and Dune: Part Two (2024). Additionally, the novel was adapted as a 2000 television miniseries, ''Frank Herbert's Dune, and the first two sequels were also adapted as a single miniseries, Frank Herbert's Children of Dune'', in 2003. Since 1999, Frank Herbert's son Brian Herbert and science fiction author Kevin J. Anderson have published 15 prequel novels, collected in the series Prelude to Dune (1999–2001), Legends of Dune (2002–2004), Heroes of Dune (2008–2023), Great Schools of Dune (2012–2016), and The Caladan Trilogy (2020–2022). They have also released two sequel novels—Hunters of Dune (2006) and Sandworms of Dune (2007)—which complete the original series. Overview {\| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" width"100%" style="text-align:center" \|- !rowspan"2" style"width:10%;" \| Character !colspan="6" \| Novels !colspan="5" \| Adaptations \|- !style="width:5%;" <!-- Book 1 --> \| Dune <br/> !style="width:5%;" <!-- Book 2 --> \| Dune Messiah <br/> !style="width:5%;" <!-- Book 3 --> \| Children of Dune <br/> !style="width:6%;" <!-- Book 4 --> \| God Emperor of Dune <br/> !style="width:6%;" <!-- Book 5 --> \| Heretics of Dune <br/> !style="width:7%;" <!-- Book 6 --> \| Chapterhouse: Dune <br/> ! Dune <br/> ! Dune <br/> ! Children of Dune <br/> ! Dune <br/> ! <br/> \|- \| \| Paul Atreides \| \|\| \|\| \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| Kyle MacLachlan \| colspan="2" \| Alec Newman \| colspan="2" \| Timothée Chalamet \|- \| \| Lady Jessica \| \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| Francesca Annis \| Saskia Reeves \| Alice Krige \| colspan="2" \| Rebecca Ferguson \|- \| \| Leto I Atreides \| \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| Jürgen Prochnow \| William Hurt \| <!-- 2003 miniseries --> \| Oscar Isaac \| <!-- 2024 film --> \|- \| \| Vladimir Harkonnen \| \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| Kenneth McMillan \| colspan="2" \| Ian McNeice \| colspan="2" \| Stellan Skarsgård \|- \| \| Chani \| \|\| \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| Sean Young \| colspan="2" \| Barbora Kodetová \| colspan="2" \| Zendaya \|- \| \| Stilgar \| \|\| \|\| \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| Everett McGill \| Uwe Ochsenknecht \| Steven Berkoff \| colspan="2" \| Javier Bardem \|- \| \| Gaius Helen Mohiam \| \|\| \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| Siân Phillips \| colspan="2" \| Zuzana Geislerová \| colspan="2" \| Charlotte Rampling \|- \| \| Duncan Idaho \| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \| Richard Jordan \| James Watson \| Edward Atterton \| Jason Momoa \| <!-- 2024 film --> \|- \| \| Wellington Yueh \| \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| Dean Stockwell \| Robert Russell \| <!-- 2003 miniseries --> \| Chang Chen \| <!-- 2024 film --> \|- \| \| Gurney Halleck \| \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| Patrick Stewart \| colspan="2" \| P. H. Moriarty \| colspan="2" \| Josh Brolin \|- \| \| Feyd-Rautha \| \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| Sting \| Matt Keeslar \| colspan="2" <!-- 2003 miniseries & 2021 film --> \| Austin Butler \|- \| \| Glossu Rabban \| \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| Paul Smith \| \| <!-- 2003 miniseries --> \| colspan="2" \| Dave Bautista \|- \| \| Princess Irulan \| \|\| \|\| \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| Virginia Madsen \| colspan="2" \| Julie Cox \| <!-- 2021 film --> \| Florence Pugh \|- \| \| Shaddam IV \| \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| José Ferrer \| Giancarlo Giannini \| colspan="2" <!-- 2003 miniseries & 2021 film --> \| Christopher Walken \|- \| \| Thufir Hawat \| \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| Freddie Jones \| \| <!-- 2003 miniseries --> \| colspan="1" \| Stephen McKinley Henderson \| <!-- 2024 film --> \|- \| \| Count Fenring \| \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| <!-- 1984 film --> \| Miroslav Táborský \| colspan="3" <!-- 2003 miniserie, 2021 film & 2024 film --> \|- \| \| Margot Fenring \| \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| colspan="4" <!-- 1984 film, 2000 miniseries, 2003 miniseries and 2021 film --> \| Léa Seydoux \|- \| \| Piter De Vries \| \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| Brad Dourif \| Jan Unger \| <!-- 2003 miniseries --> \| David Dastmalchian \| <!-- 2024 film --> \|- \| \| Alia Atreides \| \|\| \|\| \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| Alicia Witt \| Laura Burton \| Daniela Amavia \| <!-- 2021 film --> \| Anya Taylor-Joy \|- \| \| Shadout Mapes \| \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| Linda Hunt \| Jaroslava Šiktancová \| <!-- 2003 miniseries --> \| Golda Rosheuvel \| <!-- 2024 film --> \|- \| \| Liet-Kynes \| \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| Max von Sydow \| Karel Dobrý \| <!-- 2003 miniseries --> \| Sharon Duncan-Brewster \| <!-- 2024 film --> \|- \| \| Ramallo \| \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| Silvana Mangano \| Drahomira Fialkova \| colspan="2" <!-- 2003 miniseries & 2021 film --> \| Giusi Merli \|- \| \| Jamis \| \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| Judd Omen \| Christopher Lee Brown \| <!-- 2003 miniseries --> \| colspan="2" \| Babs Olusanmokun \|- \| \| Harah \| \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| Molly Wrynn \| colspan="4" <!-- 2000 miniseries, 2003 miniseries, 2021 film & 2024 film --> \|- \| \| Otheym \| \|\| \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| Honorato Magalone \| colspan="2" \| Jakob Schwarz \| colspan="2" <!-- 2021 film & 2024 film --> \|- \| \| Korba \| \|\| \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| colspan="2" <!-- 1984 film & 2000 miniseries --> \| Karel Dobrý \| colspan="2" <!-- 2021 film & 2024 film --> \|- \| \| Aramsham \| \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| colspan="5" \|- \| \| Iakin Nefud \| \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| Jack Nance \| colspan="4" <!-- 2000 miniseries, 2003 miniseries, 2021 film & 2024 film --> \|- \| \| Scytale \| <!-- 1 --> \|\| \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| \|\| \| Leonardo Cimino \| <!-- 2000 miniseries --> \| Martin McDougall \| colspan="2" <!-- 2021 film & 2024 film --> \|- \| \| Edric \| <!-- 1 --> \|\| \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| colspan="2" <!-- 1984 film & 2000 miniseries --> \| Terrence Stone \| colspan="2" <!-- 2021 film & 2024 film --> \|- \| \| Bijaz \| <!-- 1 --> \|\| \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| colspan="2" <!-- 1984 film & 2000 miniseries --> \| Gee Williams \| colspan="2" <!-- 2021 film & 2024 film --> \|- \| \| Lichna \| <!-- 1 --> \|\| \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| colspan="2" <!-- 1984 film & 2000 miniseries --> \| Klára Issová \| colspan="2" <!-- 2021 film & 2024 film --> \|- \| \| Farok \| <!-- 1 --> \|\| \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| colspan="2" <!-- 1984 film & 2000 miniseries --> \| Ivo Novák \| colspan="2" <!-- 2021 film & 2024 film --> \|- \| \| Princess Wensicia \| <!-- 1 --> \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| colspan="2" <!-- 1984 film & 2000 miniseries --> \| Susan Sarandon \| colspan="2" <!-- 2021 film & 2024 film --> \|- \| \| Leto II Atreides \| <!-- 1 --> \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| \|\| \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| colspan="2" <!-- 1984 film & 2000 miniseries --> \| James McAvoy \| colspan="2" <!-- 2021 film & 2024 film --> \|- \| \| Ghanima Atreides \| <!-- 1 --> \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| colspan="2" <!-- 1984 film & 2000 miniseries --> \| Jessica Brooks \| colspan="2" <!-- 2021 film & 2024 film --> \|- \| \| Tyekanik \| <!-- 1 --> \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| colspan="2" <!-- 1984 film & 2000 miniseries --> \| Marek Vašut \| colspan="2" <!-- 2021 film & 2024 film --> \|- \| \| Farad'n \| <!-- 1 --> \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| colspan="2" <!-- 1984 film & 2000 miniseries --> \| Jonathan Brüün \| colspan="2" <!-- 2021 film & 2024 film --> \|- \| \| Javid \| <!-- 1 --> \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| colspan="2" <!-- 1984 film & 2000 miniseries --> \| Rik Young \| colspan="2" <!-- 2021 film & 2024 film --> \|- \| \| Siona Atreides \| <!-- 1 --> \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| colspan="5" \|- \| \| Hwi Noree \| <!-- 1 --> \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| colspan="5" \|- \| \| Anteac \| <!-- 1 --> \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| colspan="5" \|- \| \| Moneo Atreides \| <!-- 1 --> \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| colspan="5" \|- \| \| Nayla \| <!-- 1 --> \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| colspan="5" \|- \| \| Chenoeh \| <!-- 1 --> \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| colspan="5" \|- \| \| Luyseyal \| <!-- 1 --> \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| colspan="5" \|- \| \| Lucilla \| <!-- 1 --> \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| \|\| \| colspan="5" \|- \| \| Miles Teg \| <!-- 1 --> \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| \|\| \| colspan="5" \|- \| \| Murbella \| <!-- 1 --> \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| \|\| \| colspan="5" \|- \| \| Darwi Odrade \| <!-- 1 --> \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| \|\| \| colspan="5" \|- \| \| Sheeana \| <!-- 1 --> \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| \|\| \| colspan="5" \|- \| \| Tylwyth Waff \| <!-- 1 --> \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| \|\| \| colspan="5" \|- \| \| Bellonda \| <!-- 1 --> \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| \|\| \| colspan="5" \|- \| \| Taraza \| <!-- 1 --> \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| colspan="5" \|- \| \| Burzmali \| <!-- 1 --> \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| colspan="5" \|- \| \| Hedley Tuek \| <!-- 1 --> \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| \|\| <!-- 6 --> \| colspan="5" \|- \| \| Daniel and Marty \| <!-- 1 --> \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| \| colspan="5" \|- \| \| Dama \| <!-- 1 --> \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| \| colspan="5" \|- \| \| Logno \| <!-- 1 --> \|\| <!-- 2 --> \|\| <!-- 3 --> \|\| <!-- 4 --> \|\| <!-- 5 --> \|\| \| colspan="5" \|} Introduced in Dune (1965) Paul Atreides In Dune, Paul is the son and heir of Duke Leto Atreides and Lady Jessica, whose family is thrown into the dangerous political intrigues centered on the inhospitable desert planet Arrakis, only known source of the oracular spice melange, the most important and valuable substance in the universe. Paul has been trained by his father and several Atreides attendants in fighting and the art of war, and by his mother in some of her Bene Gesserit disciplines. Paul also possesses burgeoning prescient abilities, which are further unlocked by the inescapable exposure to melange on Arrakis. House Atreides is soon betrayed and scattered, with Leto killed, his forces devastated, and Paul and Jessica forced to flee into the open desert. They are taken in by the native Fremen, a secretive population of fierce fighters who thrive despite the scarcity of water and presence of aggressive, giant sandworms. Paul rises to lead the planetwide Fremen forces against the Imperial stranglehold over Arrakis, ultimately seizing control of the planet and deposing Padishah Emperor Shaddam IV. In Dune Messiah, Paul's empire is challenged by the conspiracies of various factions hoping to destroy him, while a jihad in his name rages across the universe. After he is blinded by a devastating weapon known as a stone burner, Paul exiles himself into the desert, per Fremen custom. Paul returns under the guise of "The Preacher" in Children of Dune, rallying against the Fremen religion and the jihad raging in his name. The Preacher is ultimately assassinated by one of Alia's guards after calling her a blasphemer. Paul is portrayed by Kyle MacLachlan in the 1984 film adaptation Dune, The character is played by Timothée Chalamet in the 2021 film Dune and its sequel, Dune: Part Two (2024). Lady Jessica In Dune, Lady Jessica is the concubine of Duke Leto and the mother of his son Paul and daughter Alia. Jessica is one of the Bene Gesserit, a secretive, matriarchal order who achieve superhuman abilities through physical and mental conditioning and the use of the drug melange. Instructed by the Bene Gesserit to first conceive a daughter with Leto to further the order's centuries-long breeding program, she disobeyed out of love for Leto, and gave him a son. This seemingly minor misstep puts the Atreides bloodline on a collision course with events that will ultimately change the fate of the universe. Pregnant with Alia, Jessica flees into the desert with Paul as House Atreides is all but destroyed by the forces of the wicked Baron Vladimir Harkonnen. Finding refuge with the native Fremen, she and Paul take advantage of the legends planted there by Bene Gesserit religious engineering, casting themselves as the prophesied messiah and his mother. Jessica undergoes the Fremen version of the Bene Gesserit spice agony ritual, becoming a Reverend Mother and unlocking Other Memory, the personas and memories of all her female ancestors. But doing so while pregnant subjects the unborn Alia to an onslaught of heightened awareness for which her fragile consciousness is not prepared. Jessica returns to Arrakis in Children of Dune and recognizes that Alia, who serves as regent for Paul and Chani's twin children, Leto II and Ghanima, has succumbed to the dangers of her unique birth and become possessed. Jessica escapes an assassination attempt by Alia, and trains Farad'n, the grandson of Shaddam IV, in the Bene Gesserit way. Lady Jessica is portrayed by Francesca Annis in the 1984 film. and "warmly protective but all-too-vulnerable". Leto is portrayed by Jürgen Prochnow in the 1984 film. William Hurt plays Leto in the 2000 miniseries. Leto is portrayed by Oscar Isaac in the 2021 film. In 2020, Funko produced a Duke Leto figure as part of their POP! Television line. It is a vinyl figure in the Japanese chibi style, depicting Leto in armor and styled after the 2021 Denis Villeneuve film. Leto is also a primary character in the prequel trilogies Prelude to Dune and The Caladan Trilogy by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson. In Prelude to Dune, young Leto's mother, Helena, arranges for his father, expert bullfighter Duke Paulus Atreides, to be killed by a drugged Salusan bull so she can rule Caladan as Leto's regent. He exiles his mother to a distant convent to avoid the scandal of a public execution, and as duke takes Kailea Vernius of the industrial planet Ix as his concubine. They have a son, Victor, but grow apart, and Kailea's resentment and insecurities build. Threatened by Leto's attraction to the Bene Gesserit acolyte Jessica, Kailea attempts to kill him, but in the ensuing accident her brother Rhombur is critically injured and Victor is killed. Kailea commits suicide, and Leto takes Jessica as his concubine. Though instructed by the Bene Gesserit to bear the mourning Leto a daughter, Jessica intentionally conceives the son he desires, Paul. Leto surrounds himself with loyal and capable individuals, and comes to be known as an effective politician, a fair and just statesman, and a capable leader of his small military. The new Padishah Emperor, Shaddam IV, both admires Leto and dislikes him as a political rival. Leto's military victory over the Tleilaxu forces occupying Ix, and his role in the subsequent political censure of Shaddam, ensure Leto a vengeful enemy in the emperor. Vladimir Harkonnen Baron Vladimir Harkonnen is the ruthless and cunning head of House Harkonnen, centuries-old enemies of House Atreides. The Baron's intent to exterminate the Atreides line seems close to fruition as Duke Leto is lured to Arrakis on the pretense of taking over the lucrative spice mining operation there, previously controlled by the Harkonnens. The Baron has coerced Leto's own physician, the trusted Suk doctor Wellington Yueh, to be his agent in the Atreides household. Yueh disables the protective shields around the Atreides palace and the Harkonnen forces (secretly supplemented by the seemingly unstoppable Imperial Sardaukar warriors) attack. Yueh gives a captive Leto the means to assassinate the Baron, who survives the attempt as Leto dies. Escaping into the desert and later presumed dead, Leto's son Paul reveals to his mother, Lady Jessica, that the Baron is her father. The Baron's succession plan is to install his charismatic yet deadly younger nephew, Feyd-Rautha, as ruler of Arrakis after a period of tyrannical misrule by his brutish elder nephew, Glossu Rabban, making Feyd appear to be the savior of the people. A crisis on Arrakis begins when the mysterious Muad'Dib emerges as a leader of the native Fremen tribes, uniting them against Harkonnen rule. Eventually, a series of Fremen victories against Rabban threaten to disrupt the trade of the spice, attracting the attention of Shaddam IV himself. The emperor arrives on Arrakis with several legions of his Sardaukar, and he and the Baron are shocked to discover that the Fremen warlord Muad'Dib is actually Paul Atreides. The Fremen, previously underestimated by the Harkonnens, overcome the Imperial and Harkonnen forces thanks to Paul's military strategy, their own ferocity and their ability to use sandstorms and the giant sandworms of Arrakis to their advantage. Paul's sister Alia, four years old but born a fully aware Fremen Reverend Mother, reveals to the Baron that he is her grandfather before she kills him with a poisoned needle called a gom jabbar. In Children of Dune, Alia succumbs to the dangers of her unique birth and is possessed by the persona of the deceased Baron Harkonnen. As he promises his assistance in quelling the multitude of other ancestral voices assailing her, Alia gradually relinquishes control of herself to the Baron, and descends into depravity and a lust for power sure to destroy the Atreides empire from within. Eventually realizing that the Baron's consciousness has surpassed her abilities to contain him, Alia commits suicide, killing the Baron in the process. Baron Harkonnen is portrayed by Kenneth McMillan in the 1984 film, Stilgar is portrayed by Everett McGill in the 1984 film. Javier Bardem portrays Stilgar in the 2021 film McFarlane Toys released a 7" articulating action figure of Stilgar in 2020, styled after the 2021 Denis Villeneuve film. and is succeeded by Edward Atterton in its 2003 sequel. Jason Momoa portrays Duncan in the 2021 film. Chang Chen plays the character in the 2021 film. The character also appears in the Prelude to Dune prequel trilogy by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson, and is resurrected as a ghola in Hunters of Dune and Sandworms of Dune, the Brian Herbert/Anderson sequels which conclude the original series. In Prelude to Dune, a younger Baron Harkonnen consults with Yueh seeking a cure for the debilitating disease which is slowly but surely rendering him obese. Yueh is aware of no cure, but correctly suggests that the disease's source may be the Bene Gesserit. The early years of Yueh as the physician to House Atreides are also explored in the novels. In Hunters of Dune, set 5,000 years after Dune, Yueh is resurrected as a ghola to aid in the coming final battle with mankind's "great enemy." In Sandworms of Dune, the finale of the original series, the young Yueh ghola is wracked by feelings of intense guilt over the actions of the "original" Yueh. Though he does not yet possess those memories, he fears that he will repeat those mistakes. A ghola's memories are restored by subjecting the ghola to an intense personal trauma, specific to each individual, so Yueh's great fear of having his memories restored becomes the trigger used by the Bene Gesserit to unlock them. Later, Yueh kills the gestating ghola of Leto, having been tricked into believing that it was De Vries, and ultimately also kills the ghola of the Baron Harkonnen. Eleven years later, Yueh lives on the original Atreides homeworld Caladan, helping the Jessica ghola restore it to its former glory. Mohiam Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother Gaius Helen Mohiam is Padishah Emperor Shaddam IV's Truthsayer, and Lady Jessica's former teacher. In Dune, Mohiam subjects 15-year-old Paul Atreides to a life or death test of his humanity: he is inflicted with excruciating pain, but must exert control over his survival instinct and withstand it, or be killed instantly with a poisoned needle. Paul passes the test, having sustained more pain than anyone before him. Mohiam, though still furious at Jessica for disobeying the Sisterhood's command that she bear a daughter for their breeding scheme, is intrigued by the potential she sees in Paul and his nascent prescient abilities. Years later on Arrakis, Mohiam is shaken by her encounter with Paul's four-year-old sister Alia, who by misadventure had been born a fully aware Reverend Mother. Mohiam is further alarmed by the ritual battle-to-the-death between Paul and the Harkonnen heir, Feyd-Rautha, which could prove catastrophic for the Bene Gesserit breeding program no matter the outcome. Paul is victorious in the duel, and in seizing control of Arrakis, the only source of the all-important spice melange, gains insurmountable power over all civilization. Seeing the inevitability of the situation Paul has orchestrated, Mohiam compels Shaddam to give in to Paul's demands and relinquish the Imperial throne to him. Twelve years later in Dune Messiah, Mohiam joins a conspiracy to topple the rule of Paul Atreides that includes the Tleilaxu Face Dancer Scytale, the Spacing Guild Navigator Edric, and even Paul's embittered consort Princess Irulan, Shaddam's daughter. Paul has sworn that only his Fremen concubine, Chani, will bear his children. Knowing that the Bene Gesserit are desperate to regain control of his bloodline for their breeding program, and are fearful of the effect Chani's "wild" genes may have on their offspring, Paul makes Mohiam an offer. In exchange for Chani's guaranteed safety, and the Sisterhood's acceptance of his decision to father no heirs with Irulan, Paul offers something of the utmost value: his sperm. This is a complicated proposition for Mohiam, because artificial insemination is forbidden in the wake of the anti-technology Butlerian Jihad, and the idea of it is as horrific to the Sisterhood as the loss of the precious Atreides genes. The conspiracy ultimately fails, and Paul kills Scytale. Edric and Mohiam are executed on orders from Paul's sister Alia, despite Paul's previous instructions to spare Mohiam's life. Mohiam is portrayed by Siân Phillips in the 1984 film, and its 2003 sequel. The character is played by Charlotte Rampling in the 2021 film Noting that the characters in Dune fit mythological archetypes, novelist Brian Herbert, Frank Herbert's son and biographer, writes that "Beast Rabban Harkonnen, though evil and aggressive, is essentially a fool." The character does not appear in the 2021 film, but is played by Austin Butler in its 2024 sequel. In Dune, a widespread rebellion of the native Fremen on Arrakis creates a disruption in the production of the all-important spice melange, bringing Shaddam and his court, including Irulan, to the planet to impose order. Paul Atreides leads the Fremen in an overwhelming victory over the combined Harkonnen and Imperial Sardaukar forces and seizes control of Arrakis, the only known source of the spice. Paul demands that Shaddam relinquish the Imperial throne to him or he will destroy all spice production and plunge the universe into chaos. Shaddam bristles at Paul's suggestion that he marry Irulan, but she immediately recognizes the inevitability of the situation Paul has orchestrated, and tells Shaddam, "Here's a man fit to be your son." Once Paul defeats the treacherous Feyd-Rautha Harkonnen in single combat, and Count Fenring refuses the Emperor's order to kill Paul, Shaddam capitulates. Twelve years later in Dune Messiah, Irulan is Paul's consort and trusted advisor, but he has sworn that only his beloved concubine Chani will bear his children. Paul and Chani remain childless, however, because a resentful Irulan, Bene Gesserit-trained and doing their bidding, has been secretly feeding Chani contraceptives to prevent her from conceiving an Imperial heir. The Sisterhood are desperate to regain control of Paul's bloodline for their breeding program, and are fearful of the effect Chani's "wild" genes may have on their offspring. But when Chani begins an ancient Fremen fertility diet high in melange, Irulan loses her ability to interfere, and Chani becomes pregnant. Chani ultimately discovers not only Irulan's role in her infertility but the fact that the contraceptives have caused permanent damage and will jeopardize her pregnancy. Chani seeks to kill Irulan, but Paul forbids it. He is secretly somewhat grateful to Irulan, as he has seen through his prescience that childbirth will bring Chani's death, and so Irulan has unwittingly extended Chani's life. Chani dies giving birth to the twins Leto II and Ghanima, and a newly blinded Paul follows Fremen custom and wanders alone into the desert to die. Realizing her love for Paul, Irulan breaks ties with the Bene Gesserit and dedicates herself to his children. Nine years later in Children of Dune, Irulan's sister Wensicia plots to assassinate Leto and Ghanima to reclaim power for House Corrino through her son, Farad'n. Irulan also serves as chief advisor to Paul's sister Alia, who reigns as Holy Regent for the twins. Irulan attempts to serve as a guide and confidante to Ghanima, but is often flustered by the adult consciousness the twins possess as a result of being pre-born and having access to Other Memory. Ghanima cares for Irulan, but Alia never trusts the princess, due to Irulan's Corrino heritage and Alia's own increasing paranoia. Irulan flees into the desert with Ghanima and Stilgar during the Fremen rebellion against Alia's tyranny. Though the other rebels are massacred, Irulan and Stilgar are imprisoned upon their capture, and presumably freed when Leto deposes Alia. Irulan is portrayed by Virginia Madsen in the 1984 film, Giannini also dubbed himself in the Italian version of the miniseries. The character does not appear in the 2021 film, but is played by Christopher Walken in its 2024 sequel. Thufir Hawat \| affiliation = \| portrayer = (2000 miniseries) * Stephen McKinley Henderson (2021 film) }} \| first = Dune (1965) \| last = Paul of Dune (2008) }} Thufir Hawat is a Mentat, an individual conditioned to mimic the cognitive and analytical ability of computers, who serves as Master of Assassins and primary military strategist for Duke Leto Atreides. In Dune, the Atreides are lured to Arrakis on the pretense of taking over the lucrative spice mining operation there, but soon fall prey to a catastrophic attack by their longtime enemies the Harkonnens, whose forces are secretly bolstered by the fierce Sardaukar warriors of the emperor, Shaddam IV. Thufir is captured, and the calculating Baron Vladimir Harkonnen takes him as a replacement for his own twisted Mentat Piter De Vries, who was killed in the aftermath of the attack. The Baron hopes to channel Thufir's desire for revenge away from House Harkonnen, and keeps his abilities in check by feeding him false data, specifically, permitting him to believe that Leto's concubine Lady Jessica had been the traitor responsible for the Atreides' destruction. Thufir is also secretly administered a residual poison which requires regular doses of an antidote to prevent death. portrays Thufir Hawat in the 2000 miniseries. \| image3 = StephenMcKinkleyHendersonAmherstHS.png \| alt3 \| caption3 Stephen McKinley Henderson portrays Thufir Hawat in the 2021 film. }} In spite of these obstacles, Thufir attempts to bring down the Harkonnens from within. He gains the trust of the Baron's nephew and heir Feyd-Rautha by assisting him with a plot to discredit the Harkonnen slavemaster and replace him with someone loyal to Feyd. Thufir encourages the ambitions of Feyd against the Baron, which leads him to attempt to assassinate his uncle. The Baron, warned by Thufir, eludes the attempt and punishes Feyd for his failure. Later, Thufir is coerced to assassinate Leto's son, Paul Atreides. Paul suspects this, but out of gratitude for Thufir's exceptional loyalty, Paul gives him the opportunity to take anything Thufir wishes of him, even his life. Hawat chooses death from the poison rather than to betray Paul. Thufir is portrayed by Freddie Jones in the 1984 film, and he filmed scenes for its 2024 sequel. but is portrayed by Anya Taylor-Joy in a cameo appearance in the 2024 sequel film. Shadout Mapes The Shadout Mapes is the mysterious Fremen housekeeper at the palace of Arakeen on Arrakis. In Dune, Duke Leto Atreides, his Bene Gesserit concubine Lady Jessica, and their son Paul arrive as Leto takes over management of the planet's lucrative spice mining operations. The Fremen begin to believe that Paul is their prophesied messiah, who is foretold to be accompanied by his Bene Gesserit mother, and when talking to Mapes, Jessica uses phrases that are part of the legend. Mapes gives Jessica a crysknife, a weapon made from the tooth of a giant sandworm that is considered holy by the Fremen and rarely seen by outsiders. Paul later saves Mapes from a deadly hunter-seeker intended to kill him, and she warns of a traitor in the Atreides household. Mapes is killed by that same traitor, Suk doctor Wellington Yueh, as the Harkonnens attack. Mapes is portrayed by Linda Hunt in the 1984 film, Mapes is the main character of the 2022 short story "Dune: The Edge of a Crysknife" by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson, which takes place before the events of the Prelude to Dune trilogy. Liet-Kynes \| affiliation = Fremen \| portrayer = \| first = Dune (1965) }} Liet-Kynes is the Imperial Planetologist of the desert planet Arrakis, and the father of Chani by his Fremen wife, Faroula. In Dune, Duke Leto Atreides meets with Kynes soon after arriving on Arrakis to take over the melange harvesting operations there. Escorted by the planet's native Fremen, Kynes is the liaison between them and the Imperials. Kynes takes personal note of Leto's son Paul, who seems to know Fremen ways intuitively, and shows signs of being a prophesied Fremen messiah. The Atreides later hear of a person or deity named "Liet" to whom all the Fremen communities give allegiance. It is only after Leto is killed, and Paul and his mother, Lady Jessica, take refuge among the Fremen that Liet and Kynes are revealed to be the same person. He is the son of Pardot Kynes, the first Imperial Planetologist of Arrakis, and a Fremen woman, and is Chani's father. Captured by the Harkonnens and left to die in the desert without a stillsuit or water, Kynes is killed by a spice blow, an explosive eruption that is part of the melange cycle. In God Emperor of Dune, Liet-Kynes's wife and Chani's mother is identified as Faroula, "a noted herbalist among the Fremen". Liet-Kynes is portrayed by Max von Sydow in the 1984 film, Liet-Kynes also appears in the Prelude to Dune prequel trilogy by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson. That series establishes that his mother is Frieth, the sister of Stilgar. Growing up under Fremen tradition, Liet inherits his father's position as planetologist as well as his secret goal of terraforming Arrakis into a temperate planet. Ramallo Reverend Mother Ramallo is a spiritual leader, or Sayyadina, among the Fremen of Sietch Tabr on Arrakis, a "wild" version of a Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother. In Dune, Paul Atreides and his Bene Gesserit mother, Lady Jessica, flee a Harkonnen attack and find refuge among the Fremen. When Ramallo knows she is nearing the end of her life, Jessica undergoes the ritual spice agony to make her Ramallo's replacement. The Fremen ordeal to become a Reverend Mother involves ingesting the poisonous Water of Life, the exhalation of a dying sandworm. Jessica survives and shares minds with Ramallo, acquiring the older woman's life experiences and collective ancestral Other Memory, and then Ramallo dies. Ramallo is portrayed by Italian actress Silvana Mangano in the 1984 film. Harah Harah is the Fremen wife of Jamis. Her first husband was Geoff, by whom she had a son, Kaleff. Jamis defeated Geoff in a ritual duel and took Harah as his own wife, and fathered her son Orlop. After Paul kills Jamis in a ritual fight to the death in Dune, Fremen custom demands that Paul inherit his possessions, including Harah and her children. Paul must take her into his household as his wife or his servant, and after a year if he has not married her, she may choose as she wishes. Paul accepts Harah as a servant. She is at first insulted by his reluctance to marry her, but dedicates herself to his service. Harah becomes very close to, and protective of, Paul's young sister Alia, who is born a fully aware Reverend Mother and pretends to be a child as she grows up among the Fremen. In Dune Messiah, Harah is married to Stilgar, and is Chani's closest friend. She is witness to the birth of Paul and Chani's twins, Leto II and Ghanima, and to Chani's subsequent death. In Children of Dune Harah dedicates herself to the care of the twins. When an adult Alia's tyranny becomes too great and endangers Leto and Ghanima, Harah goes into hiding with Stilgar, Princess Irulan and the children. Harah is portrayed by Molly Wrynn in the 1984 film. Piter De Vries }} Piter De Vries is a Mentat, an individual conditioned to mimic the cognitive and analytical ability of computers, who serves the ruthless Baron Vladimir Harkonnen. Piter has the added distinction of having been "twisted" into an amoral sadist by the Tleilaxu. In Dune, Piter is the architect of the plan to destroy House Atreides, longtime enemy of the Harkonnens, while restoring the Baron's stewardship over the planet Arrakis. Though the personal physician of Duke Leto Atreides, Wellington Yueh, has undergone Suk conditioning which renders him incapable of inflicting harm on his patients, Piter subverts it by kidnapping and torturing Yueh's wife. Hoping to free her, Yueh betrays the Atreides, enabling a catastrophic attack by the Harkonnens and delivering Leto to the Baron. Yueh learns that his wife is already dead and is killed by Piter. Yueh, however, has given the captive Leto a false tooth filled with poison gas with which to assassinate the Baron. The Baron evades the assassination but Leto and Piter die. Piter is the creator of residual poison, a toxin which requires regular doses of an antidote to prevent death. The Baron secretly administers it to the captured Atreides Mentat Thufir Hawat as coercion to make him the replacement for Piter. In the novel, Piter is described as "tall, though slender, and something about him suggested effeminacy". He is addicted to the drug melange possessing the blue eyes of Ibad that comes with prolonged spice consumption, in addition to the ruby red lips characteristic of those who consume sapho juice, an addictive drug which enhances Mentat capabilities. Piter is portrayed by Brad Dourif in the 1984 film, David Dastmalchian plays the character in the 2021 film. Piter also appears in the Prelude to Dune prequel trilogy by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson. In the series, Piter discovers the Harkonnen heritage of Lady Jessica and her newborn son Paul, and attempts to kidnap and ransom the infant. The plot is thwarted and the secret preserved when Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother Mohiam kills the Mentat and arranges for his corpse to be shipped home to the Harkonnen homeworld, Giedi Prime. An enraged Baron Harkonnen is left with no choice but to order a duplicate from the Bene Tleilax: the Mentat Piter featured in Herbert's original novel Dune. Other * is one of Paul's loyal Fedaykin death commandos in Dune. In Dune Messiah, he is ill after fighting in Paul's jihad, but reveals to Paul evidence of a Fremen conspiracy against him. Otheym gives Paul his dwarf Tleilaxu servant Bijaz, who, like a recording machine, can remember faces, names, and details. Paul accepts reluctantly, seeing the strands of a Tleilaxu plot. Otheym's daughter Lichna is also killed and replaced by a Tleilaxu Face Dancer as a means to infiltrate Paul's household. Otheym is portrayed by Honorato Magalone in the 1984 film, and by Jakob Schwarz in the 2000 miniseries and its 2003 sequel. * is one of Paul's loyal Fedaykin death commandos in Dune. In Dune Messiah, he has become a fanatic of the religion which has risen around Paul, and the High Priest among its Qizarate leaders. Hoping to increase his own religious power, Korba joins a conspiracy to set off an atomic weapon called a stone burner to martyr Paul. The explosion kills hundreds of Fremen and blinds many other, including Paul himself. Korba is tried for his crimes, and executed by Stilgar. Korba is portrayed by Karel Dobrý in the 2003 miniseries. * is a spice smuggler on Arrakis. In Dune, he attends a dinner thrown by Duke Leto Atreides and his Bene Gesserit concubine Lady Jessica at their Arrakeen palace. Esmar is later killed in the Harkonnen attack on Arrakeen that effectively destroys House Atreides. Esmar is portrayed by Pavel Kríz in the 2000 miniseries. * is a spice smuggler on Arrakis like his father, Esmar Tuek. After the Harkonnen attack on Arrakeen, Staban gives sanctuary to Atreides Warmaster Gurney Halleck and his surviving troops. Gurney and his men join the smugglers, improving their organization and efficiency. * is the commander of the Imperial Sardaukar forces who arrive on Arrakis with Padishah Emperor Shaddam IV to impose order when Fremen attacks disrupt spice production on the planet. The ferocious Sardaukar soldier-fanatics are considered unstoppable, but the Fremen overcome them thanks to Paul's military strategy, their own ferocity and their ability to use sandstorms and the giant sandworms of Arrakis to their advantage. Paul uses the Bene Gesserit compulsion technique called the Voice to compel the Aramsham to humiliate himself by surrendering. However, Aramsham's Sardaukar stoicism is so great that he will not even give his name until Paul uses the Voice again. The defeat of the Sardaukar allows Paul to seize control of Arrakis and depose Shaddam. * is the Captain of the Guard for House Harkonnen, promoted from a corporal after the death of his predecessor Umman Kudu in Duke Leto Atreides' poison gas attack on Baron Vladimir Harkonnen. Nefud is addicted to the drug semuta. Nefud is portrayed by Jack Nance in the 1984 film. Scytale is portrayed by Martin McDougall in the 2003 miniseries ''Frank Herbert's Children of Dune, As its Navigators require immense quantities of melange to navigate foldspace, the Spacing Guild has a vested interest in breaking Paul's stranglehold over the spice supply. Edric's involvement also protects the conspirators from discovery, as his prescience hides the activities of himself and those around him from other prescients, like Paul. The plot ultimately fails, and Edric and Mohiam are executed by Fremen naib Stilgar on orders from Paul's sister, Alia Atreides. In Chapterhouse Dune, a "very powerful" Navigator is described as "one of the Edrics", suggesting a possible breeding plan or use of gholas. Bijaz Bijaz is a Tleilaxu dwarf in the employ of Otheym, one of the former Fedaykin death commandos of Paul Atreides. In Dune Messiah, Otheym reveals to Paul evidence of a Fremen conspiracy against him. Otheym gives Paul his dwarf Tleilaxu servant Bijaz, who has the ability to remember faces, names and details like a recording machine. Paul accepts reluctantly, seeing the strands of a Tleilaxu plot. Bijaz, actually an agent of the Tleilaxu Face Dancer Scytale, uses a specific humming intonation to implant a command that will compel the Duncan Idaho ghola, Hayt, to kill Paul under certain circumstances. Paul's concubine Chani dies in childbirth, and Paul's reaction to her death triggers Hayt's assassination attempt. Hayt's ghola body reacts against its own programming and Duncan's full consciousness is recovered, simultaneously making him independent of Tleilaxu control. Having proven that a ghola's memories of its originator can be restored, Scytale offers Paul a ghola of Chani in exchange for Paul surrendering his empire to Tleilaxu control. Paul refuses, and Scytale is killed. Later, Bijaz approaches Paul and repeats Scytale's offer, but is killed by Duncan on Paul's order. Bijaz is portrayed by Gee Williams in the 2003 miniseries. Lichna Lichna is the daughter of Otheym, one of Paul's former Fedaykin death commandos. In Dune Messiah, she is killed and impersonated by the shapeshifting Tleilaxu Face Dancer Scytale as a means to infiltrate Paul's household. Paul can see through the deception, but wants to see where the plot leads. Aware it is part of the conspiracy against him, Paul allows himself to be lured to Otheym's home in the city. Lichna is portrayed by Klára Issová in the 2003 miniseries. Farok Farok is another of Paul's former Fedaykin. In Dune Messiah, he is one of many Fremen disillusioned by the changes Paul's regime brings to their culture, and joins the conspiracy to unseat Paul. Farok is portrayed by Ivo Novák in the 2003 miniseries. Introduced in Children of Dune (1976) Princess Wensicia \| affiliation = House Corrino \| portrayer = Susan Sarandon (2003 series) \| first = Children of Dune (1976) \| last = Paul of Dune (2008) }} Princess Wensicia is the third daughter of Padishah Emperor Shaddam IV and the Bene Gesserit Anirul, and the younger sister of Princess Irulan. In Children of Dune, Shaddam is dead and Wensicia plots from exile to restore House Corrino to its former glory by wresting control of the Imperial throne from the usurper, Paul Atreides, for her son, Farad'n. She attempts to assassinate Leto II and Ghanima Atreides, Paul's twin heirs, by sending mechanically controlled Laza tigers to hunt them in the desert. Leto's growing prescience allows him to thwart the attack on himself and his sister, and he pretends to be dead to escape the increasingly murderous ambitions of his father's sister Alia. Later, Farad'n, newly trained in the Bene Gesserit ways by Paul and Alia's mother Lady Jessica, accepts an arrangement brokered by Jessica for him to marry Ghanima and share the throne. His part of the deal is to "denounce and banish" Wensicia for Leto's murder, which he does. Leto later returns and ascends the throne himself. Wensicia is described as "fair-haired" with a "heart-shaped face," and is said to have learned "shifty trickiness" from her sister Irulan but not herself been trained by the Bene Gesserit. Shaddam IV's heir is Wensicia's son Farad'n, whose deceased father, Dalak, is related to Count Fenring. Wensicia is portrayed by Susan Sarandon in the 2003 miniseries. Laura Fries of Variety wrote, "it’s Susan Sarandon and Alice Krige [as Lady Jessica] who steal the thunder as opposing matriarchs of the great royal houses. Although the two never catfight, their ongoing struggle to rule the Dune dynasty gives this mini a real kick." Sarandon herself said, "it's always fun to play a smart villain." Other * is Namri's niece and Javid's cousin, who cares for Leto II while he undergoes the spice trance at Fondak. Through his prescience, Leto sees a possible future in which Sabiha is his mate, but he chooses another path. They meet again later at Shuloch, where Leto begins his transformation into a human-sandworm hybrid, and Sabiha is among the first to witness his subsequent superhuman abilities. Sabiha is portrayed by Lana Likic in the 2003 miniseries. * is the teenage Fremen boy who serves as a guide to the Preacher, a mysterious blind man who is actually Paul Atreides. Tariq is the son of Muriz, a Fremen from the outcast Sietch Fondak. Tariq is portrayed by Viliam Docolomansky in the 2003 miniseries. * is a Fremen Iduali from the outcast Sietch Fondak, and the father of Assan Tariq. In the 2003 miniseries, the mysterious Preacher, secretly a blinded Paul Atreides, publicly challenges the current state of his own religion, and Muriz stabs him to death. Muriz is in turn killed by Gurney Halleck. Muriz is portrayed by Zdenek Maryska in the miniseries. * is a Fremen warrior whom Alia Atreides takes as a lover after Stilgar joins the rebellion against her tyrannical rule. Alia sends Agarves to negotiate with Stilgar, naib of Sietch Tabr, for the return of her niece Ghanima Atreides and Princess Irulan, promising Agarves leadership of Tabr if he kills Stilgar. She uses a hidden tracker in Agarves' boots to raid the secret meeting, and Stilgar kills Agarves, as she planned. Introduced in God Emperor of Dune (1981) Siona Atreides Siona Atreides is the daughter of God Emperor Leto II's attendant and confidant Moneo, and a direct descendant of Leto's twin sister Ghanima and Farad'n Corrino. In God Emperor of Dune, Siona objects to Leto's tyrannical stranglehold on civilization, and leads a group of like-minded dissidents determined to depose Leto by any means necessary. Leto allows her to steal secret records from his archives, and she loses ten of her cohorts to Leto's D-wolves, barely escaping with her own life. Forced to join the Fish Speakers, an all-female army who obey Leto without question, Siona is further bristled by Leto's obvious desire to breed her with the latest Duncan Idaho ghola. Leto, who over the millennia has become a human-sandworm hybrid thanks to his fusion with sandtrout, the larval stage of sandworms, tests Siona by taking her out to the middle of the desert. She is careless in the use of her stillsuit to preserve moisture, and dehydration forces her to accept Leto's offer of spice essence from his body to replenish her. Awakened to Leto's Golden Path, the prophetic vision he follows to avert humanity's complete destruction, Siona is convinced of its importance, and better understands why he has ruled so harshly. But she remains dedicated to Leto's destruction, and an errant rainstorm demonstrates for her his mortal vulnerability to water. Leto has planned a Royal Procession to travel to his wedding to the Ixian ambassador Hwi Noree, and Siona and Idaho overcome a searing mutual hatred of each other to plan his assassination. As the procession moves across a high bridge over the Idaho River, Siona's associate, the Fish Speaker Nayla, destroys the support beams with a lasgun. The bridge collapses and Leto's entourage, including Moneo and Hwi, plunge to their deaths into the river below. Leto's body rends apart in the water, the outer layer of sandtrout encysting the water and scurrying off, while the rest burns and disintegrates on the shore. A dying Leto reveals a secret aspect of his Golden Path: Siona is the result of a breeding scheme to produce a human who is invisible to prescient vision. Siona and her descendants will possess this ability, and Leto explains that humanity is now free from the domination of oracles, free to scatter throughout the universe, never again to face complete domination or complete destruction. After revealing the location of his secret spice hoard, Leto dies, leaving Duncan and Siona to face the task of managing the empire. Hwi Noree Hwi Noree is the Ixian ambassador to Arrakis, and the niece of Malky, a previous Ixian ambassador who had been close to Leto II. In God Emperor of Dune, Leto is enchanted by the beautiful and charismatic Hwi, and though he realizes she has been specifically designed and trained to ensnare him, he cannot resist falling in love with her. Raised in secret in a no-chamber, she has been bred to appeal to what remains of Leto's humanity, a process guided by Malky himself. Though his transformation into a human-sandworm hybrid makes him incapable of physical intimacy, Leto proposes marriage and Hwi agrees. Duncan Idaho also falls in love with Hwi, and they fall into bed together. The resulting rivalry only worsens the rift between Leto and Duncan, who is driven to join Siona in her assassination plot against Leto. Hwi dies with Leto when their wedding procession crosses a sabotaged bridge, which collapses into the Idaho River below. Anteac Bene Gesserit Truthsayer Tertius Eileen Anteac comes to Arrakis with Luyseyal in God Emperor of Dune for an audience with the God Emperor Leto II that coincides with the Royal Festival held every ten years. They receive a message from Othwi Yake, Assistant to the Ixian ambassador, that Face Dancers have infiltrated the Ixian embassy, and are planning to assassinate Leto II. They try to warn Leto, but the message does not reach his convoy in time, though the plot fails, as Anteac and Luyseyal knew it would. They achieve little in their meeting with Leto II, and he takes the priceless vial of spice-essence with which they hoped to test his mortality. Leto reminds Luyseyal of the lesson learned from past over-machined societies: "The devices themselves condition the users to employ each other the way they employ machines." Later, Leto enlists Anteac's aid in detecting the Face Dancers, who by that time have replaced everyone in the Ixian embassy except the new ambassador, Hwi Noree. In particular, Anteac identifies the duplicate of Yake, who has been killed and replicated since the original sent his warning to Anteac. Leto's chief minister Moneo Atreides suggests to the God Emperor that Anteac is a secret Mentat, a skill prohibited in the Empire by Leto himself. Leto agrees but says that it amuses him. Hwi shares her knowledge of the environment in which she was brought up with Anteac, who has been conscripted by Leto to lead a Fish Speaker assault on Ix to wrest the secret of Hwi's origins. Anteac is shocked at the knowledge that Hwi is to marry Leto, and at the same time annoyed that The Bene Gesserit had allowed so talented a woman as Hwi to pass through their training program without turning her into one of them. With Anteac's faithful assistance, Leto's forces successfully invade Ix and capture Malky, Hwi's uncle and Leto's former friend, but Anteac is killed. Some 1,500 years later in Chapterhouse: Dune the Duncan Idaho ghola recalls his past incarnation from the time of Leto II, noting that he had met with Anteac on orders from the God Emperor to suppress the Mentat school the Bene Gesserit had hidden on Wallach IX. It is also revealed that Reverend Mother Bellonda is a descendant of Anteac's. Moneo Atreides Moneo Atreides is Leto II's longtime majordomo and close confidant, the descendant of one of the Duncan Idaho gholas, the father of Siona with the Fish Speaker Seyefa, and a direct descendant of Leto's twin sister Ghanima and Farad'n Corrino. Like Siona, he was rebellious as a young man, leading a group of rebels dedicated to ending Leto's oppressive reign. He recognized that eliminating Leto would cast the universe into chaos, but that it would prompt a beneficial rebirth for humanity. In God Emperor of Dune, Moneo has long given up these efforts and now serves Leto with the utmost dedication, having seen the Golden Path for himself and recognized its importance in saving humanity from destruction. Moneo is killed during Leto's assassination, orchestrated by Siona and Duncan, when the bridge that Leto's procession is crossing is destroyed. Nayla Nayla is a fanatical Fish Speaker in the service of the God Emperor. Knowing of Siona Atreides and Duncan Idaho's plot against him, Leto has instructed Nayla to follow any order Siona gives her. When Siona tasks Nayla to assist in Leto's assassination by sabotaging the bridge he is traveling on, Nayla complies with fervor, damaging the supports with a lasgun. Leto, Hwi Noree and Moneo Atreides are among those killed in the collapse, and Duncan kills Nayla for her role in Hwi's death. Chenoeh Quintinius Violet Chenoeh, specially trained as an oral recorder, is sent by Syaksa to Arrakis with Tawsuoko on a fact-gathering mission in the same year as Anteac, prior to the events God Emperor of Dune. She is invited to converse with the God Emperor himself, and he is uncharacteristically indulgent of her questions and somewhat generous with his own information, however cryptic. Leto tells Chenoeh that he plans to restore "outward spiritual freedom" for mankind, and then refers to Siona Atreides as his "achievement", which the Sisterhood correctly interprets as being related to Leto's own breeding program. Leto then says, "You will return to your Superiors with my message, but these words keep secret for now. I will visit my rage upon your Sisterhood if you fail." Chenoeh complies, following Syaksa's own warning: "You must do nothing which will bring down his wrath upon us." Leto relates how he and his sister Ghanima were able to escape the disaster of Abomination, and also makes one of the earliest references to his secret journals, later found at Dar-es-Balat. He knows he will ultimately be perceived as a tyrant, and wishes to preserve his "feelings and motives... lest history distort them too much." At the same time, he warns "Beware of the truth," and shares what he calls "the greatest mystery of all time" by which he composes his life: "The only past which endures lies wordlessly within you." Leto tells Chenoeh that by virtue of his taking her into his confidence, "You will become here an integral part of my myth. Our distant cousins will pray to you for intercession with me!" He also foretells her later death during her attempt at becoming a Reverend Mother through the spice agony. Chenoeh's account of their secret conversation is found after her death, and it is later noted that "the persistent Cult of Sister Chenoeh assumes new significance because of the journals' disclosures." Chenoeh and Tawsuoko also bring back to Chapterhouse proof (in the form of a written eyewitness account of Leto's statement) that, as rumored, Leto executed nine historians four centuries prior. Other * is the Ixian ambassador to Arrakis prior to the events of God Emperor of Dune. In this capacity he becomes a close confidant to Leto, discussing controversial subjects and challenging the God Emperor as a subtle attempt at manipulation. Malky is recalled to Ix, and replaced by Iyo Kobat. In the novel, Malky's niece, Hwi Noree, is installed as the new Ixian ambassador. Leto soon learns that she has been designed and trained to ensnare him, and that Malky was complicit in the process. Leto sends a Fish Speaker force to Ix to capture Malky, who is brought back to Arrakis and murdered by Moneo. * is a Bene Gesserit Truthsayer who comes to Arrakis with Anteac in God Emperor of Dune for an audience with the God Emperor Leto II that coincides with the Royal Festival held every ten years. They receive a message from Othwi Yake, assistant to the Ixian ambassador, that Face Dancers have infiltrated the Ixian embassy, and are planning to assassinate Leto II. Anteac and Luyseyal try to warn Leto, but the message does not reach his convoy in time, though the plot fails, as Anteac and Luyseyal knew it would. They achieve little in their meeting with Leto II, and he takes the priceless vial of spice-essence with which they hoped to test his mortality. Leto reminds Luyseyal of the lesson learned from past over-machined societies: "The devices themselves condition the users to employ each other the way they employ machines." * is a Bene Gesserit sent by Syaksa to Arrakis with Chenoeh on a fact-gathering mission the same year as Anteac, prior to the events God Emperor of Dune. In addition to the record of Chenoeh's somewhat enlightening conversations with the God Emperor, she and Chenoeh bring back to Chapterhouse proof (in the form of a written eyewitness account of Leto's statement) that, as rumored, Leto executed nine historians four centuries prior. * is a Bene Gesserit who sends Chenoeh and Tawsuoko to Arrakis on a fact-gathering mission the same year as Anteac, prior to the events God Emperor of Dune. Syaksa's warning to Chenoeh that "You must do nothing which will bring down his wrath upon us" encourages Chenoeh to obey the God Emperor's command to withhold certain of his statements from the Sisterhood. Syaksa and four other Reverend Mothers (Yitob, Mamulut, Eknekosk and Akeli) incorporate information gleaned from this mission into an "assessment of the state of the Empire" for that year. Syaksa believes that the religious character of the Fish Speakers is slowly being devolved under Leto II. She further attributes to him a motive based on the concept of hydraulic despotism, in which a government structure maintains power and control through exclusive control over a basic resource needed to live (in this case, melange), proposing that he is building the Empire toward an even greater dependence on the spice. Introduced in Heretics of Dune (1984) Lucilla Lucilla is a Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother and Imprinter. In Heretics of Dune, Bene Gesserit Mother Superior Taraza sends the young and attractive Lucilla to Gammu, formerly the Harkonnen homeworld Giedi Prime, to teach the teenage Duncan Idaho ghola whom the Sisterhood is raising there. Lucilla is also tasked with binding his loyalty to her, and thus the Bene Gesserit, through imprinting, while also protecting him from the negative influence—and possible peril—presented by dissenting Bene Gesserit who believe the ghola is a danger to the Sisterhood. Extremely precocious and already having divined the fact that he is a ghola, the young Duncan nurses hatred for the Bene Gesserit, hoping to escape their control of his life. He soon blossoms, however, under the training of Lucilla and Miles Teg, a male military commander of the Bene Gesserit brought out of retirement in part to protect the ghola. An attempt is made on Duncan's life, and Teg and Lucilla flee with Duncan into the countryside. They hide in a forgotten Harkonnen no-globe, during which time Teg is able to awaken Duncan to his original memories. This occurs before Lucilla has imprinted the ghola, and his new self-awareness now makes it impossible for her to attempt it. Teg arranges an extraction by his protégé Burzmali, but they are ambushed, and Teg sacrifices himself to capture while Lucilla and Duncan escape. Duncan attempts to get off Gammu undetected in the guise of a diminutive Tleilaxu Master, but is taken hostage. Lucilla and Burzmali arrive at a Bene Gesserit safehouse, but discover that it has been taken over by the fearsome Honored Matres, a violent matriarchal order from the farthest reaches of the universe who have been wreaking havoc and destruction on Tleilaxu worlds. Lucilla manages to impersonate an Honored Matre as one of their number, escaping with Duncan and an Honored Matre prisoner, Murbella. Teg commandeers an Honored Matre no-ship and flees with Lucilla, Duncan and a captive Murbella. In Chapterhouse: Dune, Lucilla has been transferred to the planet Lampadas to oversee a Bene Gesserit education center located there. She manages to escape before the Honored Matres destroy the planet, carrying the shared memories of its millions of Reverend Mothers. Her ship is damaged by a mine and she is forced to land on Gammu, where she takes refuge with a hidden colony of Jews, knowing that they will be sympathetic to her. The Jews had fled Earth thousands of years earlier in order to escape relentless persecution, and they now practice their religion in secret to maintain their ties to ancient history. The Bene Gesserit, with their own method of connecting to their past, have cultivated a relationship with the Jews. The leader of this settlement gives Lucilla shelter, but ultimately has to turn her over to the Honored Matres in order to save his people from destruction at their hands. Before doing so, however, he introduces Lucilla to Rebecca, a "wild" Reverend Mother who has gained her Other Memories without Bene Gesserit training. Lucilla shares minds with Rebecca, who promises to take the memories of Lampadas safely back to the Sisterhood. The Honored Matres capture Lucilla and bring her before the Great Honored Matre Dama, who surprises everyone present by declining to kill her outright. Dama tries to persuade Lucilla to join the Honored Matres, preserving her life in exchange for Bene Gesserit secrets. Dama is especially interested in the Bene Gesserit ability to modify their biochemistry and render toxins harmless, prompting Lucilla to speculate that the Honored Matres were driven out of the Scattering by an enemy who used biological weapons. These conversations with Lucilla continue for weeks, and she reveals to Dama that, although the Bene Gesserit know how to manipulate and control the populace, they practice and believe in democracy. Dama's desire to destroy the Sisterhood is redoubled when she discovers that the Bene Gesserit teach this dangerous knowledge, and she kills Lucilla. Lucilla is described as a near copy of the elite Reverend Mother Darwi Odrade, from her physical appearance to the sound of her voice. The two women are not directly related, but are instead the products of parallel breeding lines. Miles Teg \| relatives = \| affiliation = Bene Gesserit \| portrayer \| first Heretics of Dune (1984) \| last = Sandworms of Dune (2007) }} Miles Teg is a Mentat and the former Supreme Bashar of the Bene Gesserit, their leading military commander. In Heretics of Dune, Bene Gesserit Mother Superior Taraza summons Teg out of retirement to take over the weapons training of the newest Duncan Idaho ghola, still a teenager, on Gammu. Teg, Duncan and Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother Lucilla flee an attempt on Duncan's life, and hide in a long-forgotten Harkonnen no-globe discovered by Teg's aide, Patrin. Teg uses his strong resemblance to his ancestor Duke Leto Atreides, to whom the original Idaho was fiercely loyal, and a variety of relentless physical and mental attacks to awaken Duncan to his original memories. Teg arranges an extraction by his protégé Burzmali, but they are ambushed, and Teg sacrifices himself to capture by the Honored Matres to allow Lucilla and Duncan to escape. Teg is tortured using a T-Probe, and under the severe stress and agony produced by the probe's attempts to gain control of his body and his knowledge, his Mentat abilities and Atreides genes elevate him to a higher level of being. He is able to move faster than the eye can see by accelerating his metabolism, and he gains mild prescience, which he describes as a doubled vision which gives him intimations of danger. His accelerated speed comes at the cost of incredible energy expenditure, requiring him to consume enormous amounts of food. After escaping his captors, he finds that his safehouse had been taken over by Honored Matres, who attempt to gain his allegiance. Seeing the terrible state their constant drive for power and contempt for the masses has lowered them to, he uses his incredible speed to slaughter them and escape once more. Teg gathers a force of veterans who had served under him on previous campaigns from the bars of Ysai and captures an Honored Matre no-ship using his tactical genius and new abilities. He flees the planet with Lucilla, Duncan and a captive Honored Matre, Murbella. Journeying to Rakis, Teg hands off Duncan and Lucilla to the Bene Gesserits Sheeana and Darwi Odrade, the latter of which is revealed to be his daughter. As the others escape, Teg goads the Honored Matres, who incinerate the entire planet with their Obliterator weapons to be sure Teg is killed. A ghola of Teg is birthed in Chapterhouse: Dune on orders from Odrade, who is now Mother Superior of the Bene Gesserit after Taraza's death in the battle at Rakis. Odrade needs Teg's military abilities to thwart the worsening threat of the Honored Matres. The Bene Gesserit later reawaken him to his full memories prematurely by using Sheeana to imprint him. As the original Teg has been trained by his mother to resist such manipulation, the attempt subjects the Teg ghola to a heightened amount of stress which also unlocks the superhuman abilities previously acquired by Teg under Honored Matre torture. A reawakened Teg leads the final assault upon the Honored Matres, but is captured when the Matres pretend to surrender. Murbella, a captive Honored Matre indoctrinated into the Bene Gesserit, kills the Honored Matre leader Logno at the same time Bene Gesserit Mother Superior Odrade is killed, and Murbella manages to secure the leadership of both groups. Teg is released, later joining Sheeana and Duncan Idaho when they escape Bene Gesserit control in a no-ship. The adult Teg is described as 296 years old but still vital, and has a striking resemblance to his ancestor, Leto Atreides. The son of the Bene Gesserit Lady Janet Roxbrough (a Fish Speaker descendant) and Loschy Teg, a "CHOAM station factor" who was chosen for breeding by the Sisterhood for his "gene potential," Miles had been instructed in the Bene Gesserit ways by his mother before being sent to Lampadas to train as a Mentat. Teg is a military genius, having a very strong sense of honor, loyalty, and many of the characteristics of House Atreides, his ancestors. He is well known for doing the unexpected. Teg is also not a spice addict, as is common with most other people, not even resorting to the spice at old age when most others might wish to use it to extend their lives. By the time of Heretics of Dune, Teg's wife had been dead for 38 years, his grown children living elsewhere except for his eldest daughter Dimela. She and her husband Firus take control of Teg's farm when he leaves his homeworld Lernaeus, and the couple have three children. Teg had a younger brother, Sabine, who had been poisoned on Romo. In Heretics of Dune, it is revealed that Teg had fathered other children during his younger years, one of whom is Odrade. Teg also appears in the sequel novels Hunters of Dune and Sandworms of Dune by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson. In Hunters of Dune, Duncan and Teg run the affairs on the no-ship, being the only two passengers with experience in military leadership. Teg considers himself responsible for the security of the ship and its vital cargo of historical gholas, produced in transit from genetic material possessed by captive passenger Scytale, purportedly the last Tleilaxu Master. In Sandworms of Dune, mysterious saboteurs conduct crippling attacks on the no-ship's systems. Teg and Duncan discover that Face Dancers have infiltrated the ship, but not before they are led directly to the "Unknown Enemy" who have been stalking the ship for years: Daniel and Marty, incarnations of the ancient thinking machines Omnius and Erasmus. The critically damaged no-ship is caught in the thinking machine tachyon net, and Teg uses his accelerated metabolism to both repair the ship and launch countermeasures against the attacking machines. Though he has consumed vast quantities of melange and carbohydrates from the ship's stores to complete his task, Teg dies from massive cellular exhaustion. Duncan is unable to free the ship, and it is taken to the machine world Synchrony. En route, Duncan and Sheeana release the husk that is left of Teg's body into space, vowing that the Bashar will never be captured by the Enemy. Later, after the machines are defeated, Duncan asks Scytale for a new ghola of Teg, whom he will need at his side in his new position as the bridge between both mankind and machines. Murbella \| lbl21 = Sequel children \| data21 = }} Murbella is a young Honored Matre who defects to the Bene Gesserit. In Heretics of Dune, the violent Honored Matres capture the teenage Duncan Idaho ghola, who is loyal to their enemies, the Bene Gesserit. Young Honored Matre Murbella is tasked to use her sexual imprinting talents to enslave Duncan to force his allegiance to them. The Tleilaxu have secretly programmed the ghola with the male equivalent to the Honored Matres' imprinting power, which is unlocked by Murbella's attempt. Duncan and Murbella imprint each other, and in her weakened condition Murbella is easily captured by the Bene Gesserit. Her new addiction to Duncan keeps Murbella subdued, and Bene Gesserit soon begin to train her as one of them, though they do not completely trust her. In Chapterhouse: Dune, Duncan and Murbella's mutual imprinting has made them reluctant lovers. Murbella collapses under the pressure of training and her pregnancy, but realizes that she admires and wants to be Bene Gesserit. Murbella submits to the spice agony to become a Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother, and survives. During a Bene Gesserit attack on the Honored Matres, Murbella kills the Great Honored Matre Logno with her Bene Gesserit-enhanced fighting skills, and the Honored Matres are awed by her physical prowess. The Bene Gesserit Mother Superior Darwi Odrade is also killed, and Murbella secures the leadership of both groups, per Odrade's plan. Murbella intends to merge the two orders into a New Sisterhood, which displeases some of the Bene Gesserit. The dissenters flee Chapterhouse with Duncan, Miles Teg, and Sheeana in a no-ship, and Murbella realizes their plan too late to stop them. Murbella also appears in the sequel novels Hunters of Dune and Sandworms of Dune by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson. In Hunters of Dune, Murbella takes the title Mother Commander. She has four daughters by Duncan: Rinya, Janess, Tanidia and Gianne. Murbella searches her Other Memory for the origin of the Honored Matres. She discovers that they are descendants of rogue Bene Gesserits and Tleilaxu females, originally used as axlotl tanks and freed by Fish Speakers, who allied in the Scattering. Murbella also discovers that the Honored Matres' "outside enemy" are thinking machines, provoked when the Honored Matres stole technologically advanced weapons, including Obliterators, from them. In Sandworms of Dune, Murbella now knows that the sentient computer network Omnius and his thinking machine forces are coming, and attempts to rally humankind for a last stand against the thinking machines. She commissions the scientists of Ix to copy the destructive Obliterators for use on the fleet of warships she has ordered from the Spacing Guild. However, Ix is now secretly controlled by Face Dancer leader Khrone. When Murbella is ready to launch her fleet, the Obliterators and Ixian navigation devices all suddenly fail, which Murbella realizes is sabotage. The Oracle of Time appears, destroying Omnius and the thinking machines with her own armada. Murbella is reunited with Duncan, who intends to end the divide between humans and thinking machines, allowing the two to co-exist. Darwi Odrade Darwi Odrade is an elite Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother and Atreides descendant. In Heretics of Dune, the "wild talents" of the Atreides bloodline that Odrade displays intermittently are what the Bene Gesserit both fear and desperately need. The suspicious Reverend Mother Bellonda scrutinizes Odrade continually, looking for reasons to terminate her, while Mother Superior Taraza senses that the Sisterhood needs Odrade's limited Atreides prescience to avert imminent destruction at the hands of the Honored Matres. Taraza tasks Odrade to take over the Bene Gesserit Keep on the planet Arrakis, and take under her protection the foundling girl Sheeana, who has the natural ability to control the giant sandworms. Recognizing Sheeana's value to the Sisterhood, Odrade begins training her as a Bene Gesserit acolyte. Meanwhile, an anonymous document referred to as the Atreides Manifesto surfaces, attacking all religions in the known universe except for that of the Bene Tleilax. This creates a furor with the intensely religious Tleilaxu, who have long nursed dreams of hegemony, dominating the universe with their religion. The Tleilaxu council decides to treat the Manifesto as a gift from God, and they spread it far and wide. It is later revealed that the Manifesto was in fact written by Odrade. When Taraza is killed after a showdown with the Honored Matres on Arrakis, Odrade becomes Mother Superior. In Chapterhouse Dune (1985), Odrade is accompanied by Tamalane, Dortujla and the acolyte Suipol to meet the Great Honored Matre Dama on Junction, as retired Bene Gesserit Supreme Bashar Miles Teg leads a force to attack Gammu. With the planet about to fall, the Honored Matres activate their "weapon of last resort", turning victory into defeat and holding Odrade captive. Tamalane, Dortujla, and Suipol are killed. As planned with Odrade previously, Honored Matre-turned-Bene Gesserit Murbella travels to Junction alone, pretending to have escaped the Bene Gesserit with their unique abilities and the location of their hidden homeworld, Chapterhouse. Murbella is brought before the new Great Honored Matre Logno, who has just killed her predecessor Dama and has Odrade standing nearby, unrestrained in a gesture of contempt. Murbella provokes and kills Logno, while simultaneously the Honored Matre Elpek kills Odrade. With both of these deaths, Murbella becomes the new Mother Superior as well as Great Honored Matre, fulfilling Odrade's intentions. Odrade is secretly the daughter of military commander Teg, and her "care with details" makes her, like Teg, most suited for duties related to security. The younger Reverend Mother and Imprinter Lucilla is described a near copy of Odrade, from her physical appearance to the sound of her voice. The two women are not directly related, but are instead the products of parallel breeding lines. As the Bene Gesserit are wary of the historical unpredictability of Atreides genes, it is noted in Heretics of Dune that her offspring receive "careful examination", and that "two of those offspring had been quietly put to death." Sheeana Sheeana Brugh is a young girl native to Rakis (formerly Arrakis) who possesses the unique ability to control the giant sandworms that roam the desert planet. In Heretics of Dune, Sheeana's talent is revealed after her impoverished village is wiped out by a sandworm which refuses to harm her, and then whisks her to the capital city of Keen (formerly Arrakeen) when she climbs on to its back in the long-forbidden Fremen tradition. Sheeana is soon recognized as the "sandrider" predicted by the Leto II, and worshipped by the priesthood of Rakis. As she matures to adulthood, Sheeana effectively assumes control of the priesthood. Her popularity and religious aura have increased both on and off Rakis, and the priests, believing her a prophet, are compelled to follow even her most unorthodox commands. The Bene Gesserit, who have their own plans for Sheeana and have secretly guided her education, thwart an assassination attempt on her, and unofficially take control of Sheeana, the priesthood and Rakis. Reverend Mother Darwi Odrade begins Sheeana's formal Bene Gesserit training. Mother Superior Taraza is soon pleased with Sheeana's progress, and considers a secondary plan of seeding other planets with sandworms with Sheeana's help. Rakis itself is destroyed by the vengeful Honored Matres. In Chapterhouse: Dune, Sheeana is now in charge of the project to breed sandworms on the secret Bene Gesserit world, Chapterhouse. She becomes a full Reverend Mother but remains very independent, with mysterious depths. Disagreeing with the plans of new Bene Gesserit leader Murbella, Sheeana chooses to escape Chapterhouse on an untraceable no-ship with the like-minded Duncan Idaho ghola and a number of other passengers. Sheeana also appears in the sequel novels Hunters of Dune and Sandworms of Dune by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson. In Hunters of Dune, Sheeana and Duncan lead the no-ship in their journey to flee the Unknown Enemy that pursues them. Sheeana decides that they need to make new gholas of former heroes using the genetic material carried by the last Tleilaxu Master, Scytale. Tylwyth Waff Tylwyth Waff is a Tleilaxu Master and the leader of the Bene Tleilax, a secretive race of genetic manipulators who traffic in biological products such as artificial eyes, gholas, and "twisted" Mentats. Waff is described as "an elfin figure barely a meter and a half tall. Eyes, hair, and skin were shades of gray, all a stage for the oval face with its tiny mouth and line of sharp teeth". In Heretics of Dune, Waff successfully replaces High Priest Hedley Tuek with a Face Dancer duplicate loyal to the Tleilaxi, but loses control of the impostor due to its eventual complete assimilation into its new form. Traveling to Rakis, Waff decides to ally with the Bene Gesserit after he is tricked into believing that they share the secret religious beliefs of the Tleilaxu. He is killed along with the entire population of Rakis when the Honored Matres destroy the planet in revenge for Miles Teg's slaughter of their members. Meanwhile, he has a replacement ghola growing for himself in Bandalong, the capital city of the Tleilaxu homeworld, Tleilax. Waff also appears in the sequel novels Hunters of Dune and Sandworms of Dune by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson. In Hunters of Dune, the Honored Matres who conquered Tleilax have kept several of Waff's gholas alive, but in vegetative states. In order to recover the supposedly "lost" secret to producing melange in axlotl tanks, the Lost Tleilaxu scribe Uxtal is tasked to create new gholas from Waff's genetic material. Uxtal accelerates the process artificially, and of the first batch of eight Waff gholas, seven fail to regain their memories and are viciously killed. The massacre shocks the last ghola into regaining some of Waff's memories, but not enough to recreate the melange process. Later, the Waff ghola escapes the Bene Gesserit attack on Tleilax, finding refuge with the Spacing Guild by offering Guild Navigator Edrik the genetic knowledge for the Guild to create their own, optimized sandworms to produce melange. In Sandworms of Dune, Waff alters the DNA of the sandworm's larval sandtrout stage to create an aquatic form of the worms, which are then released into the oceans of Buzzell. Adapting to their new environment, these "seaworms" quickly flourish, eventually producing a highly concentrated form of melange, dubbed "ultraspice". Waff makes a pilgrimage to Rakis, original homeworld of the sandworms, and sacrifices himself to a worm, which to him is an embodiment of God. Bellonda Bellonda is a Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother and the chief Mentat-Archivist counselor to Mother Superior Taraza in Heretics of Dune. After Taraza's death, Bellonda serves new Mother Superior Darwi Odrade in the same function in Chapterhouse: Dune. During a conversation with the Duncan Idaho ghola it is revealed that Bellonda is a descendant of Anteac, an important Reverend Mother from the time of the God Emperor Leto II. Bellonda also appears in the sequel novel Hunters of Dune by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson. In the novel, Bellonda is one of the few Bene Gesserit with access to the Bene Gesserit's sensitive breeding records, and one of even fewer possessing the memories of all the Mothers Superior. Bellonda suspects that the Honored Matres had originally been Reverend Mothers sent out in the Scattering, and calculates that melange withdrawal and hypnosis had caused them to deny their origins. Bellonda is later killed in a duel by her Spice Operations Director partner and nemesis, the former Honored Matre Doria. An outraged Mother Commander Murbella, leader of the merged New Sisterhood of Bene Gesserit and Honored Matres, forces Doria to share minds with Bellonda before her memories are lost forever. Taraza Alma Mavis Taraza is the Bene Gesserit Mother Superior in Heretics of Dune who brings former Supreme Bashar Miles Teg reluctantly out of retirement to guard the latest Duncan Idaho ghola. Taraza blackmails Tleilaxu Master Waff to find out all he knows about the invading Honored Matres, as well as the fact that the Bene Tleilax have programmed their own agenda within the ghola. She also manages to divine that Waff is a secret Zensufi, which finally gives the Sisterhood a way to manipulate the Tleilaxu. Reverend Mother Darwi Odrade subsequently uses this knowledge of Waff's religious beliefs to form an alliance with him. As Tleilaxu axlotl tanks are the only other source of melange besides Rakis, this alliance will be essential when Taraza executes her ultimate plan: to destroy Rakis and free humanity from Leto II's own plan. The discovery of a girl with the ability to control sandworms prompts Taraza to consider a secondary plan of seeding other planets with them. The Honored Matres are goaded into attacking Rakis and Taraza is killed, but not before she is able to share Other Memory with Odrade, who escapes. Burzmali Alef Burzmali is Miles Teg's protégé in the Bene Gesserit military who became Supreme Bashar after Teg's retirement. In Heretics of Dune, he aids Teg in extracting the Duncan Idaho ghola and Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother Lucilla from their hiding place on Gammu. When Duncan is captured by the Honored Matres, Lucilla impersonates one of them, with Burzmali playing her sexual slave, to access the building where Duncan is being held. Burzmali dies attempting to protect the planet Lampadas from a catastrophic attack by Honored Matres in Chapterhouse Dune. Hedley Tuek Hedley Tuek is the High Priest of the Rakian Priesthood, and a descendant of the melange smuggler Esmar Tuek. Tleilaxu Master Waff has Tuek killed and replaced by a Face Dancer, a genetically engineered mimic, but loses control of the duplicate due to its eventual complete assimilation into its new form. Other * is the Bene Gesserit in charge of the Duncan Idaho ghola project on Gammu in Heretics of Dune. As the leader of a faction of the Sisterhood who believe that such gholas are a danger to the order and its goals, she has been subtly encouraging the ghola's failure. By the time Lucilla arrives to teach Duncan and bind his loyalty to the Sisterhood with sexual imprinting, he has already been tarnished by Schwangyu, and nurses hatred for the Bene Gesserit and a desire to escape their control. Despite Schwangyu's efforts to seduce Lucilla to her side, Duncan blossoms under the training of Lucilla and Miles Teg, and Schwangyu begins to realize that she has much underestimated Lucilla. Schwangyu betrays Teg, Lucilla, and Duncan to the Tleilaxu, allowing them to attack the keep on Gammu where Duncan is being trained, but the Tleilaxu forces kill her during the strike. * is a Bene Gesserit who is one of the Duncan Idaho ghola's first chief instructors on Gammu in the events before Heretics of Dune. Tamalane is one of Mother Superior Odrade's advisors in Chapterhouse: Dune, and accompanies Odrade, Dortujla and the acolyte Suipol to meet the Great Honored Matre Dama on Junction as Miles Teg leads a force to attack Gammu. Tamalane and her party are eventually slain by the Honored Matres, but the Bene Gesserit conquest proves successful with Murbella left as leader to both the Bene Gesserit and the Honored Matres. * is the Bene Gesserit Archivist counselor and advisor to Mother Superior Taraza in Heretics of Dune. She is one of very few sisters with access to sensitive breeding records, and is the first advisor to correctly suggest that the Tleilaxu ambition is to produce a complete prana-bindu mimic. * is the Bene Gesserit mother of Supreme Bashar Miles Teg, who teaches him the Bene Gesserit ways in his youth, prior to Heretics of Dune. * is a young Bene Gesserit acolyte whom Miles Teg meets as a child. While the Honored Matres interrogate an adult Miles with a T-Probe in Heretics of Dune, he recalls a visit from the Sisterhood to his Bene Gesserit mother, Lady Janet Roxbrough. Miles is left talking with one of the visitor's young acolytes, Carlana, who unsuccessfully tries her "fledging skills" on the eleven-year-old Teg. Miles, who has been well-instructed by his mother, can easily see through Carlana and manipulates her in return. Carlana is described as having red-blond hair, a doll's face with green-gray eyes and upturned nose, and an "inflated view of her own attractions." * is a Bene Gesserit who had been the Duncan Idaho ghola's first chief instructor prior to the events of Heretics of Dune. She had become very attached to him, but had been sent away after allowing him to discover (at age eight) that he is a ghola. Introduced in Chapterhouse: Dune (1985) Rebecca Rebecca is a "wild" Reverend Mother who lives among a secret community of Jews on Gammu. In Chapterhouse: Dune, Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother Lucilla is fleeing the destruction of the planet Lampadas by the Honored Matres and is forced to land on Gammu. Once there, she seeks out a hidden settlement of Jews, whom she knows will give her sanctuary. They are obligated to turn her over to the Honored Matres to assure their own survival, but Lucilla, who is carrying the priceless shared-minds of all the Reverend Mothers of Lampadas, is able to share minds with Rebecca and pass on this knowledge before being captured by the Honored Matres. Rebecca and the Jews eventually escape Gammu with the Bene Gesserit forces, and Rebecca is able to pass on the 7,622,014 Lampadas shared-minds to the Sisterhood. In the sequel novel Hunters of Dune by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson, Rebecca is aboard the untraceable no-ship which Sheeana and Duncan Idaho use to flee the Bene Gesserit planet Chapterhouse. Rebecca later offers herself as a volunteer to become one of the axlotl tanks used to produce the important gholas of Paul Atreides, Leto II and others. Daniel and Marty Daniel and Marty are a pair of mysterious observers with advanced technological powers introduced in Chapterhouse: Dune. Duncan Idaho sees the duo in a vision and determines that they are likely Face Dancers, the shapeshifting minions of the Tleilaxu, though atypically autonomous ones. In the final chapter of the novel, Daniel and Marty observe the escape of the no-ship from Chapterhouse and confirm that they are independent Face Dancers. They acknowledge that Tleilaxu Masters created them and express some deference, but also assert their independence and indicate that their ability to absorb the memories and experiences of other people made their autonomy inevitable. Daniel and Marty hint that they observe and are familiar with various groups in the universe, and allude to their desire to capture and study the passengers of the no-ship. Herbert's 1986 death "left fans with an über-cliffhanger" for twenty years, until his son Brian Herbert and author Kevin J. Anderson published two sequels to the original series, Hunters of Dune and Sandworms of Dune. In "The Hidden Hand", a dying Raquella tells young Valya Harkonnen that she must grow, protect and strengthen the Sisterhood, and that Valya "will be the one to see the burning truth, and know." Raquella's granddaughter Dorotea intends to destroy the breeding program as something heretical and impure, so Valya uses the Voice to force Dorotea to kill herself. Thirty years later, Valya is Mother Superior and has grown the Sisterhood in size and power, but her carefully orchestrated plans are thwarted by mysterious Imperial soldier Desmond Hart, who perceives the Sisterhood as a growing threat to the autonomy of the Imperium. Desmond uses a "great power" granted to him by his near-death experience on Arrakis to psychically immolate Imperial Truthsayer Kasha Jinjo, whose burned body reminds Valya of Raquella's dying prediction. In "Two Wolves", Sister Lila is revealed to be Raquella's great-great-granddaughter. With the Sisterhood desperate for more information about the dangerous prophecy which is now unfolding, Lila undergoes the dangerous Agony ritual to unlock her Other Memory and access Raquella's consciousness. Raquella speaks through her, providing more details about the prophecy that point to Desmond as the key to a coming reckoning. "Sisterhood Above All" depicts Raquella meeting and taking Valya under her wing, eventually sharing with her the secret of the forbidden technology used to maintain her vast DNA database. Recognizing that her life is waning, Raquella intends to put Valya and Dorotea through the Agony to succeed her as leaders of the Sisterhood. Valya at first refuses, and Raquella issues the ultimatum that she take care of her family issues and return as a Reverend Mother, or not at all. Once Valya is sure that her brother Griffin's death has been avenged, she self-administers the Rossak drug and survives. Other * is an ambitious industrialist who encourages Norma Cenva's scientific pursuits. He eventually markets her inventions and helps her build a shipyard to produce her space-folding ships, and realizes the potential of the drug melange. Aurelius and Norma marry and have five children, including Adrien.Later, Aurelius and Norma's mother, the Rossak Sorceress leader Zufa Cenva, are intercepted in space by the Titan Hecate. Not knowing that Hecate is assisting the Jihad forces against the thinking machines, Zufa unleashes a telekenetic blast that kills herself, Aurelius and Hecate. * is the daughter of Rikov Butler, the governor of the planet Parmentier, and niece of the future Faykan Corrino. Introduced in Dune: The Battle of Corrin, Rayna is 11 years old when the thinking machines release a deadly retrovirus on Parmentier that kills most of the population, including her parents. She is infected and falls into a coma, but awakens days later, miraculously cured, having experienced visions of Serena Butler. Rayna begins destroying all electronics, circuitry and computerized technology, no matter how innocuous, and is soon joined by the Martyrists, a group devoted to the martyred Serena Butler, her infant son Manion, and Iblis Ginjo. They destroy even the desperately needed medical equipment at the Hospital for Incurable Diseases. Led by Rayna, the new Cult of Serena sparks a violent anti-technology crusade across the universe, and the phrase "Thou shall not make a machine in the likeness of a human mind", told to her in a vision, becomes the primary commandment in the Orange Catholic Bible. * , the Evermind, an artificial intelligence which is the leader of the thinking machines * , an independent robot who serves Omnius and is fascinated by the human race * Agamemnon, leader of the Titans, a human brain within a fearsome machine body, and biological father of Vorian Atreides * Gilbertus Albans, adopted human son of Erasmus, founder of the Order of Mentats * , a physician instrumental in fighting a catastrophic thinking machine-created plague among humans who later founds the Suk School of medicine * , the powerful leader of the telekinetic Sorceresses of Rossak, and the mother of Norma and Ticia * , daughter of Zufa Cenva and Iblis Ginjo, half-sister of Norma * , scientist who discovered the Holtzman effect, which makes interstellar space travel possible * Lord Niko Bludd, Holtzman's greedy patron * , co-pilot to Vorian Atreides * Manion Butler Sr., League of Nobles Viceroy and father of Serena Butler * Livia Butler, wife of Manion Sr. and mother of Serena, abbess of the City of Interspection * Manion Butler, "Manion the Innocent", Serena's martyred infant son * Octa Butler, Serena's sister and wife of Xavier Harkonnen * Wandra Butler, daughter of Xavier Harkonnen and Octa Butler * Quentin (Vigar) Butler, Wandra's husband * Faykan Butler, grandson of Xavier Harkonnen and Octa Butler, and son of Wandra and Quentin, who takes the name Faykan Corrino after the Battle of Corrin and founds the Imperial House Corrino * Rikov Butler, Faykan and Abulurd's brother, governor of Parmentier and primero of the Jihad, father of Rayna * Abulurd Butler, Faykan and Rikov's brother, who later takes the name . He defies Vorian and ignites the Atreides-Harkonnen feud. * Rayna Butler, Great-granddaughter of Xavier Harkonnen and Octa Butler who founds the Cult of Serena * , ruthless son of Aurelius Venport and Norma Cenva who founds the Foldspace Shipping Company, the precursor of the Spacing Guild * Jool Noret, legendary Ginaz mercenary * Yorek Thurr, head of the Jipol, Iblis Ginjo's secret police * Warrick, best friend of Liet-Kynes, killed while attempting the spice agony * El'him Wormrider, son of Selim * Selim Wormrider, leader of Zensunni outlaws on Arrakis and the first wormrider * Estes Atreides, Vorian's son by Leronica Tergiet, twin of Kagin * Kagin Atreides, Vorian's son by Leronica Tergiet, twin of Estes * Ajax, a Titan * Barbarossa, a Titan * Beowulf a Neo-Cymek, a new generation of human-machine hybrids created by the Titans * Chirox, reprogrammed robot used as a battle trainer on Ginaz * Dante, a Titan * , a Titan * Juno, a Titan * Tamerlane, a Titan * Tlaloc, a Titan * Xerxes, a Titan Introduced in Hunters of Dune (2006) Doria Doria is an ambitious Honored Matre who reluctantly joins the Bene Gesserit as Murbella hopes to unite the opposing factions in Hunters of Dune. Though Doria seeks to learn the impressive skills of the Bene Gesserit, her Honored Matre impulsiveness and resistance to authority are difficult to shake. A chief advisor to Murbella, Doria is one of the few assimilated Honored Matres with access to sensitive Bene Gesserit breeding records. Doria and Bellonda are on opposite sides from the beginning. Hoping to force them to at least respect each other's differences, Murbella makes them partners managing the spice operations on Chapterhouse. Years later, Doria kills Bellonda in a final confrontation. An outraged Murbella forces Doria to share minds with Bellonda, and makes her the sole Spice Operations Director. Six years later, driven to the brink of insanity by Bellonda's incessant chatter within her mind, Doria is devoured by a sandworm. Hellica Hellica is the self-declared Matre Superior of the largest renegade Honored Matre force, based on the conquered planet Tleilax in the former capital Bandalong. In Hunters of Dune, Hellica forces captive Lost Tleilaxu Uxtal to employ the secret of the Tleilaxu axlotl tanks to produce increased quantities of the orange spice substitute used by the Honored Matres. When Guild Navigator Edrik seeks Uxtal's knowledge of producing melange in the tanks, Hellica's price for his expertise is Edrik's help transporting a certain cargo. He agrees, delivering by heighliner the Obliterators that destroy the planet Richese, where the Bene Gesserit are mass-producing weapons and armed battleships. Later, Hellica attempts an Obliterator attack on Chapterhouse itself, but the plan fails. Murbella's forces conquer Tleilax, and Hellica is killed, but Murbella realizes that the Matre Superior and some of her elite guard had actually been Face Dancer duplicates. Other * is the eldest daughter of Murbella and Duncan Idaho, born a few minutes before her twin sister Janess. In Hunters of Dune, Rinya and Janess are prodigies: ambitious, impatient, and unquestionably talented, but Janess possesses just a hint more caution. Janess is obsessed with learning more about her father Duncan, and she often quotes his philosophical works. Rinya always has to be first for everything, and she demands to be allowed to undergo the spice agony, wanting to become a Reverend Mother at the age of 14, just like Sheeana had done. Though Janess tries to stop the ritual, Rinya insists, and dies in the ordeal. * is the second daughter of Murbella and Duncan Idaho, born a few minutes after her twin sister Rinya. In Hunters of Dune, Janess and Rinya are prodigies: ambitious, impatient, and unquestionably talented, but Janess possesses just a hint more caution. Janess is obsessed with learning more about her father Duncan, and she often quotes his philosophical works. Rinya always has to be first for everything, and she demands to be allowed to undergo the spice agony, wanting to become a Reverend Mother at the age of 14, just like Sheeana had done. Though Janess tries to stop the ritual, Rinya insists, and dies in the ordeal. Janess later undergoes the agony herself at age 17, and is successful. Ranked as a lieutenant in the forces of the combined Bene Gesserit/Honored Matre New Sisterhood, her first military assignment is to exterminate a renegade Honored Matre group who control a portion of the planet Gammu. Janess is later promoted to Regimental Commandant, and adopts her father's last name. * is a Bene Gesserit tasked to cultivate the Cult of Sheeana on Gammu. In Hunters of Dune, she discovers the Honored Matre plan to send Obliterators on a Spacing Guild heighliner to destroy Chapterhouse. She and some of her followers barely escape Gammu with their lives, but manage to reach Chapterhouse and warn Murbella in time. Soon after, Iriel is killed in the Bene Gesserit takeover of Gammu. * is a Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother banished to the aquatic planet Buzzell to work in the operation harvesting valuable soostones. In Hunters of Dune, Murbella's forces retake Buzzell from the conquering Honored Matres. Murbella shares minds with Corysta, learning all she can about the situation on Buzzell but also experiencing Corysta's past. She recognizes Corysta's value and loyalty and puts her in charge of the soostone operation. Corysta manages to improve the efficiency and output of the operation, which is the Sisterhood's only source of revenue besides melange, and is essential to their plan to amass arms for a final battle with the Unknown Enemy. Corysta's past is explored in the 2006 Brian Herbert/Kevin J. Anderson short story "Dune: Sea Child", in which Corysta is banished to Buzzell because she resists handing over to the Sisterhood the baby they had tasked her to conceive. The Honored Matres later conquer the planet, enslaving the Bene Gesserit there. Corysta nurtures a foundling Phibian until it, too, is taken from her by the Honored Matres when she refuses to tell them the secret location of Chapterhouse. * is an enhanced, autonomous Face Dancer who appears to serve Daniel and Marty, but has his own agenda for domination of the universe. * is a second-rank Lost Tleilaxu sent to Bandalong by Khrone in Hunters of Dune. Uxtal is tasked to pacify Honored Matre leader Hellica by producing the orange adrenaline-enhancing drug used by the Honored Matres with axlotl technology. Khrone, however, has his own agenda for domination of the universe, and has Uxtal producing gholas for him as well. * is the leader of the Lost Tleilaxu who is ultimately killed and replaced by one of Khrone's Face Dancers * is a Spacing Guild Navigator who seeks an alternate melange supply for his Navigators as the Guild begins replacing them with Ixian navigation machines. Introduced in Great Schools of Dune (2012–2016) Valya Harkonnen Valya Harkonnen and her brother Griffin are the newest generation of a once-mighty family who were brought to ruin, and exiled to the ice planet Lankiveil. Their ambition is to both reclaim their family's rightful place, and avenge themselves on the Atreides, who caused their downfall. In the Great Schools of Dune series, Valya plots to rise within, and ultimately take control of, the fledgling Bene Gesserit, while galvanizing her siblings to help her visit Harkonnen vengeance on the bloodline of Vorian Atreides. Emily Watson portrays Valya in the 2024 HBO series Dune: Prophecy, and Jessica Barden plays a younger version of the character in flashbacks. Griffin Harkonnen Griffin Harkonnen is a young nobleman hoping to restore his family's fortunes through service to the Landsraad. In Sisterhood of Dune (2012), his sister Valya learns that the man to blame for the downfall of the Harkonnens decades before, Vorian Atreides, has been made seemingly immortal by the thinking machines and is still alive. Bent on revenge, Griffin tracks Vorian to the desert planet Arrakis. Vorian saves Griffin from a giant sandworm, and Griffin subsequently defeats Vorian in a duel, but spares his life. Though they come to an understanding to end the Atreides-Harkonnen feud, Griffin is executed by Vorian's sister Hyla, an assassin loyal to the vanquished thinking machines. Vorian returns Griffin's body to Lankiveil with a letter of condolence, and Valya refuses to believe he did not kill her brother himself. Earl Cave portrays Griffin in the 2024 HBO series Dune: Prophecy. In the episode "Sisterhood Above All", Griffin shares Valya's desire to regain their family's status, and seeks to advance in the Landsraad. He is later killed, and though Valya curses that he was murdered by Vorian Atreides, the elder Harkonnens blame Valya. Dorotea Dorotea is Valya Harkonnen's nemesis and the leader of an anti-technology faction within the Sisterhood.<ref name="collider"/> In Sisterhood of Dune, Valya is a trusted aide to Mother Superior Raquella Berto-Anirul, who has shared with Valya the secret that she has flouted the Butlerian prohibitions on thinking machines by using computers to maintain the extensive records of the Sisterhood's breeding program. Dorotea, a Butlerian sympathizer and Raquella's granddaughter, discovers the existence of the computers and reports it to Emperor Salvador Corrino. Valya helps Raquella remove them in advance of the Emperor's invasion, but a petulant Salvador disbands the Sisterhood School on Rossak. Dorotea returns to the capital world of Salusa Secundus with the Emperor as his Truthsayer, and forms an orthodox faction of sisters. In Mentats of Dune (2014), Valya retrieves the hidden computers from Rossak and hopes to succeed Raquella as Mother Superior. Nearing the end of her life, Raquella believes that the only hope for the Sisterhood to survive is for the Wallach IX sisters to reconcile with Dorotea's faction. She forces Valya and Dorotea to put their differences aside and agree to work together for the good of the Sisterhood. Naming them co-leaders, Raquella dies. Valya however, still bitter about Dorotea's betrayal, has recently mastered the Voice, and uses it to force Dorotea to commit suicide. Dorotea is portrayed by Camilla Beeput in the 2024 HBO television series Dune: Prophecy. She is young Valya Harkonnen's rival in the Sisterhood, and the granddaughter and heir apparent of Mother Superior Raquella.<ref name"decider"/> Dorotea is described as "pious and determined to return the Sisterhood to what she believes are its core values."<ref name"bi guide"/> In "The Hidden Hand", Dorotea and Valya are at a dying Raquella's bedside to hear her final words, urging them to "use every tool" to grow, protect and strengthen the Sisterhood after her death. Valya urges the gathered Sisters to carry on Raquella's legacy by expanding their reach and influence, and by pushing the boundaries of their abilities. Dorotea, however, preaches humility, and indirect power. Raquella has devised a secret breeding program, intended to guide noble bloodlines to cultivate better, more easily controlled leaders. With Raquella dead, Dorotea rushes to destroy it, believing it to be sinful. Valya uses the Voice to stop her, and when Dorotea refuses to bend to Valya's will, she commands Dorotea to commit suicide. In "Two Wolves", Sister Lila is revealed to be Dorotea's granddaughter. With the Sisterhood desperate for more information about the dangerous prophecy which is now unfolding, Lila undergoes the dangerous Agony ritual to unlock her Other Memory and access Raquella's consciousness. Raquella speaks through her, but then the vengeful persona of Dorotea overwhelms Lila, who appears to die. "Sisterhood Above All" depicts Dorotea looking on as Raquella meets and takes Valya under her wing. Recognizing that her life is waning, Raquella intends to put Valya and Dorotea through the Agony to succeed her as leaders of the Sisterhood. Valya at first refuses, while Dorotea accepts and survives the ordeal. Tula Harkonnen Tula Harkonnen is the youngest Harkonnen sibling, and has been groomed to share Valya and Griffin's hatred for the Atreides, and desire for revenge against them.<ref name"collider"/><ref name"gr harkonnen"/> In Mentats of Dune, she has joined the Sisterhood, and dutifully follows Valya's instructions to marry young Orry Atreides, and murder him on their wedding night.<ref name"collider"/><ref name"gr harkonnen"/> Tula is overcome with guilt over Orry in Navigators of Dune (2016), and Orry's vengeful brother, Willem Atreides, spares her life when she reveals that she is pregnant with Orry's child. Olivia Williams portrays Tula in the 2024 HBO series Dune: Prophecy,<ref name"variety prophecy"/> and Emma Canning plays a younger version of the character in flashbacks.<ref name"bi guide"/> Other * , Padishah Emperor and brother to Roderick and Anna * , Emperor Salvador's brother and trusted advisor * , the flighty younger sister of Salvador and Roderick * , the popular leader of the anti-technology Butlerian movement * , a Ginaz Swordmaster in the service of Manford Torondo * , an unscrupulous businessman who holds a near-monopoly on space travel, and the great-grandson of Norma Cenva * , Josef's wife and advisor * , Salvador's wife, the Empress * , Roderick's wife and the mother of his four children * , Roderick and Haditha's eldest daughter, accidentally killed by a Butlerian mob * , Roderick's son and heir * , Roderick and Haditha's daughter * , Roderick and Haditha's daughter * , a former Rossak Sister and the new director of the Suk Institute * Hyla and Andros, adult twin children of the Titan Agamemnon, brought out of stasis by the Butlerians * , a direct descendant of Vorian Atreides on the planet Caladan * , Willem's brother who falls victim to Tula Harkonnen. He is portrayed by Milo Callaghan in the 2024 HBO series Dune: Prophecy, in the episode "Sisterhood Above All".<ref name="collider ep3"/> * , the younger brother of Griffin and Valya References Category:Lists of literary characters	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Dune_characters	2025-04-05T18:28:18.489971
7901	Vladimir Harkonnen	The character is usually described as the main antagonist of the novel. Herbert writes in Dune that the Baron possesses a "basso voice" and is so "grossly and immensely fat" that he requires anti-gravity devices known as suspensors to support his weight. He is one of the wealthiest members of the Landsraad and a bitter rival of Leto Atreides, and the Baron's "legendary evil and intellect" are unmatched by anyone else from House Harkonnen. William Hughes of The A.V. Club describes the Baron as "a decadent, monstrous gasbag of depravity and evil". As ruthless and cruel as he is intelligent and cunning, the Baron is "crafty and power-hungry" and has a talent for manipulating others and exploiting their weaknesses IGN describes the character as "cruel, sadistic, and hedonistic". The Baron's sexual preference for young men is implied in Dune and Children of Dune. It is noted, however, that he "once permitted himself to be seduced" by a Bene Gesserit in the liaison which produced his secret daughter. Plotlines Dune As Dune begins, a longstanding feud exists between the Harkonnens of Giedi Prime and the Atreides of Caladan. The Baron's intent to exterminate the Atreides line seems close to fruition, as Duke Leto Atreides is lured to the desert planet Arrakis on the pretense of taking over the valuable melange operation there. The Baron has an agent in the Atreides household: Leto's own physician, the trusted Suk doctor Wellington Yueh. Though Suk Imperial Conditioning supposedly makes the subject incapable of inflicting harm, the Baron's twisted Mentat Piter De Vries has managed to break it using the threat of interminable torture on Yueh's captive wife Wanna. Harkonnen also distracts Leto's Mentat Thufir Hawat from discovering Yueh by guiding Hawat toward another suspect: Leto's Bene Gesserit concubine Lady Jessica, of whom Hawat is already distrustful. The Atreides are soon attacked by Harkonnen forces, secretly supplemented by the seemingly unstoppable Imperial Sardaukar, as Yueh disables the protective shields around the Atreides palace on Arrakis. Yueh takes Leto prisoner as instructed, but provides him with a fake tooth filled with poisonous gas as a means to assassinate the Baron. De Vries kills Yueh, Leto and De Vries die from the gas, but Harkonnen survives. The Baron then manipulates Hawat into his service, by convincing Hawat that Jessica was the traitor and using Hawat's desire for revenge on her and the Emperor as motivation to assist House Harkonnen. Jessica flees into the desert with her and Leto's son Paul Atreides, and both are presumed dead. Paul's prescience helps him determine the identity of Jessica's father, the "maternal grandfather who cannot be named"—the Baron himself.}} In Dune: House Harkonnen, the deteriorating Baron at first walks with the assistance of a cane, then relies on belt-mounted suspensors to retain mobility. He consults numerous doctors in the expanse of time between the Dune: House Atreides and Dune: House Harkonnen, up to and including his future instrument Dr. Yueh, all of whom are ultimately no help. To conceal this debilitation, he pretends that his obesity is due to intentional overindulgence, lest the Landsraad remove him from power. When he determines that Mohiam inflicted him with the disease, he attempts to coerce her into revealing the cure, but soon discovers that there is none. The Baron, Duke Leto, and Jessica are unaware that Jessica is secretly the Baron's daughter, or that he has even fathered one. In the year 10,176, the Baron's grandson Paul is born to Leto and Jessica. Hunters of Dune In Hunters of Dune (2006), the continuation of the original series by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson, the Baron is resurrected as a ghola (5,029 years after the death of Alia) by the Lost Tleilaxu Uxtal, acting on orders from the Face Dancer Khrone. Khrone intends to use the Baron ghola to manipulate a ghola of Paul Atreides, named Paolo. Khrone tries various torture techniques for three years to awaken the 12-year-old Baron's genetic memories; these methods fail due to the Baron's sadomasochistic nature. Khrone is successful when he imprisons the Baron in a sensory deprivation tank for a prolonged period; the Baron's memories of his former life return. The reincarnated Baron is soon haunted by the voice of Alia in his mind; the source of this inner Alia is never explained. In adaptations Cancelled 1970s film was cast as the Baron in Alejandro Jodorowsky's cancelled adaptation]] In 1975, Orson Welles agreed to play the Baron in Alejandro Jodorowsky's ultimately unsuccessful adaptation. The film's concept art by Jean "Mœbius" Giraud depicts the Baron, as well as Feyd-Rautha and Rabban, in multiple drag appearances. In the documentary ''Jodorowsky's Dune, the director discussed the casting: 1984 film plays Vladimir Harkonnen in Dune (1984). He is centre here in 1977, in the TV show Rhoda]] Baron Harkonnen is portrayed by Kenneth McMillan in David Lynch's 1984 film. The obese and disheveled Baron is overtly unstable, and covered in oozing pustules. William Hughes of The A.V. Club deemed McMillan's facial prosthetics "very memorable". Travis Johnson of Flicks.com.au noted that the Lynch film embraced "the archetype of the depraved gay sadist", which would not be acceptable in 2019. and its sequel, 2003's Children of Dune. Asher-Perrin notes that the miniseries played down the negative aspects emphasized by the Lynch film, and writes, "[The Baron's] appearance was not altered to make him seem ill, he never physically attacks anyone, and the miniseries paid more attention to the fact that the Baron was a rapist, his preference for men being incidental." Austin Jones of Paste writes, "McNeice commands his role as Baron Harkonnen, capturing the vile indulgence and vanity of a feudal lord". 2021 and 2024 films plays Baron Harkonnen in the 2021 film Dune and its 2024 sequel Dune: Part Two.]] Baron Harkonnen is portrayed by Stellan Skarsgård in the 2021 Denis Villeneuve film Dune and its 2024 sequel Dune: Part Two. Skarsgård called the role "small but important", and noted, "I had seven hours in make-up every day because I had to be really fat." Villeneuve said: Merchandising and influenceA line of Dune action figures from toy company LJN was released to lackluster sales in 1984. Styled after David Lynch's film, the collection featured a figure of Baron Harkonnen, as well as other characters. In 2006, SOTA Toys produced a Baron Harkonnen action figure for their "Now Playing Presents" line.AnalysisThomas West of Screen Rant writes that "there are few science fiction villains quite as compelling and darkly charismatic as the Baron". William Hughes of The A.V. Club calls the Baron "one of the most iconically awful villains in all of science fiction". and Jon Michaud of The New Yorker compares "Herbert's scheming, backstabbing villain, the Baron Vladimir Harkonnen" to the villainous Lannister family of George R. R. Martin's A Song of Ice and Fire series. Emmet Asher-Perrin suggests that "what makes the Baron truly monstrous [is] the fact that he spends all of his time plotting murder, sowing discord, and destroying populations of people to get his way".<ref name"Tor.com"/> Hughes writes that the evil Harkonnen is "specifically designed to make the noble Atreides family seem that extra bit more dignified and pure".<ref name"AV"/> Jesse Schedeen of IGN agrees that the Baron is "as cruel and vindictive as Leto is noble and just."<ref name"IGN 2"/> Hughes says that Herbert "successfully made [the Baron] so vampirically vile that he casts a (sometimes literal) shadow over the entire series."<ref name"AV"/> Sandy Schaefer of Screen Rant calls the Baron "a deliciously despicable antagonist".<ref name="Screen Rant"/> While the novel suggests that the Baron's obesity might be the result of a genetic disease, the Prelude to Dune prequel trilogy by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson explains that Harkonnen was once a fit, attractive but vain man who is given the incurable disease intentionally by the Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother Mohiam after he drugs and rapes her. Asher-Perrin suggests that in this narrative, "The Baron's corpulence is meant to be comeuppance for doing something reprehensible, a physical punishment meant to hurt his vanity by taking away the attractiveness he so prized in himself."<ref name"Tor.com"/>Family treeNotesReferencesExternal links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170419101847/http://www.imdb.com/character/ch0008386/ Baron Vladimir Harkonnen] on IMDb Category:Dune (franchise) characters Category:Fictional gay men Category:Fictional dictators Category:Fictional barons and baronesses Category:Fictional murderers Category:Fictional rapists Category:Literary characters introduced in 1963<!--Serial--> Category:Literary characters introduced in 1965<!--Novel--> Category:Fictional LGBTQ characters in film Category:Male literary villains Category:Male film villains Category:LGBTQ villains Category:Fictional LGBTQ characters in literature	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Harkonnen	2025-04-05T18:28:18.511344
7903	Diffie–Hellman key exchange	Diffie–Hellman (DH) key exchange is a mathematical method of securely generating a symmetric cryptographic key over a public channel and was one of the first public-key protocols as conceived by Ralph Merkle and named after Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman. but in 1997 it was revealed that James H. Ellis, Clifford Cocks, and Malcolm J. Williamson of GCHQ, the British signals intelligence agency, had previously shown in 1969 how public-key cryptography could be achieved. Although Diffie–Hellman key exchange itself is a non-authenticated key-agreement protocol, it provides the basis for a variety of authenticated protocols, and is used to provide forward secrecy in Transport Layer Security's ephemeral modes (referred to as EDH or DHE depending on the cipher suite). The method was followed shortly afterwards by RSA, an implementation of public-key cryptography using asymmetric algorithms. Expired US patent 4200770 from 1977 describes the now public-domain algorithm. It credits Hellman, Diffie, and Merkle as inventors. Name In 2006, Hellman suggested the algorithm be called Diffie–Hellman–Merkle key exchange in recognition of Ralph Merkle's contribution to the invention of public-key cryptography (Hellman, 2006), writing: Description General overview Diffie–Hellman key exchange establishes a shared secret between two parties that can be used for secret communication for exchanging data over a public network. An analogy illustrates the concept of public key exchange by using colors instead of very large numbers: The process begins by having the two parties, Alice and Bob, publicly agree on an arbitrary starting color that does not need to be kept secret. In this example, the color is yellow. Each person also selects a secret color that they keep to themselves – in this case, red and cyan. The crucial part of the process is that Alice and Bob each mix their own secret color together with their mutually shared color, resulting in orange-tan and light-blue mixtures respectively, and then publicly exchange the two mixed colors. Finally, each of them mixes the color they received from the partner with their own private color. The result is a final color mixture (yellow-brown in this case) that is identical to their partner's final color mixture. If a third party listened to the exchange, they would only know the common color (yellow) and the first mixed colors (orange-tan and light-blue), but it would be very hard for them to find out the final secret color (yellow-brown). Bringing the analogy back to a real-life exchange using large numbers rather than colors, this determination is computationally expensive. It is impossible to compute in a practical amount of time even for modern supercomputers. Cryptographic explanation The simplest and the original implementation, of the protocol uses the multiplicative group of integers modulo p, where p is prime, and g is a primitive root modulo p. To guard against potential vulnerabilities, it is recommended to use prime numbers of at least 2048 bits in length. This increases the difficulty for an adversary attempting to compute the discrete logarithm and compromise the shared secret. These two values are chosen in this way to ensure that the resulting shared secret can take on any value from 1 to . Here is an example of the protocol, with non-secret values in , and secret values in . # Alice and Bob publicly agree to use a modulus and base (which is a primitive root modulo 23). # Alice chooses a secret integer 4, then sends Bob <sup></sup> mod #* <sup></sup> mod (in this example both and have the same value 4, but this is usually not the case) # Bob chooses a secret integer 3, then sends Alice <sup></sup> mod #* <sup></sup> mod # Alice computes = <sup></sup> mod #* <sup></sup> mod # Bob computes = <sup></sup> mod #* <sup></sup> mod # Alice and Bob now share a secret (the number 18). Both Alice and Bob have arrived at the same values because under mod p, : <math>{\color{Blue}A}^{\color{Red}\boldsymbol{b}}\bmod {\color{Blue}p} {\color{Blue}g}^{\color{Red}\boldsymbol{ab}}\bmod {\color{Blue}p} {\color{Blue}g}^{\color{Red}\boldsymbol{ba}}\bmod {\color{Blue}p} = {\color{Blue}B}^{\color{Red}\boldsymbol{a}}\bmod {\color{Blue}p}</math> More specifically, : <math>({\color{Blue}g}^{\color{Red}\boldsymbol{a}}\bmod {\color{Blue}p})^{\color{Red}\boldsymbol{b}}\bmod {\color{Blue}p} = ({\color{Blue}g}^{\color{Red}\boldsymbol{b}}\bmod {\color{Blue}p})^{\color{Red}\boldsymbol{a}}\bmod {\color{Blue}p}</math> Only a and b are kept secret. All the other values – p, g, g<sup>a</sup> mod p, and g<sup>b</sup> mod p – are sent in the clear. The strength of the scheme comes from the fact that g<sup>ab</sup> mod p = g<sup>ba</sup> mod p take extremely long times to compute by any known algorithm just from the knowledge of p, g, g<sup>a</sup> mod p, and g<sup>b</sup> mod p. Such a function that is easy to compute but hard to invert is called a one-way function. Once Alice and Bob compute the shared secret they can use it as an encryption key, known only to them, for sending messages across the same open communications channel. Of course, much larger values of a, b, and p would be needed to make this example secure, since there are only 23 possible results of n mod 23. However, if p is a prime of at least 600 digits, then even the fastest modern computers using the fastest known algorithm cannot find a given only g, p and g<sup>a</sup> mod p. Such a problem is called the discrete logarithm problem. # Alice and Bob agree on a natural number n and a generating element g in the finite cyclic group G of order n. (This is usually done long before the rest of the protocol; g and n are assumed to be known by all attackers.) The group G is written multiplicatively. # Alice picks a random natural number a with 1 < a < n, and sends the element g<sup>a</sup> of G to Bob. # Bob picks a random natural number b with 1 < b < n, and sends the element g<sup>b</sup> of G to Alice. # Alice computes the element of G. # Bob computes the element of G. Both Alice and Bob are now in possession of the group element g<sup>ab</sup> = g<sup>ba</sup>, which can serve as the shared secret key. The group G satisfies the requisite condition for secure communication as long as there is no efficient algorithm for determining g<sup>ab</sup> given g, g<sup>a</sup>, and g<sup>b</sup>. For example, the elliptic curve Diffie–Hellman protocol is a variant that represents an element of G as a point on an elliptic curve instead of as an integer modulo n. Variants using hyperelliptic curves have also been proposed. The supersingular isogeny key exchange is a Diffie–Hellman variant that was designed to be secure against quantum computers, but it was broken in July 2022. Ephemeral and/or static keys The used keys can either be ephemeral or static (long term) key, but could even be mixed, so called semi-static DH. These variants have different properties and hence different use cases. An overview over many variants and some also discussions can for example be found in NIST SP 800-56A. A basic list: # ephemeral, ephemeral: Usually used for key agreement. Provides forward secrecy, but no authenticity. # static, static: Would generate a long term shared secret. Does not provide forward secrecy, but implicit authenticity. Since the keys are static it would for example not protect against replay-attacks. # ephemeral, static: For example, used in ElGamal encryption or Integrated Encryption Scheme (IES). If used in key agreement it could provide implicit one-sided authenticity (the ephemeral side could verify the authenticity of the static side). No forward secrecy is provided. It is possible to use ephemeral and static keys in one key agreement to provide more security as for example shown in NIST SP 800-56A, but it is also possible to combine those in a single DH key exchange, which is then called triple DH (3-DH). Triple Diffie–Hellman (3-DH) In 1997 a kind of triple DH was proposed by Simon Blake-Wilson, Don Johnson, Alfred Menezes in 1997, which was improved by C. Kudla and K. G. Paterson in 2005 and shown to be secure. The long term secret keys of Alice and Bob are denoted by a and b respectively, with public keys A and B, as well as the ephemeral key pairs (x, X) and (y, Y). Then protocol is: {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Triple Diffie–Hellman (3-DH) protocol ! Alice (<math>A = g^a</math>) ! ! Bob (<math>B = g^b</math>) \|- \| <math>X = g^x</math> \| <math>X \rightarrow {}</math> \| \|- \| \| <math>{} \leftarrow Y</math> \| <math>Y = g^y</math> \|- \| <math>K = \operatorname{KDF}\left( Y^x,\, B^x,\, Y^a,\, X,\, Y,\, A,\, B \right)</math> \| \| <math>K = \operatorname{KDF}\left( X^y,\, X^b,\, A^y,\, X,\, Y,\, A,\, B \right)</math> \|} The long term public keys need to be transferred somehow. That can be done beforehand in a separate, trusted channel, or the public keys can be encrypted using some partial key agreement to preserve anonymity. For more of such details as well as other improvements like side channel protection or explicit key confirmation, as well as early messages and additional password authentication, see e.g. US patent "Advanced modular handshake for key agreement and optional authentication". Extended Triple Diffie–Hellman (X3DH) X3DH was initially proposed as part of the Double Ratchet Algorithm used in the Signal Protocol. The protocol offers forward secrecy and cryptographic deniability. It operates on an elliptic curve. The protocol uses five public keys. Alice has an identity key IK<sub>A</sub> and an ephemeral key EK<sub>A</sub>. Bob has an identity key IK<sub>B</sub>, a signed prekey SPK<sub>B</sub>, and a one-time prekey OPK<sub>B</sub>. The order of G should have a large prime factor to prevent use of the Pohlig–Hellman algorithm to obtain a or b. For this reason, a Sophie Germain prime q is sometimes used to calculate , called a safe prime, since the order of G is then only divisible by 2 and q. Sometimes g is chosen to generate the order q subgroup of G, rather than G, so that the Legendre symbol of g<sup>a</sup> never reveals the low order bit of a. A protocol using such a choice is for example IKEv2. The generator g is often a small integer such as 2. Because of the random self-reducibility of the discrete logarithm problem a small g is equally secure as any other generator of the same group. If Alice and Bob use random number generators whose outputs are not completely random and can be predicted to some extent, then it is much easier to eavesdrop. In the original description, the Diffie–Hellman exchange by itself does not provide authentication of the communicating parties and can be vulnerable to a man-in-the-middle attack. Mallory (an active attacker executing the man-in-the-middle attack) may establish two distinct key exchanges, one with Alice and the other with Bob, effectively masquerading as Alice to Bob, and vice versa, allowing her to decrypt, then re-encrypt, the messages passed between them. Note that Mallory must be in the middle from the beginning and continuing to be so, actively decrypting and re-encrypting messages every time Alice and Bob communicate. If she arrives after the keys have been generated and the encrypted conversation between Alice and Bob has already begun, the attack cannot succeed. If she is ever absent, her previous presence is then revealed to Alice and Bob. They will know that all of their private conversations had been intercepted and decoded by someone in the channel. In most cases it will not help them get Mallory's private key, even if she used the same key for both exchanges. A method to authenticate the communicating parties to each other is generally needed to prevent this type of attack. Variants of Diffie–Hellman, such as STS protocol, may be used instead to avoid these types of attacks. Denial-of-service attack A CVE released in 2021 ([https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2002-20001 CVE-2002-20001]) disclosed a denial-of-service attack (DoS) against the protocol variants use ephemeral keys, called D(HE)at attack. The attack exploits that the Diffie–Hellman key exchange allows attackers to send arbitrary numbers that are actually not public keys, triggering expensive modular exponentiation calculations on the victim's side. Another CVEs released disclosed that the Diffie–Hellman key exchange implementations may use long private exponents ([https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2022-40735 CVE-2022-40735]) that arguably make modular exponentiation calculations unnecessarily expensive or may unnecessary check peer's public key ([https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2024-41996 CVE-2024-41996]) has similar resource requirement as key calculation using a long exponent. An attacker can exploit both vulnerabilities together. Practical attacks on Internet traffic The number field sieve algorithm, which is generally the most effective in solving the discrete logarithm problem, consists of four computational steps. The first three steps only depend on the order of the group G, not on the specific number whose finite log is desired. It turns out that much Internet traffic uses one of a handful of groups that are of order 1024 bits or less. Security against quantum computers Quantum computers can break public-key cryptographic schemes, such as RSA, finite-field DH and elliptic-curve DH key-exchange protocols, using Shor's algorithm for solving the factoring problem, the discrete logarithm problem, and the period-finding problem. A post-quantum variant of Diffie-Hellman algorithm was proposed in 2023, and relies on a combination of the quantum-resistant CRYSTALS-Kyber protocol, as well as the old elliptic curve X25519 protocol. A quantum Diffie-Hellman key-exchange protocol that relies on a quantum one-way function, and its security relies on fundamental principles of quantum mechanics has also been proposed in the literature. Other uses Encryption Public key encryption schemes based on the Diffie–Hellman key exchange have been proposed. The first such scheme is the ElGamal encryption. A more modern variant is the Integrated Encryption Scheme. Forward secrecy Protocols that achieve forward secrecy generate new key pairs for each session and discard them at the end of the session. The Diffie–Hellman key exchange is a frequent choice for such protocols, because of its fast key generation. Password-authenticated key agreement When Alice and Bob share a password, they may use a password-authenticated key agreement (PK) form of Diffie–Hellman to prevent man-in-the-middle attacks. One simple scheme is to compare the hash of s concatenated with the password calculated independently on both ends of channel. A feature of these schemes is that an attacker can only test one specific password on each iteration with the other party, and so the system provides good security with relatively weak passwords. This approach is described in ITU-T Recommendation X.1035, which is used by the G.hn home networking standard. An example of such a protocol is the Secure Remote Password protocol. Public key It is also possible to use Diffie–Hellman as part of a public key infrastructure, allowing Bob to encrypt a message so that only Alice will be able to decrypt it, with no prior communication between them other than Bob having trusted knowledge of Alice's public key. Alice's public key is <math>(g^a \bmod{p}, g, p)</math>. To send her a message, Bob chooses a random b and then sends Alice <math>g^b \bmod p</math> (unencrypted) together with the message encrypted with symmetric key <math>(g^a)^b \bmod{p}</math>. Only Alice can determine the symmetric key and hence decrypt the message because only she has a (the private key). A pre-shared public key also prevents man-in-the-middle attacks. In practice, Diffie–Hellman is not used in this way, with RSA being the dominant public key algorithm. This is largely for historical and commercial reasons, namely that RSA Security created a certificate authority for key signing that became Verisign. Diffie–Hellman, as elaborated above, cannot directly be used to sign certificates. However, the ElGamal and DSA signature algorithms are mathematically related to it, as well as MQV, STS and the IKE component of the IPsec protocol suite for securing Internet Protocol communications. See also * Elliptic-curve Diffie–Hellman key exchange * Supersingular isogeny key exchange * Forward secrecy * Diffie–Hellman problem * Modular exponentiation * Denial-of-service attack * Post-Quantum Extended Diffie–Hellman Notes References General references * * * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130404174201/https://cryptocellar.web.cern.ch/cryptocellar/cesg/ellis.pdf The History of Non-Secret Encryption] JH Ellis 1987 (28K PDF file) ([https://web.archive.org/web/20040808040209/http://jya.com/ellisdoc.htm HTML version]) * [http://cr.yp.to/bib/1988/diffie.pdf The First Ten Years of Public-Key Cryptography] Whitfield Diffie, Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 76, no. 5, May 1988, pp: 560–577 (1.9MB PDF file) * Menezes, Alfred; van Oorschot, Paul; Vanstone, Scott (1997). Handbook of Applied Cryptography Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. . ([http://www.cacr.math.uwaterloo.ca/hac/ Available online]) * Singh, Simon (1999) The Code Book: the evolution of secrecy from Mary Queen of Scots to quantum cryptography New York: Doubleday * [https://dx.doi.org/10.1109/MCOM.2002.1006971 An Overview of Public Key Cryptography] Martin E. Hellman, IEEE Communications Magazine, May 2002, pp. 42–49. (123kB PDF file) External links * [https://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/107353 Oral history interview with Martin Hellman], Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Leading cryptography scholar Martin Hellman discusses the circumstances and fundamental insights of his invention of public key cryptography with collaborators Whitfield Diffie and Ralph Merkle at Stanford University in the mid-1970s. * – Diffie–Hellman Key Agreement Method. E. Rescorla. June 1999. * – More Modular Exponential (MODP) Diffie–Hellman groups for Internet Key Exchange (IKE). T. Kivinen, M. Kojo, SSH Communications Security. May 2003. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20040903080553/http://csrc.nist.gov/CryptoToolkit/kms/summary-x9-42.pdf Summary of ANSI X9.42: Agreement of Symmetric Keys Using Discrete Logarithm Cryptography] (64K PDF file) ([https://web.archive.org/web/20040816210145/http://www.rsasecurity.com/rsalabs/node.asp?id=2306 Description of ANSI 9 Standards]) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zTGqP0nxX08 Talk by Martin Hellman in 2007, YouTube video] * [https://www.networkworld.com/article/948802/crypto-dream-team-diffie-hellman-win-nobel-prize-of-computing.html Crypto dream team Diffie & Hellman wins $1M 2015 Turing Award (a.k.a. "Nobel Prize of Computing")] * [http://neilrieck.net/dh_demo.html A Diffie–Hellman demo written in Python3] This demo properly supports very-large key data and enforces the use of prime numbers where required. Category:Key-agreement protocols Category:Public-key cryptography	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffie–Hellman_key_exchange	2025-04-05T18:28:18.546963
7906	Destry Rides Again	\| writer = Felix Jackson \| screenplay = \| starring = \| music = Frank Skinner \| cinematography = Hal Mohr \| editing = Milton Carruth \| studio = Universal Pictures \| distributor = Universal Pictures \| released = \| runtime = 95 minutes \| country = United States \| language = English \| budget $700,000 or $765,000 \| gross $1.6 million }} Destry Rides Again is a 1939 American Western comedy film directed by George Marshall and starring Marlene Dietrich and James Stewart. The supporting cast includes Mischa Auer, Charles Winninger, Brian Donlevy, Allen Jenkins, Irene Hervey, Billy Gilbert, Bill Cody Jr., Lillian Yarbo, and Una Merkel. The opening credits list the story as "Suggested by Max Brand's novel Destry Rides Again", but the movie is almost completely different. It also bears no resemblance to the 1932 adaptation of the novel starring Tom Mix, which is often retitled as Justice Rides Again. In 1996, Destry Rides Again was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". Plot and Marlene Dietrich in Destry Rides Again]] Saloon owner Kent, the unscrupulous boss of the fictional Western town of Bottleneck, has the town's sheriff, Mr. Keogh, killed when Keogh asks one too many questions about a rigged poker game. Kent and Frenchy, a cheap saloon tramp who is his girlfriend, now have a stranglehold over the local cattle ranchers. The town's crooked mayor, Hiram J. Slade, who is in collusion with Kent, appoints the town drunk, Washington Dimsdale, as the new sheriff, assuming that he will be easy to control and manipulate. However, Dimsdale, a deputy under the famous lawman Tom Destry, promptly swears off drinking, and is able to call upon the latter's equally formidable son, Tom Destry Jr., to help him make Bottleneck a lawful, respectable town. Destry arrives in Bottleneck with Jack Tyndall, a cattleman, and his sister, Janice. Destry initially confounds the townsfolk by refusing to strap on a gun and maintaining civility in dealing with everyone, including Kent and Frenchy. This quickly makes him a disappointment to Dimsdale and a laughingstock to the townspeople; he is mockingly asked to "clean up" Bottleneck by being given a mop and bucket. However, after a number of rowdy horsemen ride into town shooting their pistols in the air, he demonstrates uncanny expertise in marksmanship and threatens to jail them if they do it again, earning the respect of Bottleneck's citizens. Through the townsmen's evasive answers regarding the whereabouts of Keogh, Destry gradually begins to suspect that Keogh was murdered. He confirms this by provoking Frenchy into admitting it, but without a location for the body, he lacks any proof. Destry therefore deputizes Boris, a Russian immigrant whom Frenchy had earlier humiliated, and implies to Kent that he had found the body outside of town "in remarkably good condition". When Kent sends a member of his gang to check on Keogh's burial site, Boris and Dimsdale follow, capture, and jail him. Although the gang member is charged with Keogh's murder (in the hope that he would implicate Kent in exchange for clemency), Mayor Slade appoints himself judge of the trial, making an innocent verdict a foregone conclusion. To prevent this, Destry calls in a judge from a larger city in secret, but the plan is ruined after Boris accidentally gives away the other judge's name in the saloon. Kent orders Frenchy to invite the deputy to her house while other gang members storm the sheriff's office and cause a breakout; now in love with Destry, she accepts. When shots are fired, he rushes back, to find the cell empty and Dimsdale mortally wounded. Destry returns to his room and puts on his gun belt, abandoning his previous commitment to nonviolence. Under Destry's command, the honest townsmen form a posse and prepare to attack the saloon, where Kent's gang is fortified, while Destry enters through the roof and looks for Kent. At Frenchy's urging, the townswomen march in between the groups, preventing further violence, before breaking into the saloon and subduing the gang. Kent narrowly escapes, and attempts to shoot Destry from the second floor; Frenchy takes the bullet for him, killing her, and Destry kills Kent. Some time later, Destry is shown to be the sheriff of a now lawful Bottleneck, repeating to children the stories that Dimsdale told him of the town's violent history. He jokingly tells a story about marriage to Janice, implying a marriage between them will soon follow. Cast As appearing in screen credits: * Marlene Dietrich as Frenchy, the saloon singer * James Stewart as Thomas Jefferson "Tom" Destry Jr., the new deputy * Mischa Auer as Boris "Callahan" Stavrogin, the henpecked Russian married to Lily Belle * Charles Winninger as Washington "Wash" Dimsdale, the new sheriff * Brian Donlevy as Kent, the saloon owner * Allen Jenkins as "Gyp" Watson * Warren Hymer as "Bugs" Watson * Irene Hervey as Janice Tyndall * Una Merkel as Lily Belle, "Mrs. Callahan" * Billy Gilbert as Bartender "Loupgerou" * Samuel S. Hinds as Hiram Slade, the mayor * Jack Carson as Jack Tyndall * Tom Fadden as Lem Claggett * Virginia Brissac as Sophie Claggett * Edmund MacDonald as Rockwell * Lillian Yarbo as Clara, Frenchy's maid * Joe King as Sheriff Keogh * Dickie Jones as Claggett's boy * Ann E. Todd as Claggett's girl Songs Dietrich sings "See What the Boys in the Back Room Will Have" and "You've Got That Look", written by Frank Loesser, set to music by Frederick Hollander, which have become classics, as well as a revised version of Little Joe the Wrangler. Production , Marlene Dietrich and producer Joe Pasternak on the set of Destry Rides Again]] Western writer Max Brand contributed the novel, Destry Rides Again, but the film also owes its origins to Brand's serial "Twelve Peers", published in a pulp magazine. In the original work, Harrison (or "Harry") Destry was not a pacifist. As filmed in 1932, with Tom Mix in the starring role, the central character differed in that Destry did wear six-guns. The film was James Stewart's first Western (he would not return to the genre until 1950, with ''Winchester '73, followed by Broken Arrow''). The story featured a ferocious cat-fight between Marlene Dietrich and Una Merkel, which apparently caused a mild censorship problem at the time of release. The film also represented Dietrich's return to Hollywood after a string of flops at Paramount ("Angel", "The Scarlet Empress", "The Devil is a Woman") caused her, and a number of other stars, to be labelled "box office poison". While vacationing at Cap d'Antibes with her family, her mentor Josef von Sternberg and her lover Erich Maria Remarque, she received an offer from Joe Pasternak to come to Universal at half the salary she had been receiving for most of the 1930s. Pasternak had previously tried to sign Dietrich to Universal while she was still in Berlin. Unsure of what to do she was advised by von Sternberg "I made you into a Goddess. Now show them you have feet of clay". According to writer/director Peter Bogdanovich, Marlene Dietrich told him during an aircraft flight that she and James Stewart had an affair during shooting and that she became pregnant but had a surreptitious abortion without telling Stewart. Internationally, the film was released under the alternative titles Femme ou Démon in French and Arizona in Spanish. Reception Destry Rides Again was generally well accepted by the public, as well as critics. It was reviewed by Frank S. Nugent in The New York Times, who observed that the film did not follow the usual Hollywood type-casting. On Dietrich's role, he characterized: "It's difficult to reconcile Miss Dietrich's Frenchy, the cabaret girl of the Bloody Gulch Saloon, with the posed and posturing Dietrich we last saw in Mr. Lubitsch's 'Angel'." Stewart's contribution was similarly treated, "turning in an easy, likable, pleasantly humored performance."Other versions * Universal Pictures released an earlier film, also titled Destry Rides Again (1932), directed by Benjamin Stoloff and starring Tom Mix and ZaSu Pitts. Apart from the title, the story has no connection with the later film and is sometimes retitled as Justice Rides Again. * A Lux Radio Theater version of the story was aired November 5, 1945, starred Jimmy Stewart and Joan Blondell, and can be heard on YouTube. * An almost shot-for-shot remake of the 1939 production, Destry (1954), was also directed by George Marshall and stars Audie Murphy and Thomas Mitchell. * A Broadway musical version of the story, Destry Rides Again, opened in New York City at the Imperial Theatre on April 23, 1959, and played 472 performances. Produced by David Merrick, the show had a book by Leonard Gershe, music and lyrics by Harold Rome, and starred Andy Griffith as Destry and Dolores Gray as Frenchy. * ABC aired a short-lived television series in 1964, Destry, based on the 1939 and 1954 films, starring John Gavin as the son of the movie's title character. In popular culture Marlene Dietrich's character, Frenchy, was the inspiration for the character of Lili Von Shtupp in the Western parody Blazing Saddles. In the movie, Drag Me To Hell, the film can be seen playing on a TV behind the counter at the pawn shop.References Notes Bibliography * Beaver, Jim. "James Stewart." Films in Review, October 1980. * Coe, Jonathan. James Stewart: Leading Man. London: Bloomsbury, 1994. . * Eliot, Mark. Jimmy Stewart: A Biography. New York: Random House, 2006. . * [http://www.jimmy.org "The Jimmy Stewart Museum Home Page."] jimmy.org. Retrieved: February 18, 2007. * Jones, Ken D., Arthur F. McClure and Alfred E. Twomey. The Films of James Stewart. New York: Castle Books, 1970. * Pickard, Roy. Jimmy Stewart: A Life in Film. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992. . * Prendergast, Tom and Sara, eds. "Stewart, James". International Dictionary of Films and Filmmakers, 4th edition. London: St. James Press, 2000. . * Prendergast, Tom and Sara, eds. "Stewart, James". St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture, 5th edition. London: St. James Press, 2000. . * Quirk, Lawrence J. James Stewart: Behind the Scenes of a Wonderful Life. Montclair, New Jersey: Applause Books, 2000. . * Riva, Maria. Marlene Dietrich. New York: Ballantine Books, 1994. . * Robbins, Jhan. ''Everybody's Man: A Biography of Jimmy Stewart''. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1985. . * Thomas, Tony. A Wonderful Life: The Films and Career of James Stewart. Secaucus, New Jersey: Citadel Press, 1988. . External links * * * * [https://www.criterion.com/current/posts/6905-destry-rides-again-riding-high Destry Rides Again: Riding High] an essay by Farran Smith Nehme at the Criterion Collection [https://archive.org/download/Lux10/Lux_45-11-05_DestryRidesAgain.mp3 Destry Rides Again] on Lux Radio Theater: November 5, 1945 * Destry Rides Again essay by Daniel Eagan in America's Film Legacy: The Authoritative Guide to the Landmark Movies in the National Film Registry, A&C Black, 2010 , pages 298-299 [https://books.google.com/books?id=deq3xI8OmCkC] Category:1939 films Category:1939 Western (genre) films Category:1939 comedy films Category:American Western (genre) comedy films Category:American black-and-white films Category:1930s English-language films Category:Films based on American novels Category:Films based on Western (genre) novels Category:Films directed by George Marshall Category:Films produced by Joe Pasternak Category:Films scored by Frank Skinner Category:United States National Film Registry films Category:Universal Pictures films Category:1930s American films Category:1930s Western (genre) comedy films Category:English-language Western (genre) comedy films	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destry_Rides_Again	2025-04-05T18:28:18.556290
7921	Derivative	In mathematics, the derivative is a fundamental tool that quantifies the sensitivity to change of a function's output with respect to its input. The derivative of a function of a single variable at a chosen input value, when it exists, is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the function at that point. The tangent line is the best linear approximation of the function near that input value. For this reason, the derivative is often described as the instantaneous rate of change, the ratio of the instantaneous change in the dependent variable to that of the independent variable. The process of finding a derivative is called differentiation. There are multiple different notations for differentiation. Leibniz notation, named after Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, is represented as the ratio of two differentials, whereas prime notation is written by adding a prime mark. Higher order notations represent repeated differentiation, and they are usually denoted in Leibniz notation by adding superscripts to the differentials, and in prime notation by adding additional prime marks. The higher order derivatives can be applied in physics; for example, while the first derivative of the position of a moving object with respect to time is the object's velocity, how the position changes as time advances, the second derivative is the object's acceleration, how the velocity changes as time advances. Derivatives can be generalized to functions of several real variables. In this case, the derivative is reinterpreted as a linear transformation whose graph is (after an appropriate translation) the best linear approximation to the graph of the original function. The Jacobian matrix is the matrix that represents this linear transformation with respect to the basis given by the choice of independent and dependent variables. It can be calculated in terms of the partial derivatives with respect to the independent variables. For a real-valued function of several variables, the Jacobian matrix reduces to the gradient vector. Definition As a limit A function of a real variable <math> f(x) </math> is differentiable at a point <math> a </math> of its domain, if its domain contains an open interval containing , and the limit <math display"block">L\lim_{h \to 0}\frac{f(a+h)-f(a)}h </math> exists. This means that, for every positive real number , there exists a positive real number <math>\delta</math> such that, for every <math> h </math> such that <math>\|h\| < \delta</math> and <math>h\ne 0</math> then <math>f(a+h)</math> is defined, and <math display="block">\left\|L-\frac{f(a+h)-f(a)}h\right\|<\varepsilon,</math> where the vertical bars denote the absolute value. This is an example of the (ε, δ)-definition of limit. If the function <math> f </math> is differentiable at , that is if the limit <math> L </math> exists, then this limit is called the derivative of <math> f </math> at <math> a </math>. Multiple notations for the derivative exist. The derivative of <math> f </math> at <math> a </math> can be denoted , read as " prime of "; or it can be denoted {{tmath\|1\textstyle \frac{df}{dx}(a) }}, read as "the derivative of <math> f </math> with respect to <math> x </math> at " or " by (or over) <math> dx </math> at ". See below. If <math> f </math> is a function that has a derivative at every point in its domain, then a function can be defined by mapping every point <math> x </math> to the value of the derivative of <math> f </math> at <math> x </math>. This function is written <math> f' </math> and is called the derivative function or the derivative of . The function <math> f </math> sometimes has a derivative at most, but not all, points of its domain. The function whose value at <math> a </math> equals <math> f'(a) </math> whenever <math> f'(a) </math> is defined and elsewhere is undefined is also called the derivative of . It is still a function, but its domain may be smaller than the domain of <math> f </math>. For example, let <math>f</math> be the squaring function: <math>f(x) x^2</math>. Then the quotient in the definition of the derivative is <math display"block">\frac{f(a+h) - f(a)}{h} \frac{(a+h)^2 - a^2}{h} \frac{a^2 + 2ah + h^2 - a^2}{h} 2a + h.</math> The division in the last step is valid as long as <math>h \neq 0</math>. The closer <math>h</math> is to , the closer this expression becomes to the value <math>2a</math>. The limit exists, and for every input <math>a</math> the limit is <math>2a</math>. So, the derivative of the squaring function is the doubling function: . The ratio in the definition of the derivative is the slope of the line through two points on the graph of the function , specifically the points <math>(a,f(a))</math> and <math>(a+h, f(a+h))</math>. As <math>h</math> is made smaller, these points grow closer together, and the slope of this line approaches the limiting value, the slope of the tangent to the graph of <math>f</math> at <math>a</math>. In other words, the derivative is the slope of the tangent. Using infinitesimals One way to think of the derivative <math display"inline">\frac{df}{dx}(a)</math> is as the ratio of an infinitesimal change in the output of the function <math>f</math> to an infinitesimal change in its input. In order to make this intuition rigorous, a system of rules for manipulating infinitesimal quantities is required. The system of hyperreal numbers is a way of treating infinite and infinitesimal quantities. The hyperreals are an extension of the real numbers that contain numbers greater than anything of the form <math>1 + 1 + \cdots + 1 </math> for any finite number of terms. Such numbers are infinite, and their reciprocals are infinitesimals. The application of hyperreal numbers to the foundations of calculus is called nonstandard analysis. This provides a way to define the basic concepts of calculus such as the derivative and integral in terms of infinitesimals, thereby giving a precise meaning to the <math>d</math> in the Leibniz notation. Thus, the derivative of <math>f(x)</math> becomes <math display"block">f'(x) \operatorname{st}\left( \frac{f(x + dx) - f(x)}{dx} \right)</math> for an arbitrary infinitesimal , where <math>\operatorname{st}</math> denotes the standard part function, which "rounds off" each finite hyperreal to the nearest real. Taking the squaring function <math>f(x) = x^2</math> as an example again, <math display="block"> \begin{align} f'(x) &= \operatorname{st}\left(\frac{x^2 + 2x \cdot dx + (dx)^2 -x^2}{dx}\right) \\ &= \operatorname{st}\left(\frac{2x \cdot dx + (dx)^2}{dx}\right) \\ &= \operatorname{st}\left(\frac{2x \cdot dx}{dx} + \frac{(dx)^2}{dx}\right) \\ &= \operatorname{st}\left(2x + dx\right) \\ &= 2x. \end{align} </math> Continuity and differentiability 0}} since the tangent slopes do not approach the same value from the left as they do from the right. }} If <math> f </math> is differentiable at , then <math> f </math> must also be continuous at <math> a </math>. As an example, choose a point <math> a </math> and let <math> f </math> be the step function that returns the value 1 for all <math> x </math> less than , and returns a different value 10 for all <math> x </math> greater than or equal to <math> a </math>. The function <math> f </math> cannot have a derivative at <math> a </math>. If <math> h </math> is negative, then <math> a + h </math> is on the low part of the step, so the secant line from <math> a </math> to <math> a + h </math> is very steep; as <math> h </math> tends to zero, the slope tends to infinity. If <math> h </math> is positive, then <math> a + h </math> is on the high part of the step, so the secant line from <math> a </math> to <math> a + h </math> has slope zero. Consequently, the secant lines do not approach any single slope, so the limit of the difference quotient does not exist. However, even if a function is continuous at a point, it may not be differentiable there. For example, the absolute value function given by <math> f(x) \|x\| </math> is continuous at , but it is not differentiable there. If <math> h </math> is positive, then the slope of the secant line from 0 to <math> h </math> is one; if <math> h </math> is negative, then the slope of the secant line from <math> 0 </math> to <math> h </math> is . This can be seen graphically as a "kink" or a "cusp" in the graph at <math>x0</math>. Even a function with a smooth graph is not differentiable at a point where its tangent is vertical: For instance, the function given by <math> f(x) x^{1/3} </math> is not differentiable at <math> x 0 </math>. In summary, a function that has a derivative is continuous, but there are continuous functions that do not have a derivative. Most functions that occur in practice have derivatives at all points or almost every point. Early in the history of calculus, many mathematicians assumed that a continuous function was differentiable at most points. Under mild conditions (for example, if the function is a monotone or a Lipschitz function), this is true. However, in 1872, Weierstrass found the first example of a function that is continuous everywhere but differentiable nowhere. This example is now known as the Weierstrass function. In 1931, Stefan Banach proved that the set of functions that have a derivative at some point is a meager set in the space of all continuous functions. Informally, this means that hardly any random continuous functions have a derivative at even one point. Notation One common way of writing the derivative of a function is Leibniz notation, introduced by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in 1675, which denotes a derivative as the quotient of two differentials, such as <math> dy </math> and . It is still commonly used when the equation <math>yf(x)</math> is viewed as a functional relationship between dependent and independent variables. The first derivative is denoted by {{tmath\|1\textstyle \frac{dy}{dx} }}, read as "the derivative of <math> y </math> with respect to ". This derivative can alternately be treated as the application of a differential operator to a function, <math display"inline">\frac{dy}{dx} \frac{d}{dx} f(x).</math> Higher derivatives are expressed using the notation <math display"inline"> \frac{d^n y}{dx^n} </math> for the <math>n</math>-th derivative of <math>y f(x)</math>. These are abbreviations for multiple applications of the derivative operator; for example, <math display"inline">\frac{d^2y}{dx^2} \frac{d}{dx}\Bigl(\frac{d}{dx} f(x)\Bigr).</math> Unlike some alternatives, Leibniz notation involves explicit specification of the variable for differentiation, in the denominator, which removes ambiguity when working with multiple interrelated quantities. The derivative of a composed function can be expressed using the chain rule: if <math>u g(x)</math> and <math>y f(g(x))</math> then <math display"inline">\frac{dy}{dx} \frac{dy}{du} \cdot \frac{du}{dx}.</math> Another common notation for differentiation is by using the prime mark in the symbol of a function . This notation, due to Joseph-Louis Lagrange, is now known as prime notation. The first derivative is written as , read as " prime of , or , read as " prime". Similarly, the second and the third derivatives can be written as <math> f'' </math> and , respectively. For denoting the number of higher derivatives beyond this point, some authors use Roman numerals in superscript, whereas others place the number in parentheses, such as <math>f^{\mathrm{iv}}</math> or {{tmath\|1= f^{(4)} }}. The latter notation generalizes to yield the notation <math>f^{(n)}</math> for the th derivative of . In Newton's notation or the dot notation, a dot is placed over a symbol to represent a time derivative. If <math> y </math> is a function of , then the first and second derivatives can be written as <math>\dot{y}</math> and {{tmath\|1 \ddot{y} }}, respectively. This notation is used exclusively for derivatives with respect to time or arc length. It is typically used in differential equations in physics and differential geometry. However, the dot notation becomes unmanageable for high-order derivatives (of order 4 or more) and cannot deal with multiple independent variables. Another notation is D-notation, which represents the differential operator by the symbol . The first derivative is written <math>D f(x)</math> and higher derivatives are written with a superscript, so the <math>n</math>-th derivative is . This notation is sometimes called Euler notation, although it seems that Leonhard Euler did not use it, and the notation was introduced by Louis François Antoine Arbogast. To indicate a partial derivative, the variable differentiated by is indicated with a subscript, for example given the function , its partial derivative with respect to <math>x</math> can be written <math>D_x u</math> or . Higher partial derivatives can be indicated by superscripts or multiple subscripts, e.g. <math displayinline>D_{xy} f(x,y) \frac{\partial}{\partial y} \Bigl(\frac{\partial}{\partial x} f(x,y) \Bigr)</math> and {{tmath\|1\textstyle D_{x}^2 f(x,y) \frac{\partial}{\partial x} \Bigl(\frac{\partial}{\partial x} f(x,y) \Bigr) }}. Rules of computation In principle, the derivative of a function can be computed from the definition by considering the difference quotient and computing its limit. Once the derivatives of a few simple functions are known, the derivatives of other functions are more easily computed using rules for obtaining derivatives of more complicated functions from simpler ones. This process of finding a derivative is known as differentiation. Rules for basic functions The following are the rules for the derivatives of the most common basic functions. Here, <math> a </math> is a real number, and <math> e </math> is the base of the natural logarithm, approximately . * Derivatives of powers: : <math> \frac{d}{dx}x^a = ax^{a-1} </math> <!--DO NOT ADD TO THIS LIST--> Functions of exponential, natural logarithm, and logarithm with general base: : <math> \frac{d}{dx}e^x = e^x </math> : <math> \frac{d}{dx}a^x = a^x\ln(a) </math>, for <math> a > 0 </math> : <math> \frac{d}{dx}\ln(x) = \frac{1}{x} </math>, for <math> x > 0 </math> : <math> \frac{d}{dx}\log_a(x) = \frac{1}{x\ln(a)} </math>, for <math> x, a > 0 </math> <!--DO NOT ADD TO THIS LIST--> * Trigonometric functions: : <math> \frac{d}{dx}\sin(x) = \cos(x) </math> : <math> \frac{d}{dx}\cos(x) = -\sin(x) </math> : <math> \frac{d}{dx}\tan(x) \sec^2(x) \frac{1}{\cos^2(x)} = 1 + \tan^2(x) </math> <!--DO NOT ADD TO THIS LIST--> Inverse trigonometric functions: : <math> \frac{d}{dx}\arcsin(x) = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-x^2}} </math>, for <math> -1 < x < 1 </math> : <math> \frac{d}{dx}\arccos(x)= -\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-x^2}} </math>, for <math> -1 < x < 1 </math> : <math> \frac{d}{dx}\arctan(x)= \frac{1} </math> <!--DO NOT ADD TO THIS LIST--> Rules for combined functions <span class"anchor" id"Rules"></span> Given that the <math> f </math> and <math> g </math> are the functions. The following are some of the most basic rules for deducing the derivative of functions from derivatives of basic functions. Constant rule: if <math>f</math> is constant, then for all , : <math>f'(x) = 0. </math> Sum rule: : <math>(\alpha f + \beta g)' \alpha f' + \beta g' </math> for all functions <math>f</math> and <math>g</math> and all real numbers <math>\alpha</math> and . Product rule: : <math>(fg)' f 'g + fg' </math> for all functions <math>f</math> and . As a special case, this rule includes the fact <math>(\alpha f)' \alpha f'</math> whenever <math>\alpha</math> is a constant because <math>\alpha' f 0 \cdot f = 0</math> by the constant rule. Quotient rule: : <math>\left(\frac{f}{g} \right)' = \frac{f'g - fg'}{g^2}</math> for all functions <math>f</math> and <math>g</math> at all inputs where . Chain rule for composite functions: If , then : <math>f'(x) h'(g(x)) \cdot g'(x). </math> Computation example The derivative of the function given by <math>f(x) x^4 + \sin \left(x^2\right) - \ln(x) e^x + 7</math> is <math display="block"> \begin{align} f'(x) &= 4 x^{(4-1)}+ \frac{d\left(x^2\right)}{dx}\cos \left(x^2\right) - \frac{d\left(\ln {x}\right)}{dx} e^x - \ln(x) \frac{d\left(e^x\right)}{dx} + 0 \\ &= 4x^3 + 2x\cos \left(x^2\right) - \frac{1}{x} e^x - \ln(x) e^x. \end{align} </math> Here the second term was computed using the chain rule and the third term using the product rule. The known derivatives of the elementary functions <math> x^2 </math>, <math> x^4 </math>, <math> \sin (x) </math>, <math> \ln (x) </math>, and <math> \exp(x) e^x </math>, as well as the constant <math> 7 </math>, were also used. Higher-order derivatives <span class"anchor" id"order of derivation"></span><span class"anchor" id"Order"></span> Higher order derivatives are the result of differentiating a function repeatedly. Given that <math> f </math> is a differentiable function, the derivative of <math> f </math> is the first derivative, denoted as . The derivative of <math> f' </math> is the second derivative, denoted as , and the derivative of <math> f'' </math> is the third derivative, denoted as . By continuing this process, if it exists, the th derivative is the derivative of the th derivative or the derivative of order . As has been discussed above, the generalization of derivative of a function <math> f </math> may be denoted as {{tmath\|1 f^{(n)} }}. A function that has <math> k </math> successive derivatives is called <math> k </math> times differentiable. If the th derivative is continuous, then the function is said to be of differentiability class . A function that has infinitely many derivatives is called infinitely differentiable or smooth. Any polynomial function is infinitely differentiable; taking derivatives repeatedly will eventually result in a constant function, and all subsequent derivatives of that function are zero. One application of higher-order derivatives is in physics. Suppose that a function represents the position of an object at the time. The first derivative of that function is the velocity of an object with respect to time, the second derivative of the function is the acceleration of an object with respect to time, and the third derivative is the jerk. In other dimensions Vector-valued functions A vector-valued function <math> \mathbf{y} </math> of a real variable sends real numbers to vectors in some vector space <math> \R^n </math>. A vector-valued function can be split up into its coordinate functions <math> y_1(t), y_2(t), \dots, y_n(t) </math>, meaning that <math> \mathbf{y} (y_1(t), y_2(t), \dots, y_n(t))</math>. This includes, for example, parametric curves in <math> \R^2 </math> or <math> \R^3 </math>. The coordinate functions are real-valued functions, so the above definition of derivative applies to them. The derivative of <math> \mathbf{y}(t) </math> is defined to be the vector, called the tangent vector, whose coordinates are the derivatives of the coordinate functions. That is, <math display"block"> \mathbf{y}'(t)\lim_{h\to 0}\frac{\mathbf{y}(t+h) - \mathbf{y}(t)}{h}, </math> if the limit exists. The subtraction in the numerator is the subtraction of vectors, not scalars. If the derivative of <math> \mathbf{y} </math> exists for every value of , then <math> \mathbf{y}' </math> is another vector-valued function. Partial derivatives Functions can depend upon more than one variable. A partial derivative of a function of several variables is its derivative with respect to one of those variables, with the others held constant. Partial derivatives are used in vector calculus and differential geometry. As with ordinary derivatives, multiple notations exist: the partial derivative of a function <math>f(x, y, \dots)</math> with respect to the variable <math>x</math> is variously denoted by {{block indent \| em 1.2 \| text <math>f_x</math>, <math>f'_x</math>, <math>\partial_x f</math>, <math>\frac{\partial}{\partial x}f</math>, or <math>\frac{\partial f}{\partial x}</math>,}} among other possibilities. It can be thought of as the rate of change of the function in the <math>x</math>-direction. Here ∂ is a rounded d called the partial derivative symbol. To distinguish it from the letter d, ∂ is sometimes pronounced "der", "del", or "partial" instead of "dee". For example, let , then the partial derivative of function <math> f </math> with respect to both variables <math> x </math> and <math> y </math> are, respectively: <math display"block"> \frac{\partial f}{\partial x} 2x + y, \qquad \frac{\partial f}{\partial y} = x + 2y.</math> In general, the partial derivative of a function <math> f(x_1, \dots, x_n) </math> in the direction <math> x_i </math> at the point <math>(a_1, \dots, a_n) </math> is defined to be: <math display"block">\frac{\partial f}{\partial x_i}(a_1,\ldots,a_n) \lim_{h \to 0}\frac{f(a_1,\ldots,a_i+h,\ldots,a_n) - f(a_1,\ldots,a_i,\ldots,a_n)}{h}.</math> This is fundamental for the study of the functions of several real variables. Let <math> f(x_1, \dots, x_n) </math> be such a real-valued function. If all partial derivatives <math> f </math> with respect to <math> x_j </math> are defined at the point , these partial derivatives define the vector <math display"block">\nabla f(a_1, \ldots, a_n) \left(\frac{\partial f}{\partial x_1}(a_1, \ldots, a_n), \ldots, \frac{\partial f}{\partial x_n}(a_1, \ldots, a_n)\right),</math> which is called the gradient of <math> f </math> at <math> a </math>. If <math> f </math> is differentiable at every point in some domain, then the gradient is a vector-valued function <math> \nabla f </math> that maps the point <math> (a_1, \dots, a_n) </math> to the vector <math> \nabla f(a_1, \dots, a_n) </math>. Consequently, the gradient determines a vector field. Directional derivatives If <math> f </math> is a real-valued function on , then the partial derivatives of <math> f </math> measure its variation in the direction of the coordinate axes. For example, if <math> f </math> is a function of <math> x </math> and , then its partial derivatives measure the variation in <math> f </math> in the <math> x </math> and <math> y </math> direction. However, they do not directly measure the variation of <math> f </math> in any other direction, such as along the diagonal line . These are measured using directional derivatives. Given a vector {{tmath\|1\mathbf{v} (v_1,\ldots,v_n) }}, then the directional derivative of <math> f </math> in the direction of <math> \mathbf{v} </math> at the point <math> \mathbf{x} </math> is: <math display"block"> D_{\mathbf{v}}{f}(\mathbf{x}) \lim_{h \rightarrow 0}{\frac{f(\mathbf{x} + h\mathbf{v}) - f(\mathbf{x})}{h}}.</math> <!--In some cases, it may be easier to compute or estimate the directional derivative after changing the length of the vector. Often this is done to turn the problem into the computation of a directional derivative in the direction of a unit vector. To see how this works, suppose that where u is a unit vector in the direction of v. Substitute into the difference quotient. The difference quotient becomes: :<math>\frac{f(\mathbf{x} + (k/\lambda)(\lambda\mathbf{u})) - f(\mathbf{x})}{k/\lambda} = \lambda\cdot\frac{f(\mathbf{x} + k\mathbf{u}) - f(\mathbf{x})}{k}.</math> This is λ times the difference quotient for the directional derivative of f with respect to u. Furthermore, taking the limit as h tends to zero is the same as taking the limit as k tends to zero because h and k are multiples of each other. Therefore, . Because of this rescaling property, directional derivatives are frequently considered only for unit vectors.--> If all the partial derivatives of <math> f </math> exist and are continuous at {{tmath\|1\mathbf{x} }}, then they determine the directional derivative of <math> f </math> in the direction <math> \mathbf{v} </math> by the formula: <math display"block"> D_{\mathbf{v}}{f}(\mathbf{x}) \sum_{j1}^n v_j \frac{\partial f}{\partial x_j}. </math> Total derivative, total differential and Jacobian matrix When <math> f </math> is a function from an open subset of <math> \R^n </math> to , then the directional derivative of <math> f </math> in a chosen direction is the best linear approximation to <math> f </math> at that point and in that direction. However, when , no single directional derivative can give a complete picture of the behavior of <math> f </math>. The total derivative gives a complete picture by considering all directions at once. That is, for any vector <math> \mathbf{v} </math> starting at {{tmath\|1\mathbf{a} }}, the linear approximation formula holds: <math display="block">f(\mathbf{a} + \mathbf{v}) \approx f(\mathbf{a}) + f'(\mathbf{a})\mathbf{v}.</math> Similarly with the single-variable derivative, <math> f'(\mathbf{a}) </math> is chosen so that the error in this approximation is as small as possible. The total derivative of <math> f </math> at <math> \mathbf{a} </math> is the unique linear transformation <math> f'(\mathbf{a}) \colon \R^n \to \R^m </math> such that <math display"block">\lim_{\mathbf{h}\to 0} \frac{\lVert f(\mathbf{a} + \mathbf{h}) - (f(\mathbf{a}) + f'(\mathbf{a})\mathbf{h})\rVert}{\lVert\mathbf{h}\rVert} 0.</math> Here <math> \mathbf{h} </math> is a vector in , so the norm in the denominator is the standard length on <math> \R^n </math>. However, <math> f'(\mathbf{a}) \mathbf{h} </math> is a vector in , and the norm in the numerator is the standard length on <math> \R^m </math>. If <math> v </math> is a vector starting at , then <math> f'(\mathbf{a}) \mathbf{v} </math> is called the pushforward of <math> \mathbf{v} </math> by <math> f </math>. If the total derivative exists at {{tmath\|1\mathbf{a} }}, then all the partial derivatives and directional derivatives of <math> f </math> exist at {{tmath\|1 \mathbf{a} }}, and for all {{tmath\|1\mathbf{v} }}, <math> f'(\mathbf{a})\mathbf{v} </math> is the directional derivative of <math> f </math> in the direction {{tmath\|1 \mathbf{v} }}. If <math> f </math> is written using coordinate functions, so that , then the total derivative can be expressed using the partial derivatives as a matrix. This matrix is called the Jacobian matrix of <math> f </math> at <math> \mathbf{a} </math>: <math display"block">f'(\mathbf{a}) \operatorname{Jac}_{\mathbf{a}} = \left(\frac{\partial f_i}{\partial x_j}\right)_{ij}.</math> <!-- The existence of the total derivative <math> f(\mathbf{a}) </math> is strictly stronger than the existence of all the partial derivatives, but if the partial derivatives exist and are continuous, then the total derivative exists, is given by the Jacobian, and depends continuously on {{tmath\|1= \mathbf{a} }}. The definition of the total derivative subsumes the definition of the derivative in one variable. That is, if <math> f </math> is a real-valued function of a real variable, then the total derivative exists if and only if the usual derivative exists. The Jacobian matrix reduces to a matrix whose only entry is the derivative . This matrix satisfies the property that <math display="block"> f(a+h) \approx f(a) + f'(a)h.</math> Up to changing variables, this is the statement that the function <math>x \mapsto f(a) + f'(a)(x-a)</math> is the best linear approximation to <math> f </math> at . The total derivative of a function does not give another function in the same way as the one-variable case. This is because the total derivative of a multivariable function has to record much more information than the derivative of a single-variable function. Instead, the total derivative gives a function from the tangent bundle of the source to the tangent bundle of the target. The natural analog of second, third, and higher-order total derivatives is not a linear transformation, is not a function on the tangent bundle, and is not built by repeatedly taking the total derivative. The analog of a higher-order derivative, called a jet, cannot be a linear transformation because higher-order derivatives reflect subtle geometric information, such as concavity, which cannot be described in terms of linear data such as vectors. It cannot be a function on the tangent bundle because the tangent bundle only has room for the base space and the directional derivatives. Because jets capture higher-order information, they take as arguments additional coordinates representing higher-order changes in direction. The space determined by these additional coordinates is called the jet bundle. The relation between the total derivative and the partial derivatives of a function is paralleled in the relation between the th order jet of a function and its partial derivatives of order less than or equal to . By repeatedly taking the total derivative, one obtains higher versions of the Fréchet derivative, specialized to . The th order total derivative may be interpreted as a map <math display="block"> D^k f: \mathbb{R}^n \to L^k(\mathbb{R}^n \times \cdots \times \mathbb{R}^n, \mathbb{R}^m), </math> which takes a point <math> \mathbf{x} </math> in <math> \R^n </math> and assigns to it an element of the space of linear maps from <math> \R^n </math> to <math> \R^m </math> — the "best" (in a certain precise sense) linear approximation to <math> f </math> at that point. By precomposing it with the diagonal map <math> \Delta </math>, <math> \mathbf{x} \to (\mathbf{x}, \mathbf{x}) </math>, a generalized Taylor series may be begun as <math display="block">\begin{align} f(\mathbf{x}) & \approx f(\mathbf{a}) + (D f)(\mathbf{x-a}) + \left(D^2 f\right)(\Delta(\mathbf{x-a})) + \cdots\\ & = f(\mathbf{a}) + (D f)(\mathbf{x - a}) + \left(D^2 f\right)(\mathbf{x - a}, \mathbf{x - a})+ \cdots\\ & = f(\mathbf{a}) + \sum_i (D f)_i (x_i-a_i) + \sum_{j, k} \left(D^2 f\right)_{j k} (x_j-a_j) (x_k-a_k) + \cdots \end{align}</math> where <math> f(\mathbf{a}) </math> is identified with a constant function, <math> x_i - a_i </math> are the components of the vector <math> \mathbf{x}- \mathbf{a} </math>, and <math> (Df)_i </math> and <math> (D^2 f)_{jk} </math> are the components of <math> Df </math> and <math> D^2 f </math> as linear transformations.--> Generalizations The concept of a derivative can be extended to many other settings. The common thread is that the derivative of a function at a point serves as a linear approximation of the function at that point. An important generalization of the derivative concerns complex functions of complex variables, such as functions from (a domain in) the complex numbers <math>\C</math> to . The notion of the derivative of such a function is obtained by replacing real variables with complex variables in the definition. If <math>\C</math> is identified with <math>\R^2</math> by writing a complex number <math>z</math> as then a differentiable function from <math>\C</math> to <math>\C</math> is certainly differentiable as a function from <math>\R^2</math> to <math>\R^2</math> (in the sense that its partial derivatives all exist), but the converse is not true in general: the complex derivative only exists if the real derivative is complex linear and this imposes relations between the partial derivatives called the Cauchy–Riemann equations – see holomorphic functions. * Another generalization concerns functions between differentiable or smooth manifolds. Intuitively speaking such a manifold <math>M</math> is a space that can be approximated near each point <math>x</math> by a vector space called its tangent space: the prototypical example is a smooth surface in . The derivative (or differential) of a (differentiable) map <math>f:M\to N</math> between manifolds, at a point <math>x</math> in , is then a linear map from the tangent space of <math>M</math> at <math>x</math> to the tangent space of <math>N</math> at . The derivative function becomes a map between the tangent bundles of <math>M</math> and . This definition is used in differential geometry. * Differentiation can also be defined for maps between vector space, such as Banach space, in which those generalizations are the Gateaux derivative and the Fréchet derivative. * One deficiency of the classical derivative is that very many functions are not differentiable. Nevertheless, there is a way of extending the notion of the derivative so that all continuous functions and many other functions can be differentiated using a concept known as the weak derivative. The idea is to embed the continuous functions in a larger space called the space of distributions and only require that a function is differentiable "on average". * Properties of the derivative have inspired the introduction and study of many similar objects in algebra and topology; an example is differential algebra. Here, it consists of the derivation of some topics in abstract algebra, such as rings, ideals, field, and so on. * The discrete equivalent of differentiation is finite differences. The study of differential calculus is unified with the calculus of finite differences in time scale calculus. * The arithmetic derivative involves the function that is defined for the integers by the prime factorization. This is an analogy with the product rule. See also * Covariant derivative * Derivation * Exterior derivative * Functional derivative * Integral * Lie derivative Notes References * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * . See the English version [http://dml.cz/bitstream/handle/10338.dmlcz/400073/Bolzano_15-1981-1_6.pdf here]. * * * * * * * * * * * * * }} * }} * * * External links * * Khan Academy: [https://www.khanacademy.org/math/differential-calculus/taking-derivatives/intro_differential_calc/v/newton-leibniz-and-usain-bolt "Newton, Leibniz, and Usain Bolt"] * * [http://www.wolframalpha.com/calculators/derivative-calculator/ Online Derivative Calculator] from Wolfram Alpha. Category:Mathematical analysis Category:Differential calculus Category:Functions and mappings Category:Linear operators in calculus Category:Rates Category:Change	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derivative	2025-04-05T18:28:18.596361
7922	Dravidian languages	\| date = 2020 \| glottorefname = Dravidian \| map = Dravidian map.svg \| mapcaption = Distribution of the Dravidian languages \| ancestor \| glottoname \| notes = }} The Dravidian languages are a family of languages spoken by 250 million people, mainly in South India, north-east Sri Lanka, and south-west Pakistan, with pockets elsewhere in South Asia. The most commonly spoken Dravidian languages are (in descending order) Telugu, Tamil, Kannada, and Malayalam, all of which have long literary traditions. Smaller literary languages are Tulu and Kodava. Together with several smaller languages such as Gondi, these languages cover the southern part of India and the northeast of Sri Lanka, and account for the overwhelming majority of speakers of Dravidian languages. Malto and Kurukh are spoken in isolated pockets in eastern India. Kurukh is also spoken in parts of Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh. Brahui is mostly spoken in the Balochistan region of Pakistan, Iranian Balochistan, Afghanistan and around the Marw oasis in Turkmenistan. During the British colonial period, Dravidian speakers were sent as indentured labourers to Southeast Asia, Mauritius, South Africa, Fiji, the Caribbean, and East Africa. There are more-recent Dravidian-speaking diaspora communities in the Middle East, Europe, North America and Oceania. Dravidian is first attested in the 2nd century BCE, as inscriptions in Tamil-Brahmi script on cave walls in the Madurai and Tirunelveli districts of Tamil Nadu.).}} Dravidian place names along the Arabian Sea coast and clear signs of Dravidian phonological and grammatical influence (e.g. retroflex consonants and clusivity) in the Indo-Aryan languages suggest that Dravidian languages were spoken more widely across the Indian subcontinent before the spread of the Indo-Aryan languages. or even earlier, Despite many attempts, the family has not been shown to be related to any other. Dravidian studies (1906), map of the distribution of Dravidian languages]] The 14th-century Sanskrit text Lilatilakam, a grammar of Manipravalam, states that the spoken languages of present-day Kerala and Tamil Nadu were similar, terming them as "Dramiḍa". The author does not consider the "Karṇṇāṭa" (Kannada) and the "Āndhra" (Telugu) languages as "Dramiḍa", because they were very different from the language of the "Tamil Veda" (Tiruvaymoli), but states that some people would include them in the "Dramiḍa" category. In 1816, Francis Whyte Ellis argued that Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Tulu and Kodava descended from a common, non-Indo-European ancestor. He supported his argument with a detailed comparison of non-Sanskrit vocabulary in Telugu, Kannada and Tamil, and also demonstrated that they shared grammatical structures. In 1844, Christian Lassen discovered that Brahui was related to these languages. In 1856, Robert Caldwell published his Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or South-Indian Family of Languages, which considerably expanded the Dravidian umbrella and established Dravidian as one of the major language groups of the world. In 1961, T. Burrow and M. B. Emeneau published the Dravidian Etymological Dictionary, with a major revision in 1984.NameRobert Caldwell coined the term "Dravidian" for this family of languages, based on the usage of the Sanskrit word in the work Tantravārttika'' by : , the adjectival form of . This term, it is true, has sometimes been used, and is still sometimes used, in almost as restricted a sense as that of Tamil itself, so that though on the whole it is the best term I can find, I admit it is not perfectly free from ambiguity. It is a term which has already been used more or less distinctively by Sanskrit philologists, as a generic appellation for the South Indian people and their languages, and it is the only single term they ever seem to have used in this manner. I have, therefore, no doubt of the propriety of adopting it. \|authorRobert Caldwell}} The origin of the Sanskrit word is the Tamil word . Kamil Zvelebil cites the forms such as dramila (in 's Sanskrit work Avantisundarīkathā) and (found in the Sri Lankan (Ceylonese) chronicle Mahavamsa) and then goes on to say, "The forms damiḷa/damila almost certainly provide a connection of " with the indigenous name of the Tamil language, the likely derivation being "* > * > - / damila- and further, with the intrusive, 'hypercorrect' (or perhaps analogical) -r-, into . The -m-/-v- alternation is a common enough phenomenon in Dravidian phonology". Bhadriraju Krishnamurti states in his reference book The Dravidian languages: , dramila first as the name of a people, then of a country. Sinhala BCE inscriptions cite -, damela- denoting Tamil merchants. Early Buddhist and Jaina sources used - to refer to a people of south India (presumably Tamil); - was a southern non-Aryan country; -, , and - were used as variants to designate a country in the south (, Kādambarī, Daśakumāracarita-, fourth to seventh centuries CE) (1989: 134–138). It appears that - was older than - which could be its Sanskritization.}} Based on what Krishnamurti states (referring to a scholarly paper published in the International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics), the Sanskrit word itself appeared later than , since the dates for the forms with -r- are centuries later than the dates for the forms without -r- (, -, damela- etc.). Classification The Dravidian languages form a close-knit family. Most scholars agree on four groups: * South Dravidian (Tamil–Tulu, or South DravidianI) Tamil–Kannada * ** * ** *** **** Tamil languages, including Tamil **** Malayalam languages, including Malayalam *** Irula ** Kodava * Toda Kota * Kannada languages, including Kannada and Badaga * Koraga * Tulu * Kudiya * South-Central Dravidian (Telugu-Kui, or South DravidianII) Telugu languages, including Telugu Gondi-Kui * Gondi languages, including Gondi * Konda * ** Manda ** Pengo * ** Kuvi **** Kui * Central Dravidian (Kolami–Parji) * Kolami * Naiki * Gadaba Ollari Kondekor * Duruwa (or Parji) * North Dravidian (Brahui-Kurukh) Kurukh–Malto * Kurukh (Oraon, Kisan) * Malto (Kumarbhag Paharia, Sauria Paharia) Brahui There are different proposals regarding the relationship between these groups. Earlier classifications grouped Central and South-Central Dravidian in a single branch. On the other hand, Krishnamurti groups South-Central and South Dravidian together. There are other disagreements, including whether there is a Toda-Kota branch or whether Kota diverged first and later Toda (claimed by Krishnamurti). Some authors deny that North Dravidian forms a valid subgroup, splitting it into Northeast (Kurukh–Malto) and Northwest (Brahui). Their affiliation has been proposed based primarily on a small number of common phonetic developments, including: * In some words, k is retracted or spirantized, shifting to in Kurukh and Brahui, in Malto. In some words, c is retracted to . Word-initial v develops to . This development is, however, also found in several other Dravidian languages, including Kannada, Kodagu and Tulu. McAlpin (2003) notes that no exact conditioning can be established for the first two changes, and proposes that distinct Proto-Dravidian q and kʲ should be reconstructed behind these correspondences, and that Brahui, Kurukh-Malto, and the rest of Dravidian may be three coordinate branches, possibly with Brahui being the earliest language to split off. A few morphological parallels between Brahui and Kurukh-Malto are also known, but according to McAlpin they are analysable as shared archaisms rather than shared innovations. In addition, Glottolog lists several unclassified Dravidian languages: Kumbaran, Kakkala (both of Tamil-Malayalam) and Khirwar. A computational phylogenetic study of the Dravidian language family was undertaken by Kolipakam, et al. (2018). They support the internal coherence of the four Dravidian branches South (or South Dravidian I), South-Central (or South Dravidian II), Central, and North, but is uncertain about the precise relationships of these four branches to each other. The date of Dravidian is estimated to be 4,500 years old. Since 1981, the Census of India has reported only languages with more than 10,000 speakers, including 17 Dravidian languages. In 1981, these accounted for approximately 24% of India's population. In the 2001 census, they included 214 million people, about 21% of India's total population of 1.02 billion. In addition, the largest Dravidian-speaking group outside India, Tamil speakers in Sri Lanka, number around 4.7 million. The total number of speakers of Dravidian languages is around 227 million people, around 13% of the population of the Indian subcontinent. The largest group of the Dravidian languages is South Dravidian, with almost 150 million speakers. Tamil, Kannada and Malayalam make up around 98% of the speakers, with 75 million, 44 million and 37 million native speakers, respectively. The next-largest is the South-Central branch, which has 78 million native speakers, the vast majority of whom speak Telugu. The total number of speakers of Telugu, including those whose first language is not Telugu, is around 85 million people. This branch also includes the tribal language Gondi spoken in central India. The second-smallest branch is the Northern branch, with around 6.3 million speakers. This is the only sub-group to have a language spoken in Pakistan – Brahui. The smallest branch is the Central branch, which has only around 200,000 speakers. These languages are mostly tribal, and spoken in central India. Languages recognized as official languages of India appear here in boldface. {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|+ North Dravidian languages !Language !Number of speakers !Location \|- \|Brahui \|2,430,000 \|Balochistan (Pakistan), Helmand (Afghanistan), Beluchistan, Kerman (Iran) \|- \|Kurukh \|2,280,000 \|Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal, Bihar (India) \|- \|Malto \|234,000 \|Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal (India) \|- \|Kurambhag Paharia \|12,500 \|Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha \|} {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|+ Central Dravidian languages !Language !Number of speakers !Location \|- \|Kolami \|122,000 \|Maharashtra, Telangana \|- \|Duruwa \|51,000 \|Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh \|- \|Ollari \|15,000 \|Odisha, Andhra Pradesh \|- \|Naiki \|10,000 \|Maharashtra \|} {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|+ South-Central Dravidian languages !Language !Number of speakers !Location \|- \|Telugu \|83,000,000 \|Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and parts of Karnataka (Chikkaballapura (27.07%), Kolar (22.67%), Bangalore Urban (13.99%), Bangalore Rural (12.84%), Bellary (9.68%), Raichur (8.11%), Chitradurga (5.39%), Yadgir (5.20%));Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, Gujarat, Delhi, Puducherry, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Outside India in United States, Australia, Canada, United Kingdom, New Zealand, France, Germany, Italy, Malaysia, Mauritius, Fiji, UAE, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, Oman, South Africa. \|- \|Gondi \|2,980,000 (claimed, possibly much greater) \|Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Telangana, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh \|- \|Kui \|942,000 \|Odisha, Andhra Pradesh \|- \|Koya \|360,000 \|Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Chhattisgarh \|- \|Madiya \|360,000 \|Chhattisgarh, Telangana, Maharashtra \|- \|Kuvi \|155,000 \|Odisha, Andhra Pradesh \|- \|Pengo \|350,000 \|Odisha \|- \|Pardhan \|135,000 \|Telangana, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh \|- \|Khirwar \|36,400 \|Chhattisgarh (Surguja district) \|- \|Chenchu \|26,000 \|Andhra Pradesh, Telangana \|- \|Konda \|20,000 \|Andhra Pradesh, Odisha \|- \|Muria \|15,000 \|Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Odisha \|- \|Manda \|4,040 \|Odisha \|} {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|+ South Dravidian languages \|- ! Language !! Number of speakers !! Location \|- \| Tamil \|\| 75,000,000 \|Tamil Nadu, Puducherry (including Karaikal), parts of Andhra Pradesh (Chittoor, Nellore, Tirupati, Annamayya), parts of Karnataka (Bengaluru, Bengaluru Rural, Chamarajanagar, Kolar, Mysuru, Ramanagara), parts of Kerala (Palakkad, Idukki, Thiruvananthapuram), parts of Telangana (Hyderabad), parts of Maharashtra (Mumbai, Mumbai Suburban, Thane, Pune), parts of Gujarat (Ahmedabad, Vadodara, Surat), Delhi, Andaman and Nicobar, Sri Lanka, Singapore, Malaysia, Mauritius, Canada, United States, United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Kuwait, Oman, Bahrain, China, Saudi Arabia, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Thailand, Indonesia, Myanmar, Réunion and Seychelles \|- \|Kannada\|\| 44,000,000 \|Karnataka, parts of Kerala (Kasaragod, Kannur, Wayanad), parts of Maharashtra (Kolhapur, Solapur, Sangli), parts of Tamil Nadu (Chennai, Coimbatore, Salem, Nilgiris, Krishnagiri), parts of Andhra Pradesh (Anantapur, Kurnool), parts of Telangana (Hyderabad, Medak, Jogulamba Gadwal, Narayanpet, Sangareddy, Vikarabad district), parts of Gujarat (Ahmedabad, Surat, Vadodara), United States, Australia, Germany, United Kingdom, United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Netherlands \|- \| Malayalam \|\| 37,000,000 \|\|Kerala, Lakshadweep, Mahe district of Puducherry, Parts of Karnataka (Dakshina Kannada, Udupi, Kodagu, Mysore and Bangalore), parts of Tamil Nadu (Chennai, Coimbatore, Nilgiris, and Kanyakumari), Maharashtra (Mumbai, Mumbai Suburban, Thane, Pune), Gujarat (Surat, Ahmedabad), Delhi, United Arab Emirates, United States, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Oman, United Kingdom, Qatar, Bahrain, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Malaysia, Singapore, Israel, Ireland, Germany, Austria Finland, Japan, Pakistan \|- \| Tulu \|\| 1,850,000 \|\|Karnataka (Dakshina Kannada, Udupi districts) and Kerala (Kasaragod district), Across Maharashtra and Gujarat, especially in cities like Mumbai, Thane, Surat, etc. and Gulf Countries (UAE, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Bahrain) \|- \| Beary \|\| 1,500,000 \|\| Karnataka (Dakshina Kannada, Udupi districts) and Kerala (Kasaragod district) and Gulf Countries (UAE, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Bahrain) \|- \|Pattapu \|200,000+ \|Andhra Pradesh \|- \| Irula \|\| 200,000 \|\| Tamil Nadu (Nilgiris district), Karnataka (Mysore district) \|- \| Kurumba \|\| 180,000 \|\| Tamil Nadu (Nilgiris district) \|- \| Badaga\|\| 133,000 \|\|Karnataka (Mysore district), Tamil Nadu (Nilgiris district) \|- \| Kodava\|\| 114,000 \|\|Karnataka (Kodagu district) \|- \|Jeseri \|65,000 \|Lakshadweep \|- \|Yerukala \|58,000 \|Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Telangana \|- \|Betta Kurumba \|32,000 \|Karnataka (Chamarajanagar district, Kodagu district, Mysore district), Kerala (Wayanad district), Tamil Nadu (Nilgiris District) \|- \|Kurichiya \|29,000 \|Kerala (Kannur district, Kozhikode district, Wayanad district) \|- \|Ravula \|27,000 \|Karnataka (Kodagu district), Kerala (Kannur district, Wayanad district) \|- \|Mullu Kurumba \|26,000 \|Kerala (Wayanad district), Tamil Nadu (The Nilgiris District) \|- \|Sholaga \|24,000 \|Tamil Nadu, Karnataka (Mysore district) \|- \|Kaikadi \|26,000 \|Madhya Pradesh (Betul district), Maharashtra (Amravati district) \|- \|Paniya \|22,000 \|Karnataka (Kodagu district), Kerala, Tamil Nadu \|- \| Kanikkaran \|\| 19,000 \|\| Kerala, Tamil Nadu (Kanyakumari district, Tirunelveli district) \|- \|Malankuravan \|18,600 \|Tamil Nadu (Kanyakumari district), Kerala (Kollam district, Kottayam district, Thiruvananthapuram district) \|- \|Muthuvan \|16,800 \|Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore district, Madurai district) \|- \| Koraga \|\| 14,000 \|\| Karnataka (Dakshina Kannada, Udupi districts) and Kerala (Kasaragod district) \|- \|Kumbaran \|10,000 \|Kerala (Kozhikode district, Malappuram district, Wayanad district) \|- \|Paliyan \|9,500 \|Kerala (Idukki district, Ernakulam district, Kottayam district), Tamil Nadu, Karnataka \|- \|Malasar \|7,800 \|Kerala (Palakkad district), Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore district) \|- \|Malapandaram \|5,900 \|Kerala (Kollam district, Pathanamthitta district), Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore district, Madurai district, Viluppuram district) \|- \|Eravallan \|5,000 \|Kerala (Palakkad district), Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore district) \|- \|Wayanad Chetti \|5,000 \|Karnataka, Kerala (Wayanad district), Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore district, The Nilgiris District, Erode district) \|- \|Muduga \|3,400 \|Kerala (Palakkad district), Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore district, The Nilgiris District) \|- \|Thachanadan \|3,000 \|Kerala (Malappuram district, Wayanad district) \|- \|Kadar \|2,960 \|Kerala (Thrissur district, Palakkad district), Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore district) \|- \|Kudiya \|\| 2,800 \|\| Karnataka (Dakshina Kannada, Udupi, Kodagu districts) and Kerala (Kasaragod district, Kannur district) \|- \| Toda \|\| 1,560 \|\| Karnataka (Mysore district), Tamil Nadu (Nilgiris district) \|- \|Attapady Kurumba \|1,370 \|Kerala (Palakkad district) \|- \|Kunduvadi \|1,000 \|Kerala (Kozhikode district, Wayanad district) \|- \|Mala Malasar \|1,000 \|Kerala (Palakkad district), Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore district) \|- \|Pathiya \|1,000 \|Kerala (Wayanad district) \|- \| Kota \|\| 930 \|\| Tamil Nadu (Nilgiris district) \|- \|Kalanadi \|750 \|Kerala (Wayanad district) \|- \|Holiya \|500 \|Madhya Pradesh (Balaghat district, Seoni district), Maharashtra, Karnataka \|- \|Allar \|350 \|Kerala (Palakkad district, Malappuram district) \|- \|Aranadan \|200 \|Kerala (Malappuram district) \|- \|Vishavan \|150 \|Kerala (Ernakulam district, Kottayam district, Thrissur district) \|} {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Unclassified Dravidian languages !Language !Number of speakers !Location \|- \|Khirwar \|26,000 \|Chhattisgarh (Surguja district) \|- \|Kumbaran \|10,000 \| \|- \|Cholanaikkan \|290 \|Kerala (Malappuram district) \|- \|Kakkala \| \|Kerala \|} {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Extinct Dravidian languages !Language !Branch !Location \|- \|Malaryan \|Malayalamoid \| Kerala, Tamil Nadu \|- \|Nagarchal \|Gondic \|Madhya Pradesh (Balaghat, Chhindwara, Jabalpur, Mandla and Seoni districts) \|- \|Ullatan \|Malayalamoid \|Kerala \|} Proposed relations with other families Researchers have tried but have been unable to prove a connection between the Dravidian languages with other language families, including Indo-European, Hurrian, Basque, Sumerian, Korean, and Japanese. Comparisons have been made not just with the other language families of the Indian subcontinent (Indo-European, Austroasiatic, Sino-Tibetan, and Nihali), but with all typologically similar language families of the Old World. Nonetheless, although there are no readily detectable genealogical connections, Dravidian shares several areal features with the Indo-Aryan languages, which have been attributed to the influence of a Dravidian substratum on Indo-Aryan. Dravidian languages display typological similarities with the Uralic language group, and there have been several attempts to establish a genetic relationship in the past. This idea has been popular amongst Dravidian linguists, including Robert Caldwell, Thomas Burrow, Kamil Zvelebil, and Mikhail Andronov. The hypothesis is, however, rejected by most specialists in Uralic languages, and also in recent times by Dravidian linguists such as Bhadriraju Krishnamurti. In the early 1970s, the linguist David McAlpin produced a detailed proposal of a genetic relationship between Dravidian and the extinct Elamite language of ancient Elam (present-day southwestern Iran). The Elamo-Dravidian hypothesis was supported in the late 1980s by the archaeologist Colin Renfrew and the geneticist Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza, who suggested that Proto-Dravidian was brought to India by farmers from the Iranian part of the Fertile Crescent. (In his 2000 book, Cavalli-Sforza suggested western India, northern India and northern Iran as alternative starting points.) However, linguists have found McAlpin's cognates unconvincing and criticized his proposed phonological rules as ad hoc. Elamite is generally believed by scholars to be a language isolate, and the theory has had no effect on studies of the language. In 2012, Southworth suggested a "Zagrosian family" of West Asian origin including Elamite, Brahui and Dravidian as its three branches. Dravidian is one of the primary language families in the Nostratic proposal, which would link most languages in North Africa, Europe and Western Asia into a family with its origins in the Fertile Crescent sometime between the Last Glacial Period and the emergence of Proto-Indo-European 4,000–6,000 BCE. However, the general consensus is that such deep connections are not, or not yet, demonstrable.PrehistoryThe origins of the Dravidian languages, as well as their subsequent development and the period of their differentiation are unclear, partially due to the lack of comparative linguistic research into the Dravidian languages. It is thought that the Dravidian languages were the most widespread indigenous languages in the Indian subcontinent before the advance of the Indo-Aryan languages. Though some scholars have argued that the Dravidian languages may have been brought to India by migrations from the Iranian plateau in the fourth or third millennium BCE reconstructed proto-Dravidian vocabulary suggests that the family is indigenous to India. Proto-Dravidian and onset of diversification As a proto-language, the Proto-Dravidian language is not itself attested in the historical record. Its modern conception is based solely on reconstruction. It was suggested in the 1980s that the language was spoken in the 4th millennium BCE, and started disintegrating into various branches around the 3rd millennium BCE. According to Krishnamurti, Proto-Dravidian may have been spoken in the Indus civilization, suggesting a "tentative date of Proto-Dravidian around the early part of the third millennium." Krishnamurti further states that South Dravidian I (including pre-Tamil) and South Dravidian II (including Pre-Telugu) split around the 11th century BCE, with the other major branches splitting off at around the same time. Kolipakam et al. (2018) give a similar estimate of 2,500 BCE for Proto-Dravidian. Historically Maharashtra, Gujarat and Sindh also had Dravidian speaking populations from the evidence of place names (like -v(a)li, -koṭ from Dravidian paḷḷi, kōṭṭai), grammatical features in Marathi, Gujarati, and Sindhi and Dravidian like kinship systems in southern Indo–Aryan languages. Proto-Dravidian could have been spoken in a wider area, perhaps into Central India or the western Deccan which may have had other forms of early Dravidian/pre-Proto-Dravidian or other branches of Dravidian which are currently unknown. Already in 1924, after discovering the Indus Valley Civilisation, John Marshall stated that one or more of the languages may have been Dravidic. Cultural and linguistic similarities have been cited by researchers Henry Heras, Kamil Zvelebil, Asko Parpola and Iravatham Mahadevan as being strong evidence for a proto-Dravidian origin of the ancient Indus Valley civilisation. The discovery in Tamil Nadu of a late Neolithic (early 2nd millennium BCE, i.e. post-dating Harappan decline) stone celt allegedly marked with Indus signs has been considered by some to be significant for the Dravidian identification. Yuri Knorozov surmised that the symbols represent a logosyllabic script and suggested, based on computer analysis, an underlying agglutinative Dravidian language as the most likely candidate for the underlying language. Knorozov's suggestion was preceded by the work of Henry Heras, who suggested several readings of signs based on a proto-Dravidian assumption. Linguist Asko Parpola writes that the Indus script and Harappan language are "most likely to have belonged to the Dravidian family". Parpola led a Finnish team in investigating the inscriptions using computer analysis. Based on a proto-Dravidian assumption, they proposed readings of many signs, some agreeing with the suggested readings of Heras and Knorozov (such as equating the "fish" sign with the Dravidian word for fish, "min") but disagreeing on several other readings. A comprehensive description of Parpola's work until 1994 is given in his book Deciphering the Indus Script. Northern Dravidian pockets Although in modern times speakers of the various Dravidian languages have mainly occupied the southern portion of India, in earlier times they probably were spoken in a larger area. After the Indo-Aryan migrations into north-western India, starting , and the establishment of the Kuru kingdom , a process of Sanskritisation of the masses started, which resulted in a language shift in northern India. Southern India has remained majority Dravidian, but pockets of Dravidian can be found in central India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal. The Kurukh and Malto are pockets of Dravidian languages in central India, spoken by people who may have migrated from south India. They do have myths about external origins. The Kurukh have traditionally claimed to be from the Deccan Peninsula, more specifically Karnataka. The same tradition has existed of the Brahui, who call themselves immigrants. Holding this same view of the Brahui are many scholars such as L.H. Horace Perera and M.Ratnasabapathy. The Brahui population of Pakistan's Balochistan province has been taken by some as the linguistic equivalent of a relict population, perhaps indicating that Dravidian languages were formerly much more widespread and were supplanted by the incoming Indo-Aryan languages. However, it has been argued that the absence of any Old Iranian (Avestan) loanwords in Brahui suggests that the Brahui migrated to Balochistan from central India less than 1,000 years ago. The main Iranian contributor to Brahui vocabulary, Balochi, is a western Iranian language like Kurdish, and arrived in the area from the west only around 1000 CE. Sound changes shared with Kurukh and Malto also suggest that Brahui was originally spoken near them in central India. Dravidian influence on Sanskrit Dravidian languages show extensive lexical (vocabulary) borrowing, but only a few traits of structural (either phonological or grammatical) borrowing from Indo-Aryan, whereas Indo-Aryan shows more structural than lexical borrowings from the Dravidian languages. Many of these features are already present in the oldest known Indo-Aryan language, the language of the Rigveda (c.1500 BCE), which also includes over a dozen words borrowed from Dravidian. Vedic Sanskrit has retroflex consonants (/, ) with about 88 words in the Rigveda having unconditioned retroflexes. Some sample words are , , , , and . Since other Indo-European languages, including other Indo-Iranian languages, lack retroflex consonants, their presence in Indo-Aryan is often cited as evidence of substrate influence from close contact of the Vedic speakers with speakers of a foreign language family rich in retroflex consonants. The Dravidian family is a serious candidate since it is rich in retroflex phonemes reconstructible back to the Proto-Dravidian stage. In addition, a number of grammatical features of Vedic Sanskrit not found in its sister Avestan language appear to have been borrowed from Dravidian languages. These include the gerund, which has the same function as in Dravidian. Some linguists explain this asymmetrical borrowing by arguing that Middle Indo-Aryan languages were built on a Dravidian substratum. These scholars argue that the most plausible explanation for the presence of Dravidian structural features in Indic is language shift, that is, native Dravidian speakers learning and adopting Indic languages due to elite dominance. Although each of the innovative traits in Indic could be accounted for by internal explanations, early Dravidian influence is the only explanation that can account for all of the innovations at once; moreover, it accounts for several of the innovative traits in Indic better than any internal explanation that has been proposed. Phonology Proto-Dravidian, unlike Sanskrit and other Indo-Iranian languages languages of South Asia, lacked both an aspiration and voicing contrast. The situation varies considerably amongst its daughter languages and often also between registers of any single language. The vast majority of modern Dravidian languages generally have some voicing distinctions amongst stops; as for aspiration, it appears in at least the formal varieties of the so-called "literary" Dravidian languages (except Tamil) today, but may be rare or entirely absent in less formal registers, as well as in the many "non-literary" Dravidian languages. At one extreme, Tamil, like Proto-Dravidian, does not phonemically distinguish between voiced and voiceless or unaspirated and aspirated sounds, even in formal speech; in fact, the Tamil alphabet lacks symbols for voiced and aspirated stops. At the other end, Brahui is exceptional among the Dravidian languages in possessing and commonly employing the entire inventory of aspirates employed in neighboring Sindhi. While aspirates are particularly concentrated in the Indo-Aryan element of the lexicon, some Brahui words with Dravidian roots have developed aspiration as well. Most languages lie in between. Voicing contrasts are quite common in all registers of speech in most Dravidian languages. Aspiration contrasts are less common, but relatively well-established in the phonologies of the higher or more formal registers, as well as in the standard orthographies, of the "literary" languages (other than Tamil): Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam. However, in colloquial or non-standard speech, aspiration often appears inconsistently or not at all, even if it occurs in the standard spelling of the word. In the languages in which aspirates are found, they primarily occur in the large numbers of loanwords from Sanskrit and other Indo-Iranian languages, though some are found in etymologically native words as well, often as the result of plosive + laryngeal clusters being reanalysed as aspirates (e.g. Telugu , Kannada / , Adilabad Gondi ). Dravidian languages are also historically characterized by a three-way distinction between dental, alveolar, and retroflex places of articulation as well as large numbers of liquids. Currently the three-way coronal distinction is only found in Malayalam, Sri Lankan Tamil, and the various languages of the Nilgiri Mountains, all of which belong to the Tamil–Kannada branch of the family. All other Dravidian languages maintain only a two-way distinction between dentals and retroflexes, largely the result of merging the alveolars with the dentals or retroflexes, or via rhotacization. The latter is found primarily among the South and South Central languages, where many languages merged the singular proto-Dravidian alveolar plosive ṯ with the alveolar trill ; subsequently, in some of these languages, the trill evolved into the alveolar tap or underwent other sound changes (Tulu has as reflexes, Manda-Kui has , and Hill-Maria Gondi has ). Proto-Dravidian Proto-Dravidian had five short and long vowels: a, ā, i, ī, u, ū, e, ē, o, ō. There were no diphthongs; ai and au are treated as ay and av (or aw). The five-vowel system with phonemic length is largely preserved in the descendant subgroups, but there are some notable exceptions. The Nilgiri languages (except Kota but including Kodagu) developing a series of central vowels which formed from vowels near retroflex and alveolar consonants. The short u phoneme (mostly word finally) became ŭ/ụ /ɯ~ɨ~ə/ and also became phonemic in Tulu and Malayalam, mostly caused by loaning words with rounded /u/. Brahui has slightly poorer vowel system, where short e and o merged with other vowels due to the influence of Indo-Aryan languages, leaving only long counterparts. The following consonantal phonemes are reconstructed: {\| class"wikitable Unicode" border"1" \|- ! !!Labial!!Dental!!Alveolar!!Retroflex!!Palatal!!Velar!!Glottal \|- !Nasals \| m \|\| n \|\| (ṉ) \|\| ṇ \|\| ñ \|\| \|\| \|- !Plosives \| p \|\| t \|\| ṯ \|\| ṭ \|\| c \|\| k \|\| \|- !Semivowel \| w \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| y \|\| \|\| H \|- !Rhotic \| \|\| \|\| r \|\| ẓ \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- !Lateral \| \|\| \|\| l \|\| ḷ \|\| \|\| \|\| \|} The ṯ developed into a trill (with r being a tap) in South and South Central Dravidian. * All non Tamil-Malayalam languages (including modern spoken Tamil) developed a voicing distinction for plosives, if loans are included, all of them have a voicing distinction. Grammar The most characteristic grammatical features of Dravidian languages are: {\| class="wikitable Unicode" \|- ! rowspan="2" \| Number ! colspan="7" \| South ! colspan="2" \| South-Central ! Central ! colspan="2" \| Northern ! rowspan="2" \| Proto-Dravidian ! Indo-Aryan ! Iranian \|- ! Tamil ! Malayalam ! Kodava ! Kannada ! Tulu ! Toda ! Beary ! Telugu ! Gondi ! Kolami ! Kurukh ! Brahui ! Sanskrit ! Persian \|- \| 1 \| oṉṟŭ, oṇṇŭ <sup>6</sup> \| onnŭ \| ondï \| ondu \| onji \| wïd̠ \| onnu \| okaṭi <sup>7</sup>, oṇḍu \| undi \| okkod <sup>7</sup> \| oṇḍ \| asiṭ \| onṯu <sup>1</sup> \| éka \| yek \|- \| 2 \| iraṇṭŭ, reṇḍŭ <sup>6</sup> \| raṇḍŭ \| daṇḍï \| eraḍu \| eraḍŭ, iraḍŭ \| ēḍ \| jend \| reṇḍu \| raṇḍ \| irāṭ \| eṇṛ \| irāṭ \| iraṇṭu <sup>2</sup> \| dvi \| do \|- \| 3 \| mūṉṟŭ, mūṇŭ <sup>6</sup> \| mūnnŭ \| mūndï \| mūru \| mūji \| mūd̠ \| mūnnu \| mū̃ḍu \| muṇḍ \| mūndiŋ \| mūnd \| musiṭ \| mūnt̠u \| tri \| seh \|- \| 4 \| nāl, nālku, nāṉkŭ, nālŭ <sup>6</sup> \| nālu \| nālï \| nālku \| nālŭ \| nōng \| nāl \| nālugu \| nāluṅg \| nāliŋ \| nāx \| čār (II) \| nāl, nālnk(k)V, nānk(k)V \| catúr \| cahār \|- \| 5 \| aintŭ, añjŭ <sup>6</sup> \| añjŭ \| añji \| aidu \| ayinŭ, ainŭ \| üɀ \| añji \| ayidu, ēnu \| saiyuṅg, hayuṅ \| ayd <sup>3</sup> \| pancē (II) \| panč (II) \| caymtu \| pañca \| panj \|- \| 6 \| āṟŭ \| āṟŭ \| ārï \| āru \| āji \| ōr̠ \| ār \| āṟu \| sāruṅg, hāruṅg \| ār <sup>3</sup> \| soy (II) \| šaš (II) \| cāṯu \| ṣáṣ \| śeś \|- \| 7 \| ēḻŭ, yēḷŭ<sup>6</sup> \| ēḻŭ \| ë̄ḷï \| ēḷu \| ēḍŭ, ēlŭ, ēḷŭ \| öw \| ēl \| ēḍu \| yeḍuṅg, ēṛuṅg \| ēḍ <sup>3</sup> \| say (II) \| haft (II) \| ēẓ \| saptá \| haft \|- \| 8 \| eṭṭŭ \| eṭṭŭ \| ëṭṭï \| eṇṭu \| enma, eṇma, eḍma \| öṭ \| ett \| enimidi \| aṛmur \| enumadī <sup>3</sup> \| āx (II) \| hašt (II) \| eṇṭṭu \| aṣṭá \| haśt \|- \| 9 \| oṉpatŭ <sup>4</sup> <sup>5</sup> ombadŭ<sup>6</sup> \| oṉbadŭ, <br> ombadŭ <sup>5</sup> \| ombay <sup>5</sup> \| ombattu <sup>5</sup> \| ormba <sup>5</sup> \| wïnboθ <sup>5</sup> \| olimbō <sup>5</sup> \| tommidi \| unmāk \| tomdī <sup>3</sup> \| nāy (II) \| nōh (II) \| toḷ, toṇ \| náva \| noh \|- \| 10 \| pathŭ \| pattŭ \| pattï \| hattu \| pattŭ \| pot \| patt \| padi \| pad \| padī <sup>3</sup> \| doy (II) \| dah (II) \| paHtu \| dáśa \| dah \|} # This is the same as the word for another form of the number one in Tamil and Malayalam, used as the indefinite article ("a") and when the number is an attribute preceding a noun (as in "one person"), as opposed to when it is a noun (as in "How many are there?" "One"). # The stem īr is still found in compound words, and has taken on a meaning of "double" in Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam. For example, irupatu (20, literally meaning "double-ten"), iravai (20 in Telugu), "iraṭṭi" ("double") or iruvar ("two people", in Tamil) and "ippattu" (ipp-hattu, double ten", in Kannada). # The Kolami numbers 5 to 10 are borrowed from Telugu. # The word toṇṭu was also used to refer to the number nine in ancient Sangam texts but was later completely replaced by the word oṉpatu. # These forms are derived from "one (less than) ten". Proto-Dravidian toḷ/toṇ (which could mean 9 or 9/10) is still used in Tamil and Malayalam as the basis of numbers such as 90 and 900, toṇṇūṟu (100 90) as well as the Kannada tombattu (910 90). # Because of shared sound changes that have happened over the years in the majority of the Tamil dialects, the numbers 1–5 have different colloquial pronunciations, seen here to the right of their written, formal pronunciations. # In languages with words for one starts with ok(k)- it was taken from okk- which originally meant "to be united" and not a numeral. Words indicated (II) are borrowings from Indo-Iranian languages (in Brahui's case, from Balochi). Literature Four Dravidian languages, viz. Tamil, Kannada, Telugu and Malayalam, have lengthy literary traditions. Literature in Tulu and Kodava is more recent. Historical literature in Gondi has also been discovered recently. The earliest known Dravidian inscriptions are 76 Old Tamil inscriptions on cave walls in Madurai and Tirunelveli districts in Tamil Nadu, dating from the 2nd century BCE. These inscriptions are written in a variant of the Brahmi script called Tamil Brahmi. In 2019, the Tamil Nadu Archaeology Department released a report on excavations at Keeladi, near Madurai, Tamil Nadu, including a description of potsherds dated to the 6th century BCE inscribed with personal names in the Tamil-Brahmi script. However, the report lacks the detail of a full archaeological study, and other archaeologists have disputed whether the oldest dates obtained for the site can be assigned to these potsherds. The earliest long text in Old Tamil is the Tolkāppiyam, a work on Tamil grammar and poetics preserved in a 5th-century CE redaction, whose oldest layers could date from the late 2nd century or 1st century BCE. Kannada's earliest known inscription is the lion balustrade (Simhakatanjana) inscription excavated at the Pranaveshwara temple complex at Talagunda near Shiralakoppa of Shivamogga district, dated to 370 CE which replaced the Halmidi inscription in Hassan district (450 CE). A 9th-century treatise on poetics, the Kavirajamarga, is the first known literary work. The earliest Telugu inscription, from Erragudipadu in Kadapa district, is dated 575. The first literary work is an 11th-century translation of part of the Mahābhārata. The earliest Malayalam text is the Vazhappally copper plate (9th century). The first literary work is Rāmacaritam (12th century). See also * Dravidian Linguistics Association * Dravidian peoples * Dravidian nationalism * Tamil loanwords in Biblical Hebrew * Dreaming of Words Notes References Bibliography * * * ; Reprinted London, K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & co., ltd., 1913; rev. ed. by J.L. Wyatt and T. Ramakrishna Pillai, Madras, University of Madras, 1961, reprint Asian Educational Services, 1998, . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Further reading * Vishnupriya Kolipakam et al. (2018), [http://rsos.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/5/3/171504 A Bayesian phylogenetic study of the Dravidian language family], Royal Society Open Science. External links * [https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/burrow/index.html Dravidian Etymological Dictionary]. Burrow and Emeneau's A Dravidian etymological dictionary (2nd ed., 1984) in a searchable online form. Category:Language families Category:Agglutinative languages Category:Pre-Indo-European languages	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dravidian_languages	2025-04-05T18:28:18.703620
7923	Dracula	}} \| publisher = Archibald Constable and Company (UK) \| oclc = 1447002 \| wikisource = Dracula \| pub_date = May 1897 }} Dracula is an 1897 Gothic horror novel by Irish author Bram Stoker. The narrative is related through letters, diary entries, and newspaper articles. It has no single protagonist and opens with solicitor Jonathan Harker taking a business trip to stay at the castle of a Transylvanian nobleman, Count Dracula. Harker flees after learning that Dracula is a vampire, and the Count moves to England and plagues the seaside town of Whitby. A small group, led by Abraham Van Helsing, hunts and kills him. The novel was mostly written in the 1890s, and Stoker produced over a hundred pages of notes, drawing extensively from folklore and history. Scholars have suggested various figures as the inspiration for Dracula, including the Wallachian prince Vlad the Impaler and the Countess Elizabeth Báthory, but recent scholarship suggests otherwise. He probably found the name Dracula in Whitby's public library while on holiday, selecting it because he thought it meant "devil" in Romanian. Following the novel's publication in May 1897, some reviewers praised its terrifying atmosphere while others thought Stoker included too much horror. Many noted a structural similarity with Wilkie Collins' The Woman in White (1859) and a resemblance to the work of Gothic novelist Ann Radcliffe. In the 20th century, Dracula became regarded as a seminal work of Gothic fiction. Scholars explore the novel within the historical context of the Victorian era and regularly discuss its portrayal of race, religion, gender and sexuality. Dracula is one of the most famous works of English literature. The character of Count Dracula deeply shaped the popular conception of vampires and influenced future representations. With over 700 appearances across virtually all forms of media, the Guinness Book of World Records named Dracula the most portrayed literary character. The novel itself has been adapted many times, with new adaptations sometimes being produced as often as every week. Plot Jonathan Harker, a newly qualified English solicitor, visits Count Dracula at his castle in the Carpathian Mountains to help the Count purchase a house near London. Ignoring the Count's warning, Harker wanders the castle at night and encounters three vampire women; Dracula rescues Harker, and gives the women a small child bound inside a bag. Six weeks later, Dracula leaves the castle, abandoning Harker to the women. Harker escapes and ends up delirious in a Budapest hospital. Dracula takes a ship called the Demeter for England with boxes of earth from his castle. The captain's log narrates the crew's disappearance until he alone remains, bound to the helm to maintain course. An animal resembling a large dog is seen leaping ashore when the ship runs aground at Whitby. Lucy Westenra's letter to her best friend, Harker's fiancée Mina Murray, describes her marriage proposals from Dr. John Seward, Quincey Morris, and Arthur Holmwood. Lucy accepts Holmwood's, but all remain friends. Mina joins Lucy on holiday in Whitby. Lucy begins to sleepwalk. After Dracula's ship lands in Whitby, he begins to stalk Lucy. Mina receives a letter about her missing fiancé's illness and goes to Budapest to nurse him. Lucy becomes very ill; Seward's old teacher—Professor Abraham Van Helsing—determines the nature of her condition, but he refuses to disclose it, instead diagnosing it as acute blood-loss. Van Helsing places garlic flowers around her room and makes her a necklace of them. Lucy's mother removes the garlic flowers, not knowing they repel vampires. While Seward and Van Helsing are absent, Lucy and her mother are terrified by a wolf and Mrs. Westenra dies of a heart attack; Lucy dies shortly thereafter. After her burial, newspapers report children being stalked in the night by a "bloofer lady" (beautiful lady), and Van Helsing deduces it is Lucy. Seward, Morris, Arthur and Van Helsing go to her tomb and see that she is a vampire. They stake her heart, behead her, and fill her mouth with garlic. Jonathan Harker and his new bride Mina return and join the campaign against Dracula. Everyone stays at Seward's asylum as the men begin to hunt Dracula. Van Helsing finally reveals that vampires can only rest on earth from their homeland. Dracula communicates with Seward's patient, Renfield, an insane man who eats vermin to absorb their life force. After Dracula learns of the group's plot against him, he uses Renfield to enter the asylum. He secretly attacks Mina three times, drinking her blood each time and forcing Mina to drink his blood on the final visit, cursing her to become a vampire after her death unless Dracula is killed. The men discover that Dracula has distributed his boxes of earth around various properties in London. After sterilizing most of the distributed boxes, the group fails to trap the Count in his Piccadilly house and learns that Dracula is fleeing to his castle in Transylvania with his last box. Using hypnosis, Van Helsing exploits Mina's faint psychic connection to Dracula to track his movements and they pursue, guided by Mina. In Galatz, Romania, the hunters split up. Van Helsing and Mina go to Dracula's castle, where the professor destroys the vampire women. Harker and Holmwood pursue Dracula's boat on the river, while Morris and Seward follow them on land. Dracula's box is loaded onto a wagon by Romani men; the hunters attack and rout the Romani. Harker decapitates Dracula as Quincey stabs him in the heart. Dracula crumbles to dust, freeing Mina from her vampiric curse. Quincey is mortally wounded in the fight against the Romani. He dies, at peace knowing that Mina is saved. A note by Jonathan Harker seven years later states that the Harkers have a son, named Quincey. Background Author Bram Stoker was born in Clontarf, Dublin on 8 November 1842 as the third of seven children. A sickly child, he was firstly homeschooled and then attended a private day school. Stoker attended Trinity College Dublin in the 1860s and began writing theatre reviews in the early 1870s. Following a review of a performance by stage actor Henry Irving, the two became friends. In 1878, Irving offered Stoker a job as the business manager of London's Lyceum Theatre, which he accepted. He married Florence Balcombe later that year. Biographer Lisa Hopkins notes that this role required Stoker to be sociable, and introduced him to the elites of Victorian London. Stoker nonetheless described himself as a private person who closely guarded his thoughts. He supplemented his theatre income by writing romance and sensation novels,}} but was more closely identified during his lifetime with the theatrical world than he was with the literary. By the time of his death in 1912, Stoker had published 18 books. Dracula was Stoker's seventh published book, following The Shoulder of Shasta (1895) and preceding Miss Betty (1898).}} Stoker's grand-nephew, Daniel Farson, wrote that Stoker may have died from syphilis, but this is widely disputed by scholars. Miller and scholar Robert Eighteen-Bisang said that the language was inconclusive. The theory was rejected by Stoker scholars Leslie Shepard and William Hughes in addition a different relative of Stoker.}} Novelist and playwright Hall Caine, a close friend of Stoker's,}} wrote in Stoker's obituary in The Daily Telegraph that—besides his biography on Irving—Stoker wrote only "to sell" and "had no higher aims". Inspiration is widely considered to have inspired Dracula]] Folkloric vampires predate Stoker's Dracula by hundreds of years. Stoker adopted some characteristics of folkloric vampires for his own, such as their aversion to garlic and staking as a means of killing them. He invented other attributes—for example, Stoker's vampires must be invited into one's home, sleep on earth from their homeland and have no reflection in mirrors. Sunlight is not fatal to Dracula in the novel—this was an invention of the unauthorised Dracula film, Nosferatu (1922)—but it does weaken him. Some of Stoker's inventions applied unrelated lore to vampires for the first time; for example, Dracula has no reflection because of a folkloric concept that mirrors show the human soul. Some Irish scholars have suggested Irish folklore as an inspiration for the novel, for example the revenant Abhartach, and the 11th-century High King of Ireland Brian Boru.}} Dracula scholar Elizabeth Miller notes that in his childhood Stoker was exposed to supernatural tales and Irish oral history involving premature burials and staked bodies. Count Dracula has literary progenitors. John William Polidori's "The Vampyre" (1819) includes an aristocratic vampire with powers of seduction. The lesbian vampire of Sheridan Le Fanu's Carmilla (1872) can transform into a cat, as Dracula can transform into a dog. Dracula resembles earlier Gothic villains in appearance, with Miller comparing him to the villains of Ann Radcliffe's The Italian (1796) and Matthew Gregory Lewis's The Monk (1796). There is almost unanimous consensus that Dracula was inspired, in part, by Henry Irving. Scholars note the Count's tall and lean physique and aquiline nose, with Dracula scholar William Hughes specifically citing the influence of Irving's performance as Shylock in a Lyceum Theatre production of The Merchant of Venice. Stoker's contemporaries remarked upon the similarity. Stoker had praised a performance of Irving as "a wonderful impression of a dead man fictitiously alive [with eyes like] cinders of glowing red from out the marble face". Louis S. Warren writes that Dracula was founded on "the fear and animosity his employer inspired in him".}} Miller contests this, describing Stoker's attitude towards him as "adulation". Historical figures have been suggested as inspirations for Count Dracula but there is no consensus. In a 1972 book, Raymond T. McNally and Radu Florescu popularised the idea that Ármin Vámbéry supplied Stoker with information about Vlad Dracula, commonly known as Vlad the Impaler.}} Their investigation, however, found nothing about "Vlad, Dracula, or vampires" within Vámbéry's published papers, nor in Stoker's notes about their meeting. Miller calls the link to Vlad III "tenuous", indicating that Stoker incorporated a large amount of "insignificant detail" from his research, and rhetorically asking why he would omit Vlad III's infamous cruelty. but it has been reproduced elsewhere; for example, in the Dictionary of Literary Biography in 2005.}} McNally additionally suggested in 1983 that the crimes of Elizabeth Báthory inspired Stoker. with others noting that very little is concretely known about her life.}} A book used by Stoker for research, The Book of Were-Wolves, does contain some information on Báthory, but Stoker never took notes from the short section devoted to her. Miller and her co-author Robert Eighteen-Bisang concur that there is no evidence Báthory inspired Stoker.}} In response to several lines of query as to the historical origin of Dracula, Benjamin H. Leblanc reproduces her arguments in his critical history on the novel.}} Textual history Composition Prior to writing the novel, Stoker researched extensively, assembling over 100 pages of notes, including chapter summaries and plot outlines.2s, (). Following that, the notes became the property of Charles Scribner's Sons, and then disappeared until they were bought by the Rosenbach Museum and Library in Philadelphia in 1970. For a list of works that use Stoker's notes, see Dracula#Studies on Dracula's notes.}} Stoker undertook some of his research at a library at Whitby in the summer of 1890 but most was done at the London Library. The earliest dated notes are from 8 March 1890, comprising an outline of the novel's opening. Joseph S. Beirman notes that it differs from the final novel "in only a few details": The Count and Harker are not given names. The word vampire is not used explicitly, but it depicts the Count's possessive fury over Harker and a female who attempts "to kiss him not on lips but throat". In February 1892, Stoker wrote a 27-chapter outline of the novel; according to Miller, "all the key pieces of the jigsaw were in place". Stoker's notes reveal other scrapped concepts. Bierman says that Stoker always intended to write an epistolary novel but originally set it in Styria instead of Transylvania. Other concepts from the notes include a German professor called Max Windshoeffel confronting a "Count Wampyr" and one of the vampire hunters would have been slain by a werewolf.}} Stoker biographer Barbara Belford notes evidence that Stoker intended to write a detective story, with a detective called Cotford and a psychical investigator called Singleton. Stoker took the name Dracula from William Wilkinson's history of Wallachia and Moldavia (1820), which he probably found in Whitby's public library while holidaying there in 1890. Stoker copied the following footnote from the book: "Dracula means devil. Wallachians were accustomed to give it as a surname to any person who rendered himself conspicuous by courage, cruel actions or cunning". Stoker stated that that it took him about three years to write the novel, and it is likely that he wrote most of the manuscript during his summer holidays in Cruden Bay, Scotland from 1893 to 1896. Stoker generally wrote in spare time from his duties as Irving's business manager, and the long gestation of the novel is indicative of the importance he placed on it. Publication , New York]] Early Stoker biographer Barbara Belford noted the novel looked "shabby" because of a last-minute title change; the printer's copy of the typescript, with hand-written amendments, is titled The Un-Dead. The surviving typewritten publishing agreement was signed and dated 25 May 1897; Peter Beal of Sotheby's suggests its signing one day before the official publication date indicates that it was a formality. To protect his copyright interest for adaptations,}} Stoker organised a reading of his stage adaptation of the novel in the week before publication in the Lyceum Theatre. A small group, primarily theatre staff, attended the reading, and Edith Craig played Mina. Bound in yellow cloth and titled in red letters, Dracula was published in May 1897 by Archibald Constable and Company. It cost 6 shillings. Uncertainty exists around the exact date of publication, but it was probably published on 26 May 1897. Stoker wrote to William Gladstone that the novel would be released on the 26th.}} Eighteen-Bisang states it could have been published anywhere from late May to June 1897. Stoker's mother, Charlotte Stoker, enthused about the novel and predicted it would bring her son immense financial success. She was wrong: the novel, although reviewed well, failed to earn Stoker much money and did not establish his critical reputation until after his death. For the first thousand sales of Dracula, Stoker earned no royalties. Following serialisation by American newspapers, Doubleday & McClure published an American edition in 1899 with some textual changes. A cheaper paperback version was published by Constable in 1901, but few copies have survived. The text is around 15% shorter than the original but it is not known if Stoker made the amendments. Since its publication, Dracula has never been out of print. An edition of the novel edited by McNally and Florescu in 1979 was the first to include Dracula<nowiki/>'s "missing chapter", "Dracula's Guest". Bram's widow Florence Stoker included the chapter as a short story in ''Dracula's Guest and Other Weird Tales (1914), two years after his death. While some commentators have described the prose as Dracula'' discarded first chapter, Clive Leatherdale contests this, arguing that the material was incorporated into the published novel. Style Epistolary structure Dracula is an epistolary novel. Compared to other elements of the novel, critic David Seed writes that its epistolary structure has been neglected in analyses. Critics note Stoker's decision to structure the novel this way may relate to a 19th-century trend of publishing diaries and travelogue accounts, especially with Harker's account of the journey to Transylvania. Seed writes that Harker's initial four chapters function as a "miniaturised-pastiche-Gothic novel"—replacing Radcliffe's use of the Apennine Mountains in The Mysteries of Udolpho (1794) with the Carpathian Mountains of Transylvania—and places this within the Gothic tradition of intertextuality. David Seed argues that the structure only provides a narrative voice to Dracula's opponents, while Miller writes that the "collaborative narration" reinforces the idea that Dracula must be defeated by the combined effort of his opponents. Allison Case says Seed views that Dracula's absence generates tension by offering only "tantalizing glimpses" of his activities, while literary critic Franco Moretti writes that it highlights the power struggle between the vampire and his hunters. Similarly, Allison Case views the structure as representing a power struggle between Mina and the male protagonists for "narrative mastery". Seed notes that the narrative's style distances the reader from its plot. Dracula's journey on the Demeter is captured by the captain on the logbook, then "translated by the Russian consul, transcribed by a local journalist, and finally pasted by Mina into her journal". Gothic genre Dracula is an enduring work of Gothic literature, with some critics locating it within the traditions of Irish Gothic or Urban Gothic. John C. Tibbetts considers Dracula a prototype for later themes in the Gothic genre. The novel is characteristically Gothic in its depiction of the supernatural, preoccupation with the past, and embodying of the racial, gendered and sexual anxieties of fin de siècle England. Count Dracula generally represents these tensions: cultural critic Jack Halberstam notes that he is masculinised and feminised; Jerrold E. Hogle highlights his attraction to both Jonathan and Mina, and his appearance as racially western and eastern. Miller notes that the Count's physical characteristics were typical of Gothic villains during Stoker's lifetime, specifically citing his hooked nose, pallor, large moustache and thick eyebrows as influenced by his villainous predecessors. Dracula deviates from other Gothic tales before it by firmly establishing its time as the modern era, a point raised by one contemporary reviewer. Writers of the mode were drawn to the Eastern Europe setting because travelogues presented it as a land of primitive superstitions. Reception Modern critics frequently write that Dracula had a mixed critical reception upon publication. Carol Margaret Davison, for example, notes an "uneven" response from critics contemporary to Stoker. John Edgar Browning, a scholar whose research focuses on Dracula and literary vampires, conducted a review of the novel's early criticism in 2012 and determined that Dracula had been "a critically acclaimed novel".}} Raymond T. McNally and Radu Florescu's In Search of Dracula (1972) mentions the novel's "immediate success". Other works about Dracula also published in 1972 concur; Gabriel Ronay says the novel was "recognised by fans and critics alike as a horror writer's stroke of genius", and Anthony Masters mentions the novel's "enormous popular appeal". Since the 1970s, Dracula has been the subject of significant academic interest; the novel has spawned many nonfiction books and articles, and has a dedicated peer-reviewed journal. Publishers started creating editions aimed at classroom teaching in the 1980s, providing the novel alongside historical context and scholarly analysis. The novel's complexity has permitted a flexibility of interpretation, with Anca Andriescu Garcia describing interest from scholars of psychoanalysis, postcolonialism, social class and the Gothic genre. \| align = right \| width = 40% \| fontsize = 88% \| qalign = left \| quoted = 1 }} Contemporary reviewers frequently compared the novel to other Gothic writers. Comparisons to novelist Wilkie Collins and The Woman in White (1859) were especially common, owing to similarities in structure and style.}} A review appearing in The Bookseller notes that the novel could almost have been written by Collins, and an anonymous review in Saturday Review of Politics, Literature, Science and Art wrote that Dracula improved upon the style of Gothic pioneer Ann Radcliffe; Radcliffe was also referenced by The Daily Mail, which also highlighted The Mysteries of Udolpho, Frankenstein (1818), and The Fall of the House of Usher (1839). Another anonymous writer described Stoker as "the Edgar Allan Poe of the nineties". Other favourable comparisons to other Gothic novelists included the Brontë sisters and Mary Shelley. Arthur Conan Doyle sent a letter to Stoker after reading Dracula, writing: "The old Professor is most excellent and so are the two girls. I congratulate you with all my heart for having written so fine a book." Many of these early reviews were charmed by Stoker's treatment of the vampire myth. The Daily Telegraph called it the best vampire story ever written. The Daily Telegraph reviewer noted that while earlier Gothic works, like The Castle of Otranto, had kept the supernatural far away from the novelists' home countries, Dracula horrors occurred in foreign lands and at home in Whitby and Hampstead Heath. An Australian paper, The Advertiser, regarded the novel as simultaneously sensational and domestic. One reviewer praised the "considerable power" of Stoker's prose and described it as impressionistic. They were less fond of the parts set in England, finding the vampire suited better to tales set far away from home. The British magazine Vanity Fair found Dracula's disdain for garlic unintentionally funny. Dracula was considered frightening. A review appearing in The Manchester Guardian in 1897 praised its capacity to entertain, but concluded that Stoker erred in including so much horror. Likewise, Vanity Fair opined that the novel was "praiseworthy" and absorbing, but could not recommend it to those who were not "strong". Stoker's prose was commended as effective in sustaining the novel's horror by many publications. A reviewer for the San Francisco Wave called the novel a "literary failure"; they elaborated that coupling vampires with frightening imagery, such as insane asylums and "unnatural appetites", made the horror too overt, and that other works in the genre, such as Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde (1886), had more restraint. Context and interpretation Sexuality and gender Sexuality and seduction are two of the novel's most frequently discussed themes, and modern critical writings about vampirism widely acknowledge its link to sex and sexuality. Across the novel's critical history, Miller writes that theorists have collectively argued that the Count breaks virtually "every Victorian taboo", including non-procreative sex (including fellatio), transgressive sexuality, homosexuality and bisexuality. Transgressive or abnormal sexuality within Dracula is a broad topic. Some psychosexual critics focus on the disruption of Victorian gender roles; within the Victorian context, Christopher Craft writes males had "the right and responsibility of vigorous appetite" while women were required to "suffer and be still". Critics highlight the many places in which the novel disrupts these social mores: Jonathan Harker's excitement over the prospect of being penetrated; Dracula's resulting anger and jealousy; and Lucy's transformation into a sexually aggressive predator who drains "vital fluid". Some critics, including professor Carol Senf, argue that the novel reflects anxiety about female sexual awakening as a threat to established norms. Dracula contains no overt homosexual acts, but homosexuality or homoeroticism is a theme discussed by critics. Christopher Craft argues that the primary threat Dracula poses is that he will "seduce, penetrate, [and] drain another male", and reads Harker's excitement to submit as a proxy for "an implicitly homoerotic desire". Victorian readers would have identified Dracula with sexual threat. Some critics note that changes made to the 1899 American version of the text reinforce this subtext, wherein Dracula states he will feed on Harker. Critics have variously linked these themes to homoerotic letters Stoker wrote to Walt Whitman, his friendship with Oscar Wilde, Stoker had been writing Dracula from as early as 1890.}} his intensely emotional relationship with Irving, and contemporary rumours of Stoker's almost sexless marriage. David J. Skal acknowledged the letters' subtext but cautioned against applying anachronistic modern sexual labels to Stoker. Many critics have suggested that the novel reveals a "reactionary response" to the New Woman phenomenon. This is a late-Victorian term used to describe an emerging class of women with increased social and economic control over their lives. Several critics describe the battle against Dracula as a fight for control over women's bodies. Senf suggests that Stoker was ambivalent about the New Woman phenomenon, while Signorroti argues that the novel's discomfort with female sexual autonomy reflects Stoker's dislike for the movement. Both Lucy and Mina have characteristics associated with the New Woman;}} Mina, who plays an important role in Dracula's defeat, repeatedly expresses contempt for the concept. Senf notes that Lucy is punished for expressing dissatisfaction with her social position as a woman. After her transformation into a vampire, her defeat by the vampire hunters symbolises the re-establishment of "male supremacy".RaceDracula, and specifically the Count's migration to Victorian England, is frequently read as emblematic of invasion literature, and a projection of fears about racial pollution. In an influential postcolonialist analysis, Stephen Arata describes the novel's cultural context of mounting anxiety in Britain over the decline of the British Empire, the rise of other world powers, and a "growing domestic unease" over the morality of imperial colonisation. Arata regards the novel as an instance of "reverse colonisation": fear of other races invading England and weakening its racial purity. Patricia McKee writes that Dracula represents a negation of white culture while Mina represents "pure whiteness". Dracula can be said to both kill white bodies and turn them into the racial Other in death. Some critics connect the racialisation of Dracula to his depiction as a degenerate criminal. Critics frequently identify antisemitic themes and imagery in the novel. Between 1891 and 1900, the number of Jews living in England increased sixfold, mainly due to antisemitic legislation and pogroms in eastern Europe. Examples cited by Jack Halberstam of antisemitic connections include Dracula's appearance, wealth, parasitic bloodlust, and "lack of allegiance" to one country.}} Dracula's appearance resembles some other cultural depictions of Jews, such as Fagin in Charles Dickens's Oliver Twist (1838), and Svengali of George du Maurier's Trilby (1895). Jewish people were frequently described as parasites in Victorian literature; Halberstam highlights fears that Jews would spread diseases of the blood, and one journalist's description of Jews as "Yiddish bloodsuckers". Daniel Renshaw writes that any antisemitism in the text is "semi-subliminal"; he writes that Dracula is not Jewish but does reflect the 19th-century conception of Jewish people. Renshaw frames the novel more broadly as a general suspicion of all foreigners. The novel's depiction of Slovaks and Romani people has attracted limited scholarly attention. In the novel, Harker describes the Slovaks as "barbarians" and their boats as "primitive", reflecting his imperialistic condescension towards other cultures. Peter Arnds writes that the Count's control over the Romani and his abduction of young children evoke folk superstitions about Romani people stealing children, and that his ability to transform into a wolf is related to xenophobic beliefs about the Romani as animalistic. Croley argues that Dracula's association with the Romani made him suspect in the eyes of Victorian England, where they were stigmatised owing to beliefs that they ate "unclean meat" and lived among animals. Religion, superstition and science Dracula is saturated with religious imagery. Christopher Herbert regards the novel as a parable about conflict with an enemy who opposes Christ and Christianity. Scholars discuss the novel's depiction of religion in relation to late Victorian anxieties about the threat which secularism, scientific rationalism and the occult posed to Christian beliefs and morality. Stoker himself had a lifelong interest in supernatural inquiry, and Herbert writes that he mixes the supernatural and superstitious beliefs with religious elements, resulting in metaphors about moral uncleanness becoming literal elements of the text's "occult reality". Herbert notes that the blood of Christ is important to Christian ritual and imagery, and Richard Noll notes that actual consumption of human blood is one of the oldest Judeo-Christian taboos. The vampire hunters use many weapons—including Christian practices and symbols (prayer, crucifixes and consecrated hosts), folkloric practices (garlic, staking and decapitation) and contemporary technology (typewriters, phonographs, telegrams, blood transfusions and Winchester rifles)—in their battle against Dracula. Sanders argues that Stoker presents Christianity as a religion that can be instrumentalised and incorporated into scientific knowledge. Herbert describes Van Helsing's "Christian purification" of Lucy as punitively addressing her promiscuity, and the resulting framing of Christianity as a means towards the "eradication of deviancy". Political and economic Critics discuss the novel in relation to British rule in Ireland and Irish nationalism. Considerable debate exists over whether Dracula is an Irish novel; while it is largely set in England, Stoker was born in British-ruled Ireland and lived there for the first 30 years of his life. Though born into a Protestant family, he was distanced from the religion's more conservative factions. Ralph Ingelbien notes that "recognizably nationalist" critics like Terry Eagleton and Seamus Deane favoured readings of Dracula as "a bloodthirsty caricature of the aristocratic landlord" where the vampire represents the death of feudalism. Bruce Stewart changes the focus to the lower classes, suggesting Dracula and his Romani followers more likely represented violence by Irish National Land League activists. Michael Valdez Moses compares Dracula to the disgraced Charles Stewart Parnell, leader of the Irish Home Rule movement from 1880 to 1882. Robert Smart argues that Stoker's experience during the Great Famine (1845–1852) influenced the novel, with Stewart also noting this as historical context. Some critics discuss Count Dracula's noble title. Literary critic Franco Moretti writes that he is an aristocrat "only in a manner of speaking", citing his lack of servants, simple clothing, and lack of aristocratic hobbies. Moretti suggests that Dracula's blood thirst represents capital's desire to accumulate more capital. More generally, Moretti argues the novel evinces cultural anxiety about foreign capitalist monopolies functioning as a return of feudalism. Chris Baldick maintains this line of analysis, describing Dracula as an undead symbol of feudalism but concluding that the novel is more concerned with "sexual and religious terrors". Mark Neocleous writes that Dracula symbolises the victory of the bourgeoisie over feudalism. In Das Kapital, Karl Marx compared the bourgeoisie's exploitation of workers to a vampire draining blood. He uses vampires as a metaphor three times in Das Kapital, but these predate the writing of Dracula. Disease Contagious disease was a topic of social and medical concern in late Victorian England. Vampirism can represent disease, being both an initial infection and the resulting illness. The novel characterises vampirism with terms from social degeneration theory, an 18th- and 19th-century social and biological concept arising from fear over the deterioration of the "human condition"; Victorian psychiatry, known then as "alienism"; and anthropology. Theories of degeneracy propagated Victorian-era beliefs about poor moral character being transmissible like a pathogen. Jack Halberstam writes that Dracula and Renfield's relationship suggests that vampirism is "a psychological disorder, an addictive activity". He notes that Renfield, and by association Dracula, is described by doctors using terminology more appropriate for describing animals. Brian Aldiss writes that Count Dracula represents the initial disease while Renfield's madness is a symptom of advanced infection. Halbertstam highlights that disease was frequently associated with Jews during the period. Sexually transmitted infection, particularly syphilis, is a frequent topic. Literary critic Martin Willis writes that the novel depicts Victorian discourse over the origin, cause and treatment of disease, especially in the context of Lucy's treatment and eventual death.Legacy Adaptations <!--NOTE: DO NOT ADD POPULAR CULTURE DERIVATIVES HERE. USE THE MAIN ARTICLE Dracula in popular culture--> as Dracula in a 1931 adaptation]] Dracula has been adapted many times across virtually all forms of media. Scholars John Edgar Browning and Caroline Joan S. Picart note that the novel and its characters have been adapted for film, television, video games and animation over 700 times, with nearly 1000 additional appearances in comic books and on the stage; in 2015, the Guinness Book of World Records named Dracula the most portrayed literary character, noting he had appeared almost twice as much as Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes. Literary critic Roberto Fernández Retamar deemed Count Dracula—alongside Frankenstein's monster, Mickey Mouse and Superman—to be a part of the "hegemonic Anglo-Saxon world['s] cinematic fodder". Across the world, new adaptations can be produced as often as every week. Adaptations were produced during Stoker's lifetime. Stoker's first theatrical adaptation (Dracula, or The Undead); was read once at the Lyceum Theatre. While the manuscript was believed lost, the British Library have extracts of the novel's galley proof with Stoker's handwritten stage directions and dialogue attribution. A Swedish newspaper serialised an adaptation from June 1899 to February 1900 as Mörkrets Makter ("Powers of Darkness"). This version is almost twice as long as Stoker's novel, containing elements included in Stoker's notes but not in the published novel. The adaptation contains an author's preface signed "B. S", which Eighteen-Bisang and Miller conclude was not written by Stoker. Although believed lost, the Swedish adaptation was rediscovered and published in 2017. In 1901, Valdimar Ásmundsson translated a heavily abridged version of the Swedish adaptation into Icelandic under the title Makt Myrkranna ("Powers of Darkness"). The adaptation included an abridged author's preface, purportedly by Stoker. Scholars knew the Icelandic version had existed since the 1980s because of the preface attributed to Stoker. When the Swedish translation was rediscovered, scholars learned that the Icelandic version had been translated from it rather than Stoker's Dracula. The first film to feature Count Dracula was a Hungarian silent film—Károly Lajthay's Drakula halála (). The film allegedly premiered in 1921 but this release date has been questioned by some scholars. Very little of the film survives, and David J. Skal notes that the cover artist for the 1926 Hungarian edition of the novel was more influenced by the second adaptation of Dracula, F. W. Murnau's Nosferatu (1922). Critic Wayne E. Hensley writes that the narrative of Nosferatu differs significantly from the novel, but that characters have clear counterparts. Bram Stoker's widow, Florence, initiated legal action against Prana, the studio behind Nosferatu. The legal case lasted two or three years, while others give the number as three.}} with Prana agreeing to destroy all copies in May 1924.}} as the title character in Dracula (1958)]] Visual representations of the Count have changed significantly over time. Early treatments of Dracula's appearance were established by theatrical productions in London and New York. Later prominent portrayals of the character by Béla Lugosi (in a 1931 adaptation) and Christopher Lee (firstly in the 1958 film and later its sequels) built upon earlier versions. Chiefly, Dracula's early visual style involved a black-red colour scheme and slicked back hair. Lee's portrayal was overtly sexual, and also popularised fangs on screen. Gary Oldman's portrayal in ''Bram Stoker's Dracula (1992), directed by Francis Ford Coppola and costumed by Eiko Ishioka, established a new default look for the character—a Romanian accent and long hair. The assortment of adaptations feature many different dispositions and characteristics of the Count.Influence vampire]] Dracula is one of the most famous and influential works of English literature. Although not the first novel to depict vampires, the work dominates both popular and scholarly treatments of vampire fiction. For many people, Count Dracula is the first character to come to mind when discussing vampires. Dracula'' succeeded by drawing together folklore, legend, vampire fiction and the conventions of the Gothic novel. Humanities scholar Wendy Doniger described the novel as vampire literature's "centrepiece, rendering all other vampires BS [Before Stoker] or AS [After Stoker]". William Hughes argues that the Count's cultural omnipresence negatively impacted academic analyses of the undead; Dracula is "the reference point" to which all other vampires are compared. It profoundly shaped the popular understanding of how vampires function, including their strengths, weaknesses, and other characteristics. Bats had been associated with vampires before Dracula as a result of the vampire bat's existence—for example, Varney the Vampire (1847) included an image of a bat on its cover illustration—but Stoker deepened the association by making Dracula able to transform into one. That was, in turn, quickly taken up by film studios looking for opportunities to use special effects. Novelist Patrick McGrath notes that many of the Count's characteristics have been adopted by artists succeeding Stoker in depicting vampires, turning those fixtures into clichés. Aside from the Count's ability to transform, McGrath specifically highlights his hatred of garlic and crucifixes. William Hughes writes critically of the Count's cultural omnipresence, noting that the character of Dracula has "seriously inhibited" discussions of the undead in Gothic fiction. In the 1930s, Universal Studios initiated development on a Dracula film and learned Stoker failed to comply with United States copyright law. This prematurely placed the novel into the public domain in the United States.}} It was not until the 1960s that publishers recognised the novel's copyright status. Coinciding with the mass-market paperback's rising popularity, publishers began to produce their own versions. Stoker's mistake prevented his descendants from collecting royalties but provided ideal conditions for the novel to endure because writers and producers did not need to pay a licence fee to use the character of Count Dracula. Notes and references Notes References Bibliography Books * * * ** * * * * * * * ** * ** * * * * * * * * }} ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * ** * * * * * * * * Journal and newspaper articles * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * }} * * * * * }} * * * Contemporary critical reviews * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} Websites * * }} * Further reading Studies on Dracula notes The following is a list of books or articles that study all or part of Bram Stoker's notes for Dracula. * * * * * * * * * * Other * * * * * * External links * [https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/bram-stoker/dracula Dracula] at Standard Ebooks * , text version of 1897 edition. * * [https://research.library.kutztown.edu/dracula-studies/ Journal of Dracula Studies] Category:1897 novels Category:1890s horror novels Category:1890s Gothic novels Category:19th-century Irish novels Category:Dracula novels Category:Epistolary novels Category:Irish Gothic novels Category:Invasion literature Category:Transylvania in fiction Category:Victorian novels	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dracula	2025-04-05T18:28:18.785693
7925	David Hume	\| birth_place = Lawnmarket, Edinburgh, Scotland \| death_date \| death_place = New Town, Edinburgh, Scotland \| education = University of Edinburgh \| era = 18th-century philosophy \| region = Western philosophy \| school_tradition = * Scottish Enlightenment * Humeanism * Naturalism * Newtonianism * Conceptualism * Indirect realism * Correspondence theory of truth * Moral sentimentalism \| main_interests = * Aesthetics * Economics * Epistemology * Ethics * Metaphysics * Philosophy of mind * Philosophy of religion * Political philosophy \| notable_ideas = }} David Hume (; born David Home; – 25 August 1776) was a Scottish philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist who was best known for his highly influential system of empiricism, philosophical scepticism and metaphysical naturalism. Hume argued that inductive reasoning and belief in causality cannot be justified rationally; instead, they result from custom and mental habit. We never actually perceive that one event causes another but only experience the "constant conjunction" of events. This problem of induction means that to draw any causal inferences from past experience, it is necessary to presuppose that the future will resemble the past; this metaphysical presupposition cannot itself be grounded in prior experience. An opponent of philosophical rationalists, Hume held that passions rather than reason govern human behaviour, famously proclaiming that "Reason is, and ought only to be the slave of the passions." Hume was also a sentimentalist who held that ethics are based on emotion or sentiment rather than abstract moral principle. He maintained an early commitment to naturalistic explanations of moral phenomena and is usually accepted by historians of European philosophy to have first clearly expounded the is–ought problem, or the idea that a statement of fact alone can never give rise to a normative conclusion of what ought to be done. His philosophy of religion, including his rejection of miracles, and critique of the argument from design for God's existence, were especially controversial for their time. Hume left a legacy that affected utilitarianism, logical positivism, the philosophy of science, early analytic philosophy, cognitive science, theology, and many other fields and thinkers. Immanuel Kant credited Hume as the inspiration that had awakened him from his "dogmatic slumbers." Early life Hume was born on 26 April 1711, as David Home, in a tenement on the north side of Edinburgh's Lawnmarket. He was the second of two sons born to Catherine Home (née Falconer), daughter of Sir David Falconer of Newton, Midlothian and his wife Mary Falconer (née Norvell), and Joseph Home of Chirnside in the County of Berwick, an advocate of Ninewells. Joseph died just after David's second birthday. Catherine, who never remarried, raised the two brothers and their sister on her own. Hume changed his family name's spelling in 1734, as the surname 'Home' (pronounced as 'Hume') was not well-known in England. Hume never married and lived partly at his Chirnside family home in Berwickshire, which had belonged to the family since the 16th century. His finances as a young man were very "slender", as his family was not rich; as a younger son he had little patrimony to live on. Hume attended the University of Edinburgh at an unusually early ageeither 12 or possibly as young as 10at a time when 14 was the typical age. Initially, Hume considered a career in law, because of his family. However, in his words, he came to have: <blockquote>...an insurmountable aversion to everything but the pursuits of Philosophy and general Learning; and while [my family] fanceyed I was poring over Voet and Vinnius, Cicero and Virgil were the Authors which I was secretly devouring.</blockquote> He had little respect for the professors of his time, telling a friend in 1735 that "there is nothing to be learnt from a Professor, which is not to be met with in Books".}} He did not graduate. "Disease of the learned" At around age 18, Hume made a philosophical discovery that opened up to him "a new Scene of Thought", inspiring him "to throw up every other Pleasure or Business to apply entirely to it". As he did not recount what this scene exactly was, commentators have offered a variety of speculations. One prominent interpretation among contemporary Humean scholarship is that this new "scene of thought" was Hume's realisation that Francis Hutcheson's theory of moral sense could be applied to the understanding of morality as well. From this inspiration, Hume set out to spend a minimum of 10 years reading and writing. He soon came to the verge of a mental breakdown, first starting with a coldnesswhich he attributed to a "Laziness of Temper"that lasted about nine months. Scurvy spots later broke out on his fingers, persuading Hume's physician to diagnose him with the "Disease of the Learned". Hume wrote that he "went under a Course of Bitters and Anti-Hysteric Pills", taken along with a pint of claret every day. He also decided to have a more active life to better continue his learning. His health improved somewhat, but in 1731, he was afflicted with a ravenous appetite and palpitations. After eating well for a time, he went from being "tall, lean and raw-bon'd" to being "sturdy, robust [and] healthful-like." Indeed, Hume would become well known for being obese and having a fondness for good port and cheese, often using them as philosophical metaphors for his conjectures. Career Despite having noble ancestry, Hume had no source of income and no learned profession by age 25. As was common at his time, he became a merchant's assistant, despite having to leave his native Scotland. He travelled via Bristol to La Flèche in Anjou, France. There he had frequent discourse with the Jesuits of the College of La Flèche. Hume was derailed in his attempts to start a university career by protests over his alleged "atheism", He described his "love for literary fame" as his "ruling passion" Despite Hume's protestations, a consensus exists today that his most important arguments and philosophically distinctive doctrines are found in the original form they take in the Treatise. Though he was only 23 years old when starting this work, it is now regarded as one of the most important in the history of Western philosophy. Despite the disappointment, Hume later wrote: "Being naturally of a cheerful and sanguine temper, I soon recovered from the blow and prosecuted with great ardour my studies in the country." after Edinburgh ministers petitioned the town council not to appoint Hume because he was seen as an atheist. In 1745, during the Jacobite risings, Hume tutored the Marquess of Annandale, an engagement that ended in disarray after about a year. The Marquess could not follow with Hume's lectures, his father saw little need for philosophy, and on a personal level, the Marquess found Hume's dietary tendencies to be bizarre. Hume then started his great historical work, The History of England, which took fifteen years and ran to over a million words. During this time, he was also involved with the Canongate Theatre through his friend John Home, a preacher. In this context, he associated with Lord Monboddo and other thinkers of the Scottish Enlightenment in Edinburgh. From 1746, Hume served for three years as secretary to General James St Clair, who was envoy to the courts of Turin and Vienna. At that time Hume wrote Philosophical Essays Concerning Human Understanding, later published as An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding. Often called the First Enquiry, it proved little more successful than the Treatise, perhaps because of the publication of his short autobiography My Own Life, which "made friends difficult for the first Enquiry". By the end of this period Hume had attained his well-known corpulent stature; "the good table of the General and the prolonged inactive life had done their work", leaving him "a man of tremendous bulk". In 1749 he went to live with his brother in the countryside, although he continued to associate with the aforementioned Scottish Enlightenment figures. 1750s–1760s Hume's religious views were often suspect and, in the 1750s, it was necessary for his friends to avert a trial against him on the charge of heresy, specifically in an ecclesiastical court. However, he "would not have come and could not be forced to attend if he said he was not a member of the Established Church". Hume failed to gain the chair of philosophy at the University of Glasgow due to his religious views. By this time, he had published the Philosophical Essays, which were decidedly anti-religious. This represented a turning point in his career and the various opportunities made available to him. Even Adam Smith, his personal friend who had vacated the Glasgow philosophy chair, was against his appointment out of concern that public opinion would be against it. In 1761, all his works were banned on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum. Hume returned to Edinburgh in 1751. In the following year, the Faculty of Advocates hired him to be their Librarian, a job in which he would receive little to no pay, but which nonetheless gave him "the command of a large library". was the only work he considered successful on first publication. Eventually, with the publication of his six-volume The History of England between 1754 and 1762, Hume achieved the fame that he coveted. The volumes traced events from the Invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution of 1688 and was a bestseller in its day. Hume was also a longtime friend of bookseller Andrew Millar, who sold Hume's History (after acquiring the rights from Scottish bookseller Gavin Hamilton), although the relationship was sometimes complicated. Letters between them illuminate both men's interest in the success of the History. In 1762 Hume moved from Jack's Land on the Canongate to James Court on the Lawnmarket. He sold the house to James Boswell in 1766. Later life Paris and Rousseau From 1763 to 1765, Hume was invited to attend Lord Hertford in Paris, where he became secretary to the British embassy in France. Hume was well received among Parisian society, and while there he met with Isaac de Pinto. In 1765, Hume served as a chargé d'affaires in Paris, writing "despatches to the British Secretary of State". He wrote of his Paris life, "I really wish often for the plain roughness of The Poker Club of Edinburgh... to correct and qualify so much lusciousness." In January 1766, Hume left Paris to accompany Jean-Jacques Rousseau to England. Once there, he and Rousseau fell out, leaving Hume sufficiently worried about the damage to his reputation from the quarrel with Rousseau that he would author an account of the dispute, titling it "A concise and genuine account of the dispute between Mr. Hume and Mr. Rousseau". Slavery In a 2020 op-ed for the Scotsman, Felix Waldmann reported his recent discovery, and publication, of a "letter of March 1766 by Hume, in which he encouraged his patron Lord Hertford to purchase a slave plantation in Grenada." Strictly what was on offer was a 50% share. But in March 1766, at the request of George Colebrooke; Hume did indeed write to Lord Hertford informing him of an opportunity to invest in a slave plantation along with Colebrooke and two partners, Sir James Cockburn and John Stewart. Peter Hutton and David Ashton assert, contrary to the claims of Felix Waldman, (Which Hertford ultimately chose not to do). Hutton and Ashton assert that it remains 'unarguable', as Garrett and Sebastiani (2017) conclude of Hume, As to the charge of racism, made by Waldmann and many others, based on the footnote Hume appended to his essay ‘On National Characters’ in 1753, Hutton and Ashton acknowledge that its content is "especially shocking – and deeply puzzling". Bailey describes it as "highly prejudicial speculation". Final years In 1767, Hume was appointed Under Secretary of State for the Northern Department. Here, he wrote that he was given "all the secrets of the Kingdom". In 1769 he returned to James' Court in Edinburgh, where he would live from 1771 until his death in 1776. Hume's nephew and namesake, David Hume of Ninewells (1757–1838), was a co-founder of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1783. He was a Professor of Scots Law at Edinburgh University and rose to be Principal Clerk of Session in the Scottish High Court and Baron of the Exchequer. He is buried with his uncle in Old Calton Cemetery. Autobiography In the last year of his life, Hume wrote an extremely brief autobiographical essay titled "My Own Life", it contains many interesting judgments that have been of enduring interest to subsequent readers of Hume. Donald Seibert (1984), a scholar of 18th-century literature, judged it a "remarkable autobiography, even though it may lack the usual attractions of that genre. Anyone hankering for startling revelations or amusing anecdotes had better look elsewhere." in his autobiography Hume confesses his belief that the "love of literary fame" had served as his "ruling passion" in life, and claims that this desire "never soured my temper, notwithstanding my frequent disappointments". One such disappointment Hume discusses in this account is in the initial literary reception of the Treatise, which he claims to have overcome by means of the success of the Essays: "the work was favourably received, and soon made me entirely forget my former disappointment". Hume, in his own retrospective judgment, argues that his philosophical debut's apparent failure "had proceeded more from the manner than the matter". He thus suggests that "I had been guilty of a very usual indiscretion, in going to the press too early." Hume also provides an unambiguous self-assessment of the relative value of his works: that "my Enquiry concerning the Principles of Morals; which, in my own opinion (who ought not to judge on that subject) is of all my writings, historical, philosophical, or literary, incomparably the best." He also wrote of his social relations: "My company was not unacceptable to the young and careless, as well as to the studious and literary", noting of his complex relation to religion, as well as to the state, that "though I wantonly exposed myself to the rage of both civil and religious factions, they seemed to be disarmed in my behalf of their wonted fury". He goes on to profess of his character: "My friends never had occasion to vindicate any one circumstance of my character and conduct." Hume concludes the essay with a frank admission: Hume asked that his body be interred in a "simple Roman tomb", requesting in his will that it be inscribed only with his name and the year of his birth and death, "leaving it to Posterity to add the Rest". David Hume died at the southwest corner of St. Andrew's Square in Edinburgh's New Town, at what is now 21 Saint David Street. A popular story, consistent with some historical evidence and with the help of coincidence, suggests that the street was named after Hume. His tomb stands, as he wished it, on the southwestern slope of Calton Hill, in the Old Calton Cemetery. Adam Smith later recounted Hume's amusing speculation that he might ask Charon, Hades' ferryman, to allow him a few more years of life in order to see "the downfall of some of the prevailing systems of superstition". The ferryman replied, "You loitering rogue, that will not happen these many hundred years.… Get into the boat this instant." Writings A Treatise of Human Nature begins with the introduction: "'Tis evident, that all the sciences have a relation, more or less, to human nature.… Even Mathematics, Natural Philosophy, and Natural Religion, are in some measure dependent on the science of Man." Until recently, Hume was seen as a forerunner of logical positivism, a form of anti-metaphysical empiricism. According to the logical positivists (in summary of their verification principle), unless a statement could be verified by experience, or else was true or false by definition (i.e., either tautological or contradictory), then it was meaningless. Hume, on this view, was a proto-positivist, who, in his philosophical writings, attempted to demonstrate the ways in which ordinary propositions about objects, causal relations, the self, and so on, are semantically equivalent to propositions about one's experiences. Many commentators have since rejected this understanding of Humean empiricism, stressing an epistemological (rather than a semantic) reading of his project. According to this opposing view, Hume's empiricism consisted in the idea that it is our knowledge, and not our ability to conceive, that is restricted to what can be experienced. Hume thought that we can form beliefs about that which extends beyond any possible experience, through the operation of faculties such as custom and the imagination, but he was sceptical about claims to knowledge on this basis. Impressions and ideas A central doctrine of Hume's philosophy, stated in the very first lines of the Treatise of Human Nature, is that the mind consists of perceptions, or the mental objects which are present to it, and which divide into two categories: "All the perceptions of the human mind resolve themselves into two distinct kinds, which I shall call and ." Hume believed that it would "not be very necessary to employ many words in explaining this distinction", which commentators have generally taken to mean the distinction between feeling and thinking. Controversially, Hume, in some sense, may regard the distinction as a matter of degree, as he takes impressions to be distinguished from ideas on the basis of their force, liveliness, and vivacitywhat Henry E. Allison (2008) calls the "FLV criterion." Ideas'' are therefore "faint" impressions. For example, experiencing the painful sensation of touching a hot pan's handle is more forceful than simply thinking about touching a hot pan. According to Hume, impressions are meant to be the original form of all our ideas. From this, Don Garrett (2002) has coined the term copy principle, When looking at an apple, a person experiences a variety of colour-sensationswhat Hume notes as a complex impression. Similarly, a person experiences a variety of taste-sensations, tactile-sensations, and smell-sensations when biting into an apple, with the overall sensationagain, a complex impression. Thinking about an apple allows a person to form complex ideas, which are made of similar parts as the complex impressions they were developed from, but which are also less forceful. Hume believes that complex perceptions can be broken down into smaller and smaller parts until perceptions are reached that have no parts of their own, and these perceptions are thus referred to as simple. Principles of association Regardless of how boundless it may seem; a person's imagination is confined to the mind's ability to recombine the information it has already acquired from the body's sensory experience (the ideas that have been derived from impressions). In addition, "as our imagination takes our most basic ideas and leads us to form new ones, it is directed by three principles of association, namely, resemblance, contiguity, and cause and effect": * The principle of resemblance refers to the tendency of ideas to become associated if the objects they represent resemble one another. For example, someone looking at an illustration of a flower can conceive an idea of the physical flower because the idea of the illustrated object is associated with the physical object's idea. * The principle of contiguity describes the tendency of ideas to become associated if the objects they represent are near to each other in time or space, such as when the thought of a crayon in a box leads one to think of the crayon contiguous to it. * The principle of cause and effect refers to the tendency of ideas to become associated if the objects they represent are causally related, which explains how remembering a broken window can make someone think of a ball that had caused the window to shatter. Hume elaborates more on the last principle, explaining that, when somebody observes that one object or event consistently produces the same object or event, that results in "an expectation that a particular event (a 'cause') will be followed by another event (an 'effect') previously and constantly associated with it". Hume calls this principle custom, or habit, saying that "custom...renders our experience useful to us, and makes us expect, for the future, a similar train of events with those which have appeared in the past". However, even though custom can serve as a guide in life, it still only represents an expectation. In other words: <blockquote>Experience cannot establish a necessary connection between cause and effect, because we can imagine without contradiction a case where the cause does not produce its usual effect…the reason why we mistakenly infer that there is something in the cause that necessarily produces its effect is because our past experiences have habituated us to think in this way. </blockquote> Continuing this idea, Hume argues that "only in the pure realm of ideas, logic, and mathematics, not contingent on the direct sense awareness of reality, [can] causation safely…be applied—all other sciences are reduced to probability".—and both of these are inadequate. With regard to demonstrative reasoning, Hume argues that the uniformity principle cannot be demonstrated, as it is "consistent and conceivable" that nature might stop being regular. Turning to probable reasoning, Hume argues that we cannot hold that nature will continue to be uniform because it has been in the past. As this is using the very sort of reasoning (induction) that is under question, it would be circular reasoning. Thus, no form of justification will rationally warrant our inductive inferences. Hume's solution to this problem is to argue that, rather than reason, natural instinct explains the human practice of making inductive inferences. He asserts that "Nature, by an absolute and uncontroulable necessity has determin'd us to judge as well as to breathe and feel." In 1985, and in agreement with Hume, John D. Kenyon writes: <blockquote>Reason might manage to raise a doubt about the truth of a conclusion of natural inductive inference just for a moment ... but the sheer agreeableness of animal faith will protect us from excessive caution and sterile suspension of belief.</blockquote> Others, such as Charles Sanders Peirce, have demurred from Hume's solution, while some, such as Kant and Karl Popper, have thought that Hume's analysis has "posed a most fundamental challenge to all human knowledge claims". The notion of causation is closely linked to the problem of induction. According to Hume, we reason inductively by associating constantly conjoined events. It is the mental act of association that is the basis of our concept of causation. At least three interpretations of Hume's theory of causation are represented in the literature: # the logical positivist; # the sceptical realist; and # the quasi-realist. Hume acknowledged that there are events constantly unfolding, and humanity cannot guarantee that these events are caused by prior events or are independent instances. He opposed the widely accepted theory of causation that 'all events have a specific course or reason'. Therefore, Hume crafted his own theory of causation, formed through his empiricist and sceptic beliefs. He split causation into two realms: "All the objects of human reason or enquiry may naturally be divided into two kinds, to wit, Relations of Ideas, and Matters of Fact." Hume explains his theory of causation and causal inference by division into three different parts. In these three branches he explains his ideas and compares and contrasts his views to his predecessors. These branches are the Critical Phase, the Constructive Phase, and Belief. In the Critical Phase, Hume denies his predecessors' theories of causation. Next, he uses the Constructive Phase to resolve any doubts the reader may have had while observing the Critical Phase. "Habit or Custom" mends the gaps in reasoning that occur without the human mind even realising it. Associating ideas has become second nature to the human mind. It "makes us expect for the future, a similar train of events with those which have appeared in the past". In his Treatise of Human Nature, Hume wrote: <blockquote>Power and necessity…are…qualities of perceptions, not of objects…felt by the soul and not perceiv'd externally in bodies.</blockquote> This view is rejected by sceptical realists, who argue that Hume thought that causation amounts to more than just the regular succession of events. In Hume's words, "nothing is more usual than to apply to external bodies every internal sensation, which they occasion". 'Self' Empiricist philosophers, such as Hume and Berkeley, favoured the bundle theory of personal identity. In this theory, "the mind itself, far from being an independent power, is simply 'a bundle of perceptions' without unity or cohesive quality". The self is nothing but a bundle of experiences linked by the relations of causation and resemblance; or, more accurately, the empirically warranted idea of the self is just the idea of such a bundle. According to Hume: Hume denied the existence of practical reason as a principle because he claimed reason does not have any effect on morality, since morality is capable of producing effects in people that reason alone cannot create. As Hume explains in A Treatise of Human Nature (1740): so Hume believed that reason's shortcoming of affecting morality proved that practical reason could not be authoritative for all rational beings, since morality was essential for dictating people's intentions and actions. Ethics Hume's writings on ethics began in the 1740 Treatise and were refined in his An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals (1751). He understood feeling, rather than knowing, as that which governs ethical actions, stating that "moral decisions are grounded in moral sentiment." Arguing that reason cannot be behind morality, he wrote: <blockquote> Morals excite passions, and produce or prevent actions. Reason itself is utterly impotent in this particular. The rules of morality, therefore, are not conclusions of our reason. </blockquote> Hume's moral sentimentalism was shared by his close friend Adam Smith, and the two were mutually influenced by the moral reflections of their older contemporary, Francis Hutcheson. Peter Singer claims that Hume's argument that morals cannot have a rational basis alone "would have been enough to earn him a place in the history of ethics." Hume also put forward the is–ought problem, later known as ''Hume's Law, denying the possibility of logically deriving what ought to be from what is. According to the Treatise (1740), in every system of morality that Hume has read, the author begins by stating facts about the world as it is but always ends up suddenly referring to what ought to be the case. Hume demands that a reason should be given for inferring what ought to be the case, from what is'' the case. This is because it "seems altogether inconceivable, how this new relation can be a deduction from others." Hume's theory of ethics has been influential in modern-day meta-ethical theory, helping to inspire emotivism, and ethical expressivism and non-cognitivism, as well as Allan Gibbard's general theory of moral judgment and judgments of rationality. Aesthetics Hume's ideas about aesthetics and the theory of art are spread throughout his works, but are particularly connected with his ethical writings, and also the essays "Of the Standard of Taste" and "Of Tragedy" (1757). His views are rooted in the work of Joseph Addison and Francis Hutcheson. In the Treatise (1740), he touches on the connection between beauty and deformity and vice and virtue. His later writings on the subject continue to draw parallels of beauty and deformity in art with conduct and character. In "Standard of Taste", Hume argues that no rules can be drawn up about what is a tasteful object. However, a reliable critic of taste can be recognised as objective, sensible and unprejudiced, and as having extensive experience. "Of Tragedy" addresses the question of why humans enjoy tragic drama. Hume was concerned with the way spectators find pleasure in the sorrow and anxiety depicted in a tragedy. He argued that this was because the spectator is aware that he is witnessing a dramatic performance. There is pleasure in realising that the terrible events that are being shown are actually fiction. Furthermore, Hume laid down rules for educating people in taste and correct conduct, and his writings in this area have been very influential on English and Anglo-Saxon aesthetics. Free will, determinism, and responsibility , on the Royal Mile in Edinburgh]] Hume, along with Thomas Hobbes, is cited as a classical compatibilist about the notions of freedom and determinism. Compatibilism seeks to reconcile human freedom with the mechanist view that human beings are part of a deterministic universe, which is completely governed by physical laws. Hume, on this point, was influenced greatly by the scientific revolution, particularly by Sir Isaac Newton. Hume argued that the dispute between freedom and determinism continued over 2000 years due to ambiguous terminology. He wrote: "From this circumstance alone, that a controversy has been long kept on foot…we may presume that there is some ambiguity in the expression," and that different disputants use different meanings for the same terms. Hume defines the concept of necessity as "the uniformity, observable in the operations of nature; where similar objects are constantly conjoined together," and liberty as "a power of acting or not acting, according to the determinations of the will." He then argues that, according to these definitions, not only are the two compatible, but liberty requires necessity. For if our actions were not necessitated in the above sense, they would "have so little in connexion with motives, inclinations and circumstances, that one does not follow with a certain degree of uniformity from the other." But if our actions are not thus connected to the will, then our actions can never be free: they would be matters of "chance; which is universally allowed to have no existence." Australian philosopher John Passmore writes that confusion has arisen because "necessity" has been taken to mean "necessary connexion." Once this has been abandoned, Hume argues that "liberty and necessity will be found not to be in conflict one with another." Moreover, Hume goes on to argue that in order to be held morally responsible, it is required that our behaviour be caused or necessitated, for, as he wrote: <blockquote>Actions are, by their very nature, temporary and perishing; and where they proceed not from some cause in the character and disposition of the person who performed them, they can neither redound to his honour, if good; nor infamy, if evil.</blockquote> Hume describes the link between causality and our capacity to rationally make a decision from this an inference of the mind. Human beings assess a situation based upon certain predetermined events and from that form a choice. Hume believes that this choice is made spontaneously. Hume calls this form of decision making the liberty of spontaneity. Education writer Richard Wright considers that Hume's position rejects a famous moral puzzle attributed to French philosopher Jean Buridan. The Buridan's ass puzzle describes a donkey that is hungry. This donkey has separate bales of hay on both sides, which are of equal distances from him. The problem concerns which bale the donkey chooses. Buridan was said to believe that the donkey would die, because he has no autonomy. The donkey is incapable of forming a rational decision as there is no motive to choose one bale of hay over the other. However, human beings are different, because a human who is placed in a position where he is forced to choose one loaf of bread over another will make a decision to take one in lieu of the other. For Buridan, humans have the capacity of autonomy, and he recognises the choice that is ultimately made will be based on chance, as both loaves of bread are exactly the same. However, Wright says that Hume completely rejects this notion, arguing that a human will spontaneously act in such a situation because he is faced with impending death if he fails to do so. Such a decision is not made on the basis of chance, but rather on necessity and spontaneity, given the prior predetermined events leading up to the predicament. Hume's argument is supported by modern-day compatibilists such as R. E. Hobart, a pseudonym of philosopher Dickinson S. Miller. However, P. F. Strawson argued that the issue of whether we hold one another morally responsible does not ultimately depend on the truth or falsity of a metaphysical thesis such as determinism. This is because our so holding one another is a non-rational human sentiment that is not predicated on such theses. Religion Philosopher Paul Russell (2005) contends that Hume wrote "on almost every central question in the philosophy of religion", and that these writings "are among the most important and influential contributions on this topic." Some modern critics have described Hume's religious views as agnostic or have described him as a "Pyrrhonian skeptic". Contemporaries considered him to be an atheist, or at least un-Christian, enough so that the Church of Scotland seriously considered bringing charges of infidelity against him. Evidence of his un-Christian beliefs can especially be found in his writings on miracles, in which he attempts to separate historical method from the narrative accounts of miracles. The fact that contemporaries suspected him of atheism is exemplified by a story Hume liked to tell: <blockquote>The best theologian he ever met, he used to say, was the old Edinburgh fishwife who, having recognized him as Hume the atheist, refused to pull him out of the bog into which he had fallen until he declared he was a Christian and repeated the Lord's prayer.</blockquote> However, in works such as "Of Superstition and Enthusiasm", Hume specifically seems to support the standard religious views of his time and place. This still meant that he could be very critical of the Catholic Church, dismissing it with the standard Protestant accusations of superstition and idolatry, Paul Russell (2008) writes that Hume was plainly sceptical about religious belief, although perhaps not to the extent of complete atheism. He suggests that Hume's position is best characterised by the term "irreligion," while philosopher David O'Connor (2013) argues that Hume's final position was "weakly deistic". For O'Connor, Hume's "position is deeply ironic. This is because, while inclining towards a weak form of deism, he seriously doubts that we can ever find a sufficiently favourable balance of evidence to justify accepting any religious position." He adds that Hume "did not believe in the God of standard theism ... but he did not rule out all concepts of deity", and that "ambiguity suited his purposes, and this creates difficulty in definitively pinning down his final position on religion". Design argument One of the traditional topics of natural theology is that of the existence of God, and one of the a posteriori arguments for this is the argument from design or the teleological argument. The argument is that the existence of God can be proved by the design that is obvious in the complexity of the world, which Encyclopædia Britannica states is "the most popular", because it is: <blockquote>...the most accessible of the theistic arguments ... which identifies evidences of design in nature, inferring from them a divine designer ... The fact that the universe as a whole is a coherent and efficiently functioning system likewise, in this view, indicates a divine intelligence behind it.</blockquote> In An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, Hume wrote that the design argument seems to depend upon our experience, and its proponents "always suppose the universe, an effect quite singular and unparalleled, to be the proof of a Deity, a cause no less singular and unparalleled". Philosopher Louise E. Loeb (2010) notes that Hume is saying that only experience and observation can be our guide to making inferences about the conjunction between events. However, according to Hume: <blockquote>We observe neither God nor other universes, and hence no conjunction involving them. There is no observed conjunction to ground an inference either to extended objects or to God, as unobserved causes.</blockquote> Hume also criticised the argument in his Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion (1779). Hume proposes a finite universe with a finite number of particles. Given infinite time, these particles could randomly fall into any arrangement, including our seemingly designed world.[https://www.gutenberg.org/files/4583/4583-h/4583-h.htm#:~:text=For%20instance%2C%20what,scruple%20this%20determination.] A century later, the idea of order without design was rendered more plausible by Charles Darwin's discovery that the adaptations of the forms of life result from the natural selection of inherited characteristics. They have also noted that it requires an appeal to inductive inference, as none have observed every part of nature nor examined every possible miracle claim, for instance those in the future. This, in Hume's philosophy, was especially problematic. Little appreciated is the voluminous literature either foreshadowing Hume, in the likes of Thomas Sherlock or directly responding to and engaging with Hume—from William Paley, William Adams, John Douglas, John Leland, and George Campbell, among others. Regarding the latter, it is rumoured that, having read Campbell's Dissertation, Hume remarked that "the Scotch theologue had beaten him." Hume's main argument concerning miracles is that miracles by definition are singular events that differ from the established laws of nature. Such natural laws are codified as a result of past experiences. Therefore, a miracle is a violation of all prior experience and thus incapable on this basis of reasonable belief. However, the probability that something has occurred in contradiction of all past experience should always be judged to be less than the probability that either one's senses have deceived one, or the person recounting the miraculous occurrence is lying or mistaken, Hume would say, all of which he had past experience of. For Hume, this refusal to grant credence does not guarantee correctness. He offers the example of an Indian Prince, who, having grown up in a hot country, refuses to believe that water has frozen. By Hume's lights, this refusal is not wrong and the prince "reasoned justly;" it is presumably only when he has had extensive experience of the freezing of water that he has warrant to believe that the event could occur. So, for Hume, either the miraculous event will become a recurrent event or else it will never be rational to believe it occurred. The connection to religious belief is left unexplained throughout, except for the close of his discussion where Hume notes the reliance of Christianity upon testimony of miraculous occurrences. He makes an ironic remark that anyone who "is moved by faith to assent" to revealed testimony "is conscious of a continued miracle in his own person, which subverts all principles of his understanding, and gives him a determination to believe what is most contrary to custom and experience." Hume writes that "All the testimony whichever was really given for any miracle, or ever will be given, is a subject of derision." As a historian of England , 1754; "Where men are the most sure and arrogant, they are commonly the most mistaken, and have there given reins to passion, without that proper deliberation and suspense, which can alone secure them from the grossest absurdities." —An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals, § 9.13 : Conclusion, Pt. 1 (1751)]] From 1754 to 1762 Hume published The History of England, a six-volume work, that extends (according to its subtitle) "From the Invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution in 1688." Inspired by Voltaire's sense of the breadth of history, Hume widened the focus of the field away from merely kings, parliaments, and armies, to literature and science as well. He argued that the quest for liberty was the highest standard for judging the past, and concluded that after considerable fluctuation, England at the time of his writing had achieved "the most entire system of liberty that was ever known amongst mankind". It "must be regarded as an event of cultural importance. In its own day, moreover, it was an innovation, soaring high above its very few predecessors." Hume's History of England made him famous as a historian before he was ever considered a serious philosopher. In this work, Hume uses history to tell the story of the rise of England and what led to its greatness and the disastrous effects that religion has had on its progress. For Hume, the history of England's rise may give a template for others who would also like to rise to its current greatness. Thomas Jefferson banned the History from University of Virginia, feeling that it had "spread universal toryism over the land." By comparison, Samuel Johnson thought Hume to be "a Tory by chance [...] for he has no principle. If he is anything, he is a Hobbist." A major concern of Hume's political philosophy is the importance of the rule of law. He also stresses throughout his political essays the importance of moderation in politics, public spirit, and regard to the community. Throughout the period of the American Revolution, Hume had varying views. For instance, in 1768 he encouraged total revolt on the part of the Americans. In 1775, he became certain that a revolution would take place and said that he believed in the American principle and wished the British government would let them be. Hume's influence on some of the Founders can be seen in Benjamin Franklin's suggestion at the Philadelphia Convention of 1787 that no high office in any branch of government should receive a salary, which is a suggestion Hume had made in his emendation of James Harrington's Oceana. The legacy of religious civil war in 18th-century Scotland, combined with the relatively recent memory of the 1715 and 1745 Jacobite risings, had fostered in Hume a distaste for enthusiasm and factionalism. These appeared to him to threaten the fragile and nascent political and social stability of a country that was deeply politically and religiously divided. Hume thought that society is best governed by a general and impartial system of laws; he is less concerned about the form of government that administers these laws, so long as it does so fairly. However, he also clarified that a republic must produce laws, while "monarchy, when absolute, contains even something repugnant to law." Hume expressed suspicion of attempts to reform society in ways that departed from long-established custom, and he counselled peoples not to resist their governments except in cases of the most egregious tyranny. However, he resisted aligning himself with either of Britain's two political parties, the Whigs and the Tories, explaining that "my views of things are more conformable to Whig principles; my representations of persons to Tory prejudices". The scholar Jerry Z. Muller argues that Hume's political thoughts have characteristics that later became typical for American and British conservatism, which contain more positive views of capitalism than conservatism does elsewhere. Canadian philosopher Neil McArthur writes that Hume believed that we should try to balance our demands for liberty with the need for strong authority, without sacrificing either. McArthur characterises Hume as a "precautionary conservative," whose actions would have been "determined by prudential concerns about the consequences of change, which often demand we ignore our own principles about what is ideal or even legitimate." Hume supported the liberty of the press, and was sympathetic to democracy, when suitably constrained. American historian Douglass Adair has argued that Hume was a major inspiration for James Madison's writings, and the essay "Federalist No. 10" in particular. Hume offered his view on the best type of society in an essay titled "Idea of a Perfect Commonwealth", which lays out what he thought was the best form of government. He hoped that "in some future age, an opportunity might be afforded of reducing the theory to practice, either by a dissolution of some old government, or by the combination of men to form a new one, in some distant part of the world". He defended a strict separation of powers, decentralisation, extending the franchise to anyone who held property of value and limiting the power of the clergy. The system of the Swiss militia was proposed as the best form of protection. Elections were to take place on an annual basis and representatives were to be unpaid. Political philosophers Leo Strauss and Joseph Cropsey, writing of Hume's thoughts about "the wise statesman", note that he "will bear a reverence to what carries the marks of age." Also, if he wishes to improve a constitution, his innovations will take account of the "ancient fabric", in order not to disturb society. In the political analysis of philosopher George Holland Sabine, the scepticism of Hume extended to the doctrine of government by consent. He notes that "allegiance is a habit enforced by education and consequently as much a part of human nature as any other motive." In the 1770s, Hume was critical of British policies toward the American colonies and advocated for American independence. He wrote in 1771 that "our union with America…in the nature of things, cannot long subsist." Referring to his essay "Of the Balance of Trade", economist Paul Krugman (2012) has remarked that "David Hume created what I consider the first true economic model." In contrast to Locke, Hume believes that private property is not a natural right. Hume argues it is justified, because resources are limited. Private property would be an unjustified, "idle ceremonial," if all goods were unlimited and available freely. Hume also believed in an unequal distribution of property, because perfect equality would destroy the ideas of thrift and industry. Perfect equality would thus lead to impoverishment. David Hume anticipated modern monetarism. First, Hume contributed to the theory of quantity and of interest rate. Hume has been credited with being the first to prove that, on an abstract level, there is no quantifiable amount of nominal money that a country needs to thrive. He understood that there was a difference between nominal and real'' money. Second, Hume has a theory of causation which fits in with the Chicago-school "black box" approach. According to Hume, cause and effect are related only through correlation. Hume shared the belief with modern monetarists that changes in the supply of money can affect consumption and investment. Lastly, Hume was a vocal advocate of a stable private sector, though also having some non-monetarist aspects to his economic philosophy. Having a stated preference for rising prices, for instance, Hume considered government debt to be a sort of substitute for actual money, referring to such debt as "a kind of paper credit." He also believed in heavy taxation, believing that it increases effort. Hume's economic approach evidently resembles his other philosophies, in that he does not choose one side indefinitely, but sees gray in the situation Legacy , sculpted by Alexander Stoddart]] Due to Hume's vast influence on contemporary philosophy, a large number of approaches in contemporary philosophy and cognitive science are today called "Humean." The writings of Thomas Reid, a Scottish philosopher and contemporary of Hume, were often critical of Hume's scepticism. Reid formulated his common sense philosophy, in part, as a reaction against Hume's views. Hume influenced, and was influenced by, the Christian philosopher Joseph Butler. Hume was impressed by Butler's way of thinking about religion, and Butler may well have been influenced by Hume's writings. Attention to Hume's philosophical works grew after the German philosopher Immanuel Kant, in his Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics (1783), credited Hume with awakening him from his "dogmatic slumber." According to Arthur Schopenhauer, "there is more to be learned from each page of David Hume than from the collected philosophical works of Hegel, Herbart and Schleiermacher taken together." A. J. Ayer, while introducing his classic exposition of logical positivism in 1936, claimed that his views were "the logical outcome of the empiricism of Berkeley and David Hume". Albert Einstein, in 1915, wrote that he was inspired by Hume's positivism when formulating his theory of special relativity. Hume's problem of induction was also of fundamental importance to the philosophy of Karl Popper. In his autobiography, Unended Quest, he wrote: "Knowledge ... is objective; and it is hypothetical or conjectural. This way of looking at the problem made it possible for me to reformulate Hume's problem of induction." This insight resulted in Popper's major work The Logic of Scientific Discovery. In his Conjectures and Refutations, he wrote that he "approached the problem of induction through Hume", since Hume was "perfectly right in pointing out that induction cannot be logically justified". Hume's rationalism in religious subjects influenced, via German-Scottish theologian Johann Joachim Spalding, the German neology school and rational theology, and contributed to the transformation of German theology in the Age of Enlightenment. Hume pioneered a comparative history of religion, tried to explain various rites and traditions as being based on deception and challenged various aspects of rational and natural theology, such as the argument from design. Danish theologian and philosopher Søren Kierkegaard adopted "Hume's suggestion that the role of reason is not to make us wise but to reveal our ignorance," though taking it as a reason for the necessity of religious faith, or fideism. The "fact that Christianity is contrary to reason…is the necessary precondition for true faith." has written about Hume's influence on what Berlin calls the counter-Enlightenment and on German anti-rationalism. Berlin has also once said of Hume that "no man has influenced the history of philosophy to a deeper or more disturbing degree." In 2003, philosopher Jerry Fodor described Hume's Treatise as "the founding document of cognitive science." Hume engaged with contemporary intellectuals including Jean-Jacques Rousseau, James Boswell, and Adam Smith (who acknowledged Hume's influence on his economics and political philosophy). Morris and Brown (2019) write that Hume is "generally regarded as one of the most important philosophers to write in English." to rename it, in objection to Hume's writings related to race. in an attempt to popularise his Treatise. This work is of considerable philosophical interest as it spells out what Hume considered "The Chief Argument" of the Treatise, in a way that seems to anticipate the structure of the Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding. * 1741. Essays, Moral, Political, and Literary (2nd ed.) ** A collection of pieces written and published over many years, though most were collected together in 1753–54. Many of the essays are on politics and economics; other topics include aesthetic judgement, love, marriage and polygamy, and the demographics of ancient Greece and Rome. The Essays show some influence from Addison's Tatler and The Spectator, which Hume read avidly in his youth. * 1745. ''A Letter from a Gentleman to His Friend in Edinburgh: Containing Some Observations on a Specimen of the Principles Concerning Religion and Morality, said to be maintain'd in a Book lately publish'd, intituled A Treatise of Human Nature etc. ** Contains a letter written by Hume to defend himself against charges of atheism and scepticism, while applying for a chair at Edinburgh University. * 1742. "Of Essay Writing." * 1748. An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding. ** Contains reworking of the main points of the Treatise, Book 1, with the addition of material on free will (adapted from Book 2), miracles, the Design Argument, and mitigated scepticism. Of Miracles, section X of the Enquiry, was often published separately. * 1751. An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals. ** A reworking of material on morality from Book 3 of the Treatise, but with a significantly different emphasis. It "was thought by Hume to be the best of his writings." * 1752. Political Discourses (part II of Essays, Moral, Political, and Literary within the larger Essays and Treatises on Several Subjects, vol. 1). ** Included in Essays and Treatises on Several Subjects (1753–56) reprinted 1758–77. * 1752–1758. Political Discourses/Discours politiques * 1757. Four Dissertations – includes 4 essays: "The Natural History of Religion" "Of the Passions" "Of Tragedy" "Of the Standard of Taste" * 1754–1762. The History of England – sometimes referred to as The History of Great Britain. ** More a category of books than a single work, Hume's history spanned "from the invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution of 1688" and went through over 100 editions. Many considered it the standard history of England in its day. * 1760. "Sister Peg" ** Hume claimed to have authored an anonymous political pamphlet satirizing the failure of the British Parliament to create a Scottish militia in 1760. Although the authorship of the work is disputed, Hume wrote Alexander Carlyle in early 1761 claiming authorship. The readership of the time attributed the work to Adam Ferguson, a friend and associate of Hume's who has been sometimes called "the founder of modern sociology". Some contemporary scholars concur in the judgment that Ferguson, not Hume, was the author of this work. * 1776. "My Own Life." * 1777. "Essays on Suicide and the Immortality of the Soul." * 1779. Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion. ** Published posthumously by his nephew, David Hume the Younger. Being a discussion among three fictional characters concerning the nature of God, and is an important portrayal of the argument from design. Despite some controversy, most scholars agree that the view of Philo, the most sceptical of the three, comes closest to Hume's own. See also * Age of Enlightenment * George Anderson * Human science * Hume Studies * Hume's principle * Humeanism * Mencius * Scientific scepticism * The Missing Shade of Blue References Notes Citations Sources * * * Anderson, R. F. (1966). ''Hume's First Principles, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln. * * * * * * }} * * * Bongie, L. L. (1998). David Hume – Prophet of the Counter-Revolution. Liberty Fund, Indianapolis * * Broackes, Justin (1995). Hume, David, in Ted Honderich (ed.) The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, New York, Oxford University Press * * * * * * * * * * Daiches D., Jones P., Jones J. (eds). The Scottish Enlightenment: 1730–1790 A Hotbed of Genius The University of Edinburgh, 1986. In paperback, The Saltire Society, 1996 * * * * * * Einstein, A. (1915) Letter to Moritz Schlick, Schwarzschild, B. (trans. & ed.) in The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, vol. 8A, R. Schulmann, A. J. Fox, J. Illy, (eds.) Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ (1998), p. 220. * * * * * Flew, A. (1986). David Hume: Philosopher of Moral Science, Basil Blackwell, Oxford. * * Fogelin, R. J. (1993). Hume's scepticism. In Norton, D. F. (ed.) (1993). The Cambridge Companion to Hume, Cambridge University Press, pp. 90–116. * * * * * * * Graham, R. (2004). The Great Infidel – A Life of David Hume. John Donald, Edinburgh. * * * * Harwood, Sterling (1996). "Moral Sensibility Theories", in The Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Supplement) (New York: Macmillan Publishing Co.). * * * * Hume, D. (1751). An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals. David Hume, Essays Moral, Political, and Literary edited with preliminary dissertations and notes by T.H. Green and T.H. Grose, 1:1–8. London: Longmans, Green 1907. * * * * * * * * * * Hume, D. (1752–1758). Political Discourses:Bilingual English-French (translated by Fabien Grandjean). Mauvezin, France, Trans-Europ-Repress, 1993, 22 cm, V-260 p. Bibliographic notes, index. * * * * Husserl, E. (1970). The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology, Carr, D. (trans.), Northwestern University Press, Evanston. * * * * * * Klibansky, Raymond and Mossner, Ernest C. (eds.) (1954). New Letters of David Hume. Oxford: Oxford University Press. * Kolakowski, L. (1968). The Alienation of Reason: A History of Positivist Thought. Doubleday: Garden City. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Penelhum, T. (1993). Hume's moral philosophy. In Norton, D. F. (ed.), (1993). The Cambridge Companion to Hume, Cambridge University Press, pp. 117–147. * Phillipson, N. (1989). Hume'', Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London. * * * Popkin, Richard H. (1993) "Sources of Knowledge of Sextus Empiricus in Hume's Time" Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 54, No. 1. (Jan. 1993), pp. 137–141. * Popkin, R. & Stroll, A. (1993) Philosophy. Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd, Oxford. * Popper. K. (1960). Knowledge without authority. In Miller D. (ed.), (1983). Popper, Oxford, Fontana, pp. 46–57. * * * * \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20150414134459/http://www.religiouseducation.co.uk/school/alevel/philosophy/Britannica_com.htm \| archive-date 14 April 2015 \| url-status dead }} * * Robbins, Lionel (1998). A History of Economic Thought: The LSE Lectures. Edited by Steven G. Medema and Warren J. Samuels. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. * Robinson, Dave & Groves, Judy (2003). Introducing Political Philosophy. Icon Books. . * * Russell, B. (1946). A History of Western Philosophy. London, Allen and Unwin. * * * Russell, Paul, "Hume on Free Will", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2016 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/hume-freewill/ online]. * * * * * Sgarbi, M. [https://www.academia.edu/2422259/_Hume_s_Source_of_the_Impression-Idea_Distinction_Anales_del_Seminario_de_Historia_de_la_Filosof%C3%ADa_2_2012_561_576 (2012). "Hume's Source of the 'Impression-Idea' Distinction", Anales del Seminario de Historia de la Filosofía, 2: 561–576] * * * * Spencer, Mark G., ed. David Hume: Historical Thinker, Historical Writer (Penn State University Press; 2013) 282 pages; Interdisciplinary essays that consider his intertwined work as historian and philosopher * Spiegel, Henry William, (1991). The Growth of Economic Thought, 3rd Ed., Durham: Duke University Press. * * * * Stroud, B. (1977). Hume, Routledge: London & New York. * * Taylor, A. E. (1927). David Hume and the Miraculous, Leslie Stephen Lecture. Cambridge, pp. 53–54. reprinted in his Philosophical Studies (1934) * * * * * * * * Further reading * * Ardal, Pall (1966). ''Passion and Value in Hume's Treatise'', Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press. * Bailey, Alan & O'Brien, Dan (eds.) (2012). The Continuum Companion to Hume, New York: Continuum. * Bailey, Alan & O'Brien, Dan. (2014). ''Hume's Critique of Religion: Sick Men's Dreams, Dordrecht: Springer. * Beauchamp, Tom & Rosenberg, Alexander (1981). Hume and the Problem of Causation, New York, Oxford University Press. * Beveridge, Craig (1982), review of The Life of David Hume by Ernest Campbell Mossner, in Murray, Glen (ed.), Cencrastus No. 8, Spring 1982, p. 46, * Campbell Mossner, Ernest (1980). The Life of David Hume, Oxford University Press. * Gilles Deleuze (1953). Empirisme et subjectivité. Essai sur la Nature Humaine selon Hume, Paris: Presses Universitaires de France; trans. Empiricism and Subjectivity, New York: Columbia University Press, 1991. * * Demeter, Tamás (2014). "Natural Theology as Superstition: Hume and the Changing Ideology of Moral Inquiry." In Demeter, T. et al. (eds.), Conflicting Values of Inquiry, Leiden: Brill. * Garrett, Don (1996). Cognition and Commitment in Hume's Philosophy. New York & Oxford: Oxford University Press. * Gaskin, J.C.A. (1978). Hume's Philosophy of Religion. Humanities Press International. * Harris, James A. (2015). Hume: An Intellectual Biography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. * Hesselberg, A. Kenneth (1961). Hume, Natural Law and Justice. Duquesne Review, Spring 1961, pp. 46–47. * Kail, P. J. E. (2007) Projection and Realism in Hume's Philosophy, Oxford: Oxford University Press. * Kemp Smith, Norman (1941). The Philosophy of David Hume. London: Macmillan. * * Norton, David Fate (1982). David Hume: Common-Sense Moralist, Sceptical Metaphysician. Princeton: Princeton University Press. * Norton, David Fate & Taylor, Jacqueline (eds.) (2009). The Cambridge Companion to Hume, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. * Radcliffe, Elizabeth S. (ed.) (2008). A Companion to Hume, Malden: Blackwell. * Rosen, Frederick (2003). Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill (Routledge Studies in Ethics & Moral Theory). * Russell, Paul (1995). Freedom and Moral Sentiment: Hume's Way of Naturalizing Responsibility. New York & Oxford: Oxford University Press. * Russell, Paul (2008). The Riddle of Hume's Treatise: Skepticism, Naturalism and Irreligion. New York & Oxford: Oxford University Press. * Stroud, Barry (1977). Hume'', London & New York: Routledge. (Complete study of Hume's work parting from the interpretation of Hume's naturalistic philosophical programme). * Wei, Jua (2017). Commerce and Politics in Hume’s History of England, Woodbridge: Boydell and Brewer [http://eh.net/?s=Hume+wei online review] * Willis, Andre C (2015). Toward a Humean True Religion: Genuine Theism, Moderate Hope, and Practical Morality, University Park: Penn State University Press. * Wilson, Fred (2008). ''The External World and Our Knowledge of It : Hume's critical realism, an exposition and a defence, Toronto: University of Toronto Press. External links * * * * [http://digital.library.mcgill.ca/hume/ The David Hume Collection] at McGill University Library * * [http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/search?amodestart&authorHume%2c%20David Books by David Hume] at the Online Books Page * [http://www.davidhume.org Hume Texts Online] searchable texts, with related resources Peter Millican. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210309013551/https://davidhume.org/scholarship/millican Papers and Talks on Hume] Peter Millican. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200809021226/http://www.millican.org/research.htmResearch] * <!-- readable versions of the Treatise, the Abstract of the Treatise, the two Enquiries, the Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, and four essays --> ** Translations of philosophical classics into contemporary English, from English, Latin, French and German. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20201126113951/https://unendedquest.org/2019/12/01/david-humes-my-own-life-and-adam-smiths-obituary-of-hume/ David Hume: My Own Life and Adam Smith: obituary of Hume''] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20141207124622/http://www.utilitarian.net/hume/ Bibliography of Hume's influence on Utilitarianism] * [http://www.humesociety.org/ The Hume Society], publishes Hume Studies and holds conferences }} Category:1711 births Category:1776 deaths Category:18th-century Scottish male writers Category:18th-century Scottish philosophers Category:18th-century British diplomats Category:18th-century British economists Category:18th-century British essayists Category:18th-century Scottish educators Category:18th-century Scottish historians Category:Action theorists Category:Alumni of the University of Edinburgh Category:British diplomats Category:British male essayists Category:British male non-fiction writers Category:British sceptics Category:Burials at Old Calton Burial Ground Category:Civil servants from Edinburgh Category:British consciousness researchers and theorists Category:Conservatism Category:Criticism of rationalism Category:British critics of religions Category:Critics of the Catholic Church Category:Deist philosophers Category:Diplomats from Edinburgh Category:Empiricists Category:Enlightenment philosophers Category:Epistemologists Category:Freethought writers Category:Historians of England Category:History of economic thought * Category:Members of the Philosophical Society of Edinburgh Category:Metaphilosophers Category:Ontologists Category:People of the Scottish Enlightenment Category:Philosophers from Edinburgh Category:Philosophers of art Category:Philosophers of economics Category:British philosophers of education Category:Philosophers of history Category:Philosophers of identity Category:Philosophers of logic Category:Philosophers of mathematics Category:Philosophers of mind Category:Philosophers of psychology Category:Philosophers of religion Category:Philosophers of science Category:Philosophers of social science Category:British philosophy writers Category:Preclassical economists Category:Scottish economists Category:Scottish educational theorists Category:Scottish ethicists Category:Scottish deists Category:Scottish diplomats Category:Scottish essayists Category:Scottish humanists Category:Scottish libertarians Category:Scottish librarians Category:Scottish logicians Category:Scottish monarchists Category:Scottish political philosophers Category:Secular humanists Category:Skeptic philosophers Category:Social philosophers Category:Theorists on Western civilization Category:Virtue ethicists Category:Writers about activism and social change Category:Writers about religion and science Category:Writers from Edinburgh	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hume	2025-04-05T18:28:18.875990
7928	Dalton Trumbo	\| birth_place = Montrose, Colorado, U.S. \| death_date = \| death_place = Los Angeles, California, U.S. \| spouse = \| occupation = \| children = 3, including Christopher }} James Dalton Trumbo (December 9, 1905 – September 10, 1976) was an American screenwriter who scripted many award-winning films, including Roman Holiday (1953), Exodus<!-- 1960 -->, Spartacus (both 1960), and Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo (1944). One of the Hollywood Ten, he refused to testify before the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) in 1947 during the committee's investigation of alleged Communist influences in the motion picture industry. Trumbo, the other members of the Hollywood Ten, and hundreds of other professionals in the industry were blacklisted by Hollywood. He continued working clandestinely on major films, writing under pseudonyms or other authors' names. His uncredited work won two Academy Awards for Best Story: for Roman Holiday (1953), which was presented to a front writer, and for The Brave One (1956), which was awarded to a pseudonym used by Trumbo. When he was given public screen credit for both Exodus and Spartacus in 1960, it marked the beginning of the end of the Hollywood Blacklist for Trumbo and other affected screenwriters. He finally was given full credit by the Writers' Guild for Roman Holiday in 2011, nearly 60 years after the fact, and 35 years after his death.OriginsTrumbo was born in Montrose, Colorado, on December 9, 1905, the son of Orus Bonham Trumbo and Maud (née Tillery) Trumbo. His family moved to Grand Junction, Colorado, in 1908. His paternal immigrant ancestor, a Protestant of Swiss origin named Jacob Trumbo, settled in the colony of Virginia in 1736. Orus Trumbo worked variously as a shoe clerk and collection agent, never earning enough to keep the family far from poverty. Trumbo graduated from Grand Junction High School. While still in high school, he worked for Walter Walker as a cub reporter for the Grand Junction Daily Sentinel, covering courts, the high school, the mortuary and civic organizations. He attended the University of Colorado at Boulder in 1924 and 1925, working as a reporter for the Boulder Daily Camera and contributing to the school's humor magazine, yearbook, and newspaper. He was a member of Delta Tau Delta International Fraternity. In 1924, Orus Trumbo relocated the family to California. Shortly after, he fell ill and died, leaving Dalton to support his mother and siblings. During this time, he wrote movie reviews, 88 short stories, and six novels, all of which were rejected for publication. Career Early career Trumbo began his professional writing career in the early 1930s, when several of his articles and stories were published in mainstream magazines, including ''McCall's, Vanity Fair, the Hollywood Spectator and The Saturday Evening Post. Trumbo was hired as managing editor of the Hollywood Spectator in 1934. Later he left the magazine to become a reader in the story department at Warner Bros. studio. Trumbo started working in movies in 1937 but continued writing prose. His anti-war novel Johnny Got His Gun won one of the early National Book Awards: the Most Original Book of 1939. It was inspired by an article Trumbo had read several years earlier: an account of a hospital visit by the Prince of Wales to a Canadian soldier who had lost all his limbs in World War I. During the late 1930s and early 1940s, Trumbo became one of Hollywood's highest-paid screenwriters, at about $4,000 per week while on assignment, and earning as much as $80,000 in one year. His novel The Remarkable Andrew featured the ghost of President Andrew Jackson appearing to caution the United States against getting involved in World War II and in support of the Nazi-Soviet pact. Trumbo regretted this decision, which he called "foolish". After two FBI agents showed up at his home, he understood that "their interest lay not in the letters but in me". He argued that Russians were likely fearful of the mass of U.S. military power that surrounded them, at a time when any sympathetic view toward Communist countries was viewed with suspicion. William R. Wilkerson, publisher and founder of The Hollywood Reporter, published a July 29, 1946, "TradeView" column entitled "A Vote For Joe Stalin". It named Trumbo and several others as Communist sympathizers, the first persons identified on what became known as "Billy's Blacklist". In October 1947, drawing upon these names, the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) summoned Trumbo and nine others to testify for their investigation as to whether Communist agents and sympathizers had surreptitiously planted propaganda in U.S. films. The writers refused to give information about their own or any other person's involvement and were convicted for contempt of Congress. They appealed the conviction to the Supreme Court on First Amendment grounds and lost. Trumbo served eleven months in the federal penitentiary in Ashland, Kentucky, in 1950. In the 1976 documentary Hollywood On Trial, Trumbo said: "As far as I was concerned, it was a completely just verdict. I had contempt for that Congress and have had contempt for it ever since. And on the basis of guilt or innocence, I could never really complain very much. That this was a crime or misdemeanor was the complaint, my complaint." The MPAA issued a statement that Trumbo and his compatriots would not be permitted to work in the industry unless they disavowed Communism under oath. After completing his sentence, Trumbo sold his ranch and moved his family to Mexico City with Hugo Butler and his wife Jean Rouverol, who had also been blacklisted. During this blacklist period, Trumbo also wrote The Brave One (1956) for the King Brothers. Like Roman Holiday, it received an Academy Award for Best Story he could not claim. The script was credited to Robert Rich, a name borrowed from a nephew of the producers. Trumbo recalled earning an average fee of $1,750 per film for 18 screenplays written in two years and said, "None was very good". The statute set criminal penalties for advocating the overthrow of the U.S. government and required all non-citizen adult residents to register with the government.Later careerIngo Preminger, the brother of producer-director Otto Preminger, was Dalton Trumbo's agent. Otto Preminger hired Trumbo to write a screenplay for the film he intended to adapt from Leon Uris' 1958 novel Exodus when the script he had commissioned from Uris was deemed unusable. The producer-director decided to give Trumbo the screen credit. Shortly thereafter, actor Kirk Douglas announced Trumbo had written the screenplay for Stanley Kubrick's film Spartacus (also 1960), adapted from the 1951 novel by Howard Fast. With these actions, Preminger and Douglas helped end the power of the blacklist. Trumbo was reinstated into the Writers Guild of America, West and was credited on all subsequent scripts. The guild finally gave him full credit for the script of the 1953 film Roman Holiday in 2011. Trumbo directed the 1971 film adaptation of his novel Johnny Got His Gun, starring Timothy Bottoms, Diane Varsi, Jason Robards and Donald Sutherland. One of the last films Trumbo wrote, Executive Action (1973), was based on the John F. Kennedy assassination. The Academy officially recognized Trumbo as the winner of the Oscar for the 1956 film The Brave One in 1975, presenting him with a statuette.Personal lifeIn 1938, Trumbo married Cleo Fincher, who was born in Fresno, California, on July 17, 1916, and had moved with her divorced mother and her brother and sister to Los Angeles. The Trumbos had three children: Nikola Trumbo (1939–2018), who became a psychotherapist; Christopher Trumbo (1940–2011), a filmmaker and screenwriter who became an expert on the Hollywood blacklist; and Melissa Trumbo (1945), known as Mitzi, a photographer. Mitzi Trumbo dated comedian Steve Martin when they were both in their early 20s, which is recounted in Martin's 2007 book Born Standing Up. Martin wrote of her: "Mitzi became my official photographer, and she snapped dozens of rolls of film, all to find the perfect publicity photo." Cleo Trumbo died of natural causes at the age of 93 on October 9, 2009, at the home she shared with Mitzi Trumbo in Los Altos, California. Death and legacy Trumbo died in 1976, in Los Angeles of a heart attack at the age of 70. He donated his body to scientific research. In 1993, Trumbo was posthumously awarded the Academy Award for writing Roman Holiday (1953). The screen credit and award were previously given to Ian McLellan Hunter, who had been a front for Trumbo. A new statue was made for this award because Hunter's son refused to hand over the one his father had received. In 2003, Christopher Trumbo mounted an Off-Broadway play based on his father's letters, called Trumbo: Red, White and Blacklisted, in which a wide variety of actors played his father during the run, including Nathan Lane, Tim Robbins, Brian Dennehy, Ed Harris, Chris Cooper and Gore Vidal. He adapted it as the documentary Trumbo (2007), which added archival footage and new interviews. A dramatization of Trumbo's life, also called Trumbo, was released in November 2015. It starred Bryan Cranston in the title role and was directed by Jay Roach. For his portrayal of Trumbo, Cranston was nominated for Best Actor at the 88th Academy Awards. The moving image collection of Trumbo is held at the Academy Film Archive and consists primarily of extensive 35 mm production materials relating to the 1971 anti-war film Johnny Got His Gun. In 2016, more than a hundred years after his birth, Trumbo was honored by the installation of a statue of him in front of the Avalon Theater on Main Street in Grand Junction, Colorado, his home town. He was depicted writing a screenplay in a bathtub. Works Selected film works * Road Gang, 1936 * Love Begins at 20, 1936 * ''Devil's Playground, 1937 * Fugitives for a Night, 1938 * A Man to Remember, 1938 * Five Came Back, 1939 (with Nathanael West and J. Cody) * Sorority House, 1939 * Curtain Call, 1940 * A Bill of Divorcement, 1940 * Kitty Foyle, 1940 * The Lone Wolf Strikes, 1940 * You Belong to Me, 1941 (story by) * The Remarkable Andrew, 1942 * Tender Comrade, 1944 * A Guy Named Joe, 1944 * Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo, 1944 * Our Vines Have Tender Grapes, 1945 * Gun Crazy, 1950 (co-writer, front: Millard Kaufman) * He Ran All the Way, 1951 (co-writer, front: Guy Endore) * Rocketship X-M, 1951 (martian sequence, uncredited) * The Prowler, 1951 (uncredited with Hugo Butler) * Roman Holiday, 1953 (front: Ian McLellan Hunter) * They Were So Young 1954, (under pseudonym Felix Lutzkendorf) * The Boss, 1956 (front: Ben L. Perry) * The Brave One, 1956 (under pseudonym Robert Rich) * The Green-Eyed Blonde, 1957 (front: Sally Stubblefield) * From the Earth to the Moon, 1958 (co-writer, front: James Leicester) * Cowboy, 1958 (front: Edmund H. North) * Spartacus'', 1960, dir. by Stanley Kubrick (based on Howard Fast's 1951 novel of the same name) * Exodus, 1960, dir. by Otto Preminger (based on Leon Uris' 1958 novel of the same name) * The Last Sunset, 1961 * Town Without Pity, 1961 * Lonely are the Brave, 1962 * The Sandpiper, 1965 * Hawaii, 1966 (based on the novel by James Michener, 1959) * The Fixer, 1968 * Johnny Got His Gun, 1971 (also directed) * The Horsemen, 1971 * F.T.A., 1972 * Executive Action, 1973 * Papillon, 1973 (based on the novel by Henri Charrière, 1969) * Cortes, 2020 (based on his screenplay Montezuma) Novels, plays and essays * Eclipse, 1935 * Washington Jitters, 1936 * Johnny Got His Gun, 1939 * The Remarkable Andrew, 1940 (also known as Chronicle of a Literal Man) * The Biggest Thief in Town, 1949 (play) * The Time Out of the Toad, 1972 (essays) * Night of the Aurochs, 1979 (unfinished, ed. R. Kirsch) * film "Half A Sinner" (1940, Universal Pictures) based on original story by Dalton Trumbo Non-fiction * Harry Bridges, 1941 * The Time of the Toad, 1949 * The Devil in the Book, 1956 * Additional Dialogue: Letters of Dalton Trumbo'', 1942–62, 1970 (ed. by H. Manfull) See also References Further reading * * * External links * * [http://lccn.loc.gov/n79060578 Dalton Trumbo] at Library of Congress Authorities – with 20 catalog records * [https://archive.today/20131209190603/http://arcat.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1140/ Dalton Trumbo Papers] at the Wisconsin Center for Film and Theater Research. * [https://www.c-span.org/video/?327253-1/life-career-dalton-trumbo "Life and Career of Dalton Trumbo"], C-SPAN, July 9, 2015 Category:1905 births Category:1976 deaths Category:20th-century American male writers Category:20th-century American novelists Category:American anti-Francoists Category:American Marxists Category:American male novelists Category:American male screenwriters Category:American people of Swiss-Italian descent Category:Best Story Academy Award winners Category:California socialists Category:Colorado socialists Category:Hollywood Ten Category:Members of the Communist Party USA Category:National Book Award winners Category:People from Grand Junction, Colorado Category:People from Montrose, Colorado Category:University of Colorado Boulder alumni Category:Victims of McCarthyism Category:Writers from Colorado Category:20th-century American screenwriters Category:20th-century pseudonymous writers	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalton_Trumbo	2025-04-05T18:28:18.916590
7930	Delaware	\| Lieutenant Governor = \| Legislature = General Assembly \| Upperhouse = Senate \| Lowerhouse = House of Representatives \| Judiciary = Delaware Supreme Court \| Senators = Chris Coons (D)<br> Lisa Blunt Rochester (D) \| Representative = Sarah McBride (D) \| postal_code = DE \| TradAbbreviation = Del. \| area_rank = 49th \| area_total_km2 \| area_total_sq_mi 2489 <!--\| area_land_km2 = 5,060 \| area_land_sq_mi = 1,854 \| area_water_km2 = 1,387 \| area_water_sq_mi 536-->\| area_water_percent 21.7 \| population_rank = 45th \| population_as_of = 2024 \| 2020Pop 1,051,917 <!--\| population_density_rank 6th-->\| 2010Density = 190<!--calculated from 491 per sq mi--> \| 2010DensityUS 491 \| population_density_rank = 6th \| MedianHouseholdIncome $ (2<span>0</span>23) \| IncomeRank = 15th \| AdmittanceOrder = 1st \| AdmittanceDate = \| timezone1 = EST \| utc_offset1 = −05:00 \| timezone1_DST = EDT \| utc_offset1_DST = −04:00 \| Longitude = 75° 3′ W to 75° 47′ W \| Latitude = 38° 27′ N to 39° 50′ N \| width_km = 48 \| width_mi = 30 \| length_km = 154 \| length_mi = 96 \| elevation_max_point Near theEbright Azimuth \| elevation_max_m = 136.50468 \| elevation_max_ft = 447.85 \| elevation_m = 20 \| elevation_ft = 60 \| elevation_min_point Atlantic Ocean Formerly: ''It's Good Being First \| soil = Greenwich \| image_route = Elongated circle 1.svg \| image_quarter = 1999 DE Proof.png \| quarter_release_date = 1999 }} Delaware ( ) is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and South Atlantic regions of the United States. It borders Maryland to its south and west, Pennsylvania to its north, New Jersey to its northeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to its east. The state's name derives from the adjacent Delaware Bay, which in turn was named after Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, an English nobleman and the Colony of Virginia's first colonial-era governor. Delaware occupies the northeastern portion of the Delmarva Peninsula, and some islands and territory within the Delaware River. It is the second-smallest and sixth-least populous state, but also the sixth-most densely populated. Delaware's most populous city is Wilmington, and the state's capital is Dover, the second-most populous city in Delaware. The state is divided into three counties, the fewest number of counties of any of the 50 U.S. states; from north to south, the three counties are: New Castle County, Kent County, and Sussex County. The southern two counties, Kent and Sussex counties, historically have been predominantly agrarian economies. New Castle is more urbanized and is considered part of the Delaware Valley metropolitan statistical area that surrounds Philadelphia. Delaware is considered part of the Southern United States by the U.S. Census Bureau, but the state's geography, culture, and history are a hybrid of the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the country. Before the Delaware coastline was explored and developed by Europeans in the 16th century, the state was inhabited by several Native American tribes, including the Lenape in the north and Nanticoke in the south. The state was first colonized by Dutch traders at Zwaanendael, near present-day Lewes, Delaware, in 1631. Delaware was one of the Thirteen Colonies that participated in the American Revolution against Great Britain, which established the United States as an independent nation. On December 7, 1787, Delaware was the first state to ratify the Constitution of the United States, earning it the nickname "The First State". Since the turn of the 20th century, Delaware has become an onshore corporate haven whose corporate laws are deemed appealing to corporations; over half of all New York Stock Exchange-listed corporations and over three-fifths of the Fortune 500 are legally incorporated in Delaware. Over 90% of all U.S. based companies that went public in 2021 incorporated themselves in Delaware. Etymology Delaware was named after its location on the Delaware Bay, which in turn derived its name from Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr (1577–1618), the first governor of the Colony of Virginia. The Delaware people, a name used by Europeans for Lenape people Indigenous to the Delaware Valley, also derive their name from the same source. The name de La Warr was derived from Sussex and is of Anglo-French origin. It came probably from a Norman lieu-dit La Guerre. This toponymic likely derived from Latin ager, the Breton gwern or from the Late Latin (fallow). The toponyms Gara, Gare, Gaire, (the sound [ä] often mutated in [æ]) also appear in historical texts cited by Lucien Musset, where the word ga(i)ra means gore. It could also be linked with a patronymic from the Old Norse verr. History Native AmericansBefore Delaware was settled by European colonists, the present-day state was home to the Eastern Algonquian tribes known as the Unami Lenape, or Delaware, who lived mostly along the coast, and the Nanticoke who occupied much of the southern Delmarva Peninsula. John Smith also shows two Iroquoian tribes, the Kuskarawock and Tockwogh, living north of the Nanticoke—they may have held small portions of land in the western part of the state before migrating across the Chesapeake Bay. The Kuskarawocks were most likely the Tuscarora. The Unami Lenape in the Delaware Valley were closely related to Munsee Lenape tribes along the Hudson River. They had a settled hunting and agricultural society, and they rapidly became middlemen in an increasingly frantic fur trade with their ancient enemy, the Minqua or Susquehannock. With the loss of their lands on the Delaware River and the destruction of the Minqua by the Iroquois of the Five Nations in the 1670s, the remnants of the Lenape who wished to remain identified as such left the region and moved over the Allegheny Mountains by the mid-18th century. Generally, those who did not relocate out of the state of Delaware were baptized, became Christian and were grouped together with other persons of color in official records and in the minds of their non-Native American neighbors.Colonial Delaware The Dutch were the first Europeans to settle in present-day Delaware in the middle region by establishing a trading post at Zwaanendael, near the site of Lewes in 1631. Within a year, all the settlers were killed in a dispute with Native American tribes living in the area. In 1638, New Sweden, a Swedish trading post and colony, was established at Fort Christina (now in Wilmington) by Peter Minuit at the head of a group of Swedes, Finns and Dutch. The colony of New Sweden lasted 17 years. In 1651, the Dutch, reinvigorated by the leadership of Peter Stuyvesant, established a fort at present-day New Castle and, in 1655, they conquered the New Sweden colony, annexing it into the Dutch New Netherland. Only nine years later, in 1664, the Dutch were conquered by a fleet of English ships by Sir Robert Carr under the direction of James, the Duke of York. Fighting off a prior claim by Cecil Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore, Proprietor of Maryland, the Duke passed his somewhat dubious ownership on to William Penn in 1682. Penn strongly desired access to the sea for his Pennsylvania province and leased what then came to be known as the "Lower Counties on the Delaware" Massachusetts and New Hampshire also shared a governor for some time. Dependent in early years on indentured labor, Delaware imported more slaves as the number of English immigrants decreased with better economic conditions in England. The colony became a slave society and cultivated tobacco as a cash crop, although English immigrants continued to arrive. American Revolution Like the other middle colonies, the Lower Counties on the Delaware initially showed little enthusiasm for a break with Britain. The citizenry had a good relationship with the Proprietary government, and generally were allowed more independence of action in their Colonial Assembly than in other colonies. Merchants at the port of Wilmington had trading ties with the British. New Castle lawyer Thomas McKean denounced the Stamp Act in the strongest terms, and Kent County native John Dickinson became the "Penman of the Revolution". Anticipating the Declaration of Independence, Patriot leaders Thomas McKean and Caesar Rodney convinced the Colonial Assembly to declare itself separated from British and Pennsylvania rule on June 15, 1776. The person best representing Delaware's majority, George Read, could not bring himself to vote for a Declaration of Independence. Only the dramatic overnight ride of Caesar Rodney gave the delegation the votes needed to cast Delaware's vote for independence. Initially led by John Haslet, Delaware provided one of the premier regiments in the Continental Army, known as the "Delaware Blues" and nicknamed the "Blue Hen's Chicks". In August 1777 General Sir William Howe led a British army through Delaware on his way to a victory at the Battle of Brandywine and capture of the city of Philadelphia. The only real engagement on Delaware soil was the Battle of Cooch's Bridge, fought on September 3, 1777, at Cooch's Bridge in New Castle County, although there was a minor Loyalist rebellion in 1778. Following the Battle of Brandywine, Wilmington was occupied by the British, and State President John McKinly was taken prisoner. The British remained in control of the Delaware River for much of the rest of the war, disrupting commerce and providing encouragement to an active Loyalist portion of the population, particularly in Sussex County. Because the British promised slaves of rebels freedom for fighting with them, escaped slaves flocked north to join their lines. Following the American Revolution, statesmen from Delaware were among the leading proponents of a strong central United States with equal representation for each state. Slavery and race Many colonial settlers came to Delaware from Maryland and Virginia, where the population had been increasing rapidly. The economies of these colonies were chiefly based on labor-intensive tobacco and increasingly dependent on African slaves because of a decline in working class immigrants from England. Most of the English colonists had arrived as indentured servants (contracted for a fixed period to pay for their passage), and in the early years the line between servant and slave was fluid. Most of the free African-American families in Delaware before the Revolution had migrated from Maryland to find more affordable land. They were descendants chiefly of relationships or marriages between white servant women and enslaved, servant or free African or African-American men. Under slavery law, children took the social status of their mothers, so children born to white women were free, regardless of their paternity, just as children born to enslaved women were born into slavery. As the flow of indentured laborers to the colony decreased with improving economic conditions in England, more slaves were imported for labor and the caste lines hardened. By the end of the colonial period, the number of enslaved people in Delaware began to decline. Shifts in the agriculture economy from tobacco to mixed farming resulted in less need for slaves' labor. In addition local Methodists and Quakers encouraged slaveholders to free their slaves following the American Revolution, and many did so in a surge of individual manumissions for idealistic reasons. By 1810, three-quarters of all blacks in Delaware were free. When John Dickinson freed his slaves in 1777, he was Delaware's largest slave owner with 37 slaves. By 1860, the largest slaveholder owned 16 slaves. Although attempts to abolish slavery failed by narrow margins in the legislature, in practical terms the state had mostly ended the practice. By the 1860 census on the verge of the Civil War, 91.7% of the black population were free; 1,798 were slaves, as compared to 19,829 "free colored persons". An independent black denomination was chartered in 1813 by freed slave Peter Spencer as the "Union Church of Africans". This followed the 1793 establishment in Philadelphia of the African Methodist Episcopal Church by Richard Allen, which had ties to the Methodist Episcopal Church until 1816. Spencer built a church in Wilmington for the new denomination. This was renamed as the African Union First Colored Methodist Protestant Church and Connection, more commonly known as the A.U.M.P. Church. In 1814, Spencer called for the first annual gathering, known as the Big August Quarterly, which continues to draw members of this denomination and their descendants together in a religious and cultural festival. Delaware voted against secession on January 3, 1861, and so remained in the Union. While most Delaware citizens who fought in the war served in the regiments of the state, some served in companies on the Confederate side in Maryland and Virginia Regiments. Delaware is notable for being the only slave state from which no Confederate regiments or militia groups were assembled. Delaware essentially freed the few slaves who were still in bondage shortly after the Civil War but rejected the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to the Constitution; the 13th Amendment was rejected on February 8, 1865, the 14th Amendment was rejected on February 8, 1867, and the 15th Amendment was rejected on March 18, 1869. Delaware officially ratified the 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments on February 12, 1901, decades after they had already come into force.Reconstruction and industrializationDuring the Reconstruction Era that followed the Civil War, Democratic Redeemer governments led by the South's Bourbon aristocracy continued to dominate the region and imposed explicitly white supremacist regimes in the former slave states. The Delaware legislature declared Black people to be second-class citizens in 1866, and restricted their voting rights despite the 15th Amendment, ensuring continued Democratic success in the state throughout most of the 19th century. Fearful that the 1875 Civil Rights Act passed by Congress might establish racial equality, Delaware legislators passed Jim Crow laws that mandated segregation in public facilities. The state's educational system was segregated by operation of law. Delaware's segregation was written into the state constitution, which, while providing at Article X, Section 2, that "no distinction shall be made on account of race or color", nonetheless required that "separate schools for white and colored children shall be maintained." Beginning in the late 19th century, the Wilmington area grew into a manufacturing center. Investment in manufacturing in the city grew from $5.5 million in 1860 to $44 million in 1900. The most notable manufacturer in the state was the chemical company DuPont, which to this day is heavily credited with making the state what it is today in many ways. Because of Wilmington's growth, local politicians from the city and New Castle County pressured the state government to adopt a new constitution providing the north with more representation. However, the subsequent 1897 constitution did not proportionally represent the north and continued to give the southern counties disproportionate influence. As manufacturing expanded, businesses became major players in state affairs and funders of politicians through families such as the Du Ponts. Republican John Addicks attempted to buy a US Senate seat multiple times in a rivalry with the Du Ponts until the passage of the 17th Amendment. The allegiance of industries with the Republican party allowed them to gain control of the state's governorship throughout most of the 20th century. The GOP ensured black people could vote because of their general support for Republicans and thus undid restrictions on Black suffrage. Delaware benefited greatly from World War I because of the state's large gunpowder industry. DuPont, the most dominant business in the state by WWI, produced an estimated 40% of all gunpowder used by the Allies during the war. It produced nylon in the state after the war and began investments into General Motors. Additionally, the company invested heavily in the expansion of public schools in the state and colleges such as the University of Delaware in the 1910s and 1920s. This included primary and secondary schools for Black people and women. Delaware suffered less during the Great Depression than other states, but the depression spurred further migration from the rural south to urban areas. World War II to present Like in World War I, the state enjoyed a big stimulus to its gunpowder and shipyard industries in World War II. New job opportunities during and after the war in the Wilmington area coaxed Black people from the southern counties to move to the city. The proportion of blacks constituting the city's population rose from 15% in 1950 to over 50% by 1980. The surge of Black migrants to the north sparked white flight, in which middle class whites moved from the city to suburban areas, leading to de facto segregation of Northern Delaware's society. In the 1940s and 1950s, Delaware attempted to integrate its schools, although the last segregated school in the state did not close until 1970. The University of Delaware admitted its first black student in 1948, and local courts ruled that primary schools had to be integrated. Delaware's integration efforts partially inspired the US Supreme Court's decision in Brown v. Board of Education, which found racial segregation in United States public schools to be unconstitutional. The result of the Brown ruling was that Delaware became fully integrated, albeit with time and much effort. In October 1954, the city of Milford became the scene of one of the country's first pro-segregation boycotts after eleven Black students were enrolled in the previously all-white Milford High School. Mass protests continued in Milford; the school board eventually ceded to the protestors, expelling the Black students. The ensuing unrest, which included cross burnings, rallies, and pro-segregation demonstrations, contributed to desegregation in most of Southern Delaware being delayed for another ten years. Sussex County did not start closing or integrating its segregated schools until 1965, 11 years after the Brown ruling. Throughout the state, integration only encouraged more white flight, and poor economic conditions for the black population led to some violence during the 1960s. Riots broke out in Wilmington in 1967 and again in 1968 in response to the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr, after which the National Guard occupied the city for nine months to prevent further violence. Since WWII, the state has been generally economically prosperous and enjoyed relatively high per capita income because of its location between major cities like Philadelphia, New York, and Washington, DC. Its population grew rapidly, particularly in the suburbs in the north where New Castle county became an extension of the Philadelphia metropolitan area. Americans, including migrants from Puerto Rico, and immigrants from Latin America flocked to the state. By 1990, only 50% of Delaware's population consisted of natives to the state. Geography ]] ]] Meadows Tract in New Castle County, Delaware]] ]] Delaware is long and ranges from across, with a land area of and a total area of , making it the second-smallest state by either metric in the United States after Rhode Island. Delaware is bounded to the north by Pennsylvania; to the east by the Delaware River, Delaware Bay, New Jersey, and the Atlantic Ocean; and to the west and south by Maryland. Small portions of Delaware are also situated on the eastern side of the Delaware River sharing land boundaries with New Jersey. The state of Delaware, together with the Eastern Shore counties of Maryland and two counties of Virginia, form the Delmarva Peninsula, which stretches down the Mid-Atlantic Coast. The definition of the northern boundary of the state is unusual. Most of the boundary between Delaware and Pennsylvania was originally defined by an arc extending from the cupola of the courthouse in the city of New Castle. This boundary is often referred to as the Twelve-Mile Circle. Although the Twelve-Mile Circle is often claimed to be the only territorial boundary in the U.S. that is a true arc, the Mexican boundary with Texas includes several arcs, and many cities in the South (such as Plains, Georgia) also have circular boundaries. This border extends all the way east to the low-tide mark on the New Jersey shore, then continues south along the shoreline until it again reaches the arc in the south; then the boundary continues in a more conventional way in the middle of the main channel (thalweg) of the Delaware River. On the west, Delaware and Maryland are mostly separated by a line running from the midpoint of the Transpeninsular Line, going slightly west of due north up to its tangent point on the Twelve-Mile Circle. The border follows the Circle for a short distance and then continues in a straight line due north until reaching the southern border of Pennsylvania. The Wedge of land between the northwest part of the arc and the Maryland border was claimed by both Delaware and Pennsylvania until 1921, when Delaware's claim was confirmed.TopographyDelaware is on a level plain, with the lowest mean elevation of any state in the nation. Its highest elevation, located at Ebright Azimuth, near Concord High School, is less than above sea level. A ridge about high extends along the western boundary of the state and separates the watersheds that feed Delaware River and Bay to the east and the Chesapeake Bay to the west.Climate Since almost all of Delaware is a part of the Atlantic coastal plain, the effects of the ocean moderate its climate. The state lies in the humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) zone. Despite its small size (roughly from its northernmost to southernmost points), there is significant variation in mean temperature and amount of snowfall between Sussex County and New Castle County. Moderated by the Atlantic Ocean and Delaware Bay, the southern portion of the state has a milder climate and a longer growing season than the northern portion of the state. Summers are long, hot, and humid in Delaware, often with intense (but brief) late day thundershowers. Delaware averages 2,300 hrs of sunshine annually (higher than the USA average). Winters are modestly cool to cold in northern Delaware, and cool to mild in southern Delaware. The normal seasonal snowfall ranges from about 20.0 inches in Wilmington to only 10.0 inches in Lewes. In many winters no snow will fall in coastal Delaware. Northern Delaware falls into USDA Garden Zone 7a, while southern and coastal areas fall into USDA zone 7b and 8a. The milder climate in southern Delaware allows for subtropical flora such as the windmill palm, needle palm, and dwarf palmetto. Delaware's all-time record high of was recorded at Millsboro on July 21, 1930. The all-time record low of was also recorded at Millsboro, on January 17, 1893. The hardiness zones are 7B and 8A at the Delaware Beaches. Environment The transitional climate of Delaware supports a wide variety of vegetation. In the northern third of the state are found Northeastern coastal forests and mixed oak forests typical of the northeastern United States. In the southern two-thirds of the state are found Middle Atlantic coastal forests. Municipalities Wilmington is the state's most populous city (70,635) and its economic hub. It is located within commuting distance of both Philadelphia and Baltimore. Dover is the state capital and the second most populous city (38,079). Counties * Kent * New Castle * Sussex Cities * Delaware City * Dover * Harrington * Lewes * Middletown * Milford * New Castle * Newark * Rehoboth Beach * Seaford * Wilmington Towns * Bellefonte * Bethany Beach * Bethel * Blades * Bowers * Bridgeville * Camden * Cheswold * Clayton * Dagsboro * Delmar * Dewey Beach * Ellendale * Elsmere * Farmington * Felton * Fenwick Island * Frankford * Frederica * Georgetown * Greenwood * Hartly * Henlopen Acres * Houston * Kenton * Laurel * Leipsic * Little Creek * Magnolia * Millsboro * Millville * Milton * Newport * Ocean View * Odessa * Selbyville * Slaughter Beach * Smyrna * South Bethany * Townsend * Viola * Woodside * Wyoming Villages * Arden * Ardencroft * Ardentown Unincorporated places * Bear * Brookside * Christiana * Clarksville * Claymont * Dover Base Housing * Edgemoor * Glasgow * Greenville * Gumboro * Harbeson * Highland Acres * Hockessin * Kent Acres * Lincoln City * Long Neck * Marshallton * Mount Pleasant * North Star * Oak Orchard * Omar * Pennyhill * Pike Creek * Pike Creek Valley * Rising Sun-Lebanon * Riverview * Rodney Village * Roxana * Saint Georges * Sandtown * Stanton * Wilmington Manor * Wooddale * Woodland * Woodside East * Yorklyn <gallery class="center"> File:Dover Delaware.jpg\|Dover File:Newark DE Main Street.jpg\|Newark File:High Street, Seaford, Delaware (2006).jpg\|Seaford File:Wilmington Delaware skyline.jpg\|Wilmington </gallery> The table below lists the ten largest municipalities in the state based on the 2020 United States census. County \| city_1 = Wilmington, DelawareWilmington \| div_1 = New Castle County, DelawareNew Castle \| pop_1 = 70,898 \| img_1 = Wilmington aerial.jpg \| city_2 = Dover, DelawareDover \| div_2 = Kent County, DelawareKent \| pop_2 = 39,403 \| img_2 = Delaware State Capitol.jpg \| city_3 = Newark, DelawareNewark \| div_3 = New Castle County, DelawareNew Castle \| pop_3 = 30,601 \| img_3 = Newark (DE) station from northbound platform, April 2012.jpg \| city_4 = Middletown, DelawareMiddletown \| div_4 = New Castle County, DelawareNew Castle \| pop_4 = 23,192 \| img_4 = Middletown HD DE1.jpg \| city_5 = Bear, DelawareBear \| div_5 = New Castle County, DelawareNew Castle \| pop_5 = 23,060 \| city_6 = Glasgow, DelawareGlasgow \| div_6 = New Castle County, DelawareNew Castle \| pop_6 = 15,288 \| city_7 = Brookside, DelawareBrookside \| div_7 = New Castle County, DelawareNew Castle \| pop_7 = 14,974 \| city_8 = Hockessin, DelawareHockessin \| div_8 = New Castle County, DelawareNew Castle \| pop_8 = 13,478 \| city_9 = Smyrna, DelawareSmyrna \| div_9 = Kent County, DelawareKent, New Castle County, DelawareNew Castle \| pop_9 = 12,883 \| city_10 = Pike Creek Valley, DelawarePike Creek Valley \| div_10 = New Castle County, DelawareNew Castle \| pop_10 = 11,692 }} Demographics The United States Census Bureau determined that the population of Delaware was 989,948 on April 1, 2020, an increase from the 2010 census figure of 897,934. Delaware's history as a border state has led it to exhibit characteristics of both the Northern and the Southern regions of the United States. Generally, the rural Southern (or "Slower Lower") regions of Delaware below the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal embody a Southern culture, while densely-populated Northern Delaware above the canal—particularly Wilmington, a part of the Philadelphia metropolitan area—has more in common with that of the Northeast and the North. The U.S. Census Bureau designates Delaware as one of the South Atlantic States, Delaware is the sixth most densely populated state, with a population density of 442.6 people per square mile, 356.4 per square mile more than the national average, and ranking 45th in population. Delaware is one of five U.S. states (Maine, Vermont, West Virginia, Wyoming) that do not have a single city with a population over 100,000 as of the 2010 census. The center of population of Delaware is in New Castle County, in the town of Townsend. According to HUD's 2022 Annual Homeless Assessment Report, there were an estimated 2,369 homeless people in Delaware. Race and ethnicity According to the 2010 United States census, the racial composition of the state was 68.9% White American (65.3% Non-Hispanic White, 3.6% White Hispanic), 21.4% Black or African American, 0.5% American Indian and Alaska Native, 3.2% Asian American, 0.0% Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander, 3.4% some other race, and 2.7% of multiracial origin. People of Hispanic or Latino origin, of any race, made up 8.2% of the population. The 2022 American Community Survey estimated the state had a racial and ethnic makeup of 60.6% non-Hispanic whites, 23.6% Black or African American, 0.7% American Indian or Alaska Native, 4.2% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 2.9% multiracial, and 10.1% Hispanic or Latin American of any race. In the Native American community, the state has a Native American group, called in their own language Lenape, which was influential in the colonial period of the United States and is today headquartered in Cheswold, Kent County, Delaware. A band of the Nanticoke tribe of American Indians today resides in Sussex County and is headquartered in Millsboro, Sussex County, Delaware. Delaware's population mainly consisted of people from the British Isles, African slaves, Germans and a few remaining Native Americans during the colonial era. Irish, Germans, Italians, Poles, and Russian Jewish immigrants were attracted by the industries in the Wilmington area. In the late 20th century a Puerto Rican community formed in Wilmington. Guatemalan people migrated to Sussex county to work in Delaware's poultry industry. A group of Native Americans in Delaware of mixed ethnicity, the Moors, live in Cheswold. The descendants of the Nanticoke people live around Millsboro. There is also a small numbers of Asians in New Castle county who work as scientific and engineering professionals. {\| class"wikitable sortable collapsible" style"font-size: 90%;" \|+ Delaware racial breakdown of population \|- ! Racial composition !! 1990 !! 2000!! 2010!! 2020 \|- \| White \|\| 80.3% \|\| 74.6% \|\| 68.9% \|\| 60.4% \|- \| Black \|\| 16.9% \|\| 19.2% \|\| 21.4% \|\| 22.1% \|- \| Asian \|\| 1.4% \|\| 2.1% \|\| 3.2% \|\| 4.3% \|- \| Native \|\| 0.3% \|\| 0.4% \|\| 0.5% \|\| 0.5% \|- \| Native Hawaiian andother Pacific Islander \|\| – \|\| – \|\| – \|\| - \|- \| Other race \|\| 1.1% \|\| 2.0% \|\| 3.4% \|\| 4.9% \|- \| Two or more races \|\| – \|\| 1.7% \|\| 2.7% \|\| 7.7% \|} The top countries of origin for Delaware's immigrants in 2018 were Mexico, India, Guatemala, China, and Jamaica. Birth data Note: Births in table do not add up because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number. {\| class"wikitable sortable" style"font-size:90%" \|+ Live Births by Single Race/Ethnicity of Mother \|- ! Race ! 2013 ! 2014 ! 2015 ! 2016 ! 2017 ! 2018 ! 2019 ! 2020 ! 2021 ! 2022 \|- \| White: \| 7,204 (66.5%) \| 7,314 (66.7%) \| 7,341 (65.7%) \| ... \| ... \| ... \| ... \| ... \| ... \| ... \|- \| > Non-Hispanic White \| 5,942 (54.8%) \| 5,904 (53.8%) \| 5,959 (53.4%) \| 5,827 (53.0%) \| 5,309 (48.9%) \| 5,171 (48.7%) \| 5,024 (47.6%) \| 4,949 (47.6%) \| 5,042 (48.1%) \| 5,035 (46.6%) \|- \| Black \| 3,061 (28.3%) \| 2,988 (27.2%) \| 3,134 (28.1%) \| 2,832 (25.7%) \| 2,818 (26.0%) \| 2,773 (26.1%) \| 2,804 (26.5%) \| 2,722 (26.2%) \| 2,711 (25.9%) \| 2,853 (26.4%) \|- \| Asian \| 541 (5.0%) \| 644 (5.9%) \| 675 (6.1%) \| 627 (5.7%) \| 646 (6.0%) \| 634 (6.0%) \| 624 (5.9%) \| 617 (5.9%) \| 538 (5.1%) \| 553 (5.1%) \|- \| Native American \| 25 (0.2%) \| 26 (0.2%) \| 16 (0.1%) \| 13 (0.1%) \| 23 (0.2%) \| 10 (0.1%) \| 18 (0.2%) \| 18 (0.2%) \| 12 (0.1%) \| 10 (0.2%) \|- \| Hispanic (of any race) \| 1,348 (12.4%) \| 1,541 (14.0%) \| 1,532 (13.7%) \| 1,432 (13.0%) \| 1,748 (16.1%) \| 1,710 (16.1%) \| 1,737 (16.4%) \| 1,768 (17.0%) \| 1,826 (17.4%) \| 1,996 (18.5%) \|- \| Total Delaware \| 10,831 (100%) \| 10,972 (100%) \| 11,166 (100%) \| 10,992 (100%) \| 10,855 (100%) \| 10,621 (100%) \| 10,562 (100%) \| 10,392 (100%) \| 10,482 (100%) \| 10,816 (100%) \|} * Since 2016, data for births of White Hispanic origin are not collected, but included in one Hispanic group; persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Languages In 2000, 91% of Delaware residents of age5 and older spoke only English at home; 5% spoke Spanish. French was the third most spoken language, used by 0.7% of the population, followed by Chinese (0.5%) and German (0.5%). Legislation has been proposed in both the House and the Senate in Delaware to designate English as the official language. Neither bill was passed in the legislature. Sexual orientation A 2012 Gallup poll found that Delaware's proportion of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender adults stood at 3.4% of the population. This constitutes a total LGBT adult population estimate of 23,698 people. The number of same-sex couple households in 2010 stood at 2,646. This grew by 41.65% from a decade earlier. On July 1, 2013, same-sex marriage was legalized, and all civil unions were converted into marriages.Religion \|label1= Protestantism \|value1= 34 \|color1= Blue \|label2= Catholicism \|value2= 23 \|color2= Purple \|label3= Jehovah's Witness \|value3= 2 \|color3= Teal \|label4= Eastern Orthodoxy \|value4= 1 \|color4= Lightblue \|label5= Unaffiliated \|value5= 33 \|color5= White \|label6= Judaism \|value6= 3 \|color6= Pink \|label7= Hinduism \|value7= 1 \|color7= Orange \|label8= New Age \|value8= 1 \|color8= Red \|label9= Other \|value9= 2 \|color9= Black}} The predominant religion practiced in Delaware is Christianity. A 2014 estimate by the Pew Research Center found that members of Protestant churches accounted for almost half of the population, though the Roman Catholic Church was the largest single denomination in the state. By 2020, the Public Religion Research Institute determined 61% of the population was Christian. In 2022, the Public Religion Research Institute's survey revealed 60% were Christian, followed by Jews (3%), Hindus (1%), and New Agers (1%). The Association of Religion Data Archives reported in 2010 that the three largest Christian denominational groups in Delaware by number of adherents are the Catholic Church at 182,532 adherents, the United Methodist Church with 53,656 members reported, and non-denominational evangelical Protestants, who numbered 22,973. In 2020, the Association of Religion Data Archives reported the largest Christian denominations were the Catholic Church with 197,094; non-denominational Protestants with 49,392, and United Methodists with 39,959. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Wilmington and the Episcopal Diocese of Delaware oversee the parishes within their denominations. The A.U.M.P. Church, the oldest African-American denomination in the nation, was founded in Wilmington. It still has a substantial presence in the state. Reflecting new immigrant populations, an Islamic mosque has been built in the Ogletown area, and a Hindu temple in Hockessin. Delaware is home to an Amish community which resides west of Dover in Kent County, consisting of nine church districts and about 1,650 people. The Amish first settled in Kent County in 1915. In recent years, increasing development has led to the decline in the number of Amish living in the community. A 2012 survey of religious attitudes in the United States found that 34% of Delaware residents considered themselves "moderately religious", 33% "very religious", and 33% as "non-religious". At the 2014 Pew Research survey, 23% of the population were irreligious; the 2020 Public Religion Research Institute's survey determined 31% of the population were irreligious. \|- !DE County!!March 2010!!March 2011 \|- \|New Castle\|\|229,000\|\|216,000 \|- \|Sussex\|\|323,000\|\|296,000 \|- \|Kent\|\|186,000\|\|178,000 \|} According to a 2020 study by Kiplinger, Delaware had the 17th most millionaires per capita in the United States; altogether, there were 25,937 such individuals. The median income for Delaware households as of 2020 was $64,805.Agriculture '']] Delaware's agricultural output consists of poultry, nursery stock, soybeans, dairy products and corn. Industries , the state's unemployment rate was 3.7%. The state's largest employers are: * government (State of Delaware, New Castle County) * education (University of Delaware, Delaware Technical Community College) * banking (Bank of America, M&T Bank, JPMorgan Chase, Citigroup, Deutsche Bank) * chemical, pharmaceutical, technology (DuPont de Nemours Inc., AstraZeneca, Syngenta, Agilent Technologies) * healthcare (ChristianaCare (Christiana Hospital), Bayhealth Medical Center, Nemours Children's Hospital, Delaware) * farming, specifically chicken farming in Sussex County (Perdue Farms, Mountaire Farms, Allen Family Foods) * retail (Walmart, Walgreens, Acme Markets) Industrial decline Since the mid-2000s, Delaware has seen the departure of the state's automotive manufacturing industry (General Motors Wilmington Assembly and Chrysler Newark Assembly), the corporate buyout of a major bank holding company (MBNA), the departure of the state's steel industry (Evraz Claymont Steel), the bankruptcy of a fiber mill (National Vulcanized Fiber), and the diminishing presence of AstraZeneca in Wilmington. In late 2015, DuPont announced that 1,700 employees, nearly a third of its footprint in Delaware, would be laid off in early 2016. The merger of E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co. and Dow Chemical Company into DowDuPont took place on September 1, 2017.Incorporation in Delaware More than half of all U.S. publicly traded companies, and 63% of the Fortune 500, are incorporated in Delaware. The state's attractiveness as a corporate haven is largely because of its business-friendly corporation law. Franchise taxes on Delaware corporations supply about a fifth of the state's revenue. Although "USA (Delaware)" ranked as the world's most opaque jurisdiction on the Tax Justice Network's 2009 Financial Secrecy Index, the same group's 2011 Index ranks the U.S. fifth and does not specify Delaware. In Delaware, there are more than a million registered corporations, meaning there are more corporations than people. Food and drink Title 4, chapter 7 of the Delaware Code stipulates that alcoholic liquor be sold only in specifically licensed establishments, and only between 9:00a.m. and 1:00a.m. Until 2003, Delaware was among the several states enforcing blue laws and banned the sale of liquor on Sunday. Media Newspapers Two daily newspapers are based in Delaware, the Delaware State News, based in Dover and covering the two southern counties, and The News Journal covering Wilmington and northern Delaware. The state is also served by several weekly, monthly and online publications. Television No standalone television stations are based solely in Delaware. The northern part of the state is served by network stations in Philadelphia and the southern part by network stations in Salisbury, Maryland. Philadelphia's ABC affiliate, WPVI-TV, maintains a news bureau in downtown Wilmington. Salisbury's CBS affiliate, WBOC-TV, maintains bureaus in Dover and Milton. Three Philadelphia-market stations—PBS member WHYY-TV, Ion affiliate WPPX, and MeTV affiliate WDPN-TV—all have Wilmington as their city of license, but maintain transmitters at the market antenna farm in Roxborough, Philadelphia and do not produce any Delaware-centric programming. Radio There are a numerous radio stations licensed in Delaware. WDDE 91.1 FM, WDEL 1150AM, WHGE-LP 95.3 FM, WILM 1450 AM, WVCW 99.5, WMPH 91.7 FM, WSTW 93.7 FM, WTMC 1380 AM and WWTX 1290AM are licensed from Wilmington. WRDX 92.9 FM is licensed from Smyrna. WDOV 1410AM, WDSD 94.7 FM and WRTX 91.7 FM are licensed from Dover. Tourism , a popular vacation spot during the summer months]] on Pea Patch Island, a popular spot during the spring and summer; a ferry takes visitors to the fort from nearby Delaware City.]] Delaware is home to First State National Historical Park, a National Park Service unit composed of historic sites across the state including the New Castle Court House, Green, and Sheriff's House, Dover Green, Beaver Valley, Fort Christina, Old Swedes' Church, John Dickinson Plantation, and the Ryves Holt House. Delaware has several museums, wildlife refuges, parks, houses, lighthouses, and other historic places. Rehoboth Beach, together with the towns of Lewes, Dewey Beach, Bethany Beach, South Bethany, and Fenwick Island, comprise Delaware's beach resorts. Rehoboth Beach often bills itself as "The Nation's Summer Capital" because it is a frequent summer vacation destination for Washington, D.C., residents as well as visitors from Maryland, Virginia, and in lesser numbers, Pennsylvania. Vacationers are drawn for many reasons, including the town's charm, artistic appeal, nightlife, and tax-free shopping. According to SeaGrant Delaware, the Delaware beaches generate $6.9billion annually and over $711million in tax revenue. Delaware is home to several festivals, fairs, and events. Some of the more notable festivals are the Riverfest held in Seaford, the World Championship Punkin Chunkin formerly held at various locations throughout the state since 1986, the Rehoboth Beach Chocolate Festival, the Bethany Beach Jazz Funeral to mark the end of summer, the Apple Scrapple Festival held in Bridgeville, the Clifford Brown Jazz Festival in Wilmington, the Rehoboth Beach Jazz Festival, the Sea Witch Halloween Festival and Parade in Rehoboth Beach, the Rehoboth Beach Independent Film Festival, the Nanticoke Indian Pow Wow in Oak Orchard, Firefly Music Festival, and the Return Day Parade held after every election in Georgetown. In 2015, tourism in Delaware generated $3.1billion, which makes up five percent of the state's GDP. Delaware saw 8.5million visitors in 2015, with the tourism industry employing 41,730 people, making it the 4th largest private employer in the state. Major origin markets for Delaware tourists include Philadelphia, Baltimore, New York City, Washington, D.C., and Harrisburg, with 97% of tourists arriving to the state by car and 75% of tourists coming from a distance of or less. Delaware is also home to two large sporting venues. Dover Motor Speedway is a race track in Dover, and Frawley Stadium in Wilmington is the home of the Wilmington Blue Rocks, a Minor League Baseball team that is currently affiliated with the Washington Nationals. Education in Newark]] In the early 1920s, Pierre S. du Pont served as president of the state board of education. At the time, state law prohibited money raised from white taxpayers from being used to support the state's schools for black children. Appalled by the condition of the black schools, du Pont donated four million dollars to construct 86 new school buildings. Delaware was the origin of Belton v. Gebhart (1952), one of the four cases which were combined into Brown v. Board of Education, the Supreme Court of the United States decision that led to the end of officially segregated public schools. Significantly, Belton was the only case in which the state court found for the plaintiffs, thereby ruling that segregation is unconstitutional. Unlike many states, Delaware's educational system is centralized in a state Superintendent of Education, with local school boards retaining control over taxation and some curriculum decisions. This centralized system, combined with the small size of the state, likely contributed to Delaware becoming the first state, after completion of a three-year, $30million program ending in 1999, to wire every K-12 classroom in the state to the Internet. , the Delaware Department of Education had authorized the founding of 25 charter schools in the state, one of them being all-girls. In 2010, Delaware had the largest percentage of students attending private schools of places within the United States. All teachers in the State's public school districts are unionized. , none of the State's charter schools are members of a teachers union.]] The transportation system in Delaware is under the governance and supervision of the Delaware Department of Transportation (DelDOT). Funding for DelDOT projects is drawn, in part, from the Delaware Transportation Trust Fund, established in 1987 to help stabilize transportation funding; the availability of the Trust led to a gradual separation of DelDOT operations from other Delaware state operations. DelDOT manages programs such as a Delaware Adopt-a-Highway program, major road route snow removal, traffic control infrastructure (signs and signals), toll road management, Delaware Division of Motor Vehicles, the Delaware Transit Corporation (branded as "DART First State", the state government public transportation organization), and others. In 2009, DelDOT maintained 13,507 lane-miles, totaling 89 percent of the state's public roadway system, the rest being under the supervision of individual municipalities. This far exceeds the national average (20 percent) for state department of transportation maintenance responsibility.Roads (DE1) is a partial toll road linking Fenwick Island and Wilmington.]] One major branch of the U.S. Interstate Highway System, Interstate95 (I-95), crosses Delaware southwest-to-northeast across New Castle County. Two Auxiliary Interstate Highway routes are also located in the state. Interstate 495 (I-495) is an eastern bypass of Wilmington. Interstate 295 (I-295) is a bypass of Philadelphia which begins south of Wilmington. In addition to Interstate highways, there are six U.S. highways that serve Delaware: U.S.9, U.S.13, U.S.40, U.S.113, U.S.202, and U.S.301. There are also several state highways that cross the state of Delaware; a few of them include DE1, DE9, and DE404. U.S.13 and DE1 are primary north–south highways connecting Wilmington and Pennsylvania with Maryland, with DE1 serving as the main route between Wilmington and the Delaware beaches. DE9 is a north–south highway connecting Dover and Wilmington via a scenic route along the Delaware Bay. U.S.40 is a primary east–west route, connecting Maryland with New Jersey. DE404 is another primary east–west highway connecting the Chesapeake Bay Bridge in Maryland with the Delaware beaches. The state also operates three toll highways, the Delaware Turnpike, which is I-95, between Maryland and New Castle; the Korean War Veterans Memorial Highway, which is DE1, between Wilmington and Dover; and the U.S. 301 toll road between the Maryland border and DE1 in New Castle County. A bicycle route, Delaware Bicycle Route 1, spans the north–south length of the state from the Maryland border in Fenwick Island to the Pennsylvania border north of Montchanin. It is the first of several signed bike routes planned in Delaware. Delaware has about 875 bridges, 95 percent of which are under the supervision of DelDOT. About 30 percent of all Delaware bridges were built before 1950, and about 60 percent of the number are included in the National Bridge Inventory. Some bridges not under DelDOT supervision includes the four bridges on the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal, which are under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and the Delaware Memorial Bridge, which is under the bi-state Delaware River and Bay Authority. It has been noted that the tar and chip composition of secondary roads in Sussex County makes them more prone to deterioration than are the asphalt roadways in almost the rest of the state. Among these roads, Sussex (county road) 236 is among the most problematic. CSX connects with the freight/heritage operation, the Wilmington and Western Railroad, based in Wilmington and the East Penn Railroad, which operates a line from Wilmington to Coatesville, Pennsylvania. The last north–south passenger trains through the main part of Delaware was the Pennsylvania Railroad's local Wilmington-Delmar train in 1965. This was a successor to the Del-Mar-Va Express and Cavalier, which had run from Philadelphia through the state's interior, to the end of the Delmarva Peninsula until the mid-1950s. The DART First State public transportation system was named "Most Outstanding Public Transportation System" in 2003 by the American Public Transportation Association. Coverage of the system is broad within northern New Castle County with close association to major highways in Kent and Sussex counties. The system includes bus, subsidized passenger rail operated by Philadelphia transit agency SEPTA, and subsidized taxi and paratransit modes. The paratransit system, consisting of a statewide door-to-door bus service for the elderly and disabled, has been described by a Delaware state report as "the most generous paratransit system in the United States". This put an end to an eight-month period during which Delaware had no scheduled air service, one of several since 1991. Various airlines had served Wilmington Airport, the latest departure being Frontier Airlines in June 2022. Delaware is centrally situated in the Northeast megalopolis region of cities along I-95. Therefore, Delaware commercial airline passengers most frequently use Philadelphia International Airport (PHL), Baltimore-Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport (BWI) and Washington Dulles International Airport (IAD) for domestic and international transit. Residents of Sussex County will also use Wicomico Regional Airport (SBY), as it is located less than from the Delaware border. Atlantic City International Airport (ACY), Newark Liberty International Airport (EWR), and Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport (DCA) are also within a radius of New Castle County. Other general aviation airports in Delaware include Summit Airport near Middletown, Delaware Airpark near Cheswold, and Delaware Coastal Airport near Georgetown. Dover Air Force Base, one of the largest in the country, is home to the 436th Airlift Wing and the 512th Airlift Wing. In addition to its other responsibilities in the Air Mobility Command, it serves as the entry point and mortuary for U.S. military personnel (and some civilians) who die overseas. Law and government Delaware's fourth and current constitution, adopted in 1897, provides for executive, judicial and legislative branches.Legislative branch meets in Delaware Legislative Hall in Dover.]] The Delaware General Assembly consists of a House of Representatives with 41 members and a Senate with 21 members. It sits in Dover, the state capital. Representatives are elected to two-year terms, while senators are elected to four-year terms. The Senate confirms judicial and other nominees appointed by the governor. Delaware's U.S. Senators are Lisa Blunt Rochester (Democrat) and Chris Coons (Democrat). Delaware's single U.S. Representative is Sarah McBride (Democrat). Judicial branch The Delaware Constitution establishes a number of courts: * The Delaware Supreme Court is the state's highest court. * The Delaware Superior Court is the state's trial court of general jurisdiction. * The Delaware Court of Chancery deals primarily in corporate disputes. * The Family Court handles domestic and custody matters. * The Delaware Court of Common Pleas has jurisdiction over a limited class of civil and criminal matters. Minor non-constitutional courts include the Justice of the Peace Courts and Aldermen's Courts. Significantly, Delaware has one of the few remaining Courts of Chancery in the nation, which has jurisdiction over equity cases, the vast majority of which are corporate disputes, many relating to mergers and acquisitions. The Court of Chancery and the Delaware Supreme Court have developed a worldwide reputation for rendering concise opinions concerning corporate law which generally (but not always) grant broad discretion to corporate boards of directors and officers. In addition, the Delaware General Corporation Law, which forms the basis of the Courts' opinions, is widely regarded as giving great flexibility to corporations to manage their affairs. For these reasons, Delaware is considered to have the most business-friendly legal system in the United States; therefore a great number of companies are incorporated in Delaware, including 60% of the companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange. Delaware was the last U.S. state to use judicial corporal punishment, in 1952. Executive branch The executive branch is headed by the Governor of Delaware. The current governor is Matt Meyer (Democrat), who took office January 21, 2025. The lieutenant governor is Kyle Evans Gay. The governor presents a "State of the State" speech to a joint session of the Delaware legislature annually. The executive branch also consists of the Attorney General of Delaware currently held by Kathy Jennings, the State Treasurer currently held by Colleen Davis, the Auditor of Accounts currently held by Lydia York and the Insurance Commissioner currently held by Trinidad Navarro. Counties Delaware is subdivided into three counties; from north to south they are New Castle, Kent and Sussex. This is the fewest among all states. Each county elects its own legislative body (known in New Castle and Sussex counties as County Council, and in Kent County as Levy Court), which deal primarily in zoning and development issues. Most functions which are handled on a county-by-county basis in other states—such as court and law enforcement—have been centralized in Delaware, leading to a significant concentration of power in the Delaware state government. The counties were historically divided into hundreds, which were used as tax reporting and voting districts until the 1960s, but now serve no administrative role, their only current official legal use being in real estate title descriptions. Politics , the 46th president of the United States and a U.S. senator from Delaware from 1973 to 2009]] The Democratic Party holds a plurality of registrations in Delaware. Currently, Democrats hold all positions of authority in Delaware, as well as majorities in the state Senate and House. The Democrats have held the governorship since 1993, having won the last seven gubernatorial elections. Democrats presently hold all the nine statewide elected offices, while the Republicans last won any statewide offices in 2014, State Auditor and State Treasurer. During the First and Second Party Systems, Delaware was a stronghold for the Federalist and Whig Parties, respectively. After a relatively brief adherence to the Democratic Solid South following the US Civil War, Delaware became a Republican-leaning state from 1896 through 1948, voting for losing Republicans Charles Evans Hughes in 1916, Herbert Hoover in 1932, and Thomas Dewey in 1948. During the second half of the 20th century, Delaware was a bellwether state, voting for the winner of every presidential election from 1952 through 1996. Delaware's bellwether status came to an end when Delaware voted for Al Gore in 2000 by 13%. Subsequent elections have continued to demonstrate Delaware's current strong Democratic lean: John Kerry carried the First State by 8% in 2004; Barack Obama carried it by 25% and by 19% in his two elections of 2008 and 2012; and Hillary Clinton carried it by 11% as she lost the Electoral College in 2016. In 2020, Delaware native (and Barack Obama's former vice president and running mate) Joe Biden headed the Democratic ticket; he carried his home state by just shy of 19% en route to a national 4.5% win. The dominant factor in Delaware's political shift has been the strong Democratic trend in heavily urbanized New Castle County, home to 55% of Delaware's population. New Castle County has not voted Republican in a presidential election since 1988, and has given Democrats over 60% of its vote in every election from 2004 on. In 1992, 2000, 2004, and 2016, the Republican presidential candidate carried both Kent and Sussex but lost by double digits each time in New Castle County, which was a large enough margin to tip the state to the Democrats. New Castle County also elects a substantial majority of the state legislature; 27 of the 41 state house districts and 14 of the 21 state senate districts are based in New Castle County. In a 2020 study, Delaware was ranked as the 18th hardest state for citizens to vote in. Freedom of information Each of the 50 states of the United States has passed some form of freedom of information legislation, which provides a mechanism for the general public to request information of the government. In 2011 Delaware passed legislation placing a 15 business day time limit on addressing freedom-of-information requests, to either produce information or an explanation of why such information would take longer than this time to produce. A bill aimed at restricting Freedom of Information Act requests, Senate Bill 155, was discussed in committee. Taxation Tax is collected by the Delaware Division of Revenue. Delaware has six different income tax brackets, ranging from 2.2% to 5.95%. The state does not assess sales tax on consumers. The state does, however, impose a tax on the gross receipts of most businesses. Business and occupational license tax rates range from 0.096% to 1.92%, depending on the category of business activity. Delaware does not assess a state-level tax on real or personal property. Real estate is subject to county property taxes, school district property taxes, vocational school district taxes, and, if located within an incorporated area, municipal property taxes. Gambling provides significant revenue to the state. For instance, the casino at Delaware Park Racetrack provided more than $100million to the state in 2010. In June 2018, Delaware became the first U.S. state to legalize sports betting following the Supreme Court ruling to overturn the Professional and Amateur Sports Protection Act of 1992 (PASPA).Voter registration{\| classwikitable \|+ Voter registration and party enrollment \|- ! colspan = 2 \| Party ! Number of voters ! Percentage \|- \| \| Democratic \| style="text-align:center;"\| 351,700 \| style="text-align:center;"\| 45.46% \|- \| \| Republican \| style="text-align:center;"\| 206,438 \| style="text-align:center;"\| 26.69% \|- \| \| Unaffiliated \| style="text-align:center;"\| 194,729 \| style="text-align:center;"\| 25.17% \|- \| \| Independent Party of Delaware \| style="text-align:center;"\| 10,665 \| style="text-align:center;"\| 1.38% \|- \| \| Libertarian \| style="text-align:center;"\| 2,038 \| style="text-align:center;"\| 0.26% \|- \| \| Non-partisan \| style="text-align:center;"\| 1,164 \| style="text-align:center;"\| 0.15% \|- \| \| Minor parties \| style="text-align:center;"\| 6,821 \| style="text-align:center;"\| \|- ! colspan = 2 \| Total ! style="text-align:center;"\| 773,555 ! style="text-align:center;"\| 100.00% \|} Culture Festivals Sports racing at Dover Motor Speedway in Dover]] ;Professional teams {\| class="wikitable" \|- !Team !Sport !League \|- \|Delaware Black Foxes \|Rugby League \|USA Rugby League \|- \|Delaware Blue Coats \|Basketball \|NBA G League \|- \|Delaware Thunder \|Hockey \|Federal Prospects Hockey League \|- \|Diamond State Roller Girls \|Roller derby \|Women's Flat Track Derby Association \|- \|Wilmington Blue Rocks \|Baseball \|High-A East \|} As Delaware has no franchises in the major American professional sports leagues, many Delawareans follow either Philadelphia or Baltimore teams. In the WNBA, the Washington Mystics enjoy a major following due to the presence of Wilmington native and University of Delaware product Elena Delle Donne. The University of Delaware's football team has a large following throughout the state, with the Delaware State University and Wesley College teams also enjoying a smaller degree of support. Delaware is home to Dover Motor Speedway and Bally's Dover. Dover Motor Speedway, also known as the Monster Mile, is one of only 10 tracks in the nation to have hosted 100 or more NASCAR Cup Series races. Bally's Dover is a popular harness racing facility. It is the only co-located horse- and car-racing facility in the nation, with the Bally's Dover track located inside the Dover Motor Speedway track. Delaware is represented in rugby by the Delaware Black Foxes, a 2015 expansion club. Delaware has been home to professional wrestling outfit Combat Zone Wrestling (CZW). CZW has been affiliated with the annual Tournament of Death and ECWA with its annual Super8 Tournament. Delaware's official state sport is bicycling. Foreign affairs Sister state Delaware has had a foreign sister state in Japan, named Miyagi Prefecture. These two have shared relations since 1997, and have had exchange programs available for students that were briefly paused in wake of the earthquake and the tsunami that ensued in the prefecture during March 2011. Delawareans Prominent Delawareans include the du Pont family of politicians and businesspersons, and the 46th president of the United States Joe Biden. Biden’s family moved to Delaware during his childhood, and he later represented Delaware for 36 years in the United States Senate from 1973 to 2009, before being 47th vice president of the United States from 2009 to 2017. See also * Index of Delaware-related articles * Outline of Delaware * <small></small> * <small></small> Notes References Bibliography * External links History* General * * * [https://www.visitdelaware.com/ Delaware Tourism homepage] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080514074757/http://datamil.delaware.gov/ Delaware Map Data] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080620004847/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/state/state_energy_profiles.cfm?sid=DE Energy & Environmental Data for Delaware] * [https://www.usgs.gov/science/regions?State=DE USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Delaware] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20140222010344/http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/10000.html U.S. Census Bureau] * [http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/state-fact-sheets/state-data.aspx?StateFIPS10&StateNameDelaware Delaware State Facts from USDA] * [https://www2.census.gov/census_2000/datasets/demographic_profile/Delaware/2kh10.pdf 2000 Census of Population and Housing for Delaware], U.S. Census Bureau * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080515221005/http://wikis.ala.org/godort/index.php/Delaware Delaware State Databases]—Annotated list of searchable databases produced by Delaware state agencies and compiled by the Government Documents Roundtable of the American Library Association Category:1787 establishments in the United States Category:Contiguous United States Category:Mid-Atlantic states Category:Northeastern United States Category:Southern United States Category:States and territories established in 1787 Category:States of the East Coast of the United States Category:States of the United States	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delaware	2025-04-05T18:28:18.991580
7931	Dictionary	dictionaries in various languages]] ]] A dictionary is a listing of lexemes from the lexicon of one or more specific languages, often arranged alphabetically (or by consonantal root for Semitic languages or radical and stroke for logographic languages), which may include information on definitions, usage, etymologies, pronunciations, translation, etc. It is a lexicographical reference that shows inter-relationships among the data. A broad distinction is made between general and specialized dictionaries. Specialized dictionaries include words in specialist fields, rather than a comprehensive range of words in the language. Lexical items that describe concepts in specific fields are usually called terms instead of words, although there is no consensus whether lexicology and terminology are two different fields of study. In theory, general dictionaries are supposed to be semasiological, mapping word to definition, while specialized dictionaries are supposed to be onomasiological, first identifying concepts and then establishing the terms used to designate them. In practice, the two approaches are used for both types. There are other types of dictionaries that do not fit neatly into the above distinction, for instance bilingual (translation) dictionaries, dictionaries of synonyms (thesauri), and rhyming dictionaries. The word dictionary (unqualified) is usually understood to refer to a general purpose monolingual dictionary. There is also a contrast between prescriptive or descriptive dictionaries; the former reflect what is seen as correct use of the language while the latter reflect recorded actual use. Stylistic indications (e.g. "informal" or "vulgar") in many modern dictionaries are also considered by some to be less than objectively descriptive. The first recorded dictionaries date back to Sumerian times around 2300 BCE, in the form of bilingual dictionaries, and the oldest surviving monolingual dictionaries are Chinese dictionaries . The first purely English alphabetical dictionary was A Table Alphabeticall, written in 1604, and monolingual dictionaries in other languages also began appearing in Europe at around this time. The systematic study of dictionaries as objects of scientific interest arose as a 20th-century enterprise, called lexicography, and largely initiated by Ladislav Zgusta.HistoryThe oldest known dictionaries were cuneiform tablets with bilingual Sumerian–Akkadian wordlists, discovered in Ebla (modern Syria) and dated to roughly 2300 BCE, the time of the Akkadian Empire. The early 2nd millennium BCE Urrahubullu glossary is the canonical Babylonian version of such bilingual Sumerian wordlists. A Chinese dictionary, the Erya, is the earliest surviving monolingual dictionary; and some sources cite the Shizhoupian (probably compiled sometime between 700 BCE to 200 BCE, possibly earlier) as a "dictionary", although modern scholarship considers it a calligraphic compendium of Chinese characters from Zhou dynasty bronzes. Philitas of Cos (fl. 4th century BCE) wrote a pioneering vocabulary Disorderly Words (Ἄτακτοι γλῶσσαι, ) which explained the meanings of rare Homeric and other literary words, words from local dialects, and technical terms. Apollonius the Sophist (fl. 1st century CE) wrote the oldest surviving Homeric lexicon. The oldest existing Japanese dictionary, the Tenrei Banshō Meigi, was also a glossary of written Chinese. In Frahang-i Pahlavig'', Aramaic heterograms are listed together with their translation in the Middle Persian language and phonetic transcription in the Pazend alphabet. A 9th-century CE Irish dictionary, Sanas Cormaic, contained etymologies and explanations of over 1,400 Irish words. In the 12th century, The Karakhanid-Turkic scholar Mahmud Kashgari finished his work "Divan-u Lügat'it Türk", a dictionary about the Turkic dialects, but especially Karakhanid Turkic. His work contains about 7500 to 8000 words and it was written to teach non Turkic Muslims, especially the Abbasid Arabs, the Turkic language. Al-Zamakhshari wrote a small Arabic dictionary called "Muḳaddimetü'l-edeb" for the Turkic-Khwarazm ruler Atsiz. In the 14th century, the Codex Cumanicus was finished and it served as a dictionary about the Cuman-Turkic language. While in Mamluk Egypt, Ebû Hayyân el-Endelüsî finished his work "Kitâbü'l-İdrâk li-lisâni'l-Etrâk", a dictionary about the Kipchak and Turcoman languages spoken in Egypt and the Levant. A dictionary called "Bahşayiş Lügati", which is written in old Anatolian Turkish, served also as a dictionary between Oghuz Turkish, Arabic and Persian. But it is not clear who wrote the dictionary or in which century exactly it was published. It was written in old Anatolian Turkish from the Seljuk period and not the late medieval Ottoman period. In India around 1320, Amir Khusro compiled the Khaliq-e-bari, which mainly dealt with Hindustani and Persian words.'' is an example of an illustrated dictionary.]] Arabic dictionaries were compiled between the 8th and 14th centuries, organizing words in rhyme order (by the last syllable), by alphabetical order of the radicals, or according to the alphabetical order of the first letter (the system used in modern European language dictionaries). The modern system was mainly used in specialist dictionaries, such as those of terms from the Qur'an and hadith, while most general use dictionaries, such as the Lisan al-`Arab (13th century, still the best-known large-scale dictionary of Arabic) and al-Qamus al-Muhit (14th century) listed words in the alphabetical order of the radicals. The Qamus al-Muhit is the first handy dictionary in Arabic, which includes only words and their definitions, eliminating the supporting examples used in such dictionaries as the Lisan and the Oxford English Dictionary. ]] In medieval Europe, glossaries with equivalents for Latin words in vernacular or simpler Latin were in use (e.g. the Leiden Glossary). The Catholicon'' (1287) by Johannes Balbus, a large grammatical work with an alphabetical lexicon, was widely adopted. It served as the basis for several bilingual dictionaries and was one of the earliest books (in 1460) to be printed. In 1502 Ambrogio Calepino's Dictionarium was published, originally a monolingual Latin dictionary, which over the course of the 16th century was enlarged to become a multilingual glossary. In 1532 Robert Estienne published the Thesaurus linguae latinae and in 1572 his son Henri Estienne published the Thesaurus linguae graecae, which served up to the 19th century as the basis of Greek lexicography. The first monolingual Spanish dictionary written was Sebastián Covarrubias's Tesoro de la lengua castellana o española, published in 1611 in Madrid, Spain. In 1612 the first edition of the Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca, for Italian, was published. It served as the model for similar works in French and English. In 1690 in Rotterdam was published, posthumously, the Dictionnaire Universel by Antoine Furetière for French. In 1694 appeared the first edition of the (still published, with the ninth edition not complete ). Between 1712 and 1721 was published the Vocabulario portughez e latino written by Raphael Bluteau. The Royal Spanish Academy published the first edition of the (still published, with a new edition about every decade) in 1780; their Diccionario de Autoridades, which included quotes taken from literary works, was published in 1726. The Totius Latinitatis lexicon by Egidio Forcellini was firstly published in 1777; it has formed the basis of all similar works that have since been published. The first edition of A Greek-English Lexicon by Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott appeared in 1843; this work remained the basic dictionary of Greek until the end of the 20th century. And in 1858 was published the first volume of the Deutsches Wörterbuch by the Brothers Grimm; the work was completed in 1961. Between 1861 and 1874 was published the Dizionario della lingua italiana by Niccolò Tommaseo. Between 1862 and 1874 was published the six volumes of A magyar nyelv szótára (Dictionary of Hungarian Language) by Gergely Czuczor and János Fogarasi. Émile Littré published the between 1863 and 1872. In the same year 1863 appeared the first volume of the Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal which was completed in 1998. Also in 1863 Vladimir Ivanovich Dahl published the Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language. The Duden dictionary dates back to 1880, and is currently the prescriptive source for the spelling of German. The decision to start work on the Svenska Akademiens ordbok was taken in 1787.English dictionaries in BritainThe earliest dictionaries in the English language were glossaries of French, Spanish or Latin words along with their definitions in English. The word "dictionary" was invented by an Englishman called John of Garland in 1220 he had written a book Dictionarius to help with Latin "diction". An early non-alphabetical list of 8000 English words was the Elementarie, created by Richard Mulcaster in 1582. The first purely English alphabetical dictionary was A Table Alphabeticall, written by English schoolteacher Robert Cawdrey in 1604. In 1616, John Bullokar described the history of the dictionary with his "English Expositor". Glossographia by Thomas Blount, published in 1656, contains more than 10,000 words along with their etymologies or histories. Edward Phillips wrote another dictionary in 1658, entitled "The New World of English Words: Or a General Dictionary" which boldly plagiarized Blount's work, and the two criticised each other. This created more interest in the dictionaries. John Wilkins' 1668 essay on philosophical language contains a list of 11,500 words with careful distinctions, compiled by William Lloyd. Elisha Coles published his "English Dictionary" in 1676. It was not until Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language (1755) that a more reliable English dictionary was produced. By this stage, dictionaries had evolved to contain textual references for most words, and were arranged alphabetically, rather than by topic (a previously popular form of arrangement, which meant all animals would be grouped together, etc.). Johnson's masterwork could be judged as the first to bring all these elements together, creating the first "modern" dictionary. was not released until 1928. One of the main contributors to this modern dictionary was an ex-army surgeon, William Chester Minor, a convicted murderer who was confined to an asylum for the criminally insane. The OED remains the most comprehensive and trusted English language dictionary to this day, with revisions and updates added by a dedicated team every three months. American English dictionaries In 1806, American Noah Webster published his first dictionary, A Compendious Dictionary of the English Language. In many languages, words can appear in many different forms, but only the undeclined or unconjugated form appears as the headword in most dictionaries. Dictionaries are most commonly found in the form of a book, but some newer dictionaries, like StarDict and the New Oxford American Dictionary are dictionary software running on PDAs or computers. There are also many online dictionaries accessible via the Internet. Specialized dictionaries According to the Manual of Specialized Lexicographies, a specialized dictionary, also referred to as a technical dictionary, is a dictionary that focuses upon a specific subject field, as opposed to a dictionary that comprehensively contains words from the lexicon of a specific language or languages. Following the description in The Bilingual LSP Dictionary, lexicographers categorize specialized dictionaries into three types: A multi-field dictionary broadly covers several subject fields (e.g. a business dictionary), a single-field dictionary narrowly covers one particular subject field (e.g. law), and a sub-field dictionary covers a more specialized field (e.g. constitutional law). For example, the 23-language Inter-Active Terminology for Europe is a multi-field dictionary, the American National Biography is a single-field, and the African American National Biography Project is a sub-field dictionary. In terms of the coverage distinction between "minimizing dictionaries" and "maximizing dictionaries", multi-field dictionaries tend to minimize coverage across subject fields (for instance, Oxford Dictionary of World Religions and Yadgar Dictionary of Computer and Internet Terms) whereas single-field and sub-field dictionaries tend to maximize coverage within a limited subject field (The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology). Another variant is the glossary, an alphabetical list of defined terms in a specialized field, such as medicine (medical dictionary). Defining dictionaries The simplest dictionary, a defining dictionary, provides a core glossary of the simplest meanings of the simplest concepts. From these, other concepts can be explained and defined, in particular for those who are first learning a language. In English, the commercial defining dictionaries typically include only one or two meanings of under 2000 words. With these, the rest of English, and even the 4000 most common English idioms and metaphors, can be defined. Prescriptive vs. descriptive Lexicographers apply two basic philosophies to the defining of words: prescriptive or descriptive. Noah Webster, intent on forging a distinct identity for the American language, altered spellings and accentuated differences in meaning and pronunciation of some words. This is why American English now uses the spelling color while the rest of the English-speaking world prefers colour. (Similarly, British English subsequently underwent a few spelling changes that did not affect American English; see further at American and British English spelling differences.) Large 20th-century dictionaries such as the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) and Webster's Third'' are descriptive, and attempt to describe the actual use of words. Most dictionaries of English now apply the descriptive method to a word's definition, and then, outside of the definition itself, provide information alerting readers to attitudes which may influence their choices on words often considered vulgar, offensive, erroneous, or easily confused. Merriam-Webster is subtle, only adding italicized notations such as, sometimes offensive or stand (nonstandard). American Heritage goes further, discussing issues separately in numerous "usage notes." Encarta provides similar notes, but is more prescriptive, offering warnings and admonitions against the use of certain words considered by many to be offensive or illiterate, such as, "an offensive term for..." or "a taboo term meaning...". Because of the widespread use of dictionaries in schools, and their acceptance by many as language authorities, their treatment of the language does affect usage to some degree, with even the most descriptive dictionaries providing conservative continuity. In the long run, however, the meanings of words in English are primarily determined by usage, and the language is being changed and created every day. As Jorge Luis Borges says in the prologue to "El otro, el mismo": "It is often forgotten that (dictionaries) are artificial repositories, put together well after the languages they define. The roots of language are irrational and of a magical nature." Sometimes the same dictionary can be descriptive in some domains and prescriptive in others. For example, according to Ghil'ad Zuckermann, the Oxford English-Hebrew Dictionary is "at war with itself": whereas its coverage (lexical items) and glosses (definitions) are descriptive and colloquial, its vocalization is prescriptive. This internal conflict results in absurd sentences such as hi taharóg otí kshetiré me asíti lamkhonít (she'll tear me apart when she sees what I've done to the car). Whereas hi taharóg otí, literally 'she will kill me', is colloquial, me (a variant of ma 'what') is archaic, resulting in a combination that is unutterable in real life. Historical dictionaries A historical dictionary is a specific kind of descriptive dictionary which describes the development of words and senses over time, usually using citations to original source material to support its conclusions. Dictionaries for natural language processing In contrast to traditional dictionaries, which are designed to be used by human beings, dictionaries for natural language processing (NLP) are built to be used by computer programs. The final user is a human being but the direct user is a program. Such a dictionary does not need to be able to be printed on paper. The structure of the content is not linear, ordered entry by entry but has the form of a complex network (see Diathesis alternation). Because most of these dictionaries are used to control machine translations or cross-lingual information retrieval (CLIR) the content is usually multilingual and usually of huge size. In order to allow formalized exchange and merging of dictionaries, an ISO standard called Lexical Markup Framework (LMF) has been defined and used among the industrial and academic community. Other types * Bilingual dictionary * Collegiate dictionary (American) * Learner's dictionary (mostly British) * Electronic dictionary * Encyclopedic dictionary * Monolingual learner's dictionary ** Advanced learner's dictionary * By sound ** Rhyming dictionary * Reverse dictionary (Conceptual dictionary) * Visual dictionary * Satirical dictionary * Phonetic dictionary Pronunciation In many languages, such as the English language, the pronunciation of some words is not consistently apparent from their spelling. In these languages, dictionaries usually provide the pronunciation. For example, the definition for the word dictionary might be followed by the International Phonetic Alphabet spelling (in British English) or (in American English). American English dictionaries often use their own pronunciation respelling systems with diacritics, for example dictionary is respelled as "dĭk′shə-nĕr′ē" in the American Heritage Dictionary.}} The IPA is more commonly used within the British Commonwealth countries. Yet others use their own pronunciation respelling systems without diacritics: for example, dictionary may be respelled as . Some online or electronic dictionaries provide audio recordings of words being spoken. Examples Major English dictionaries <!-- DO NOT ADD MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. WIKIPEDIA IS NOT A COLLECTION OF LINKS --> <!-- If you think that your link might be useful, instead of placing it here, put --> <!-- it on this article's discussion page first. Links that have not been verified --> <!-- WILL BE DELETED --> Dictionaries of other languages Histories and descriptions of the dictionaries of other languages on Wikipedia include: * Arabic dictionaries * Chinese dictionaries * Dehkhoda Dictionary (Persian Language) * Dutch dictionaries * French dictionaries * German dictionaries * Japanese dictionaries * Polish dictionaries * Scottish Gaelic dictionaries * Scottish Language Dictionaries * Sindhi Language Dictionaries Online dictionaries The age of the Internet brought online dictionaries to the desktop and, more recently, to the smart phone. David Skinner in 2013 noted that "Among the top ten lookups on Merriam-Webster Online at this moment are holistic, pragmatic, caveat, esoteric and bourgeois.'' Teaching users about words they don't already know has been, historically, an aim of lexicography, and modern dictionaries do this well." There exist a number of websites which operate as online dictionaries, usually with a specialized focus. Some of them have exclusively user driven content, often consisting of neologisms. Some of the more notable examples are given in List of online dictionaries and :Category:Online dictionaries. See also * Comparison of English dictionaries * Centre for Lexicography * COBUILD, a large corpus of English text * Corpus linguistics * DICT, the dictionary server protocol * Dictionary Society of North America * Fictitious entry * Foreign language writing aid * Lexicographic error * Lists of dictionaries * Thesaurus * Dreaming of Words * Vocable (lexicography) * Thumb index }} Notes References * * * * * Atkins, B.T.S. & Rundell, Michael (2008) The Oxford Guide to Practical Lexicography, Oxford: Oxford University Press. (published in the UK as The Surgeon of Crowthorne). * Further reading * Guy Jean Forgue, "[https://www.persee.fr/issue/rfea_0397-7870_1983_num_18_1 The Norm in American English", ''Revue Française d'Etudes Americaines''], Nov 1983, Vol. 8 Issue 18, pp. 451–461. An international appreciation of the importance of Webster's dictionaries in setting the norms of the English language.External links * [http://www.oup.com/elt/catalogue/teachersites/oald7/more_on_dicts/glossary?cc=global Glossary of dictionary terms] by the Oxford University Press * ** Wikisource:Language (directory of language-related works on Wikisource – includes dictionaries) }} <!-- Please be cautious adding more external links. Wikipedia is not a collection of links and should not be used for advertising. Excessive or inappropriate links will be removed. See Wikipedia:External links and Wikipedia:Spam for details. If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on The article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at The "long dead (2017)" Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using . --> Category:Lexicography Category:Reference works	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary	2025-04-05T18:28:19.026904
7935	David D. Friedman	David Friedman}} \| birth_place \| death_date \| death_place \| nationality American \| spouse = Elizabeth Cook \| children = Patri Friedman \| institution = Santa Clara University \| field = Economics, law \| influences = Ronald Coase, Friedrich Hayek, Robert A. Heinlein, Milton Friedman, Rose Friedman, Adam Smith, Richard Timberlake, Alfred Marshall, Murray Rothbard \| contributions = The Machinery of Freedom<br>Consequentialist libertarianism \| awards \| signature <!-- file name only --> \| repec_prefix e \| repec_id pfr16 \| module \|website[http://www.daviddfriedman.com/ Official website]\|educationHarvard University (BA) <br> University of Chicago (MA, PhD)\|image_caption=Friedman in 2016}} David Director Friedman (born February 12, 1945) is an American economist, physicist, legal scholar, and anarcho-capitalist theorist. Although his academic training was in chemistry and physics and not law or economics, he is known for his textbook writings on microeconomics and the libertarian theory of anarcho-capitalism, which is the subject of his most popular book, The Machinery of Freedom. Described by Walter Block as a "free-market anarchist" theorist, Friedman has also authored several other books and articles, including Price Theory: An Intermediate Text (1986), ''Law's Order: What Economics Has to Do with Law and Why It Matters (2000), Hidden Order: The Economics of Everyday Life (1996), and Future Imperfect (2008).Life and workDavid Friedman is the son of economists Rose and Milton Friedman. He graduated magna cum laude'' from Harvard University in 1965, with a bachelor's degree in chemistry and physics. He later earned a master's (1967) and a PhD (1971) in theoretical physics from the University of Chicago. Despite his later career, he never took a class for credit in either economics or law. He was a professor of law at Santa Clara University from 2005 to 2017, and a contributing editor for Liberty magazine. He is currently a Professor Emeritus. He is an atheist. His son, Patri Friedman, has also written about libertarian theory and market anarchism, particularly seasteading.The Machinery of Freedom In his book The Machinery of Freedom (1973), Friedman sketched a form of anarcho-capitalism where all goods and services including law itself can be produced by the free market. Friedman advocates an incrementalist approach to achieve anarcho-capitalism by gradual privatization of areas that government is involved in, ultimately privatizing the law itself. In the book, he states his opposition to violent anarcho-capitalist revolution. He advocates a consequentialist version of anarcho-capitalism, arguing for it on a cost–benefit analysis of state versus no state. It is contrasted with the natural-rights approach as propounded most notably by economist and libertarian theorist Murray Rothbard. Non-academic interests Friedman is a longtime member of the Society for Creative Anachronism, where he is known as Duke Cariadoc of the Bow. He is known throughout the worldwide society for his articles on the philosophy of recreationism and practical historical recreations, especially those relating to the medieval Middle East. His work is compiled in the popular ''Cariadoc's Miscellany''. He is sometimes credited with founding the largest and longest-running SCA event, the Pennsic War; as king of the Middle Kingdom he challenged the East Kingdom, and later as king of the East accepted the challenge and lost (to himself). He was a teenage wargamer who taught his school friend, Jack Radey, founder of People's War Games, how to play such wargames as Tactics II. Radey relates how Friedman and himself wrote to Charles S. Roberts claiming that they had found a first turn winning strategy for each of the two sides. Roberts replied that their interpretation of the rules was valid. Salamander (2011) and its sequel Brothers (2020) are fantasy. He has spoken in favor of a non-interventionist foreign policy. Bibliography Nonfiction * 1988. ''[http://www.daviddfriedman.com/Medieval/Medieval.html Cariadoc's Miscellany]. * 1990 (2nd ed.; 1st ed.: 1986). [http://www.daviddfriedman.com/Academic/Price_Theory/PThy_ToC.html Price Theory: An Intermediate Text]. Southwestern Publishing. * 1996. Hidden Order: The Economics of Everyday Life. . * 2000. [http://www.daviddfriedman.com/laws_order/index.shtml Law's Order: What Economics Has to Do with Law and Why It Matters]. Princeton Univ. Press. * 2005. "The Case for Privacy" in Contemporary Debates in Applied Ethics. Wiley-Blackwell. * 2008. [http://www.daviddfriedman.com/Future_Imperfect.html Future Imperfect: Technology and Freedom in an Uncertain World]. * 2015 (3rd ed.; 2nd ed.: 1989; 1st ed.: 1973). The Machinery of Freedom. * 2019. [http://www.daviddfriedman.com/Legal%20Systems/LegalSystemsContents.htm Legal Systems Very Different from Ours]. Fiction * * Salamander, 2011 * Brothers, 2020 References External links * * * [https://law.scu.edu/faculty/profile/friedman-david/ Profile] on the website of Santa Clara University * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120128162753/http://www.booknotes.org/Watch/74535-1/David+Friedman.aspx Booknotes interview with Friedman on Hidden Order: The Economics of Everyday Life'', October 20, 1996.] * Category:1945 births Category:Living people Category:20th-century American economists Category:20th-century American male writers Category:20th-century American non-fiction writers Category:20th-century American novelists Category:20th-century American physicists Category:20th-century American poets Category:20th-century atheists Category:21st-century American economists Category:21st-century American male writers Category:21st-century American non-fiction writers Category:21st-century American novelists Category:21st-century American physicists Category:21st-century American poets Category:21st-century atheists Category:American anarcho-capitalists Category:American atheists Category:American economics writers Category:American legal scholars Category:American libertarians Category:American male bloggers Category:American bloggers Category:American male non-fiction writers Category:American male novelists Category:American male poets Category:American people of Austrian-Jewish descent Category:American people of Hungarian-Jewish descent Category:American people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent Category:American political philosophers Category:American political writers Category:Chicago School economists Category:Consequentialists Category:Free-market anarchists Category:Friedman family Category:Harvard College alumni Category:Jewish American atheists Category:Jewish American non-fiction writers Category:Jewish American novelists Category:Jewish American physicists Category:Jewish American poets Category:Jewish American social scientists Category:Jewish anarchists Category:Jewish bloggers Category:Legal educators Category:Libertarian economists Category:Libertarian theorists Category:Member of the Mont Pelerin Society Category:Philosophers of economics Category:American philosophy writers Category:Santa Clara University School of Law faculty Category:Society for Creative Anachronism Category:University of Chicago alumni Category:Usenet people Category:Wargamers	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_D._Friedman	2025-04-05T18:28:19.035500
7938	Diatomic molecule	of the diatomic molecule dinitrogen, N<sub>2</sub>]] Diatomic molecules () are molecules composed of only two atoms, of the same or different chemical elements. If a diatomic molecule consists of two atoms of the same element, such as hydrogen () or oxygen (), then it is said to be homonuclear. Otherwise, if a diatomic molecule consists of two different atoms, such as carbon monoxide () or nitric oxide (), the molecule is said to be heteronuclear. The bond in a homonuclear diatomic molecule is non-polar. showing the elements that exist as homonuclear diatomic molecules under typical laboratory conditions.]] The only chemical elements that form stable homonuclear diatomic molecules at standard temperature and pressure (STP) (or at typical laboratory conditions of 1 bar and 25 °C) are the gases hydrogen (), nitrogen (), oxygen (), fluorine (), and chlorine (), and the liquid bromine (). The noble gases (helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon) are also gases at STP, but they are monatomic. The homonuclear diatomic gases and noble gases together are called "elemental gases" or "molecular gases", to distinguish them from other gases that are chemical compounds. At slightly elevated temperatures, the halogens bromine () and iodine () also form diatomic gases. All halogens have been observed as diatomic molecules, except for astatine and tennessine, which are uncertain. Other elements form diatomic molecules when evaporated, but these diatomic species repolymerize when cooled. Heating ("cracking") elemental phosphorus gives diphosphorus (). Sulfur vapor is mostly disulfur (). Dilithium () and disodium () are known in the gas phase. Ditungsten () and dimolybdenum () form with sextuple bonds in the gas phase. Dirubidium () is diatomic. Heteronuclear molecules All other diatomic molecules are chemical compounds of two different elements. Many elements can combine to form heteronuclear diatomic molecules, depending on temperature and pressure. Examples are gases carbon monoxide (CO), nitric oxide (NO), and hydrogen chloride (HCl). Many 1:1 binary compounds are not normally considered diatomic because they are polymeric at room temperature, but they form diatomic molecules when evaporated, for example gaseous MgO, SiO, and many others. Occurrence Hundreds of diatomic molecules have been identified in the environment of the Earth, in the laboratory, and in interstellar space. About 99% of the Earth's atmosphere is composed of two species of diatomic molecules: nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%). The natural abundance of hydrogen (H<sub>2</sub>) in the Earth's atmosphere is only of the order of parts per million, but H<sub>2</sub> is the most abundant diatomic molecule in the universe. The interstellar medium is dominated by hydrogen atoms. Molecular geometry All diatomic molecules are linear and characterized by a single parameter which is the bond length or distance between the two atoms. Diatomic nitrogen has a triple bond, diatomic oxygen has a double bond, and diatomic hydrogen, fluorine, chlorine, iodine, and bromine all have single bonds. Historical significance Diatomic elements played an important role in the elucidation of the concepts of element, atom, and molecule in the 19th century, because some of the most common elements, such as hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, occur as diatomic molecules. John Dalton's original atomic hypothesis assumed that all elements were monatomic and that the atoms in compounds would normally have the simplest atomic ratios with respect to one another. For example, Dalton assumed water's formula to be HO, giving the atomic weight of oxygen as eight times that of hydrogen, instead of the modern value of about 16. As a consequence, confusion existed regarding atomic weights and molecular formulas for about half a century. As early as 1805, Gay-Lussac and von Humboldt showed that water is formed of two volumes of hydrogen and one volume of oxygen, and by 1811 Amedeo Avogadro had arrived at the correct interpretation of water's composition, based on what is now called Avogadro's law and the assumption of diatomic elemental molecules. However, these results were mostly ignored until 1860, partly due to the belief that atoms of one element would have no chemical affinity toward atoms of the same element, and also partly due to apparent exceptions to Avogadro's law that were not explained until later in terms of dissociating molecules. At the 1860 Karlsruhe Congress on atomic weights, Cannizzaro resurrected Avogadro's ideas and used them to produce a consistent table of atomic weights, which mostly agree with modern values. These weights were an important prerequisite for the discovery of the periodic law by Dmitri Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer. Excited electronic states Diatomic molecules are normally in their lowest or ground state, which conventionally is also known as the <math>X</math> state. When a gas of diatomic molecules is bombarded by energetic electrons, some of the molecules may be excited to higher electronic states, as occurs, for example, in the natural aurora; high-altitude nuclear explosions; and rocket-borne electron gun experiments. These potentials give more accurate energy levels because they take multiple vibrational effects into account. Concerning history, the first treatment of diatomic molecules with quantum mechanics was made by Lucy Mensing in 1926. Translational energies The translational energy of the molecule is given by the kinetic energy expression: : <math>E_\text{trans}=\frac{1}{2}mv^2</math> where <math>m</math> is the mass of the molecule and <math>v</math> is its velocity. Rotational energies Classically, the kinetic energy of rotation is : <math>E_\text{rot} = \frac{L^2}{2 I} \,</math> where : <math>L \,</math> is the angular momentum : <math>I \,</math> is the moment of inertia of the molecule For microscopic, atomic-level systems like a molecule, angular momentum can only have specific discrete values given by : <math>L^2 = \ell(\ell+1) \hbar^2 \,</math> where <math>\ell</math> is a non-negative integer and <math>\hbar</math> is the reduced Planck constant. Also, for a diatomic molecule the moment of inertia is : <math>I = \mu r_{0}^2 \,</math> where : <math>\mu \,</math> is the reduced mass of the molecule and : <math>r_{0} \,</math> is the average distance between the centers of the two atoms in the molecule. So, substituting the angular momentum and moment of inertia into E<sub>rot</sub>, the rotational energy levels of a diatomic molecule are given by: : <math style>E_\text{rot} \frac{l(l+1) \hbar^2}{2 \mu r_{0}^2} \ \ \ \ \ l0,1,2,... \,</math> Vibrational energies Another type of motion of a diatomic molecule is for each atom to oscillate—or vibrate—along the line connecting the two atoms. The vibrational energy is approximately that of a quantum harmonic oscillator: : <math>E_\text{vib} \left(n+\frac{1}{2} \right)\hbar \omega \ \ \ \ \ n0,1,2,.... \,</math> where : <math>n</math> is an integer : <math>\hbar</math> is the reduced Planck constant and : <math>\omega</math> is the angular frequency of the vibration. Comparison between rotational and vibrational energy spacings The spacing, and the energy of a typical spectroscopic transition, between vibrational energy levels is about 100 times greater than that of a typical transition between rotational energy levels. Hund's cases The good quantum numbers for a diatomic molecule, as well as good approximations of rotational energy levels, can be obtained by modeling the molecule using Hund's cases. Mnemonics The mnemonics BrINClHOF, pronounced "Brinklehof", HONClBrIF, pronounced "Honkelbrif", “HOBrFINCl”, pronounced “Hoberfinkel”, and HOFBrINCl, pronounced "Hofbrinkle", have been coined to aid recall of the list of diatomic elements. Another method, for English-speakers, is the sentence: "Never Have Fear of Ice Cold Beer" as a representation of Nitrogen, Hydrogen, Fluorine, Oxygen, Iodine, Chlorine, Bromine. See also * Symmetry of diatomic molecules * AXE method * Octatomic element * Covalent bond * Industrial gas References Further reading * * External links * [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/molecule/rotrig.html#c3 Hyperphysics] – Rotational Spectra of Rigid Rotor Molecules * [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quantum/hosc.html Hyperphysics] – Quantum Harmonic Oscillator * [http://www.3dchem.com/ 3D Chem] – Chemistry, Structures, and 3D Molecules * [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160523113736/http://www.iumsc.indiana.edu/ IUMSC] – Indiana University Molecular Structure Center Category:General chemistry Category:Molecular geometry Category:Stereochemistry	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diatomic_molecule	2025-04-05T18:28:19.050738
7939	Duopoly	A duopoly (from Greek , ; and , ) is a type of oligopoly where two firms have dominant or exclusive control over a market, and most (if not all) of the competition within that market occurs directly between them. Duopoly is the most commonly studied form of oligopoly due to its simplicity. Duopolies sell to consumers in a competitive market where the choice of an individual consumer choice cannot affect the firm in a duopoly market, as the defining characteristic of duopolies is that decisions made by each seller are dependent on what the other competitor does. Duopolies can exist in various forms, such as Cournot, Bertrand, or Stackelberg competition. These models demonstrate how firms in a duopoly can compete on output or price, depending on the assumptions made about firm behavior and market conditions. Similar features are discernible in national political systems of party duopoly. Duopoly models in economics and game theory Cournot duopoly Cournot model in game theory In 1838, Antoine Augustin Cournot published a book titled "Researches Into the Mathematical Principles of the Theory of Wealth" in which he introduced and developed this model for the first time. As an imperfect competition model, Cournot duopoly (also known as Cournot competition), in which two firms with identical cost functions compete with homogenous products in a static context, is also known as Cournot competition. The Cournot model, shows that two firms assume each other's output and treat this as a fixed amount, and produce in their own firm according to this. The Cournot duopoly model relies on the following assumptions: * Each firm chooses a quantity to produce independently * All firms make this choice simultaneously * The cost structures of the firms are public information In this model, two companies, each of which chooses its own quantity of output, compete against each other while facing constant marginal and average costs. The market price is determined by the sum of the output of two companies. <math>P(Q)a-bQ</math> is the equation for the market demand function. * Market with two firms with constant marginal cost }} * Inverse market demand for a homogeneous good: * Where is the sum of both firms' production levels: + q}} * Firms choose their quantity simultaneously (static game) * Firms maximize their profit: <math display="block">\begin{aligned} \Pi_1(q_1,q_2) &= \left(P(q_1 + q_2) - c_1\right)q_1\,, \\ \Pi_2(q_1,q_2) &= \left(P(q_1 + q_2) - c_2\right)q_2 \end{aligned}</math> The general process for obtaining a Nash equilibrium of a game using the best response functions is followed in order to discover a Nash equilibrium of Cournot's model for a specific cost function and demand function. A Nash Equilibrium of the Cournot model is a such that For a given <math displayinline>q_2^</math> solves: <math display="block>\begin{aligned} \operatorname{MAX}_{q1} \Pi_1(q_1, q_2^) &= (P(q_1 + q_2^) - c_1)q_1\,, \\ \operatorname{MAX}_{q2} \Pi_2(q_1^, q_2) &= (P(q_1^* + q_2) - c_1)q_2 \end{aligned}</math> Given the other firm's optimal quantity, each firm maximizes its profit over the residual inverse demand. In equilibrium, no firm can increase profits by changing its output level Two first order conditions equal to zero are the best response. Cournot's duopoly marked the beginning of the study of oligopolies, and specifically duopolies, as well as the expansion of the research of market structures, which had previously focussed on the extremes of perfect competition and monopoly. In the Cournot duopoly model, firms choose the quantity of output they produce simultaneously, taking into consideration the quantity produced by their competitor. Each firm's profit depends on the total output produced by both firms, and the market price is determined by the sum of their outputs. The goal of each firm is to maximize its profit given the output produced by the other firm. This process continues until both firms reach a Nash equilibrium, where neither firm has an incentive to change its output level given the output of the other firm. Bertrand duopoly Bertrand model in game theory The Bertrand competition was developed by a French mathematician called Joseph Louis François Bertrand after investigating the claims of the Cournot model in "Researches into the mathematical principles of the theory of wealth, 1838". Bertrand took issue with this. In this market structure, each firm could only choose whole amounts and each firm receives zero payoffs when the aggregate demand exceeds the size of the amount that they share with each other. The market demand function is <math>Q(P)=a-bP</math>. The Bertrand model has similar assumptions to the Cournot model: * Two firms * Homogeneous products * Both firms know the market demand curve * However, unlike the Cournot model, it assumes that firms have the same MC. It also assumes that the MC is constant. The Bertrand model, in which, in a game of two firms, competes in price instead of output. Each one of them will assume that the other will not change prices in response to its price cuts. When both firms use this logic, they will reach a Nash equilibrium. * Consider price competition among two firms () selling homogeneous good * Downward sloping market demand , with (p) < 0}} * Constant, symmetric marginal cost c = c}} * Static game: firms set prices simultaneously * Rationing rule of demand: # lowest priced firm wins all demand at its price # if prices are tied, each firm gets half of market demand at this price * Firm s profits: <math displayinline>\Pi_i (p_i-c)D_i(p_i, p_j)</math> Let }} be the monopoly price, <math displayinline>p^m \operatorname{argmax}_p(p-c)D(p)</math> * Firm s best response (p)}} is: <math display"block>R_i(p_j) \begin{cases} p^m, & \text{if } p_j > p^m \\ p_j - c, & \text{if } c < p_j \le p^m \\ c, & \text{if } p_j \le c \end{cases}</math> For rival prices above cost, each firm has incentive to undercut rival to get the whole demand. If rival prices below cost, firms make losses when it attracts demand; firm better off charging at cost level. Nash equilibrium is p c}}.Bertrand paradoxUnder static price competition with homogenous products and constant, symmetric marginal cost, firms price at the level of marginal cost and make no economic profits. In contrast to the Cournot model, the Bertrand duopoly model assumes that firms compete on price rather than quantity. Each firm sets its price simultaneously, anticipating that the other firm will not change its price in response. When both firms use this logic, they will reach a Nash equilibrium, where neither firm has an incentive to change its price given the price set by the other firm. In this model, firms tend to price their products at the level of their marginal cost, resulting in zero economic profits, a phenomenon known as the Bertrand paradox. Characteristics of duopoly # Existence of only two sellers. # Interdependence: the action of each firm influences the demand faced by their rival. # Presence of monopoly elements: as long as products are differentiated, the firms enjoy some monopoly power, as each product will have some loyal customers. # It is the most basic form of oligopoly # Barriers to entry: high entry barriers are often present in duopolies, making it difficult for new firms to enter the market. Quality standards In a duopoly, quality standards can play a significant role in the competitive dynamics between the two firms. A low-quality manufacturer may benefit from a slightly stringent quality standard in the absence of sunk costs, whereas a high-quality producer may suffer from it. Consumer welfare improves if the firm generating the higher quality does not considerably enhance its quality in response to its competitor's increase in quality. Exit from the industry is triggered by a sufficiently strict requirement. The high-quality producer exits first when there are no sunk costs. In some cases, firms may engage in a quality competition, attempting to outdo one another by improving their products or services to attract more customers. Politics Like a market, a political system can be dominated by two groups, which exclude other parties or ideologies from participation. This is known as a two-party system. In such a system, one party or the other tends to dominate government at any given time (the Majority party), while the other has only limited power (the Minority party). According to Duverger's law, this tends to be caused by a simple winner-take-all voting system without runoffs or ranked choices. The United States and many Latin American countries, such as Costa Rica, Guyana, and the Dominican Republic have two-party government systems. Duopoly in Danish court politics The prime minister-finance minister duopoly is an unusual form of court politics. There have been few other countries where the prime minister and the Treasury have had such a tumultuous relationship as Australia and the United Kingdom. There have been some confrontations in the past when the Finance ministry did not have the full support of the prime minister, leading to internal ministerial battles over economic strategy. A permanent civil service is a basic requirement for the duopoly system to function properly. The permanent civil service in general, and the Socialist Party in particular, are critical to the duopoly's effective operation. The conventional inter-governmental duopoly is carried by civil servants. The duopoly is confronted with some quandaries, such as tensions between different groups in the office over their relative positions. Departmental budget cuts are being made across the board. The prime ministerial-finance-ministry duopoly requires more credibility. Trust is a rare commodity among Australians and Britons. Denmark has a lot to offer. The Danish duopoly works together. Australia and the United Kingdom have competitive duopolies, and competitive duopolies are unstable. Types of duopoly Cournot duopoly A Cournot duopoly is a model of strategic interaction between two firms where they simultaneously choose their output levels, assuming the rival's output level is fixed. The firms compete on quantity, and each firm attempts to maximize its profit given the other firm's output level. This leads to a Nash equilibrium where neither firm has an incentive to change its output, given the other firm's output. Bertrand duopoly In a Bertrand duopoly, two firms compete on price instead of quantity. Each firm assumes that its rival's price is fixed and chooses its own price to maximize profit. This model predicts that, under certain conditions, firms will set prices equal to marginal cost, leading to perfect competition. Stackelberg duopoly A Stackelberg duopoly is a model where one firm (the leader) chooses its output level first, followed by the other firm (the follower). The follower observes the leader's output decision and adjusts its own output to maximize profit. The Stackelberg model often results in a higher total output and lower market price than the Cournot and Bertrand models. Examples in business <!-- Do not add examples without providing a reliable source that characterizes them as duopolies. The source need not use the word "duopoly," but it must note the anticompetitive effect of a two-entity market. Your own opinion is not sufficient. --> A commonly cited example of a duopoly is that involving Visa and Mastercard, who between them control a large proportion of the electronic payment processing market. In 2000 they were the defendants in a United States Department of Justice antitrust lawsuit. An appeal was upheld in 2004. Examples where two companies control an overwhelming proportion of a market are: * Airbus and Boeing in the largest commercial aircraft market in the world * Nvidia (who acquired competitor 3dfx in 2002) and AMD (formerly ATI which AMD acquired in 2006) in the GPU market * Intel and AMD in the desktop CPU market * Google's Android and Apple's iOS make up over 99% of the mobile operating system market * Coca-Cola and Pepsi in the soft drink market, resulting in the cola wars. The two companies control nearly all of the cola beverage market. * DC and Marvel in the American comic book market and movies * Woolworths and Coles in the Australian supermarket market * Myer and David Jones in the Australian upmarket department store market * Husqvarna and Stihl in the chainsaw market * Windows and macOS in the desktop operating system (OS) market. * Kesko and S Group together hold a 85% market share of grocery stores in Finland. * Christie's and Sotheby's sell more than 80% of works priced over $1m at auction.Media In Finland, the state-owned broadcasting company Yleisradio and the private broadcaster Mainos-TV had a legal duopoly (in the economists' sense of the word) from the 1950s to 1993. No other broadcasters were allowed. Mainos-TV operated by leasing air time from Yleisradio, broadcasting in reserved blocks between Yleisradio's own programming on its two channels. This was a unique phenomenon in the world. Between 1986 and 1992 there was an independent third channel but it was jointly owned by Yle and M-TV; only in 1993 did M-TV get its own channel. In Kenya, mobile service providers Safaricom and Airtel in Kenya form a duopoly in the Kenyan telecommunications industry. In Singapore, the mass media industry is presently dominated by two players, namely Mediacorp and SPH Media Trust. In the United Kingdom, the BBC and ITV formed an effective duopoly (with Channel 4 originally being economically dependent on ITV) until the development of multichannel from the 1990s onwards. Broadcasting Duopoly is used in the United States broadcast television and radio industry to refer to a single company owning two outlets in the same city. This usage is technically incompatible with the normal definition of the word and may lead to confusion, inasmuch as there are generally more than two owners of broadcast television stations in markets with broadcast duopolies. In Canada, this definition is therefore more commonly called a "twinstick". See also Monopoly Oligopoly *Two-party system References Category:Market structure Category:Oligopoly	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duopoly	2025-04-05T18:28:19.079294
7940	Dungeons & Dragons	DND}} \| years = since 1974 \| random_chance = Dice rolling \| playing_time = Varies \| genre = Fantasy \| system = Dungeons & Dragons<br/>d20 System (3rd Edition) \| skills = Role-playing, improvisation, tactics, arithmetic \| web = }} Dungeons & Dragons (commonly abbreviated as D&D or DnD) is a fantasy tabletop role-playing game (TTRPG) originally created and designed by Gary Gygax and Dave Arneson. The game was first published in 1974 by Tactical Studies Rules (TSR). which also deeply influenced video games, especially the role-playing video game genre. D&D departs from traditional wargaming by allowing each player to create their own character to play instead of a military formation. These characters embark upon adventures within a fantasy setting. A Dungeon Master (DM) serves as referee and storyteller for the game, while maintaining the setting in which the adventures occur, and playing the role of the inhabitants of the game world, known as non-player characters (NPCs). The characters form a party and they interact with the setting's inhabitants and each other. Together they solve problems, engage in battles, explore, and gather treasure and knowledge. In the process, player characters earn experience points (XP) to level up, and become increasingly powerful over a series of separate gaming sessions. Players choose a class when they create their character, which gives them special perks and abilities every few levels. The early success of D&D led to a proliferation of similar game systems. Despite the competition, D&D has remained the market leader in the role-playing game industry. In 1977, the game was split into two branches: the relatively rules-light game system of basic Dungeons & Dragons, and the more structured, rules-heavy game system of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons (abbreviated as AD&D). AD&D 2nd Edition was published in 1989. In 2000, a new system was released as D&D 3rd edition, continuing the edition numbering from AD&D; a revised version 3.5 was released in June 2003. These 3rd edition rules formed the basis of the d20 System, which is available under the Open Game License (OGL) for use by other publishers. D&D 4th edition was released in June 2008. The 5th edition of D&D, the most recent, was released during the second half of 2014. and best-selling, role-playing game in the US, with an estimated 20 million people having played the game and more than US$1 billion in book and equipment sales worldwide. D&D 5th edition sales "were up 41 percent in 2017 from the year before, and soared another 52 percent in 2018, the game's biggest sales year yet". D&D is known beyond the game itself for other D&D-branded products, references in popular culture, and some of the controversies that have surrounded it, particularly a moral panic in the 1980s that attempted to associate it with Satanism and suicide. The game has won multiple awards and has been translated into many languages.Play overview Dungeons & Dragons is a structured yet open-ended role-playing game. Typically, one player takes on the role of Dungeon Master (DM) or Game Master (GM) while the others each control a single character, representing an individual in a fictional setting. During the course of play, each player directs the actions of their character and their interactions with other characters in the game. A game often continues over a series of meetings to complete a single adventure, and longer into a series of related gaming adventures, called a "campaign". The results of the party's choices and the overall storyline for the game are determined by the DM according to the rules of the game and the DM's interpretation of those rules. The DM selects and describes the various non-player characters (NPCs) that the party encounters, the settings in which these interactions occur, and the outcomes of those encounters based on the players' choices and actions. Magic items are generally found in treasure hoards, or recovered from fallen opponents; sometimes, a powerful or important magic item is the object of a quest. The game's extensive rules – which cover diverse subjects such as social interactions, combat, – help the DM to make these decisions. The DM may choose to deviate from the published rules The most recent versions of the game's rules are detailed in three Fifth Edition core rulebooks: The ''Player's Handbook, the Dungeon Master's Guide and the Monster Manual''. The player then chooses a species (such as a dwarf, elf, or human – called "race" prior to 5e 2024), a character class (such as a fighter, rogue, or wizard), an alignment (a moral and ethical outlook), and other features to round out the character's abilities and backstory, which have varied in nature through differing editions. During the game, players describe their PCs' intended actions to the DM, who then describes the result or response. Trivial actions, such as picking up a letter or opening an unlocked door, are usually automatically successful. The outcomes of more complex or risky actions, such as scaling a cliff or picking a lock, are determined by rolling dice. Different polyhedral dice are used for different actions. For example, a twenty-sided die is used to determine whether a hit is made in combat, with other dice such as four, six, eight, ten, or even twelve-sided die used to determine how much damage was dealt. Factors contributing to the outcome include the character's ability scores, skills, and the difficulty of the task. In circumstances where a character is attempting to avoid a negative outcome, such as when dodging a trap or resisting the effect of a spell, a saving throw can be used to determine whether the resulting effect is reduced or avoided. In this case the odds of success are influenced by the character's class, levels and ability scores. In circumstances where a character is attempting to complete a task such as picking a lock, deactivating a trap, or pushing a boulder, a Difficulty Class must be hit or exceeded. Relevant ability bonuses are added to help players succeed. As the game is played, each PC changes over time and generally increases in capability. Characters gain (or sometimes lose) experience, skills and wealth, and may even alter their alignment or gain additional character classes, which is called "Multiclassing". The key way characters progress is by earning experience points (XP), which happens when they defeat an enemy or accomplish a difficult task. Acquiring enough XP allows a PC to advance a level, which grants the character improved class features, abilities and skills. XP can be lost in some circumstances, such as encounters with creatures that drain life energy, or by use of certain magical powers that come with an XP cost. Hit points (HP) are a measure of a character's vitality and health and are determined by the class, level and Constitution of each character. They can be temporarily lost when a character sustains wounds in combat or otherwise comes to harm, and loss of HP is the most common way for a character to die in the game. Death can also result from the loss of key ability scores or character levels. When a PC dies, it is often possible for the dead character to be resurrected through magic, although some penalties may be imposed as a result. If resurrection is not possible or not desired, the player may instead create a new PC to resume playing the game. Adventures and campaigns A typical Dungeons & Dragons game consists of an "adventure", which is roughly equivalent to a single story or quest. The DM can either design an original adventure or follow one of the many premade adventures (also known as "modules") that have been published throughout the history of Dungeons & Dragons. Published adventures typically include a background story, illustrations, maps, and goals for players to achieve. Some may include location descriptions and handouts, although they are not required for gameplay. Although a small adventure entitled "Temple of the Frog" was included in the Blackmoor rules supplement in 1975, the first stand-alone D&D'' module published by TSR was 1978's Steading of the Hill Giant Chief, written by Gygax. A linked series of adventures is commonly referred to as a "campaign". The locations where these adventures occur, such as a city, country, planet, or entire fictional universe, are referred to as "campaign settings" or "worlds." D&D settings are based in various fantasy genres and feature different levels and types of magic and technology. Popular commercially published campaign settings for Dungeons & Dragons include Greyhawk, Dragonlance, Forgotten Realms, Mystara, Spelljammer, Ravenloft, Dark Sun, Planescape, Birthright, and Eberron. In addition to first-party campaigns and modules, two campaigns based on popular culture have been created. The first, based on Stranger Things, was released in May 2019. A campaign based on the Rick and Morty vs. Dungeons and Dragons comic book series was later released in November 2019. Alternatively, DMs may develop their own fictional worlds to use as campaign settings, either planning the adventure ahead or expanding on it as the players progress. Miniature figures The wargames from which Dungeons & Dragons evolved used miniature figures to represent combatants. D&D initially continued the use of miniatures in a fashion similar to its direct precursors. The original D&D set of 1974 required the use of the Chainmail miniatures game for combat resolution. By the publication of the 1977 game editions, combat was mostly resolved verbally. Thus, miniatures were no longer required for gameplay, although some players continued to use them as a visual reference. In the 1970s, numerous companies began to sell miniature figures specifically for Dungeons & Dragons and similar games. Licensed miniature manufacturers who produced official figures include Grenadier Miniatures (1980–1983), Citadel Miniatures (1984–1986), Ral Partha, and TSR itself. Most of these miniatures used the 25 mm scale. Periodically, Dungeons & Dragons has returned to its wargaming roots with supplementary rules systems for miniatures-based wargaming. Supplements such as Battlesystem (1985 and 1989) and a new edition of Chainmail (2001) provided rule systems to handle battles between armies by using miniatures. Development history Sources and influences An immediate predecessor of Dungeons & Dragons was a set of medieval miniature rules written by Jeff Perren. These were expanded by Gary Gygax, whose additions included a fantasy supplement, before the game was published as Chainmail''. When Dave Wesely entered the Army in 1970, his friend and fellow Napoleonics wargamer Dave Arneson began a medieval variation of Wesely's Braunstein games, where players control individuals instead of armies. Arneson used Chainmail to resolve combat. As play progressed, Arneson added such innovations as character classes, experience points, level advancement, armor class, and others. The name was chosen by Gygax's two-year-old daughter Cindy; upon being presented with a number of choices of possible names, she exclaimed, "Oh Daddy, I like Dungeons & Dragons best!", although less prevalent versions of the story gave credit to his then wife Mary Jo. Many Dungeons & Dragons elements appear in hobbies of the mid-to-late 20th century. For example, character-based role-playing can be seen in improvisational theater. Game-world simulations were well developed in wargaming. Fantasy milieux specifically designed for gaming could be seen in Glorantha's board games, among others. Ultimately, however, Dungeons & Dragons represents a unique blending of these elements. The world of D&D was influenced by world mythology, history, pulp fiction, and contemporary fantasy novels, as listed by Gygax in the Appendix N of the original ''Dungeon Master's Guide''. The importance of Tolkien's works The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit as an influence on D&D is controversial. The presence in the game of halflings, elves, half-elves, dwarves, orcs, rangers, and the like, as well as the convention of diverse adventurers forming a group, draw comparisons to these works. The resemblance was even closer before the threat of copyright action from Tolkien Enterprises prompted the name changes of hobbit to 'halfling', ent to 'treant', and balrog to 'balor'. For many years, Gygax played down the influence of Tolkien on the development of the game. However, in an interview in 2000, he acknowledged that Tolkien's work had a "strong impact" though he also said that the list of other influential authors was long. The D&D magic system, in which wizards memorize spells that are used up once cast and must be re-memorized the next day, was heavily influenced by the Dying Earth stories and novels of Jack Vance. The original alignment system (which grouped all characters and creatures into 'Law', 'Neutrality' and 'Chaos') was derived from the novel Three Hearts and Three Lions by Poul Anderson. A troll described in this work influenced the D&D definition of that monster. Other influences include the works of Robert E. Howard, Edgar Rice Burroughs, A. Merritt, H. P. Lovecraft, Fritz Leiber, L. Sprague de Camp, Fletcher Pratt, Roger Zelazny, and Michael Moorcock. Monsters, spells, and magic items used in the game have been inspired by hundreds of individual works such as A. E. van Vogt's "Black Destroyer", Coeurl (the Displacer Beast), Lewis Carroll's "Jabberwocky" (vorpal sword) and the Book of Genesis (the clerical spell 'Blade Barrier' was inspired by the "flaming sword which turned every way" at the gates of Eden).Edition history Dungeons & Dragons has gone through several revisions. Parallel versions and inconsistent naming practices can make it difficult to distinguish between the different editions. Original game The original Dungeons & Dragons, now referred to as OD&D, is a small box set of three booklets published in 1974. With a very limited production budget of only $2000—with only $100 budgeted for artwork—it is amateurish in production and assumes the player is familiar with wargaming. Nevertheless, it grew rapidly in popularity, first among wargamers and then expanding to a more general audience of college and high school students. Roughly 1,000 copies of the game were sold in the first year, followed by 3,000 in 1975, and many more in the following years. This first set went through many printings and was supplemented with several official additions, such as the original Greyhawk and Blackmoor supplements (both 1975), as well as magazine articles in TSR's official publications and many fanzines. Two-pronged strategy In early 1977, TSR created the first element of a two-pronged strategy that would divide D&D for nearly two decades. A Dungeons & Dragons Basic Set boxed edition was introduced that cleaned up the presentation of the essential rules, makes the system understandable to the general public, and was sold in a package that could be stocked in toy stores. Each set covers game play for more powerful characters than the previous. The first four sets were compiled in 1991 as a single hardcover book, the Dungeons & Dragons Rules Cyclopedia, which was released alongside a new introductory boxed set. Advanced Dungeons & Dragons 2nd Edition was published in 1989, and a series of Player's Option manuals were released as optional rulebooks. The edition moved away from a theme of 1960s and 1970s "sword and sorcery" fantasy fiction to a mixture of medieval history and mythology. The rules underwent minor changes, including the addition of non-weapon proficiencies – skill-like abilities that appear in first edition supplements. The game's magic spells are divided into schools and spheres. Wizards of the Coast In 1997, a near-bankrupt TSR was purchased by Wizards of the Coast. Following three years of development, Dungeons & Dragons 3rd edition was released in 2000. The new release folded the Basic and Advanced lines back into a single unified game. It was the largest revision of the D&D rules to date and served as the basis for a multi-genre role-playing system designed around 20-sided dice, called the d20 System. The 3rd Edition rules were designed to be internally consistent and less restrictive than previous editions of the game, allowing players more flexibility to create the characters they wanted to play. Skills and feats were introduced into the core rules to encourage further customization of characters. The new rules standardized the mechanics of action resolution and combat. In 2003, Dungeons & Dragons v.3.5'' was released as a revision of the 3rd Edition rules. This release incorporated hundreds of rule changes, mostly minor, and expanded the core rulebooks. Dungeons & Dragons 4th Edition was announced at Gen Con in August 2007, and the initial three core books were released June 6, 2008. 4th Edition streamlined the game into a simplified form and introduced numerous rules changes. Many character abilities were restructured into "Powers". These altered the spell-using classes by adding abilities that could be used at will, per encounter, or per day. Likewise, non-magic-using classes were provided with parallel sets of options. Software tools, including player character and monster-building programs, became a major part of the game. This edition added the D&D Encounters program; a weekly event held at local stores designed to draw players back to the game by giving "the busy gamer the chance to play D&D once a week as their schedules allow. In the past, D&D games could take months, even years, and players generally had to attend every session so that the story flow wasn't interrupted. With Encounters, players can come and go as they choose and new players can easily be integrated into the story continuity". 5th Edition On January 9, 2012, Wizards of the Coast announced that it was working on a 5th edition of the game. The company planned to take suggestions from players and let them playtest the rules. Public playtesting began on May 24, 2012. At Gen Con 2012 in August, Mike Mearls, lead developer for 5th Edition, said that Wizards of the Coast had received feedback from more than 75,000 playtesters, but that the entire development process would take two years, adding, "I can't emphasize this enough ... we're very serious about taking the time we need to get this right." The release of the 5th Edition, coinciding with D&Ds 40th anniversary, occurred in the second half of 2014. Since the release of 5th edition, dozens of Dungeons & Dragons books have been published including new rulebooks, campaign guides and adventure modules. 2017 had "the most number of players in its history—12 million to 15 million in North America alone". In 2018, Wizards of the Coast organized a massive live-stream event, the Stream of Many Eyes, where ten live-streamed sessions of Dungeons & Dragons were performed on Twitch over three days. This event won the Content Marketing Institute's 2019 award for best "In-Person (Event) Content Marketing Strategy". Dungeons & Dragons continued to have a strong presence on Twitch throughout 2019; this included a growing number of celebrity players and dungeon masters, such as Joe Manganiello, Deborah Ann Woll and Stephen Colbert. Wizards of the Coast has created, produced and sponsored multiple web series featuring Dungeons & Dragons. These shows have typically aired on the official Dungeons & Dragons Twitch and YouTube channels. In 2020, Wizards of the Coast announced that Dungeons & Dragons had its 6th annual year of growth in 2019 with a "300 percent increase in sales of their introductory box sets, as well as a 65% increase on sales in Europe, a rate which has more than quadrupled since 2014". In terms of player demographics in 2019, 39% of identified as female and 61% identified as male. 40% of players are considered Gen Z (24 years old or younger), 34% of players are in the age range of 25–34 and 26% of players are aged 35+. Sarah Parvini, for the Los Angeles Times, wrote, "players and scholars attribute the game's resurgent popularity not only to the longueurs of the pandemic, but also to its reemergence in pop culture—on the Netflix series Stranger Things, whose main characters play D&D in a basement; on the sitcom The Big Bang Theory; or via the host of celebrities who display their love for the game online". This process will now require "every word, illustration, and map" to be reviewed at several steps in development "by multiple outside cultural consultants prior to publication". The previous process only included cultural consultants at the discretion of the product lead for a project. All products being reprinted will also go through this new review process and be updated as needed. In August 2022, Wizards announced that the next phase of major changes for Dungeons & Dragons would occur under the One D&D initiative which includes a public playtest of the next version of Dungeons & Dragons and an upcoming virtual tabletop simulator with 3D environments developed using Unreal Engine. Revised editions of the ''Player's Handbook, Monster Manual, and Dungeon Master's Guide were scheduled to be released in 2024; the revised Player's Handbook and Dungeon Master's Guide were released in 2024, with the Monster Manual'' released in February 2025. In April 2022, Hasbro announced that Wizards would acquire the D&D Beyond digital toolset and game companion from Fandom; the official transfer to Wizards occurred in May 2022. At the Hasbro Investor Event in October 2022, it was announced that Dan Rawson, former COO of Microsoft Dynamics 365, was appointed to the newly created position of Senior Vice President for the Dungeons & Dragons brand; Rawson will act as the new head of the franchise. Chase Carter of Dicebreaker highlighted that Rawson's role is "part of Wizards' plans to apply more resources to the digital side of D&D" following the purchase of D&D Beyond by Hasbro earlier in the year. Wizards of the Coast CEO Cynthia Williams and Hasbro CEO Chris Cocks, at a December 2022 Hasbro investor-focused web seminar, called the Dungeons & Dragons brand "under monetized". They highlighted the high engagement of fans with the brand, however, the majority of spending is by Dungeon Masters who are only roughly 20% of the player base. Williams commented that the increased investment in digital will "unlock the type of recurrent spending you see in digital games". Carter, now for Rascal, commented that "we know physical books sell poorly, and even if pre-orders for the 2024 core books are, uh, 'solid', according to the CEO, it's evident that Hasbro holds little faith in analog games clotting the money bleed elsewhere in the company's structure". This attitude changed in the mid-1980s when TSR took legal action to try to prevent others from publishing compatible material. This angered many fans and led to resentment by the other gaming companies. TSR itself ran afoul of intellectual property law in several cases. With the launch of Dungeons & Dragons's 3rd Edition, Wizards of the Coast made the d20 System available under the Open Game License (OGL) and d20 System trademark license. Under these licenses, authors were free to use the d20 System when writing games and game supplements. The OGL has allowed a wide range of unofficial commercial derivative work based on the mechanics of Dungeons and Dragons to be produced since 2000; it is credited with increasing the market share of d20 products and leading to a "boom in the RPG industry in the early 2000s". With the release of the 4th Edition, Wizards of the Coast introduced its Game System License, which represented a significant restriction compared to the very open policies embodied by the OGL. In part as a response to this, some publishers (such as Paizo Publishing with its Pathfinder Roleplaying Game) who previously produced materials in support of the D&D product line, decided to continue supporting the 3rd Edition rules, thereby competing directly with Wizards of the Coast. Others, such as Kenzer & Company, returned to the practice of publishing unlicensed supplements and arguing that copyright law does not allow Wizards of the Coast to restrict third-party usage. During the 2000s, there has been a trend towards reviving and recreating older editions of D&D, known as the Old School Revival. This, in turn, inspired the creation of "retro-clones", games that more closely recreate the original rule sets, using material placed under the OGL along with non-copyrightable mechanical aspects of the older rules to create a new presentation of the games. Alongside the publication of the 5th Edition, Wizards of the Coast established a two-pronged licensing approach. The core of the 5th Edition rules have been made available under the OGL, while publishers and independent creators have also been given the opportunity to create licensed materials directly for Dungeons & Dragons and associated properties like the Forgotten Realms under a program called the DM's Guild. The DM's Guild does not function under the OGL, but uses a community agreement intended to foster liberal cooperation among content creators. Two 5th Edition starter box sets based on TV shows, Stranger Things and Rick and Morty, were released in 2019. Source books based on Dungeons & Dragons live play series have also been released: Acquisitions Incorporated (2019) and Explorer's Guide to Wildemount'' (2020). Between November and December 2022, there was reported speculation that Wizards was planning on discontinuing the OGL for Dungeons & Dragons based on unconfirmed leaks. In response to the speculation, Wizards stated in November 2022: "We will continue to support the thousands of creators making third-party D&D content with the release of One D&D in 2024." Codega highlighted that "if the original license is in fact no longer viable, every single licensed publisher will be affected by the new agreement. [...] The main takeaway from the leaked OGL 1.1 draft document is that WotC is keeping power close at hand". The Motley Fool highlighted that "Hasbro pulled an abrupt volte-face and had its subsidiary D&D Beyond publish a mea culpa on its website". On January 27, 2023, following feedback received during the open comment period for the draft OGL1.2, Wizards of the Coast announced that the System Reference Document 5.1 (SRD 5.1) would be released under an irrevocable Creative Commons license (CC BY 4.0) effective immediately and Wizards would no longer pursue deauthorizing the OGL1.0a. Reception Eric Goldberg reviewed Dungeons & Dragons in Ares Magazine #1 (March 1980), rating it a 6 out of 9, and commented that "Dungeons and Dragons is an impressive achievement based on the concept alone, and also must be credited with cementing the marriage between the fantasy genre and gaming." Eric Goldberg again reviewed Dungeons & Dragons in Ares Magazine #3 and commented that "D&D is the FRP game played most often in most places." In the 1980 book The Complete Book of Wargames, game designer Jon Freeman asked, "What can be said about a phenomenon? Aside from Tactics II and possibly PanzerBlitz (the first modern tactical wargame), this is the most significant war game since H.G. Wells." However, Freeman did have significant issues with the game, pointing out, "On the other hand, beginning characters are without exception dull, virtually powerless, and so fragile" which was not encouraging for "newcomers." He also called the magic system "stupid" feeling that many of the spells were "redundant" and "the effects of the majority are hopelessly vague." He found essential elements such as saving throws, hit points, and experience points "undefined or poorly explained; the ratio of substance to "holes" compares unfavorably with the head of a tennis racquet." He also noted the rules were "presented in the most illiterate display of poor grammar, misspellings, and typographical errors in professional wargaming." Despite all these issues, Freeman concluded, "As it was given birth, it is fascinating but misshapen; in its best incarnations, it's perhaps the most exciting and attractive specimen alive." The game had over three million players worldwide by 1981, and copies of the rules were selling at a rate of about 750,000 per year by 1984. Beginning with a French language edition in 1982, Dungeons & Dragons has been translated into many languages beyond the original English. By 2004, consumers had spent more than on Dungeons & Dragons products and the game had been played by more than 20 million people. As many as six million people played the game in 2007. Acclaim The various editions of Dungeons & Dragons have won many Origins Awards, including All Time Best Roleplaying Rules of 1977, Best Roleplaying Rules of 1989, Best Roleplaying Game of 2000 and Best Role Playing Game and Best Role Playing Supplement of 2014 for the flagship editions of the game. Both Dungeons & Dragons and Advanced Dungeons & Dragons are Origins Hall of Fame Games inductees as they were deemed sufficiently distinct to merit separate inclusion on different occasions. The independent Games magazine placed Dungeons & Dragons on their Games 100 list from 1980 through 1983, then entered the game into the magazine's Hall of Fame in 1984. Games magazine included Dungeons & Dragons in their "Top 100 Games of 1980", saying "The more players, the merrier." Advanced Dungeons & Dragons was ranked 2nd in the 1996 reader poll of Arcane magazine to determine the 50 most popular roleplaying games of all time. Dungeons & Dragons was inducted into the National Toy Hall of Fame in 2016 and into the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame in 2017. Later editions Later editions would lead to inevitable comparisons between the game series. Scott Taylor for Black Gate in 2013 rated Dungeons & Dragons as #1 in the top ten role-playing games of all time, saying "The grand-daddy of all games, D&D just keeps on going, and although there might always be 'edition wars' between players, that just says that it effectively stays within the consciousness of multiple generations of players as a relevant piece of entertainment." Griffin McElroy, for Polygon in 2014, wrote: "The game has shifted in the past four decades, bouncing between different rules sets, philosophies and methods of play. Role-playing, character customization and real-life improvisational storytelling has always been at the game's core, but how those ideas are interpreted by the game system has changed drastically edition-to-edition". Dieter Bohn, for The Verge in 2014, wrote: "Every few years there's been a new version of D&D that tries to address the shortcomings of the previous version and also make itself more palatable to its age. [...] The third edition got a reputation (which it didn't necessarily deserve) for being too complex and rules-focused. The fourth edition got a reputation (which it didn't necessarily deserve) for being too focused on miniatures and grids, too mechanical. Meanwhile, the company that owns D&D had released a bunch of its old material for free as a service to fans, and some of that was built up into a competing game called Pathfinder. Pathfinder ultimately became more popular, by some metrics, than D&D itself". Bohn highlighted that the 5th Edition was "designed for one purpose: to bring D&D back to its roots and win back everybody who left during the edition wars". Henry Glasheen, for SLUG Magazine in 2015, highlighted that after jumping ship during the 4th Edition era he was drawn back to Dungeons & Dragons with 5th Edition and he considers it "the new gold standard for D20-based tabletop RPGs". Glasheen wrote "Fifth Edition is a compelling reason to get excited about D&D again" and "while some will welcome the simplicity, I fully expect that plenty of people will stick to whatever system suits them best. However, this edition is easily my favorite, ranking even higher than D&D 3.5, my first love in D&D". In December 2023, James Whitbrook of Gizmodo highlighted "D&D<nowiki/>'s continued social influence" with the release of related media such as the film Honor Among Thieves, the Dungeons & Dragons: Adventures FAST channel, and the video game ''Baldur's Gate 3'' with the video game's "blockbuster success" credited "for a 40% increase in Wizards of the Coast's earnings over 2022". However, Whitbrook opined that not even these successes "could save Dungeons & Dragons from the greed of its owners" with the OGL controversy and major layoffs by Hasbro bookending "what should've been one of the greatest years for Dungeons & Dragons the game has ever seen—more popular than ever, more accessible than ever, more culturally relevant than ever—and in doing so transformed it into a golden era sullied with dark marks, overshadowed by grim caveats, a reflection that those with the most power in these spaces never really take the lessons they espoused to learn from their mistakes". On the 5th Edition rules revision, Randall commented, "the fact that WoTC didn't feel confident enough to reinvent much of anything after 10 years signals how paralyzed the entire operation has become [...]. After a decade of successes, and after a massive, hobby-wide controversy seemingly couldn't sink it, D&D's next big move was to equip you with basically the same game for the next 10 years. No innovation, no progression, just a slightly different angle to the wheels spinning in the dirt". These controversies led TSR to remove many potentially controversial references and artwork when releasing the 2nd Edition of AD&D. The moral panic over the game led to problems for fans of D&D who faced social ostracism, unfair treatment, and false association with the occult and Satanism, regardless of an individual fan's actual religious affiliation and beliefs. However, the controversy was also beneficial in evoking the Streisand Effect by giving the game widespread notoriety that significantly increased sales in the early 1980s in defiance of the moral panic. Dungeons & Dragons has been the subject of rumors regarding players having difficulty separating fantasy from reality, even leading to psychotic episodes. The most notable of these was the saga of James Dallas Egbert III, the facts of which were fictionalized in the novel Mazes and Monsters and later made into a TV movie in 1982 starring Tom Hanks. William Dear, the private investigator hired by the Egbert family to find their son when he went missing at college, wrote a book titled The Dungeon Master (1984) refuting any connection with D&D and Egbert's personal issues. The game was blamed for some of the actions of Chris Pritchard, who was convicted in 1990 of murdering his stepfather. Research by various psychologists, starting with Armando Simon, has concluded that no harmful effects are related to the playing of D&D. Dungeons & Dragons has also been cited as encouraging people to socialize weekly or biweekly, teaching problem solving skills, which can be beneficial in adult life, and teaching positive moral decisions. Later criticism D&D has been compared unfavorably to other role-playing games of its time. Writing for Slate in 2008, Erik Sofge makes unfavorable comparisons between the violent incentives of D&D and the more versatile role-playing experience of GURPS. He claims that "for decades, gamers have argued that since D&D came first, its lame, morally repulsive experience system can be forgiven. But the damage is still being done: New generations of players are introduced to RPGs as little more than a collective fantasy of massacre." This criticism generated backlash from D&D fans. Writing for Ars Technica, Ben Kuchera responded that Sofge had experienced a "small-minded Dungeon Master who only wanted to kill things", and that better game experiences are possible. In 2020, Polygon reported that "the D&D team announced that it would be making changes to portions of its 5th edition product line that fans have called out for being insensitive". Sebastian Modak, for The Washington Post, reported that the tabletop community has widely approved these changes. Modak wrote that "in its statement addressing mistakes around portrayals of different peoples in the D&D universe, Wizards of the Coast highlighted its recent efforts in bringing in more diverse voices to craft the new D&D sourcebooks coming out in 2021. [...] These conversations—around depictions of race and alleged treatment of employees of marginalized backgrounds and identities—have encouraged players to seek out other tabletop roleplaying experiences". Matthew Gault, for Wired, reported positively on the roundtable discussions Wizards of the Coast has hosted with fans and community leaders on diversity and inclusion. However, Gault also highlighted that other efforts, such as revisions to old material and the release of new material, have been less great and at times minimal. Gault wrote, "WotC appears to be trying to change things, but it keeps stumbling, and it's often the fans who pick up the pieces. [...] WotC is trying to make changes, but it often feels like lip service. [...] The loudest voices criticizing D&D right now are doing it out of love. They don't want to see it destroyed, they want it to change with the times". However, in 2022, academic Christopher Ferguson stated that the game "was not associated with greater ethnocentrism (one facet of racism) attitudes" after he conducted a survey study of 308 adults (38.2% non-White, and 17% Dungeons and Dragons players). Ferguson concluded that Wizards of the Coast may be responding to a moral panic similar to that surrounding Satanism in the 1990s. In the 2024 update to 5e, character "race" (such as dwarf, elf, or human) was changed to "species." Following an initial response to the speculation by Wizards in November 2022, Following this leak, numerous news and industry-focused outlets reported on negative reactions from both fans and professional content creators. TheStreet highlighted that "the company's main competitors" quickly pivoted away from the OGL in the time it took Wizards to settle on a response. Starburst commented that "historically when the owners of Dungeons and Dragons attempt to restrict what people can do with the game, it leads to a boom in other tabletop roleplaying games. This is happening right now". TheStreet also commented that Wizards united its "entire player base" against it; both TheStreet Io9 reported that Wizards' internal messaging on the response to the leak was this was a fan overreaction.}} before pivoting away from the OGL to release the System Reference Document 5.1 (SRD 5.1) under an irrevocable creative commons license (CC BY 4.0). Edwin Evans-Thirlwell of The Washington Post wrote that "pushback from fans, who criticized WotC's response as far from an apology and a dismissal of their legitimate concerns, led WotC to backpedal further" and that the company "appears to have committed an irreversible act of self-sabotage in trying to replace [the OGL] — squandering the prestige accumulated over 20 years in a matter of weeks". Both Io9 and ComicBook.com called the major concessions – releasing the SRD 5.1 under the creative commons and no longer deauthorizing the OGL1.0a – announced by Wizards a "huge victory" for the Dungeons & Dragons community. Particularly notable are the use of dice as a game mechanic, character record sheets, use of numerical attributes, and gamemaster-centered group dynamics. Within months of the release of Dungeons & Dragons, new role-playing game writers and publishers began releasing their own role-playing games, with most of these being in the fantasy genre. Some of the earliest other role-playing games inspired by D&D include Tunnels & Trolls (1975), Empire of the Petal Throne (1975), and Chivalry & Sorcery (1976). The game's commercial success was a factor that led to lawsuits regarding the distribution of royalties between original creators Gygax and Arneson. Gygax later became embroiled in a political struggle for control of TSR which culminated in a court battle and Gygax's decision to sell his ownership interest in the company in 1985. The role-playing movement initiated by D&D would lead to the release of the science fiction game Traveller (1977), the fantasy game RuneQuest (1978), and subsequent game systems such as Chaosium's Call of Cthulhu (1981), Champions (1982), GURPS (1986), and Vampire: The Masquerade (1991). Dungeons & Dragons and the games it influenced fed back into the genre's origin – miniatures wargames – with combat strategy games like Warhammer Fantasy Battles. D&D also had a large impact on modern video games. Director Jon Favreau credits Dungeons & Dragons with giving him "... a really strong background in imagination, storytelling, understanding how to create tone and a sense of balance." ND Stevenson and the crew of She-Ra and the Princesses of Power were strongly influenced by Dungeons & Dragons, with Stevenson calling it basically a D&D campaign, with Adora, Glimmer, and Bow falling into "specific classes in D&D". A D&D campaign held among id Software staff in the early 1990s featured a demonic invasion, a warrior named Quake and a magic item named Daikatana. John Romero has credited the campaign with inspiring many of his video games of the era, including Doom, Quake and Daikatana. Curtis D. Carbonell, in the 2019 book Dread Trident: Tabletop Role-Playing Games and the Modern Fantastic, wrote: "Negative association with earlier niche 'nerd' culture have reversed. 5e has become inclusive in its reach of players, after years of focusing on a white, male demographic. [...] At its simplest, the game system now encourages different types of persons to form a party not just to combat evil [...] but to engage in any number of adventure scenarios". Academic Emma French, in Real Life in Real Time: Live Streaming Culture (2023), commented on the impact of actual play on the broader Dungeons & Dragons gaming culture – "actual play media circumvents D&D's insulated or exclusionary aspects, skewing away from 'basement dwelling nerds' in favor of a networked, global fandom. Live streaming is now a means of introducing individuals to the game, bringing it into the mainstream at a time when other geek pursuits have also achieved wider visibility and popularity". French highlighted that in 2020 "no actual play live streams hosted by the official DnD channel featured an all-male cast—showing a massive shift from the brand ambassadors endorsed by Wizards of the Coast" previously. an animated television series, a film series, an off-Broadway stage production, an official role-playing soundtrack, novels, both ongoing and limited series licensed comics, and numerous computer and video games. Hobby and toy stores sell dice, miniatures, adventures, and other game aids related to D&D and its game offspring. In November 2023, Hasbro's Entertainment One launched the Dungeons & Dragons Adventures FAST channel, available on platforms such as Amazon Freevee and Plex, which features new actual play web series, reruns of the animated Dungeons & Dragons series, and reruns of other Dungeons & Dragons web series.In popular culture <!-- ATTENTION: PLEASE DO NOT LIST SPECIFIC POP CULTURE REFERENCES TO D&D IN THIS ARTICLE. THERE ARE ALREADY SUFFICIENT EXAMPLES IN THE NOTES SECTION TO SUPPORT THE TEXT. --> D&D grew in popularity through the late 1970s and 1980s. Numerous games, films, and cultural references based on D&D or D&D-like fantasies, characters or adventures have been ubiquitous since the end of the 1970s. D&D players are (sometimes pejoratively) portrayed as the epitome of geekdom, and have become the basis of much geek and gamer humor and satire. Since the release of 5th edition, actual play web series and podcasts such as Critical Role, Dimension 20, and The Adventure Zone, among many others, have experienced a growth in viewership and popularity. According to Hasbro CEO Brian Goldner, viewers on Twitch and YouTube spent over 150 million hours watching D&D gameplay in 2020. Famous D&D players include Pulitzer Prize-winning author Junot Díaz, professional basketball player Tim Duncan, comedian Stephen Colbert, and actors Vin Diesel and Robin Williams. D&D and its fans have been the subject of spoof films, including The Gamers: Dorkness Rising.See also * D&D Championship Series Notes References Bibliography * * * * Archived copy of the article, taken 2009-07-13, [https://web.archive.org/web/20040803051327/http://www.gamebanshee.com/interviews/garygygax2.php page 2] * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Unknown author * – select year on right of page. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Further reading * * * An essay on the early history of the D&D hobby. * Includes a suggested reading list on pages 255–256. * Fannon, Sean Patrick. ''The Fantasy Roleplaying Gamer's Bible, 2nd Edition. Obsidian Studios, 1999. * * * Gygax, Gary. Roleplaying Mastery. New York: Perigee, 1987. . * Gygax, Gary. Master of the Game. New York: Perigee, 1989. . * Miller, John J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20070430221402/http://article.nationalreview.com/?qZmYzZDFmNWI5MTg1N2FmY2E4MTdlMWU5YzBjZjI1ODM "I Was a Teenage Half-Orc"], National Review Online, October 15, 2004. * Miller, John J. [https://www.wsj.com/public/article/SB121487030020517745.html?mod2_1578_middlebox "Dungeons & Dragons In a Digital World"] , The Wall Street Journal, July 1, 2008. * * * Peterson, Jon. Playing at the World: A History of Simulating Wars, People and Fantastic Adventures, from Chess to Role-Playing Games. San Diego: Unreason, 2012. . * * * An article about the conflict over the proprietary or open-source nature of Dungeons & Dragons''. * [http://www.rpgstudies.net/ Studies about fantasy roleplaying games] – a list of academic articles about RPGs * [http://pc.gamespy.com/articles/538/538848p1.html?fromint1 Gamespy's 30th Anniversary of Dungeons & Dragons special] External links * * }} }} }} Category:American role-playing games Category:Games adapted for other media Category:Hasbro franchises Category:Mythopoeia Category:Nerd culture Category:Origins Award winners Category:Role-playing games introduced in 1974 Category:Tabletop games Category:Wizards of the Coast games	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dungeons_&_Dragons	2025-04-05T18:28:19.216728
7941	Double jeopardy	}} In jurisprudence, double jeopardy is a procedural defence<!-- please do not alter to "defense" – this article uses British spelling --> (primarily in common law jurisdictions) that prevents an accused person from being tried again on the same (or similar) charges following an acquittal or conviction and in rare cases prosecutorial and/or judge misconduct in the same jurisdiction. Double jeopardy is a common concept in criminal law – in civil law, a similar concept is that of . The double jeopardy protection in criminal prosecutions bars only an identical prosecution for the same offence; however, a different offence may be charged on identical evidence at a second trial. Res judicata protection is stronger – it precludes any causes of action or claims that arise from a previously litigated subject matter. A variation in common law countries is the peremptory plea, which may take the specific forms of ('previously acquitted') or ('previously convicted'). These doctrines appear to have originated in ancient Roman law, in the broader principle ('not twice against the same'). Availability as a legal defence If a double jeopardy issue is raised, evidence will be placed before the court, which will typically rule as a preliminary matter whether the plea is substantiated; if it is, the projected trial will be prevented from proceeding. In some countries, certain exemptions are permitted. In Scotland, a new trial can be initiated if, for example, the acquitted has made a credible admission of guilt. Part of English law for over 800 years, it was partially abolished in England, Wales and Northern Ireland by the Criminal Justice Act 2003 where, following demand for change, serious offences may be re-tried following an acquittal if new and compelling evidence is found, and if the trial is found to be in the public's interest. In other countries, the protection is afforded by statute.}} In common law countries, a defendant may enter a peremptory plea of ('previously acquitted') or ('previously convicted'), with the same effect. 'at another time [in the past]' and borrowed-English loanwords.}} Double jeopardy is not a principle of international law. It does not apply between different countries, unless having been contractually agreed on between those countries as, for example, in the European Union (Art. 54 Schengen Convention), and in various extradition treaties between two countries. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights The 72 signatories and 166 parties to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights recognise, under Article 14 (7): "No one shall be liable to be tried or punished again for an offence for which he has already been finally convicted or acquitted in accordance with the law and penal procedure of each country." However, it does not apply to prosecutions by two different sovereigns (unless the relevant extradition treaty expresses a prohibition). European Convention on Human Rights All members of the Council of Europe (which includes nearly all European countries and every member of the European Union) have adopted the European Convention on Human Rights. The optional Protocol No. 7 to the convention, Article 4, protects against double jeopardy: "No one shall be liable to be tried or punished again in criminal proceedings under the jurisdiction of the same State for an offence for which he or she has already been finally acquitted or convicted in accordance with the law and penal procedure of that State." All EU states ratified this optional protocol except for Germany, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands. In those member states, national rules governing double jeopardy may or may not comply with the provision cited above. Member states may, however, implement legislation which allows the reopening of a case if new evidence is found or if there was a fundamental defect in the previous proceedings: but there was no formal agreement for each state to introduce it. All states have now chosen to introduce legislation that mirrors COAG's recommendations on "fresh and compelling" evidence. In New South Wales, retrials of serious cases with a minimum sentence of 20 years or more are now possible even if the original trial preceded the 2006 reform. On 17 October 2006, the New South Wales Parliament passed legislation abolishing the rule against double jeopardy in cases where: * an acquittal of a "life sentence offence" (murder, violent gang rape, large commercial supply or production of illegal drugs) is debunked by "fresh and compelling" evidence of guilt; * an acquittal of a "15 years or more sentence offence" was tainted (by perjury, bribery, or perversion of the course of justice). On 30 July 2008, South Australia also introduced legislation to scrap parts of its double jeopardy law, legalising retrials for serious offences with "fresh and compelling" evidence, or if the acquittal was tainted. In Western Australia, amendments introduced on 8 September 2011 allow retrial if "new and compelling" evidence is found. It applies to serious offences where the penalty is life imprisonment or imprisonment for 14 years or more. Acquittal because of tainting (witness intimidation, jury tampering, or perjury) also permits retrial. In Tasmania, on 19 August 2008, amendments were introduced to allow retrial in serious cases if there is "fresh and compelling" evidence. In Victoria on 21 December 2011, legislation was passed allowing new trials where there is "fresh and compelling DNA evidence, where the person acquitted subsequently admits to the crime, or where it becomes clear that key witnesses have given false evidence". In Queensland on 18 October 2007, the double jeopardy laws were modified to allow a retrial where fresh and compelling evidence becomes available after an acquittal for murder or a "tainted acquittal" for a crime carrying a 25-year or more sentence. A "tainted acquittal" requires a conviction for an administration of justice offence, such as perjury, that led to the original acquittal. Canada The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms includes provisions such as section 11(h) prohibiting double jeopardy. However, the prohibition only applies after an accused person has been "finally" convicted or acquitted. Canadian law allows the prosecution to appeal an acquittal based on legal errors. In rare circumstances, when a trial judge made all the factual findings necessary for a finding of guilt but misapplied the law, a court of appeal might also directly substitute an acquittal for a conviction. These cases are not considered double jeopardy because the appeal and the subsequent conviction are deemed to be a continuation of the original trial. For an appeal from an acquittal to be successful, the Supreme Court of Canada requires the Crown to show that an error in law was made during the trial and that it contributed to the verdict. It has been argued that this test is unfairly beneficial to the prosecution. For instance, in his book My Life in Crime and Other Academic Adventures, Martin Friedland contends that the rule should be changed so that a retrial is granted only when the error is shown to be responsible for the verdict, not just a factor. Though the charter permits appeals of acquittals, there are still constitutional limits imposed on the scope of these appeals. In Corp. Professionnelle des Médecins v. Thibault, the Supreme Court struck down a provision of Quebec law that allowed appellate courts to conduct a de novo review of both legal and factual findings. In doing so, it held that the scope of an appeal may not extend to challenging findings of fact where no legal error has been made. At this point, the court reasoned, the process ceases to be an appeal and instead becomes a new trial disguised as one. A notable example cited by critics of Canada's appeal system is the case of Guy Paul Morin, who was wrongfully convicted in his second trial after the acquittal in his first trial was vacated by the Supreme Court. Another notable use of the system occurred in the case of child murderer Guy Turcotte, the Quebec Court of Appeal overturned the initial verdict of not criminally responsible by reason of mental disorder and ordered a second trial after it found that the judge had erroneously instructed the jury. Turcotte was later convicted of second-degree murder in the second trial. Another well-known example is Henry Morgentaler, whose repeated acquittals by juries were overturned on appeal in multiple provinces. France Once all appeals have been exhausted on a case, the judgement is final and the action of the prosecution is closed (code of penal procedure, art. 6), except if the final ruling was forged. Prosecution for a crime already judged is impossible even if incriminating evidence has been found. However, a person who has been convicted may request another trial on the grounds of new exculpating evidence through a procedure known as révision. French law allows the prosecution to appeal an acquittal. Germany The Basic Law (Grundgesetz) for the Federal Republic of Germany protects against double jeopardy if a final verdict is pronounced. A verdict is final if nobody appeals against it. However, each trial party can appeal against a verdict in the first instance. The prosecution or the defendants can appeal against a judgement if they disagree with it. In this case, the trial starts again in the second instance, the court of appeal (Berufungsgericht), which reconsiders the facts and reasons and delivers a final judgement. If one of the parties disagrees with the second instance's judgement, they can appeal it only for formal judicial reasons. The case will be checked in the third instance (Revisionsgericht) to see whether all laws were correctly applied. The rule applies to the whole "historical event, which is usually considered a single historical course of actions the separation of which would seem unnatural". This is true even if new facts come to light that indicate other crimes. The Penal Procedural Code (Strafprozessordnung) permits a retrial (Wiederaufnahmeverfahren), if it is in favour of the defendant or if the following events have happened: In the case of an order of summary punishment, which can be issued by the court without a trial for lesser misdemeanours, there is a further exception: In Germany, a felony is defined by § 12 (1) StGB as a crime that has a minimum of one year of imprisonment. India A partial protection against double jeopardy is a Fundamental Right guaranteed under Article 20 (2) of the Constitution of India, which states "No person shall be prosecuted and punished for the same offence more than once". This provision enshrines the concept of autrefois convict, that no one convicted of an offence can be tried or punished a second time. However, it does not extend to autrefois acquit, and so if a person is acquitted of a crime he can be retried. In India, protection against autrefois acquit is a statutory right, not a fundamental one. Such protection is provided by provisions of the Code of Criminal Procedure rather than by the Constitution. Japan The Constitution of Japan, which came into effect on 3 May 1947, states in Article 39 that However, in 1950, one defendant was found guilty in the District Court for crimes related to the election law and was sentenced to paying a fine. The prosecutor wanted a stronger sentence and appealed to the High Court. As a result, the defendant was sentenced to three months of imprisonment. He appealed to the Supreme Court on the grounds that the sentence was excessive when compared with precedents and that he had been placed in double jeopardy, which was in violation of Article 39. On 27 September 1950, all fifteen judges of the Supreme Court made the Grand Bench Decision to rule against the defendant and declared that a criminal proceeding in the District Court, High Court and Supreme Court is all one case and that there is no double jeopardy. In other words, if the prosecutor appeals against a judgement of not guilty or a guilty decision that they think does not impose a severe enough sentence, the defendant will not be placed in double jeopardy. On 10 October 2003, the Supreme Court made a landmark decision in the area of double jeopardy. The case involved Article 235 of the Penal Code, which addresses "simple larceny", and Article 2 of the Law for Prevention and Disposition of Robbery, Theft, etc., which addresses "habitual larceny". The Court ruled that in the event that there are two trials for separate cases of simple larceny, it will not be considered double jeopardy, even if the prosecutor could have charged both of them as a single crime of habitual larceny. The defendant in this case had committed crimes of trespassing and simple larceny on 22 occasions. The defence counsel argued that the crimes were actually one offence of habitual larceny and that charging them as separate counts was double jeopardy. The Supreme Court ruled that it was within the prosecutor's discretion as to whether to charge the defendant with one count of habitual larceny or to charge them with multiple counts of trespassing and simple larceny. In either case, it is not considered double jeopardy. Netherlands In the Netherlands, the state prosecution can appeal a not-guilty verdict at the bench. New evidence can be applied during a retrial at a district court. Thus one can be tried twice for the same alleged crime. If one is convicted at the district court, the defence can make an appeal on procedural grounds to the supreme court. The supreme court might admit this complaint, and the case will be reopened yet again, at another district court. Again, new evidence might be introduced by the prosecution. On 9 April 2013, the Dutch senate voted 36 "yes" versus 35 "no" in favour of a new law that allows the prosecutor to re-try a person who was found not guilty in court. This law is limited to offences in which the statute of limitations does not expire. These are offences that are punishable by at least 12 years of imprisonment, and other specific offences. Offences that have already expired (such as prior to the change in legislation that abolished the statute of limitations) cannot be retried. A retrial is only possible by ground of a 'novum': the situation in which new evidence has come to light and in which it seems that, had the judge known of this evidence, the defendant would have been prosecuted. The new evidence has to either be new technical evidence or a trustworthy confession by the defendant or their co-suspect. Pakistan Article 13 of the Constitution of Pakistan protects a person from being punished or prosecuted more than once for the same offence. Section 403 of [http://www.fmu.gov.pk/docs/laws/Code_of_criminal_procedure_1898.pdf The Code of Criminal Procedure] contemplates a situation where a person having once been tried by a Court of competent jurisdiction and acquitted by such court cannot be tried again for the same offence or for any other offence based on similar facts. The scope of section 403 is restricted to criminal proceedings and not to civil proceedings and departmental inquiries. Serbia This principle is incorporated into the Constitution of the Republic of Serbia and further elaborated in its Criminal Procedure Act. South Africa The Bill of Rights in the Constitution of South Africa forbids a retrial when there has already been an acquittal or a conviction. South Korea Article 13 of the South Korean constitution provides that no citizen shall be placed in double jeopardy. United Kingdom England and Wales Double jeopardy has been permitted in England and Wales in certain (exceptional) circumstances since the Criminal Justice Act 2003. Pre-2003 The doctrines of autrefois acquit and autrefois convict persisted as part of the common law from the time of the Norman conquest of England; they were regarded as essential elements for protection of the subject's liberty and respect for due process of law in that there should be finality of proceedings. * A retrial is permissible if the interests of justice so require, following an appeal against conviction by a defendant. * A "tainted acquittal", where there has been an offence of interference with, or intimidation of, a juror or witness, can be challenged in the High Court. In Connelly v DPP [1964] AC 1254, the Law Lords ruled that a defendant could not be tried for any offence arising out of substantially the same set of facts relied upon in a previous charge of which he had been acquitted unless there are "special circumstances" proven by the prosecution. There is little case law on the meaning of "special circumstances", but it has been suggested that the emergence of new evidence would suffice. A defendant who had been convicted of an offence could be given a second trial for an aggravated form of that offence if the facts constituting the aggravation were discovered after the first conviction. By contrast, a person who had been acquitted of a lesser offence could not be tried for an aggravated form even if new evidence became available. Post-2003 Following the murder of Stephen Lawrence, the Macpherson Report recommended that the double jeopardy rule should be abrogated in murder cases, and that it should be possible to subject an acquitted murder suspect to a second trial if "fresh and viable" new evidence later came to light. The Law Commission later added its support to this in its report "Double Jeopardy and Prosecution Appeals" (2001). A parallel report into the criminal justice system by Lord Justice Auld, a past Senior Presiding Judge for England and Wales, had also commenced in 1999 and was published as the Auld Report six months after the Law Commission report. It opined that the Law Commission had been unduly cautious by limiting the scope to murder and that "the exceptions should [...] extend to other grave offences punishable with life and/or long terms of imprisonment as Parliament might specify." 1999 was also the year of a highly publicised case in which a man, David Smith, was convicted of the murder of a prostitute after having been acquitted of the "almost identical" murder of sex worker Sarah Crump six years previously. Because of the double jeopardy laws that existed at the time, Smith could not be re-tried for Crump's murder, despite police insisting they were not looking for anybody else and that the case was closed.}} Both Jack Straw (then Home Secretary) and William Hague (then Leader of the Opposition) favoured the measures suggested by the Auld Report. These recommendations were implemented—not uncontroversially at the time—within the Criminal Justice Act 2003, and this provision came into force in April 2005. It opened certain serious crimes (including murder, manslaughter, kidnapping, rape, armed robbery, and serious drug crimes) to a retrial, regardless of when committed, with two conditions: the retrial must be approved by the Director of Public Prosecutions, and the Court of Appeal must agree to quash the original acquittal due to "new and compelling evidence". Then Director of Public Prosecutions, Ken Macdonald QC, said that he expected no more than a handful of cases to be brought in a year. On 11 September 2006, Dunlop became the first person to be convicted of murder following a prior acquittal for the same crime, in his case his 1991 acquittal of Hogg's murder. Some years later he had confessed to the crime, and was convicted of perjury, but was unable to be retried for the killing itself. The case was re-investigated in early 2005, when the new law came into effect, and his case was referred to the Court of Appeal, in November 2005, for permission for a new trial, which was granted. Dunlop pleaded guilty to murder and was sentenced to life imprisonment, with a recommendation he serve no less than 17 years. On 13 December 2010, Mark Weston became the first person to be retried and found guilty of murder by a jury (Dunlop having confessed). In 1996 Weston had been acquitted of the murder of Vikki Thompson at Ascott-under-Wychwood on 12 August 1995, but following the discovery in 2009 of compelling new evidence (Thompson's blood on Weston's boots) he was arrested and tried for a second time. He was sentenced to life imprisonment, to serve a minimum of 13 years. In December 2018, convicted paedophile Russell Bishop was also retried and found guilty by a jury for the Babes in the Wood murders of two 9-year-old girls, Nicola Fellows and Karen Hadaway, on 9 October 1986. At the original trial in 1987, a key piece of the prosecution's case rested on the recovery of a discarded blue sweatshirt. Under questioning, Bishop denied that the sweatshirt belonged to him, but his girlfriend, Jennifer Johnson, alleged the clothing was Bishop's, before she changed her story in the trial, telling the jury she had never seen the top before. Attributed to a series of blunders in the prosecution's case, Bishop was acquitted by the jury after two hours of deliberations. At the 2018 trial, a jury of seven men and five women returned a guilty verdict after two-and-a-half hours of deliberation. In February 2020, Merseyside Police called for further reform to the double jeopardy law in England so as to allow previously acquitted suspects to be re-interviewed by police. The force had wanted to re-interview a suspect in the unsolved case of the murders of John Greenwood and Gary Miller who had been acquitted of the crime in 1981, but were not permitted to do so. The force had also not been allowed to re-charge the man of murder in 2019, causing them to publicly request that the law be changed and stating: "We believe being able to re-question suspects could potentially lead to being able to demonstrate the new and compelling evidence needed to reopen particular cases, including the murders of John Greenwood and Gary Miller". Scotland The double jeopardy rule no longer applies absolutely in Scotland since the Double Jeopardy (Scotland) Act 2011 came into force on 28 November 2011. The Act introduced three broad exceptions to the rule: where the acquittal had been tainted by an attempt to pervert the course of justice; where the accused admitted their guilt after acquittal; and where there was new evidence. Northern Ireland In Northern Ireland, the Criminal Justice Act 2003, effective 18 April 2005, makes certain "qualifying offence" (including murder, rape, kidnapping, specified sexual acts with young children, specified drug offences, defined acts of terrorism, as well as in certain cases attempts or conspiracies to commit the foregoing) subject to retrial after acquittal (including acquittals obtained before passage of the Act) if there is a finding by the Court of Appeal that there is "new and compelling evidence". United States In the United States, the protection in common law against double jeopardy is maintained through the Double Jeopardy Clause of the Fifth Amendment to the Constitution, which provides: Conversely, double jeopardy comes with a key exception. Under the dual sovereignty doctrine, multiple sovereigns can indict a defendant for the same crime. The federal and state governments can have overlapping criminal laws, so a criminal offender may be convicted in individual states and federal courts for exactly the same crime or for different crimes arising out of the same facts. However, in 2016, the Supreme Court held in Puerto Rico v. Sanchez Valle that Puerto Rico is not a separate sovereign for purposes of the Double Jeopardy Clause. The dual sovereignty doctrine has been the subject of substantial scholarly criticism. As described by the U.S. Supreme Court in Ball v. United States 163 U.S. 662 (1896), one of its earliest cases dealing with double jeopardy, "the prohibition is not against being twice punished, but against being twice put in jeopardy; and the accused, whether convicted or acquitted, is equally put in jeopardy at the first trial". <!-- Included this quote so that the reader will know why it's called "double jeopardy" --> The Double Jeopardy Clause encompasses four distinct prohibitions: subsequent prosecution after acquittal, subsequent prosecution after conviction, subsequent prosecution after certain mistrials, and multiple punishment in the same indictment. Jeopardy "attaches" when the jury is impanelled, the first witness is sworn, or a plea is accepted. Prosecution after acquittal With two exceptions, the government is not permitted to appeal or retry the defendant once jeopardy attaches to a trial unless the case does not conclude. Conditions which constitute "conclusion" of a case include * After the entry of an acquittal, whether: an acquittal by jury verdict a directed verdict before the case is submitted to the jury, a directed verdict after a deadlocked jury, an appellate reversal for sufficiency (except by direct appeal to a higher appellate court), or ** an "implied acquittal" via conviction of a lesser included offence. * re-litigating against the same defence a fact necessarily found by the jury in a prior acquittal, even if the jury hung on other counts. In such a situation, the government is barred by collateral estoppel. In these cases, the trial is concluded and the prosecution is precluded from appealing or retrying the defendant over the offence to which they were acquitted. This principle does not prevent the government from appealing a pre-trial motion to dismiss or other non-merits dismissal, or a directed verdict after a jury conviction, nor does it prevent the trial judge from entertaining a motion for reconsideration of a directed verdict, if the jurisdiction has so provided by rule or statute. Nor does it prevent the government from retrying the defendant after an appellate reversal other than for sufficiency, including habeas corpus, or "thirteenth juror" appellate reversals notwithstanding sufficiency on the principle that jeopardy has not "terminated". The dual sovereignty doctrine allows a federal prosecution of an offence to proceed regardless of a previous state prosecution for that same offence and vice versa because "an act denounced as a crime by both national and state sovereignties is an offence against the peace and dignity of both and may be punished by each". The doctrine is solidly entrenched in the law, but there has been a traditional reluctance in the federal executive branch to gratuitously wield the power it grants, due to public opinion being generally hostile to such action. Exceptions There are two exceptions to bans on retrying defendants. If a defendant bribed a judge into acquitting him or her, the defendant was not in jeopardy and can be retried. A member of the armed forces can be retried by court-martial in a military court, even if he or she has been previously acquitted by a civilian court. This exception was used to prosecute Timothy Hennis for the Eastburn family murders after his previous trial acquitted him. An individual can be prosecuted by both the United States and an Indian tribe for the same acts that constituted crimes in both jurisdictions; it was established by the Supreme Court in United States v. Lara that as the two are separate sovereigns, prosecuting a crime under both tribal and federal law does not attach double jeopardy. Multiple punishment, including prosecution after conviction In Blockburger v. United States (1932), the Supreme Court announced the following test: the government may separately try and punish the defendant for two crimes if each crime contains an element that the other does not. Blockburger is the default rule, unless the governing statute legislatively intends to depart; for example, Continuing Criminal Enterprise (CCE) may be punished separately from its predicates, as can conspiracy. The Blockburger test, originally developed in the multiple punishments context, is also the test for prosecution after conviction. In Grady v. Corbin (1990), the Court held that a double jeopardy violation could lie even where the Blockburger test was not satisfied, but Grady was later distinguished in United States v. Felix (1992), when the court reverted to the Blockburger test without completely dismissing the Grady interpretation. The court eventually overruled Grady in United States v. Dixon (1993). Prosecution after mistrial The rule for mistrials depends upon who sought the mistrial. If the defendant moves for a mistrial, there is no bar to retrial, unless the prosecutor acted in "bad faith", i.e. goaded the defendant into moving for a mistrial because the government specifically wanted a mistrial. If the prosecutor moves for a mistrial, there is no bar to retrial if the trial judge finds "manifest necessity" for granting the mistrial. The same standard governs mistrials granted sua sponte. Retrials are not common, due to the legal expenses to the government. However, in the mid-1980s Georgia antique dealer James Arthur Williams was tried a record four times for murder over the shooting of Danny Hansford, and after three mistrials was finally acquitted on the grounds of self-defence. The case is recounted in the book Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil, which was adapted into a film directed by Clint Eastwood (the movie combines the four trials into one). See also * Sam Sheppard * Emmett Till * David Smith, British man acquitted of the murder of a woman in 1993, only to be convicted of murdering another woman in an "almost identical" case in 1999 Footnotes Further reading * External links Australia ; In favour of the current rule prohibiting retrial after acquittal * [http://www.agd.nsw.gov.au/lawlink/pdo/ll_pdo.nsf/pages/PDO_ruleagainstdoublejeopardy NSW Public Defenders Office] ; Opposing the rule that prohibits retrial after acquittal * [http://www.autrefoisacquit.info/index.html Questioning Double Jeopardy] * [http://www.doublejeopardyreform.org DoubleJeopardyReform.Org] United Kingdom Research and Notes produced for the UK Parliament, summarising the history of legal change, views and responses, and analyses: * * United States * [http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/data/constitution/amendment05/ FindLaw Annotation of the Fifth Amendment to the Constitution] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060110030555/http://www.uscourts.gov/outreach/DJ/index.htm Double Jeopardy Game on uscourts.gov] (archived from [http://www.uscourts.gov/outreach/DJ/index.htm the original] on 2006-01-10) * Jack McCall (famous murder case involving a claim of double jeopardy) Other countries * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071119043436/http://www.lawreform.ie/publications/data/lrc119/lrc_119.html Law Reform Commission of Ireland Consultation Paper on Prosecution Appeals Brought on Indictment] Category:Criminal procedure Category:Defense (legal) Category:Legal terminology	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_jeopardy	2025-04-05T18:28:19.243078
7942	Disbarment	Disbarment, also known as striking off, is the removal of a lawyer from a bar association or the practice of law, thus revoking their law license or admission to practice law. Disbarment is usually a punishment for unethical or criminal conduct but may also be imposed for incompetence or incapacity. Procedures vary depending on the law society; temporary disbarment may be called suspension. Australia In Australia, states regulate the Legal Profession under state law despite many participating in a uniform scheme. Admission as a lawyer is the business of the admissions board and the Supreme Court. Disciplinary proceedings may be commenced by the Bar Association, the Law Society of which one is a member, or the board itself. Germany In Germany, a Berufsverbot is a ban on practicing a profession, which the government can issue to a lawyer for misconduct, Volksverhetzung or for serious mismanagement of personal finances. In April 1933, the Nazi government issued a Berufsverbot forbidding the practice of law by Jews, Communists, and other political opponents, except for those protected by the Frontkämpferprivileg. United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, the removal of the licence to practise of a barrister or Scottish advocate is called being "disbarred", whilst the removal of a solicitor from the rolls in England and Wales, Scotland, or Northern Ireland is called being "struck off". United States Overview Generally, disbarment is imposed as a sanction for conduct indicating that an attorney is not fit to practice law, willfully disregarding a client's interests, commingling funds, or engaging in fraud that impedes the administration of justice. In some states, any lawyer who is convicted of a felony is automatically suspended pending further disciplinary proceedings, or, in New York, automatically disbarred. Automatic disbarment, although opposed by the American Bar Association, has been described as a convicted felon's just deserts. In the United States legal system, disbarment is specific to regions; one can be disbarred from some courts while still being a member of the bar in another jurisdiction. However, under the American Bar Association's Model Rules of Professional Conduct, which have been adopted in most states, disbarment in one state or court is grounds for disbarment in a jurisdiction which has adopted the Model Rules. Disbarment is quite rare: in 2011, only 1,046 lawyers were disbarred. Instead, lawyers are usually sanctioned by their clients through civil malpractice proceedings, or via fine, censure, suspension, or other punishments from the disciplinary boards. To be disbarred is considered a great embarrassment and shame, even if one no longer wishes to continue a career in law. Because disbarment rules vary by area, different rules can apply depending on where a lawyer is disbarred. Notably, most US states have no procedure for permanently disbarring a person. Depending on the jurisdiction, a lawyer may reapply to the bar immediately, after five to seven years, or be banned for life. Notable U.S. disbarments In the 20th and 21st centuries, one former U.S. president and one former U.S. vice president have been disbarred, and another former president has been suspended from one bar and forced to resign from another bar rather than face disbarment. Former vice president Spiro Agnew, having pleaded no contest (which subjects a person to the same criminal penalties as a guilty plea but is not an admission of guilt for a civil suit) to charges of bribery and tax evasion, was disbarred from Maryland, the state of which he had previously been governor. Former president Richard Nixon was disbarred from New York in 1976 for obstruction of justice related to the Watergate scandal. He had attempted to resign from the New York bar, as he had done with California and the Supreme Court, but his resignation was not accepted as he would not acknowledge that he was unable to defend himself from the charges brought against him. In 2001, following a 5-year suspension by the Arkansas bar, the United States Supreme Court suspended Bill Clinton from the United States Supreme Court bar, providing 40 days for him to contest disbarment. He resigned before the end of the 40 days, thus avoiding disbarment. Alger Hiss was disbarred for a felony conviction but later became the first person reinstated to the bar in Massachusetts after disbarment. In 2007, Mike Nifong, the District Attorney of Durham County, North Carolina who presided over the 2006 Duke University lacrosse case, was disbarred for prosecutorial misconduct related to his handling of the case. In April 2012, a three-member panel appointed by the Arizona Supreme Court voted unanimously to disbar Andrew Thomas, former County Attorney of Maricopa County, Arizona, and a former close confederate of Maricopa County Sheriff Joe Arpaio. According to the panel, Thomas "outrageously exploited power, flagrantly fostered fear, and disgracefully misused the law" while serving as Maricopa County Attorney. The panel found "clear and convincing evidence" that Thomas brought unfounded and malicious criminal and civil charges against political opponents, including four state judges and the state attorney general. "Were this a criminal case," the panel concluded, "we are confident that the evidence would establish this conspiracy beyond a reasonable doubt." Jack Thompson, the Florida lawyer noted for his activism against Howard Stern, video games, and rap music, was permanently disbarred for various charges of misconduct. The action resulted from several grievances claiming that Thompson had made defamatory, false statements and attempted to humiliate, embarrass, harass, or intimidate his opponents. The order was made on September 25, 2008, effective October 25. However, Thompson tried to appeal to the higher courts to avoid the penalty taking effect. Neither the US District Court nor the US Supreme Court would hear his appeal, rendering the judgment of the Florida Supreme Court final. Ed Fagan, a New York lawyer who prominently represented Holocaust victims against Swiss banks, was disbarred in New York (in 2008) and New Jersey (in 2009) for failing to pay court fines and fees; and for misappropriating client and escrow trust funds. F. Lee Bailey, noted criminal defense attorney, was disbarred by Florida in 2001, with reciprocal disbarment in Massachusetts in 2002. The Florida disbarment resulted from his stock handling in the DuBoc marijuana case. Bailey was found guilty of 7 counts of attorney misconduct by the Florida Supreme Court. Bailey had transferred a large portion of DuBoc's assets into his own accounts, using the interest gained on those assets to pay for personal expenses. In March 2005, Bailey filed to regain his law license in Massachusetts. The book Florida Pulp Nonfiction details the peculiar facts of the DuBoc case and extended interviews with Bailey, including his own defense. Bailey is also best known for representing murder suspect O. J. Simpson in 1994. Richard P. Liebowitz, a New York attorney focused on copyrights held by photographers, was disbarred by the state of New York in 2024 following suspension from the practice of law in the Southern District of New York. His disbarment followed what was described as a "pattern and practice of failing to comply with court orders and making false statements to the court" and multiple lawsuits wherein Liebowitz was sanctioned for misconduct. Rudy Giuliani was disbarred in New York and Washington, D.C., for false allegations about mass voter fraud and his participation in the January 6, 2021, attack on the United States Capitol to subvert the 2020 Presidential Election. References Category:Legal ethics Category:Practice of law Category:Abuse of the legal system	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disbarment	2025-04-05T18:28:19.251487
7946	Dog tag	thumb\|upright=1.35\|A pair of blank dog tags on one ball chain. thumb\|Dog tag placed in bootlace. thumb\|New Zealand Army wristband dog tag. thumb\|Dog tag Graphotype Class 6380. Dog tag is an informal but common term for a specific type of identification tag worn by military personnel. The tags' primary use is for the identification of casualties; they have information about the individual written on them, including identification and essential basic medical information such as blood type and history of inoculations. They often indicate a religious preference as well. Dog tags are usually fabricated from a corrosion-resistant metal. They commonly contain two copies of the information, either in the form of a single tag that can be broken in half, or as two identical tags on the same chain. This purposeful duplication allows one tag, or half-tag, to be collected from an individual's dead body for notification, while the duplicate remains with the corpse if the conditions of battle prevent it from being immediately recovered. The term arose and became popular because of the tags' resemblance to animal registration tags. Although typically worn around the neck, dog tags have been worn on boot laces and wristbands etc. History thumb\|U.S. Army dog tags from World War II The earliest mention of an identification tag for soldiers comes in Polyaenus (Stratagems 1.17) where the Spartans wrote their names on sticks tied to their left wrists. A type of dog tag ("signaculum") was given to the Roman legionary at the moment of enrollment. The legionary "signaculum" was a lead disk with a leather string, worn around the neck, with the name of the recruit and the indication of the legion of which the recruit was part. This procedure, together with enrollment in the list of recruits, was made at the beginning of a four-month probatory period ("probatio"). The recruit obtained the military status only after the oath of allegiance ("sacramentum") at the end of "probatio", meaning that from a legal point of view the "signaculum" was given to a subject who was no longer a civilian, but not yet in the military. In more recent times, dog tags were provided to Chinese soldiers as early as the mid-19th century. During the Taiping revolt (1851–66), both the Imperialists (i.e., the Chinese Imperial Army regular servicemen) and those Taiping rebels wearing a uniform wore wooden dog tags at the belt, bearing the soldier's name, age, birthplace, unit, and date of enlistment. American Civil War During the American Civil War from 1861 to 1865, some soldiers pinned paper notes with their name and home address to the backs of their coats. Other soldiers stenciled identification on their knapsacks or scratched it in the soft lead backing of their army belt buckles. alt=Image used with permission of Littleton Coin Company, Littleton, NH.\|thumb\|ID tags for Lt. Henry Correll of the 2nd Vermont Volunteer Infantry Manufacturers of identification badges recognized a market and began advertising in periodicals. Their pins were usually shaped to suggest a branch of service, and engraved with the soldier's name and unit. Machine-stamped tags were also made of brass or lead with a hole and usually had (on one side) an eagle or shield, and such phrases as "War for the Union" or "Liberty, Union, and Equality". The other side had the soldier's name and unit, and sometimes a list of battles in which he had participated. Franco-Prussian War On a volunteer basis Prussian soldiers had decided to wear identification tags in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. However, many rejected dog tags as a bad omen for their lives. So until eight months after the Battle of Königgrätz, with almost 8,900 Prussian casualties, only 429 of them could be identified. With the formation of the North German Confederation in 1867 Prussian military regulations became binding for the militaries of all North German member states. With the Prussian Instruktion über das Sanitätswesen der Armee im Felde (i.e., instruction on the medical corps organisation of the army afield) issued on 29 April 1869 identification tags (then called Erkennungsmarke; literally "recognition mark") were to be handed out to each soldier before deployment afield. The Prussian Army issued identification tags for its troops at the beginning of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. They were nicknamed Hundemarken (the German equivalent of "dog tags") and compared to a similar identification system instituted by the dog licence fee, adding tags to collars of those dogs whose owners paid the fee, in the Prussian capital city of Berlin at around the same time period. World War I thumb\|A World War I German army dog tag indicating name, place of birth, battalion, unit and serial number The British Army introduced identity discs in place of identity cards in 1907, in the form of aluminium discs, typically made at regimental depots using machines similar to those common at fun fairs, the details being pressed into the thin metal one letter at a time. Army Order 287 of September 1916 required the British Army provide all soldiers with two official tags, both made of vulcanised asbestos fibre (which were more comfortable to wear in hot climates) carrying identical details, again impressed one character at a time. The first tag, an octagonal green disc, was attached to a long cord around the neck. The second tag, a circular red disc, was threaded on a 6-inch cord suspended from the first tag. The first tag was intended to remain on the body for future identification, while the second tag could be taken to record the death. British and Empire/Commonwealth forces (Australia, Canada, and New Zealand) were issued essentially identical identification discs of basic pattern during the Great War, Second World War and Korea, though official identity discs were frequently supplemented by private-purchase items such as identity bracelets, particularly favoured by sailors who believed the official discs were unlikely to survive long immersion in water. The U.S. Army first authorized identification tags in War Department General Order No. 204, dated December 20, 1906, which essentially prescribes the Kennedy identification tag: The U.S. Army changed regulations on July 6, 1916, so that all soldiers were issued two tags: one to stay with the body and the other to go to the person in charge of the burial for record-keeping purposes. In 1918, the U.S. Army adopted and allotted the service number system, and name and service numbers were ordered stamped on the identification tags. World War II "notched" tags thumb\|One of the two compressed asbestos identity discs issued by the South African Navy during World War II with rank, surname, initials, force number and religious affiliation thumb\|British WWII RAF Dog tag of the Jewish soldier Astman, identification number 775923. Both tags were made from compressed asbestos, the red fireproof and the grey rot proof. There is a recurring myth about the notch situated in one end of the dog tags issued to United States Army personnel during World War II, and up until the Korean War era. It was rumored that the notch's purpose was that, if a soldier found one of his comrades on the battlefield, he could take one tag to the commanding officer and stick the other between the teeth of the soldier to ensure that the tag would remain with the body and be identified. In reality, the notch was used with the Model 70 Addressograph Hand Identification Imprinting Machine (a pistol-type imprinter used primarily by the Medical Department during World War II). American dogtags of the 1930s through 1980s were produced using a Graphotype machine, in which characters are debossed into metal plates. Some tags are still debossed, using earlier equipment, and some are embossed (with raised letters) on computer-controlled equipment. In the Graphotype process, commonly used commercially from the early 1900s through the 1980s, a debossing machine was used to stamp characters into metal plates; the plates could then be used to repetitively stamp such things as addresses onto paper in the same way that a typewriter functions, except that a single stroke of the printer could produce a block of text, rather than requiring each character to be printed individually. The debossing process creates durable, easily legible metal plates, well-suited for military identification tags, leading to adoption of the system by the American military. It was also realized that debossed tags can function the same way the original Graphotype plates do. The Model 70 took advantage of this fact, and was intended to rapidly print all of the information from a soldier's dogtag directly onto medical and personnel forms, with a single squeeze of the trigger. However, this requires that the tag being inserted with the proper orientation (stamped characters facing down), and it was believed that battlefield stress could lead to errors. To force proper orientation of the tags, the tags are produced with a notch, and there is a locator tab inside the Model 70 which prevents the printer from operating if the tag is inserted with the notch in the wrong place (as it is if the tag is upside down). This feature was not as useful in the field as had been hoped, however, due to adverse conditions such as weather, dirt and dust, water, etc. In addition, the Model 70 resembled a pistol, thus attracting the attention of snipers (who might assume that a man carrying a pistol was an officer). As a result, use of the Model 70 hand imprinter by field medics was rapidly abandoned (as were most of the Model 70s themselves), and eventually the specification that tags include the locator notch was removed from production orders. Existing stocks of tags were used until depleted, and in the 1960s it was not uncommon for a soldier to be issued one tag with the notch and one tag without. Notched tags are still in production, to satisfy the needs of hobbyists, film production, etc., while the Model 70 imprinter has become a rare collector's item. It appears instructions that would confirm the notch's mythical use were issued at least unofficially by the Graves Registration Service during the Vietnam War to Army troops headed overseas. Dog tags are traditionally part of the makeshift battlefield memorials soldiers created for their fallen comrades. The casualty's rifle with bayonet affixed is stood vertically atop the empty boots, with the helmet over the rifle's stock. The dog tags hang from the rifle's handle or trigger guard. Non-military usage Medical condition identification Some tags (along with similar items such as MedicAlert bracelets) are used also by civilians to identify their wearers and: specify them as having health problems that may suddenly incapacitate their wearers and render them incapable of providing treatment guidance (as in the cases of heart problems, epilepsy, diabetic coma, accident or major trauma) specify them as having health problems that may interact adversely with medical treatments, especially standard or "first-line" ones (as in the case of an allergy to common medications) provide in case of emergency ("ICE") contact information state a religious, moral, or other objection to artificial resuscitation, if a first responder attempts to administer such treatment when the wearer is non-responsive and thus unable to warn against doing so. A DNR signed by a physician is still required in some states. Military personnel in some jurisdictions may wear a supplementary medical information tag. Fashion Dog tags have found their way into youth fashion as military chic. Originally worn as a part of a military uniform by youth wishing to present a tough or militaresque image, dog tags have since reached wider fashion circles. They may be inscribed with a person's details, beliefs or tastes, a favorite quote, or may bear the name or logo of a band or performer. The wearing of dog tags as a fashion accessory may be considered disrespectful or as stolen valour by some military personnel. Since the late 1990s, custom dog tags have been fashionable amongst musicians (particularly rappers), and as a marketing give-away item. Numerous companies offer customers the opportunity to create their own personalized dog tags with their own photos, logos, and text. High-end jewellers have featured gold and silver dog tags encrusted with diamonds and other jewels. After the 2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel, in which over 250 hostages were kidnapped from Israel to the Gaza Strip, dog tags became a symbol of the movement to free the Israeli hostages. It became common for people in Israel and elsewhere to publicly wear their own military dog tags or specially made dog tags to show solidarity with the hostages and their families, and to symbolize a call for the immediate release or rescue of the hostages. Phrases inscribed on the purpose-made dog tags include "bring them home now," "7.10.23," and "הלב שלנו שבוי בעזה" (English: "our hearts are captive in Gaza"). These inscribed dog tags are sold in markets and online shops, often as part of fundraisers to benefit the Hostages and Missing Families Forum, or other similar causes. Variations by country Austria thumb\|Austrian dog tag. The Austrian Bundesheer used a single long, rectangular tag, with oval ends, stamped with blood group & Rh factor at the end, with ID number underneath. Two slots and a hole stamped beneath allows the tag to be broken in halves, and the long bottom portion has both the ID number and a series of holes which allows the tag to be inserted into a dosimeter. This has been replaced with a more conventional, wider and rounded rectangle which can still be halved, but lacks the dosimeter reading holes. Australia thumb\|Australian dog tags, fitted with rubber dog tag silencers. Note the lower circular tag attached to the upper tag. The Australian Defence Force issues soldiers two tags of different shapes, one octagonal and one circular, containing the following information: AS (denoting Australia, previously both AU and AUST have been used) PMKeyS/Service number First initial Last name Religious abbreviation (e.g. RC – Roman Catholic, NREL – No religion) Blood group The information is printed exactly the same on both discs. In the event of a casualty, the circular tag is removed from the body. Belgium Belgian Forces identity tags are, like their Canadian and Norwegian contemporaries, designed to be broken in two in the case of a fatality; the lower half is returned to the Belgian Defence Staff, while the upper half remains on the body. The tags contain the following information, with slight variation depending on the linguistic region of the soldier: Upper half: Belgisch Leger/Armee Belge (Belgian Army) and Date of Birth in DD/MM/YYYY format. Surname with the addition of the first letter of given name. Service number and blood group with RH factor and optionally religion. Lower half: identical. Example: Belgisch Leger 01/01/1991 Surname J 1234567 O+ KATH Canada thumb\|Canadian Forces ID Disk. Name and service number are redacted. Canadian Armed Forces identity discs (abbreviated "ID discs") are designed to be broken in two in the case of fatality; the lower half is returned to National Defence Headquarters with the member's personal documents, while the upper half remains on the body. The tags contain the following information: Upper half: Service Number (SN) Initials and surname Religion (or "NRE" if none) and blood group with RH factor The legend "CDN FORCES CDN" (or for foreign nationals, the name of the country the individual represents) The text "DO NOT REMOVE / NE PAS ENLEVER" on the reverse Lower half: identical, except that the reverse is blank. Before the Service Number was introduced in the 1990s, military personnel were identified on the ID discs (as well as other documents) by their social insurance number. China The People's Liberation Army issues two long, rectangular tags. All information is stamped in Simplified Chinese: Full name Gender Date of birth RIC number PLA's ID number Blood type Branch PLA is introducing a two-dimensional matrix code on the second tag, the matrix code contains a link to the official database. This allows the inquirer get more details about the military personnel. Colombia The Ejército Nacional de Colombia uses long, rectangular metal tags with oval ends tags stamped with the following information: Family Name First Name Military ID Number Blood Type Branch of Service Duplicate tags are issued. Often, tags are issued with a prayer inscribed on the reverse. Cyprus In Cyprus, identification tags include the following information: Surname First name Service number (E.g., 11111/00/00B, where the first five digits are the ID, the second two are the year the soldier turned 18 years old, the last two digits are the year the soldier enlisted, and the letter is the enlistment group, either A or B) Blood Group Denmark thumb\|Danish military dog tag The military of Denmark use dog tags made from small, rectangular metal plates. The tag is designed to be broken into two pieces each with the following information stamped onto it: Personal identification number Surname First name Additionally, the right hand side of each half-tag is engraved . Starting in 1985, the individual's service number (which is the same as their social security number) is included on the tag. In case the individual dies, the lower half-tag is supposed to be collected, while the other will remain with the corpse. In the army, navy, and air force but not in the national guard, the individual's blood type is indicated on the lower half-tag only, since this information becomes irrelevant if the individual dies. In 2009, Danish dog tags were discontinued for conscripts. East Germany thumb\|East German Erkennungsmarke (identification tag) The Nationale Volksarmee used a tag nearly identical to that used by both the Wehrmacht and the West German Bundeswehr. The oval aluminum tag was stamped "DDR" (Deutsche Demokratische Republik) above the personal ID number; this information was repeated on the bottom half, which was intended to be broken off in case of death. Oddly, the tag was not worn (but would have been in case of war), but required to be kept in a plastic sleeve in the back of the WDA ("Wehrdienstausweis") identity booklet. Ecuador The Placas de identificación de campaña consists of two long, rectangular steel or aluminum tags with rounded corners and a single hole punched in one end. It is suspended by a US-type ball chain, with a shorter chain for the second tag. The information on the tag is: Family Name & First Name Identification Number Blood Group, plus "RH" and "+" or "-" Estonia Estonian dog tags are designed to be broken in two. The dog tag is a metallic rounded rectangle suspended by a ball chain. Information consists of four fields: National identification number Nationality Blood Group Religion Example: 39305231234 EST A(II) Rh Pos (+) NONE Finland thumb\|Blank Finnish dog tag (old model) In the Finnish Defence Forces, "tunnuslevy" or WWII term "tuntolevy" (Finnish for "Identification plate") is made of stainless steel and designed to be broken in two; however, the only text on it is the personal identification number and the letters "FI" or "SF" in older models, which stands for Suomi Finland, within a tower stamped atop of the upper half. France thumb\|French army ID tag, Mle 1995, blank. Picture shows last model, "plaque d'identité modèle 1995". In WWI and WWII, French forces used a small oval-shaped disc of metal designed to be broken in half, worn at the wrist. Now, France issues either a metallic rounded rectangle in the army, or a pair of discs in the air force and navy. Both are designed to be broken in half, bearing family name & first name above the ID number. French army tags also include blood type, "T" for Tetanus vaccine and "OFF" only for officers. Germany thumb\|Frontside of a German ID tag from 1961 German Bundeswehr ID tags are an oval-shaped disc designed to be broken in half. They are made of stainless steel, height and width. The two sides contain different information which are mirrored upside-down on the lower half of the ID tag. They feature the following information on segmented and numbered fields: On the front: Field 1: blank (provided for Gender but never used) Field 2: DEU (for Deutschland) (GE (for Germany) only on older ID tags) Field 3: Religious preference ("K" or "RK" for Roman Catholic, "E" or "EV" for Protestant, "O" for Christian Orthodox, "ISL" for Islamic, "JD" for Jewish, blank if no preference) Field 4: Personenkennziffer (service number: birth date in DDMMYY format, dash, capitalized first letter of last name, dash, and five-digit number based on soldier's home military administrative district, number of persons with the mentioned last name initial and same birthday, and an error-checking number but without dashes), ex. 101281-S-455(-)6(-)8 On the back: Field 5: Blood group (A, AB, B, 0) Field 6: Rh factor (Rh+ or Rh-) Field 7: Vaccination status ("T82" for Tetanus and year of basic immunization) Fields 8–10: blank Bundesamt für Wehrtechnik und Beschaffung of 2009-12-21 specifies shape, materials and characteristics for four parts: Erkennungsmarke (identification tag) stainless steel ("Edelstahl") Erkennungsmarke, nicht magnetisierbar (identification tag, non-magnetizable) for personnel working for special tasks, non-magnetic stainless steel Sanitätswarnmarke, short Warnmarke (health warn tag) aluminium, anodized red, carried only if necessary with a second chain depending from the lower half of the ID tag Halskette (necklace) – Kugelkette DIN 5280, stainless steel – 2 parts: one long for neck and ID, one short for warn tag to ID tag. The ID tag is landscape-oval, breakable in two halves with 4–8 manual bends. On the backside each half is 0.2 mm deep marked with "DEU" for Deutschland, the non-magnetic type on both halves and both sides with "NM". The metal sheet is 0.7 mm thick, material codes X5CrNi1810 or 1.4301, weighs about 16 g. NM-variant shall consist of 1.4311 or 1.4401. Sharp edges have to be smoothed, then the plate electropolished. Mechanical deburring and ball polishing is allowed. The letters stamped in for the person must stay readable after a glow test for 10 minutes in air at 1200 °C. The ball chain is of X5CrNi1810, diameter of ball is 3.5 mm, that of the wire 1.5 mm. Closure is of 1.4301, stainless steel, too. The long chain is 680 + 30 mm long, the short one 145 + 7 mm. Breaking force of the chain including the closure must reach 100 N, after 10 min glow at 1200 °C in air at least 10 N. Greece In Greece, identification tags include the following information: Surname First name Service number (where date of birth is included as "class") Blood Group Hungary thumb\|Hungarian 1978M current issue dog tag The Hungarian army dog tag is made out of steel, forming a 25×35 mm tag designed to split diagonally. Both sides contain the same information: the soldier's personal identity code, blood group and the word HUNGARIA. Some may not have the blood group on them. These are only issued to soldiers who are serving outside of the country. If the soldier should die, one side is removed and kept for the army's official records, while the other side is left attached to the body. Iraq The Saddam-era Iraqi Army used a single, long, rectangular metal tag with oval ends, inscribed (usually by hand) with Name and Number or Unit, and occasionally Blood Type. Israel thumb\|upright\|Israel Defense Forces Dog tag (issued 1966). Identification number, last name, first name, blood type. Dog tags of the Israel Defense Forces are designed to be broken in two. The information appears in three lines (twice): Army identification number ("mispar ishi", literally "personal number". A seven-digit number that is different from the nine-digit identification number for citizens). Last name First Name Blood Type (ABO group – in some years) Recruits are issued with 2 Dogtags (4 halves total), one remains whole and worn on a necklace, and the second is broken into its halves and placed in each military boot for the purpose of Identifying dead soldiers (IDF Military Boots contain pouches on their inner sides at the 1/3 calf height, the pouches have holes corresponding in size and placement to those on the discs, allowing for fastening, often via small cable ties). Originally the IDF issued two circular aluminum tags (1948 – late 1950s) stamped in three lines with serial number, family name, and first name. The tags were threaded together through a single hole onto a cord worn around the neck. Italy thumb\|upright\|Military dog tag, Italy World War II Rectangular piece, 35x45 mm, designed to be broken in two. Includes soldier's first and last name, coded date and place of birth, identification number, religious affiliation, and blood group. Japan Japan follows a similar system to the US Army for Japan Self-Defense Forces personnel, and the appearance of the tags is similar, although laser etched. The exact information order is as follows. Japan Ground Self-Defense Force JAPAN GSDF First name, last name Identification number Blood type Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force First name, last name Identification number JAPAN MSDF Blood type Japan Air Self-Defense Force First name, last name Identification number JAPAN ASDF Blood type Malaysia Malaysian Armed Forces have two identical oval tags with this information: NRIC number (The last digit is an odd number for a male soldier, and an even number for a female soldier.) Service number Full name Blood type Religion Branch (e.g., TLDM) If more information needed, another two oval wrist tags are provided. The term wrist tags can be used to refer to the bracelet-like wristwatch. The additional tags only need to be worn on the wrist, with the main tags still on the neck. All personnel are allowed to attach a small religious pendant or locket; this makes a quick identifiable reference for their funeral services. Mexico The Mexican Army uses two long identity tags, very similar to the ones used in the United States Army. They are rectangular metal tags with oval ends, embossed with name, serial number, and blood type, plus Rh factor. Netherlands Dutch military identity tags, like the Canadian and Norwegian ones, are designed to be broken in two in the case of a fatality; the lower end is returned to Dutch Defence Headquarters, while the upper half remains on the body. The tags contain the following information: Upper half: Name and family name Service number Nationality and religion Blood group with RH factor Lower half: identical. There is a difference in the Army and Air Force service number and the Navy service number: The Army and Air Force service number is made up of the date of birth in YY.MM.DD. format, for example 83.01.15, and a three-digit number, such as 123. The Navy service number is made up out of random five- or six-digit numbers. Norway Norwegian dog tags are designed to be broken in two like the Canadian and the Dutch version: The top half contains the nationality, the eleven-digit birth number and the blood type. The bottom half contains the nationality and birth number and has a hole so the broken-off half can be hung on a ring. Poland thumb\|Dog tags of Polish Army officers, victims of the Katyn massacre, excavated in the mass graves in Kharkiv thumb\|Polish dog tags from the 1920s (right) and 1930s (left) The first dog tags were issued in Poland following the order of the General Staff of December 12, 1920. The earliest design (dubbed kapala in Polish, more properly called "kapsel legitymacyjny" – meaning "identification cap") consisted of a tin-made 30×50 mm rectangular frame and a rectangular cap fitting into the frame. Soldiers' details were filled in a small ID card placed inside the frame, as well as on the inside of the frame itself. The dog tag was similar to the tags used by the Austro-Hungarian Army during World War I. In case the soldier died, the frame was left with his body, while the lid was returned to his unit together with a note on his death. The ID card was handed over to the chaplain or the rabbi. In 1928, a new type of dog tag was proposed by gen. bryg. , Poland's representative at the International Red Cross. It was slightly modified and adopted in 1931 under the name of Nieśmiertelnik wz. 1931 (lit. "Immortalizer, pattern 1931"). The new design consisted of an oval piece of metal (ideally steel, but in most cases aluminum alloy was used), roughly 40 by 50 millimeters. There were two rectangular holes in the middle to allow for easier breaking of the into halves. The halves contained the same set of data – name, religion, place of birth, year of birth – and were identical, except the upper half had two holes for a string or twine to go through, and the lower had one hole. The 2008 pattern (wz. 2008) specifies two Stadium-shaped 0.8mm-thick 51×27mm tags with a 3mm hole, made of heat-resistant steel, engraved with: first name surname PESEL (the national ID number) a blank line blood type parallel to the long axis, and the name of Polish Army "Siły Zbrojne RP" and the Polish coat of arms on the rounded end opposite the hole. The 2024 pattern (wz. 2024) returns to a single 40×50mm ellipsis with 2+1 holes, of stainless steel, 1mm thick, laser-engraved, indented across the short axis with two rectangular holes to break apart, with each half containing first name surname second line of double-barrelled surname PESEL and "Siły zbrojne RP" religion (on user request) blood type serial number on the obverse. The halves are flipped with respect to each other, such that when unbroken, both sides contain all information. Rhodesia The former Republic of Rhodesia used two WW2 British-style compressed asbestos fiber tags, a No. 1 octagonal (grey) tag and a No. 2 circular (red) tag, stamped with identical information. The red tag was supposedly fireproof and the grey tag rotproof. The following information was stamped on the tags: Number, Name, Initials, & Religion; Blood Type was stamped on reverse. The air force and BSAP often stamped their service on the reverse side above the blood group. Russia thumb\|Russian dog tag The Russian Armed Forces use oval metal tags, similar to the dog tags of the Soviet Army. Each tag contains the title and the individual's alphanumeric number, as shown on the photo. Wagner Group The Wagner Group, a private militia funded by the Russian government that is currently fighting the Russo-Ukrainian War, reportedly provides its soldiers with generic 'contact us' dogtags. Singapore The Singapore Armed Forces-issued dog tags are inscribed (not embossed) with up to four items: NRIC number Blood type Religion Drug allergies (if any; inscribed on the reverse) The dog tags consist of two metal pieces, one oval with two holes and one round with one hole. A synthetic lanyard is threaded through both holes in the oval piece and tied around the wearer's neck. The round piece is tied to the main loop on a shorter loop. South Africa The South African National Defence Force use two long, rectangular stainless steel tags with oval ends, stamped with : Serial number Name and initials Religion Blood type. South Korea The South Korean army issues two long, rectangular tags with oval ends, stamped (in Korean lettering). The tags are worn on the neck with a ball chain. The tags contain the information listed below: Branch (Army, Air Force, Navy, Marines) Service Number; the first two digits state the starting year of service and the other eight digits state the specific unit of the person. Name Blood group followed by Rh factor South Vietnam The South Vietnamese Army and the South Vietnamese Navy used two American-style dog tags. Some tags added religion on the back, e.g., Phật Giáo for Buddhist. They were stamped or inscribed with: Name SQ (Số Quân, i.e., Service number) a 2-digit year number, followed by a military serial number LM (loại máu, i.e., Blood Group, rH factor) Soviet Union During World War II, the Red Army did not issue metal dog tags to its troops. They were issued small black Bakelite cylinders containing a slip of paper with a soldier's particulars written on it. These do not hold up as well as metal dog tags. After World War II, the Soviet Army used oval metal tags, similar to today's dog tags of the Russian Armed forces. Each tag contains the title and the individual's alphanumeric number. Spain Issues a single metal oval, worn vertically, stamped "" above and below the 3-slot horizontal break line. It is stamped in 4 lines with: 1st line – Religion 2nd line – left side blood group, right side any medical allergies (SI or NO) 3rd line – military service (ET, EA ...) 4th (longest) line = DNI military number. Sweden thumb\|upright\| Swedish identification tags are designed to be able to break apart. The information on them was prior to 2010 and are as follows: Personal identity number (twice, once in the upper part and once below) Surname first and middle name(s) Residence at birth Blood type (only on some) County code Issue year Swedish dog tags issued to Armed Forces personnel after 2010 are, for personal security reasons, only marked with a personal identity number. During the Cold War, dog tags were issued to everyone, often soon after birth, since the threat of total war also meant the risk of severe civilian casualties. However, in 2010, the Government decided that the dog tags were not needed anymore. Switzerland thumb\|Swiss dog tag. Swiss Armed Forces ID tag is an oval shaped non reflective plaque, containing the following information: Social insurance number Surname First name Date of birth in DD.MM.YY format On the back side the letters CH (standing for Confoederatio Helvetica) are engraved next to a Swiss cross. United Kingdom thumb\|British World War II fibre-disc-type dog tag The British Armed Forces currently use two circular non-reflecting stainless steel tags, referred to as "ID Disks", engraved with the following 'Big 5' details: Blood group Service Number Last name (Surname) Initials Religion (Abbreviated, e.g.; R.C – Roman Catholic) Branch ("RAF" – only for RAF members) The discs are suspended from one long chain (24 inches long) and one short chain (4.5 inches long) During World War One and Two, service personnel were issued pressed fibre identity disks, one green octagonal shaped disc, and a red round disc (some army units issued a second red round disc to be attached to the service respirator). The identity disks were hand stamped with the surname, initials, service number and religion of the holder and if in the Royal Air Force, the initials RAF. The disks were worn around the neck on a 38" length of cotton cord, this was often replaced by the wearer with a leather bootlace. One tag was suspended below the main tag. The fibre identity disks in the RAF were still in use in 1999. From 1960 these were replaced with stainless steel ID tags on a green nylon cord, two circular and one oval. The oval was withdrawn around 1990. United States thumb\|An American dog tag showing the recipient's last name, first name, Social Security number, blood type, and religion. Tags are properly known as identification tags; the term "dog tags" has never been used in regulations. The U.S. Armed Forces typically carry two identical oval dog tags containing: U.S. Air Force (Pre-2019) Last name First name and middle initial Social Security number (Or DoD ID number post-2012), followed by "AF" indicating branch of service Blood Group Religion U.S. Air Force (Modern) Last name First name and middle initial DoD ID number without hyphens Blood group and Rh factor Religious Preference U.S. Marine Corps Last name First and middle initials and suffix; blood group Branch ("USMC"); Gas mask size (S – small, M – medium, L – large) Blood type Religion U.S. Coast Guard (Historic, the U.S. Coast Guard no longer issues dog tags) Last name, first name, middle initial Social Security number, no dashes or spaces, followed immediately by "USCG" Blood group Religion Religious designation thumb\|Custom tags showing Atheist/FSM as religion, made in response to a US Army representative refusing to print 'Atheist' on official dog tags. Custom dog tags are permitted as long as they adhere to US Army regulations. During World War II, an American dog tag could indicate only one of three religions through the inclusion of one letter: "P" for Protestant, "C" for Catholic, or "H" for Jewish (from the word "Hebrew"), or (according to at least one source) "NO" to indicate no religious preference. Army regulations (606–5) soon included X and Y in addition to P, C, and H: the X indicating any religion not included in the first three, and the Y indicating either no religion or a choice not to list religion. By the time of the Vietnam War, some IDs spelled out the broad religious choices such as PROTESTANT and CATHOLIC, rather than using initials, and also began to show individual denominations such as "METHODIST" or "BAPTIST". Tags did vary by service, however, such as the use of "CATH" instead of "CATHOLIC" on some Navy tags. For those with no religious affiliation and those who chose not to list an affiliation, either the space for religion was left blank or the words "NO PREFERENCE" or "NO RELIGIOUS PREF" (or the abbreviation "NO PREF") were included. Additionally, when American troops were first sent to Saudi Arabia during the Gulf War there were allegations that some U.S. military authorities were pressuring Jewish military personnel to avoid listing their religions on their ID tags. See also Medical tattoo, also known as a meat tag References External links https://www.vermontcivilwar.org/get.php?input=1445 Article on Vermont in the Civil War, with specific reference to First Sergeant (later Lieutenant) Henry Correll of the 2nd Vermont Volunteer Infantry, and an image of his identification tag. "A Battlefield Souvenir?" – The Story of a Union Identity Disk in the Civil War´ "Enemy brothers" – The story of killed in action German soldier Heinz Linge's dog tag Captain Richard W. Wooley. "A Short History of Identification Tags". Quartermaster Professional Bulletin, December, 1988. Retrieved 12 September 2007. "Evaluation of the WWII German ID tag system" – Article on the weak points of WWII era German ID tags based on observations made during the recovery of missing soldiers. Newsreports showing WWII German soldiers being exhumed with their identification tags A guide for Reenactors and Collectors "What's your name soldier" – Video explaining the weaknesses of WWII German identification tags with examples of mistakes that occurred Category:Identity documents Category:Military life Category:Militaria Category:Necklaces	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog_tag	2025-04-05T18:28:19.627129
7950	Drum	}} , at the Battle of Gettysburg, 1863]] ]] ]] from 3rd to 2nd century BC]] drums]] The drum is a member of the percussion group of musical instruments. In the Hornbostel–Sachs classification system, it is a membranophone. Drums consist of at least one membrane, called a drumhead or drum skin, that is stretched over a shell and struck, either directly with the player's hands, or with a percussion mallet, to produce sound. There is usually a resonant head on the underside of the drum. Other techniques have been used to cause drums to make sound, such as the thumb roll. Drums are the world's oldest and most ubiquitous musical instruments, and the basic design has remained virtually unchanged for thousands of years. In the 2000s, drums have also been used as a way to engage in aerobic exercise and is called cardio drumming. In popular music and jazz, "drums" usually refers to a drum kit or a set of drums (with some cymbals, or in the case of harder rock music genres, many cymbals), and "drummer" to the person who plays them. Drums acquired even divine status in places such as Burundi, where the karyenda was a symbol of the power of the king. Construction The shell almost always has a circular opening over which the drumhead is stretched, but the shape of the remainder of the shell varies widely. In the Western musical tradition, the most usual shape is a cylinder, although timpani, for example, use bowl-shaped shells. These methods are rarely used today, though sometimes appear on regimental marching band snare drums. Drum heads with a white, textured coating on them muffle the overtones of the drum head slightly, producing a less diverse pitch. Drum heads with central silver or black dots tend to muffle the overtones even more, while drum heads with perimeter sound rings mostly eliminate overtones. Some jazz drummers avoid using thick drum heads, preferring single ply drum heads or drum heads with no muffling. Rock drummers often prefer the thicker or coated drum heads. The second biggest factor that affects drum sound is head tension against the shell. When the hoop is placed around the drum head and shell and tightened down with tension rods, the tension of the head can be adjusted. When the tension is increased, the amplitude of the sound is reduced and the frequency is increased, making the pitch higher and the volume lower. The type of shell also affects the sound of a drum. Because the vibrations resonate in the shell of the drum, the shell can be used to increase the volume and to manipulate the type of sound produced. The larger the diameter of the shell, the lower the pitch. The larger the depth of the drum, the louder the volume. Shell thickness also determines the volume of drums. Thicker shells produce louder drums. Mahogany raises the frequency of low pitches and keeps higher frequencies at about the same speed. When choosing a set of shells, a jazz drummer may want smaller maple shells, while a rock drummer may want larger birch shells. History ceramic vessel depicting a drummer. Larco Museum Collection. Lima-Peru]] Drums made with alligator skins have been found in Neolithic cultures located in China, dating to a period of 5500–2350 BC. In literary records, drums manifested shamanistic characteristics and were often used in ritual ceremonies. The bronze Dong Son drum was fabricated by the Bronze Age Dong Son culture of northern Vietnam. They include the ornate Ngoc Lu drum. Animal drumming Macaque monkeys drum objects in a rhythmic way to show social dominance and this has been shown to be processed in a similar way in their brains to vocalizations, suggesting an evolutionary origin to drumming as part of social communication. Other primates including gorillas make drumming sounds by chest beating or hand clapping, and rodents such as kangaroo rats also make similar sounds using their paws on the ground. Talking drums Drums are used not only for their musical qualities, but also as a means of communication over great distances. The talking drums of Africa are used to imitate the tone patterns of spoken language. Throughout Sri Lankan history drums have been used for communication between the state and the community, and Sri Lankan drums have a history stretching back over 2500 years. Drums in art ]] Drumming may be a purposeful expression of emotion for entertainment, spiritualism and communication. Many cultures practice drumming as a spiritual or religious passage and interpret drummed rhythm similarly to spoken language or prayer. Drumming has developed over millennia to be a powerful art form. Drumming is commonly viewed as the root of music and is sometimes performed as a kinesthetic dance. As a discipline, drumming concentrates on training the body to punctuate, convey and interpret musical rhythmic intention to an audience and to the performer. Military uses Chinese troops used tàigǔ drums to motivate troops, to help set a marching pace, and to call out orders or announcements. For example, during a war between Qi and Lu in 684 BC, the effect of drum on soldiers' morale is employed to change the result of a major battle. Fife-and-drum corps of Swiss mercenary foot soldiers also used drums. They used an early version of the snare drum carried over the player's right shoulder, suspended by a strap (typically played with one hand using traditional grip). It is to this instrument that the English word "drum" was first used. Similarly, during the English Civil War rope-tension drums would be carried by junior officers as a means to relay commands from senior officers over the noise of battle. These were also hung over the shoulder of the drummer and typically played with two drum sticks. Different regiments and companies would have distinctive and unique drum beats only they recognized. In the mid-19th century, the Scottish military started incorporating pipe bands into their Highland regiments. During pre-Columbian warfare, Aztec nations were known to have used drums to send signals to the battling warriors. The Nahuatl word for drum is roughly translated as huehuetl. The Rig Veda, one of the oldest religious scriptures in the world, contains several references to the use of the Dundhubi (war drum). Arya tribes charged into battle to the beating of the war drum and chanting of a hymn that appears in Book VI of the Rig Veda and also the Atharva Veda. The dundhuhi was considered sacred and to capture one in battle would signal defeat of the enemy.Types 's 10th-century originals, Song dynasty.]] (later Emperor Pedro II of Brazil) with a toy drum, c. 1830]] * Aburukuwa * Ashiko * Atumpan * Bara * Bass drum * Batá * Bedug * Bodhrán * Bongo drums * Bougarabou * Buk * Cajón * Candombe drums * Chalice drum * Chenda * Cocktail drum * Conga * Crowdy-crawn * Darbuka * Damphu * Davul * Dayereh * Dhak * Dhimay * Dhol * Dholak * Djembe * Dong Son drum * Doumbek * Dunun * Ewe drums * Fontomfrom * Frame drum * Goblet drum * Hand drum * Idakka * Ilimba drum * Karyenda * Kendang * Kpanlogo * Lambeg drum * Log drum * Madal * Mridangam * Pahu * Pakhavaj * Repinique * Side drum (marching snare drum) * Slit drum * Snare drum * Surdo * Tabor * Tamborim * Tambourine * Taiko * Tabla * Talking drum * Tassa (Tasha drum) * Tapan * Tar * Tavil * Tenor drum * Timbales * Timpani * Tombak * Tom-tom drum * Tongue drum * Zabumba See also * Blast beat * Double drumming * Drum circle * Drumline * Drum machine * Drum replacement * Drumsticks * Electronic drum * Hearing the shape of a drum * Heavy metal gallop * List of drummers * Practice pad * Vibrations of a circular membrane References External links * * * * * * [http://ludowe.instrumenty.edu.pl/en/instruments-/categories/category/331 Drums (Polish folk musical instruments)] Category:Membranophones	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drum	2025-04-05T18:28:19.670532
7951	Delphi	\| relief = yes \| image = Delphi, Greece - panoramio.jpg \| alt = Delphic Tholos \| caption = The Athena temple complex, including the Delphic Tholos. The background is the Pleistos River Valley. \| image_upright = 1.3 \| map_type = Greece \| coordinates \| map_size = 290px \| location = Phocis, Greece \| map_dot_label = Delphi \| type = Ruins of an ancient sacred precinct \| height = Top of a scarp maximum off the valley floor \| discovered \| excavations \| archaeologists = French School at Athens \| cultures = Ancient Greece \| ownership = Hellenic Republic \| management = Ministry of Culture and Sports \| public_access = Accessible for a fee \| other_designation \| website \| notes \| designation1 WHS \| designation1_offname = Archaeological Site of Delphi \| designation1_date = 1987 <small>(12th session)</small> \| designation1_number = [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/393 393] \| designation1_criteria = i, ii, iii, iv and vi \| designation1_type = Cultural \| designation1_free1name = Region \| designation1_free1value = Europe }} Delphi (; }} ), or, in a more Greek-like manner, as . The bottom line on the etymology is that Delphoi is related to delphus, "womb", which is consistent with the omphalos stone there being considered the "navel" of the universe and the site being the uterus of Earth. The delphis, or "dolphin" connection, is an accidental result of the dolpins being named from their uterus-like appearance. The full etymology is to be found in Frisk. The inscriptional variants, Dalphoi, Dolphoi, Derphoi, might appear to be dialects, especially Dalphoi, usually taken as Phocian, as the Phocians spoke Doric. Frisk labels them as secondary developments, including the apparent Doric original a in Dalphoi. It could well be Phocian, but was not originally Doric. The true dialect form, Aeolic Belphoi, with Delphoi, must be reflexes of a Bronze Age G<sup>w</sup>elp<sup>h</sup>oi, which does not have an original "a". Frisk's Proto-Indoeuropean is g<sup>w</sup>elb<sup>h</sup>-u-, with a -u- extension. Without the extension there is no relation between Delphoi and delphus. However, Frisk, a major Indo-Europeanist, cites some parallels of -woi- to -oi- in other words. The evidence from mythology adds strength to his hypothesis. Without the w, Delphoi is not related to Delphus, but only seems so. The etymology of dolphin is fairly standard.}} in legend previously called Pytho (Πυθώ), was an ancient sacred precinct and the seat of Pythia, the major oracle who was consulted about important decisions throughout the ancient classical world. The ancient Greeks considered the centre of the world to be in Delphi, marked by the stone monument known as the Omphalos of Delphi (navel). According to the Suda, Delphi took its name from the Delphyne, the she-serpent (drakaina) who lived there and was killed by the god Apollo (in other accounts the serpent was the male serpent (drakon) Python). The sacred precinct occupies a delineated region on the south-western slope of Mount Parnassus. It is now an extensive archaeological site, and since 1938 a part of Parnassos National Park. The precinct is recognized by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site in having had a great influence in the ancient world, as evidenced by the various monuments built there by most of the important ancient Greek city-states, demonstrating their fundamental Hellenic unity. Adjacent to the sacred precinct is a small modern town of the same name. Names Delphi shares the same root with the Greek word for womb, δελφύς delphys. Pytho (Πυθώ) is related to Pythia, the priestess serving as the oracle, and to Python, a serpent or dragon who lived at the site. "Python" is derived from the verb πύθω (pythō), "to rot". Delphi and the Delphic region <!--File:General map of ancient Delphi.jpg--> Today Delphi is a municipality of Greece as well as a modern town adjacent to the ancient precinct. The modern town was created after removing buildings from the sacred precinct so that the latter could be excavated. The two Delphis, old and new, are located on Greek National Road 48 between Amfissa in the west and Livadeia, capital of Voiotia, in the east. The road follows the northern slope of a pass between Mount Parnassus on the north and the mountains of the Desfina Peninsula on the south. The pass is of the river Pleistos, running from east to west, forming a natural boundary across the north of the Desfina Peninsula, and providing an easy route across it. On the west side the valley joins the north–south valley between Amfissa and Itea. On the north side of the valley junction a spur of Parnassus looming over the valley made narrower by it is the site of ancient Krisa, which once was the ruling power of the entire valley system. Both Amphissa and Krissa are mentioned in the ''Iliad's'' Catalogue of Ships. It was a Mycenaean stronghold. Archaeological dates of the valley go back to the Early Helladic. Krisa itself is Middle Helladic. These early dates are comparable to the earliest dates at Delphi, suggesting Delphi was appropriated and transformed by Phocians from ancient Krisa. It is believed that the ruins of Kirra, now part of the port of Itea, were the port of Krisa of the same name.Archaeology of the precinct The site was first briefly excavated in 1880 by Bernard Haussoullier (1852–1926) on behalf of the French School at Athens, of which he was a sometime member. The site was then occupied by the village of Kastri, about 100 houses, 200 people. Kastri ("fort") had been there since the destruction of the place by Theodosius I in 390. He probably left a fort to make sure it was not repopulated, however, the fort became the new village. They were mining the stone for re-use in their own buildings. British and French travelers visiting the site suspected it was ancient Delphi. Before a systematic excavation of the site could be undertaken, the village had to be relocated, but the residents resisted. The opportunity to relocate the village occurred when it was substantially damaged by an earthquake, with villagers offered a completely new village in exchange for the old site.<!-- <← Told by state licenced guide during a tour--> In 1893, the French Archaeological School removed vast quantities of soil from numerous landslides to reveal both the major buildings and structures of the sanctuary of Apollo and of the temple to Athena, the Athena Pronoia along with thousands of objects, inscriptions, and sculptures. It is only then, in the beginning of the sixth century, that the city seems to decline: its size is reduced and its trade contacts seem to be drastically diminished. Local pottery production is produced in large quantities: it is coarser and made of reddish clay, aiming at satisfying the needs of the inhabitants. The Sacred Way remained the main street of the settlement, transformed, however, into a street with commercial and industrial use. Around the agora were built workshops as well as the only intra muros early Christian basilica. The domestic area spread mainly in the western part of the settlement. The houses were rather spacious and two large cisterns provided running water to them. ]] Delphi Archaeological Museum The museum houses artifacts associated with ancient Delphi, including the earliest known notation of a melody, the Charioteer of Delphi, Kleobis and Biton, golden treasures discovered beneath the Sacred Way, the Sphinx of Naxos, and fragments of reliefs from the Siphnian Treasury. Immediately adjacent to the exit is the inscription that mentions the Roman proconsul Gallio. Architecture of the precinct Most of the ruins that survive today date from the most intense period of activity at the site in the sixth century BC.Temple of Apollo Ancient tradition refers to a succession of mythical temples on the site: first one built of olive branches from Tempe, then one built of beeswax and wings by bees, and thirdly one built by Hephaestus and Athena. The first archaeologically attested structure was built in the seventh century BC and is attributed in legend to the architects Trophonios and Agamedes. It burnt down in 548/7 BC and the Alcmaeonids built a new structure which itself burnt down in the fourth century BC. The ruins of the Temple of Apollo that are visible today date from the fourth century BC, and are of a peripteral Doric building. It was erected by Spintharus, Xenodoros, and Agathon. <gallery mode="packed"> File:Delphi - panoramio (3).jpg File:Delphi BW 2017-10-08 11-40-49.jpg File:15.Δελφοί GR-H07-0007.jpg File:Delfoi8.jpg </gallery> Treasuries ]] From the entrance of the upper site, continuing up the slope on the Sacred Way almost to the Temple of Apollo, are a large number of votive statues, and numerous so-called treasuries. These were built by many of the Greek city-states to commemorate victories and to thank the oracle for her advice, which was thought to have contributed to those victories. These buildings held the offerings made to Apollo; these were frequently a "tithe" or tenth of the spoils of a battle. The most impressive is the now-restored Athenian Treasury, built to commemorate their victory at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. The Siphnian Treasury was dedicated by the city of Siphnos, whose citizens gave a tithe of the yield from their silver mines until the mines came to an abrupt end when the sea flooded the workings. One of the largest of the treasuries was that of Argos. Having built it in the late classical period, the Argives took great pride in establishing their place at Delphi amongst the other city-states. Completed in 380 BC, their treasury seems to draw inspiration mostly from the Temple of Hera located in the Argolis. However, recent analysis of the Archaic elements of the treasury suggest that its founding preceded this. Other identifiable treasuries are those of the Sicyonians, the Boeotians, Massaliots, and the Thebans. <gallery mode="packed"> File:Treasury of the Boeotians.jpg\|Boeotians File:Treasury of Cnidus 1.jpg\|Cnidians File:The Treasury of the Sicyonians on the Sacred Way at the Sanctuary of Apollo (Delphi) on October 4, 2020.jpg\|Sicyonians File:Sideview of the Siphnian Treasury at the Sanctuary of Apollo (Delphi) on October 4, 2020.jpg\|Siphnians </gallery> Altar of the Chians Located in front of the Temple of Apollo, the main altar of the sanctuary was paid for and built by the people of Chios. It is dated to the fifth century BC by the inscription on its cornice. Made entirely of black marble, except for the base and cornice, the altar would have made a striking impression. It was restored in 1920. <gallery mode="packed"> File:Replica of Serpent Column in Delphi and Altar of Apollo, 20M8126.jpg File:GRIEKENLAND 023 (17669660608).jpg File:Inscription delphi apollo.JPG\|Ancient Greek inscription at the altar, naming Chios, "ΧΙΟΙΣ" </gallery> Stoa of the Athenians The stoa, or open-sided, covered porch, is placed in an approximately east–west alignment along the base of the polygonal wall retaining the terrace on which the Temple of Apollo sits. There is no archaeological suggestion of a connection to the temple. The stoa opened to the Sacred Way. The nearby presence of the Treasury of the Athenians suggests that this quarter of Delphi was used for Athenian business or politics, as stoas are generally found in market-places. Although the architecture at Delphi is generally Doric, a plain style, in keeping with the Phocian traditions that were Doric, the Athenians did not prefer the Doric. The stoa was built in their own preferred style, the Ionic order, the capitals of the columns being a sure indicator. In the Ionic order they are floral and ornate, although not so much as the Corinthian, which is in deficit there. The remaining porch structure contains seven fluted columns, unusually carved from single pieces of stone (most columns were constructed from a series of discs joined). The inscription on the stylobate indicates that it was built by the Athenians after their naval victory over the Persians in 478 BC, to house their war trophies. At that time the Athenians and the Spartans were on the same side. <gallery mode="packed"> File:Delphi-2.jpg File:Greece-0842 (2216558634).jpg File:Delphi, Stoa der Athener 2015-09 (1).jpg </gallery> The Sibyl rock is a pulpit-like outcrop of rock between the Athenian Treasury and the Stoa of the Athenians upon the Sacred Way that leads up to the temple of Apollo in the archaeological area of Delphi. The rock is claimed to be the location from which a prehistoric Sibyl pre-dating the Pythia of Apollo sat to deliver her prophecies. Other suggestions are that the Pythia might have stood there, or an acolyte whose function was to deliver the final prophecy. The rock seems ideal for public speaking. <gallery mode="packed"> File:Sibyl stone in Delphi.jpg File:The Rock of Sibyl at the Sanctuary of Apollo (Delphi) on October 4, 2020.jpg File:Rock of Sibyl, Rock of Leto, Delphi, Dlfi403.jpg </gallery> Theatre The ancient theatre at Delphi was built farther up the hill from the Temple of Apollo giving spectators a view of the entire sanctuary and the valley below. It was originally built in the fourth century BC, but was remodeled on several occasions, particularly in 160/159 B.C. at the expenses of king Eumenes II of Pergamon and, in 67 A.D., on the occasion of emperor Nero's visit. The koilon (cavea) leans against the natural slope of the mountain whereas its eastern part overrides a little torrent that led the water of the fountain Cassotis right underneath the temple of Apollo. The orchestra was initially a full circle with a diameter measuring seven meters. The rectangular scene building ended up in two arched openings, of which the foundations are preserved today. Access to the theatre was possible through the parodoi, i.e. the side corridors. On the support walls of the parodoi are engraved large numbers of manumission inscriptions recording fictitious sales of the slaves to the deity. The koilon was divided horizontally in two zones via a corridor called diazoma. The lower zone had 27 rows of seats and the upper one only eight. Six radially arranged stairs divided the lower part of the koilon in seven tiers. The theatre could accommodate approximately 4,500 spectators. On the occasion of Nero's visit to Greece in 67 A.D. various alterations took place. The orchestra was paved and delimited by a parapet made of stone. The proscenium was replaced by a low pedestal, the pulpitum; its façade was decorated in relief with scenes from myths about Hercules. Further repairs and transformations took place in the second century A.D. Pausanias mentions that these were carried out under the auspices of Herod Atticus. In antiquity, the theatre was used for the vocal and musical contests that formed part of the programme of the Pythian Games in the late Hellenistic and Roman period. The theatre was abandoned when the sanctuary declined in Late Antiquity. After its excavation and initial restoration it hosted theatrical performances during the Delphic Festivals organized by A. Sikelianos and his wife, Eva Palmer, in 1927 and in 1930. It has recently been restored again as the serious landslides posed a grave threat for its stability for decades. Tholos at the base of Mount Parnassus: 3 of 20 Doric columns]] <!--The Rough Guide to Greece, Geoff Garvey, John Fisher, Penguin, 2008, Thessaly and central Greece - Part I, The Marmaria, "The Marble Quarry"--> The tholos at the sanctuary of Athena Pronaea (Ἀθηνᾶ Προναία, "Athena of forethought") is a circular building that was constructed between 380 and 360 BC. It consisted of 20 Doric columns arranged with an exterior diameter of 14.76 meters, with 10 Corinthian columns in the interior. The Tholos is located approximately a half a mile (800 m) from the main ruins at Delphi (at ). Three of the Doric columns have been restored, making it the most popular site at Delphi for tourists to take photographs. The architect of the "vaulted temple at Delphi" is named by Vitruvius, in De architectura Book VII, as Theodorus Phoceus (not Theodorus of Samos, whom Vitruvius names separately). Gymnasium ]] The gymnasium, which is half a mile away from the main sanctuary, was a series of buildings used by the youth of Delphi. The building consisted of two levels: a stoa on the upper level providing open space, and a palaestra, pool, and baths on lower floor. These pools and baths were said to have magical powers, and imparted the ability to communicate directly to Apollo.Hippodrome It was at the Pythian Games that prominent political leaders, such as Cleisthenes, tyrant of Sikyon, and Hieron, tyrant of Syracuse, competed with their chariots. The hippodrome where these events took place was referred to by Pindar, and this monument was sought by archaeologists for over two centuries. Traces of it have recently been found at Gonia in the plain of Krisa in the place where the original stadium had been sited.Polygonal wallA retaining wall was built to support the terrace housing the construction of the second temple of Apollo in 548 BC. Its name is taken from the polygonal masonry of which it is constructed. At a later date, from 200 BC onwards, the stones were inscribed with the manumission (liberation) contracts of slaves who were consecrated to Apollo. Approximately a thousand manumissions are recorded on the wall.Castalian spring The sacred spring of Delphi lies in the ravine of the Phaedriades. The preserved remains of two monumental fountains that received the water from the spring date to the Archaic period and the Roman, with the latter cut into the rock. Roman Agora The first set of remains that the visitor sees upon entering the archaeological site of Delphi is the Roman Agora, which was just outside the peribolos, or precinct walls, of the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi. The Roman Agora was built between the sanctuary and the Castalian Spring, approximately 500 meters away. This large rectangular paved square used to be surrounded by Ionic porticos on its three sides. The square was built in the Roman period, but the remains visible at present along the north and northwestern sides date to the Late Antique period. An open market was probably established, where the visitors would buy ex-votos, such as statuettes and small tripods, to leave as offerings to the gods. It also served as an assembly area for processions during sacred festivals. Hesiod also refers to Pytho "in the hollows of Parnassus" (Theogony 498). These references imply that the earliest date of the oracle's existence is the eighth century BC, the probable date of composition of the Homeric works. The main myths of Delphi are given in three literary "loci". H. W. Parke, the Delphi scholar, argued that the myths are self-contradictory, thereby aligning with the Plutarchian epistemology that these myths are not to be taken as literal historical accounts but as symbolic narratives meant to explain oracular traditions." Parke asserts that there is no Apollo, no Zeus, no Hera, and certainly never was a great, serpent-like monster, and that the myths are pure Plutarchian figures of speech, meant to be aetiologies of some oracular tradition. Homeric Hymn 3, "To Apollo", is the oldest of the three loci, dating to the seventh century BC (estimate). Apollo travels about after his birth on Delos seeking a place for an oracle. He is advised by Telephus to choose Crissa "below the glade of Parnassus", which he does, and has a temple built, having killed the serpent that guards the spring. Subsequently, some Cretans from Knossos sail up on a mission to reconnoitre Pylos. Changing into a dolphin, Apollo casts himself on deck. The Cretans do not dare to remove him but sail on. Apollo guides the ship around Greece, ending back at Crisa, where the ship grounds. Apollo enters his shrine with the Cretans to be its priests, worshipping him as Delphineus, "of the dolphin". Zeus, a Classical deity, reportedly determined the site of Delphi when he sought to find the centre of his "Grandmother Earth" (Gaia). He sent two eagles flying from the eastern and western extremities, and the path of the eagles crossed over Delphi where the omphalos, or navel of Gaia was found. According to Aeschylus in the prologue of the Eumenides, the oracle had origins in prehistoric times and the worship of Gaia, a view echoed by H. W. Parke, who described the evolution of beliefs associated with the site. He established that the prehistoric foundation of the oracle is described by three early writers: the author of the Homeric Hymn to Apollo, Aeschylus in the prologue to the Eumenides, and Euripides in a chorus in the Iphigeneia in Tauris. Parke goes on to say, "This version [Euripides] evidently reproduces in a sophisticated form the primitive tradition which Aeschylus for his own purposes had been at pains to contradict: the belief that Apollo came to Delphi as an invader and appropriated for himself a previously existing oracle of Earth. The slaying of the serpent is the act of conquest which secures his possession; not as in the Homeric Hymn, a merely secondary work of improvement on the site. Another difference is also noticeable. The Homeric Hymn, as we saw, implied that the method of prophecy used there was similar to that of Dodona: both Aeschylus and Euripides, writing in the fifth century, attribute to primeval times the same methods as used at Delphi in their own day. So much is implied by their allusions to tripods and prophetic seats... [he continues on p. 6] ...Another very archaic feature at Delphi also confirms the ancient associations of the place with the Earth goddess. This was the Omphalos, an egg-shaped stone which was situated in the innermost sanctuary of the temple in historic times. Classical legend asserted that it marked the 'navel' (Omphalos) or center of the Earth and explained that this spot was determined by Zeus who had released two eagles to fly from opposite sides of the earth and that they had met exactly over this place". On p. 7 he writes further, "So Delphi was originally devoted to the worship of the Earth goddess whom the Greeks called Ge, or Gaia. Themis, who is associated with her in tradition as her daughter and partner or successor, is really another manifestation of the same deity: an identity that Aeschylus recognized in another context. The worship of these two, as one or distinguished, was displaced by the introduction of Apollo. His origin has been the subject of much learned controversy: it is sufficient for our purpose to take him as the Homeric Hymn represents him – a northern intruder – and his arrival must have occurred in the dark interval between Mycenaean and Hellenic times. His conflict with Ge for the possession of the cult site was represented under the legend of his slaying the serpent. One tale of the sanctuary's discovery states that a goatherd, who grazed his flocks on Parnassus, one day observed his goats playing with great agility upon nearing a chasm in the rock; the goatherd noticing this held his head over the chasm causing the fumes to go to his brain; throwing him into a strange trance. The Homeric Hymn to Delphic Apollo recalled that the ancient name of this site had been Krisa. Others relate that the site was named Pytho (Πυθώ) and that Pythia, the priestess serving as the oracle, was chosen from their ranks by the priestesses who officiated at the temple. Apollo was said to have slain Python, a drako (a male serpent or a dragon) who lived there and protected the navel of the Earth.}} Apollo is connected with the site by his epithet Δελφίνιος Delphinios, "the Delphinian". The epithet is connected with dolphins (Greek δελφίς,-ῖνος) in the Homeric Hymn to Apollo (line 400), recounting the legend of how Apollo first came to Delphi in the shape of a dolphin, carrying Cretan priests on his back. The Homeric name of the oracle is Pytho (Πυθώ). Another legend held that Apollo walked to Delphi from the north and stopped at Tempe, a city in Thessaly, to pick laurel (also known as bay tree) which he considered to be a sacred plant. In commemoration of this legend, the winners at the Pythian Games received a wreath of laurel picked in the temple. Oracle of Delphi The prophetic process ) struck at Delphi, 480 BC, obverse: Short tripod, reverse: Pellet within circle (omphalos or phiale)]] Perhaps Delphi is best known for its oracle, the Pythia, or sibyl, the priestess prophesying from the tripod in the sunken adyton of the Temple of Apollo. The Pythia was known as a spokesperson for Apollo. She was a woman of blameless life chosen from the peasants of the area. Alone in an enclosed inner sanctum (Ancient Greek adyton – "do not enter") she sat on a tripod seat over an opening in the earth (the "chasm"). According to legend, when Apollo slew Python its body fell into this fissure and fumes arose from its decomposing body. Intoxicated by the vapors, the sibyl would fall into a trance, allowing Apollo to possess her spirit. In this state she prophesied. The oracle could not be consulted during the winter months, for this was traditionally the time when Apollo would live among the Hyperboreans. Dionysus would inhabit the temple during his absence. Of note, release of fumes is limited in colder weather. The time to consult Pythia for an oracle during the year was determined from astronomical and geological grounds related to the constellations of Lyra and Cygnus. Similar practice was followed in other Apollo oracles too. Hydrocarbon vapors emitted from the chasm. While in a trance the Pythia "raved" – probably a form of ecstatic speech – and her ravings were "translated" by the priests of the temple into elegant hexameters. It has been speculated that the ancient writers, including Plutarch who had worked as a priest at Delphi, were correct in attributing the oracular effects to the sweet-smelling pneuma (Ancient Greek for breath, wind, or vapor) escaping from the chasm in the rock. That exhalation could have been high in the known anaesthetic and sweet-smelling ethylene or other hydrocarbons such as ethane known to produce violent trances. Although, given the limestone geology, this theory remains debatable, the authors put up a detailed answer to their critics. Ancient sources describe the priestess using "laurel" to inspire her prophecies. Several alternative plant candidates have been suggested including Cannabis, Hyoscyamus, Rhododendron, and Oleander. Harissis claims that a review of contemporary toxicological literature indicates that oleander causes symptoms similar to those shown by the Pythia, and his study of ancient texts shows that oleander was often included under the term "laurel". The Pythia may have chewed oleander leaves and inhaled their smoke prior to her oracular pronouncements and sometimes dying from the toxicity. The toxic substances of oleander resulted in symptoms similar to those of epilepsy, the "sacred disease", which may have been seen as the possession of the Pythia by the spirit of Apollo. Influence, devastations and a temporary revival The Delphic oracle exerted considerable influence throughout the Greek world, and she was consulted before all major undertakings including wars and the founding of colonies. She also was respected by the Greek-influenced countries around the periphery of the Greek world, such as Lydia, Caria, and even Egypt. The oracle was also known to the early Romans. Rome's seventh and last king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, after witnessing a snake near his palace, sent a delegation including two of his sons to consult the oracle. In 278 BC, a Thracian (Celtic) tribe raided Delphi, burned the temple, plundered the sanctuary and stole the "unquenchable fire" from the altar. During the raid, part of the temple roof collapsed. The same year, the temple was severely damaged by an earthquake, thus it fell into decay and the surrounding area became impoverished. The sparse local population led to difficulties in filling the posts required. The oracle's credibility waned due to doubtful predictions. The oracle flourished again in the second century AD, during the rule of emperor Hadrian, who is believed to have visited the oracle twice and offered complete autonomy to the city. Constantine the Great looted several monuments in Eastern Mediterranean, including Delphi, to decorate his new capital, Constantinople. One of those famous items was the bronze column of Plataea (The Serpent Column; Ancient Greek: Τρικάρηνος Ὄφις, Three-headed Serpent; Turkish: Yılanlı Sütun, Serpentine Column) from the sanctuary (dated 479 BC), relocated there from Delphi in AD 324, which can still be seen today standing destroyed at a square of Istanbul (where once upon a time was the Hippodrome of Constantinople, built by Constantine; Ottoman Turkish: Atmeydanı "Horse Square") with part of one of its heads kept in the Istanbul Archaeology Museums (İstanbul Arkeoloji Müzeleri). Despite the rise of Christianity across the Roman Empire, the oracle remained a religious center throughout the fourth century, and the Pythian Games continued to be held at least until 424 AD; although some founders and early developers of the technique considered that the adoption of the name "Delphi" was unfortunate and undesirable.Religious significance of the oracleDelphi became the site of a major temple to Phoebus Apollo, as well as the Pythian Games and the prehistoric oracle. Even in Roman times, hundreds of votive statues remained, described by Pliny the Younger and seen by Pausanias. Carved into the temple were three phrases: (gnōthi seautón "know thyself"), (mēdén ágan "nothing in excess"), and (''engýa pára d'atē "make a pledge and mischief is nigh"). In antiquity, the origin of these phrases was attributed to one or more of the Seven Sages of Greece by authors such as Plato and Pausanias. Additionally, according to Plutarch's essay on the meaning of the "E at Delphi"—the only literary source for the inscription—there was also inscribed at the temple a large letter E. Among other things epsilon signifies the number 5. However, ancient as well as modern scholars have doubted the legitimacy of such inscriptions. According to one pair of scholars, "The actual authorship of the three maxims set up on the Delphian temple may be left uncertain. Most likely they were popular proverbs, which tended later to be attributed to particular sages." According to the Homeric hymn to the Pythian Apollo, Apollo shot his first arrow as an infant that effectively slew the serpent Pytho, the son of Gaia, who guarded the spot. To atone the murder of Gaia's son, Apollo was forced to fly and spend eight years in menial service before he could return forgiven. A festival, the Septeria, was held every year, at which the whole story was represented: the slaying of the serpent, and the flight, atonement, and return of the god. The Pythian Games took place every four years to commemorate Apollo's victory. The theoxenia was held each summer, centred on a feast for "gods and ambassadors from other states". Myths indicate that Apollo killed the chthonic serpent Python guarding the Castalian Spring and named his priestess Pythia after her. Python, who had been sent by Hera, had attempted to prevent Leto, while she was pregnant with Apollo and Artemis, from giving birth. The spring at the site flowed toward the temple but disappeared beneath, creating a cleft which emitted chemical vapors that purportedly caused the oracle at Delphi to reveal her prophecies. Apollo killed Python, but had to be punished for it, since he was a child of Gaia. The shrine dedicated to Apollo was originally dedicated to Gaia and shared with Poseidon. Another view holds that Apollo was a fairly recent addition to the Greek pantheon coming originally from Lydia.HistoryOccupation of the site at Delphi can be traced back to the Neolithic period with extensive occupation and use beginning in the Mycenaean period (1600–1100 BC). In Mycenaean times Krissa was a major Greek land and sea power, perhaps one of the first in Greece, if the Early Helladic date of Kirra is to be believed. The ancient sources indicate that the previous name of the Gulf of Corinth was the "Krisaean Gulf". Like Krisa, Corinth was a Dorian state, and Gulf of Corinth was a Dorian lake, so to speak, especially since the migration of Dorians into the Peloponnesus starting about 1000 BC. Krisa's power was broken finally by the recovered Aeolic and Attic-Ionic speaking states of southern Greece over the issue of access to Delphi. Control of it was assumed by the Amphictyonic League, an organization of states with an interest in Delphi, in the early Classical period. Krisa was destroyed for its arrogance. The gulf was given Corinth's name. Corinth by then was similar to the Ionic states: ornate and innovative, not resembling the spartan style of the Doric.Ancient DelphiEarlier myths The anti-pagan legislation of the late Roman Imperial era deprived ancient sanctuaries of their assets. The emperor Julian attempted to reverse this religious climate, yet his "pagan revival" was particularly short-lived. When the doctor Oreibasius visited the oracle of Delphi, in order to question the fate of paganism, he received a pessimistic answer: <blockquote>Tell the king that the flute has fallen to the ground. Phoebus does not have a home any more, neither an oracular laurel, nor a speaking fountain, because the talking water has dried out</blockquote> It was shut down during the persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire by Theodosius I in 381 AD. Amphictyonic Council The Amphictyonic Council was a council of representatives from six Greek tribes who controlled Delphi and also the quadrennial Pythian Games. They met biannually and came from Thessaly and central Greece. Over time, the town of Delphi gained more control of itself and the council lost much of its influence. The sacred precinct in the Iron Age , now in the museum]] Excavation at Delphi, which was a post-Mycenaean settlement of the late ninth century BC, has uncovered artifacts increasing steadily in volume beginning with the last quarter of the eighth century BC. Pottery and bronze as well as tripod dedications continue in a steady stream, in contrast to Olympia. Neither the range of objects nor the presence of prestigious dedications proves that Delphi was a focus of attention for a wide range of worshippers, but the large quantity of valuable goods, found in no other mainland sanctuary, encourages that view. Apollo's sacred precinct in Delphi was a Panhellenic Sanctuary, where every four years, starting in 586 BC athletes from all over the Greek world competed in the Pythian Games, one of the four Panhellenic Games, precursors of the Modern Olympics. The victors at Delphi were presented with a laurel crown (stephanos) that was ceremonially cut from a tree by a boy who re-enacted the slaying of the Python. (These competitions are also called stephantic games, after the crown.) Delphi was set apart from the other games sites because it hosted the mousikos agon, musical competitions. These Pythian Games rank second among the four stephantic games chronologically and in importance. These games, however, were different from the games at Olympia in that they were not of such vast importance to the city of Delphi as the games at Olympia were to the area surrounding Olympia. Delphi would have been a renowned city regardless of whether it hosted these games; it had other attractions that led to it being labeled the "omphalos" (navel) of the earth, in other words, the centre of the world. , first Westerner to describe the remains in Delphi in 1436]] organized a study expedition to Delphi in 1766]] In the inner hestia (hearth) of the Temple of Apollo, an eternal flame burned. After the battle of Plataea, the Greek cities extinguished their fires and brought new fire from the hearth of Greece, at Delphi; in the foundation stories of several Greek colonies, the founding colonists were first dedicated at Delphi.Abandonment and rediscovery The Ottomans finalized their domination over Phocis and Delphi in about 1410 AD. Delphi itself remained almost uninhabited for centuries. It seems that one of the first buildings of the early modern era was the monastery of the Dormition of Mary or of Panagia (the Mother of God) built above the ancient gymnasium at Delphi. It must have been toward the end of the fifteenth or in the sixteenth century that a settlement started forming there, which eventually ended up forming the village of Kastri. Ottoman Delphi gradually began to be investigated. The first Westerner to describe the remains in Delphi was Cyriacus of Ancona, a fifteenth-century merchant turned diplomat and antiquarian, considered the founding father of modern classical archeology. He visited Delphi in March 1436 and remained there for six days. He recorded all the visible archaeological remains based on Pausanias for identification. He described the stadium and the theatre at that date as well as some freestanding pieces of sculpture. He also recorded several inscriptions, most of which are now lost. His identifications, however, were not always correct: for example he described a round building he saw as the temple of Apollo while this was simply the base of the Argives' ex-voto. A severe earthquake in 1500 caused much damage. In 1766, an English expedition funded by the Society of Dilettanti included the Oxford epigraphist Richard Chandler, the architect Nicholas Revett, and the painter William Pars. Their studies were published in 1769 under the title Ionian Antiquities, followed by a collection of inscriptions, and two travel books, one about Asia Minor (1775), and one about Greece (1776). Apart from the antiquities, they also related some vivid descriptions of daily life in Kastri, such as the crude behaviour of the Muslim Albanians who guarded the mountain passes. In 1805 Edward Dodwell visited Delphi, accompanied by the painter Simone Pomardi. Lord Byron visited in 1809, accompanied by his friend John Cam Hobhouse: <blockquote>Yet there I've wandered by the vaulted rill Yes! Sighed o'er Delphi's long deserted shrine, where, save that feeble fountain, all is still.</blockquote> He carved his name on the same column in the gymnasium as Lord Aberdeen, later Prime Minister, who had visited a few years before. Proper excavation did not start until the late nineteenth century (see "Excavations" section) after the village had moved. Delphi in later art ]] features the Phaedriades]] – Itea is a town located in Greece]] From the sixteenth century onward, woodcuts of Delphi began to appear in printed maps and books. The earliest depictions of Delphi were totally imaginary; for example, those created by Nikolaus Gerbel, who published in 1545 a text based on the map of Greece by N. Sofianos. The ancient sanctuary was depicted as a fortified city. The first travelers with archaeological interests, apart from the precursor Cyriacus of Ancona, were the British George Wheler and the French Jacob Spon, who visited Greece in a joint expedition in 1675–1676. They published their impressions separately. In Wheler's "Journey into Greece", published in 1682, a sketch of the region of Delphi appeared, where the settlement of Kastri and some ruins were depicted. The illustrations in Spon's publication "Voyage d'Italie, de Dalmatie, de Grèce et du Levant, 1678" are considered original and groundbreaking. Travelers continued to visit Delphi throughout the nineteenth century and published their books which contained diaries, sketches, and views of the site, as well as pictures of coins. The illustrations often reflected the spirit of romanticism, as evident by the works of Otto Magnus von Stackelberg, where, apart from the landscapes (La Grèce. Vues pittoresques et topographiques, Paris 1834) are depicted also human types (Costumes et usages des peuples de la Grèce moderne dessinés sur les lieux, Paris 1828). The philhellene painter W. Williams has comprised the landscape of Delphi in his themes (1829). Influential personalities such as F.Ch.-H.-L. Pouqueville, W.M. Leake, Chr. Wordsworth and Lord Byron are amongst the most important visitors of Delphi. After the foundation of the modern Greek state, the press became also interested in these travelers. Thus "Ephemeris" writes (17 March 1889): In the Revues des Deux Mondes Paul Lefaivre published his memoirs from an excursion to Delphi. The French author relates in a charming style his adventures on the road, praising particularly the ability of an old woman to put back in place the dislocated arm of one of his foreign traveling companions, who had fallen off the horse. "In Arachova the Greek type is preserved intact. The men are rather athletes than farmers, built for running and wrestling, particularly elegant and slender under their mountain gear." Only briefly does he refer to the antiquities of Delphi, but he refers to a pelasgian wall 80 meters long, "on which innumerable inscriptions are carved, decrees, conventions, manumissions". Gradually the first travelling guides appeared. The revolutionary "pocket" books invented by Karl Baedeker, accompanied by maps useful for visiting archaeological sites such as Delphi (1894) and the informed plans, the guides became practical and popular. The photographic lens revolutionized the way of depicting the landscape and the antiquities, particularly from 1893 onward, when the systematic excavations of the French Archaeological School started. However, artists such as Vera Willoughby, continued to be inspired by the landscape. Delphic themes inspired several graphic artists. Besides the landscape, Pythia and Sibylla become illustration subjects even on Tarot cards. A famous example constitutes Michelangelo's Delphic Sibyl (1509), the nineteenth-century German engraving, Oracle of Apollo at Delphi, as well as the recent ink on paper drawing, "The Oracle of Delphi" (2013) by M. Lind. Modern artists are inspired also by the Delphic Maxims. Examples of such works are displayed in the "Sculpture park of the European Cultural Center of Delphi" and in exhibitions taking place at the Archaeological Museum of Delphi. Delphi in later literature Delphi inspired literature as well. In 1814 W. Haygarth, friend of Lord Byron, refers to Delphi in his work "Greece, a Poem". In 1888 Charles Marie René Leconte de Lisle published his lyric drama L’Apollonide, accompanied by music by Franz Servais. More recent French authors used Delphi as a source of inspiration such as Yves Bonnefoy (Delphes du second jour) or Jean Sullivan (nickname of Joseph Lemarchand) in L'Obsession de Delphes (1967), but also Rob MacGregor's Indiana Jones and the Peril at Delphi (1991). The presence of Delphi in Greek literature is very intense. Poets such as Kostis Palamas (The Delphic Hymn, 1894), Kostas Karyotakis (Delphic festival, 1927), Nikephoros Vrettakos (return from Delphi, 1957), Yannis Ritsos (Delphi, 1961–62) and Kiki Dimoula (Gas omphalos and Appropriate terrain 1988), to mention only the most renowned ones. Angelos Sikelianos wrote The Dedication (of the Delphic speech) (1927), the Delphic Hymn (1927) and the tragedy Sibylla (1940), whereas in the context of the Delphic idea and the Delphic festivals he published an essay entitled "The Delphic union" (1930). The nobelist George Seferis wrote an essay under the title "Delphi", in the book "Dokimes". Gallery <gallery widths"200px" heights="200px"> File:Archaeological Site of Delphi-111178.jpg\|The theatre at Delphi File:Archaeological Site of Delphi-111180.jpg\|Ruins of the theatre at Delphi File:Archaeological Site of Delphi-111182.jpg\|Stacked stones File:Phaedriades, Delphi, 060032.jpg\|The Phaedriades </gallery> See also * Aristoclea, Delphic priestess of the 6th century BC, said to have been tutor to Pythagoras * Ex voto of the Attalids (Delphi) * Franz Weber (activist) – made an honorary citizen of Delphi in 1997 * Greek art * List of traditional Greek place names * Portico of the Aetolians Footnotes Citations Citation references Aimatidou-Argyriou, E. Delphi, Athens 2003 Bommelaer, J.-F., Laroche, D., Guide de Delphes. Le site, Paris 1991 Broad, William J. [https://archive.org/details/oracle00will The Oracle: Ancient Delphi and the Science Behind its Lost Secrets], New York : Penguin, 2006. . * Connelly, Joan Breton, [https://archive.org/details/portraitofpriest00conn Portrait of a Priestess: Women and Ritual in Ancient Greece], Princeton University Press, 2007. Call of Duty: Black Ops 4 (2018) "Ancient Evil" Dempsey, T., Reverend, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4Cj0ueSqyVQC The Delphic oracle, its early history, influence and fall], Oxford: B.H. Blackwell, 1918. Castro Belen, Liritzis Ioannis and Nyquist Anne (2015) Oracular Functioning And Architecture of Five Ancient Apollo Temples Through Archaeastronomy: Novel Approach And Interpretation Nexus Network Journal, Architecture & Mathematics, 18(2), 373–395 (DOI:10.1007/s00004-015-0276-2) Farnell, Lewis Richard, The Cults of the Greek States, in five volumes, Clarendon Press, 1896–1909. (Cf. especially, [https://books.google.com/books?id9J0wnXWZmL8C volume III] and [https://books.google.com/books?idewIIU_JNarIC volume IV] on the Pythoness and Delphi). * * Fontenrose, Joseph Eddy, The Delphic oracle, its responses and operations, with a catalogue of responses, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978. * Fontenrose, Joseph Eddy, Python; a study of Delphic myth and its origins, New York, Biblio & Tannen, 1974. Goodrich, Norma Lorre, Priestesses, New York: F. Watts, 1989. Guthrie, William Keith Chambers, The Greeks and their Gods, 1955. Hall, Manly Palmer, The Secret Teachings of All Ages, 1928. [http://www.sacred-texts.com/eso/sta/sta14.htm Ch. 14 cf. Greek Oracles], [http://www.sacred-texts.com/eso/sta/index.htm www], [https://web.archive.org/web/20100524070656/http://prs.org/secret.htm PRS] [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/perspectives_in_biology_and_medicine/v057/57.3.harissis.html Harissis H. 2015. "A Bittersweet Story: The True Nature of the Laurel of the Oracle of Delphi" Perspectives in Biology and Medicine. Volume 57, Number 3, Summer 2014, pp. 295–298.] * Herodotus, The Histories [http://mcllibrary.org/Hesiod/hymns.html Homeric Hymn to Pythian Apollo] * Kolonia, R., The Archaeological Museum of Delphi, Athens 2006 * * Manas, John Helen, [https://books.google.com/books?id=W9300nUf4uMC Divination, ancient and modern], New York, Pythagorean Society, 1947. * * Petrakos, B. Delph, Athens 1977 Plutarch "Lives" Rohde, Erwin, Psyche, 1925. Seyffert, Oskar, , London: W. Glaisher, 1895. Spiller, Henry A., John R. Hale, and Jelle Z. de Boer. "The Delphic Oracle: A Multidisciplinary Defense of the Gaseous Vent Theory." Clinical Toxicology 40.2 (2000) 189–196. West, Martin Litchfield, The Orphic Poems, 1983. . Further reading * * Davies, J. K. (1998). Finance, Administrations, and Realpolitik: The Case of Fourth-Century Delphi. In Modus Operandi: Essays in Honour of Geoffrey Rickman. Edited by M. Austin, J. Harries, and C. Smith, 1–14. London: Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies, Suppl. 71. * Davies, John. (2007). "The Origins of the Festivals, especially Delphi and the Pythia." In Pindar’s Poetry, Patrons, and Festivals: From Archaic Greece to the Roman Empire. Edited by Simon Hornblower and Catherine Morgan, 47–69. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. * * Kindt, Julia. (2016). Revisiting Delphi: Religion and Storytelling in Ancient Greece. Cambridge Classical Studies. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. * * * * Morgan, Catherine. (1990). Athletes and Oracles. The Transformation of Olympia and Delphi in the Eighth Century BC. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. * Partida, Elena C. (2002). The Treasuries at Delphi: An Architectural Study. Jonsered, Denmark: Paul Åströms. * Scott, Michael, Delphi: A History of the Center of the Ancient World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2014). * Scott, Michael. (2010). Delphi and Olympia: The Spatial Politics of Panhellenism in the Archaic and Classical Periods. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge Univ. Press. * Temple, Robert K.G., [http://www.robert-temple.com/papers/Fables_Delphi.pdf "Fables, Riddles, and Mysteries of Delphi"], Proceedings of 4th Philosophical Meeting on Contemporary Problems, No 4, 1999 (Athens, Greece) In Greek and English. * Weir, Robert G. (2004). Roman Delphi and its Pythian games. BAR Series 1306. Oxford: Hadrian. 5th-century evidence Petrides, P., 2010, La céramique protobyzantine de Delphes. Une production et son contexte, École française d’Athènes, Fouilles de Delphes V, Monuments figurés 4, Paris – Athènes. Petrides, P., Déroche, V., Badie, A., 2014,Delphes de l’Antiquité tardive. Secteur au Sud-est du Péribole, École française d’Athènes, Fouilles de Delphes II, Topographie et Architecture 15, Paris-Athènes. Petrides, P., 1997, «Delphes dans l’Antiquité tardive : première approche topographique et céramologique», BCH 121, pp. 681–695. Petrides, P., 2003, «Αteliers de potiers protobyzantins à Delphes », in Χ. ΜΠΑΚΙΡΤΖΗΣ (ed.), 7ο Διεθνές Συνέδριο Μεσαιωνικής Κεραμικής της Μεσογείου, Θεσσαλονίκη 11–16 Οκτωβρίου 1999, Πρακτικά, Αθήνα, pp. 443–446. Petrides, P., 2005, «Un exemple d’architecture civile en Grèce : les maisons protobyzantines de Delphes (IVe–VIIe s.)», Mélanges Jean-Pierre Sodini, Travaux et Mémoires 15, Paris, pp. 193–204. Petrides, P., Demou, J., 2011, « La redécouverte de Delphes protobyzantine », Pallas 87, pp. 267–281. External links * * * [https://www.virtualdelphi.com VirtualDelphi] will help you picture the monuments of Delphi by reconstructing their sight and placing them in their historical time frame. Category:Cities in ancient Greece Category:Ancient Greek sanctuaries in Greece Category:Classical oracles Category:Temples of Apollo Category:World Heritage Sites in Greece Category:Former theatres in Greece Category:Archaeological sites in Central Greece Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Tourist attractions in Central Greece Category:Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Greece Category:Phocis Category:Populated places in Phocis	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delphi	2025-04-05T18:28:19.726119
7952	Digital Equipment Corporation	\| founder = Ken Olsen<br />Harlan Anderson \| defunct = \| location = Maynard, Massachusetts, United States \| industry = Computer hardware<br />Computer software<br />Computer services \| key_people = Ken Olsen (founder, president, and chairman)<br />C. Gordon Bell (VP Engineering, 1972–83) \| products = PDP minicomputers<br />VAX minicomputers<br />Alpha servers and workstations<br />DECnet<br />VT100 terminal<br />LAT and Terminal server<br />StrongARM microprocessors<br />Digital Linear Tape<br />Flip-Chip modules<br />System Modules \| num_employees = over 140,000 (1987) \| parent \| subsid \| website }} Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC ), using the trademark Digital, was a major American company in the computer industry from the 1960s to the 1990s. The company was co-founded by Ken Olsen and Harlan Anderson in 1957. Olsen was president until he was forced to resign in 1992, after the company had gone into precipitous decline. The company produced many different product lines over its history. It is best known for the work in the minicomputer market starting in the early 1960s. The company produced a series of machines known as the PDP line, with the PDP-8 and PDP-11 being among the most successful minis in history. Their success was only surpassed by another DEC product, the late-1970s VAX "supermini" systems that were designed to replace the PDP-11. Although a number of competitors had successfully competed with Digital through the 1970s, the VAX cemented the company's place as a leading vendor in the computer space. As microcomputers improved in the late 1980s, especially with the introduction of RISC-based workstation machines, the performance niche of the minicomputer was rapidly eroded. By the early 1990s, the company was in turmoil as their mini sales collapsed and their attempts to address this by entering the high-end market with machines like the VAX 9000 were market failures. After several attempts to enter the workstation and file server market, the DEC Alpha product line began to make successful inroads in the mid-1990s, but was too late to save the company. DEC was acquired in June 1998 by Compaq in what was at that time the largest merger in the history of the computer industry. During the purchase, some parts of DEC were sold to other companies; the compiler business and the Hudson Fab were sold to Intel. At the time, Compaq was focused on the enterprise market and had recently purchased several other large vendors. DEC was a major player overseas where Compaq had less presence. However, Compaq had little idea what to do with its acquisitions, and soon found itself in financial difficulty of its own. Compaq was eventually bought by Hewlett-Packard (HP) in May 2002. History Origins (1944–1958) Ken Olsen and Harlan Anderson were two engineers who had been working at MIT Lincoln Laboratory on the lab's various computer projects. The Lab is best known for their work on what would today be known as "interactivity", and their machines were among the first where operators had direct control over programs running in real-time. These had started in 1944 with the famed Whirlwind, which was originally developed to make a flight simulator for the US Navy, although this was never completed. Instead, this effort evolved into the SAGE system for the US Air Force, which used large screens and light guns to allow operators to interact with radar data stored in the computer. When the Air Force project wound down, the Lab turned their attention to an effort to build a version of the Whirlwind using transistors in place of vacuum tubes. In order to test their new circuitry, they first built a small 18-bit machine known as TX-0, which first ran in 1956. When the TX-0 successfully proved the basic concepts, attention turned to a much larger system, the 36-bit TX-2 with a then-enormous 64 kWords of core memory. Core was so expensive that parts of TX-0's memory were stripped for the TX-2, and what remained of the TX-0 was then given to MIT on permanent loan. At MIT, Ken Olsen and Harlan Anderson noticed something odd: students would line up for hours to get a turn to use the stripped-down TX-0, while largely ignoring a faster IBM machine that was also available. The two decided that the draw of interactive computing was so strong that they felt there was a market for a small machine dedicated to this role, essentially a commercialized TX-0. They could sell this to users where the graphical output or real-time operation would be more important than outright performance. Additionally, as the machine would cost much less than the larger systems then available, it would also be able to serve users that needed a lower-cost solution dedicated to a specific task, where a larger 36-bit machine would not be needed. The newly christened "Digital Equipment Corporation" received $70,000 from AR&D for a 70% share of the company, The Laboratory Modules were packaged in an extruded aluminum housing, intended to sit on an engineer's workbench, although a rack-mount bay was sold that held nine laboratory modules. They were then connected together using banana plug patch cords inserted at the front of the modules. Three versions were offered, running at 5 MHz (1957), 500 kHz (1959), or 10 MHz (1960). The PDP-1 and LINC computers were also built using System Modules (see below). Modules were part of DEC's product line into the 1970s, although they went through several evolutions during this time as technology changed. The same circuits were then packaged as the first "R" (red) series "Flip-Chip" modules. Later, other Flip-Chip module series provided additional speed, much higher logic density, and industrial I/O capabilities. The first PDP-1 was delivered to Bolt, Beranek and Newman in November 1960, and formally accepted the next April. The PDP-1 sold in basic form for $120,000 (). By the time production ended in 1969, 53 PDP-1s had been delivered. The PDP-1 was supplied standard with 4096 words of core memory, 18-bits per word, and ran at a basic speed of 100,000 operations per second. It was constructed using many System Building Blocks that were packaged into several 19-inch racks. The racks were themselves packaged into a single large mainframe case, with a hexagonal control panel containing switches and lights mounted to lie at table-top height at one end of the mainframe. Above the control panel was the system's standard input/output solution, a punched tape reader and writer. Most systems were purchased with two peripherals, the Type 30 vector graphics display, and a Soroban Engineering modified IBM Model B Electric typewriter that was used as a printer. The Soroban system was notoriously unreliable, and often replaced with a modified Friden Flexowriter, which also contained its own punched tape system. A variety of more-expensive add-ons followed, including magnetic tape systems, punched card readers and punches, and faster punched tape and printer systems. When DEC introduced the PDP-1, they also mentioned larger machines at 24, 30 and 36 bits, based on the same design. During construction of the prototype PDP-1, some design work was carried out on a 24-bit PDP-2, and the 36-bit PDP-3. Although the PDP-2 never proceeded beyond the initial design, the PDP-3 found some interest and was designed in full. Only one PDP-3 appears to have been built, in 1960, by the CIA's Scientific Engineering Institute (SEI) in Waltham, Massachusetts. According to the limited information available, they used it to process radar cross section data for the Lockheed A-12 reconnaissance aircraft. Gordon Bell remembered that it was being used in Oregon some time later, but could not recall who was using it. In November 1962, DEC introduced the $65,000 PDP-4. The PDP-4 was similar to the PDP-1 and used a similar instruction set, but used slower memory and different packaging to lower the price. Like the PDP-1, about 54 PDP-4s were eventually sold, most to a customer base similar to the original PDP-1. In 1964, DEC introduced its new Flip-Chip module design, and used it to re-implement the PDP-4 as the PDP-7. The PDP-7 was introduced in December 1964, and about 120 were eventually produced. An upgrade to the Flip Chip led to the R series, which in turn led to the PDP-7A in 1965. The PDP-7 is most famous as the machine for which the Unix operating system was originally written. Unix ran only on DEC systems until the Interdata 8/32. A more dramatic upgrade to the PDP-1 series was introduced in August 1966, the PDP-9. The PDP-9 was instruction-compatible with the PDP-4 and −7, but ran about twice as fast as the −7 and was intended to be used in larger deployments. At only $19,900 in 1968, the PDP-9 was a big seller, eventually selling 445 machines, more than all of the earlier models combined. Even while the PDP-9 was being introduced, its replacement was being designed, and was introduced as 1969's PDP-15, which re-implemented the PDP-9 using integrated circuits in place of modules. Much faster than the PDP-9 even in basic form, the PDP-15 also included a floating point unit and a separate input/output processor for further performance gains. Over 400 PDP-15's were ordered in the first eight months of production, and production eventually amounted to 790 examples in 12 basic models. a machine that was small and inexpensive enough to be dedicated to a single task even in a small lab. Seeing the success of the LINC, in 1963 DEC took the basic logic design but stripped away the extensive A to D systems to produce the PDP-5. The new machine, the first outside the PDP-1 mould, was introduced at WESTCON on August 11, 1963. A 1964 ad expressed the main advantage of the PDP-5, "Now you can own the PDP-5 computer for what a core memory alone used to cost: $27,000". 116 PDP-5s were produced until the lines were shut down in early 1967. Like the PDP-1 before it, the PDP-5 inspired a series of newer models based on the same basic design that would go on to be more famous than its parent. On March 22, 1965, DEC introduced the PDP-8, which replaced the PDP-5's modules with the new R-series modules using Flip Chips. The machine was re-packaged into a small tabletop case, which remains distinctive for its use of smoked plastic over the CPU which allowed one to easily see the logic modules plugged into the wire-wrapped backplane of the CPU. Sold standard with 4 kWords of 12-bit core memory and a Teletype Model 33 ASR for basic input/output, the machine listed for only $18,000. The PDP-8 is referred to as the first real minicomputer because of its sub-$25,000 price. Sales were, unsurprisingly, very strong, and helped by the fact that several competitors had just entered the market with machines aimed directly at the PDP-5's market space, which the PDP-8 trounced. This gave the company two years of unrestricted leadership, and eventually 1450 "straight eight" machines were produced before it was replaced by newer implementations of the same basic design. DEC hit an even lower price-point with the PDP-8/S, the S for "serial". As the name implies the /S used a serial arithmetic unit, which was much slower but reduced costs so much that the system sold for under $10,000. DEC then used the new PDP-8 design as the basis for a new LINC, the two-processor LINC-8. The LINC-8 used one PDP-8 CPU and a separate LINC CPU, and included instructions to switch from one to the other. This allowed customers to run their existing LINC programs, or "upgrade" to the PDP-8, all in software. Although not a huge seller, 142 LINC-8s were sold starting at $38,500. Newer circuitry designs led to the PDP-8/I and PDP-8/L in 1968. In 1975, one year after an agreement between DEC and Intersil, the Intersil 6100 chip was launched, effectively a PDP-8 on a chip. This was a way to allow PDP-8 software to be run even after the official end-of-life announcement for the DEC PDP-8 product line. PDP-6 and PDP-10 families (1963 and 1968) While the PDP-5 introduced a lower-cost line, 1963's PDP-6 was intended to take DEC into the mainframe market with a 36-bit machine. However, the PDP-6 proved to be a "hard sell" with customers, as it offered few obvious advantages over similar machines from the better-established vendors like IBM or Honeywell, in spite of its low cost around $300,000. Only 23 were sold, or 26 depending on the source, and unlike other models the low sales meant the PDP-6 was not improved with successor versions. However, the PDP-6 is historically important as the platform that introduced "Monitor", an early time-sharing operating system that would evolve into the widely used TOPS-10. When newer Flip Chip packaging allowed the PDP-6 to be re-implemented at a much lower cost, DEC took the opportunity to refine their 36-bit design, introducing the PDP-10 in 1968. The PDP-10 was as much a success as the PDP-6 was a commercial failure; about 700 mainframe PDP-10s were sold before production ended in 1984. This led the leaders of the PDP-X project to leave DEC and start Data General, whose 16-bit Data General Nova was released in 1969 and was a huge success. The success of the Nova finally prompted DEC to take the switch seriously, and they began a crash program to introduce a 16-bit machine of their own. The new system was designed primarily by Harold McFarland, Gordon Bell, Roger Cady, and others. The project was able to leap forward in design with the arrival of Harold McFarland, who had been researching 16-bit designs at Carnegie Mellon University. One of his simpler designs became the basis for the new design, although when they first viewed the proposal, management was not impressed and almost cancelled it. The evolution of the PDP-11 followed earlier systems, eventually including a single-user deskside personal computer form, the MicroPDP-11. In total, around 600,000 PDP-11s of all models were sold, and a wide variety of third-party peripheral vendors had also entered the computer product ecosystem. It was even sold in kit form as the Heathkit H11, although it proved too expensive for Heathkit's traditional hobbyist market. VAX (1977) ]] The introduction of semiconductor memory in the early 1970s, and especially dynamic RAM shortly thereafter, led to dramatic reductions in the price of memory as the effects of Moore's Law were felt. Within years, it was common to equip a machine with all the memory it could address, typically 64 KB on 16-bit machines. This led vendors to introduce new designs with the ability to address more memory, often by extending the address format to 18 or 24 bits in machines that were otherwise similar to their earlier 16-bit designs. In contrast, DEC decided to make a more radical departure. In 1976, they began the design of a machine whose entire architecture was expanded from the 16-bit PDP-11 to a new 32-bit basis. This would allow the addressing of very large memories, which were to be controlled by a new virtual memory system, and would also improve performance by processing twice as much data at a time. The system would, however, maintain compatibility with the PDP-11, by operating in a second mode that sent its 16-bit words into the 32-bit internals, while mapping the PDP-11's 16-bit memory space into the larger virtual 32-bit space. Supporting the VAX's success was the VT52, one of the most successful smart terminals. Building on earlier less successful models, the VT05 and VT50, the VT52 was the first terminal that did everything one might want in a single inexpensive chassis. The VT52 was followed by the even more successful VT100 and its follow-ons, making DEC one of the largest terminal vendors in the industry. This was supported by a line of inexpensive computer printers, the DECwriter line. With the VT and DECwriter series, DEC could now offer a complete top-to-bottom system from computer to all peripherals, which formerly required collecting the required devices from different suppliers. The VAX processor architecture and family of systems evolved and expanded through several generations during the 1980s, culminating in the NVAX microprocessor implementation and VAX 7000/10000 series in the early 1990s. Early microcomputers (1982–1986) When a DEC research group demonstrated two prototype microcomputers in 1974—before the debut of the MITS Altair—Olsen chose to not proceed with the project. The company similarly rejected another personal computer proposal in 1977. At the time these systems were of limited utility, and Olsen famously derided them in 1977, stating "There is no reason for any individual to have a computer in his home." Unsurprisingly, DEC did not put much effort into the microcomputer area in the early days of the market. In 1977, the Heathkit H11 was announced; a PDP-11 in kit form. At the beginning of the 1980s, DEC built the VT180 (codenamed "Robin"), which was a VT100 terminal with an added Z80-based microcomputer running CP/M, but this product was initially available only to DEC employees. It was only after IBM had successfully launched the IBM PC in 1981 that DEC responded with their own systems. In 1982, DEC introduced not one, but three incompatible machines which were each tied to different proprietary architectures. The first, the DEC Professional, was based on the PDP-11/23 (and later, the 11/73) running the RSX-11M+ derived, but menu-driven, P/OS ("Professional Operating System"). This DEC machine easily outperformed the PC, but was more expensive than, and completely incompatible with IBM PC hardware and software, offering far fewer options for customizing a system. Unlike CP/M and DOS microcomputers, every copy of every program for the Professional had to be provided with a unique key for the particular machine and CPU for which it was bought. At that time this was mainstream policy, because most computer software was either bought from the company that built the computer or custom-constructed for one client. However, the emerging third-party software industry disregarded the PDP-11/Professional line and concentrated on other microcomputers where distribution was easier. At DEC itself, creating better programs for the Professional was not a priority, perhaps from fear of cannibalizing the PDP-11 line. As a result, the Professional was a superior machine, running inferior software. In addition, a new user would have to learn an awkward, slow, and inflexible menu-based user interface which appeared to be radically different from PC DOS or CP/M, which were more commonly used on the 8080- and 8088-based microcomputers of the time. A second offering, the DECmate II was the latest version of the PDP-8-based word processors, but not really suited to general computing, nor competitive with Wang Laboratories' popular word processing equipment. , floor-mounted]] The most popular early DEC microcomputer was the dual-processor (Z80 and 8088) Rainbow 100, which ran the 8-bit CP/M operating system on the Z80 and the 16-bit CP/M-86 operating system on the Intel 8088 processor. It could also run a UNIX System III implementation called VENIX. Applications from standard CP/M could be re-compiled for the Rainbow, but by this time users were expecting custom-built (pre-compiled binary) applications such as Lotus 1-2-3, which was eventually ported along with MS-DOS 2.0 and introduced in late 1983. Although the Rainbow generated some press, it was unsuccessful due to its high price and lack of marketing and sales support. By late 1983 IBM was outselling DEC's personal computers by more than ten to one. A further system was introduced in 1986 as the VAXmate, which included Microsoft Windows 1.0 and used VAX/VMS-based file and print servers along with integration into DEC's own DECnet-family, providing LAN/WAN connection from PC to mainframe or supermini. The VAXmate replaced the Rainbow, and in its standard form was the first widely marketed diskless workstation. Networking and clusters (1984) In 1984, DEC launched its first 10 Mbit/s Ethernet. Ethernet allowed scalable networking, and VAXcluster allowed scalable computing. Combined with DECnet and Ethernet-based terminal servers (LAT), DEC had produced a networked storage architecture which allowed them to compete directly with IBM. Ethernet replaced Token Ring, and went on to become the dominant networking model in use today. In September 1985, DEC became the fifth company to register a .com domain name (dec.com). Along with the hardware and protocols, DEC also introduced the VAXcluster concept, which allowed several VAX machines to be tied together into a single larger storage system. VAXclusters allowed a DEC-based company to scale their services by adding new machines to the cluster at any time, as opposed to buying a faster machine and using that to replace a slower one. The flexibility this offered was compelling, and allowed DEC to attack high-end markets formerly out of their reach. Late 1980s diversification The PDP-11 and VAX lines continued to sell in record numbers. Better yet, DEC was competing very well against the market leader, IBM, taking an estimated $2 billion away from them in the mid-1980s. In 1986, DEC's profits rose 38% when the rest of the computer industry experienced a downturn, and by 1987 the company was threatening IBM's number one position in the computer industry. Not long thereafter came IBM's "VAX killer" offerings, at a time when DEC had twice the sales of IBM in the mid-range computer market. At its peak, DEC was the second-largest computer company in the world, with over 100,000 employees. It was during this time that the company branched out development into a wide variety of projects that were far from its core business in computer equipment. The company invested heavily in custom software. In the 1970s and earlier most software was custom-written to serve a specific task, but by the 1980s the introduction of relational databases and similar systems allowed powerful software to be built in a modular fashion, potentially saving enormous amounts of development time. Software companies like Oracle became the new darlings of the industry, and DEC started their own efforts in every "hot" niche, in some cases several projects for the same niche. Some of these products competed with DEC's own partners, notably Rdb which competed with Oracle's products on the VAX, part of a major partnership only a few years earlier. Although many of these products were well designed, most of them were DEC-only or DEC-centric, and customers frequently ignored them and used third-party products instead. This problem was further exacerbated by Olsen's aversion to traditional advertising and his belief that well-engineered products would sell themselves. Hundreds of millions of dollars were spent on these projects, at the same time that workstations using RISC microprocessors were starting to approach VAX CPUs in performance. Early 1990s faltering and attempted turnaround As microprocessors continued to improve in the 1980s, it soon became clear that the next generation would offer performance and features equal to the best of DECs low-end minicomputer lineup. Worse, the Berkeley RISC and Stanford MIPS designs were aiming to introduce 32-bit designs that would outperform the fastest members of the VAX family, DEC's cash cow. Constrained by the huge success of their VAX and VMS products, which followed the proprietary model, the company was very late to respond to these threats. In the early 1990s, DEC found its sales faltering and its first layoffs followed. The company that created the minicomputer, a dominant networking technology, and arguably the first computers for personal use, had abandoned the "low end" market, whose dominance with the PDP-8 had built the company in a previous generation. Decisions about what to do about this threat led to infighting within the company that seriously delayed their responses. One group suggested that every possible development in the industry be poured into the construction of a new VAX family that would leapfrog the performance of the existing machines. This would limit the market erosion in the top-end segment, where profit margins were maximized and DEC could continue to survive as a minicomputer vendor. This line of thought led, eventually, to the VAX 9000 series, which were plagued with problems when they were first introduced in October 1989, already two years late. The problems took so long to work out, and the prices of the systems were so high, that DEC was never able to make the line the success they hoped. Others within the company felt that the proper response was to introduce their own RISC designs and use those to build new machines. However, there was little official support for these efforts, and no less than four separate small projects ran in parallel at various labs around the US. Eventually these were gathered into the PRISM project, which delivered a credible 32-bit design with some unique features allowing it to serve as the basis of a new VAX implementation. Infighting with teams dedicated to DEC's big iron made funding difficult, and the design was not finalized until April 1988, and then cancelled shortly thereafter. The PRISM project was accompanied by the MICA project, which intended to consolidate VMS and ULTRIX into a single operating system. Another group concluded that new workstations like those from Sun Microsystems and Silicon Graphics would take away a large part of DEC's existing customer base before the new VAX systems could address the issues, and that the company needed its own Unix workstation as soon as possible. Fed up with slow progress on both the RISC and VAX fronts, a group in Palo Alto started a skunkworks project to introduce their own systems. Selecting the MIPS processor, which was widely available, introducing the new DECstation series with the model 3100 on January 11, 1989. These systems would see some success in the market, but were later displaced by similar models running the Alpha. 32-bit MIPS and 64-bit Alpha systems (1992) Eventually, in 1992, DEC launched the DECchip 21064 processor, the first implementation of their Alpha instruction set architecture, initially named Alpha AXP; the "AXP" was a "non-acronym" and was later dropped. This was a 64-bit RISC architecture as opposed to the 32-bit CISC architecture used in the VAX. It is one of the first "pure" 64-bit microprocessor architectures and implementations rather than an extension of an earlier 32-bit architecture. The Alpha offered class-leading performance at its launch and was used in the massively-parallel Cray T3D. Subsequent variants continued that performance trend into the 2000s, along with the Alpha-derived Pentium Pro, II, and III CPUs. An AlphaServer SC45 supercomputer was still ranked No. 6 in the world in November 2004. Alpha-based computers comprising the DEC AXP series, later the AlphaStation, and AlphaServer series respectively superseded both the VAX and MIPS architecture in DEC's product lines. They supported OpenVMS, DEC OSF/1 AXP (later known as Digital Unix or Tru64 UNIX) and Microsoft's then-new operating system, Windows NT, an operating system made possible by ex-Digital Equipment Corporation engineers. In 1998, following the takeover by Compaq Computer Corporation, a decision was made that Microsoft would no longer support and develop Windows NT for the Alpha series computers, a decision that was seen as the beginning of the end for the Alpha series computers. StrongARM (1995) In the mid-1990s, Digital Semiconductor collaborated with ARM Limited to produce the StrongARM microprocessor. This was based in part on ARM7 and in part on DEC technologies like Alpha, and was targeted at embedded systems and portable devices. It was highly compatible with the ARMv4 architecture and was very successful, competing effectively against rivals such as the SuperH and MIPS architectures in the portable digital assistant market. Microsoft subsequently dropped support for these other architectures in their Pocket PC platform. In 1997, as part of a lawsuit settlement, the StrongARM intellectual property was sold to Intel. They continued to produce StrongARM, as well as developing it into the XScale architecture. Intel subsequently sold this business to Marvell Technology Group in 2006. Palmer's reign (1992–1998) At its peak in the late 1980s, DEC had $14 billion in sales and ranked among the most profitable companies in the US. With its strong staff of engineers, DEC was expected to usher in the age of personal computers, but the commonly misunderstood belief then argued by the board to its shareholders was that Mr. Olsen was openly skeptical of the desktop machines, stating "the personal computer will fall flat on its face in business", and regarding them as "toys" used for playing video games. This was made in 1977 about what could be more characterised as home automation devices. The board forced Olsen to resign as president in July 1992 after two years of losses in operating income. He was replaced by Robert Palmer as the company's president. DEC's board of directors also granted Palmer the title of chief executive officer ("CEO"), a title that had never been used during DEC's 35-year existence. Palmer had joined DEC in 1985 to run Semiconductor Engineering and Manufacturing. His relentless campaign to be CEO, and success with the Alpha microprocessor family, made him a candidate to succeed Olsen. At the same time a more modern logo was designed Palmer restructured DEC into nine business units that reported directly to him. Nonetheless, DEC continued to suffer record losses, including a loss of $260.5 million for the quarter that ended on September 30, 1992. It reported $2.8 billion in losses for its fiscal year 1992. January 5, 1993, saw the retirement of John F. Smith as senior vice president of operations, the second in command at DEC, and his position was not filled. A 35-year company veteran, he had joined DEC in 1958 as the company's 12th employee, passing up a chance to work for Bell Laboratories in New Jersey to work for DEC. Smith rose to become one of the three senior vice presidents in 1987 and was widely considered among the potential successors to Ken Olsen, especially when Smith was appointed chief operating officer in 1991. Smith became a corporate spokesman on financial issues, and had filled in at trouble spots for which Olsen ordered more attention. Smith was passed over in favor of Palmer when Olsen was forced to resign in July 1992, though Smith stayed on for a time to help turn around the struggling company. In June 1993, Palmer and several of his top lieutenants presented their reorganization plans to applause from the board of directors, and several weeks later DEC reported its first profitable quarter in several years. However, on April 15, 1994, DEC reported a loss of $183 million—three to four times higher than the loss many people on Wall Street had predicted (compared with a loss of $30 million in the comparable period a year earlier), causing the stock price on the NYSE to plunge $5.875 to $23, a 20% drop. The losses at that point totaled $339 million for the current fiscal year. Sales of the VAX, long the company's biggest moneymaker, continued to decline, which in turn also hurt DEC's lucrative service and maintenance business (this made up more than a third of DEC's revenue of $14 billion in the 1993 fiscal year), which declined 11% year over year to $1.5 billion in the most recent quarter. Market acceptance of DEC Alpha computers and chips had been slower than the company had hoped, even though Alpha's sales for the quarter estimated at $275 million were up significantly from $165 million in the December quarter. DEC had also made a strong push into personal computers and workstations, which had even lower margins than Alpha computers and chips. Also, DEC was playing catchup with its own Unix offerings for client-server networks, as it long emphasized its own VMS software, while corporate computer users based their client-server networks on the industry-standard Unix software (of which Hewlett Packard was one of the market leaders). DEC's problems were similar to that of larger rival IBM, due to the fundamental shift in the computer industry that made it unlikely that DEC could ever again operate profitably at its former size of 120,000 employees, and while its workforce had been reduced to 92,000 people many analysts expected that they would have to cut another 20,000. Selloffs 425SE Color: a notebook computer released by Digital in 1993]] During the profitable years up until the early 1990s, DEC was a company that boasted that it never had a general layoff. Following the 1992 economic downturn, layoffs became regular events as the company continually downsized to try to stay afloat. Palmer was tasked with the goal of bringing DEC back to profitability, which he attempted to do by changing the established DEC business culture, hiring new executives from outside the company, and selling off various non-core business units: * Worldwide training was spun off to form an independent/new company called Global Knowledge Network. * Rdb, DEC's database product, was sold to Oracle. * Rights to the PDP-11 line and several PDP-11 operating systems were sold to Mentec in 1994, though DEC continued to produce some PDP-11 hardware for a few years. * Disk and DLT technologies was sold to Quantum Corporation in 1994. * Text terminal business (VT100 and its successors) was sold in August 1995 to Boundless Technologies. * CORBA-based product, ObjectBroker, and its messaging software, MessageQ, were sold to BEA Systems, Inc in March 1997. * Printer business was sold in 1997 to GENICOM (now TallyGenicom), which then produced models bearing the Digital logo. * Networking business was sold c.1997 to Cabletron Systems, and subsequently spun off as Digital Network Products Group. * DECtalk and DECvoice voice products were spun off, and eventually arrived at Fonix Speech Group. Acquisition by Compaq (1998) Through 1997, DEC began discussions with Compaq on a possible merger. Several years earlier, Compaq had considered a bid for DEC but became seriously interested only after DEC's major divestments and refocusing on the Internet in 1997. At that time, Compaq was making strong moves into the enterprise market, and DEC's multivendor global services organization and customer support centers offered a real opportunity to expand their support and sales worldwide. Compaq was not interested in a number of DEC's product lines, which led to the series of sell-offs. Notable among these was DEC's Hudson Fab, which made most of their custom chips, a market that made little sense to Compaq's "industry standard" marketing. DEC had previously sold its semiconductor plant in South Queensferry to Motorola in 1995, with an understanding that Motorola would continue to produce Alpha processors at the facility, along with continuing a two-year foundry agreement with AMD to continue producing the Am486 processor. This led to an interesting solution to the problem of selling off the division for a reasonable profit. In May 1997, DEC sued Intel for allegedly infringing on its Alpha patents in designing the original Pentium, Pentium Pro, and Pentium II chips. As part of a settlement, much of DEC's chip design and fabrication business was sold to Intel. This included DEC's StrongARM implementation of the ARM computer architecture, which Intel marketed as the XScale processors commonly used in Pocket PCs. The core of Digital Semiconductor, the Alpha microprocessor group, remained with DEC, while the associated office buildings went to Intel as part of the Hudson fab. On January 26, 1998, what remained of the company was sold to Compaq in what was the largest merger up to that time in the computer industry. At the time of Compaq's acquisition announcement, DEC had a total of 53,500 employees, down from a peak of 130,000 in the 1980s, but it still employed about 65% more people than Compaq to produce about half the volume of sales revenues. After the merger closed, Compaq moved aggressively to reduce DEC's high selling, general, and administrative (SG&A) costs (equal to 24% of total 1997 revenues) and bring them more in line with Compaq's SG&A expense ratio of 12% of revenues. Compaq used the acquisition to move into enterprise services and compete with IBM, and by 2001 services made up over 20% of Compaq's revenues, largely due to the DEC employees inherited from the merger. DEC's own PC manufacturing was discontinued after the merger closed. As Compaq did not wish to compete with one of its key partner suppliers, the remainder of Digital Semiconductor (the Alpha microprocessor group) was sold to Intel, which placed those employees back in their Hudson (Massachusetts) office, which they had vacated when the site was sold to Intel in 1997. Compaq struggled as a result of the merger with DEC, as a result of the Compaq acquisition. The Digital logo was used up until 2004, even after the company ceased to exist, as the logo of Digital GlobalSoft, an IT services company in India (which was a 51% subsidiary of Compaq). Digital GlobalSoft was later renamed "HP GlobalSoft" (also known as the "HP Global Delivery India Center" or HP GDIC), and no longer uses the Digital logo. Research and people DEC's Research Laboratories (or Research Labs, as they were commonly known) conducted DEC's corporate research. Some of them were continued in operation by Compaq and are still operated by Hewlett-Packard. The laboratories were: * Cambridge Research Laboratory (CRL) in Cambridge, Massachusetts, US * MetroWest Technology Campus (MTC) in Maynard, Massachusetts, US * Network Systems Laboratory (NSL) in Palo Alto, California, US * Systems Research Center (SRC) in Palo Alto, California, US * Paris Research Laboratory (PRL) in Paris, France * Western Research Laboratory (WRL) in Palo Alto, California, US * Western Software Laboratory (WSL) in Palo Alto, California, US Some of the former employees of DEC's Research Labs or DEC's R&D in general include: * Gordon Bell: technical visionary, VP Engineering 1972–1983; later moved to Microsoft Research * Luiz André Barroso, pioneered the design of the modern data center * Leonard Bosack: a co-founder of Cisco Systems * Mike Burrows: an author of the Burrows–Wheeler transform * Luca Cardelli: co-designer of the Modula-3 language * Dave Cutler: led RSX-11M, VAX/VMS, VAXELN and MICA operating systems development; then led Windows NT development at Microsoft * Ed deCastro: became co-founder of Data General Corporation * Alan Eustace: co-author of early profiling tools; a Senior Vice President of Engineering at Google; a world-record breaker in the stratosphere jump (2014) * Jim Gettys: early developer of X Window System * Henri Gouraud: inventor of the Gouraud shading * Jim Gray: a Turing Award winner for database research; went missing on a ship trip * Alan Kotok: chief architect of the PDP-10 series and prolific member of World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) * Leslie Lamport: a Turing Award recipient; first creator of LaTeX macros; * Butler Lampson: a contributor to a wide range of personal computing concepts like WYSIWYG text formatting program * John Leng: computer pioneer, vice president of the large computer group, coined the term "minicomputer" * Scott A. McGregor: co-author of the X Window System, version 11 * Louis Monier: an Internet and software entrepreneur * Isaac Nassi: contributor to Ada programming language; co-author of the Nassi–Shneiderman diagram * Radia Perlman: a pioneer in computer networking standardization; author of Spanning Tree Protocol * Marcus Ranum: a computer and network security developer credited with a number innovations in firewalls * Brian Reid: an inventor of Scribe markup language; pioneer in networking and firewalls * Paul Vixie: a co-author of the BIND DNS server software * Sanjay Ghemawat * Jeff Dean * Patrick O'Neil: a computer scientist well known for his work on databases Some of the former employees of Digital Equipment Corp were responsible for developing DEC Alpha and StrongARM: * Daniel W. Dobberpuhl * Jim Keller * Rich Witek Grace Hopper worked for Digital Equipment Corporation as a consultant after her retirement from the United States Navy Some of the work of the Research Labs was published in the Digital Technical Journal, which was in published from 1985 until 1998. At least some of the research reports are available online. Legacy and accomplishments , decades-old hardware (including PDP-11, VAX, and AlphaServer) is being emulated to allow legacy software to run on modern hardware; funding for this is planned to last at least until 2030. DEC supported the ANSI standards, especially the ASCII character set, which survives in Unicode and the ISO 8859 character set family. DEC's own Multinational Character Set also had a large influence on ISO 8859-1 (Latin-1) and, by extension, Unicode. ]] Beyond DECsystem-10/20, PDP, VAX and Alpha, DEC was known for its work in communication subsystem designs, such as Ethernet, DNA (DIGITAL Network Architecture: predominantly DECnet products), DSA (Digital Storage Architecture: disks/tapes/controllers), and its "dumb terminal" subsystems including VT100 and DECserver products. Software * The first versions of the C language and the Unix operating system ran on DEC's PDP series of computers (first on a PDP-7, then the PDP-11), which were among the first commercially viable minicomputers, although for several years DEC itself did not encourage the use of Unix. * DEC produced widely used and influential interactive operating systems, including OS-8, TOPS-10, TOPS-20, RSTS/E, RSX-11, RT-11, and OpenVMS. PDP computers, in particular the PDP-11 model, inspired a generation of programmers and software developers. Some PDP-11 systems more than 25 years old (software and hardware) are still being used to control and monitor factories, transportation systems and nuclear plants. DEC was an early champion of time-sharing systems. * The command-line interfaces found in DEC's systems, eventually codified as DCL, would look familiar to any user of modern microcomputer CLIs; those used in earlier systems, such as CTSS, IBM's JCL, or Univac's time-sharing systems, would look utterly alien. Many features of the CP/M and MS-DOS CLI show a recognizable family resemblance to DEC's OSes, including command names such as DIR and HELP and the "name-dot-extension" file naming conventions. * Notes-11 and its follow-on product, , were two of the first examples of online collaboration software, a category that has become to be known as groupware. Len Kawell, one of the original Notes-11 developers, later joined Lotus Development Corporation and contributed to their Lotus Notes product. * The MUMPS programming language, with its built-in database, was developed on the PDP-7, 9, and 15 series machines. MUMPS is still widely used in medical information systems, such as those provide by Meditech and Epic Systems. * The Babel Fish machine translation service was developed by DEC researchers, and was one of the first machine translators to achieve broad success using natural language processing techniques. * ALL-IN-1 was an office automation system developed by Skip Walter and others in Central Engineering under Gordon Bell. They developed a customizable list of application invocations and the robust DECMail product that provided one of the first commercially available electronic mail systems. Hardware DECtape One of the most unusual peripherals produced for the PDP-10 was the DECtape. The DECtape was a length of special 3/4-inch wide magnetic tape wound on 5-inch reels. The recording format was a highly reliable redundant 10-track design using fixed-length numbered data "blocks" organized into a standard file structure, including a directory. Files could be written, read, changed, and deleted on a DECtape as though it were a disk drive. For greater efficiency, the DECtape drive could read and write to a DECtape in both directions. In fact, some PDP-10 systems had no disks at all, using DECtapes alone for their primary data storage. The DECtape was also widely used on other PDP models, since it was much easier to use than hand-loading multiple paper tapes. Primitive early time-sharing systems could use DECtapes as system devices and swapping devices. Although superior to paper tape, DECtapes were relatively slow, and were supplanted once reliable disk drives became affordable. Magnetic disk storage DEC was both a manufacturer and a buyer of magnetic disk storage, offering more than 100 different models of hard disk drive (HDD) and floppy disk drive (FDD) during its existence. In the 1970s, it was the single largest OEM purchaser of HDDs, procuring from Diablo, Control Data Corporation, Information Storage Systems, and Memorex, among others. DEC's first internally developed HDD was the RS08, a 256 kWord fixed-head contact-start-stop drive using plated media; it shipped in 1969. Beginning in the 1970s, DEC moved first its HDD manufacturing and then its mass storage development labs to Colorado Springs. DEC pioneered a number of HDD technologies, including sampled data servos (RL01, 1977) and serial HDD interfaces (Standard Disk Interconnect, 1983). The last internally developed disk drive family (RA9x series) used plated media, departing from the HDD industry trend to carbon overcoated sputtered media. DEC designated a $400 million investment to bring this product line into production. DEC standard RX50 floppy disk drive supported DEC's initial offerings seemed to encapsulate their approach to the personal computer market. Although the mechanical drive hardware was nearly identical to other 5 " floppy disk drives available on competing systems, DEC sought to differentiate their product by using a proprietary disk format for the data written on the disk. The DEC format had a higher capacity for data, but the RX50 drives were incompatible with other PC floppy drives. This required DEC owners to buy higher-priced, specially formatted floppy media, which was harder to obtain through standard distribution channels. DEC attempted to enforce exclusive control over its floppy media sales by copyrighting its proprietary disk format, and requiring a negotiated license agreement and royalty payments from anybody selling compatible media. The proprietary data format meant that RX50 floppies were not interchangeable with other PC floppies, further isolating DEC products from the developing de facto standard PC market. Hardware hackers and DEC enthusiasts eventually reverse-engineered the RX50 format, but the damage had already been done, in terms of market confusion and isolation. Video and Interactive Information Server The Video-on-Demand project at DEC started in 1992, following Ken Olsen's retirement. At the time the company was rapidly downsizing under Robert Palmer, and it was difficult to gain funding for any new project. DEC's Interactive Video Information Server architecture gained traction and excelled over those of other companies, in that it was highly scalable, using a gateway to set up interactive video delivery sessions on large numbers of video and information servers. Initially high-end VAXes were used, then Alphas. The scalability feature allowed it to win contracts for many of the video-on-demand trials in the 1993–95 timeframe, since the system could theoretically accommodate unlimited interactive video streams and other non-video content. The design was proposed and incorporated into the MPEG-2 international standard. Its object-oriented interface became the mandatory user-to user core interface in DSM-CC, widely used in video stream and file delivery for MPEG-2 compliant systems. Commercially, DEC's Digital and Interactive Information System was used by Adlink to distribute advertising to over two million subscribers. Other * VAX and MicroVAX computers (very widespread in the 1980s) running VAX/VMS formed one of the most important proprietary networks, DECnet, which linked business and research facilities. The DECnet protocols formed one of the first peer-to-peer networking standards, with DECnet phase I being released in the mid-1970s. Email, file sharing, and distributed collaborative projects existed within the company long before their value was recognized in the market. * The LA36 and LA120 dot matrix printers became industry standards and may have hastened the demise of the Teletype Corporation. * The VT100 computer terminal became the industry standard, implementing a useful subset of the ANSI X3.64 standard, and even today terminal emulators such as HyperTerminal, PuTTY and Xterm still emulate a VT100 (or its more capable successor, the VT220). * DEC invented Digital Linear Tape (DLT), formerly known as CompacTape, which began as a compact backup medium for MicroVAX systems, and later grew to capacities of 800 gigabytes. * Work on the first hard-disk-based MP3 player, the Personal Jukebox, started at the DEC Systems Research Center. (The project was started about a month before the merger into Compaq was completed.) * DEC's Western Research Lab created the Itsy Pocket Computer. This was developed into the Compaq iPaq line of PDAs, which replaced the Compaq Aero PDA. * DEC also produced a proprietary personal computer known as the Rainbow 100. It could run either MS-DOS or CP/M but from a hardware standpoint it was largely incompatible with the IBM PC. Networking * DEC, Intel and Xerox, through their collaboration to create the DIX standard, were champions of Ethernet, but DEC is the company that made Ethernet commercially successful. Initially, Ethernet-based DECnet and LAT protocols interconnected VAXes with DECserver terminal servers. Starting with the Unibus to Ethernet adapter, multiple generations of Ethernet hardware from DEC were the de facto standard. The CI "computer interconnect" adapter was the industry's first network interface controller to use separate transmit and receive "rings". * DEC also invented clustering, an operating system technology that treated multiple machines as one logical entity. Clustering permitted sharing of pooled disk and tape storage via the HSC50/70/90 and later series of Hierarchical Storage Controllers (HSC). The HSCs delivered the first hardware RAID 0 and RAID 1 capabilities and the first serial interconnects of multiple storage technologies. This technology was the forerunner to architectures such as Network of Workstations, which are used for massively cooperative tasks such as web searches and drug research. * The X Window System is the network transparent window system used on Unix and Linux and available on other operating systems such as MacOS. It was developed at MIT jointly between Project Athena and the Laboratory for Computer Science. DEC was the primary sponsor for the project, which was a contemporary of the GNU Project but not associated with it. * In the period 1994–99 Linus Torvalds developed versions of Linux on early AlphaServer systems provided by the engineering department. Compaq software engineers developed special Linux kernel modules. A well-known Linux distribution that ran on AlphaServer systems was Red Hat 7.2. Another distribution that ran on Alpha was Gentoo Linux. * DEC was one of the first businesses connected to the Internet, with dec.com, registered in 1985, being one of the first of the now ubiquitous .com domains. DEC's gatekeeper.dec.com was a well-known software repository during the pre-World Wide Web days, and DEC was also the first computer vendor to open a public website, on October 1, 1993. The popular AltaVista, created by DEC, was one of the first comprehensive Internet search engines. (Although Lycos was earlier, it was much more limited.) * DEC once held the Class A IP address block 16.0.0.0/8. Corporate * Digital Federal Credit Union (DCU) is a credit union which was chartered in 1979 for employees of DEC. Today its field of membership is open to existing family members, over 900 different sponsors, several communities in Massachusetts and several organizations. Many of the sponsors are companies that had acquired pieces of DEC. * Matrix management User organizations Originally the users' group was called DECUS (Digital Equipment Computer User Society) during the 1960s to 1990s. When Compaq acquired DEC in 1998, the users group was renamed CUO, the Compaq Users' Organisation. When HP acquired Compaq in 2002, CUO became HP-Interex, although there are still DECUS groups in several countries. In the United States, the organization is represented by the Encompass organization; currently Connect. Financial history {\| class"wikitable sortable" border"1" \|+ Table of early sales growth !data-sort-type="number"\| Year !data-sort-type"number"\| Net sales }} Works cited * (Present), [https://research.microsoft.com/en-us/um/people/gbell/digital/DEC%201957%20to%20Present%201978.pdf "Digital Equipment Corporation: Nineteen Fifty-Seven to the Present"], DEC Press, 1978 * * * * * * Further reading * [https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/2790157/176138_Goodwin_complete_thesis_formatted_final.pdf "Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC): A Case Study of Indecision, Innovation and Company Failure"], David Thomas Goodwin, Ph.D. thesis, University of Amsterdam, 2016 * Several editions of the were published by DEC, giving information about their PDP line of computers. The editions were: Small Computer Handbook (1973) PDP8/e, PDP8/m & PDP8/f, Small Computer Handbook (1973) ** Small Computer Handbook (1970 edition) External links * [https://research.microsoft.com/users/gbell/Digital/DECMuseum.htm GBell's CyberMuseum for Digital Equipment Corp (DEC)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120216082420/http://www.technikum29.de/en/devices/dec-history.shtm Rise and Fall of Digital (Equipment Corporation)], a company chronicle at a German computer museum * [https://www.economicadventure.org/decision/olsen.pdf Ken Olsen], New England Economic Adventure * * Category:1998 mergers and acquisitions Category:1957 establishments in Massachusetts Category:1960s initial public offerings Category:1998 disestablishments in Massachusetts Category:Companies based in Middlesex County, Massachusetts Category:Computer companies established in 1957 Category:Computer companies disestablished in 1998 Category:Defunct computer companies based in Massachusetts Category:Defunct computer companies of the United States Category:Defunct computer hardware companies Category:Defunct computer systems companies Category:Defunct manufacturing companies based in Massachusetts Category:Compaq acquisitions Category:Manufacturing companies established in 1957 Category:Manufacturing companies disestablished in 1998 Category:Technology companies established in 1957 Category:Technology companies disestablished in 1998	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation	2025-04-05T18:28:19.791534
7954	Dead Kennedys	\| discography = Dead Kennedys discography \| years_active = \| label = \|\|Manifesto/Decay}} \| associated_acts = \| website = \| current_members = * East Bay Ray * Klaus Flouride * Ron "Skip" Greer * Steve Wilson \| past_members = * Jello Biafra * 6025 * Ted * D. H. Peligro * Brandon Cruz * Jeff Penalty * Dave Scheff * Greg Reeves * Santi Guardiola }} Dead Kennedys are<!-- Proper nouns that are plural in form take a plural verb in both American English and British English. Please do not change "are" to "is". --> an American punk rock band that formed in San Francisco, California, in 1978. The band was one of the defining punk bands during its initial eight-year run. Initially consisting of lead guitarist East Bay Ray, bassist Klaus Flouride, lead vocalist Jello Biafra, drummer Ted and rhythm guitarist 6025, 6025 left in 1979, and Ted left the following year after the band recorded their acclaimed first album Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables (1980). The band's longest-serving drummer was D. H. Peligro, who replaced Ted in 1981 and remained until his death in 2022. Dead Kennedys recorded the EP In God We Trust Inc. (1981), followed by three more studio albums, Plastic Surgery Disasters (1982), Frankenchrist (1985), and Bedtime for Democracy (1986), the latter of which was recorded and released shortly after announcing their breakup in January 1986. Most of the band's recordings were released on Alternative Tentacles, an independent record label founded by Biafra and East Bay Ray. Following Dead Kennedys' dissolution, Biafra continued to run Alternative Tentacles, and went on to collaborate and record with other artists, including D.O.A., NoMeansNo and his own bands Lard and the Guantanamo School of Medicine, as well as releasing several spoken word performances. In 2000 (upheld on appeal in 2003), Biafra lost an acrimonious legal case initiated by his former Dead Kennedys bandmates over songwriting credits and unpaid royalties. In 2001, the band reformed without Biafra; various singers have since been recruited for vocal duties. Although Dead Kennedys have continued to perform over the years, they have not released any more studio albums since Bedtime for Democracy. Dead Kennedys' lyrics were usually political in nature, satirizing political figures and authority in general, as well as popular culture and even the punk movement itself. During their initial incarnation between 1978 and 1986, they attracted considerable controversy for their provocative lyrics and artwork. Several stores refused to stock their recordings, provoking debate about censorship in rock music; in the mid-1980s, vocalist and primary lyricist Jello Biafra became an active campaigner against the Parents Music Resource Center (PMRC). This culminated in an obscenity trial between 1985 and 1986, which resulted in a hung jury and also hastened the band's demise. History Formation of the band (1978–1979) Dead Kennedys were formed in June 1978 in San Francisco, California, when East Bay Ray (Raymond Pepperell) advertised for bandmates in the newspaper The Recycler. The original band lineup consisted of East Bay Ray on lead guitar, Klaus Flouride (Geoffrey Lyall) on bass, Jello Biafra (Eric Reed Boucher) on vocals, Ted (Bruce Slesinger) on drums and 6025 (Carlos Cadona) on rhythm guitar. This lineup recorded their first demos. Their first live show was on July 19, 1978 at Mabuhay Gardens in San Francisco, California. They were the opening act on a bill that included DV8 and Negative Trend with The Offs headlining.[https://oldpunkflyers.tumblr.com/image/149937616131] Dead Kennedys played numerous shows at local venues afterward. Due to the provocative name of the band, they sometimes played under pseudonyms, including "The DK's", "The Sharks", "The Creamsicles" and "The Pink Twinkies". San Francisco Chronicle columnist Herb Caen wrote in November 1978, "Just when you think tastelessness has reached its nadir, along comes a punk rock group called 'The Dead Kennedys', which will play at Mabuhay Gardens on Nov. 22, the 15th anniversary of John F. Kennedy's assassination." Despite mounting protests, the owner of Mabuhay declared, "I can't cancel them NOW—there's a contract. Not, apparently, the kind of contract some people have in mind." However, despite popular belief, the name was not meant to insult the Kennedy family, but according to Ray, "the assassinations were in much more poor taste than our band. We actually respect the Kennedy family. . . . When JFK was assassinated, when Martin Luther King was assassinated, when RFK was assassinated, the American Dream was assassinated. . . . Our name is actually homage to the American Dream." 6025 left the band in March 1979 under somewhat unclear circumstances, generally considered to be musical differences. In June, the band released their first single, "California Über Alles", on Biafra and East Bay Ray's independent label, Alternative Tentacles. The band followed with a poorly attended East Coast tour, being a new and fairly unknown band at the time, without a full album release. Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables (1980–1981) In early 1980, they recorded and released the single "Holiday in Cambodia". In June, the band recorded their debut album, Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables, released in September of that year on the UK label Cherry Red. The album reached number 33 on the UK Albums Chart. Since its initial release, it has been re-released by several other labels, including IRS, Alternative Tentacles, and Cleopatra. The 2005 reissue—the special 25th-anniversary edition—features the original artwork and a bonus 55-minute DVD documenting the making of the album as well as the band's early years. On March 25, 1980, Dead Kennedys were invited to perform at the Bay Area Music Awards in an effort to give the event some "new wave credibility", in the words of the organizers. The day of the performance was spent practicing the song they were asked to play, the underground hit "California über alles". The band became the talking point of the ceremony when after about 15 seconds into the song, Biafra stopped the band—in a manner reminiscent of Elvis Costello's Saturday Night Live appearance—and said, "Hold it! We've gotta prove that we're adults now. We're not a punk rock band, we're a new wave band." The band, all wearing white shirts with a big, black S painted on the front, pulled black ties from around the backs of their necks to form a dollar sign, then started playing a new song titled "Pull My Strings", a barbed, satirical attack on the ethics of the mainstream music industry, which contained the lyrics, "Is my cock big enough, is my brain small enough, for you to make me a star?". The song also referenced The Knack's song "My Sharona". "Pull My Strings" was never recorded for a studio release, though the performance at the Bay Area Music Awards, which was one of only two times that the song was ever performed, was released on the band's 1987 compilation album Give Me Convenience or Give Me Death. In a 2017 interview about the show Klaus stated, "We did one other performance of it at The Mabuhay and that was the only other time we performed it... like within a week of the Bammies" It’s unknown if this performance was ever recorded. In January 1981, Ted announced that he wanted to leave to pursue a career in architecture and would help look for a replacement. He played his last concert in February 1981. His replacement was D. H. Peligro (Darren Henley). Around the same time, East Bay Ray had tried to pressure the rest of the band to sign to the major record label Polydor Records; Biafra stated that he was prepared to leave the group if the rest of the band wanted to sign to the label, though East Bay Ray asserts that he recommended against signing with Polydor. Polydor decided not to sign the band after they learned that Dead Kennedys' next single was to be entitled "Too Drunk to Fuck". When "Too Drunk to Fuck" came out in May 1981 it caused controversy in the UK, as the BBC feared the single would reach the Top 30, which would necessitate its title being mentioned on Top of the Pops. It was never played, although it was simply called "'Too Drunk' by the Kennedys" by presenter Tony Blackburn. In God We Trust, Inc., Plastic Surgery Disasters and Alternative Tentacles Records (1981–1985) After Peligro joined the band, the extended play In God We Trust, Inc. (1981) saw them move toward a more aggressive hardcore/thrash sound. In addition to the EP's controversial artwork depicting a gold Christ figure on a cross of dollar bills, the lyrics contained Biafra's most biting social and political commentary yet, and songs such as "Moral Majority", "Nazi Punks Fuck Off!" and "We've Got a Bigger Problem Now" placed Dead Kennedys as the spokesmen of social protest, while "Dog Bite", a cover version of Rawhide and various joke introductions showed a much more whimsical side. In 1982, they released their second studio album, Plastic Surgery Disasters. The album's cover features a withered starving African child's hand being held and dwarfed by a white man's hand, a picture that had won the World Press Photo award in 1980, taken in Karamoja district in Uganda by Mike Wells. The band's music had evolved considerably in a short time, moving away from hardcore formulae toward a more innovative jazz-informed style, featuring musicianship and dynamics far beyond other bands in the genre (thus effectively removing the music from that genre). By now the group had become a de facto political force, pitting itself against rising elements of American social and political life such as the religious right, Ronald Reagan and the idle rich. The band continued touring all over the United States, as well as Europe and Australia, and gained a large underground following. While they continued to play live shows during 1983 and 1984, they took a break from releasing new records to concentrate on the Alternative Tentacles record label, which would become synonymous with DIY alternative culture. The band continued to write and perform new material during this time, which would appear on their next album (some of these early performances can be seen in the ''DMPO's on Broadway video, originally released by Dirk Dirksen and later reissued on Rhino). Frankenchrist and obscenity trial (1985–1986) The release of the album Frankenchrist in 1985 showed the band had grown in musical proficiency and lyrical maturity. While there were still a number of loud/fast songs, much of the music featured an eclectic mix of instruments including trumpets and synthesizers. Around this time Klaus Flouride released the similarly experimental solo EP Cha Cha Cha With Mr. Flouride''. Lyrically, the band continued their trademark social commentary, with songs such as "MTV Get Off The Air" and "Jock-O-Rama (Invasion of the Beef Patrol)" poking fun at mainstream America. However, the controversy that erupted over H.R. Giger's Penis Landscape, included as an insert with the album, dwarfed the notoriety of its music. The artwork caused a furor with the newly formed Parents Music Resource Center (PMRC). In December 1985 a teenage girl purchased the album at the Wherehouse Records store in Los Angeles County. The girl's mother wrote letters of complaint to the California Attorney General and to Los Angeles prosecutors. Members of the band and others in the chain of distribution were charged with violating the California Penal Code on a misdemeanor charge carrying a maximum penalty of up to a year in county jail and a base fine of up to $2,000. Biafra says that during this time government agents invaded and searched his home. The prosecution tried to present the poster to the jury in isolation for consideration as obscene material, but Judge Susan Isacoff ruled that the poster must be considered along with the music and lyrics. The charges against three of the original defendants, Ruth Schwartz (owner of Mordam Records), Steve Boudreau (a distributor involved in supplying Frankenchrist to the Los Angeles Wherehouse store), and Salvatore Alberti (owner of the factory where the record was pressed), were dismissed for lack of evidence. The album, however, was banned from many record stores nationwide. After the break up of the band, Jello Biafra brought up the court case on The Oprah Winfrey Show. Biafra was on the show with Tipper Gore as part of a panel discussion on the issues of "controversial music lyrics" and censorship. Bedtime for Democracy and break-up (1986) In addition to the obscenity lawsuit, the band became increasingly disillusioned with the underground scene as well. The hardcore scene, which had been a haven for free-thinking intellectuals and downtrodden nonconformists, was attracting a more violent audience that imposed an increasing level of brutality on other concertgoers and began to alienate many of the bands and individuals who had helped pioneer the movement in the early 1980s. In earlier years the band had criticized neo-Nazi skinheads for trying to ruin the punk scene, but just as big a problem was the popularity of increasingly macho hardcore bands, which brought the group (and their genre) an audience that had little to do with the ideas/ideals they stood for. Biafra penned new songs such as "Chickenshit Conformist" and "Anarchy for Sale" that articulated the band's feelings about the "dumbing down" of punk rock. During the summer they recorded these for their final album, Bedtime for Democracy, which was released in November. The artwork, depicting a defaced Statue of Liberty overrun with Nazis, media, opportunists, Klan members, corrupt government officials, and religious zombies, echoed the idea that neither America itself or the punk scene were safe havens any more for "your tired, your poor, your huddled masses yearning to breathe free". The album contains a number of fast/short songs interspersed with jazz ("D.M.S.O."), spoken word ("A Commercial") and psychedelia ("Cesspools In Eden"). The band decided to split up in January 1986, prior to the recording and release of Bedtime for Democracy, and played their last live show with the original lineup on 21 February. Biafra went on to speak about his political beliefs on numerous television shows and he released a number of spoken-word albums. Ray, Flouride, and Peligro also went on to solo careers. Band reformation and death of Peligro (2001–present) In 2001, Ray, Peligro, and Flouride reformed the Dead Kennedys, with former Dr. Know singer Brandon Cruz replacing Biafra on vocals. The band played under the name "DK Kennedys" for a few concerts, but later reverted to "Dead Kennedys" permanently. They played across the continental United States, Europe, Asia, South America, and Russia. Brandon Cruz left the band in May 2003 and was replaced by Jeff Penalty. The band has released two live albums of archival performances on Manifesto Records: Mutiny on the Bay, compiled from various live shows including a recording from their last show with Biafra in 1986, and Live at the Deaf Club, a recording of a 1979 performance at the Deaf Club in San Francisco which was greeted with more enthusiasm. On October 9, 2007, a best of album titled Milking the Sacred Cow was released. It includes two previously unreleased live versions of "Soup Is Good Food" and "Jock-O-Rama", originally found on Frankenchrist. Jeff Penalty left the band in March 2008 in what he describes as a "not amicable split." In a statement released, Jeff said that, following a series of disputes, the band had secretly recruited a new singer and played a gig in his neighbourhood, although he also stated he was "really proud of what we were able to accomplish with Dead Kennedys". On August 21, 2008, the band announced an extended break from touring due to the health-related issues of Flouride and Peligro. They stated their plans to collaborate on new projects. The band performed a gig in Santa Rosa, California in June 2009, with Peligro returning to the drum kit. In August 2010, Dead Kennedys announced plans for a short East Coast tour. The lineup assembled for this tour contained East Bay Ray, Peligro, Greer, and bassist Greg Reeves replacing Flouride, who was taking "personal time off" from the band. The tour dates included performances in Philadelphia, New York City, Boston, Washington, D.C., Portland, Maine and Hawaii. The band has played a reworked version of their song "MTV Get Off the Air", re-titled "MP3 Get Off the Web", with lyrics criticizing music piracy during their October 16, 2010, concert at the Rock and Roll Hotel in Washington, D.C. Dead Kennedys had world tours in 2013 and in 2014, the latter mostly in North American cities. In 2015 and 2016 they toured again, including South America, where they had not played since 2001. In 2017, East Bay Ray revealed that the band and Jello Biafra had been approached by the Punk-oriented music festival Riot Fest about a potential reunion. While Ray and the rest of the band expressed interest in the concept, Biafra refused. On April 26, 2019, the group released DK40, a live compilation album celebrating 40 years since the band formed. On October 28, 2022, D.H. Peligro died from an overdose of heroin and fentanyl, although it was initially believed to have been from possible head trauma from a fall at his home that day. Since Peligro's death, the band has performed in the UK with Santi Guardiola and the United States with Steve Wilson (who had played in D. H. Peligro's band Peligro before) filling in on drums. Conflicts between members Royalties lawsuit In the late 1990s, former band members discovered they were being underpaid in terms of royalties from Alternative Tentacles. East Bay Ray, Klaus Flouride, and D. H. Peligro claimed that Jello Biafra had conspired to pay them lower royalty rates and then attempted to disguise the precise nature of the money owed. Biafra claimed that the failure to pay these royalties was an accounting mistake. In 1998, the other three members of the band sued Biafra over these allegedly unpaid royalties. A jury ruled in their favor in May 2000, finding Biafra and Alternative Tentacles "guilty of malice, oppression and fraud". Malice was defined for the jury as "conduct which is intended to cause injury or despicable conduct which is carried with a willful and conscious disregard for the rights of others". Biafra's appeal was denied in June 2003; he had to pay the outstanding royalties as well as punitive damages, and was forced to hand over the rights to the majority of Dead Kennedys' back catalogue to the Decay Music partnership. This dispute caused minor waves within punk circles. Biafra claims that East Bay Ray had long expressed displeasure with Alternative Tentacles and with the amount of money he received from them, thus the original incentive for the discovery of the back payments. It was found out that Alternative Tentacles was paying Dead Kennedys less per CD than all the other bands, including Biafra himself, and not informing his other bandmates, which was the fraud. Biafra accused the band of wanting to license the famous Dead Kennedys song "Holiday in Cambodia" for use in a Levi's jeans commercial, which the band denied. However, an instrumental loop from "Holiday in Cambodia" was part of the 1981 black comedy feature film Neighbors, though it was not included on the soundtrack. The band maintains that the Levi's story was completely fictitious and invented by Biafra to discredit them. Biafra further criticized them for advertising shows using his own image taken from the original 1980s incarnation of the band, which he labeled as false advertising. He attacked the reformed Dead Kennedys in a song called "Those Dumb Punk Kids (Will Buy Anything)", which appears on his second collaboration with sludge metal band the Melvins, Sieg Howdy! Biafra told an audience at a speaking gig in Trenton, New Jersey, that the remaining Dead Kennedys have licensed their single "Too Drunk to Fuck" to be used in a rape scene in a Robert Rodriguez movie. The reference is to a lounge cover of the song, recorded by the band Nouvelle Vague, played during a scene in the Planet Terror segment of Grindhouse, although no rape takes place, and in fact the would-be rapist is killed by the would-be victim. The scene in Planet Terror has would-be rapist, "Rapist No. 1" (Quentin Tarantino) order one-legged stripper "Cherry Darlin" (Rose McGowan) to get up off the floor and dance. At this point Tarantino hits play on a cassette recorder and Nouvelle Vague's cover of "Too Drunk To Fuck" plays. Biafra, disapproving of the situation, later wrote, "This is their lowest point since Levi's... This goes against everything the Dead Kennedys stands for in spades... The terrified woman later 'wins' by killing Tarantino, but that excuse does not rescue this at all. I wrote every note of that song and this is not what it was meant for.... Some people will do anything for money. I can't help but think back to how prudish Klaus Flouride was when he objected to H. R. Giger's painting on the "Frankenchrist" (sic) poster, saying he couldn't bear to show it to his parents. I'd sure love to be a fly on the wall when he tries to explain putting a song in a rape scene for money to his teenage daughter... The deal was pushed through by a new business manager the other three hired." The reformed Dead Kennedys followed their court victory by releasing reissues of all Dead Kennedys albums (except Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables, to which they did not have the rights until 2005), releasing several new archival concert DVDs, and licensing several songs to The Manchurian Candidate remake and the ''Tony Hawk's Pro Skater'' video game. East Bay Ray claims he received a fax from Alternative Tentacles purporting Biafra approved the licensing for the game. The band claims on their website that they still pay close attention to an anti-corporate ideology, despite performing on September 5, 2003, at a festival in Turkey that was sponsored by Coca-Cola, noting that they have since pulled out of a show in Los Angeles when they found that it was being sponsored by Coors. However, Biafra claims the previous licensing deals prove otherwise. Artistry Music and lyrics Dead Kennedys have been described as one of the first hardcore punk bands. They were noted for the harshness of their lyrics, which generally combined biting social satire while expressing a staunchly left-wing view of contemporary America. Unlike other leftist punk bands who use more direct sloganeering, Dead Kennedys' lyrics were often snide. For example, "Holiday in Cambodia" is a multi-layered satire targeting both yuppies and Cambodia's recently deposed Khmer Rouge regime. Or, on "Jock-O-Rama", featured on Frankenchrist, they mock southern small towns whose residents’ lives revolve around high school football. Logo The original logo was created by Winston Smith. He later contributed artwork for the covers of In God We Trust, Inc., Plastic Surgery Disasters, Frankenchrist, Bedtime for Democracy, Give Me Convenience or Give Me Death, the back cover of the "Kill the Poor" single and the Alternative Tentacles logo. When asked about the "DK" logo in an interview, Jello Biafra explained, "...I wanted to make sure it was something simple and easy to spray-paint so people would graffiti it all over the place, and then I showed it to Winston Smith. He played around with it, came back with a bunch of designs that had the circle and slightly 3-D looking letters and he had ones with different patterns behind it. I liked the one with bricks, but ultimately I thought simple red behind it was the boldest and the best." Influence Dead Kennedys have influenced multiple acts such as System of a Down, Green Day, Faith No More, Rage Against the Machine, Sepultura, Descendents, Bad Religion, Slayer, X, Minutemen, The Hives, Saves the Day and Screeching Weasel among others. Members Current members * East Bay Ray (Raymond Pepperell) – guitars (1978–1986, 2001–present) * Klaus Flouride (Geoffrey Lyall) – bass, backing vocals (1978–1986, 2001–2010, 2011–present) * Ron "Skip" Greer – lead vocals (2008–present) * Steve Wilson – drums (2023–present) Former members * Jello Biafra (Eric Boucher) – lead vocals (1978–1986) * 6025 (Carlo Cadona) – rhythm guitar (1978–1979) * Ted (Bruce Slesinger) – drums (1978–1981) * D.H. Peligro (Darren Henley) – drums, backing vocals (1981–1986, 2001–2008, 2009–2022; his death) * Brandon Cruz – lead vocals (2001–2003) * Jeff Penalty (Jeff Alulis) – lead vocals (2003–2008) * Dave Scheff – drums (2008) * Greg Reeves – bass (2010–2011) * Santi Guardiola – drums (2023) Timeline TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal format:yyyy Legend = orientation:vertical position:bottom columns:4 ScaleMajor = increment:5 start:1979 ScaleMinor = increment:1 start:1979 Colors = id:Vocals value:red legend:Lead_vocals id:BVocals value:pink legend:Backing_vocals id:Guitar value:green legend:Guitar id:Bass value:blue legend:Bass id:Drums value:orange legend:Drums id:studio value:black legend:Studio_album id:other value:gray(0.7) legend:Other_release id:bars value:gray(0.95) BackgroundColors = bars:bars LineData = layer:back at:01/09/1980 color:studio at:01/12/1981 color:other at:01/11/1982 color:studio at:01/10/1985 color:studio at:01/11/1986 color:studio at:01/06/1987 color:other at:24/04/2001 color:other at:27/01/2004 color:other at:09/10/2007 color:other BarData = bar:Biafra text:"Jello Biafra" bar:Cruz text:"Brandon Cruz" bar:Penalty text:"Jeff Penalty" bar:Greer text:"Ron Greer" bar:Ray text:"East Bay Ray" bar:6025 text:"6025" bar:Flouride text:"Klaus Flouride" bar:Reeves text:"Greg Reeves" bar:Slesinger text:"Ted" bar:Peligro text:"D. H. Peligro" bar:Scheff text:"Dave Scheff" bar:Guardiola text:"Santi Guardiola" bar:Wilson text:"Steve Wilson" PlotData= width:11 textcolor:black align:left anchor:from shift:(10,-4) bar:Biafra from:01/06/1978 till:01/12/1986 color:Vocals width:11 bar:Cruz from:01/01/2001 till:01/05/2003 color:Vocals width:11 bar:Penalty from:01/05/2003 till:01/03/2008 color:Vocals width:11 bar:Greer from:01/03/2008 till:end color:Vocals width:11 bar:Ray from:01/06/1978 till:01/12/1986 color:Guitar width:11 bar:Ray from:01/01/2001 till:end color:Guitar width:11 bar:6025 from:01/07/1978 till:03/03/1979 color:Guitar width:11 bar:Flouride from:01/06/1978 till:01/12/1986 color:Bass width:11 bar:Flouride from:01/06/1978 till:01/12/1986 color:BVocals width:3 bar:Flouride from:01/01/2001 till:01/01/2010 color:Bass width:11 bar:Flouride from:01/01/2001 till:01/01/2010 color:BVocals width:3 bar:Reeves from:01/01/2010 till:01/01/2011 color:Bass width:11 bar:Flouride from:01/01/2011 till:end color:Bass width:11 bar:Flouride from:01/01/2011 till:end color:BVocals width:3 bar:Slesinger from:01/06/1978 till:01/02/1981 color:Drums width:11 bar:Peligro from:01/02/1981 till:01/12/1986 color:Drums width:11 bar:Peligro from:01/01/2001 till:01/03/2008 color:Drums width:11 bar:Peligro from:01/06/1982 till:01/12/1986 color:BVocals width:3 bar:Peligro from:01/01/2001 till:01/03/2008 color:BVocals width:3 bar:Scheff from:01/03/2008 till:01/06/2009 color:Drums width:11 bar:Peligro from:01/06/2009 till:28/10/2022 color:Drums width:11 bar:Peligro from:01/06/2009 till:28/10/2022 color:BVocals width:3 bar:Guardiola from:05/05/2023 till:26/10/2023 color:Drums width:11 bar:Wilson from:26/10/2023 till:end color:Drums width:11 }} Discography * Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables (1980) * Plastic Surgery Disasters (1982) * Frankenchrist (1985) * Bedtime for Democracy (1986) Videography * The Art of Punk – Dead Kennedys (The Museum of Contemporary Art) (2013) - Documentary featuring the art of Winston Smith See also * List of bands from the San Francisco Bay Area * Ronald Reagan in music References Further reading * * External links * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160311042325/http://www.alternativetentacles.com/bandinfo.php?banddeadkennedys&sdkkxjjpq55vuxbeda%40fa Alternative Tentacles's Dead Kennedys Biography] Category:1978 establishments in California Category:1986 disestablishments in California Category:2001 establishments in California Category:Alternative Tentacles artists Category:American satirists Category:American satirical musicians Category:Articles which contain graphical timelines Category:Cherry Red Records artists Category:Hardcore punk groups from California Category:I.R.S. Records artists Category:Musical groups disestablished in 1986 Category:Musical groups established in 1978 Category:Musical groups from San Francisco Category:Musical groups reestablished in 2001 Category:Musical quartets from California Category:Obscenity controversies in music Category:Political music groups Category:American punk rock groups Category:Alternative rock groups from California	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Kennedys	2025-04-05T18:28:19.852571
7955	DNA	(type B-DNA). The atoms in the structure are colour-coded by element and the detailed structures of two base pairs are shown in the bottom right.]] Deoxyribonucleic acid (; DNA) is a polymer composed of two polynucleotide chains that coil around each other to form a double helix. The polymer carries genetic instructions for the development, functioning, growth and reproduction of all known organisms and many viruses. DNA and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are nucleic acids. Alongside proteins, lipids and complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides), nucleic acids are one of the four major types of macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life. The two DNA strands are known as polynucleotides as they are composed of simpler monomeric units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of one of four nitrogen-containing nucleobases (cytosine [C], guanine [G], adenine [A] or thymine [T]), a sugar called deoxyribose, and a phosphate group. The nucleotides are joined to one another in a chain by covalent bonds (known as the phosphodiester linkage) between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, resulting in an alternating sugar-phosphate backbone. The nitrogenous bases of the two separate polynucleotide strands are bound together, according to base pairing rules (A with T and C with G), with hydrogen bonds to make double-stranded DNA. The complementary nitrogenous bases are divided into two groups, the single-ringed pyrimidines and the double-ringed purines. In DNA, the pyrimidines are thymine and cytosine; the purines are adenine and guanine. Both strands of double-stranded DNA store the same biological information. This information is replicated when the two strands separate. A large part of DNA (more than 98% for humans) is non-coding, meaning that these sections do not serve as patterns for protein sequences. The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions to each other and are thus antiparallel. Attached to each sugar is one of four types of nucleobases (or bases). It is the sequence of these four nucleobases along the backbone that encodes genetic information. RNA strands are created using DNA strands as a template in a process called transcription, where DNA bases are exchanged for their corresponding bases except in the case of thymine (T), for which RNA substitutes uracil (U). Under the genetic code, these RNA strands specify the sequence of amino acids within proteins in a process called translation. Within eukaryotic cells, DNA is organized into long structures called chromosomes. Before typical cell division, these chromosomes are duplicated in the process of DNA replication, providing a complete set of chromosomes for each daughter cell. Eukaryotic organisms (animals, plants, fungi and protists) store most of their DNA inside the cell nucleus as nuclear DNA, and some in the mitochondria as mitochondrial DNA or in chloroplasts as chloroplast DNA. In contrast, prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) store their DNA only in the cytoplasm, in circular chromosomes. Within eukaryotic chromosomes, chromatin proteins, such as histones, compact and organize DNA. These compacting structures guide the interactions between DNA and other proteins, helping control which parts of the DNA are transcribed. Properties s shown as dotted lines. Each end of the double helix has an exposed 5' phosphate on one strand and an exposed 3′ hydroxyl group (—OH) on the other.]] DNA is a long polymer made from repeating units called nucleotides. The structure of DNA is dynamic along its length, being capable of coiling into tight loops and other shapes. In all species it is composed of two helical chains, bound to each other by hydrogen bonds. Both chains are coiled around the same axis, and have the same pitch of . The pair of chains have a radius of . According to another study, when measured in a different solution, the DNA chain measured wide, and one nucleotide unit measured long. The buoyant density of most DNA is 1.7g/cm<sup>3</sup>. DNA does not usually exist as a single strand, but instead as a pair of strands that are held tightly together. These two long strands coil around each other, in the shape of a double helix. The nucleotide contains both a segment of the backbone of the molecule (which holds the chain together) and a nucleobase (which interacts with the other DNA strand in the helix). A nucleobase linked to a sugar is called a nucleoside, and a base linked to a sugar and to one or more phosphate groups is called a nucleotide. A biopolymer comprising multiple linked nucleotides (as in DNA) is called a polynucleotide. The backbone of the DNA strand is made from alternating phosphate and sugar groups. The sugar in DNA is 2-deoxyribose, which is a pentose (five-carbon) sugar. The sugars are joined by phosphate groups that form phosphodiester bonds between the third and fifth carbon atoms of adjacent sugar rings. These are known as the 3′-end (three prime end), and 5′-end (five prime end) carbons, the prime symbol being used to distinguish these carbon atoms from those of the base to which the deoxyribose forms a glycosidic bond. The four bases found in DNA are adenine (), cytosine (), guanine () and thymine (). These four bases are attached to the sugar-phosphate to form the complete nucleotide, as shown for adenosine monophosphate. Adenine pairs with thymine and guanine pairs with cytosine, forming and base pairs. Nucleobase classification The nucleobases are classified into two types: the purines, and , which are fused five- and six-membered heterocyclic compounds, and the pyrimidines, the six-membered rings and . Non-canonical bases Modified bases occur in DNA. The first of these recognized was 5-methylcytosine, which was found in the genome of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in 1925. The reason for the presence of these noncanonical bases in bacterial viruses (bacteriophages) is to avoid the restriction enzymes present in bacteria. This enzyme system acts at least in part as a molecular immune system protecting bacteria from infection by viruses. Modifications of the bases cytosine and adenine, the more common and modified DNA bases, play vital roles in the epigenetic control of gene expression in plants and animals. A number of noncanonical bases are known to occur in DNA. Most of these are modifications of the canonical bases plus uracil. * Modified Adenine N6-carbamoyl-methyladenine N6-methyadenine * Modified Guanine 7-Deazaguanine 7-Methylguanine * Modified Cytosine N4-Methylcytosine 5-Carboxylcytosine 5-Formylcytosine 5-Glycosylhydroxymethylcytosine 5-Hydroxycytosine 5-Methylcytosine * Modified Thymidine α-Glutamythymidine α-Putrescinylthymine * Uracil and modifications Base J Uracil 5-Dihydroxypentauracil 5-Hydroxymethyldeoxyuracil * Others Deoxyarchaeosine 2,6-Diaminopurine (2-Aminoadenine) Grooves dye 33258.]] Twin helical strands form the DNA backbone. Another double helix may be found tracing the spaces, or grooves, between the strands. These voids are adjacent to the base pairs and may provide a binding site. As the strands are not symmetrically located with respect to each other, the grooves are unequally sized. The major groove is wide, while the minor groove is in width. Due to the larger width of the major groove, the edges of the bases are more accessible in the major groove than in the minor groove. As a result, proteins such as transcription factors that can bind to specific sequences in double-stranded DNA usually make contact with the sides of the bases exposed in the major groove. This situation varies in unusual conformations of DNA within the cell (see below), but the major and minor grooves are always named to reflect the differences in width that would be seen if the DNA was twisted back into the ordinary B form. Base pairing <div class"thumb tright" style"background:#f9f9f9; border:1px solid #ccc; margin:0.5em;"> {\| border"0" cellpadding"2" cellspacing"0" style"width:230px; font-size:85%; border:1px solid #ccc; margin:0.3em;" \|- \| \|} {\| border"0" cellpadding"2" cellspacing"0" style"width:230px; font-size:85%; border:1px solid #ccc; margin:0.3em;" \|- \| \|} <div style"border: none; width:282px;"><div class"thumbcaption">Top, a base pair with three hydrogen bonds. Bottom, an base pair with two hydrogen bonds. Non-covalent hydrogen bonds between the pairs are shown as dashed lines.</div></div></div> In a DNA double helix, each type of nucleobase on one strand bonds with just one type of nucleobase on the other strand. This is called complementary base pairing. Purines form hydrogen bonds to pyrimidines, with adenine bonding only to thymine in two hydrogen bonds, and cytosine bonding only to guanine in three hydrogen bonds. This arrangement of two nucleotides binding together across the double helix (from six-carbon ring to six-carbon ring) is called a Watson-Crick base pair. DNA with high GC-content is more stable than DNA with low -content. A Hoogsteen base pair (hydrogen bonding the 6-carbon ring to the 5-carbon ring) is a rare variation of base-pairing. As hydrogen bonds are not covalent, they can be broken and rejoined relatively easily. The two strands of DNA in a double helix can thus be pulled apart like a zipper, either by a mechanical force or high temperature. As a result of this base pair complementarity, all the information in the double-stranded sequence of a DNA helix is duplicated on each strand, which is vital in DNA replication. This reversible and specific interaction between complementary base pairs is critical for all the functions of DNA in organisms. In biology, parts of the DNA double helix that need to separate easily, such as the Pribnow box in some promoters, tend to have a high content, making the strands easier to pull apart. In the laboratory, the strength of this interaction can be measured by finding the melting temperature T<sub>m</sub> necessary to break half of the hydrogen bonds. When all the base pairs in a DNA double helix melt, the strands separate and exist in solution as two entirely independent molecules. These single-stranded DNA molecules have no single common shape, but some conformations are more stable than others. Amount of a human. It shows 22 homologous chromosomes, both the female (XX) and male (XY) versions of the sex chromosome (bottom right), as well as the mitochondrial genome (to scale at bottom left). The blue scale to the left of each chromosome pair (and the mitochondrial genome) shows its length in terms of millions of DNA base pairs.]] In humans, the total female diploid nuclear genome per cell extends for 6.37 Gigabase pairs (Gbp), is 208.23 cm long and weighs 6.51 picograms (pg). Male values are 6.27 Gbp, 205.00 cm, 6.41 pg. DNA base pairs, with each such molecule normally containing a full set of the mitochondrial genes. Each human mitochondrion contains, on average, approximately 5 such mtDNA molecules. Sense and antisense A DNA sequence is called a "sense" sequence if it is the same as that of a messenger RNA copy that is translated into protein. The sequence on the opposite strand is called the "antisense" sequence. Both sense and antisense sequences can exist on different parts of the same strand of DNA (i.e. both strands can contain both sense and antisense sequences). In both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, antisense RNA sequences are produced, but the functions of these RNAs are not entirely clear. One proposal is that antisense RNAs are involved in regulating gene expression through RNA-RNA base pairing. A few DNA sequences in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, and more in plasmids and viruses, blur the distinction between sense and antisense strands by having overlapping genes. In these cases, some DNA sequences do double duty, encoding one protein when read along one strand, and a second protein when read in the opposite direction along the other strand. In bacteria, this overlap may be involved in the regulation of gene transcription, while in viruses, overlapping genes increase the amount of information that can be encoded within the small viral genome. Supercoiling DNA can be twisted like a rope in a process called DNA supercoiling. With DNA in its "relaxed" state, a strand usually circles the axis of the double helix once every 10.4 base pairs, but if the DNA is twisted the strands become more tightly or more loosely wound. If the DNA is twisted in the direction of the helix, this is positive supercoiling, and the bases are held more tightly together. If they are twisted in the opposite direction, this is negative supercoiling, and the bases come apart more easily. In nature, most DNA has slight negative supercoiling that is introduced by enzymes called topoisomerases. These enzymes are also needed to relieve the twisting stresses introduced into DNA strands during processes such as transcription and DNA replication. Alternative DNA structures , B and Z-DNA]] DNA exists in many possible conformations that include A-DNA, B-DNA, and Z-DNA forms, although only B-DNA and Z-DNA have been directly observed in functional organisms. The first published reports of A-DNA X-ray diffraction patterns—and also B-DNA—used analyses based on Patterson functions that provided only a limited amount of structural information for oriented fibers of DNA. An alternative analysis was proposed by Wilkins et al. in 1953 for the in vivo B-DNA X-ray diffraction-scattering patterns of highly hydrated DNA fibers in terms of squares of Bessel functions. In the same journal, James Watson and Francis Crick presented their molecular modeling analysis of the DNA X-ray diffraction patterns to suggest that the structure was a double helix. it is not a well-defined conformation but a family of related DNA conformations that occur at the high hydration levels present in cells. Their corresponding X-ray diffraction and scattering patterns are characteristic of molecular paracrystals with a significant degree of disorder. Compared to B-DNA, the A-DNA form is a wider right-handed spiral, with a shallow, wide minor groove and a narrower, deeper major groove. The A form occurs under non-physiological conditions in partly dehydrated samples of DNA, while in the cell it may be produced in hybrid pairings of DNA and RNA strands, and in enzyme-DNA complexes. Segments of DNA where the bases have been chemically modified by methylation may undergo a larger change in conformation and adopt the Z form. Here, the strands turn about the helical axis in a left-handed spiral, the opposite of the more common B form. These unusual structures can be recognized by specific Z-DNA binding proteins and may be involved in the regulation of transcription. Alternative DNA chemistry For many years, exobiologists have proposed the existence of a shadow biosphere, a postulated microbial biosphere of Earth that uses radically different biochemical and molecular processes than currently known life. One of the proposals was the existence of lifeforms that use arsenic instead of phosphorus in DNA. A report in 2010 of the possibility in the bacterium GFAJ-1 was announced, though the research was disputed, and evidence suggests the bacterium actively prevents the incorporation of arsenic into the DNA backbone and other biomolecules. Quadruplex structures repeats. The looped conformation of the DNA backbone is very different from the typical DNA helix. The green spheres in the center represent potassium ions.]] At the ends of the linear chromosomes are specialized regions of DNA called telomeres. The main function of these regions is to allow the cell to replicate chromosome ends using the enzyme telomerase, as the enzymes that normally replicate DNA cannot copy the extreme 3′ ends of chromosomes. These specialized chromosome caps also help protect the DNA ends, and stop the DNA repair systems in the cell from treating them as damage to be corrected. In human cells, telomeres are usually lengths of single-stranded DNA containing several thousand repeats of a simple TTAGGG sequence. These guanine-rich sequences may stabilize chromosome ends by forming structures of stacked sets of four-base units, rather than the usual base pairs found in other DNA molecules. Here, four guanine bases, known as a guanine tetrad, form a flat plate. These flat four-base units then stack on top of each other to form a stable G-quadruplex structure. These structures are stabilized by hydrogen bonding between the edges of the bases and chelation of a metal ion in the centre of each four-base unit. Other structures can also be formed, with the central set of four bases coming from either a single strand folded around the bases, or several different parallel strands, each contributing one base to the central structure. In addition to these stacked structures, telomeres also form large loop structures called telomere loops, or T-loops. Here, the single-stranded DNA curls around in a long circle stabilized by telomere-binding proteins. At the very end of the T-loop, the single-stranded telomere DNA is held onto a region of double-stranded DNA by the telomere strand disrupting the double-helical DNA and base pairing to one of the two strands. This triple-stranded structure is called a displacement loop or D-loop. Branched DNA can be used in nanotechnology to construct geometric shapes, see the section on uses in technology below. Artificial bases Several artificial nucleobases have been synthesized, and successfully incorporated in the eight-base DNA analogue named Hachimoji DNA. Dubbed S, B, P, and Z, these artificial bases are capable of bonding with each other in a predictable way (S–B and P–Z), maintain the double helix structure of DNA, and be transcribed to RNA. Their existence could be seen as an indication that there is nothing special about the four natural nucleobases that evolved on Earth. On the other hand, DNA is tightly related to RNA which does not only act as a transcript of DNA but also performs as molecular machines many tasks in cells. For this purpose it has to fold into a structure. It has been shown that to allow to create all possible structures at least four bases are required for the corresponding RNA, while a higher number is also possible but this would be against the natural principle of least effort. Acidity The phosphate groups of DNA give it similar acidic properties to phosphoric acid and it can be considered as a strong acid. It will be fully ionized at a normal cellular pH, releasing protons which leave behind negative charges on the phosphate groups. These negative charges protect DNA from breakdown by hydrolysis by repelling nucleophiles which could hydrolyze it. Macroscopic appearance Pure DNA extracted from cells forms white, stringy clumps. Chemical modifications and altered DNA packaging Base modifications and DNA packaging <div class"thumb tright" style"background:#f9f9f9; border:1px solid #ccc; margin:0.5em;"> {\| border"0" cellpadding"2" cellspacing"0" style"width:300px; font-size:85%; border:1px solid #ccc; margin:0.3em;" \|- \| \| \| \|- \|align=center\|cytosine \|align=center\|5-methylcytosine \|align=center\|thymine \|} <div style"border: none; width:300px;font-size: 90%;"><div class"thumbcaption">Structure of cytosine with and without the 5-methyl group. Deamination converts 5-methylcytosine into thymine.</div></div></div> The expression of genes is influenced by how the DNA is packaged in chromosomes, in a structure called chromatin. Base modifications can be involved in packaging, with regions that have low or no gene expression usually containing high levels of methylation of cytosine bases. DNA packaging and its influence on gene expression can also occur by covalent modifications of the histone protein core around which DNA is wrapped in the chromatin structure or else by remodeling carried out by chromatin remodeling complexes (see Chromatin remodeling). There is, further, crosstalk between DNA methylation and histone modification, so they can coordinately affect chromatin and gene expression. For one example, cytosine methylation produces 5-methylcytosine, which is important for X-inactivation of chromosomes. The average level of methylation varies between organisms—the worm Caenorhabditis elegans lacks cytosine methylation, while vertebrates have higher levels, with up to 1% of their DNA containing 5-methylcytosine. Despite the importance of 5-methylcytosine, it can deaminate to leave a thymine base, so methylated cytosines are particularly prone to mutations. Other base modifications include adenine methylation in bacteria, the presence of 5-hydroxymethylcytosine in the brain, and the glycosylation of uracil to produce the "J-base" in kinetoplastids. Damage adduct between a metabolically activated form of [[Benzo(a)pyrene\|benzo[a]pyrene]], the major mutagen in tobacco smoke, and DNA]] DNA can be damaged by many sorts of mutagens, which change the DNA sequence. Mutagens include oxidizing agents, alkylating agents and also high-energy electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet light and X-rays. The type of DNA damage produced depends on the type of mutagen. For example, UV light can damage DNA by producing thymine dimers, which are cross-links between pyrimidine bases. On the other hand, oxidants such as free radicals or hydrogen peroxide produce multiple forms of damage, including base modifications, particularly of guanosine, and double-strand breaks. A typical human cell contains about 150,000 bases that have suffered oxidative damage. Of these oxidative lesions, the most dangerous are double-strand breaks, as these are difficult to repair and can produce point mutations, insertions, deletions from the DNA sequence, and chromosomal translocations. These mutations can cause cancer. Because of inherent limits in the DNA repair mechanisms, if humans lived long enough, they would all eventually develop cancer. DNA damages that are naturally occurring, due to normal cellular processes that produce reactive oxygen species, the hydrolytic activities of cellular water, etc., also occur frequently. Although most of these damages are repaired, in any cell some DNA damage may remain despite the action of repair processes. These remaining DNA damages accumulate with age in mammalian postmitotic tissues. This accumulation appears to be an important underlying cause of aging. Many mutagens fit into the space between two adjacent base pairs, this is called intercalation. Most intercalators are aromatic and planar molecules; examples include ethidium bromide, acridines, daunomycin, and doxorubicin. For an intercalator to fit between base pairs, the bases must separate, distorting the DNA strands by unwinding of the double helix. This inhibits both transcription and DNA replication, causing toxicity and mutations. As a result, DNA intercalators may be carcinogens, and in the case of thalidomide, a teratogen. Others such as [[benzo(a)pyrene\|benzo[a]pyrene diol epoxide]] and aflatoxin form DNA adducts that induce errors in replication. Nevertheless, due to their ability to inhibit DNA transcription and replication, other similar toxins are also used in chemotherapy to inhibit rapidly growing cancer cells. Biological functions within the chromosomes]] DNA usually occurs as linear chromosomes in eukaryotes, and circular chromosomes in prokaryotes. The set of chromosomes in a cell makes up its genome; the human genome has approximately 3 billion base pairs of DNA arranged into 46 chromosomes. The genetic information in a genome is held within genes, and the complete set of this information in an organism is called its genotype. A gene is a unit of heredity and is a region of DNA that influences a particular characteristic in an organism. Genes contain an open reading frame that can be transcribed, and regulatory sequences such as promoters and enhancers, which control transcription of the open reading frame. In many species, only a small fraction of the total sequence of the genome encodes protein. For example, only about 1.5% of the human genome consists of protein-coding exons, with over 50% of human DNA consisting of non-coding repetitive sequences. The reasons for the presence of so much noncoding DNA in eukaryotic genomes and the extraordinary differences in genome size, or C-value, among species, represent a long-standing puzzle known as the "C-value enigma". However, some DNA sequences that do not code protein may still encode functional non-coding RNA molecules, which are involved in the regulation of gene expression.]] Some noncoding DNA sequences play structural roles in chromosomes. Telomeres and centromeres typically contain few genes but are important for the function and stability of chromosomes. An abundant form of noncoding DNA in humans are pseudogenes, which are copies of genes that have been disabled by mutation. These sequences are usually just molecular fossils, although they can occasionally serve as raw genetic material for the creation of new genes through the process of gene duplication and divergence. Transcription and translation A gene is a sequence of DNA that contains genetic information and can influence the phenotype of an organism. Within a gene, the sequence of bases along a DNA strand defines a messenger RNA sequence, which then defines one or more protein sequences. The relationship between the nucleotide sequences of genes and the amino-acid sequences of proteins is determined by the rules of translation, known collectively as the genetic code. The genetic code consists of three-letter 'words' called codons formed from a sequence of three nucleotides (e.g. ACT, CAG, TTT). In transcription, the codons of a gene are copied into messenger RNA by RNA polymerase. This RNA copy is then decoded by a ribosome that reads the RNA sequence by base-pairing the messenger RNA to transfer RNA, which carries amino acids. Since there are 4 bases in 3-letter combinations, there are 64 possible codons (4<sup>3</sup> combinations). These encode the twenty standard amino acids, giving most amino acids more than one possible codon. There are also three 'stop' or 'nonsense' codons signifying the end of the coding region; these are the TAG, TAA, and TGA codons, (UAG, UAA, and UGA on the mRNA). Replication and topoisomerase. Next, one DNA polymerase produces the leading strand copy. Another DNA polymerase binds to the lagging strand. This enzyme makes discontinuous segments (called Okazaki fragments) before DNA ligase joins them together.]] Cell division is essential for an organism to grow, but, when a cell divides, it must replicate the DNA in its genome so that the two daughter cells have the same genetic information as their parent. The double-stranded structure of DNA provides a simple mechanism for DNA replication. Here, the two strands are separated and then each strand's complementary DNA sequence is recreated by an enzyme called DNA polymerase. This enzyme makes the complementary strand by finding the correct base through complementary base pairing and bonding it onto the original strand. As DNA polymerases can only extend a DNA strand in a 5′ to 3′ direction, different mechanisms are used to copy the antiparallel strands of the double helix. In this way, the base on the old strand dictates which base appears on the new strand, and the cell ends up with a perfect copy of its DNA. Extracellular nucleic acids Naked extracellular DNA (eDNA), most of it released by cell death, is nearly ubiquitous in the environment. Its concentration in soil may be as high as 2 μg/L, and its concentration in natural aquatic environments may be as high at 88 μg/L. Various possible functions have been proposed for eDNA: it may be involved in horizontal gene transfer; it may provide nutrients; and it may act as a buffer to recruit or titrate ions or antibiotics. Extracellular DNA acts as a functional extracellular matrix component in the biofilms of several bacterial species. It may act as a recognition factor to regulate the attachment and dispersal of specific cell types in the biofilm; it may contribute to biofilm formation; and it may contribute to the biofilm's physical strength and resistance to biological stress. Cell-free fetal DNA is found in the blood of the mother, and can be sequenced to determine a great deal of information about the developing fetus. Under the name of environmental DNA eDNA has seen increased use in the natural sciences as a survey tool for ecology, monitoring the movements and presence of species in water, air, or on land, and assessing an area's biodiversity. Neutrophil extracellular traps Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are networks of extracellular fibers, primarily composed of DNA, which allow neutrophils, a type of white blood cell, to kill extracellular pathogens while minimizing damage to the host cells. Interactions with proteins All the functions of DNA depend on interactions with proteins. These protein interactions can be non-specific, or the protein can bind specifically to a single DNA sequence. Enzymes can also bind to DNA and of these, the polymerases that copy the DNA base sequence in transcription and DNA replication are particularly important. DNA-binding proteins s (in blue). These proteins' basic amino acids bind to the acidic phosphate groups on DNA.]] Structural proteins that bind DNA are well-understood examples of non-specific DNA-protein interactions. Within chromosomes, DNA is held in complexes with structural proteins. These proteins organize the DNA into a compact structure called chromatin. In eukaryotes, this structure involves DNA binding to a complex of small basic proteins called histones, while in prokaryotes multiple types of proteins are involved. The histones form a disk-shaped complex called a nucleosome, which contains two complete turns of double-stranded DNA wrapped around its surface. These non-specific interactions are formed through basic residues in the histones, making ionic bonds to the acidic sugar-phosphate backbone of the DNA, and are thus largely independent of the base sequence. Chemical modifications of these basic amino acid residues include methylation, phosphorylation, and acetylation. These chemical changes alter the strength of the interaction between the DNA and the histones, making the DNA more or less accessible to transcription factors and changing the rate of transcription. Other non-specific DNA-binding proteins in chromatin include the high-mobility group proteins, which bind to bent or distorted DNA. These proteins are important in bending arrays of nucleosomes and arranging them into the larger structures that make up chromosomes. A distinct group of DNA-binding proteins is the DNA-binding proteins that specifically bind single-stranded DNA. In humans, replication protein A is the best-understood member of this family and is used in processes where the double helix is separated, including DNA replication, recombination, and DNA repair. These binding proteins seem to stabilize single-stranded DNA and protect it from forming stem-loops or being degraded by nucleases. transcription factor bound to its DNA target]] In contrast, other proteins have evolved to bind to particular DNA sequences. The most intensively studied of these are the various transcription factors, which are proteins that regulate transcription. Each transcription factor binds to one particular set of DNA sequences and activates or inhibits the transcription of genes that have these sequences close to their promoters. The transcription factors do this in two ways. Firstly, they can bind the RNA polymerase responsible for transcription, either directly or through other mediator proteins; this locates the polymerase at the promoter and allows it to begin transcription. Alternatively, transcription factors can bind enzymes that modify the histones at the promoter. This changes the accessibility of the DNA template to the polymerase. As these DNA targets can occur throughout an organism's genome, changes in the activity of one type of transcription factor can affect thousands of genes. Consequently, these proteins are often the targets of the signal transduction processes that control responses to environmental changes or cellular differentiation and development. The specificity of these transcription factors' interactions with DNA come from the proteins making multiple contacts to the edges of the DNA bases, allowing them to "read" the DNA sequence. Most of these base-interactions are made in the major groove, where the bases are most accessible.]] Nucleases are enzymes that cut DNA strands by catalyzing the hydrolysis of the phosphodiester bonds. Nucleases that hydrolyse nucleotides from the ends of DNA strands are called exonucleases, while endonucleases cut within strands. The most frequently used nucleases in molecular biology are the restriction endonucleases, which cut DNA at specific sequences. For instance, the EcoRV enzyme shown to the left recognizes the 6-base sequence 5′-GATATC-3′ and makes a cut at the horizontal line. In nature, these enzymes protect bacteria against phage infection by digesting the phage DNA when it enters the bacterial cell, acting as part of the restriction modification system. In technology, these sequence-specific nucleases are used in molecular cloning and DNA fingerprinting. Enzymes called DNA ligases can rejoin cut or broken DNA strands. Ligases are particularly important in lagging strand DNA replication, as they join the short segments of DNA produced at the replication fork into a complete copy of the DNA template. They are also used in DNA repair and genetic recombination. Topoisomerases are required for many processes involving DNA, such as DNA replication and transcription. These enzymes are essential for most processes where enzymes need to access the DNA bases. Polymerases Polymerases are enzymes that synthesize polynucleotide chains from nucleoside triphosphates. The sequence of their products is created based on existing polynucleotide chains—which are called templates. These enzymes function by repeatedly adding a nucleotide to the 3′ hydroxyl group at the end of the growing polynucleotide chain. As a consequence, all polymerases work in a 5′ to 3′ direction. In the active site of these enzymes, the incoming nucleoside triphosphate base-pairs to the template: this allows polymerases to accurately synthesize the complementary strand of their template. Polymerases are classified according to the type of template that they use. In DNA replication, DNA-dependent DNA polymerases make copies of DNA polynucleotide chains. To preserve biological information, it is essential that the sequence of bases in each copy are precisely complementary to the sequence of bases in the template strand. Many DNA polymerases have a proofreading activity. Here, the polymerase recognizes the occasional mistakes in the synthesis reaction by the lack of base pairing between the mismatched nucleotides. If a mismatch is detected, a 3′ to 5′ exonuclease activity is activated and the incorrect base removed. In most organisms, DNA polymerases function in a large complex called the replisome that contains multiple accessory subunits, such as the DNA clamp or helicases. RNA-dependent DNA polymerases are a specialized class of polymerases that copy the sequence of an RNA strand into DNA. They include reverse transcriptase, which is a viral enzyme involved in the infection of cells by retroviruses, and telomerase, which is required for the replication of telomeres. For example, HIV reverse transcriptase is an enzyme for AIDS virus replication. Genetic recombination <div class"thumb tright" style"background:#f9f9f9; border:1px solid #ccc; margin:0.5em;"> {\| border"0" cellpadding"0" cellspacing"0" style"width:250px; font-size:85%; border:1px solid #ccc; margin:0.3em;" \|- \| \|- \| \|} <div style"border: none; width:250px;"><div class"thumbcaption">Structure of the Holliday junction intermediate in genetic recombination. The four separate DNA strands are coloured red, blue, green and yellow.</div></div></div> A DNA helix usually does not interact with other segments of DNA, and in human cells, the different chromosomes even occupy separate areas in the nucleus called "chromosome territories". This physical separation of different chromosomes is important for the ability of DNA to function as a stable repository for information, as one of the few times chromosomes interact is in chromosomal crossover which occurs during sexual reproduction, when genetic recombination occurs. Chromosomal crossover is when two DNA helices break, swap a section and then rejoin. Recombination allows chromosomes to exchange genetic information and produces new combinations of genes, which increases the efficiency of natural selection and can be important in the rapid evolution of new proteins. Genetic recombination can also be involved in DNA repair, particularly in the cell's response to double-strand breaks. The most common form of chromosomal crossover is homologous recombination, where the two chromosomes involved share very similar sequences. Non-homologous recombination can be damaging to cells, as it can produce chromosomal translocations and genetic abnormalities. The recombination reaction is catalyzed by enzymes known as recombinases, such as RAD51. The first step in recombination is a double-stranded break caused by either an endonuclease or damage to the DNA. A series of steps catalyzed in part by the recombinase then leads to joining of the two helices by at least one Holliday junction, in which a segment of a single strand in each helix is annealed to the complementary strand in the other helix. The Holliday junction is a tetrahedral junction structure that can be moved along the pair of chromosomes, swapping one strand for another. The recombination reaction is then halted by cleavage of the junction and re-ligation of the released DNA. Only strands of like polarity exchange DNA during recombination. There are two types of cleavage: east-west cleavage and north–south cleavage. The north–south cleavage nicks both strands of DNA, while the east–west cleavage has one strand of DNA intact. The formation of a Holliday junction during recombination makes it possible for genetic diversity, genes to exchange on chromosomes, and expression of wild-type viral genomes. Evolution DNA contains the genetic information that allows all forms of life to function, grow and reproduce. However, it is unclear how long in the 4-billion-year history of life DNA has performed this function, as it has been proposed that the earliest forms of life may have used RNA as their genetic material. RNA may have acted as the central part of early cell metabolism as it can both transmit genetic information and carry out catalysis as part of ribozymes. This ancient RNA world where nucleic acid would have been used for both catalysis and genetics may have influenced the evolution of the current genetic code based on four nucleotide bases. This would occur, since the number of different bases in such an organism is a trade-off between a small number of bases increasing replication accuracy and a large number of bases increasing the catalytic efficiency of ribozymes. However, there is no direct evidence of ancient genetic systems, as recovery of DNA from most fossils is impossible because DNA survives in the environment for less than one million years, and slowly degrades into short fragments in solution. Claims for older DNA have been made, most notably a report of the isolation of a viable bacterium from a salt crystal 250 million years old, but these claims are controversial. Building blocks of DNA (adenine, guanine, and related organic molecules) may have been formed extraterrestrially in outer space. Complex DNA and RNA organic compounds of life, including uracil, cytosine, and thymine, have also been formed in the laboratory under conditions mimicking those found in outer space, using starting chemicals, such as pyrimidine, found in meteorites. Pyrimidine, like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), the most carbon-rich chemical found in the universe, may have been formed in red giants or in interstellar cosmic dust and gas clouds. Ancient DNA has been recovered from ancient organisms at a timescale where genome evolution can be directly observed, including from extinct organisms up to millions of years old, such as the woolly mammoth. Uses in technology Genetic engineering Methods have been developed to purify DNA from organisms, such as phenol-chloroform extraction, and to manipulate it in the laboratory, such as restriction digests and the polymerase chain reaction. Modern biology and biochemistry make intensive use of these techniques in recombinant DNA technology. Recombinant DNA is a man-made DNA sequence that has been assembled from other DNA sequences. They can be transformed into organisms in the form of plasmids or in the appropriate format, by using a viral vector. The genetically modified organisms produced can be used to produce products such as recombinant proteins, used in medical research, or be grown in agriculture. DNA profiling Forensic scientists can use DNA in blood, semen, skin, saliva or hair found at a crime scene to identify a matching DNA of an individual, such as a perpetrator. This process is formally termed DNA profiling, also called DNA fingerprinting. In DNA profiling, the lengths of variable sections of repetitive DNA, such as short tandem repeats and minisatellites, are compared between people. This method is usually an extremely reliable technique for identifying a matching DNA. However, identification can be complicated if the scene is contaminated with DNA from several people. DNA profiling was developed in 1984 by British geneticist Sir Alec Jeffreys, and first used in forensic science to convict Colin Pitchfork in the 1988 Enderby murders case. The development of forensic science and the ability to now obtain genetic matching on minute samples of blood, skin, saliva, or hair has led to re-examining many cases. Evidence can now be uncovered that was scientifically impossible at the time of the original examination. Combined with the removal of the double jeopardy law in some places, this can allow cases to be reopened where prior trials have failed to produce sufficient evidence to convince a jury. People charged with serious crimes may be required to provide a sample of DNA for matching purposes. The most obvious defense to DNA matches obtained forensically is to claim that cross-contamination of evidence has occurred. This has resulted in meticulous strict handling procedures with new cases of serious crime. DNA profiling is also used successfully to positively identify victims of mass casualty incidents, bodies or body parts in serious accidents, and individual victims in mass war graves, via matching to family members. DNA profiling is also used in DNA paternity testing to determine if someone is the biological parent or grandparent of a child with the probability of parentage is typically 99.99% when the alleged parent is biologically related to the child. Normal DNA sequencing methods happen after birth, but there are new methods to test paternity while a mother is still pregnant. DNA enzymes or catalytic DNA Deoxyribozymes, also called DNAzymes or catalytic DNA, were first discovered in 1994. They are mostly single stranded DNA sequences isolated from a large pool of random DNA sequences through a combinatorial approach called in vitro selection or systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX). DNAzymes catalyze variety of chemical reactions including RNA-DNA cleavage, RNA-DNA ligation, amino acids phosphorylation-dephosphorylation, carbon-carbon bond formation, etc. DNAzymes can enhance catalytic rate of chemical reactions up to 100,000,000,000-fold over the uncatalyzed reaction. The most extensively studied class of DNAzymes is RNA-cleaving types which have been used to detect different metal ions and designing therapeutic agents. Several metal-specific DNAzymes have been reported including the GR-5 DNAzyme (lead-specific), the 39E DNAzyme (uranyl-specific) and the NaA43 DNAzyme (sodium-specific). The NaA43 DNAzyme, which is reported to be more than 10,000-fold selective for sodium over other metal ions, was used to make a real-time sodium sensor in cells. Bioinformatics Bioinformatics involves the development of techniques to store, data mine, search and manipulate biological data, including DNA nucleic acid sequence data. These have led to widely applied advances in computer science, especially string searching algorithms, machine learning, and database theory. String searching or matching algorithms, which find an occurrence of a sequence of letters inside a larger sequence of letters, were developed to search for specific sequences of nucleotides. The DNA sequence may be aligned with other DNA sequences to identify homologous sequences and locate the specific mutations that make them distinct. These techniques, especially multiple sequence alignment, are used in studying phylogenetic relationships and protein function. Data sets representing entire genomes' worth of DNA sequences, such as those produced by the Human Genome Project, are difficult to use without the annotations that identify the locations of genes and regulatory elements on each chromosome. Regions of DNA sequence that have the characteristic patterns associated with protein- or RNA-coding genes can be identified by gene finding algorithms, which allow researchers to predict the presence of particular gene products and their possible functions in an organism even before they have been isolated experimentally. Entire genomes may also be compared, which can shed light on the evolutionary history of particular organism and permit the examination of complex evolutionary events. DNA nanotechnology at right. DNA nanotechnology is the field that seeks to design nanoscale structures using the molecular recognition properties of DNA molecules.]] DNA nanotechnology uses the unique molecular recognition properties of DNA and other nucleic acids to create self-assembling branched DNA complexes with useful properties. DNA is thus used as a structural material rather than as a carrier of biological information. This has led to the creation of two-dimensional periodic lattices (both tile-based and using the DNA origami method) and three-dimensional structures in the shapes of polyhedra. Nanomechanical devices and algorithmic self-assembly have also been demonstrated, and these DNA structures have been used to template the arrangement of other molecules such as gold nanoparticles and streptavidin proteins. DNA and other nucleic acids are the basis of aptamers, synthetic oligonucleotide ligands for specific target molecules used in a range of biotechnology and biomedical applications. History and anthropology Because DNA collects mutations over time, which are then inherited, it contains historical information, and, by comparing DNA sequences, geneticists can infer the evolutionary history of organisms, their phylogeny. This field of phylogenetics is a powerful tool in evolutionary biology. If DNA sequences within a species are compared, population geneticists can learn the history of particular populations. This can be used in studies ranging from ecological genetics to anthropology. Information storage DNA as a storage device for information has enormous potential since it has much higher storage density compared to electronic devices. However, high costs, slow read and write times (memory latency), and insufficient reliability has prevented its practical use. History (left) shakes hands with Francis Crick and James Watson, co-originators of the double-helix model based on the X-ray diffraction data and insights of Rosalind Franklin and Raymond Gosling.]] DNA was first isolated by the Swiss physician Friedrich Miescher who, in 1869, discovered a microscopic substance in the pus of discarded surgical bandages. As it resided in the nuclei of cells, he called it "nuclein". In 1878, Albrecht Kossel isolated the non-protein component of "nuclein", nucleic acid, and later isolated its five primary nucleobases. In 1909, Phoebus Levene identified the base, sugar, and phosphate nucleotide unit of RNA (then named "yeast nucleic acid"). In 1929, Levene identified deoxyribose sugar in "thymus nucleic acid" (DNA). Levene suggested that DNA consisted of a string of four nucleotide units linked together through the phosphate groups ("tetranucleotide hypothesis"). Levene thought the chain was short and the bases repeated in a fixed order. In 1927, Nikolai Koltsov proposed that inherited traits would be inherited via a "giant hereditary molecule" made up of "two mirror strands that would replicate in a semi-conservative fashion using each strand as a template". In 1928, Frederick Griffith in his experiment discovered that traits of the "smooth" form of Pneumococcus could be transferred to the "rough" form of the same bacteria by mixing killed "smooth" bacteria with the live "rough" form. This system provided the first clear suggestion that DNA carries genetic information. In 1933, while studying virgin sea urchin eggs, Jean Brachet suggested that DNA is found in the cell nucleus and that RNA is present exclusively in the cytoplasm. At the time, "yeast nucleic acid" (RNA) was thought to occur only in plants, while "thymus nucleic acid" (DNA) only in animals. The latter was thought to be a tetramer, with the function of buffering cellular pH. In 1937, William Astbury produced the first X-ray diffraction patterns that showed that DNA had a regular structure. In 1943, Oswald Avery, along with co-workers Colin MacLeod and Maclyn McCarty, identified DNA as the transforming principle, supporting Griffith's suggestion (Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment). Erwin Chargaff developed and published observations now known as Chargaff's rules, stating that in DNA from any species of any organism, the amount of guanine should be equal to cytosine and the amount of adenine should be equal to thymine. outside The Eagle pub in Cambridge, England commemorating Crick and Watson]] Late in 1951, Francis Crick started working with James Watson at the Cavendish Laboratory within the University of Cambridge. DNA's role in heredity was confirmed in 1952 when Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase in the Hershey–Chase experiment showed that DNA is the genetic material of the enterobacteria phage T2. In May 1952, Raymond Gosling, a graduate student working under the supervision of Rosalind Franklin, took an X-ray diffraction image, labeled as "Photo 51", at high hydration levels of DNA. This photo was given to Watson and Crick by Maurice Wilkins and was critical to their obtaining the correct structure of DNA. Franklin told Crick and Watson that the backbones had to be on the outside. Before then, Linus Pauling, and Watson and Crick, had erroneous models with the chains inside and the bases pointing outwards. Franklin's identification of the space group for DNA crystals revealed to Crick that the two DNA strands were antiparallel. In February 1953, Linus Pauling and Robert Corey proposed a model for nucleic acids containing three intertwined chains, with the phosphates near the axis, and the bases on the outside. Watson and Crick completed their model, which is now accepted as the first correct model of the double helix of DNA. On 28 February 1953 Crick interrupted patrons' lunchtime at The Eagle pub in Cambridge, England to announce that he and Watson had "discovered the secret of life". The 25 April 1953 issue of the journal Nature published a series of five articles giving the Watson and Crick double-helix structure DNA and evidence supporting it. The structure was reported in a letter titled "MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF NUCLEIC ACIDS A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid, in which they said, "It has not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we have postulated immediately suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material." Then followed a letter by Wilkins and two of his colleagues, which contained an analysis of in vivo B-DNA X-ray patterns, and which supported the presence in vivo of the Watson and Crick structure. In 1962, after Franklin's death, Watson, Crick, and Wilkins jointly received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Nobel Prizes are awarded only to living recipients. A debate continues about who should receive credit for the discovery. In an influential presentation in 1957, Crick laid out the central dogma of molecular biology, which foretold the relationship between DNA, RNA, and proteins, and articulated the "adaptor hypothesis". Final confirmation of the replication mechanism that was implied by the double-helical structure followed in 1958 through the Meselson–Stahl experiment. Further work by Crick and co-workers showed that the genetic code was based on non-overlapping triplets of bases, called codons, allowing Har Gobind Khorana, Robert W. Holley, and Marshall Warren Nirenberg to decipher the genetic code. These findings represent the birth of molecular biology. In 1986, DNA analysis was first used in a criminal investigation when police in the UK requested Alec Jeffreys of the University of Leicester to prove or disprove the involvement in a particular case of a suspect who claimed innocence in the matter. Although the suspect had already confessed to committing a recent rape-murder, he was denying any involvement in a similar crime committed three years earlier. Yet the details of the two cases were so alike that the police concluded both crimes had been committed by the same person. However, all charges against the suspect were dropped when Jeffreys' DNA testing exonerated the suspect — from both the earlier murder and the one to which he'd confessed. But further such DNA profiling ultimately led to positive identification of another suspect who, in 1988, was found guilty of both rape-murders. See also * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * References Further reading * * * * * First published in October 1974 by MacMillan, with foreword by Francis Crick; the definitive DNA textbook, revised in 1994 with a nine-page postscript. * * * * * * * * * External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070306082905/http://pipe.scs.fsu.edu/displar.html DNA binding site prediction on protein] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100223035803/http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/medicine/dna_double_helix/ DNA the Double Helix Game] From the official Nobel Prize web site * [http://www.fidelitysystems.com/Unlinked_DNA.html DNA under electron microscope] * [http://www.dnalc.org/ Dolan DNA Learning Center] * [http://www.nature.com/nature/dna50/archive.html Double Helix: 50 years of DNA], Nature * * * [http://www.nature.com/encode/ ENCODE threads explorer] ENCODE home page at Nature * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070213030135/http://www.ncbe.reading.ac.uk/DNA50/ Double Helix 1953–2003] National Centre for Biotechnology Education * [http://www.genome.gov/10506718 Genetic Education Modules for Teachers] – DNA from the Beginning Study Guide * * [https://www.nytimes.com/packages/pdf/science/dna-article.pdf "Clue to chemistry of heredity found"]. The New York Times, June 1953. First American newspaper coverage of the discovery of the DNA structure * [http://www.dnaftb.org/ DNA from the Beginning] Another DNA Learning Center site on DNA, genes, and heredity from Mendel to the human genome project. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070825101712/http://orpheus.ucsd.edu/speccoll/testing/html/mss0660a.html#abstract The Register of Francis Crick Personal Papers 1938 – 2007] at Mandeville Special Collections Library, University of California, San Diego * [http://www.nature.com/polopoly_fs/7.9746!/file/Crick%20letter%20to%20Michael.pdf Seven-page, handwritten letter that Crick sent to his 12-year-old son Michael in 1953 describing the structure of DNA.] See [http://www.nature.com/news/crick-s-medal-goes-under-the-hammer-1.12705 Crick's medal goes under the hammer], Nature, 5 April 2013. Category:Biotechnology Category:Helices Category:Nucleic acids	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA	2025-04-05T18:28:20.280818
7957	Kennedy family	Kennedy family (Neighbours)}} <br /> \| parent_family = O'Kennedy \| country Dunganstown, New Ross, County Wexford, Ireland \| region = United States \| founded = }} \| founder = Patrick Kennedy (1823–1858) \| current_head \| titles \| estate = }} The Kennedy family () is an American political family that has long been prominent in American politics, public service, entertainment, and business. In 1884, 35 years after the family's arrival from County Wexford, Ireland, Patrick Joseph "P. J." Kennedy became the first Kennedy elected to public office, serving in the Massachusetts state legislature until 1895. At least one Kennedy family member was serving in federal elective office in every year from 1947, when P. J. Kennedy's grandson John F. Kennedy became a member of Congress from Massachusetts, until 2011, when Patrick J. Kennedy II (John's nephew) retired as a member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Rhode Island. P. J.'s son Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. and his wife, Rose Fitzgerald Kennedy, had nine children, including John F. Kennedy, who served in both houses of the United States Congress and as U.S. President; Robert F. Kennedy, who served as U.S. Attorney General and as a U.S. Senator; and Ted Kennedy, who served more than 46 years in the U.S. Senate. Additionally, Robert F. Kennedy Jr. currently serves as the United States Secretary of Health and Human Services in the cabinet of the second presidency of Donald Trump. Other Kennedy descendants include members of the U.S. House of Representatives, two U.S. ambassadors, one U.S. envoy, a lieutenant governor, three state legislators (one of whom also served in the U.S. House of Representatives), and one mayor. Joseph and Rose's daughter Eunice played a vital role in establishing the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (part of the National Institutes of Health) and the Special Olympics. Other descendants of Joseph and Rose Kennedy have been lawyers, authors, and activists on behalf of those with physical and intellectual disabilities. History According to genealogist Brian Kennedy in his work ''JFK's Irish O'Kennedy Ancestors'', the Kennedys—who would go on to play a significant role in the United States of America—originated from an Irish clan called Ó Cinnéide Fionn (which, along with the Ó Cinnéide Donn and Ó Cinnéide Ruadh, were the three Irish Gaelic Ó Cinnéide clans who ruled the Kingdom of Ormond). In 1546, their progenitor Diarmaid Ó Cinnéide Fionn became the owner of Knigh Castle, located close to what is today Puckane, County Tipperary. In 1740, having lost out to the New English order in the Kingdom of Ireland, they moved to Dunganstown, New Ross, County Wexford. Patrick Kennedy was born there. Patrick Kennedy (1823–1858) and Bridget Murphy (1824–1888) sailed from Ireland to East Boston in 1849. Patrick worked in East Boston as a barrel maker, or cooper, and had five children with Bridget. Their youngest, Patrick Joseph "P. J." Kennedy, went into business and served in the Massachusetts state legislature from 1884 to 1895. P. J. and his wife, Mary Augusta Hickey, had four children. Their oldest was Joseph Patrick "Joe" Kennedy Sr., a businessman who amassed a private fortune in banking and securities trading, which he further expanded by investing in filmmaking and real estate. He also founded Somerset Importers and owned Chicago's Merchandise Mart. In 1914, Joseph Sr. married Rose Fitzgerald, the eldest daughter of John F. "Honey Fitz" Fitzgerald, who served six years as mayor of Boston and six years as a member of the U.S. House of Representatives. The couple had nine children: Joseph Jr. (1915–1944), John (called Jack) (1917–1963), Rose Marie (called Rosemary) (1918–2005), Kathleen (called Kick) (1920–1948), Eunice (1921–2009), Patricia (1924–2006), Robert (called Bobby) (1925–1968), Jean (1928–2020) and Edward (called Ted) (1932–2009). Joseph Sr. was appointed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt as the first chairman of the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), chairman of the Maritime Commission, and U.S. ambassador to the United Kingdom from 1938 to 1940. He served from 1947 to 1949 on The Hoover Commission (the "Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch of the Government"), which was appointed by President Harry Truman to recommend administrative changes in the federal government. Rose Fitzgerald Kennedy was named Papal Countess of the Holy Roman Church by Pope Pius XII in 1951 in recognition of her "exemplary motherhood and many charitable works." Continued public service and Rose Kennedy with their children at the Kennedy Compound in 1931.]] Every Kennedy elected to public office has served as a Democrat, while other members of the family have worked for the party or held Cabinet posts in Democratic administrations. Many have attended Harvard University, and the family has contributed greatly to that university's John F. Kennedy School of Government. Joseph Sr. expected his eldest son, Joseph Jr., to go into politics and to ultimately be elected president. Joseph Jr. was elected as a Massachusetts delegate to the 1940 Democratic National Convention and enlisted in the U.S. Navy after the United States entered World War II. He was killed in 1944 when the bomber he was piloting exploded in flight. Joseph Sr.'s desire to see the family involved in politics and government then focused on John, who had considered a career as a journalist, having authored a book (Why England Slept) and done some reporting for Hearst Newspapers. After returning from Navy service, John served in the U.S. House of Representatives representing Massachusetts's 11th congressional district from 1947 to 1953, and then as U.S. Senator from Massachusetts from 1953 to 1960. In the 1960 presidential election, John narrowly defeated Republican opponent Richard Nixon. During John's administration, Robert served as attorney general, their brother-in-law Sargent Shriver served as director of the new Peace Corps, and Ted became the U.S. Senator from Massachusetts until his death in 2009. The Kennedy administration's accomplishments include the Alliance for Progress with Latin America, the establishment of the Peace Corps, a peaceful resolution to the Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962, the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of 1963, the Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution ending the poll tax, the continuation of the Apollo spaceflight program with the goal of landing a man on the Moon, and the introduction of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to Congress (signed into law by Kennedy's successor Lyndon B. Johnson). The family was the subject of intense media coverage during and after Kennedy's presidency. Ted served in the Senate with his brother Robert (1965–1968), and was serving in the Senate when his nephew, Joseph P. II, and his son, Patrick J., served in the U.S. House of Representatives representing Massachusetts's 8th congressional district (1987–1999) and Rhode Island's 1st congressional district (1995–2011), respectively. In November 2012, Joseph P. Kennedy III, son of former U.S. representative Joseph P. Kennedy II and grandson of former senior Robert F. Kennedy, was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives from Massachusetts's 4th congressional district. In 2020, Joseph P. III lost the U.S. Senate primary election in Massachusetts to incumbent Ed Markey, the first Kennedy to ever lose an election in the state. In the 2020s, three Kennedy family members were serving as U.S. ambassadors or envoys. Victoria Reggie Kennedy, second wife of Ted Kennedy, was named in 2021 by President Joe Biden as U.S. ambassador to Austria. Caroline Kennedy, daughter of President Kennedy, was named in 2022 by President Biden as U.S. ambassador to Australia; she previously served as U.S. ambassador to Japan under President Barack Obama. In the same year, Joseph P. Kennedy III was named by President Biden as U.S. special envoy to Northern Ireland. Robert F. Kennedy Jr. ran for president in the 2024 United States presidential election, originally as a Democrat, but changing his affiliation to Independent in October 2023. Family members spoke out against him, mainly due to his anti-vaccine views, and instead endorsed President Joe Biden. In August 2024, two months before the election, Robert Jr. withdrew and endorsed Republican candidate Donald Trump, who won the election. Trump nominated him to be United States Secretary of Health and Human Services and he was confirmed by the U.S. Senate by a vote of 52-48. Family tree * Patrick Joseph Kennedy (1858–1929), married Mary Augusta Hickey Joseph Patrick Kennedy Sr. (1888–1969), married Rose Elizabeth Fitzgerald Joseph Patrick Kennedy Jr. (1915–1944) John Fitzgerald Kennedy (1917–1963) married Jacqueline Lee Bouvier Arabella Kennedy (1956, stillborn) Caroline Bouvier Kennedy (born 1957) married Edwin Arthur Schlossberg * Rose Kennedy Schlossberg (born 1988) married Rory McAuliffe * Tatiana Celia Kennedy Schlossberg (born 1990) married George Moran ** Edwin Garrett Moran (born 2022) * John Bouvier "Jack" Kennedy Schlossberg (born 1993) John Fitzgerald Kennedy Jr. (1960–1999) married Carolyn Jeanne Bessette Patrick Bouvier Kennedy (1963, died in infancy) Rose Marie "Rosemary" Kennedy (1918–2005) Kathleen Agnes Kennedy (1920–1948) married William Cavendish, Marquess of Hartington Eunice Mary Kennedy (1921–2009) married Robert Sargent Shriver Jr. * Robert Sargent Shriver III (born 1954) married Malissa Feruzzi and had 1 daughter Maria Owings Shriver (born 1955) married/divorced Arnold Alois Schwarzenegger * Katherine Eunice Schwarzenegger (born 1989) married Christopher Michael Pratt and had 3 children ** Lyla Maria Schwarzenegger Pratt (born 2020) ** Eloise Christina Schwarzenegger Pratt (born 2022) ** Ford Fitzgerald Schwarzenegger Pratt (born 2024) * Christina Schwarzenegger (born 1991) * Patrick Arnold Shriver Schwarzenegger (born 1993) * Christopher Schwarzenegger (born 1997) Timothy Perry Shriver (born 1959) married Linda Potter and had 5 children * Sophia Rose Shriver (born 1987) * Timothy Perry Shriver, Jr. (born 1988) * Samuel Kennedy Shriver (born 1992) * Kathleen Francis Shriver (born 1994) * Caroline Elizabeth Shriver (born 1997) Mark Kennedy Shriver (born 1964) married Jeanne Ripp and had 3 children Anthony Paul Kennedy Shriver (born 1965) married/divorced Alina Mojica and had 5 children Patricia Helen Kennedy (1924–2006) married/divorced Peter Lawford * Christopher Kennedy Lawford (1955–2018) Sydney Maleia Lawford (born 1956) Victoria Francis Lawford (born 1958) Robin Elizabeth Lawford (born 1961) Robert Francis Kennedy (1925–1968) married Ethel Skakel * Kathleen Hartington Kennedy (born 1951) married David Townsend * Meaghan Anne Kennedy Townsend (born 1977) * Maeve Fahey Kennedy Townsend (1979–2020) married David McKean * Rose Katherine "Kat" Kennedy Townsend (born 1983) * Kerry Sophia Kennedy Townsend (born 1991) Joseph Patrick Kennedy II (born 1952) married/divorced Sheila Brewster Rauch, married Anne Elizabeth "Beth" Kelly * Matthew Rauch Kennedy (born 1980, of first marriage) * Joseph Patrick Kennedy III (born 1980, of first marriage) married Lauren Anne Birchfield ** Eleanor Kennedy (born 2015) ** James Kennedy (born 2017) Robert Francis Kennedy Jr. (born 1954) married/divorced Emily Black, married Mary Kathleen Richardson, married Cheryl Hines * Robert Francis Kennedy III (born 1984, of first marriage) married Amaryllis Fox ** Bobby Kennedy ** Cassius Kennedy * Kathleen Alexandra "Kick" Kennedy (born 1988, of first marriage) * Conor Richardson Kennedy (born 1994, of second marriage) * Kyra LeMoyne Kennedy (born 1995, of second marriage) * William Finbar "Finn" Kennedy (born 1997, of second marriage) * Aidan Caohman Vieques Kennedy (born 2001, of second marriage) David Anthony Kennedy (1955–1984) Mary Courtney Kennedy (born 1956) married/divorced Robert Ruhe, married Paul Hill *Saoirse Roisin Hill (1997–2019, of second marriage) Michael LeMoyne Kennedy (1958–1997) married Victoria Denise Gifford * Michael LeMoyne Kennedy Jr. (born 1983) * Kyle Francis Kennedy (born 1984) * Rory Gifford Kennedy (born 1987) Mary Kerry Kennedy (born 1959) married/divorced Andrew Mark Cuomo * Cara Ethel Kennedy-Cuomo (born 1995) * Mariah Matilda Kennedy-Cuomo (born 1995) * Michaela Andrea Kennedy-Cuomo (born 1997) Christopher George Kennedy (born 1963) married Sheila Sinclair Berner *Katherine Berner Kennedy (born 1990) *Christopher George Kennedy Jr. (born 1992) married Erin Daigle *Sarah Louise Kennedy (born 1994) married Jam Sulahry *Clare Elizabeth Kennedy (born 1998) Matthew Maxwell Taylor Kennedy (born 1965) married Victoria Anne Strauss * Matthew Maxwell Taylor Kennedy Jr. (born 1993) * Caroline Summer Rose Kennedy (born 1994) * Noah Isabella Rose Kennedy (born 1998) Douglas Harriman Kennedy (born 1967) married Molly Stark * Riley Elizabeth Kennedy (born 1999) * Mary McCauley Kennedy (born 2001) * Rowen Frances Kennedy (born 2004) * George Skakel Kennedy (born 2007) * Anthony Boru Kennedy (born 2012) Rory Elizabeth Katherine Kennedy (born 1968) married Mark Daniel Bailey * Georgia Elizabeth Kennedy-Bailey (born 2002) * Bridget Katherine Kennedy-Bailey (born 2004) * Zachary Corkland Kennedy-Bailey (born 2007) Jean Ann Kennedy (1928–2020) married Stephen Edward Smith * Stephen Edward Smith, Jr. (born 1957) William Kennedy Smith (born 1960) Amanda Mary Smith (born 1967, adopted) Kym Maria Smith (born 1972, adopted) Edward Moore Kennedy (1932–2009) married/divorced Virginia Joan Bennett, married Victoria Anne Reggie * Kara Anne Kennedy (1960–2011, of first marriage) married/divorced Michael Allen *Grace Elizabeth Allen (born 1994) *Max Greathouse Allen (born 1996) Edward Moore Kennedy Jr. (born 1961, of first marriage) married Katherine Anne "Kiki" Gershman *Kiley Elizabeth Kennedy (born 1994) *Edward Moore Kennedy III (born 1998) Patrick Joseph Kennedy II (born 1967, of first marriage) married Amy Savell *Owen Patrick Kennedy (born 2012) *Nora Kara Kennedy (born 2013) *Nell Elizabeth Kennedy (born 2015) *Marshall Patrick Kennedy (born 2018) Francis Benedict Kennedy (1891–1892) (died in infancy) Mary Loretta Kennedy (1892–1972), married George William Connelly and had 1 daughter. Margaret Louise Kennedy (1898–1974), married Charles Joseph Burke and had 3 children. Businesses Citizens Energy Corporation Columbia Trust Company FBO Pictures Corporation George Hialeah Park Race Track Intercontinental Rubber Company Kennedy & Madonna LLP (law firm) Kenoil Corporation Marwood Group (healthcare-focused consulting firm) Mokeen Oil Company RKO Pictures Somerset Imports Sumner Savings Bank Wolf Point, Chicago Wolf Point East Tower Salesforce Tower ChicagoPhilanthropy and policy institutes Advocates for Opioid Recovery Best Buddies International Citizens Energy Corporation Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Center for Community of Caring Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health & Human Development Global Recovery Initiative John F. Kennedy Library Foundation Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. Foundation Robert F. Kennedy Center For Justice & Human Rights Smart Approaches to Marijuana Special Olympics Stop Handgun Violence Top Box Foods VSA (Kennedy Center) White House Historical Association Waterkeeper Alliance Government offices held * Patrick Joseph Kennedy: Massachusetts state Representative, 1884–1889; Massachusetts state Senator, 1889–1895. Joseph Patrick Kennedy Sr.: Chairman of the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, 1934–1935; chairman of the United States Maritime Commission, 1936–1938; United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom, 1938–1940. John Fitzgerald Kennedy: United States Representative from Massachusetts, 1947–1953; United States Senator from Massachusetts, 1953–1960; President of the United States, 1961–1963. *Caroline Kennedy: United States Ambassador to Japan, 2013–2017; United States Ambassador to Australia, 2022–2024. Eunice Kennedy Shriver *Bobby Shriver: Santa Monica, California City Council member, 2004–2012; Mayor of Santa Monica, 2010. Mark Kennedy Shriver: Maryland state Delegate, 1995–2003. Robert Francis Kennedy: United States Attorney General, 1961–1964; United States Senator from New York, 1965–1968. *Kathleen Kennedy Townsend: Lieutenant governor of Maryland, 1995–2003. Joseph P. Kennedy II: United States Representative from Massachusetts, 1987–1999. *Joseph P. Kennedy III: United States Representative from Massachusetts, 2013–2021; U.S. envoy to Northern Ireland, 2022–2024 Robert Francis Kennedy Jr.: United States Secretary of Health and Human Services, 2025–present. Jean Kennedy Smith: United States Ambassador to Ireland, 1993-1998 *William Kennedy Smith: Commissioner of the District of Columbia from district 2A04, 2015–2020 Edward Moore Kennedy: United States Senator from Massachusetts, 1962–2009. *Edward M. Kennedy Jr.: Connecticut state Senator, 2015–2019. *Patrick J. Kennedy: Rhode Island state Representative, 1989–1993; United States Representative from Rhode Island, 1995–2011. In addition, some Kennedy spouses have served in government: Andrew Cuomo (then-husband of Kerry Kennedy): United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development, 1997–2001. After their divorce, he served as New York state attorney general (2007–2010) and New York governor (2011–2021). Victoria Reggie Kennedy (widow of Ted Kennedy): U.S. ambassador to Austria, 2022–2025 Arnold Schwarzenegger (then-husband of Maria Shriver): governor of California, 2003–2011 Sargent Shriver (husband of Eunice Kennedy Shriver): president of the Chicago Board of Education, 1955–1960; director of the Peace Corps, 1961–1966; director of the Office of Economic Opportunity, 1964–1968; U.S. ambassador to France, 1968–1970 There was a member of the Kennedy family in public office nearly continuously from 1946, when John F. Kennedy was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, until early 2011, when Patrick J. Kennedy left the House. The only exception was the period between John F. Kennedy's resignation from the Senate on December 22, 1960, and his assumption of the office of President on January 20, 1961. In 2013, two years after Patrick Kennedy left the House, Joseph P. Kennedy III was elected U.S. Representative from Massachusetts and served until 2021. Below is a timeline of the Kennedys' tenure in the U.S. Congress. Timeline DateFormat = dd/mm/yyyy Period = from:01/01/1930 till:$today TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:5 start:1930 ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:1930 Colors = id:fedcongress value:rgb(0,0,0.6) id:fedgovernment value:rgb(0.6,0,0) id:ambassador value:rgb(0.84,0.62,0.21) BarData = bar:JPKSr bar:JFK bar:EMK bar:RFK bar:JPKII bar:JKS bar:PJK bar:JPKIII bar:CK bar:RFKII PlotData = width:5 align:left fontsize:S shift:(5,-4) anchor:till bar:JPKSr from: 30/06/1934 till: 23/09/1935 color:fedgovernment from: 14/04/1937 till: 19/02/1938 color:fedgovernment from: 08/03/1938 till: 22/10/1940 color:ambassador text:"Joseph P. Kennedy Sr." bar:JFK from: 03/01/1947 till: 22/12/1960 color:fedcongress from: 20/01/1961 till: 22/11/1963 color:fedgovernment text:"John F. Kennedy" bar:EMK from: 07/11/1962 till: 25/08/2009 color:fedcongress text:"Edward M. Kennedy" bar:RFK from: 21/01/1961 till: 03/09/1964 color:fedgovernment from: 03/01/1965 till: 06/06/1968 color:fedcongress text:"Robert F. Kennedy" bar:JPKII from: 03/01/1987 till: 03/01/1999 color:fedcongress text:"Joseph P. Kennedy II" bar:JKS from: 24/06/1993 till: 17/09/1998 color:ambassador text:"Jean Kennedy Smith" bar:PJK from: 03/01/1995 till: 03/01/2011 color:fedcongress text:"Patrick J. Kennedy" bar:JPKIII from: 03/01/2013 till: 03/01/2021 color:fedcongress from: 19/12/2022 till: 13/12/2024 color:ambassador text:"Joe Kennedy III" bar:CK from: 19/11/2013 till: 18/01/2017 color:ambassador from: 25/07/2022 till: 28/11/2024 color:ambassador text:"Caroline Kennedy" bar:RFKII from: 13/02/2025 till: $today color:fedgovernment text:"Robert F. Kennedy Jr." }} {\| style="float:right; background:#fff;" \|- \| \|\| }} \|} Heraldry On March 17, 1961, John F. Kennedy was presented with a grant of arms for all the descendants of Patrick Kennedy (1823–1858) from the Chief Herald of Ireland. The design of the arms (three gold closed helmets on a black field) strongly alludes to symbols in the coats of arms of the O'Kennedys of Ormonde and the FitzGeralds of Desmond, from whom the family is descended. The crest is an armored hand holding four arrows between two olive branches, elements taken from the coat of arms of the United States of America and also symbolic of Kennedy and his brothers. See also Kennedy curseReferences Citations Book sources * * Haas, Lawrence J. ''The Kennedys in the World: How Jack, Bobby, and Ted Remade America's Empire (2021) [https://www.amazon.com/Kennedys-World-Remade-Americas-Empire/dp/1640123849/ excerpt] * Hunt, Amber, and David Batcher. Kennedy Wives: Triumph and Tragedy in America's Most Public Family (2014) [https://www.amazon.com/Kennedy-Wives-Triumph-Tragedy-Americas-ebook/dp/B00QK3BMIA/ excerpt] * Kessler, Ronald. The sins of the father: Joseph P. Kennedy and the dynasty he founded'' (St. Martin's Press, 1996). * Klein, Edward. ''The Kennedy Curse: Why tragedy has haunted America's first family for 150 years (Macmillan, 2003). * Leamer, Laurence. The Kennedy women: The saga of an American family (Ballantine Books, 1996). [https://www.amazon.com/Kennedy-Women-Saga-American-Family/dp/0449911713/ excerpt] * Leamer, Laurence. The Kennedy Men: 1901-1963 (2001) [https://www.amazon.com/Kennedy-Men-1901-1963-Laurence-Leamer/dp/0688163157/ excerpt] * Leamer, Laurence. Sons of Camelot: The Fate of an American Dynasty (2005) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0060559020/ excerpt] * Nasaw, David. The Patriarch: The Remarkable Life and Turbulent Times of Joseph P. Kennedy (2012); scholarly biography. External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20180213000352/http://www.sptimes.com/News/111199/JFK/family-tree.shtml The Kennedys: A Family Tree], St. Petersburg Times * [https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2009/08/26/us/kennedy-family-tree.html?scp1&sqkennedy%20family%20tree&st=cse Kennedy Family Tree], The New York Times'' * [https://forrestalhistory.com/the-forrestal-kennedy-connection The Forrestal Kennedy Connection], * [http://politicalgraveyard.com/families/10422.html Kennedy Family], The Political Graveyard Category:American families of Irish ancestry Category:Business families of the United States Category:First families of the United States Category:Roman Catholic families Category:County Wexford Category:Irish-American culture Category:Irish-American history Category:Massachusetts Democrats Category:People from Barnstable, Massachusetts Category:People from Boston Category:People from Brookline, Massachusetts Category:Irish-American culture in Massachusetts	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_family	2025-04-05T18:28:20.354513
7958	Deflation (disambiguation)	Commonly, deflation refers to a decrease in the general price level, the opposite of inflation. Deflation may also refer to: A release or escape of air or gas from an inflatable, resulting in its shrinking or collapsing A mode of wind erosion Dividing a polynomial by a linear factor which decreases its degree by one in multiple root-finding algorithms, as done for example in the Jenkins–Traub algorithm In philosophy, the use of a deflationary theory of truth, where the term truth is rejected as a real property of propositions Deflation (film), a 2001 short film The Great Deflation, a period of worldwide economic deflation occurring roughly between the years 1870–90 Deflate, a widely used lossless compression algorithm originating from the program PKZIP See also Deflationary theory of truth Inflation (disambiguation), the antonym of deflation	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deflation_(disambiguation)	2025-04-05T18:28:20.374467
7959	Democracy	Democracy (from , dēmos 'people' and kratos 'rule') is a form of government in which political power is vested in the people or the population of a state. Under a minimalist definition of democracy, rulers are elected through competitive elections while more expansive or maximalist definitions link democracy to guarantees of civil liberties and human rights in addition to competitive elections. The term appeared in the 5th century BC in Greek city-states, notably Classical Athens, to mean "rule of the people", in contrast to aristocracy (, ), meaning "rule of an elite". In virtually all democratic governments throughout ancient and modern history, democratic citizenship was initially restricted to an elite class, which was later extended to all adult citizens. In most modern democracies, this was achieved through the suffrage movements of the 19th and 20th centuries. Democracy contrasts with forms of government where power is not vested in the general population of a state, such as authoritarian systems. Historically a rare and vulnerable form of government, as public opinion across regions tends to strongly favor democratic systems of government relative to alternatives, and as even authoritarian states try to present themselves as democratic. According to the V-Dem Democracy indices and The Economist Democracy Index, less than half the world's population lives in a democracy . Characteristics Although democracy is generally understood to be defined by voting, One study identified 2,234 adjectives used to describe democracy in the English language. Democratic principles are reflected in all eligible citizens being equal before the law and having equal access to legislative processes. For example, in a representative democracy, every vote has (in theory) equal weight, and the freedom of eligible citizens is secured by legitimised rights and liberties which are typically enshrined in a constitution, while other uses of "democracy" may encompass direct democracy, in which citizens vote on issues directly. According to the United Nations, democracy "provides an environment that respects human rights and fundamental freedoms, and in which the freely expressed will of people is exercised." One theory holds that democracy requires three fundamental principles: upward control (sovereignty residing at the lowest levels of authority), political equality, and social norms by which individuals and institutions only consider acceptable acts that reflect the first two principles of upward control and political equality. Legal equality, political freedom and rule of law are often identified by commentators as foundational characteristics for a well-functioning democracy. In some countries, notably in the United Kingdom (which originated the Westminster system), the dominant principle is that of parliamentary sovereignty, while maintaining judicial independence. In India, parliamentary sovereignty is subject to the Constitution of India which includes judicial review. Though the term "democracy" is typically used in the context of a political state, the principles also are potentially applicable to private organisations, such as clubs, societies and firms. Democracies may use many different decision-making methods, but majority rule is the dominant form. Without compensation, like legal protections of individual or group rights, political minorities can be oppressed by the "tyranny of the majority". Majority rule involves a competitive approach, opposed to consensus democracy, creating the need that elections, and generally deliberation, be substantively and procedurally "fair"," i.e. just and equitable. In some countries, freedom of political expression, freedom of speech, and freedom of the press are considered important to ensure that voters are well informed, enabling them to vote according to their own interests and beliefs. It has also been suggested that a basic feature of democracy is the capacity of all voters to participate freely and fully in the life of their society. With its emphasis on notions of social contract and the collective will of all the voters, democracy can also be characterised as a form of political collectivism because it is defined as a form of government in which all eligible citizens have an equal say in lawmaking. Republics, though often popularly associated with democracy because of the shared principle of rule by consent of the governed, are not necessarily democracies, as republicanism does not specify how the people are to rule. Classically the term "republic" encompassed both democracies and aristocracies. In a modern sense the republican form of government is a form of government without a monarch. Because of this, democracies can be republics or constitutional monarchies, such as the United Kingdom. History depicting the Athenian politician Pericles delivering his famous funeral oration in front of the Assembly]] Democratic assemblies are as old as the human species and are found throughout human history, but up until the nineteenth century, major political figures have largely opposed democracy. Republican theorists linked democracy to small size: as political units grew in size, the likelihood increased that the government would turn despotic. At the same time, small political units were vulnerable to conquest. According to Johns Hopkins University political scientist Daniel Deudney, the creation of the United States, with its large size and its system of checks and balances, was a solution to the dual problems of size. Forms of democracy occurred organically in societies around the world that had no contact with each other.OriginsGreece and Rome The term democracy first appeared in ancient Greek political and philosophical thought in the city-state of Athens during classical antiquity. }} The word comes from dêmos '(common) people' and krátos 'force/might'. Under Cleisthenes, what is generally held as the first example of a type of democracy in the sixth-century BC (508–507 BC) was established in Athens. Cleisthenes is referred to as "the father of Athenian democracy". The first attested use of the word democracy is found in prose works of the 430s BC, such as Herodotus' Histories, but its usage was older by several decades, as two Athenians born in the 470s were named Democrates, a new political name—likely in support of democracy—given at a time of debates over constitutional issues in Athens. Aeschylus also strongly alludes to the word in his play The Suppliants, staged in c.463 BC, where he mentions "the demos's ruling hand" [demou kratousa cheir]. Before that time, the word used to define the new political system of Cleisthenes was probably isonomia, meaning political equality. , known as "the father of Athenian democracy", on view at the Ohio Statehouse, Columbus, Ohio]] Athenian democracy took the form of direct democracy, and it had two distinguishing features: the random selection of ordinary citizens to fill the few existing government administrative and judicial offices, and a legislative assembly consisting of all Athenian citizens. All eligible citizens were allowed to speak and vote in the assembly, which set the laws of the city-state. However, Athenian citizenship excluded women, slaves, foreigners (μέτοικοι / métoikoi), and youths below the age of military service. Effectively, only 1 in 4 residents in Athens qualified as citizens. Owning land was not a requirement for citizenship. The exclusion of large parts of the population from the citizen body is closely related to the ancient understanding of citizenship. In most of antiquity the benefit of citizenship was tied to the obligation to fight war campaigns. Athenian democracy was not only direct in the sense that decisions were made by the assembled people, but also the most direct in the sense that the people through the assembly, boule and courts of law controlled the entire political process and a large proportion of citizens were involved constantly in the public business. Even though the rights of the individual were not secured by the Athenian constitution in the modern sense (the ancient Greeks had no word for "rights"), those who were citizens of Athens enjoyed their liberties not in opposition to the government but by living in a city that was not subject to another power and by not being subjects themselves to the rule of another person. Range voting appeared in Sparta as early as 700 BC. The Spartan ecclesia was an assembly of the people, held once a month, in which every male citizen of at least 20 years of age could participate. In the assembly, Spartans elected leaders and cast votes by range voting and shouting (the vote is then decided on how loudly the crowd shouts). Aristotle called this "childish", as compared with the stone voting ballots used by the Athenian citizenry. Sparta adopted it because of its simplicity, and to prevent any biased voting, buying, or cheating that was predominant in the early democratic elections. , the patron goddess of Athens, in front of the Austrian Parliament Building. Athena has been used as an international symbol of freedom and democracy since at least the late eighteenth century.]] Even though the Roman Republic contributed significantly to many aspects of democracy, only a minority of Romans were citizens with votes in elections for representatives. The votes of the powerful were given more weight through a system of weighted voting, so most high officials, including members of the Senate, came from a few wealthy and noble families. In addition, the overthrow of the Roman Kingdom was the first case in the Western world of a polity being formed with the explicit purpose of being a republic, although it did not have much of a democracy. The Roman model of governance inspired many political thinkers over the centuries.Ancient India Vaishali, capital city of the Vajjika League (Vrijji mahajanapada) of India, is considered one of the first examples of a republic around the 6th century BC.AmericasOther cultures, such as the Iroquois in the Americas also developed a form of democratic society between 1450 and 1660 (and possibly in 1142), well before contact with the Europeans. This democracy continues to the present day and is the world's oldest standing representative democracy.AfricaMiddle AgesWhile most regions in Europe during the Middle Ages were ruled by clergy or feudal lords, there existed various systems involving elections or assemblies, although often only involving a small part of the population. In Scandinavia, bodies known as things consisted of freemen presided by a lawspeaker. These deliberative bodies were responsible for settling political questions, and variants included the Althing in Iceland and the Løgting in the Faeroe Islands. The veche, found in Eastern Europe, was a similar body to the Scandinavian thing. In the Roman Catholic Church, the pope has been elected by a papal conclave composed of cardinals since 1059. The first documented parliamentary body in Europe was the Cortes of León. Established by Alfonso IX in 1188, the Cortes had authority over setting taxation, foreign affairs and legislating, though the exact nature of its role remains disputed. The Republic of Ragusa, established in 1358 and centered around the city of Dubrovnik, provided representation and voting rights to its male aristocracy only. Various Italian city-states and polities had republic forms of government. For instance, the Republic of Florence, established in 1115, was led by the Signoria whose members were chosen by sortition. In the 10th–15th century Frisia, a distinctly non-feudal society, the right to vote on local matters and on county officials was based on land size. The Kouroukan Fouga divided the Mali Empire into ruling clans (lineages) that were represented at a great assembly called the Gbara. However, the charter made Mali more similar to a constitutional monarchy than a democratic republic. , 1215, England]] The Parliament of England had its roots in the restrictions on the power of kings written into Magna Carta (1215), which explicitly protected certain rights of the King's subjects and implicitly supported what became the English writ of habeas corpus, safeguarding individual freedom against unlawful imprisonment with the right to appeal. The first representative national assembly in England was Simon de Montfort's Parliament in 1265. The emergence of petitioning is some of the earliest evidence of parliament being used as a forum to address the general grievances of ordinary people. However, the power to call parliament remained at the pleasure of the monarch. Studies have linked the emergence of parliamentary institutions in Europe during the medieval period to urban agglomeration and the creation of new classes, such as artisans, as well as the presence of nobility and religious elites. Scholars have also linked the emergence of representative government to Europe's relative political fragmentation. Political scientist David Stasavage links the fragmentation of Europe, and its subsequent democratization, to the manner in which the Roman Empire collapsed: Roman territory was conquered by small fragmented groups of Germanic tribes, thus leading to the creation of small political units where rulers were relatively weak and needed the consent of the governed to ward off foreign threats. In Poland, noble democracy was characterized by an increase in the activity of the middle nobility, which wanted to increase their share in exercising power at the expense of the magnates. Magnates dominated the most important offices in the state (secular and ecclesiastical) and sat on the royal council, later the senate. The growing importance of the middle nobility had an impact on the establishment of the institution of the land sejmik (local assembly), which subsequently obtained more rights. During the fifteenth and first half of the sixteenth century, sejmiks received more and more power and became the most important institutions of local power. In 1454, Casimir IV Jagiellon granted the sejmiks the right to decide on taxes and to convene a mass mobilization in the Nieszawa Statutes. He also pledged not to create new laws without their consent.Modern eraEarly modern period progressively limited the power of the English monarchy, a process that arguably culminated in the English Civil War.]] In 17th century England, there was renewed interest in Magna Carta. The Parliament of England passed the Petition of Right in 1628 which established certain liberties for subjects. The English Civil War (1642–1651) was fought between the King and an oligarchic but elected Parliament, during which the idea of a political party took form with groups debating rights to political representation during the Putney Debates of 1647. Subsequently, the Protectorate (1653–59) and the English Restoration (1660) restored more autocratic rule, although Parliament passed the Habeas Corpus Act in 1679 which strengthened the convention that forbade detention lacking sufficient cause or evidence. After the Glorious Revolution of 1688, the Bill of Rights was enacted in 1689 which codified certain rights and liberties and is still in effect. The Bill set out the requirement for regular elections, rules for freedom of speech in Parliament and limited the power of the monarch, ensuring that, unlike much of Europe at the time, royal absolutism would not prevail. Economic historians Douglass North and Barry Weingast have characterized the institutions implemented in the Glorious Revolution as a resounding success in terms of restraining the government and ensuring protection for property rights. expanded on Thomas Hobbes's social contract theory and developed the concept of natural rights, the right to private property and the principle of consent of the governed. His ideas form the ideological basis of liberal democracies today.]] Renewed interest in the Magna Carta, the English Civil War, and the Glorious Revolution in the 17th century prompted the growth of political philosophy on the British Isles. Thomas Hobbes was the first philosopher to articulate a detailed social contract theory. Writing in the Leviathan (1651), Hobbes theorized that individuals living in the state of nature led lives that were "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short" and constantly waged a war of all against all. In order to prevent the occurrence of an anarchic state of nature, Hobbes reasoned that individuals ceded their rights to a strong, authoritarian power. In other words, Hobbes advocated for an absolute monarchy which, in his opinion, was the best form of government. Later, philosopher and physician John Locke would posit a different interpretation of social contract theory. Writing in his Two Treatises of Government (1689), Locke posited that all individuals possessed the inalienable rights to life, liberty and estate (property). According to Locke, individuals would voluntarily come together to form a state for the purposes of defending their rights. Particularly important for Locke were property rights, whose protection Locke deemed to be a government's primary purpose. Furthermore, Locke asserted that governments were legitimate only if they held the consent of the governed. For Locke, citizens had the right to revolt against a government that acted against their interest or became tyrannical. Although they were not widely read during his lifetime, Locke's works are considered the founding documents of liberal thought and profoundly influenced the leaders of the American Revolution and later the French Revolution. His liberal democratic framework of governance remains the preeminent form of democracy in the world. In the Cossack republics of Ukraine in the 16th and 17th centuries, the Cossack Hetmanate and Zaporizhian Sich, the holder of the highest post of Hetman was elected by the representatives from the country's districts. In North America, representative government began in Jamestown, Virginia, with the election of the House of Burgesses (forerunner of the Virginia General Assembly) in 1619. English Puritans who migrated from 1620 established colonies in New England whose local governance was democratic; although these local assemblies had some small amounts of devolved power, the ultimate authority was held by the Crown and the English Parliament. The Puritans (Pilgrim Fathers), Baptists, and Quakers who founded these colonies applied the democratic organisation of their congregations also to the administration of their communities in worldly matters. 18th and 19th centuries addressing the House of Commons of the United Kingdom]] The first Parliament of Great Britain was established in 1707, after the merger of the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland under the Acts of Union. Two key documents of the UK's uncodified constitution, the English Declaration of Right, 1689 (restated in the Bill of Rights 1689) and the Scottish Claim of Right 1689, had both cemented Parliament's position as the supreme law-making body and said that the "election of members of Parliament ought to be free". However, Parliament was only elected by male property owners, which amounted to 3% of the population in 1780. The first known British person of African heritage to vote in a general election, Ignatius Sancho, voted in 1774 and 1780. During the Age of Liberty in Sweden (1718–1772), civil rights were expanded and power shifted from the monarch to parliament. The taxed peasantry was represented in parliament, although with little influence, but commoners without taxed property had no suffrage. The creation of the short-lived Corsican Republic in 1755 was an early attempt to adopt a democratic constitution (all men and women above age of 25 could vote). This Corsican Constitution was the first based on Enlightenment principles and included female suffrage, something that was not included in most other democracies until the 20th century. on the east coast of North America issued a Declaration of Independence in 1776]] Colonial America had similar property qualifications as Britain, and in the period before 1776 the abundance and availability of land meant that large numbers of colonists met such requirements with at least 60 per cent of adult white males able to vote. The great majority of white men were farmers who met the property ownership or taxpaying requirements. With few exceptions, no blacks or women could vote. Vermont, which, on declaring independence of Great Britain in 1777, adopted a constitution modelled on Pennsylvania's citizenship and democratic suffrage for males with or without property. The United States Constitution of 1787 is the oldest surviving, still active, governmental codified constitution. The Constitution provided for an elected government and protected civil rights and liberties, but did not end slavery nor extend voting rights in the United States, instead leaving the issue of suffrage to the individual states. Generally, states limited suffrage to white male property owners and taxpayers. At the time of the first Presidential election in 1789, about 6% of the population was eligible to vote. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U.S. citizenship to whites only. The Bill of Rights in 1791 set limits on government power to protect personal freedoms but had little impact on judgements by the courts for the first 130 years after ratification. philosophers, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen had a significant impact on the development of popular conceptions of individual liberty and democracy in Europe and worldwide.]] In 1789, Revolutionary France adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and, although short-lived, the National Convention was elected by all men in 1792. The Polish-Lithuanian Constitution of 3 May 1791 sought to implement a more effective constitutional monarchy, introduced political equality between townspeople and nobility, and placed the peasants under the protection of the government, mitigating the worst abuses of serfdom. In force for less than 19 months, it was declared null and void by the Grodno Sejm that met in 1793. North Carolina was the last state to abolish property qualification in 1856 resulting in a close approximation to universal white male suffrage (however tax-paying requirements remained in five states in 1860 and survived in two states until the 20th century). In the 1860 United States census, the slave population had grown to four million, and in Reconstruction after the Civil War, three constitutional amendments were passed: the 13th Amendment (1865) that ended slavery; the 14th Amendment (1869) that gave black people citizenship, and the 15th Amendment (1870) that gave black males a nominal right to vote. Full enfranchisement of citizens was not secured until after the civil rights movement gained passage by the US Congress of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. in France in 1848]] The voting franchise in the United Kingdom was expanded and made more uniform in a series of reforms that began with the Reform Act 1832 and continued into the 20th century, notably with the Representation of the People Act 1918 and the Equal Franchise Act 1928. Universal male suffrage was established in France in March 1848 in the wake of the French Revolution of 1848. During that year, several revolutions broke out in Europe as rulers were confronted with popular demands for liberal constitutions and more democratic government. In 1876, the Ottoman Empire transitioned from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional one, and held two elections the next year to elect members to her newly formed parliament. Provisional Electoral Regulations were issued, stating that the elected members of the Provincial Administrative Councils would elect members to the first Parliament. Later that year, a new constitution was promulgated, which provided for a bicameral Parliament with a Senate appointed by the Sultan and a popularly elected Chamber of Deputies. Only men above the age of 30 who were competent in Turkish and had full civil rights were allowed to stand for election. Reasons for disqualification included holding dual citizenship, being employed by a foreign government, being bankrupt, employed as a servant, or having "notoriety for ill deeds". Full universal suffrage was achieved in 1934. In 1893, the self-governing colony New Zealand became the first country in the world (except for the short-lived 18th-century Corsican Republic) to establish active universal suffrage by recognizing women as having the right to vote.20th and 21st centuriesscale, another widely used measure of democracy]] 20th-century transitions to liberal democracy have come in successive "waves of democracy", variously resulting from wars, revolutions, decolonisation, and religious and economic circumstances. Global waves of "democratic regression" reversing democratization, have also occurred in the 1920s and 30s, in the 1960s and 1970s, and in the 2010s. in the early 20th century]] World War I and the dissolution of the autocratic Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires resulted in the creation of new nation-states in Europe, most of them at least nominally democratic. In the 1920s democratic movements flourished and women's suffrage advanced, but the Great Depression brought disenchantment and most of the countries of Europe, Latin America, and Asia turned to strong-man rule or dictatorships. Fascism and dictatorships flourished in Nazi Germany, Italy, Spain and Portugal, as well as non-democratic governments in the Baltics, the Balkans, Brazil, Cuba, China, and Japan, among others. in 1905: Leon Trotsky in the center. The soviets were as an early example of a workers council.]] World War II brought a definitive reversal of this trend in Western Europe. The democratisation of the American, British, and French sectors of occupied Germany (disputed), Austria, Italy, and the occupied Japan served as a model for the later theory of government change. However, most of Eastern Europe, including the Soviet sector of Germany fell into the non-democratic Soviet-dominated bloc. The war was followed by decolonisation, and again most of the new independent states had nominally democratic constitutions. India emerged as the world's largest democracy and continues to be so. Countries that were once part of the British Empire often adopted the British Westminster system. In 1948, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights mandated democracy: By 1960, the vast majority of country-states were nominally democracies, although most of the world's populations lived in nominal democracies that experienced sham elections, and other forms of subterfuge (particularly in "Communist" states and the former colonies). A subsequent wave of democratisation brought substantial gains toward true liberal democracy for many states, dubbed "third wave of democracy". Portugal, Spain, and several of the military dictatorships in South America returned to civilian rule in the 1970s and 1980s. This was followed by countries in East and South Asia by the mid-to-late 1980s. Economic malaise in the 1980s, along with resentment of Soviet oppression, contributed to the collapse of the Soviet Union, the associated end of the Cold War, and the democratisation and liberalisation of the former Eastern bloc countries. The most successful of the new democracies were those geographically and culturally closest to western Europe, and they are now either part of the European Union or candidate states. In 1986, after the toppling of the most prominent Asian dictatorship, the only democratic state of its kind at the time emerged in the Philippines with the rise of Corazon Aquino, who would later be known as the mother of Asian democracy. taking the Oath of Office, becoming the first female president in Asia]] The liberal trend spread to some states in Africa in the 1990s, most prominently in South Africa. Some recent examples of attempts of liberalisation include the Indonesian Revolution of 1998, the Bulldozer Revolution in Yugoslavia, the Rose Revolution in Georgia, the Orange Revolution in Ukraine, the Cedar Revolution in Lebanon, the Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan, and the Jasmine Revolution in Tunisia. According to Freedom House, in 2007 there were 123 electoral democracies (up from 40 in 1972). According to World Forum on Democracy, electoral democracies now represent 120 of the 192 existing countries and constitute 58.2 per cent of the world's population. At the same time liberal democracies i.e. countries Freedom House regards as free and respectful of basic human rights and the rule of law are 85 in number and represent 38 per cent of the global population. Also in 2007 the United Nations declared 15 September the International Day of Democracy. in 2008]] Many countries reduced their voting age to 18 years; the major democracies began to do so in the 1970s starting in Western Europe and North America. Most electoral democracies continue to exclude those younger than 18 from voting. The voting age has been lowered to 16 for national elections in a number of countries, including Brazil, Austria, Cuba, and Nicaragua. In California, a 2004 proposal to permit a quarter vote at 14 and a half vote at 16 was ultimately defeated. In 2008, the German parliament proposed but shelved a bill that would grant the vote to each citizen at birth, to be used by a parent until the child claims it for themselves. According to Freedom House, starting in 2005, there have been 17 consecutive years in which declines in political rights and civil liberties throughout the world have outnumbered improvements, as populist and nationalist political forces have gained ground everywhere from Poland (under the Law and Justice party) to the Philippines (under Rodrigo Duterte). The Christian Science Monitor reported that nationalist and populist political ideologies were gaining ground, at the expense of rule of law, in countries like Poland, Turkey and Hungary. For example, in Poland, the President appointed 27 new Supreme Court judges over legal objections from the European Commission. In Turkey, thousands of judges were removed from their positions following a failed coup attempt during a government crackdown . "Democratic backsliding" in the 2010s were attributed to economic inequality and social discontent, personalism, poor government's management of the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as other factors such as manipulation of civil society, "toxic polarization", foreign disinformation campaigns, racism and nativism, excessive executive power, and decreased power of the opposition. Within English-speaking Western democracies, "protection-based" attitudes combining cultural conservatism and leftist economic attitudes were the strongest predictor of support for authoritarian modes of governance. Theory<!--'Democratic theory' redirects here--> Early theory Aristotle contrasted rule by the many (democracy/timocracy), with rule by the few (oligarchy/aristocracy/elitism), and with rule by a single person (tyranny/autocracy/absolute monarchy). He also thought that there was a good and a bad variant of each system (he considered democracy to be the degenerate counterpart to timocracy). A common view among early and renaissance Republican theorists was that democracy could only survive in small political communities. According to the theory of direct democracy, on the other hand, citizens should vote directly, not through their representatives, on legislative proposals. Proponents of direct democracy offer varied reasons to support this view. Political activity can be valuable in itself, it socialises and educates citizens, and popular participation can check powerful elites. Proponents view citizens do not rule themselves unless they directly decide laws and policies. Polyarchy Robert A. Dahl argues that the fundamental democratic principle is that, when it comes to binding collective decisions, each person in a political community is entitled to have his/her interests be given equal consideration (not necessarily that all people are equally satisfied by the collective decision). He uses the term polyarchy to refer to societies in which there exists a certain set of institutions and procedures which are perceived as leading to such democracy. First and foremost among these institutions is the regular occurrence of free and open elections which are used to select representatives who then manage all or most of the public policy of the society. However, these polyarchic procedures may not create a full democracy if, for example, poverty prevents political participation. Similarly, Ronald Dworkin argues that "democracy is a substantive, not a merely procedural, ideal." Deliberation Deliberative democracy is based on the notion that democracy is government by deliberation. Unlike aggregative democracy, deliberative democracy holds that, for a democratic decision to be legitimate, it must be preceded by authentic deliberation, not merely the aggregation of preferences that occurs in voting. Authentic deliberation is deliberation among decision-makers that is free from distortions of unequal political power, such as power a decision-maker obtained through economic wealth or the support of interest groups. If the decision-makers cannot reach consensus after authentically deliberating on a proposal, then they vote on the proposal using a form of majority rule. Citizens assemblies are considered by many scholars as practical examples of deliberative democracy, with a recent OECD report identifying citizens assemblies as an increasingly popular mechanism to involve citizens in governmental decision-making. Measurement of democracy map Full democracies Flawed democracies Hybrid regimes Authoritarian regimes ]] map for 2024 ]] Measurement of democracy varies according to the different fundamental conceptions of democracy. Minimalist democracy evaluations focus on free and fair elections, while maximalist democracy evaluates additional values, such as human rights, deliberation, economic outcomes or state capacity. Types of governmental democracies Democracy has taken a number of forms, both in theory and practice. Some varieties of democracy provide better representation and more freedom for their citizens than others. However, if any democracy is not structured to prohibit the government from excluding the people from the legislative process, or any branch of government from altering the separation of powers in its favour, then a branch of the system can accumulate too much power and destroy the democracy. The following kinds of democracy are not exclusive of one another: many specify details of aspects that are independent of one another and can co-exist in a single system. Basic forms Several variants of democracy exist, but there are two basic forms, both of which concern how the whole body of all eligible citizens executes its will. One form of democracy is direct democracy, in which all eligible citizens have active participation in the political decision making, for example voting on policy initiatives directly. In most modern democracies, the whole body of eligible citizens remain the sovereign power but political power is exercised indirectly through elected representatives; this is called a representative democracy.Direct (in 2009) of the canton of Glarus, an example of direct democracy in Switzerland]] , without needing to register, every citizen receives ballot papers and information brochures for each vote (and can send it back by post). Switzerland has a direct democracy system and votes (and elections) are organised about four times a year; here, to Berne's citizen in November 2008 about 5 national, 2 cantonal, 4 municipal referendums, and 2 elections (government and parliament of the City of Berne) to take care of at the same time.]] Direct democracy is a political system where the citizens participate in the decision-making personally, contrary to relying on intermediaries or representatives. A direct democracy gives the voting population the power to: * Change constitutional laws, * Put forth initiatives, referendums and suggestions for laws Within modern-day representative governments, certain electoral tools like referendums, citizens' initiatives and recall elections are referred to as forms of direct democracy. However, some advocates of direct democracy argue for local assemblies of face-to-face discussion. Direct democracy as a government system currently exists in the Swiss cantons of Appenzell Innerrhoden and Glarus, communities affiliated with the CIPO-RFM, the Bolivian city councils of FEJUVE, and Kurdish cantons of Rojava. Semi-direct Some modern democracies that are predominantly representative in nature also heavily rely upon forms of political action that are directly democratic. These democracies, which combine elements of representative democracy and direct democracy, are termed semi-direct democracies or participatory democracies. Examples include Switzerland and some U.S. states, where frequent use is made of referendums and initiatives. The Swiss confederation is a semi-direct democracy. Examples include the extensive use of referendums in the US state of California, which is a state that has more than 20 million voters. In New England, town meetings are often used, especially in rural areas, to manage local government. This creates a hybrid form of government, with a local direct democracy and a representative state government. For example, most Vermont towns hold annual town meetings in March in which town officers are elected, budgets for the town and schools are voted on, and citizens have the opportunity to speak and be heard on political matters.Lot systemThe use of a lot system, a characteristic of Athenian democracy, is a feature of some versions of direct democracies. In this system, important governmental and administrative tasks are performed by citizens picked from a lottery.Representative Representative democracy involves the election of government officials by the people being represented. If the head of state is also democratically elected then it is called a democratic republic. The most common mechanisms involve election of the candidate with a majority or a plurality of the votes. Most western countries have representative systems. pointing out the contradictions of representation mechanisms with democracyParliamentary in London, United Kingdom. The Westminster system originates from the British Houses of Parliament.]] Parliamentary democracy is a representative democracy where government is appointed by or can be dismissed by, representatives as opposed to a "presidential rule" wherein the president is both head of state and the head of government and is elected by the voters. Under a parliamentary democracy, government is exercised by delegation to an executive ministry and subject to ongoing review, checks and balances by the legislative parliament elected by the people. In a parliamentary system, the prime minister may be dismissed by the legislature at any point in time for not meeting the expectations of the legislature. This is done through a vote of no confidence where the legislature decides whether or not to remove the prime minister from office with majority support for dismissal. In other countries, the monarchy was abolished along with the aristocratic system (as in France, China, Russia, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy, Greece, and Egypt). An elected person, with or without significant powers, became the head of state in these countries. Elite upper houses of legislatures, which often had lifetime or hereditary tenure, were common in many states. Over time, these either had their powers limited (as with the British House of Lords) or else became elective and remained powerful (as with the Australian Senate). Republic The term republic has many different meanings, but today often refers to a representative democracy with an elected head of state, such as a president, serving for a limited term, in contrast to states with a hereditary monarch as a head of state, even if these states also are representative democracies with an elected or appointed head of government such as a prime minister. The Founding Fathers of the United States often criticised direct democracy, which in their view often came without the protection of a constitution enshrining inalienable rights; James Madison argued, especially in The Federalist No. 10, that what distinguished a direct democracy from a republic was that the former became weaker as it got larger and suffered more violently from the effects of faction, whereas a republic could get stronger as it got larger and combats faction by its very structure. Professors Richard Ellis of Willamette University and Michael Nelson of Rhodes College argue that much constitutional thought, from Madison to Lincoln and beyond, has focused on "the problem of majority tyranny". They conclude, "The principles of republican government embedded in the Constitution represent an effort by the framers to ensure that the inalienable rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness would not be trampled by majorities." What was critical to American values, John Adams insisted, was that the government be "bound by fixed laws, which the people have a voice in making, and a right to defend." As Benjamin Franklin was exiting after writing the US Constitution, Elizabeth Willing Powel asked him "Well, Doctor, what have we got—a republic or a monarchy?". He replied "A republic—if you can keep it." Liberal A liberal democracy is a representative democracy which enshrines a liberal political philosophy, where the ability of the elected representatives to exercise decision-making power is subject to the rule of law, moderated by a constitution or laws such as the protection of the rights and freedoms of individuals, and constrained on the extent to which the will of the majority can be exercised against the rights of minorities. Socialist Socialist thought has several different views on democracy. Social democracy, democratic socialism, and the dictatorship of the proletariat are some examples. Many democratic socialists and social democrats believe in a form of participatory, industrial, economic and/or workplace democracy combined with a representative democracy. Trotskyist groups have interpreted socialist democracy to be synonymous with multi-party socialist representation, autonomous union organizations, worker's control of production, internal party democracy and the mass participation of the working masses.Marxist Within Marxist orthodoxy there is a hostility to what is commonly called "liberal democracy", which is referred to as parliamentary democracy because of its centralised nature. Because of orthodox Marxists' desire to eliminate the political elitism they see in capitalism, Marxists, Leninists, and Trotskyists believe in direct democracy implemented through a system of communes (which are sometimes called soviets). This system can begin with workplace democracy and ultimately manifests itself as council democracy.Anarchist Anarchists are split in this domain, depending on whether they believe that a majority-rule is tyrannic or not. To many anarchists, the only form of democracy considered acceptable is direct democracy. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon argued that the only acceptable form of direct democracy is one in which it is recognised that majority decisions are not binding on the minority, even when unanimous. However, anarcho-communist Murray Bookchin criticised individualist anarchists for opposing democracy, and says "majority rule" is consistent with anarchism. Some anarcho-communists oppose the majoritarian nature of direct democracy, feeling that it can impede individual liberty and opt-in favour of a non-majoritarian form of consensus democracy, similar to Proudhon's position on direct democracy. Sortition Sortition is the process of choosing decision-making bodies via a random selection. These bodies can be more representative of the opinions and interests of the people at large than an elected legislature or other decision-maker. The technique was in widespread use in Athenian Democracy and Renaissance Florence and is still used in modern jury selection and citizens' assemblies.Consociational Consociational democracy, also called consociationalism, is a form of democracy based on power-sharing formula between elites representing the social groups within the society. In 1969, Arendt Lijphart argued this would stabilize democracies with factions. A consociational democracy allows for simultaneous majority votes in two or more ethno-religious constituencies, and policies are enacted only if they gain majority support from both or all of them. The Qualified majority voting rule in European Council of Ministers is a consociational democracy approach for supranational democracies. This system in Treaty of Rome allocates votes to member states in part according to their population, but heavily weighted in favour of the smaller states. A consociational democracy requires consensus of representatives, while consensus democracy requires consensus of electorate. Majoritarian Consensus Consensus democracy requires consensus decision-making and supermajority to obtain a larger support than majority. In contrast, in majoritarian democracy minority opinions can potentially be ignored by vote-winning majorities. Constitutions typically require consensus or supermajorities.EthnicInclusive Inclusive democracy is a political theory and political project that aims for direct democracy in all fields of social life: political democracy in the form of face-to-face assemblies which are confederated, economic democracy in a stateless, moneyless and marketless economy, democracy in the social realm, i.e. self-management in places of work and education, and ecological democracy which aims to reintegrate society and nature. The theoretical project of inclusive democracy emerged from the work of political philosopher Takis Fotopoulos in "Towards An Inclusive Democracy" and was further developed in the journal Democracy & Nature and its successor The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy. Participatory A parpolity or participatory polity is a theoretical form of democracy that is ruled by a nested council structure. The guiding philosophy is that people should have decision-making power in proportion to how much they are affected by the decision. Local councils of 25–50 people are completely autonomous on issues that affect only them, and these councils send delegates to higher level councils who are again autonomous regarding issues that affect only the population affected by that council. A council court of randomly chosen citizens serves as a check on the tyranny of the majority, and rules on which body gets to vote on which issue. Delegates may vote differently from how their sending council might wish but are mandated to communicate the wishes of their sending council. Delegates are recallable at any time. Referendums are possible at any time via votes of lower-level councils, however, not everything is a referendum as this is most likely a waste of time. A parpolity is meant to work in tandem with a participatory economy. Procedural RadicalRadical democracy is based on the idea that there are hierarchical and oppressive power relations that exist in society. Radical democracy's role is to make visible and challenge those relations by allowing for difference, dissent and antagonisms in decision-making processes. Religious Cosmopolitan Cosmopolitan democracy, also known as global democracy or world federalism, is a political system in which democracy is implemented on a global scale, either directly or through representatives. An important justification for this kind of system is that the decisions made in national or regional democracies often affect people outside the constituency who, by definition, cannot vote. By contrast, in a cosmopolitan democracy, the people who are affected by decisions also have a say in them. According to its supporters, any attempt to solve global problems is undemocratic without some form of cosmopolitan democracy. The general principle of cosmopolitan democracy is to expand some or all of the values and norms of democracy, including the rule of law; the non-violent resolution of conflicts; and equality among citizens, beyond the limits of the state. To be fully implemented, this would require reforming existing international organisations, e.g., the United Nations, as well as the creation of new institutions such as a World Parliament, which ideally would enhance public control over, and accountability in, international politics. Cosmopolitan democracy has been promoted, among others, by physicist Albert Einstein, writer Kurt Vonnegut, columnist George Monbiot, and professors David Held and Daniele Archibugi. The creation of the International Criminal Court in 2003 was seen as a major step forward by many supporters of this type of cosmopolitan democracy. Creative Creative democracy is advocated by American philosopher John Dewey. The main idea about creative democracy is that democracy encourages individual capacity building and the interaction among the society. Dewey argues that democracy is a way of life in his work of "Creative Democracy: The Task Before Us" and an experience built on faith in human nature, faith in human beings, and faith in working with others. Democracy, in Dewey's view, is a moral ideal requiring actual effort and work by people; it is not an institutional concept that exists outside of ourselves. "The task of democracy", Dewey concludes, "is forever that of creation of a freer and more humane experience in which all share and to which all contribute". Guided , Oman, the UAE, Qatar, Brunei, Afghanistan, and the Vatican do not claim to be democratic as of 2022)]] Guided democracy is a form of democracy that incorporates regular popular elections, but which often carefully "guides" the choices offered to the electorate in a manner that may reduce the ability of the electorate to truly determine the type of government exercised over them. Such democracies typically have only one central authority which is often not subject to meaningful public review by any other governmental authority. Russian-style democracy has often been referred to as a "guided democracy". Russian politicians have referred to their government as having only one center of power/ authority, as opposed to most other forms of democracy which usually attempt to incorporate two or more naturally competing sources of authority within the same government.Non-governmental democracyAside from the public sphere, similar democratic principles and mechanisms of voting and representation have been used to govern other kinds of groups. Many non-governmental organisations decide policy and leadership by voting. Most trade unions and cooperatives are governed by democratic elections. Corporations are ultimately governed by their shareholders through shareholder democracy. Corporations may also employ systems such as workplace democracy to handle internal governance. Amitai Etzioni has postulated a system that fuses elements of democracy with sharia law, termed Islamic democracy or Islamocracy. There is also a growing number of Democratic educational institutions such as Sudbury schools that are co-governed by students and staff. Shareholder democracy Shareholder democracy is a concept relating to the governance of corporations by their shareholders. In the United States, shareholders are typically granted voting rights according to the one share, one vote principle. Shareholders may vote annually to elect the company's board of directors, who themselves may choose the company's executives. The shareholder democracy framework may be inaccurate for companies which have different classes of stock that further alter the distribution of voting rights. Justification Several justifications for democracy have been postulated.LegitimacySocial contract theory argues that the legitimacy of government is based on consent of the governed, i.e. an election, and that political decisions must reflect the general will. Some proponents of the theory like Jean-Jacques Rousseau advocate for a direct democracy on this basis. Better decision-making Condorcet's jury theorem is logical proof that if each decision-maker has a better than chance probability of making the right decision, then having the largest number of decision-makers, i.e. a democracy, will result in the best decisions. This has also been argued by theories of the wisdom of the crowd. Democracy tends to improve conflict resolution.Economic success In Why Nations Fail, economists Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson argue that democracies are more economically successful because undemocratic political systems tend to limit markets and favor monopolies at the expense of the creative destruction which is necessary for sustained economic growth. A 2019 study by Acemoglu and others estimated that countries switching to democratic from authoritarian rule had on average a 20% higher GDP after 25 years than if they had remained authoritarian. The study examined 122 transitions to democracy and 71 transitions to authoritarian rule, occurring from 1960 to 2010. Acemoglu said this was because democracies tended to invest more in health care and human capital, and reduce special treatment of regime allies. A 2023 study analyzed the long-term effects of democracy on economic prosperity using new data on GDP per capita and democracy for a dataset between 1789 and 2019. The results indicate that democracy substantially increases economic development. Democratic transitions (blue) is higher than those democratizing (yellow).]] A democratic transition describes a phase in a country's political system, often created as a result of an incomplete change from an authoritarian regime to a democratic one (or vice versa). Democratization Several philosophers and researchers have outlined historical and social factors seen as supporting the evolution of democracy. Other commentators have mentioned the influence of economic development. In a related theory, Ronald Inglehart suggests that improved living-standards in modern developed countries can convince people that they can take their basic survival for granted, leading to increased emphasis on self-expression values, which correlates closely with democracy. Douglas M. Gibler and Andrew Owsiak in their study argued about the importance of peace and stable borders for the development of democracy. It has often been assumed that democracy causes peace, but this study shows that, historically, peace has almost always predated the establishment of democracy. Carroll Quigley concludes that the characteristics of weapons are the main predictor of democracy: Democracy—this scenario—tends to emerge only when the best weapons available are easy for individuals to obtain and use. Other theories stressed the relevance of education and of human capital—and within them of cognitive ability to increasing tolerance, rationality, political literacy and participation. Two effects of education and cognitive ability are distinguished: * a cognitive effect (competence to make rational choices, better information-processing) * an ethical effect (support of democratic values, freedom, human rights etc.), which itself depends on intelligence. Evidence consistent with conventional theories of why democracy emerges and is sustained has been hard to come by. Statistical analyses have challenged modernisation theory by demonstrating that there is no reliable evidence for the claim that democracy is more likely to emerge when countries become wealthier, more educated, or less unequal. In fact, empirical evidence shows that economic growth and education may not lead to increased demand for democratization as modernization theory suggests: historically, most countries attained high levels of access to primary education well before transitioning to democracy. Rather than acting as a catalyst for democratization, in some situations education provision may instead be used by non-democratic regimes to indoctrinate their subjects and strengthen their power. Together, these findings show that education does not always promote human capital and economic growth as is generally argued to be the case. Instead, the evidence implies that education provision often falls short of its expressed goals, or, alternatively, that political actors use education to promote goals other than economic growth and development. Some scholars have searched for the "deep" determinants of contemporary political institutions, be they geographical or demographic. An example of this is the disease environment. Places with different mortality rates had different populations and productivity levels around the world. For example, in Africa, the tsetse fly—which afflicts humans and livestock—reduced the ability of Africans to plough the land. This made Africa less settled. As a consequence, political power was less concentrated. This also affected the colonial institutions European countries established in Africa. Whether colonial settlers could live or not in a place made them develop different institutions which led to different economic and social paths. This also affected the distribution of power and the collective actions people could take. As a result, some African countries ended up having democracies and others autocracies. An example of geographical determinants for democracy is having access to coastal areas and rivers. This natural endowment has a positive relation with economic development thanks to the benefits of trade. Trade brought economic development, which in turn, broadened power. Rulers wanting to increase revenues had to protect property-rights to create incentives for people to invest. As more people had more power, more concessions had to be made by the ruler and in many places this process lead to democracy. These determinants defined the structure of the society moving the balance of political power. Robert Michels asserts that although democracy can never be fully realised, democracy may be developed automatically in the act of striving for democracy: <blockquote>The peasant in the fable, when on his deathbed, tells his sons that a treasure is buried in the field. After the old man's death the sons dig everywhere in order to discover the treasure. They do not find it. But their indefatigable labor improves the soil and secures for them a comparative well-being. The treasure in the fable may well symbolise democracy.</blockquote> Democracy in modern times has almost always faced opposition from the previously existing government, and many times it has faced opposition from social elites. The implementation of a democratic government from a non-democratic state is typically brought by peaceful or violent democratic revolution. Autocratization has turned into an authoritarian state]] Steven Levitsky says: “It's not up to voters to defend a democracy. That’s asking far, far too much of voters, to cast their ballot on the basis of some set of abstract principles or procedures. With the exception of a handful of cases, voters never, ever — in any society, in any culture — prioritize democracy over all else. Individual voters worry about much more mundane things, as is their right. It is up to élites and institutions to protect democracy — not voters.” Disruption Some democratic governments have experienced sudden state collapse and regime change to an undemocratic form of government. Domestic military coups or rebellions are the most common means by which democratic governments have been overthrown. (See List of coups and coup attempts by country and List of civil wars.) Examples include the Spanish Civil War, the Coup of 18 Brumaire that ended the French First Republic, and the 28 May 1926 coup d'état which ended the First Portuguese Republic. Some military coups are supported by foreign governments, such as the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état and the 1953 Iranian coup d'état. Other types of a sudden end to democracy include: * Invasion, for example the German occupation of Czechoslovakia, and the fall of South Vietnam. * Self-coup, in which the leader of the government extra-legally seizes all power or unlawfully extends the term in office. This can be done through: Suspension of the constitution by decree, such as with the 1992 Peruvian coup d'état An "electoral self-coup" using election fraud to obtain re-election of a previously fairly elected official or political party. For example, in the 1999 Ukrainian presidential election, 2003 Russian legislative election, and 2004 Russian presidential election. Democratic backsliding can end democracy in a gradual manner, by increasing emphasis on national security and eroding free and fair elections, freedom of expression, independence of the judiciary, rule of law. A famous example is the Enabling Act of 1933, which lawfully ended democracy in Weimar Germany and marked the transition to Nazi Germany. Temporary or long-term political violence and government interference can prevent free and fair elections, which erode the democratic nature of governments. This has happened on a local level even in well-established democracies like the United States; for example, the Wilmington insurrection of 1898 and African-American disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era. Debates on democracy Influence of the media The theory of democracy relies on the implicit assumption that voters are well informed about social issues, policies, and candidates so that they can make a truly informed decision. Since the late 20th century there has been a growing concern that voters may be poorly informed due to the news media's focusing more on entertainment and gossip and less on serious journalistic research on political issues. The media professors Michael Gurevitch and Jay Blumler have proposed a number of functions that the mass media are expected to fulfill in a democracy: * Surveillance of the sociopolitical environment * Meaningful agenda setting * Platforms for an intelligible and illuminating advocacy * Dialogue across a diverse range of views * Mechanisms for holding officials to account for how they have exercised power * Incentives for citizens to learn, choose, and become involved * A principled resistance to the efforts of forces outside the media to subvert their independence, integrity, and ability to serve the audience * A sense of respect for the audience member, as potentially concerned and able to make sense of his or her political environment This proposal has inspired a lot of discussions over whether the news media are actually fulfilling the requirements that a well functioning democracy requires. Commercial mass media are generally not accountable to anybody but their owners, and they have no obligation to serve a democratic function. They are controlled mainly by economic market forces. Fierce economic competition may force the mass media to divert themselves from any democratic ideals and focus entirely on how to survive the competition. The tabloidization and popularization of the news media is seen in an increasing focus on human examples rather than statistics and principles. There is more focus on politicians as personalities and less focus on political issues in the popular media. Election campaigns are covered more as horse races and less as debates about ideologies and issues. The dominating media focus on spin, conflict, and competitive strategies has made voters perceive the politicians as egoists rather than idealists. This fosters mistrust and a cynical attitude to politics, less civic engagement, and less interest in voting. A strong media focus on fear and terrorism has allowed military logic to penetrate public institutions, leading to increased surveillance and the erosion of civil rights. and accountability of the democratic system is compromised when lack of access to substantive, diverse, and undistorted information is handicapping the citizens' capability of evaluating the political process. The fast pace and trivialization in the competitive news media is dumbing down the political debate. Thorough and balanced investigation of complex political issues does not fit into this format. The political communication is characterized by short time horizons, short slogans, simple explanations, and simple solutions. This is conducive to political populism rather than serious deliberation. Commercial mass media are often differentiated along the political spectrum so that people can hear mainly opinions that they already agree with. Too much controversy and diverse opinions are not always profitable for the commercial news media. Political polarization is emerging when different people read different news and watch different TV channels. This polarization has been worsened by the emergence of the social media that allow people to communicate mainly with groups of like-minded people, the so-called echo chambers. Extreme political polarization may undermine the trust in democratic institutions, leading to erosion of civil rights and free speech and in some cases even reversion to autocracy. Many media scholars have discussed non-commercial news media with public service obligations as a means to improve the democratic process by providing the kind of political contents that a free market does not provide. The World Bank has recommended public service broadcasting in order to strengthen democracy in developing countries. These broadcasting services should be accountable to an independent regulatory body that is adequately protected from interference from political and economic interests. Public service media have an obligation to provide reliable information to voters. Many countries have publicly funded radio and television stations with public service obligations, especially in Europe and Japan, while such media are weak or non-existent in other countries including the US. Several studies have shown that the stronger the dominance of commercial broadcast media over public service media, the less the amount of policy-relevant information in the media and the more focus on horse race journalism, personalities, and the pecadillos of politicians. Public service broadcasters are characterized by more policy-relevant information and more respect for journalistic norms and impartiality than the commercial media. However, the trend of deregulation has put the public service model under increased pressure from competition with commercial media. The emergence of the internet and the social media has profoundly altered the conditions for political communication. The social media have given ordinary citizens easy access to voice their opinion and share information while bypassing the filters of the large news media. This is often seen as an advantage for democracy. The new possibilities for communication have fundamentally changed the way social movements and protest movements operate and organize. The internet and social media have provided powerful new tools for democracy movements in developing countries and emerging democracies, enabling them to bypass censorship, voice their opinions, and organize protests. A serious problem with the social media is that they have no truth filters. The established news media have to guard their reputation as trustworthy, while ordinary citizens may post unreliable information. The proliferation of false stories and conspiracy theories may undermine public trust in the political system and public officials. Democracy promotion Democracy promotion can increase the quality of already existing democracies, reduce political apathy, and the chance of democratic backsliding. Democracy promotion measures include voting advice applications, participatory democracy, increasing youth suffrage, increasing civic education, reducing barriers to entry for new political parties, increasing proportionality and reducing presidentialism. See also * Industrial democracy * Meritocracy * Parliament in the Making * Power to the people * Territorial peace theory * Spatial citizenship }} Footnotes References Works cited * * * * }} * * * Further reading * Cartledge, Paul (2016). Democracy: A Life. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199697670. * * Biagini, Eugenio (general editor). 2021. A Cultural History of Democracy, 6 Volumes New York : Bloomsbury Academic. * * Przeworski, Adam (2018) Why Bother With Elections? Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. * Munck, Gerardo L. (2016) "What is Democracy? A Reconceptualization of the Quality of Democracy". Democratization 23(1): 1–26. * External links * [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/democracy Democracy] at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy * [https://democracyparadox.com/the-democracy-paradox-podcast/ Podcast: Democracy Paradox], hundreds of interviews with democracy experts around the world }} Category:Classical Greece Category:Elections Category:Types of democracy	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy	2025-04-05T18:28:20.491628
7962	Logical disjunction	of <math>\scriptstyle A \lor B \lor C</math>]] In logic, disjunction, also known as logical disjunction or logical or or logical addition or inclusive disjunction, is a logical connective typically notated as <math> \lor </math> and read aloud as "or". For instance, the English language sentence "it is sunny or it is warm" can be represented in logic using the disjunctive formula <math> S \lor W </math>, assuming that <math>S</math> abbreviates "it is sunny" and <math>W</math> abbreviates "it is warm". In classical logic, disjunction is given a truth functional semantics according to which a formula <math>\phi \lor \psi</math> is true unless both <math>\phi</math> and <math>\psi</math> are false. Because this semantics allows a disjunctive formula to be true when both of its disjuncts are true, it is an inclusive interpretation of disjunction, in contrast with exclusive disjunction. Classical proof theoretical treatments are often given in terms of rules such as disjunction introduction and disjunction elimination. Disjunction has also been given numerous non-classical treatments, motivated by problems including Aristotle's sea battle argument, Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, as well as the numerous mismatches between classical disjunction and its nearest equivalents in natural languages. An operand of a disjunction is a disjunct.Inclusive and exclusive disjunction Because the logical or means a disjunction formula is true when either one or both of its parts are true, it is referred to as an inclusive disjunction. This is in contrast with an exclusive disjunction, which is true when one or the other of the arguments are true, but not both (referred to as exclusive or, or XOR). When it is necessary to clarify whether inclusive or exclusive or is intended, English speakers sometimes uses the phrase and/or. In terms of logic, this phrase is identical to or, but makes the inclusion of both being true explicit. Notation In logic and related fields, disjunction is customarily notated with an infix operator <math>\lor</math> (Unicode ). In mathematics, the disjunction of an arbitrary number of elements <math>a_1, \ldots, a_n</math> can be denoted as an iterated binary operation using a larger ⋁ (Unicode ): <math> \bigvee_{i1}^{n} a_i a_1 \lor a_2 \lor \ldots a_{n-1} \lor a_{n} </math> Classical disjunction Semantics In the semantics of logic, classical disjunction is a truth functional operation which returns the truth value true unless both of its arguments are false. Its semantic entry is standardly given as follows: :: <math> \models \phi \lor \psi</math> if <math> \models \phi</math> or <math>\models \psi</math> or both This semantics corresponds to the following truth table: :<math>A \lor B = (\lnot A) \to B</math>. The latter can be checked by the following truth table: It may also be defined solely in terms of <math>\to</math>: :<math>A \lor B = (A \to B) \to B</math>. It can be checked by the following truth table: <!-- Proof theory --> Properties The following properties apply to disjunction: Associativity: <math>a \lor (b \lor c) \equiv (a \lor b) \lor c </math> Commutativity: <math>a \lor b \equiv b \lor a </math> Distributivity: <math>(a \land (b \lor c)) \equiv ((a \land b) \lor (a \land c))</math> :::<math>(a \lor (b \land c)) \equiv ((a \lor b) \land (a \lor c))</math> :::<math>(a \lor (b \lor c)) \equiv ((a \lor b) \lor (a \lor c))</math> :::<math>(a \lor (b \equiv c)) \equiv ((a \lor b) \equiv (a \lor c))</math> Idempotency: <math>a \lor a \equiv a </math> Monotonicity: <math>(a \rightarrow b) \rightarrow ((c \lor a) \rightarrow (c \lor b))</math> :::<math>(a \rightarrow b) \rightarrow ((a \lor c) \rightarrow (b \lor c))</math> Truth-preserving: The interpretation under which all variables are assigned a truth value of 'true', produces a truth value of 'true' as a result of disjunction. Falsehood-preserving: The interpretation under which all variables are assigned a truth value of 'false', produces a truth value of 'false' as a result of disjunction. Applications in computer science ]] Operators corresponding to logical disjunction exist in most programming languages. Bitwise operation Disjunction is often used for bitwise operations. Examples: 0 or 0 = 0 * 0 or 1 = 1 * 1 or 0 = 1 * 1 or 1 = 1 * 1010 or 1100 = 1110 The <code>or</code> operator can be used to set bits in a bit field to 1, by <code>or</code>-ing the field with a constant field with the relevant bits set to 1. For example, <code>x x \| 0b00000001</code> will force the final bit to 1, while leaving other bits unchanged. Logical operation Many languages distinguish between bitwise and logical disjunction by providing two distinct operators; in languages following C, bitwise disjunction is performed with the single pipe operator (<code>\|</code>), and logical disjunction with the double pipe (<code>\|\|</code>) operator. Logical disjunction is usually short-circuited; that is, if the first (left) operand evaluates to <code>true</code>, then the second (right) operand is not evaluated. The logical disjunction operator thus usually constitutes a sequence point. In a parallel (concurrent) language, it is possible to short-circuit both sides: they are evaluated in parallel, and if one terminates with value true, the other is interrupted. This operator is thus called the parallel or. Although the type of a logical disjunction expression is Boolean in most languages (and thus can only have the value <code>true</code> or <code>false</code>), in some languages (such as Python and JavaScript), the logical disjunction operator returns one of its operands: the first operand if it evaluates to a true value, and the second operand otherwise. This allows it to fulfill the role of the Elvis operator.Constructive disjunctionThe Curry–Howard correspondence relates a constructivist form of disjunction to tagged union types. Set theory The membership of an element of a union set in set theory is defined in terms of a logical disjunction: <math>x\in A\cup B\Leftrightarrow (x\in A)\vee(x\in B)</math>. Because of this, logical disjunction satisfies many of the same identities as set-theoretic union, such as associativity, commutativity, distributivity, and de Morgan's laws, identifying logical conjunction with set intersection, logical negation with set complement. Natural language Disjunction in natural languages does not precisely match the interpretation of <math>\lor</math> in classical logic. Notably, classical disjunction is inclusive while natural language disjunction is often understood exclusively, as the following English example typically would be.<ref name":1" /> :* Mary is eating an apple or a pear. This inference has sometimes been understood as an entailment, for instance by Alfred Tarski, who suggested that natural language disjunction is ambiguous between a classical and a nonclassical interpretation. More recent work in pragmatics has shown that this inference can be derived as a conversational implicature on the basis of a semantic denotation which behaves classically. However, disjunctive constructions including Hungarian vagy... vagy and French soit... soit have been argued to be inherently exclusive, rendering ungrammaticality in contexts where an inclusive reading would otherwise be forced.<ref name=":1" /> Similar deviations from classical logic have been noted in cases such as free choice disjunction and simplification of disjunctive antecedents, where certain modal operators trigger a conjunction-like interpretation of disjunction. As with exclusivity, these inferences have been analyzed both as implicatures and as entailments arising from a nonclassical interpretation of disjunction.<ref name=":1" /> :* You can have an apple or a pear. ::<math>\rightsquigarrow</math> You can have an apple and you can have a pear (but you can't have both) In many languages, disjunctive expressions play a role in question formation. :* Is Mary a philosopher or a linguist? For instance, while the above English example can be interpreted as a polar question asking whether it's true that Mary is either a philosopher or a linguist, it can also be interpreted as an alternative question asking which of the two professions is hers. The role of disjunction in these cases has been analyzed using nonclassical logics such as alternative semantics and inquisitive semantics, which have also been adopted to explain the free choice and simplification inferences.<ref name=":1" /> In English, as in many other languages, disjunction is expressed by a coordinating conjunction. Other languages express disjunctive meanings in a variety of ways, though it is unknown whether disjunction itself is a linguistic universal. In many languages such as Dyirbal and Maricopa, disjunction is marked using a verb suffix. For instance, in the Maricopa example below, disjunction is marked by the suffix šaa.<ref name=":1" /> See also * Affirming a disjunct * Boolean algebra (logic) * Boolean algebra topics * Boolean domain * Boolean function * Boolean-valued function * Conjunction/disjunction duality * Disjunctive syllogism * Fréchet inequalities * Free choice inference * Hurford disjunction * Logical graph * Simplification of disjunctive antecedents Notes * George Boole, closely following analogy with ordinary mathematics, premised, as a necessary condition to the definition of x + y, that x and y were mutually exclusive. Jevons, and practically all mathematical logicians after him, advocated, on various grounds, the definition of logical addition in a form that does not necessitate mutual exclusiveness. References External links * * *Eric W. Weisstein. [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Disjunction.html "Disjunction."] From MathWorld—A Wolfram Web Resource Disjunction Category:Semantics Category:Formal semantics (natural language)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_disjunction	2025-04-05T18:28:20.547308
7963	Disjunctive syllogism	In classical logic, disjunctive syllogism (historically known as modus tollendo ponens (MTP), Latin for "mode that affirms by denying") is a valid argument form which is a syllogism having a disjunctive statement for one of its premises. An example in English: I will choose soup or I will choose salad. I will not choose soup. Therefore, I will choose salad. Propositional logic In propositional logic, disjunctive syllogism (also known as disjunction elimination and or elimination, or abbreviated ∨E), is a valid rule of inference. If it is known that at least one of two statements is true, and that it is not the former that is true; we can infer that it has to be the latter that is true. Equivalently, if P is true or Q is true and P is false, then Q is true. The name "disjunctive syllogism" derives from its being a syllogism, a three-step argument, and the use of a logical disjunction (any "or" statement.) For example, "P or Q" is a disjunction, where P and Q are called the statement's disjuncts. The rule makes it possible to eliminate a disjunction from a logical proof. It is the rule that \frac{P \lor Q, \neg P}{\therefore Q} where the rule is that whenever instances of "P \lor Q", and "\neg P" appear on lines of a proof, "Q" can be placed on a subsequent line. Disjunctive syllogism is closely related and similar to hypothetical syllogism, which is another rule of inference involving a syllogism. It is also related to the law of noncontradiction, one of the three traditional laws of thought. Formal notation For a logical system that validates it, the disjunctive syllogism may be written in sequent notation as P \lor Q, \lnot P \vdash Q where \vdash is a metalogical symbol meaning that Q is a syntactic consequence of P \lor Q, and \lnot P. It may be expressed as a truth-functional tautology or theorem in the object language of propositional logic as ((P \lor Q) \land \neg P) \to Q where P, and Q are propositions expressed in some formal system. Natural language examples Here is an example: It is red or it is blue. It is not blue. Therefore, it is red. Here is another example: The breach is a safety violation, or it is not subject to fines. The breach is not a safety violation. Therefore, it is not subject to fines. Strong form Modus tollendo ponens can be made stronger by using exclusive disjunction instead of inclusive disjunction as a premise: \frac{P \underline\lor Q, \neg P}{\therefore Q} Related argument forms Unlike modus ponens and modus ponendo tollens, with which it should not be confused, disjunctive syllogism is often not made an explicit rule or axiom of logical systems, as the above arguments can be proven with a combination of reductio ad absurdum and disjunction elimination. Other forms of syllogism include: hypothetical syllogism categorical syllogism Disjunctive syllogism holds in classical propositional logic and intuitionistic logic, but not in some paraconsistent logics. See also Stoic logic Type of syllogism (disjunctive, hypothetical, legal, poly-, prosleptic, quasi-, statistical) References Category:Rules of inference Category:Theorems in propositional logic Category:Classical logic Category:Paraconsistent logic	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disjunctive_syllogism	2025-04-05T18:28:20.556116
7964	Definition	Wiktionary\|other uses of the word "definition" itself}} A definition is a statement of the meaning of a term (a word, phrase, or other set of symbols). Definitions can be classified into two large categories: intensional definitions (which try to give the sense of a term), and extensional definitions (which try to list the objects that a term describes). Another important category of definitions is the class of ostensive definitions, which convey the meaning of a term by pointing out examples. A term may have many different senses and multiple meanings, and thus require multiple definitions. In mathematics, a definition is used to give a precise meaning to a new term, by describing a condition which unambiguously qualifies what the mathematical term is and is not. Definitions and axioms form the basis on which all of modern mathematics is to be constructed. Basic terminology In modern usage, a definition is something, typically expressed in words, that attaches a meaning to a word or group of words. The word or group of words that is to be defined is called the definiendum, and the word, group of words, or action that defines it is called the definiens. For example, in the definition "An elephant is a large gray animal native to Asia and Africa", the word "elephant" is the definiendum, and everything after the word "is" is the definiens. The definiens is not the meaning of the word defined, but is instead something that conveys the same meaning as that word. More formally, a genus–differentia definition consists of: * a genus (or family): An existing definition that serves as a portion of the new definition; all definitions with the same genus are considered members of that genus. * the differentia: The portion of the new definition that is not provided by the genus. An enumerative definition of a concept or a term is an extensional definition that gives an explicit and exhaustive listing of all the objects that fall under the concept or term in question. Enumerative definitions are only possible for finite sets (and only practical for small sets). Divisio and partitio Divisio and partitio are classical terms for definitions. A partitio is simply an intensional definition. A divisio is not an extensional definition, but an exhaustive list of subsets of a set, in the sense that every member of the "divided" set is a member of one of the subsets. An extreme form of divisio lists all sets whose only member is a member of the "divided" set. The difference between this and an extensional definition is that extensional definitions list members, and not subsets. Nominal definitions vs real definitions In classical thought, a definition was taken to be a statement of the essence of a thing. Aristotle had it that an object's essential attributes form its "essential nature", and that a definition of the object must include these essential attributes. The idea that a definition should state the essence of a thing led to the distinction between nominal and real essence—a distinction originating with Aristotle. In the Posterior Analytics, he says that the meaning of a made-up name can be known (he gives the example "goat stag") without knowing what he calls the "essential nature" of the thing that the name would denote (if there were such a thing). This led medieval logicians to distinguish between what they called the quid nominis, or the "whatness of the name", and the underlying nature common to all the things it names, which they called the quid rei, or the "whatness of the thing". The name "hobbit", for example, is perfectly meaningful. It has a quid nominis, but one could not know the real nature of hobbits, and so the quid rei of hobbits cannot be known. By contrast, the name "man" denotes real things (men) that have a certain quid rei. The meaning of a name is distinct from the nature that a thing must have in order that the name apply to it. This leads to a corresponding distinction between nominal and real definitions. A nominal definition is the definition explaining what a word means (i.e., which says what the "nominal essence" is), and is definition in the classical sense as given above. A real definition, by contrast, is one expressing the real nature or quid rei of the thing. This preoccupation with essence dissipated in much of modern philosophy. Analytic philosophy, in particular, is critical of attempts to elucidate the essence of a thing. Russell described essence as "a hopelessly muddle-headed notion". More recently Kripke's formalisation of possible world semantics in modal logic led to a new approach to essentialism. Insofar as the essential properties of a thing are necessary to it, they are those things that it possesses in all possible worlds. Kripke refers to names used in this way as rigid designators. Operational vs. theoretical definitions A definition may also be classified as an operational definition or theoretical definition. Terms with multiple definitions Homonyms A homonym is, in the strict sense, one of a group of words that share the same spelling and pronunciation but have different meanings. Thus homonyms are simultaneously homographs (words that share the same spelling, regardless of their pronunciation) and homophones (words that share the same pronunciation, regardless of their spelling). The state of being a homonym is called homonymy. Examples of homonyms are the pair stalk (part of a plant) and stalk (follow/harass a person) and the pair left (past tense of leave) and left (opposite of right). A distinction is sometimes made between "true" homonyms, which are unrelated in origin, such as skate (glide on ice) and skate (the fish), and polysemous homonyms, or polysemes, which have a shared origin, such as mouth (of a river) and mouth (of an animal). Polysemes Polysemy is the capacity for a sign (such as a word, phrase, or symbol) to have multiple meanings (that is, multiple semes or sememes and thus multiple senses), usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. It is thus usually regarded as distinct from homonymy, in which the multiple meanings of a word may be unconnected or unrelated. In logic, mathematics and computing In mathematics, definitions are generally not used to describe existing terms, but to describe or characterize a concept. For naming the object of a definition mathematicians can use either a neologism (this was mainly the case in the past) or words or phrases of the common language (this is generally the case in modern mathematics). The precise meaning of a term given by a mathematical definition is often different from the English definition of the word used, which can lead to confusion, particularly when the meanings are close. For example, a set is not exactly the same thing in mathematics and in common language. In some case, the word used can be misleading; for example, a real number has nothing more (or less) real than an imaginary number. Frequently, a definition uses a phrase built with common English words, which has no meaning outside mathematics, such as primitive group or irreducible variety. In first-order logic definitions are usually introduced using extension by definition (so using a metalogic). On the other hand, lambda-calculi are a kind of logic where the definitions are included as the feature of the formal system itself. Classification Authors have used different terms to classify definitions used in formal languages like mathematics. Norman Swartz classifies a definition as "stipulative" if it is intended to guide a specific discussion. A stipulative definition might be considered a temporary, working definition, and can only be disproved by showing a logical contradiction. In contrast, a "descriptive" definition can be shown to be "right" or "wrong" with reference to general usage. Swartz defines a precising definition as one that extends the descriptive dictionary definition (lexical definition) for a specific purpose by including additional criteria. A precising definition narrows the set of things that meet the definition. C.L. Stevenson has identified persuasive definition as a form of stipulative definition which purports to state the "true" or "commonly accepted" meaning of a term, while in reality stipulating an altered use (perhaps as an argument for some specific belief). Stevenson has also noted that some definitions are "legal" or "coercive" – their object is to create or alter rights, duties, or crimes. Recursive definitions A recursive definition, sometimes also called an inductive definition, is one that defines a word in terms of itself, so to speak, albeit in a useful way. Normally this consists of three steps: # At least one thing is stated to be a member of the set being defined; this is sometimes called a "base set". # All things bearing a certain relation to other members of the set are also to count as members of the set. It is this step that makes the definition recursive. # All other things are excluded from the set For instance, we could define a natural number as follows (after Peano): # "0" is a natural number. # Each natural number has a unique successor, such that: #* the successor of a natural number is also a natural number; #* distinct natural numbers have distinct successors; #* no natural number is succeeded by "0". # Nothing else is a natural number. So "0" will have exactly one successor, which for convenience can be called "1". In turn, "1" will have exactly one successor, which could be called "2", and so on. The second condition in the definition itself refers to natural numbers, and hence involves self-reference. Although this sort of definition involves a form of circularity, it is not vicious, and the definition has been quite successful. In the same way, we can define ancestor as follows: #A parent is an ancestor. #A parent of an ancestor is an ancestor. #Nothing else is an ancestor. Or simply: an ancestor is a parent or a parent of an ancestor. In medicine In medical dictionaries, guidelines and other consensus statements and classifications, definitions should as far as possible be: simple and easy to understand, preferably even by the general public; useful clinically A definition must set out the essential attributes of the thing defined. Definitions should avoid circularity. To define a horse as "a member of the species equus" would convey no information whatsoever. For this reason, Locke adds that a definition of a term must not consist of terms which are synonymous with it. This would be a circular definition, a circulus in definiendo. Note, however, that it is acceptable to define two relative terms in respect of each other. Clearly, we cannot define "antecedent" without using the term "consequent", nor conversely. The definition must not be too wide or too narrow. It must be applicable to everything to which the defined term applies (i.e. not miss anything out), and to nothing else (i.e. not include any things to which the defined term would not truly apply). The definition must not be obscure. The purpose of a definition is to explain the meaning of a term which may be obscure or difficult, by the use of terms that are commonly understood and whose meaning is clear. The violation of this rule is known by the Latin term obscurum per obscurius. However, sometimes scientific and philosophical terms are difficult to define without obscurity. A definition should not be negative where it can be positive. We should not define "wisdom" as the absence of folly, or a healthy thing as whatever is not sick. Sometimes this is unavoidable, however. For example, it appears difficult to define blindness in positive terms rather than as "the absence of sight in a creature that is normally sighted". Fallacies of definition Limitations of definition Given that a natural language such as English contains, at any given time, a finite number of words, any comprehensive list of definitions must either be circular or rely upon primitive notions. If every term of every definiens must itself be defined, "where at last should we stop?" A dictionary, for instance, insofar as it is a comprehensive list of lexical definitions, must resort to circularity. Many philosophers have chosen instead to leave some terms undefined. The scholastic philosophers claimed that the highest genera (called the ten generalissima) cannot be defined, since a higher genus cannot be assigned under which they may fall. Thus being, unity and similar concepts cannot be defined. that the names of simple concepts do not admit of any definition. More recently Bertrand Russell sought to develop a formal language based on logical atoms. Other philosophers, notably Wittgenstein, rejected the need for any undefined simples. Wittgenstein pointed out in his Philosophical Investigations that what counts as a "simple" in one circumstance might not do so in another. He rejected the very idea that every explanation of the meaning of a term needed itself to be explained: "As though an explanation hung in the air unless supported by another one", claiming instead that explanation of a term is only needed to avoid misunderstanding. Locke and Mill also argued that individuals cannot be defined. Names are learned by connecting an idea with a sound, so that speaker and hearer have the same idea when the same word is used. This is not possible when no one else is acquainted with the particular thing that has "fallen under our notice". Russell offered his theory of descriptions in part as a way of defining a proper name, the definition being given by a definite description that "picks out" exactly one individual. Saul Kripke pointed to difficulties with this approach, especially in relation to modality, in his book Naming and Necessity. There is a presumption in the classic example of a definition that the definiens can be stated. Wittgenstein argued that for some terms this is not the case. The examples he used include game, number and family. In such cases, he argued, there is no fixed boundary that can be used to provide a definition. Rather, the items are grouped together because of a family resemblance. For terms such as these it is not possible and indeed not necessary to state a definition; rather, one simply comes to understand the use of the term. See also Analytic proposition Circular definition Definable set Definitionism Denotation Extensional definition Fallacies of definition Indeterminacy Intensional definition Lexical definition Logic programming Operational definition Ostensive definition Ramsey–Lewis method Semantics Synthetic proposition Theoretical definition Notes References <!-- These templates can be copied for additional references. (Template:Cite book, Template:Cite journal) * * --> * * [https://archive.org/details/anintroductiont00josegoog (full text of 1st ed. (1906))] * [http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/220674509 (worldcat)] [https://archive.org/details/principleslogic00joycgoog (full text of 2nd ed. (1916))] * (full text: [https://books.google.com/books?id2qV-5lIBYfIC vol 1], [https://books.google.com/books?id0OoNAAAAYAAJ vol 2]) * * * * * External links [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/definitions/ Definitions], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Gupta, Anil (2008) [https://www.sfu.ca/philosophy/swartz/definitions.htm Definitions, Dictionaries, and Meanings, Norman Swartz 1997] Guy Longworth (ca. 2008) [https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/philosophy/people/longworth/definitions.pdf "Definitions: Uses and Varieties of"] in: K. Brown (ed.): Elsevier Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, Elsevier. [http://www.philosophypages.com/lg/e05.htm Definition and Meaning], a very short introduction by Garth Kemerling (2001). Category:Philosophical logic Category:Philosophy of language Category:Semantics Category:Linguistics terminology Category:Mathematical terminology Category:Concepts in logic Category:Lexicography Category:Meaning (philosophy of language)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definition	2025-04-05T18:28:20.588729
7965	Disruption	Disruption, disruptive, or disrupted may refer to: Business Creative disruption, disruption concept in a creative context, introduced in 1992 by TBWA's chairman Jean-Marie Dru Disruptive innovation, Clayton Christensen's theory of industry disruption by new technology or products Psychology and sociology Disruptive behavior disorders, a class of mental health disorders Disruptive physician, a physician whose obnoxious behaviour upsets patients or other staff Social disruption, a radical alteration, transformation, dysfunction or breakdown of social life Arts and Entertainment The Disruption, a 1996 EP by Cursive "The Disruption" (Succession), TV episode Other uses Cell disruption is a method or process in cell biology for releasing biological molecules from inside a cell Disrupted: My Misadventure in the Start Up Bubble, a 2016 book by Daniel Lyons Disruption (adoption) is also the term for the cancellation of an adoption of a child before it is legally completed Disruption (of schema), in the field of computer genetic algorithms Disruption of 1843, the divergence of the Free Church of Scotland from the Church of Scotland Disruption, a method of disabling an explosive device by using projected water disruptors See also Disruptor (disambiguation) Disturbance (disambiguation)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disruption	2025-04-05T18:28:20.594871
7966	Disco	early 1970s, Philadelphia and New York City \| instruments \| derivatives \| subgenres = \| fusiongenres = \| regional_scenes = \| local_scenes = \| other_topics = * Discothèques * list of artists * old-school hip hop \| subgenrelist = }} Disco is a genre of dance music and a subculture that emerged in the late 1960s from the United States' urban nightlife scene. Its sound is typified by four-on-the-floor beats, syncopated basslines, string sections, brass and horns, electric piano, synthesizers, and electric rhythm guitars. Discothèques as a venue were mostly a French invention, imported to the United States with the opening of Le Club, a members-only restaurant and nightclub located at 416 East 55th Street in Manhattan, by French expatriate Olivier Coquelin, on New Year's Eve 1960. Disco music as a genre started as a mixture of music from venues popular among African Americans, Latino Americans, and Italian Americans in New York City (especially Brooklyn) and Philadelphia during the late 1960s to the mid-to-late 1970s. Disco can be seen as a reaction by the 1960s counterculture to both the dominance of rock music and the stigmatization of dance music at the time. Several dance styles were developed during the period of '70s disco's popularity in the United States, including "the Bump", "the Hustle", "the Watergate", and "the Busstop". During the 1970s, disco music was developed further, mainly by artists from the United States as well as from Europe. Well-known artists included the Bee Gees, ABBA, Donna Summer, Gloria Gaynor, Giorgio Moroder, Baccara, George Michael, The Jacksons, George Benson, Michael Jackson, Boney M, Earth Wind & Fire, Rick James, ELO, Average White Band, Chaka Khan, Chic, KC and the Sunshine Band, Thelma Houston, Sister Sledge, Sylvester, The Trammps, Barry White, Diana Ross, Kool & the Gang, and Village People. While performers garnered public attention, record producers working behind the scenes played an important role in developing the genre. By the late 1970s, most major U.S. cities had thriving disco club scenes, and DJs would mix dance records at clubs such as Studio 54 in Manhattan, a venue popular among celebrities. Nightclub-goers often wore expensive, extravagant outfits, consisting predominantly of loose, flowing pants or dresses for ease of movement while dancing. There was also a thriving drug subculture in the disco scene, particularly for drugs that would enhance the experience of dancing to the loud music and the flashing lights, such as cocaine and quaaludes, the latter being so common in disco subculture that they were nicknamed "disco biscuits". Disco clubs were also associated with promiscuity as a reflection of the sexual revolution of this era in popular history. Films such as Saturday Night Fever (1977) and ''Thank God It's Friday'' (1978) contributed to disco's mainstream popularity. Disco declined as a major trend in popular music in the United States following the infamous Disco Demolition Night on July 12, 1979, and it continued to sharply decline in popularity in the U.S. during the early 1980s; however, it remained popular in Italy and some European countries throughout the 1980s, and during this time also started becoming trendy in places elsewhere including India and the Middle East, where aspects of disco were blended with regional folk styles such as ghazals and belly dancing. Disco would eventually become a key influence in the development of electronic dance music, house music, hip hop, new wave, dance-punk, and post-disco. The style has had several revivals since the 1990s, and the influence of disco remains strong across American and European pop music. A revival has been underway since the early 2010s, coming to great popularity in the early 2020s. Albums that have contributed to this revival include Confessions on a Dance Floor, Random Access Memories, Future Nostalgia, and Kylie Minogue's album itself titled Disco. Modern day artists like Dua Lipa, Lizzo, Sabrina Carpenter, Bruno Mars and Silk Sonic have continued the genre's popularity, bringing it to a whole new younger generation. Etymology The term "disco" is shorthand for the word discothèque, a French word for "library of phonograph records" derived from "bibliothèque". The word "discotheque" had the same meaning in English in the 1950s. "Discothèque" became used in French for a type of nightclub in Paris, after they had resorted to playing records during the Nazi occupation in the early 1940s. Some clubs used it as their proper name. In 1960, it was also used to describe a Parisian nightclub in an English magazine. The Oxford English Dictionary defines Discotheque as "A dance hall, nightclub, or similar venue where recorded music is played for dancing, typically equipped with a large dance floor, an elaborate system of flashing coloured lights, and a powerful amplified sound system. " Its earliest example is use as the name of a particular venue in 1952, and other examples date from 1960 onwards. The entry is annotated as "Now somewhat dated". It defines Disco as "A genre of strongly rhythmical pop music mainly intended for dancing in nightclubs and particularly popular in the mid to late 1970s.", with use from 1975 onwards, describing the origin of the word as a shortened form of discotheque. In the summer of 1964, a short sleeveless dress called the "discotheque dress" was briefly very popular in the United States. The earliest known use for the abbreviated form "disco" described this dress and has been found in The Salt Lake Tribune on July 12, 1964; Playboy magazine used it in September of the same year to describe Los Angeles nightclubs. Vince Aletti was one of the first to describe disco as a sound or a music genre. He wrote the 13 September 1973 feature article ''Discotheque Rock '72: Paaaaarty! that appeared in Rolling Stone'' magazine.Musical characteristicsof the beat, which is four-to-the-floor \|thumb\|upright1.15]] The music typically layered soaring, often-reverberated vocals, often doubled by horns, over a background "pad" of electric pianos and "chicken-scratch" rhythm guitars played on an electric guitar. Lead guitar features less frequently in disco than in rock. "The "rooster scratch" sound is achieved by lightly pressing the guitar strings against the fretboard and then quickly releasing them just enough to get a slightly muted poker [sound] while constantly strumming very close to the bridge." Other backing keyboard instruments include the piano, electric organ (during early years), string synthesizers, and electromechanical keyboards such as the Fender Rhodes electric piano, Wurlitzer electric piano, and Hohner Clavinet. Donna Summer's 1977 song "I Feel Love", produced by Giorgio Moroder with a prominent Moog synthesizer on the beat, was one of the first disco tracks to use the synthesizer. The rhythm is laid down by prominent, syncopated basslines (with heavy use of broken octaves, that is, octaves with the notes sounded one after the other) played on the bass guitar and by drummers using a drum kit, African/Latin percussion, and electronic drums such as Simmons and Roland drum modules. In Philly dance and Salsoul disco, the sound was enriched with solo lines and harmony parts played by a variety of orchestral instruments, such as violin, viola, cello, trumpet, saxophone, trombone, flugelhorn, French horn, English horn, oboe, flute, timpani and synth strings, string section or a full string orchestra. Most disco songs have a steady four-on-the-floor beat set by a bass drum, a quaver or semi-quaver hi-hat pattern with an open hissing hi-hat on the off-beat, and a heavy, syncopated bass line. A recording error in the 1975 song "Bad Luck" by Harold Melvin & the Blue Notes where Earl Young's hi-hat was too loud in the recording is said to have established loud hi-hats in disco. Other Latin rhythms such as the rhumba, the samba, and the cha-cha-cha are also found in disco recordings, and Latin polyrhythms, such as a rhumba beat layered over a merengue, are commonplace. The quaver pattern is often supported by other instruments such as the rhythm guitar and may be implied rather than explicitly present. Songs often use syncopation, which is the accenting of unexpected beats. In general, the difference between disco, or any dance song, and a rock or pop song is that in dance music the bass drum hits four to the floor, at least once a beat (which in 4/4 time is 4 beats per measure). Disco is further characterized by a 16th note division of the quarter notes (as shown in the second drum pattern in the picture above, after a typical rock drum pattern). The orchestral sound usually known as "disco sound" relies heavily on string sections and horns playing linear phrases, in unison with the soaring, often reverberated vocals or playing instrumental fills, while electric pianos and chicken-scratch guitars create the background "pad" sound defining the harmony progression. Typically, all of the doubling of parts and use of additional instruments creates a rich "wall of sound". There are, however, more minimalist flavors of disco with reduced, transparent instrumentation. Harmonically, disco music typically contains major and minor seven chords, which are found more often in jazz than pop music. Production The "disco sound" was much more costly to produce than many of the other popular music genres from the 1970s. Unlike the simpler, four-piece-band sound of funk, soul music of the late 1960s or the small jazz organ trios, disco music often included a large band, with several chordal instruments (guitar, keyboards, synthesizer), several drum or percussion instruments (drumkit, Latin percussion, electronic drums), a horn section, a string orchestra, and a variety of "classical" solo instruments (for example, flute, piccolo, and so on). Disco songs were arranged and composed by experienced arrangers and orchestrators, and record producers added their creative touches to the overall sound using multitrack recording techniques and effects units. Recording complex arrangements with such a large number of instruments and sections required a team that included a conductor, copyists, record producers, and mixing engineers. Mixing engineers had an important role in the disco production process because disco songs used as many as 64 tracks of vocals and instruments. Mixing engineers and record producers, under the direction of arrangers, compiled these tracks into a fluid composition of verses, bridges, and refrains, complete with builds and breaks. Mixing engineers and record producers helped to develop the "disco sound" by creating a distinctive-sounding, sophisticated disco mix. Early records were the "standard" three-minute version until Tom Moulton came up with a way to make songs longer so that he could take a crowd of dancers at a club to another level and keep them dancing longer. He found that it was impossible to make the 45-RPM vinyl singles of the time longer, as they could usually hold no more than five minutes of good-quality music. With the help of José Rodriguez, his remaster/mastering engineer, he pressed a single on a 10" disc instead of 7". They cut the next single on a 12" disc, the same format as a standard album. Moulton and Rodriguez discovered that these larger records could have much longer songs and remixes. 12" single records, also known as "Maxi singles", quickly became the standard format for all DJs of the disco genre.Club cultureNightclubs .]] By the late 1970s, most major US cities had thriving disco club scenes. The largest scenes were most notably in New York City but also in Philadelphia, San Francisco, Miami, and Washington, D.C. The scene was centered on discotheques, nightclubs and private loft parties. In the 1970s, notable discos included "Crisco Disco", "The Sanctuary", "Leviticus", "Studio 54", and "Paradise Garage" in New York, "Artemis" in Philadelphia, "Studio One" in Los Angeles, "Dugan's Bistro" in Chicago, and "The Library" in Atlanta. Although many other attempts were made to franchise disco clubs, 2001 was the only one to successfully do so in this time frame.Sound and light equipment was a fixture on the ceilings of many discothèques.]] Powerful, bass-heavy, hi-fi sound systems were viewed as a key part of the disco club experience. The Loft party host David Mancuso introduced the technologies of tweeter arrays (clusters of small loudspeakers, which emit high-end frequencies, positioned above the floor) and bass reinforcements (additional sets of subwoofers positioned at ground level) at the start of the 1970s to boost the treble and bass at opportune moments, and by the end of the decade sound engineers such as Richard Long had multiplied the effects of these innovations in venues such as the Garage." Typical lighting designs for disco dance floors include multi-colored lights that swirl around or flash to the beat, strobe lights, an illuminated dance floor, and a mirror ball. DJs Disco-era disc jockeys (DJs) would often remix existing songs using reel-to-reel tape machines, and add in percussion breaks, new sections, and new sounds. DJs would select songs and grooves according to what the dancers wanted, transitioning from one song to another with a DJ mixer and using a microphone to introduce songs and speak to the audiences. Other equipment was added to the basic DJ setup, providing unique sound manipulations, such as reverb, equalization, and echo effects unit. Using this equipment, a DJ could do effects such as cutting out all but the bassline of a song and then slowly mixing in the beginning of another song using the DJ mixer's crossfader. Notable U.S. disco DJs include Francis Grasso of The Sanctuary, David Mancuso of The Loft, Frankie Knuckles of the Chicago Warehouse, Larry Levan of the Paradise Garage, Nicky Siano of The Gallery, Walter Gibbons, Karen Mixon Cook, Jim Burgess, John "Jellybean" Benitez, Richie Kulala of Studio 54, and Rick Salsalini. Some DJs were also record producers who created and produced disco songs in the recording studio. Larry Levan, for example, was a prolific record producer as well as a DJ. Because record sales were often dependent on dance floor play by DJs in the nightclubs, DJs were also influential in the development and popularization of certain types of disco music being produced for record labels. Dance In the early years, dancers in discos danced in a "hang loose" or "freestyle" approach. At first, many dancers improvised their own dance styles and dance steps. Later in the disco era, popular dance styles were developed, including the "Bump", "Penguin", "Boogaloo", "Watergate", and "Robot". By October 1975 the Hustle reigned. It was highly stylized, sophisticated, and overtly sexual. Variations included the Brooklyn Hustle, New York Hustle, and Latin Hustle. During the disco era, many nightclubs would commonly host disco dance competitions or offer free dance lessons. Some cities had disco dance instructors or dance schools, which taught people how to do popular disco dances such as "touch dancing", "the hustle", and "the cha cha". The pioneer of disco dance instruction was Karen Lustgarten in San Francisco in 1973. Her book The Complete Guide to Disco Dancing (Warner Books 1978) was the first to name, break down and codify popular disco dances as dance forms and distinguish between disco freestyle, partner, and line dances. The book topped the New York Times bestseller list for 13 weeks and was translated into Chinese, German, and French. In Chicago, the Step By Step disco dance TV show was launched with the sponsorship support of the Coca-Cola company. Produced in the same studio that Don Cornelius used for the nationally syndicated dance/music television show, Soul Train, Step by Step's audience grew and the show became a success. The dynamic dance duo of Robin and Reggie led the show. The pair spent the week teaching disco dancing to dancers in the disco clubs. The instructional show aired on Saturday mornings and had a strong following. Its viewers would stay up all night on Fridays so they could be on the set the next morning, ready to return to the disco on Saturday night knowing with the latest personalized steps. The producers of the show, John Reid and Greg Roselli, routinely made appearances at disco functions with Robin and Reggie to scout out new dancing talent and promote upcoming events such as "Disco Night at White Sox Park". In Sacramento, California, Disco King Paul Dale Roberts danced for the Guinness Book of World Records. He danced for 205 hours, the equivalent of 8½ days. Other dance marathons took place afterward and Roberts held the world record for disco dancing for a short period of time. Some notable professional dance troupes of the 1970s included Pan's People and Hot Gossip. For many dancers, a key source of inspiration for 1970s disco dancing was the film Saturday Night Fever (1977). Further influence came from the music and dance style of such films as Fame (1980), Disco Dancer (1982), Flashdance (1983), and The Last Days of Disco (1998). Interest in disco dancing also helped spawn dance competition TV shows such as Dance Fever (1979). Fashion discothèque in 1977. Due to the constant scarcity of consumer goods in the then socialist part of Germany, particularly more exotic fashion items like disco wear, people often sewed them themselves.]] Disco fashions were very trendy in the late 1970s. Discothèque-goers often wore glamorous, expensive, and extravagant fashions for nights out at their local disco club. Some women would wear sheer, flowing dresses, such as Halston dresses, or loose, flared pants. Other women wore tight, revealing, sexy clothes, such as backless halter tops, disco pants, "hot pants", or body-hugging spandex bodywear or "catsuits". Men would wear shiny polyester Qiana shirts with colorful patterns and pointy, extra wide collars, preferably open at the chest. Men often wore Pierre Cardin suits, three piece suits with a vest, and double-knit polyester shirt jackets with matching trousers known as the leisure suit. Men's leisure suits were typically form-fitted to some parts of the body, such as the waist and bottom while the lower part of the pants were flared in a bell bottom style, to permit freedom of movement. (nicknamed "blow"), amyl nitrite ("poppers"), and the "... other quintessential 1970s club drug Quaalude, which suspended motor coordination and gave the sensation that one's arms and legs had turned to 'Jell-O. Quaaludes were so popular at disco clubs that the drug was nicknamed "disco biscuits". Paul Gootenberg states that "[t]he relationship of cocaine to 1970s disco culture cannot be stressed enough..." LSD, marijuana, and "speed" (amphetamines) were also popular in disco clubs, and the use of these drugs "...contributed to the hedonistic quality of the dance floor experience." Since disco dances were typically held in liquor licensed-nightclubs and dance clubs, alcoholic drinks were also consumed by dancers; some users intentionally combined alcohol with the consumption of other drugs, such as Quaaludes, for a stronger effect.Eroticism and sexual liberationAccording to Peter Braunstein, the "massive quantities of drugs ingested in discothèques produced the next cultural phenomenon of the disco era: rampant promiscuity and public sex. While the dance floor was the central arena of seduction, actual sex usually took place in the nether regions of the disco: bathroom stalls, exit stairwells, and so on. In other cases the disco became a kind of 'main course' in a hedonist's menu for a night out." At The Saint, "dancers would elope to an unpoliced upstairs balcony to engage in sex." In his paper, "In Defense of Disco" (1979), Richard Dyer claims eroticism as one of the three main characteristics of disco. As opposed to rock music which has a very phallic centered eroticism focusing on the sexual pleasure of men over other persons, Dyer describes disco as featuring a non-phallic full body eroticism. The music, Shapiro states, is adjunct to "the pleasure-is-politics ethos of post-Stonewall culture." He explains how "mechano-eroticism", which links the technology used to create the unique mechanical sound of disco to eroticism, set the genre in a new dimension of reality living outside of naturalism and heterosexuality. Randy Jones and Mark Jacobsen echo this sentiment in BBC Radio's "The Politics of Dancing: How Disco Changed the World," describing the loose, hip-focused dance style as "a new kind of communion" that celebrates the sparks of liberation brought on the Stonewall riots. As New York state had laws against homosexual behavior in public, including dancing with a member of the same sex, the eroticism of disco served as resistance and an expression of sexual freedom. He uses Donna Summer's singles "Love to Love You Baby" (1975) and "I Feel Love" (1977) as examples of the ever-present relationship between the synthesized bass lines and backgrounds to the simulated sounds of orgasms. Summer's voice echoes in the tracks, and likens them to the drug-fervent, sexually liberated fans of disco who sought to free themselves through disco's "aesthetic of machine sex." Shapiro sees this as an influence that creates sub-genres like hi-NRG and dub-disco, which allowed for eroticism and technology to be further explored through intense synth bass lines and alternative rhythmic techniques that tap into the entire body rather than the obvious erotic parts of the body. The New York nightclub The Sanctuary under resident DJ Francis Grasso is a prime example of this sexual liberty. In their history of the disc jockey and club culture, Bill Brewster and Frank Broughton describe the Sanctuary as "poured full of newly liberated gay men, then shaken (and stirred) by a weighty concoction of dance music and pharmacoia of pills and potions, the result is a festivaly of carnality." The Sanctuary was the "first totally uninhibited gay discotheque in America" and while sex was not allowed on the dancefloor, the dark corners, bathrooms. and hallways of the adjacent buildings were all utilized for orgy-like sexual engagements. By describing the music, drugs, and liberated mentality as a trifecta coming together to create the festival of carnality, Brewster and Broughton are inciting all three as stimuli for the dancing, sex, and other embodied movements that contributed to the corporeal vibrations within the Sanctuary. It supports the argument that disco music took a role in facilitating this sexual liberation that was experienced in the discotheques. The recent legalization of abortion and the introduction of antibiotics and the pill facilitated a culture shift around sex from one of procreation to pleasure and enjoyment. Thus was fostered a very sex-positive framework around discotheques. Further, in addition to gay sex being illegal in New York state, until 1973 the American Psychiatric Association classified homosexuality as an illness. This law and classification coupled together can be understood to have heavily dissuaded the expression of queerness in public, as such the liberatory dynamics of discotheques can be seen as having provided space for self-realization for queer persons. David Mancuso's club/house party, The Loft, was described as having a "pansexual attitude [that] was revolutionary in a country where up until recently it had been illegal for two men to dance together unless there was a woman present; where women were legally obliged to wear at least one recognizable item of female clothing in public; and where men visiting gay bars usually carried bail money with them." History 1940s–1960s: First discotheques Disco was mostly developed from music that was popular on the dance floor in clubs that started playing records instead of having a live band. The first discotheques mostly played swing music. Later on, uptempo rhythm and blues became popular in American clubs and northern soul and glam rock records in the UK. In the early 1940s, nightclubs in Paris resorted to playing jazz records during the Nazi occupation. Régine Zylberberg claimed to have started the first discotheque and to have been the first club DJ in 1953 in the "Whisky à Go-Go" in Paris. She installed a dance floor with colored lights and two turntables so she could play records without having a gap in the music. In October 1959, the owner of the Scotch Club in Aachen, West Germany chose to install a record player for the opening night instead of hiring a live band. The patrons were unimpressed until a young reporter, who happened to be covering the opening of the club, impulsively took control of the record player and introduced the records that he chose to play. Klaus Quirini later claimed to thus have been the world's first nightclub DJ. Motown had many hits with disco elements by acts like Eddie Kendricks ("Girl You Need a Change of Mind" in 1972, "Keep on Truckin'" in 1973, "Boogie Down" in 1974). At the end of the 1960s, musicians, and audiences from the Black, Italian, and Latino communities adopted several traits from the hippie and psychedelia subcultures. They included using music venues with a loud, overwhelming sound, free-form dancing, trippy lighting, colorful costumes, and the use of hallucinogenic drugs. In addition, the perceived positivity, lack of irony, and earnestness of the hippies informed proto-disco music like MFSB's album Love Is the Message. Partly through the success of Jimi Hendrix, psychedelic elements that were popular in rock music of the late 1960s found their way into soul and early funk music and formed the subgenre psychedelic soul. Examples can be found in the music of the Chambers Brothers, George Clinton with his Parliament-Funkadelic collective, Sly and the Family Stone, and the productions of Norman Whitfield with The Temptations. The long instrumental introductions and detailed orchestration found in psychedelic soul tracks by the Temptations are also considered as cinematic soul. In the early 1970s, Curtis Mayfield and Isaac Hayes scored hits with cinematic soul songs that were actually composed for movie soundtracks: "Superfly" (1972) and "Theme from Shaft" (1971). The latter is sometimes regarded as an early disco song. From the mid-1960s to early 1970s, Philadelphia soul developed as a sub-genre that also had lavish percussion, lush string orchestra arrangements, and expensive record production processes. In the early 1970s, the Philadelphia soul productions by Gamble and Huff evolved from the simpler arrangements of the late-1960s into a style featuring lush strings, thumping basslines, and sliding hi-hat rhythms. These elements would become typical for disco music and are found in several of the hits they produced in the early 1970s: "Love Train" by the O'Jays (with MFSB as the backup band) was released in 1972 and topped the Billboard Hot 100 in March 1973 "The Love I Lost" by Harold Melvin & the Blue Notes (1973) "Now That We Found Love" by The O'Jays (1973), later a hit for Third World in 1978 "TSOP (The Sound of Philadelphia)" by MFSB with vocals by The Three Degrees, a wordless song written as the theme for Soul Train and a #1 hit on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1974 Other early disco tracks that helped shape disco and became popular on the dance floors of (underground) discotheque clubs and parties include: * "Jungle Fever" by The Chakachas was first released in Belgium in 1971 and later released in the U.S. in 1972, where it reached #8 on the Billboard Hot 100 that same year * "Soul Makossa" by Manu Dibango was first released in France in 1972; it was picked up by the underground disco scene in New York and subsequently got a proper release in the U.S., reaching #35 on the Hot 100 in 1973 * "The Night" by the Four Seasons was released in 1972, but was not immediately popular; it appealed to the Northern soul scene and became a hit in the UK in 1975 * "Love's Theme" by the Love Unlimited Orchestra, conducted by Barry White, an instrumental song originally featured on Under the Influence of... Love Unlimited in July 1973 from which it was culled as a single in November of that year; subsequently, the conductor included it on his own debut album * "Sound Your Funky Horn" by KC and the Sunshine Band in 1974 * "Rock Your Baby" by George McCrae in 1974 * "Do It" by B.T. Express in 1974 * "Boogie Down" by Eddie Kendricks in 1974 * "If You Talk In Your Sleep" by Elvis Presley in 1974. Early disco was dominated by record producers and labels such as Salsoul Records (Ken, Stanley, and Joseph Cayre), West End Records (Mel Cheren), Casablanca (Neil Bogart), and Prelude (Marvin Schlachter). The genre was also shaped by Tom Moulton, who wanted to extend the enjoyment of dance songs — thus creating the extended mix or "remix", going from a three-minute 45 rpm single to the much longer 12" record. Other influential DJs and remixers who helped to establish what became known as the "disco sound" included David Mancuso, Nicky Siano, Shep Pettibone, Larry Levan, Walter Gibbons, and Chicago-based Frankie Knuckles. Frankie Knuckles was not only an important disco DJ; he also helped to develop house music in the 1980s. Disco hit the television airwaves as part of the music/dance variety show Soul Train in 1971 hosted by Don Cornelius, then Marty Angelo's Disco Step-by-Step Television Show in 1975, Steve Marcus's Disco Magic/Disco 77, Eddie Rivera's Soap Factory, and Merv Griffin's Dance Fever, hosted by Deney Terrio, who is credited with teaching actor John Travolta to dance for his role in the film Saturday Night Fever (1977), as well as DANCE, based out of Columbia, South Carolina. In 1974, New York City's WPIX-FM premiered the first disco radio show. Early disco culture in the United States In the 1970s, the key counterculture of the 1960s, the hippie movement, was fading away. The economic prosperity of the previous decade had declined, and unemployment, inflation, and crime rates had soared. Political issues like the backlash from the Civil Rights Movement culminating in the form of race riots, the Vietnam War, the assassinations of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and John F. Kennedy, and the Watergate scandal, left many feeling disillusioned and hopeless. The start of the '70s was marked by a shift in the consciousness of the American people: the rise of the feminist movement, identity politics, gangs, etc. very much shaped this era. Disco music and disco dancing provided an escape from negative social and economic issues. The non-partnered dance style of disco music allowed people of all races and sexual orientations to enjoy the dancefloor atmosphere. In Beautiful Things in Popular Culture, Simon Frith highlights the sociability of disco and its roots in 1960s counterculture. "The driving force of the New York underground dance scene in which disco was forged was not simply that city's complex ethnic and sexual culture but also a 1960s notion of community, pleasure and generosity that can only be described as hippie", he says. "The best disco music contained within it a remarkably powerful sense of collective euphoria." The explosion of disco is often claimed to be found in the private dance parties held by New York City DJ David Mancuso's home that became known as The Loft, an invitation-only non-commercial underground club that inspired many others. He organized the first major party in his Manhattan home on Valentine's Day 1970 with the name "Love Saves The Day". After some months the parties became weekly events and Mancuso continued to give regular parties into the 1990s. Mancuso required that the music played had to be soulful, rhythmic, and impart words of hope, redemption, or pride. When Mancuso threw his first informal house parties, the gay community (which made up much of The Loft's attendee roster) was often harassed in the gay bars and dance clubs, with many gay men carrying bail money with them to gay bars. But at The Loft and many other early, private discotheques, they could dance together without fear of police action thanks to Mancuso's underground, yet legal, policies. Vince Aletti described it "like going to party, completely mixed, racially and sexually, where there wasn't any sense of someone being more important than anyone else," and Alex Rosner reiterated this saying "It was probably about sixty percent black and seventy percent gay...There was a mix of sexual orientation, there was a mix of races, mix of economic groups. A real mix, where the common denominator was music." Film critic Roger Ebert called the popular embrace of disco's exuberant dance moves an escape from "the general depression and drabness of the political and musical atmosphere of the late seventies." Pauline Kael, writing about the disco-themed film Saturday Night Fever, said the film and disco itself touched on "something deeply romantic, the need to move, to dance, and the need to be who you'd like to be. Nirvana is the dance; when the music stops, you return to being ordinary."Early disco culture in the United Kingdom In the late 1960s, uptempo soul with heavy beats and some associated dance styles and fashion were picked up in the British mod scene and formed the northern soul movement. Originating at venues such as the Twisted Wheel in Manchester, it quickly spread to other UK dancehalls and nightclubs like the Chateau Impney (Droitwich), Catacombs (Wolverhampton), the Highland Rooms at Blackpool Mecca, Golden Torch (Stoke-on-Trent), and Wigan Casino. As the favoured beat became more uptempo and frantic in the early 1970s, northern soul dancing became more athletic, somewhat resembling the later dance styles of disco and break dancing. Featuring spins, flips, karate kicks, and backdrops, club dancing styles were often inspired by the stage performances of touring American soul acts such as Little Anthony & the Imperials and Jackie Wilson. In 1974, there were an estimated 25,000 mobile discos and 40,000 professional disc jockeys in the United Kingdom. Mobile discos were hired deejays that brought their own equipment to provide music for special events. Glam rock tracks were popular, with, for example, Gary Glitter's 1972 single "Rock and Roll Part 2" becoming popular on UK dance floors while it did not get much radio airplay. 1974–1977: Rise to mainstream From 1974 to 1977, disco music increased in popularity as many disco songs topped the charts. The Hues Corporation's "Rock the Boat" (1974), a US number-one single and million-seller, was one of the early disco songs to reach number one. The same year saw the release of "Kung Fu Fighting", performed by Carl Douglas and produced by Biddu, which reached number one in both the UK and US, and became the best-selling single of the year and one of the best-selling singles of all time with 11 million records sold worldwide, helping to popularize disco to a great extent. it became the United Kingdom's first number one disco single. like her further disco hit, a 1983 remake of "I Am What I Am". In 1979 she released "Let Me Know (I Have a Right)", a single which gained popularity in the civil rights movements. Also in 1975, Vincent Montana Jr.'s Salsoul Orchestra contributed with their Latin-flavored orchestral dance song "Salsoul Hustle", reaching number four on the Billboard Dance Chart; their 1976 hits were "Tangerine" and "Nice 'n' Naasty", the first being a cover of a 1941 song. 's "Fly, Robin, Fly", October 18, 1975]] Songs such as Van McCoy's 1975 "The Hustle" and the humorous Joe Tex 1977 "Ain't Gonna Bump No More (With No Big Fat Woman)" gave names to the popular disco dances "the Bump" and "the Hustle". Other notable early successful disco songs include Barry White's "You're the First, the Last, My Everything" (1974); Labelle's "Lady Marmalade" (1974)'; Disco-Tex and the Sex-O-Lettes' "Get Dancin'" (1974); Earth, Wind & Fire's "Shining Star" (1975); Silver Convention's "Fly, Robin, Fly" (1975) and "Get Up and Boogie" (1976); Vicki Sue Robinson's "Turn the Beat Around" (1976); and "More, More, More" (1976) by Andrea True (a former pornographic actress during the Golden Age of Porn, an era largely contemporaneous with the height of disco). Formed by Harry Wayne Casey (a.k.a. "KC") and Richard Finch, Miami's KC and the Sunshine Band had a string of disco-definitive top-five singles between 1975 and 1977, including "Get Down Tonight", "That's the Way (I Like It)", "(Shake, Shake, Shake) Shake Your Booty", "I'm Your Boogie Man", "Boogie Shoes", and "Keep It Comin' Love". In this period, rock bands like the English Electric Light Orchestra featured in their songs a violin sound that became a staple of disco music, as in the 1975 hit "Evil Woman", although the genre was correctly described as orchestral rock. Other disco producers such as Tom Moulton took ideas and techniques from dub music (which came with the increased Jamaican migration to New York City in the 1970s) to provide alternatives to the "four on the floor" style that dominated. DJ Larry Levan utilized styles from dub and jazz and remixing techniques to create early versions of house music that sparked the genre. Motown turning disco Norman Whitfield was an influential producer and songwriter at Motown records, renowned for creating innovative "psychedelic soul" songs with many hits for Marvin Gaye, The Velvelettes, The Temptations, and Gladys Knight & the Pips. From around the production of the Temptations album Cloud Nine in 1968, he incorporated some psychedelic influences and started to produce longer, dance-friendly tracks, with more room for elaborate rhythmic instrumental parts. An example of such a long psychedelic soul track is "Papa Was a Rollin' Stone", which appeared as a single edit of almost seven minutes and an approximately 12-minute-long 12" version in 1972. By the early 1970s, many of Whitfield's productions evolved more and more towards funk and disco, as heard on albums by the Undisputed Truth and the 1973 album G.I.T.: Get It Together by The Jackson 5. The Undisputed Truth, a Motown recording act assembled by Whitfield to experiment with his psychedelic soul production techniques, found success with their 1971 song "Smiling Faces Sometimes". Their disco single "You + Me = Love" (number 43) was produced by Whitfield and made number 2 on the US dance chart in 1976. In 1975, Whitfield left Motown and founded his own label Whitfield records, on which also "You + Me = Love" was released. Whitfield produced some more disco hits, including "Car Wash" (1976) by Rose Royce from the album soundtrack to the 1976 film Car Wash. In 1977, singer, songwriter, and producer Willie Hutch, who had been signed to Motown since 1970, now signed with Whitfield's new label, and scored a successful disco single with his song "In and Out" in 1982. in 1976]] Other Motown artists turned to disco as well. Diana Ross embraced the disco sound with her successful 1976 outing "Love Hangover" from her self-titled album. Her 1980 dance classics "Upside Down" and "I'm Coming Out" were written and produced by Nile Rodgers and Bernard Edwards of the group Chic. The Supremes, the group that made Ross famous, scored a handful of hits in the disco clubs without her, most notably 1976's "I'm Gonna Let My Heart Do the Walking" and, their last charted single before disbanding, 1977's "You're My Driving Wheel". At the request of Motown that he produce songs in the disco genre, Marvin Gaye released "Got to Give It Up" in 1978, despite his dislike of disco. He vowed not to record any songs in the genre and actually wrote the song as a parody. However, several of Gaye's songs have disco elements, including "I Want You" (1975). Stevie Wonder released the disco single "Sir Duke" in 1977 as a tribute to Duke Ellington, the influential jazz legend who had died in 1974. Smokey Robinson left the Motown group The Miracles for a solo career in 1972 and released his third solo album A Quiet Storm in 1975, which spawned and lent its name to the "Quiet Storm" musical programming format and subgenre of R&B. It contained the disco single "Baby That's Backatcha". Other Motown artists who scored disco hits were Robinson's former group, the Miracles, with "Love Machine" (1975), Eddie Kendricks with "Keep On Truckin'" (1973), the Originals with "Down to Love Town" (1976), and Thelma Houston with her cover of the Harold Melvin and the Blue Notes song "Don't Leave Me This Way" (1976). The label continued to release successful songs into the 1980s with Rick James's "Super Freak" (1981), and the Commodores' "Lady (You Bring Me Up)" (1981). Several of Motown's solo artists who left the label went on to have successful disco songs. Mary Wells, Motown's first female superstar with her signature song "My Guy" (written by Smokey Robinson), abruptly left the label in 1964. She briefly reappeared on the charts with the disco song "Gigolo" in 1980. Jimmy Ruffin, the elder brother of the Temptations lead singer David Ruffin, was also signed to Motown and released his most successful and well-known song "What Becomes of the Brokenhearted" as a single in 1966. Ruffin eventually left the record label in the mid-1970s, but saw success with the 1980 disco song "Hold On (To My Love)", which was written and produced by Robin Gibb of the Bee Gees, for his album Sunrise. Edwin Starr, known for his Motown protest song "War" (1970), reentered the charts in 1979 with a pair of disco songs, "Contact" and "H.A.P.P.Y. Radio". Kiki Dee became the first white British singer to sign with Motown in the US, and released one album, Great Expectations (1970), and two singles "The Day Will Come Between Sunday and Monday" (1970) and "Love Makes the World Go Round" (1971), the latter giving her first-ever chart entry (number 87 on the US Chart). She soon left the company and signed with Elton John's The Rocket Record Company, and in 1976 had her biggest and best-known single, "Don't Go Breaking My Heart", a disco duet with John. The song was intended as an affectionate disco-style pastiche of the Motown sound, in particular the various duets recorded by Marvin Gaye with Tammi Terrell and Kim Weston. Many Motown groups who had left the record label charted with disco songs. The Jackson 5, one of Motown's premier acts in the early 1970s, left the record company in 1975 (Jermaine Jackson, however, remained with the label) after successful songs like "I Want You Back" (1969) and "ABC" (1970), and even the disco song "Dancing Machine" (1974). Renamed as 'the Jacksons' (as Motown owned the name 'the Jackson 5'), they went on to find success with disco songs like "Blame It on the Boogie" (1978), "Shake Your Body (Down to the Ground)" (1979), and "Can You Feel It?" (1981) on the Epic label. The Isley Brothers, whose short tenure at the company had produced the song "This Old Heart of Mine (Is Weak for You)" in 1966, went on release successful disco songs like "It's a Disco Night (Rock Don't Stop)" (1979). Gladys Knight & the Pips, who recorded the most successful version of "I Heard It Through the Grapevine" (1967) before Marvin Gaye, scored commercially successful singles such as "Baby, Don't Change Your Mind" (1977) and "Bourgie, Bourgie" (1980) in the disco era. The Detroit Spinners were also signed to the Motown label and saw success with the Stevie Wonder-produced song "It's a Shame" in 1970. They left soon after, on the advice of fellow Detroit native Aretha Franklin, to Atlantic Records, and there had disco songs like "The Rubberband Man" (1976). In 1979, they released a successful cover of Elton John's "Are You Ready for Love", as well as a medley of the Four Seasons' song "Working My Way Back to You" and Michael Zager's "Forgive Me, Girl". The Four Seasons themselves were briefly signed to Motown's MoWest label, a short-lived subsidiary for R&B and soul artists based on the West Coast, and there the group produced one album, Chameleon (1972) – to little commercial success in the US. However, one single, "The Night", was released in Britain in 1975, and thanks to popularity from the Northern Soul circuit, reached number seven on the UK Singles Chart. The Four Seasons left Motown in 1974 and went on to have a disco hit with their song "December, 1963 (Oh, What a Night)" (1975) for Warner Curb Records. Euro disco in 1974.]] By far the most successful Euro disco act was ABBA (1972–1982). This Swedish quartet, which sang primarily in English, found success with singles such as "Waterloo" (1974), "Take a Chance on Me" (1978), "Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)" (1979), "Super Trouper" (1980), and their signature smash hit "Dancing Queen" (1976). is known as the "Father of Disco".]] in 1977\|alt=]] In the 1970s, Munich, West Germany, music producers Giorgio Moroder and Pete Bellotte made a decisive contribution to disco music with a string of hits for Donna Summer, which became known as the "Munich Sound". In 1975, Summer suggested the lyric "Love to Love You Baby" to Moroder and Bellotte, who turned the lyric into a full disco song. The final product, which contained the vocalizations of a series of simulated orgasms, initially was not intended for release, but when Moroder played it in the clubs it caused a sensation and he released it. The song became an international hit, reaching the charts in many European countries and the US (No. 2). It has been described as the arrival of the expression of raw female sexual desire in pop music. A nearly 17-minute 12-inch single was released. The 12" single became and remains a standard in discos today. Donna Summer's "Love to Love You Baby" peaking on the Billboard charts at No.2 in 1976, is considered a feminist anthem and staple in the genre. Billboard recently ranked the song #1 on their list of "The 34 Top Disco Songs of All Time." Summer is featured at all top six spots on the list. In 1976 Donna Summer's version of "Could It Be Magic" brought disco further into the mainstream. In 1977 Summer, Moroder and Bellotte further released "I Feel Love", as the B-side of "Can't We Just Sit Down (And Talk It Over)", which revolutionized dance music with its mostly electronic production and was a massive worldwide success, spawning the Hi-NRG subgenre. Another successful disco music project by Moroder at that time was Munich Machine (1976–1980). Boney M. (1974–1986) was a West German Euro disco group of four West Indian singers and dancers masterminded by record producer Frank Farian. Boney M. charted worldwide with such songs as "Daddy Cool" (1976) "Ma Baker" (1977) and "Rivers Of Babylon" (1978). Another successful West German Euro disco recording act was Silver Convention (1974–1979). The German group Kraftwerk also had an influence on Euro disco. in 1967.]] In France, Dalida released "J'attendrai" ("I Will Wait") in 1975, which also became successful in Canada, Europe, and Japan. Dalida successfully adjusted herself to disco and released at least a dozen of songs that charted in the top 10 in Europe. Claude François, who re-invented himself as the "king of French disco", released "La plus belle chose du monde", a French version of the Bee Gees song "Massachusetts", which became successful in Canada and Europe and "Alexandrie Alexandra" was posthumously released on the day of his burial and became a worldwide success. Cerrone's early songs, "Love in C Minor" (1976), "Supernature" (1977), and "Give Me Love" (1978) were successful in the US and Europe. Another Euro disco act was the French diva Amanda Lear, where Euro disco sound is most heard in "Enigma (Give a Bit of Mmh to Me)" (1978). French producer Alec Costandinos assembled the Euro disco group Love and Kisses (1977–1982). In Italy Raffaella Carrà was the most successful Euro disco act, alongside La Bionda, Hermanas Goggi and Oliver Onions. Her greatest international single was "Tanti Auguri" ("Best Wishes"), which has become a popular song with gay audiences. The song is also known under its Spanish title "Para hacer bien el amor hay que venir al sur" (which refers to Southern Europe, since the song was recorded and taped in Spain). The Estonian version of the song "Jätke võtmed väljapoole" was performed by Anne Veski. "A far l'amore comincia tu" ("To make love, your move first") was another success for her internationally, known in Spanish as "En el amor todo es empezar", in German as "Liebelei", in French as "Puisque tu l'aimes dis le lui", and in English as "Do It, Do It Again". It was her only entry to the UK Singles Chart, reaching number 9, where she remains a one-hit wonder. In 1977, she recorded another successful single, "Fiesta" ("The Party" in English) originally in Spanish, but then recorded it in French and Italian after the song hit the charts. "A far l'amore comincia tu" has also been covered in Turkish by a Turkish popstar Ajda Pekkan as "Sakın Ha" in 1977. Recently, Carrà has gained new attention for her appearance as the female dancing soloist in a 1974 TV performance of the experimental gibberish song "Prisencolinensinainciusol" (1973) by Adriano Celentano. A remixed video featuring her dancing went viral on the internet in 2008. In 2008 a video of a performance of her only successful UK single, "Do It, Do It Again", was featured in the Doctor Who episode "Midnight". Rafaella Carrà worked with Bob Sinclar on the new single "Far l'Amore" which was released on YouTube on March 17, 2011. The song charted in different European countries. Also prominent European disco acts are Spargo (band), Time Bandits (band) and Luv' from the Netherlands. Euro disco continued evolving within the broad mainstream pop music scene, even when disco's popularity sharply declined in the United States, abandoned by major U.S. record labels and producers. Through the influence of Italo disco, it also played a role in the evolution of early house music in the early 1980s and later forms of electronic dance music, including early '90s Eurodance. 1977–1979: Pop preeminence Saturday Night Fever (John Badham, 1977) In December 1977, the film Saturday Night Fever was released. It was a huge success and its soundtrack became one of the best-selling albums of all time. The idea for the film was sparked by a 1976 New York magazine article titled "Tribal Rites of the New Saturday Night" which supposedly chronicled the disco culture in mid-1970s New York City, but was later revealed to have been fabricated. Some critics said the film "mainstreamed" disco, making it more acceptable to heterosexual white males. Many music historians believe the success of the movie and soundtrack extended the life of the disco era by several years. Organized around the culture of suburban discotheques and the character of Tony Manero, portrayed by John Travolta, Saturday Night Fever became a cultural phenomenon that recast the dance floor as a site for patriarchal masculinity and heterosexual courtship. This transformation aligned disco with the interests of the perceived mass market, specifically targeting suburban and Middle American audiences. From mid-1978 to late 1979, Summer continued to release singles such as "Last Dance", "Heaven Knows" (with Brooklyn Dreams), "Hot Stuff", "Bad Girls", "Dim All the Lights" and "On the Radio", all very successful songs, landing in the top five or better, on the Billboard pop charts. The band Chic was formed mainly by guitarist Nile Rodgers—a self-described "street hippie" from late 1960s New York—and bassist Bernard Edwards. Their popular 1978 single, "Le Freak", is regarded as an iconic song of the genre. Other successful songs by Chic include the often-sampled "Good Times" (1979), "I Want Your Love" (1979), and "Everybody Dance" (1979). The group regarded themselves as the disco movement's rock band that made good on the hippie movement's ideals of peace, love, and freedom. Every song they wrote was written with an eye toward giving it "deep hidden meaning" or D.H.M. Sylvester, a flamboyant and openly gay singer famous for his soaring falsetto voice, scored his biggest disco hits in late 1978 with "You Make Me Feel (Mighty Real)" and "Dance (Disco Heat)". His singing style was said to have influenced the singer Prince. At that time, disco was one of the forms of music most open to gay performers. The Village People were a singing/dancing group created by Jacques Morali and Henri Belolo to target disco's gay audience. They were known for their onstage costumes of typically male-associated jobs and ethnic minorities and achieved mainstream success with their 1978 hit song "Macho Man". Other songs include "Y.M.C.A." (1979) and "In the Navy" (1979). Also noteworthy are The Trammps' "Disco Inferno" (1976), (1978, reissue due to the popularity gained from the Saturday Night Fever soundtrack), Heatwave's "Boogie Nights" (1977), Evelyn "Champagne" King's "Shame" (1977), A Taste of Honey's "Boogie Oogie Oogie" (1978), Cheryl Lynn's "Got to Be Real" (1978), Alicia Bridges's "I Love the Nightlife" (1978), Patrick Hernandez's "Born to Be Alive" (1978), Earth, Wind & Fire's "September" (1978) and "Boogie Wonderland" (1979), Peaches & Herb's "Shake Your Groove Thing" (1978), Sister Sledge's "We Are Family" and "He's the Greatest Dancer" (both 1979), McFadden and Whitehead's "Ain't No Stoppin' Us Now" (1979), Anita Ward's "Ring My Bell" (1979), Kool & the Gang's "Ladies' Night" (1979) and "Celebration" (1980), The Whispers's "And the Beat Goes On" (1979), Stephanie Mills's "What Cha Gonna Do with My Lovin'" (1979), Lipps Inc.'s "Funkytown" (1980), The Brothers Johnson's "Stomp!" (1980), George Benson's "Give Me the Night" (1980), Donna Summer's "Sunset People" (1980), and Walter Murphy's various attempts to bring classical music to the mainstream, most notably the disco song "A Fifth of Beethoven" (1976), which was inspired by Beethoven's fifth symphony. At the height of its popularity, many non-disco artists recorded songs with disco elements, such as Rod Stewart with his "Da Ya Think I'm Sexy?" in 1979. Even mainstream rock artists adopted elements of disco. Progressive rock group Pink Floyd used disco-like drums and guitar in their song "Another Brick in the Wall, Part 2" (1979), which became their only number-one single in both the US and UK. The Eagles referenced disco with "One of These Nights" (1975) and "Disco Strangler" (1979), Paul McCartney & Wings with "Silly Love Songs" (1976) and "Goodnight Tonight" (1979), Queen with "Another One Bites the Dust" (1980), the Rolling Stones with "Miss You" (1978) and "Emotional Rescue" (1980), Stephen Stills with his album Thoroughfare Gap (1978), Electric Light Orchestra with "Shine a Little Love" and "Last Train to London" (both 1979), Chicago with "Street Player" (1979), the Kinks with "(Wish I Could Fly Like) Superman" (1979), the Grateful Dead with "Shakedown Street", The Who with "Eminence Front" (1982), and the J. Geils Band with "Come Back" (1980). Even hard rock group KISS jumped in with "I Was Made for Lovin' You" (1979), and Ringo Starr's album Ringo the 4th (1978) features a strong disco influence. The disco sound was also adopted by artists from other genres, including the 1979 U.S. number one hit "No More Tears (Enough Is Enough)" by easy listening singer Barbra Streisand in a duet with Donna Summer. In country music, in an attempt to appeal to the more mainstream market, artists began to add pop/disco influences to their music. Dolly Parton launched a successful crossover onto the pop/dance charts, with her albums Heartbreaker and Great Balls of Fire containing songs with a disco flair. In particular, a disco remix of the track "Baby I'm Burnin'" peaked at number 15 on the Billboard Dance Club Songs chart; ultimately becoming one of the year's biggest club hits. Additionally, Connie Smith covered Andy Gibb's "I Just Want to Be Your Everything" in 1977, Bill Anderson recorded "Double S" in 1978, and Ronnie Milsap released "Get It Up" and covered blues singer Tommy Tucker's song "Hi-Heel Sneakers" in 1979. Pre-existing non-disco songs, standards, and TV themes were frequently "disco-ized" in the 1970s, such as the I Love Lucy theme (recorded as "Disco Lucy" by the Wilton Place Street Band), "Aquarela do Brasil" (recorded as "Brazil" by The Ritchie Family), and "Baby Face" (recorded by the Wing and a Prayer Fife and Drum Corps). The rich orchestral accompaniment that became identified with the disco era conjured up the memories of the big band era—which brought out several artists that recorded and disco-ized some big band arrangements, including Perry Como, who re-recorded his 1945 song "Temptation", in 1975, as well as Ethel Merman, who released an album of disco songs entitled The Ethel Merman Disco Album in 1979. Myron Floren, second-in-command on The Lawrence Welk Show, released a recording of the "Clarinet Polka" entitled "Disco Accordion." Similarly, Bobby Vinton adapted "The Pennsylvania Polka" into a song named "Disco Polka". Easy listening icon Percy Faith, in one of his last recordings, released an album entitled Disco Party (1975) and recorded a disco version of his "Theme from A Summer Place" in 1976. Even classical music was adapted for disco, notably Walter Murphy's "A Fifth of Beethoven" (1976, based on the first movement of Beethoven's 5th Symphony) and "Flight 76" (1976, based on Rimsky-Korsakov's "Flight of the Bumblebee"), and Louis Clark's Hooked On Classics series of albums and singles. jazz group the Manhattan Transfer had a disco hit with the 1979 "Twilight Zone/Twilight Tone" theme.]] Many original television theme songs of the era also showed a strong disco influence, such as S.W.A.T. (1975), Wonder Woman (1975), ''Charlie's Angels (1976), NBC Saturday Night At The Movies (1976), The Love Boat (1977), The Donahue Show (1977), CHiPs (1977), The Professionals (1977), Dallas (1978), NBC Sports broadcasts (1978), Kojak (1977), and The Hollywood Squares'' (1979). Disco jingles also made their way into many TV commercials, including Purina's 1979 "Good Mews" cat food commercial and an "IC Light" commercial by Pittsburgh's Iron City Brewing Company. Parodies Several parodies of the disco style were created. Rick Dees, at the time a radio DJ in Memphis, Tennessee, recorded "Disco Duck" (1976) and "Dis-Gorilla" (1977); Frank Zappa parodied the lifestyles of disco dancers in "Disco Boy" on his 1976 Zoot Allures album and in "Dancin' Fool" on his 1979 Sheik Yerbouti album. "Weird Al" Yankovic's eponymous 1983 debut album includes a disco song called "Gotta Boogie", an extended pun on the similarity of the disco move to the American slang word "booger". Comedian Bill Cosby devoted his entire 1977 album Disco Bill to disco parodies. In 1980, Mad Magazine released a flexi-disc titled Mad Disco featuring six full-length parodies of the genre. Rock and roll songs critical of disco included Bob Seger's "Old Time Rock and Roll" and, especially, the Who's "Sister Disco" (both 1978)—although the Who's "Eminence Front" (four years later) had a disco feel. 1979–1981: Controversy and decline in popularity By the end of the 1970s, anti-disco sentiment developed among rock music fans and musicians, particularly in the United States. Disco was criticized as mindless, consumerist, overproduced and escapist. The slogans "Disco sucks" and "Death to disco" although, in the UK, many early Sex Pistols fans such as the Bromley Contingent and Jordan liked disco, often congregating at nightclubs such as Louise's in Soho and the Sombrero in Kensington. The track "Love Hangover" by Diana Ross, the house anthem at the former, was cited as a particular favourite by many early UK punks. The film The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle and its soundtrack album contained a disco medley of Sex Pistols songs, entitled Black Arabs'' and credited to a group of the same name. However, Jello Biafra of the Dead Kennedys, in the song "Saturday Night Holocaust", likened disco to the cabaret culture of Weimar-era Germany for its apathy towards government policies and its escapism. Mark Mothersbaugh of Devo said that disco was "like a beautiful woman with a great body and no brains", and a product of political apathy of that era. New Jersey rock critic Jim Testa wrote "Put a Bullet Through the Jukebox", a vitriolic screed attacking disco that was considered a punk call to arms. Steve Hillage, shortly prior to his transformation from a progressive rock musician into an electronic artist at the end of the 1970s with the inspiration of disco, disappointed his rockist fans by admitting his love for disco, with Hillage recalling "it's like I'd killed their pet cat." Anti-disco sentiment was expressed in some television shows and films. A recurring theme on the show WKRP in Cincinnati was a hostile attitude towards disco music. In one scene of the 1980 comedy film Airplane!, a wayward airplane slices a radio tower with its wing, knocking out an all-disco radio station. July 12, 1979, became known as "the day disco died" because of the Disco Demolition Night, an anti-disco demonstration in a baseball double-header at Comiskey Park in Chicago. Rock station DJs Steve Dahl and Garry Meier, along with Michael Veeck, son of Chicago White Sox owner Bill Veeck, staged the promotional event for disgruntled rock fans between the games of a White Sox doubleheader which involved exploding disco records in centerfield. As the second game was about to begin, the raucous crowd stormed onto the field and proceeded to set fires and tear out seats and pieces of turf. The Chicago Police Department made numerous arrests, and the extensive damage to the field forced the White Sox to forfeit the second game to the Detroit Tigers, who had won the first game. Disco's decline in popularity after Disco Demolition Night was rapid. On July 12, 1979, the top six records on the U.S. music charts were disco songs. By September 22, there were no disco songs in the US Top 10 chart, with the exception of Herb Alpert's instrumental "Rise", a smooth jazz composition with some disco overtones.Impact on the music industry The anti-disco movement, combined with other societal and radio industry factors, changed the face of pop radio in the years following Disco Demolition Night. Starting in the 1980s, country music began a slow rise on the pop chart. Emblematic of country music's rise to mainstream popularity was the commercially successful 1980 movie Urban Cowboy. The continued popularity of power pop and the revival of oldies in the late 1970s was also related to disco's decline; the 1978 film Grease was emblematic of this trend. Coincidentally, the star of both films was John Travolta, who in 1977 had starred in Saturday Night Fever, which remains one of the most iconic disco films of the era. During this period of decline in disco's popularity, several record companies folded, were reorganized, or were sold. In 1979, MCA Records purchased ABC Records, absorbed some of its artists and then shut the label down. Midsong International Records ceased operations in 1980. RSO Records founder Robert Stigwood left the label in 1981 and TK Records closed in the same year. Salsoul Records continues to exist in the 2000s, but primarily is used as a reissue brand. Casablanca Records had been releasing fewer records in the 1980s, and was shut down in 1986 by parent company PolyGram. Many groups that were popular during the disco period subsequently struggled to maintain their success—even ones who tried to adapt to evolving musical tastes. The Bee Gees, for instance, had only one top-10 entry (1989's "One") and three more top-40 songs, even though numerous songs they wrote and had other artists perform were successful, and the band itself had largely abandoned disco in its 1980s and 1990s songs. Chic never hit the top-40 again after "Good Times" topped the chart in August 1979. Of the handful of groups not taken down by disco's fall from favor, Kool and the Gang, Donna Summer, the Jacksons, and Gloria Gaynor in particular, stand out. In spite of having helped define the disco sound early on, they continued to make popular and danceable, if more refined, songs for yet another generation of music fans in the 1980s and beyond. Earth, Wind & Fire also survived the anti-disco trend and continued to produce successful singles at roughly the same pace for several more years, in addition to an even longer string of R&B chart hits that lasted into the 1990s. Some popular disco tracks released after Disco Demolition Night include "Steppin' Out" by Kool and the Gang (1981), "In the Middle" by Unlimited Touch (1981), "I'm Coming Out" by Diana Ross (1980), "My Feet Keep Dancing" by Chic (1980), "Funkytown" by Lipps Inc. (1980), "Lady (You Bring Me Up)" by The Commodores (1981) and "All American Girls" by Sister Sledge (1981). Six months prior to Disco Demolition Night (in December 1978), popular progressive rock radio station WDAI (WLS-FM) had suddenly switched to an all-disco format, disenfranchising thousands of Chicago rock fans and leaving Dahl unemployed. WDAI, who survived the change of public sentiment and still had good ratings at this point, continued to play disco until it flipped to a short-lived hybrid Top 40/rock format in May 1980. Another disco outlet that competed against WDAI at the time, WGCI-FM, would later incorporate R&B and pop songs into the format, eventually evolving into an urban contemporary outlet that it continues with today. The latter also helped bring the Chicago house genre to the airwaves.Factors contributing to disco's declineFactors that have been cited as leading to the decline of disco in the United States include economic and political changes at the end of the 1970s, as well as burnout from the hedonistic lifestyles led by participants. In the years since Disco Demolition Night, some social critics have described the "Disco sucks" movement as implicitly macho and bigoted, and an attack on non-white and non-heterosexual cultures. that also made its way into US politics with the election of conservative president Ronald Reagan in 1980, which also led to Republican control of the United States Senate for the first time since 1954, plus the subsequent rise of the Religious Right around the same time. In January 1979, rock critic Robert Christgau argued that homophobia, and most likely racism, were reasons behind the movement, Legs McNeil, founder of the fanzine Punk, was quoted in an interview as saying, "the hippies always wanted to be black. We were going, 'fuck the blues, fuck the black experience.'" He also said that disco was the result of an "unholy" union between homosexuals and blacks. Steve Dahl, who had spearheaded Disco Demolition Night, denied any racist or homophobic undertones to the promotion, saying, "It's really easy to look at it historically, from this perspective, and attach all those things to it. But we weren't thinking like that," it was "just kids pissing on a musical genre". It has been noted that British punk rock critics of disco were very supportive of the pro-black/anti-racist reggae genre as well as the more pro-gay new romantics movement. Harold Childs, senior vice president at A&M Records, reportedly told the Los Angeles Times that "radio is really desperate for rock product" and "they're all looking for some white rock-n-roll".1981–1989: AftermathBirth of electronic dance musicDisco was instrumental in the development of electronic dance music genres like house, techno, and Eurodance. The Eurodisco song I Feel Love, produced by Giorgio Moroder for Donna Summer in 1976, has been described as a milestone and blueprint for electronic dance music because it was the first to combine repetitive synthesizer loops with a continuous four-on-the-floor bass drum and an off-beat hi-hat, which would become a main feature of techno and house ten years later. During the first years of the 1980s, the traditional disco sound characterized by complex arrangements performed by large ensembles of studio session musicians (including a horn section and an orchestral string section) began to be phased out, and faster tempos and synthesized effects, accompanied by guitar and simplified backgrounds, moved dance music toward electronic and pop genres, starting with hi-NRG. Despite its decline in popularity, so-called club music and European-style disco remained relatively successful in the early-to-mid 1980s with songs like Aneka's "Japanese Boy", The Weather Girls's "It's Raining Men", Stacey Q's "Two of Hearts", Dead or Alive's "You Spin Me Round (Like a Record)", Laura Branigan's "Self Control", and Baltimora's "Tarzan Boy". However, a revival of the traditional-style disco called nu-disco has been popular since the 1990s. House music displayed a strong disco influence, which is why house music, regarding its enormous success in shaping electronic dance music and contemporary club culture, is often described being "disco's revenge." Early house music was generally dance-based music characterized by repetitive four-on-the-floor beats, rhythms mainly provided by drum machines, off-beat hi-hat cymbals, and synthesized basslines. While house displayed several characteristics similar to disco music, it was more electronic and minimalist, Early hip hop The disco sound had a strong influence on early hip hop. Most of the early hip-hop songs were created by isolating existing disco bass guitar lines and dubbing over them with MC rhymes. The Sugarhill Gang used Chic's "Good Times" as the foundation for their 1979 song "Rapper's Delight", generally considered to be the song that first popularized rap music in the United States and around the world. With synthesizers and Krautrock influences that replaced the previous disco foundation, a new genre was born when Afrika Bambaataa released the single "Planet Rock", spawning a hip hop electronic dance trend that includes songs such as Planet Patrol's "Play at Your Own Risk" (1982), C-Bank's "One More Shot" (1982), Cerrone's "Club Underworld" (1984), Shannon's "Let the Music Play" (1983), Freeez's "I.O.U." (1983), Midnight Star's "Freak-a-Zoid" (1983), and Chaka Khan's "I Feel For You" (1984). House music and rave culture s creating mixes for dancers in clubs. Pictured is DJ Miguel Migs, mixing using CDJ players.]] House music is a genre of electronic dance music that originated in Chicago in the early 1980s (also see: Chicago house). It quickly spread to other American cities such as Detroit, where it developed into the harder and more industrial techno, New York City (also see: garage house), and Newark – all of which developed their own regional scenes. In the mid-to-late 1980s, house music became popular in Europe as well as major cities in South America and Australia. Early house music commercial success in Europe saw songs such as "Pump Up The Volume" by MARRS (1987), "House Nation" by House Master Boyz and the Rude Boy of House (1987), "Theme from S'Express" by S'Express (1988) and "Doctorin' the House" by Coldcut (1988) in the pop charts. Since the early to mid-1990s, house music has been infused in mainstream pop and dance music worldwide. House music in the 2010s, while keeping several of these core elements, notably the prominent kick drum on every beat, varies widely in style and influence, ranging from the soulful and atmospheric deep house to the more aggressive acid house or the minimalist microhouse. House music has also fused with several other genres creating fusion subgenres, Like house, it incorporated disco culture's same love of dance music played by DJs over powerful sound systems, recreational drug and club drug exploration, sexual promiscuity, and hedonism. Although disco culture started out underground, it eventually thrived in the mainstream by the late 1970s, and major labels commodified and packaged the music for mass consumption. In contrast, the rave culture started out underground and stayed (mostly) underground. In part, this was to avoid the animosity that was still surrounding disco and dance music. The rave scene also stayed underground to avoid law enforcement attention that was directed at the rave culture due to its use of secret, unauthorized warehouses for some dance events and its association with illegal club drugs like ecstasy. Post-punk The post-punk movement that originated in the late 1970s both supported punk rock's rule-breaking while rejecting its move back to raw rock music.Nu-disco Nu-disco is a 21st-century dance music genre associated with the renewed interest in 1970s and early 1980s disco, mid-1980s Italo disco, and the synthesizer-heavy Euro disco aesthetics. The moniker appeared in print as early as 2002, and by mid-2008 was used by record shops such as the online retailers Juno and Beatport. These vendors often associate it with re-edits of original-era disco music, as well as with music from European producers who make dance music inspired by original-era American disco, electro, and other genres popular in the late 1970s and early 1980s. It is also used to describe the music on several American labels who were previously associated with the genres electroclash and French house. Revivals and return to mainstream success 1990s resurgence In the 1990s, after a decade of backlash, disco and its legacy became more accepted by pop music artists and listeners alike, as more songs, films, and compilations were released that referenced disco. This was part of a wave of 1970s nostalgia that was taking place in popular culture at the time. Some commentators attributed the revival of the genre to frequent use of disco music in fashion shows. Examples of songs during this time that were influenced by disco included Deee-Lite's "Groove Is in the Heart" (1990), U2's "Lemon" (1993), Blur's "Girls & Boys" (1994) and "Entertain Me" (1995), Pulp's "Disco 2000" (1995), and Jamiroquai's "Canned Heat" (1999), while films such as Boogie Nights (1997) and The Last Days of Disco (1998) featured primarily disco soundtracks. 2000s resurgence dancing to disco during a cultural event on campus]] In the early 2000s, an updated genre of disco called "nu-disco" began breaking into the mainstream. A few examples like Daft Punk's "One More Time" and Kylie Minogue's "Love at First Sight" and "Can't Get You Out of My Head" became club favorites and commercial successes. Several nu-disco songs were crossovers with funky house, such as Spiller's "Groovejet (If This Ain't Love)" and Modjo's "Lady (Hear Me Tonight)", both songs sampling older disco songs and both reaching number one on the UK Singles Chart in 2000. Robbie Williams's disco single "Rock DJ" was the UK's fourth best-selling single the same year. Jamiroquai's song "Little L" and "Murder on the Dancefloor" by Sophie Ellis-Bextor were hits in 2001. Rock band Manic Street Preachers released a disco song, "Miss Europa Disco Dancer", in the same year. The song's disco influence, which appears on Know Your Enemy, was described as being "much-discussed". In 2005, Madonna immersed herself in the disco music of the 1970s and released her album Confessions on a Dance Floor to rave reviews. One of the singles from the album, "Hung Up", which samples ABBA's 1979 song "Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)", became a major club staple. In addition to Madonna's disco-influenced attire to award shows and interviews, her Confessions Tour incorporated various elements of the 1970s, such as disco balls, a mirrored stage design, and the roller derby. In 2006, Jessica Simpson released her album A Public Affair inspired by disco and the 1980s music. The first single of the album, "A Public Affair", was reviewed as a disco-dancing competition influenced by Madonna's early works. The video of the song was filmed on a skating rink and features a line dance of hands. The success of the "nu-disco" revival of the early 2000s was described by music critic Tom Ewing as more interpersonal than the pop music of the 1990s: "The revival of disco within pop put a spotlight on something that had gone missing over the 90s: a sense of music not just for dancing, but for dancing with someone. Disco was a music of mutual attraction: cruising, flirtation, negotiation. Its dancefloor is a space for immediate pleasure, but also for promises kept and otherwise. It's a place where things start, but their resolution, let alone their meaning, is never clear. All of 2000's great disco number ones explore how to play this hand. Madison Avenue look to impose their will upon it, to set terms and roles. Spiller is less rigid. 'Groovejet' accepts the night's changeability, happily sells out certainty for an amused smile and a few great one-liners." 2010s resurgence In 2011, K-pop girl group T-ara released Roly-Poly as a part of their EP John Travolta Wannabe. The song accumulated over 4,000,000 units in digital downloads, which became the highest number of downloads for a K-pop girl group single on the Gaon Digital Chart in the 2010s. In 2013, with several 1970s-style disco and funk being released, the pop charts had more dance songs than at any other point since the late 1970s. The biggest disco song of the year was "Get Lucky" by Daft Punk, featuring Nile Rodgers on guitar. Its parent album, Random Access Memories, ended up winning Album of the Year at the 2014 Grammys. Other disco-styled songs that made it into the top 40 that year were Robin Thicke's "Blurred Lines" (number one), Justin Timberlake's "Take Back the Night" (number 29), Bruno Mars' "Treasure" (number five) and Katy Perry's "Birthday". Other disco songs from 2014 include "I Want It All" By Karmin, 'Wrong Club" by the Ting Tings, "Blow" by Beyoncé and the William Orbit mix of "Let Me in Your Heart Again" by Queen. In 2014 Brazilian Globo TV, the second biggest television network in the world, aired Boogie Oogie, a telenovela about the Disco Era that takes place between 1978 and 1979, from the hit fever to the decadence. The show's success was responsible for a Disco revival across the country, bringing back to the stage and to Brazilian record charts local disco divas like Lady Zu and As Frenéticas. Top-10 entries from 2015 such as Mark Ronson's disco groove-infused "Uptown Funk", Maroon 5's "Sugar", the Weeknd's "Can't Feel My Face" and Jason Derulo's "Want To Want Me" also have a strong disco influence. Disco mogul and producer Giorgio Moroder also re-appeared in 2015 with his new album Déjà Vu, which proved to be a modest success. Other songs from 2015 like "I Don't Like It, I Love It" by Flo Rida, "Adventure of a Lifetime" by Coldplay, "Back Together" by Robin Thicke and "Levels" by Nick Jonas feature disco elements as well. In 2016, disco songs or disco-styled pop songs continued showing a strong presence on the music charts as a possible backlash to the 1980s-styled synthpop, electro house, and dubstep that had been dominating the charts up until then. Justin Timberlake's 2016 song "Can't Stop the Feeling!", which shows strong elements of disco, became the 26th song to debut at number-one on the Billboard Hot 100 in the history of the chart. The Martian, a 2015 film, extensively uses disco music as a soundtrack, although for the main character, astronaut Mark Watney, there's only one thing worse than being stranded on Mars: it's being stranded on Mars with nothing but disco music. "Kill the Lights", featured on an episode of the HBO television series "Vinyl" (2016) and with Nile Rodgers' guitar licks, hit number one on the US Dance chart in July 2016.2020s resurgencehas been credited by music critics with leading the revival of disco following the widespread international success of her single "Don't Start Now" and her album Future Nostalgia. In early 2020, disco-influenced hits such as Doja Cat's "Say So", Lady Gaga's "Stupid Love", and Dua Lipa's "Don't Start Now" experienced widespread success on global music charts, charting at numbers 1, 5 and 2, respectively, on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart. At the time, Billboard, declared that Lipa was "leading the charge toward disco-influenced production" a day after her retro and disco-influenced album Future Nostalgia was released on March 27, 2020. By the end of 2020, multiple disco albums had been released, including Adam Lambert's Velvet, Jessie Ware's ''What's Your Pleasure?'', and Róisín Murphy's discothèque mixtape, Róisín Machine. In early September 2020, South Korean group BTS debuted at number 1 in the US with their English–language disco single "Dynamite" having sold 265,000 downloads in its first week in the US, marking the biggest pure sales week since Taylor Swift's "Look What You Made Me Do" (2017). In July 2020, Australian singer Kylie Minogue announced she would be releasing her fifteenth studio album, Disco, on November 6, 2020. The album was preceded by two singles. The lead single, "Say Something", was released on July 23 and premiered on BBC Radio 2; the second single, "Magic", was released on September 24. Both singles received critical acclaim, with critics praising Minogue for returning to disco roots, which were prominent in her albums Light Years (2000), Fever (2001), and Aphrodite (2010). See also * Club Kids * List of number-one dance singles of 1977 (U.S.) * List of number-one dance singles of 1978 (U.S.) * List of number-one dance singles of 1979 (U.S.) * Roller disco * Stealth disco References Works cited * * * Citations Further reading * Andrea Angeli Bufalini & Giovanni Savastano (2014). La Disco. Storia illustrata della discomusic. Arcana, Italy. * * Angelo, Marty (2006). Once Life Matters: A New Beginning. Impact Publishing. . * Beta, Andy (November 2008). [http://www.villagevoice.com/2008-11-19/music/disco-inferno-2-0-a-slightly-less-hedonistic-comeback/ "Disco Inferno 2.0: A Slightly Less Hedonistic Comeback Charting the DJs, labels, and edits fueling an old new craze"] . The Village Voice. * Campion, Chris (2009). "Walking on the Moon:The Untold Story of the Police and the Rise of New Wave Rock". John Wiley & Sons. * Echols, Alice (2010). Hot Stuff: Disco and the Remaking of American Culture. W. W. Norton and Company, Inc. . * Flynn, Daniel J. (February 18, 2010). [https://web.archive.org/web/20111125195859/http://spectator.org/archives/2010/02/18/how-the-knack-conquered-disco "How the Knack Conquered Disco"]. The American Spectator. * Gillian, Frank (May 2007). "Discophobia: Antigay Prejudice and the 1979 Backlash against Disco". Journal of the History of Sexuality, Volume 15, Number 2, pp. 276–306. Electronic , print . * Hanson, Kitty (1978) Disco Fever: The Beat, People, Places, Styles, Deejays, Groups. Signet Books. . * Jones, Alan and Kantonen, Jussi (1999). Saturday Night Forever: The Story of Disco. Chicago, Illinois: A Cappella Books. . * Lawrence, Tim (2004). Love Saves the Day: A History of American Dance Music Culture, 1970–1979. Duke University Press. . * Lester, Paul (February 23, 2007). [https://www.theguardian.com/music/2007/feb/23/popandrock1 "Can you feel the force?"]. The Guardian. * Michaels, Mark (1990). The Billboard Book of Rock Arranging. . * Narvaez, Richie (2020), Holly Hernandez and the Death of Disco. Pinata Books. * Reed, John (September 19, 2007). "[http://blogcritics.org/dvd-review-saturday-night-fever-30th/ DVD Review: ''Saturday Night Fever (30th Anniversary Special Collector's Edition)]. Blogcritics. * Rodgers, Nile (2011). Le Freak: An Upside Down Story of Family, Disco, and Destiny''. Spiegel & Grau. . * Sclafani, Tony (July 10, 2009). [http://www.today.com/id/31832616 "When 'Disco Sucks!' echoed around the world"] . MSNBC. External links * * Category:1950s neologisms Category:1970s fads and trends Category:1970s fashion Category:1970s in music Category:2020s in music Category:Dances Category:Dance music genres Category:Musical subcultures Category:LGBTQ-related music Category:African-American music Category:Culture of Latin America Category:Italian-American culture Category:American styles of music Category:Dance culture Category:Drug culture Category:DJing Category:Music and fashion	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disco	2025-04-05T18:28:20.716556
7970	Darwin	Darwin may refer to: Common meanings Charles Darwin (1809–1882), English naturalist and writer, best known as the originator of the theory of biological evolution by natural selection Darwin, Northern Territory, a capital city in Australia, named after the naturalist Arts and entertainment Darwin (1920 film), a German silent film Darwin (2011 film), a documentary Darwin (2015 film), a science fiction film by Alain Desrochers Darwin (seaQuest DSV), a dolphin in the TV series seaQuest DSV Darwin!, a 1972 album by Banco del Mutuo Soccorso Darwin: The Life of a Tormented Evolutionist, a 1991 biography of Charles Darwin Darwin (Marvel Comics), a Marvel Comics fictional superhero associated with the X-Men Darwin Watterson, a character from the 2011 animated TV series The Amazing World of Gumball Computing Darwin (ADL), an architecture description language Darwin (operating system), the Unix base for Apple's iOS and macOS operating systems Darwin (programming game) Darwin (programming language) Darwin Information Typing Architecture Darwin Streaming Server People Darwin (given name), including a list of people with the name Darwin (surname), including a list of people with the name Places Antarctica Darwin Glacier (Antarctica), Oates Land Darwin Mountains, Oates Land Mount Darwin (Antarctica), Ross Dependency Australia Northern Territory Darwin, Northern Territory Darwin River, Northern Territory City of Darwin Division of Darwin, a 1903–1955 election division Tasmania Darwin, Tasmania, a short-lived community Mount Darwin (Tasmania) Darwin Crater, a suspected meteorite impact crater Chile Cordillera Darwin, Tierra del Fuego, a mountain range Mount Darwin (Andes) Darwin Channel Darwin Sound Darwin Glacier (Chile) United States Darwin, California, an unincorporated community Darwin Falls, a waterfall in California Darwin Township, Clark County, Illinois Darwin, Illinois, an unincorporated community in the township Darwin, Minnesota, a city in Meeker County Darwin, Ohio, an unincorporated community Darwin, Oklahoma, an unincorporated community Darwin, Texas, a ghost town Darwin, Virginia, an unincorporated community Darwin Township, Meeker County, Minnesota Mount Darwin (California) Darwin Glacier (California), on Mount Darwin Elsewhere Darwin (ward), an electoral ward in Greater London Darwin, Río Negro, Argentina, a municipality Darwin, Falkland Islands, a settlement Darwin Island, Galapagos Islands Volcán Darwin, Galapagos Islands, a volcano Darwin Glacier (Kenya), on Mount Kenya Mount Darwin (New Zealand) Darwin Glacier (New Zealand), Canterbury Science Darwin (unit), a unit of evolutionary change Darwin Medal, awarded by the Royal Society for biology The Darwin Centre, Natural History Museum, London Darwin Initiative, a British government biodiversity programme 1991 Darwin, a main-belt asteroid Darwin (lunar crater) Darwin (Martian crater) Darwin (spacecraft), a European Space Agency project Sport Darwin Baseball League, a North Australian league Darwin Rugby League, a North Australian league Transport Darwin Airline, an airline in Switzerland Darwin International Airport, Darwin, Australia Other uses Darwin (monkey), a rhesus macaque colloquially referred to as the "Ikea Monkey" Darwin College (disambiguation) Darwin Awards, tongue-in-cheek awards for people who remove themselves from reproducing through their stupidity Darwin Brewery, based in North Shields, England Darwin Centre (disambiguation) Bombing of Darwin, also known as the Battle of Darwin, a 1942 Japanese aerial attack on Australia See also Port Darwin (disambiguation) XDarwin Darvin (disambiguation) Darwen (disambiguation)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin	2025-04-05T18:28:20.748432
7973	Donegal fiddle tradition	thumb\|Donegal fiddler Tommy Peoples. The Donegal fiddle tradition is one of the distinct fiddle traditions within Irish traditional music. The distinctness of the Donegal tradition developed due to the close relations between County Donegal and Scotland, and the Donegal repertoire and style has influences from Scottish fiddle music. For example, in addition to the ”universally known” standard Irish dance tunes, there is an added volume of Scottish and Nova Scotia tunes played, with even some tunes from Shetland and Orkney. This includes standard tune types such as double jigs (), slip jigs (), reels (), and hornpipes (swung ). It has been claimed that Donegal musicians play more slip jigs than any other region of Ireland. This is potentially due to the geographical borders/mountains (as well as national borders with Northern Ireland) keeping Donegal's repertoire more locally-known for decades. There is also a prevalence of mazurka playing. Mazurkas are historically mainland-European tunes very similar to a waltz, in its meter, though generally livelier and with more emphasis being placed on the second beat of each measure. Another uniquely Donegal tune is called the barndance, stemming from the Germanic schottische (essentially meaning ‘Scottish’), also similar to the Norwegian reinlander. The barndance is very similar to a hornpipe, but slower than a reel; typically they are played with less of a hornpipe's “swing” and more of the “drive” of a reel. In stark contrast to other Irish musical styles, the Donegal tradition also has the Scottish strathspey, a traditional dance from Scotland, played a bit like a hornpipe but with emphasis on the semi-quaver; this dotted rhythm gives the strathspey its distinct “Scotch Snap” sound. While strathspeys are definitely known in Donegal (albeit played slightly slower and with less ”snap” than Scottish fiddlers), more common is the highland. Very rarely referred to as a “highland fling”, these quintessentially Donegal tunes are influenced by the Scottish strathspey, but played a bit smoother, as a sort of “strathspey-reel”. Some Scotch Snaps will be played, but highlands tend to be more akin to a slower reel, overall. Reels, themselves, are said to have originated in Scottish music. The distinctiveness of the Donegal tradition led to some conflict, between Donegal players and representatives of the mainstream tradition, when Irish traditional music was organised in the 1960s. The tradition has several distinguishing traits compared to other fiddle traditions such as the Sliabh Luachra style of southern Ireland, most of which involves styles of bowing and the ornamentation of the music, and rhythm. Due to the frequency of double stops and the strong bowing it is often compared to the Cape Breton tradition. Another characteristic of the style is the rapid pace at which it tends to proceed. Among the most famous Donegal style players are John Doherty from the early twentieth century and James Byrne, Paddy Glackin, Tommy Peoples and Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh in recent decades. History The fiddle has ancient roots in Ireland, the first report of bowed instruments similar to the violin being in the Book of Leinster (ca. 1160). The modern violin was ubiquitous in Ireland by the early 1700s. However the first mention of the fiddle being in use in Donegal is from the blind harper Arthur O'Neill who in his 1760 memoirs described a wedding in Ardara as having "plenty of pipers and fiddlers". Donegal fiddlers participated in the development of the Irish music tradition in the 18th century during which jigs and slipjigs and later reels and hornpipes became the dominant musical forms. However, Donegal musicians, many of them being fishermen, also frequently travelled to Scotland, where they acquired tune types from the Scottish repertoire such as the Strathspey which was integrated into the Donegal tradition as "Highland" tunes. The Donegal tradition derives much of its unique character from the synthesis of Irish and Scottish stylistic features and repertoires. Like some Scottish fiddlers (who, like Donegal fiddlers, tend to use a short bow and play in a straight-ahead fashion), some Donegal fiddlers worked at imitating the sound of the bagpipes. Workers from Donegal would bring their music to Scotland and also bring back Scottish tunes with them such music of J. Scott Skinner and Mackenzie Murdoch. Lilting, unaccompanied singing of wordless tunes, was also an important part of the Donegal musical tradition often performed by women in social settings. Describing the musical life of Arranmore Island in the late 19th century singer Róise Rua Nic Gríanna describes the most popular dances: "The Sets, the Lancers, the Maggie Pickie [i.e., Maggie Pickins] the Donkey, the Mazurka and the Barn dances". Among the travelling fiddlers of the late 19th century players such as John Mhosaí McGinley, Anthony Hilferty, the McConnells and the Dohertys are best known. As skill levels increased through apprenticeships several fiddle masters appeared such as the Cassidy's, Connie Haughey, Jimmy Lyons and Miock McShane of Teelin and Francie Dearg and Mickey Bán Byrne of Kilcar. These virtuosos played unaccompanied listening pieces in addition to the more common dance music. (the regions share common names of dances), as can be heard in the volume of strathspeys, schottisches, marches, and Donegal's own strong piping tradition, has influenced and been influenced by music, and by the sounds, ornaments, and repertoire of the Píob Mhór, the traditional bagpipes of Ireland and Scotland. There are other differences between the Donegal style and the rest of Ireland. Instruments such as the tin whistle, flute, concertina and accordion were very rare in Donegal until modern times. As Irish music was consolidated and organised under the Comhaltas Ceoltóirí Éireann movement in the 1960s, both strengthened the interest in traditional music but sometimes conflicted with the Donegal tradition and its social conventions. The rigidly organised sessions of the Comhaltas reflected the traditions of Southern Ireland and Donegal fiddlers like John Doherty considered the National repertoire with its strong focus on reels to be less diverse than that of Donegal with its varied rhythms. Other old fiddlers dislike the ways comhaltas sessions were organised with a committee player, often not himself a musician, in charge. Sometimes Comhaltas representatives would even disparage the Donegal tradition, with its Scottish flavour, as being un-Irish, and prohibit them from playing local tunes with Scottish genealogies such as the "Highlands" at Comhaltas sessions. This sometimes cause antagonism between Donegal players and the main organisation of traditional music in Ireland. Perhaps the best-known and, in the last half of the twentieth century, the most influential has been that of the Doherty family. Hugh Doherty is the first known musician of this family. Born in 1790, he headed an unbroken tradition of fiddlers and pipers in the Doherty family until the death, in 1980, of perhaps the best-known Donegal fiddler, John Doherty. John, a travelling tinsmith, was known for his extremely precise and fast finger- and bow-work and vast repertoire, and is considered to be one of the greatest Irish fiddlers ever recorded. There is no single Donegal style but several distinctive styles. These styles traditionally come from the geographical isolated regions of Donegal including Inishowen, eastern Donegal, The Rosses and Gweedore, Croaghs, Teelin, Kilcar, Glencolmcille, Ballyshannon and Bundoran. Even with improved communications and transport, these regions still have recognisably different ways of fiddle playing. Notable deceased players of the older Donegal styles include Neillidh ("Neilly") Boyle, Francie Byrne, Con Cassidy, Frank Cassidy, James Byrne (1946–2008), P.V. O'Donnell (2011), and Tommy Peoples (1948–2018). Currently living Donegal fiddlers, include, Vincent Campbell, John Gallagher, Paddy Glackin, and Danny O'Donnell. The three fiddlers of the Donegal "supergroup" Altan, Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh, Paul O'Shaughnessy, and Ciarán Tourish, are generally admired within Donegal. An example of another fiddler-player from Donegal is Liz Doherty. Another well regarded fiddle player hailing from Donegal is Aidan O'Donnell. TG4 Young Musician of the Year 2010 Aidan O'Donnell has been described as one of the finest young Irish musicians at present. He began his music making at the age of 12, and since then has performed with some of traditional music's finest artists, including Donal Lunny, Micheal Ó'Suilleabháin and the Chieftains. In 2007, he won the prestigious ‘Oireachtas na Geailge' fiddle title, and has been a regular tutor at the Irish World Academy of Music and Dance, at the University of Limerick for the past number of years. The fiddle, and traditional music in general, remained popular in Donegal not only because of the international coverage of certain artists Traditional music Seisiúns are still common place both in pubs and in houses. The Donegal fiddle music has been influenced by recorded music, but this is claimed to have had a positive impact on the tradition. Modern Donegal fiddle music is often played in concerts and recorded on albums. See also Irish fiddle Scottish fiddling Irish music Celtic music Notes Category:Music of Ireland Category:Celtic music Category:Irish styles of music	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donegal_fiddle_tradition	2025-04-05T18:28:20.763201
7975	Double-barreled shotgun	thumb\|A view of the break-action of a typical side-by-side (SxS) double-barreled shotgun, with the Anson & Deeley boxlock action open and the extractor visible. The lever and the safety catch can also be clearly seen. thumb\|A view of the break-action of a typical over-and-under (O/U) double-barreled shotgun, with action open and the ejectors visible thumb\|right\|Two .410 shells being loaded into a side-by-side, double-barrel shotgun A double-barreled shotgun, also known as a double shotgun, is a break-action shotgun with two parallel barrels, allowing two single shots that can be fired simultaneously or sequentially in quick succession. Construction Modern double-barreled shotguns, often known as doubles, are almost universally break action, with the barrels hinge down at the rear to expose the breech ends for unloading and reloading. Since there is no reciprocating action needed to eject and reload the shells, doubles are more compact than repeating designs such as pump action, lever action, bolt action, or self-loading shotguns. Barrel configuration Double-barreled shotguns (specifically break-action), come in two basic configurations: side-by-side (S×S) — the two barrels are arranged horizontally; over-and-under (O/U) — the two barrels are arranged vertically. The original double-barreled guns were commonly all side-by-side designs, which was a more practical design for muzzleloaders. Early cartridge-firing shotguns also used the side-by-side action, because they kept the exposed hammers of the earlier muzzleloading shotguns from which they evolved. When hammerless designs started to become common, the over-and-under design was introduced, and most modern sporting doubles are over-and-under designs. One significant advantage that doubles have over single-barrel repeating shotguns is the ability to have more than one choke at a time. Some shotgun shooting sports, such as skeet shooting, use crossing targets presented in a narrow range of distance, and only require one level of choke. Other sports, like sporting clays, give the shooter targets at differing ranges, and targets that might approach or recede from the shooter, and so must be engaged at differing ranges. Having two barrels lets the shooter use a more open choke for near targets, and a tighter choke for distant targets, providing the optimal shot pattern for each distance. The disadvantage lies in the fact that the barrels of a double-barreled shotgun, whether over-and-under or side-by-side, are not parallel, but slightly angled, so that shots from the barrels converge, usually at "40 yards out". For the side-by-side configuration, the shotstring continues on its path to the opposite side of the rib after the converging point; for example, the left barrel's discharge travels on the left of the rib till it hits dead center at 40 yards (36.58 m) out, after that, the discharge continues on to the right. In the over-and-under configuration with a parallel rib, both barrels' discharges will keep to the dead center, but the discharge from the "under" barrel will shoot higher than the discharge from the "over" barrel after 40 yards (36.58 m). Thus, double-barreled shotguns are accurate only at practical shotgun ranges, though the range of their ammunition easily exceeds four to six times that distance. Side-by-side shotguns are often more expensive, and may take more practice to aim effectively than an over-and-under. The off-center nature of the recoil in a side-by-side gun may make shooting the body-side barrel slightly more painful by comparison to an over-and-under, single-shot, or pump-action, lever-action shotgun. Gas-operated and Recoil-operated, designs will recoil less than either. More side-by-side than over-and-under guns have traditional "cast-off" stocks, where the end of the buttstock veers slightly to the right, allowing a right-handed user to point the gun more easily. as whether the shotgun is loaded or can be fired can be ascertained by anyone present if the action is broken open, for instance on a skeet, trap or hunting clays course when another shooter is firing; if the action is open, the gun cannot fire. Similarly, doubles are more easily examined to see if loaded than pump-action or semi-automatic shotguns, whose bolt must be opened and chamber closely examined or felt to make sure it is unloaded; with a double gun (or a break-action single gun), whether the gun is loaded, i.e., has cartridges in any chamber, is easily and immediately seen with a glance (and just as easily unloaded). Trigger mechanism The early doubles used two triggers, one for each barrel, located front to back inside the trigger guard. The index finger was used to pull either trigger, as having two fingers inside the trigger guard can cause a very undesirable recoil-induced double-discharge. Double-trigger designs are typically set up for right-handed users. The single selective trigger does not allow firing both barrels at once, since the single trigger must be pulled twice in order to fire both barrels. The change from one barrel to the other may be done by a clockwork type system, where a cam alternates between barrels, or by an inertial system where the recoil of firing the first barrel toggles the trigger to the next barrel. A double-barreled shotgun with an inertial trigger works best with full power shotshells; shooting low recoil shotshells often will not reliably toggle the inertial trigger, causing an apparent failure to fire occasionally when attempting to depress the trigger a second time to fire the second barrel (this also can happen if the first shell fails to fire). Generally there is a method of selecting the order in which the barrels of a single selective trigger shotgun fire; commonly this is done through manipulation of the safety, pushing to one side to select top barrel first and the other side to select bottom barrel first. In the event that an inertial trigger does not toggle to the second barrel when firing low recoil shotshells, manually selecting the order to the second barrel will enable the second barrel to fire when the trigger is depressed again. One of the advantages of double-barreled shotgun with double triggers or single selective trigger, is that the second shot can be taken almost immediately after the first with merely a second trigger pull, without needing to manually operate the action (which will inevitably destabilize the gun from the shoulder position and affect aim), and can utilize different chokes for the two shots (assuming, of course, that full power shotshells are fired, at least for a double-barreled shotgun with an inertial type single selective trigger, as needed to toggle the inertial trigger). This can be noticeably faster than a pump-action shotgun, which requires manually pumping the fore-end to eject and reload for the second shot, and may be faster, or not slower, than a semi-automatic shotgun (as there are no bolt movements to delay the rechambering of a second shell). Note, however, in neither the pump-action or semi-automatic will the second shot be a different choke pattern from the first shot, whereas for a double, the two shots are usually with different chokes. Thus, depending on the nature of the hunt, the appropriate choke for the shot is always at hand. For example, while field hunting flushing birds, the first shot is usually closer than the second because the bird flies away from the shooter; so, the more open choke (and barrel) would be better for the first shot, and if a second shot is needed, as the bird is flying away, the more closed (and thus longer distance of an effective shot pattern) choke (and barrel) is then appropriate. Conversely, on a driven hunt, where the birds are driven towards the shooter, the closed (longer effective distance) choke (and barrel) should be fired first, saving the open (closer effective distance) choke (and barrel) for the now-closer incoming bird. None of this is possible with single-barrel shotguns, only with a double, either a side-by-side (S×S) or over-and-under (O/U). Regulation Regulation is a term used for multi-barreled firearms (most commonly found in rifles and shotguns) that indicates how close to the same point of aim the barrels will shoot. A poorly regulated gun may hit consistently with one barrel but miss consistently with the other, making the gun nearly useless for anything requiring two shots. However, the short ranges and spread of shot provide a significant overlap, so a small error in regulation in a double is often too small to be noticed. Generally, the shotguns are regulated to hit the point of aim at a given distance usually the maximum expected range since that is the range at which a full choke is used and where precise regulation matters most. The regulation is usually more important in side-by-side rather than in over-and-under shotguns, as felt recoil differs. See also References Category:Break-action shotguns Double-barreled shotgun Category:Multiple-barrel firearms	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-barreled_shotgun	2025-04-05T18:28:20.788240
7976	Dessert	}} Dessert is a course that concludes a meal. The course consists of sweet foods, such as cake, biscuit, ice cream and possibly a beverage such as dessert wine and liqueur. Some cultures sweeten foods that are more commonly savory to create desserts. In some parts of the world, there is no tradition of a dessert course to conclude a meal. Historically, the dessert course consisted entirely of foods "from the storeroom" (de l’office), including fresh, stewed, preserved, and dried fruits; nuts; cheese and other dairy dishes; dry biscuits (cookies) and wafers; and ices and ice creams. Sweet dishes from the kitchen, such as freshly prepared pastries, meringues, custards, puddings, and baked fruits, were served in the entremets course, not in the dessert course. By the 20th century, though, sweet entremets had come to be included among the desserts. The modern term dessert can apply to many sweets, including fruit, custards, gelatins, puddings, biscuits, cookies, macaroons, pastries, pies, tarts, cakes, ice creams, and sweet soups. Etymology The term "dessert" originated from the French word desservir, meaning "to clear the table", and it referred to the final course of the meal, presented after the table was "cleared" (deservi). One of the earliest uses of the term in a culinary context is in the Ménagier de Paris (1393), which includes a course of "desserte" in three of the menus, one of which includes sweet pastries and fruits, another of which includes savory frumenty and venison. In later centuries, the term continued to refer to the last course of the meal. In the late 19th century, the word "desserts" also came to refer to the dishes served in the dessert course.Other namesThe word "dessert" is most commonly used for this course in Australia, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, and the United States, while it is one of several synonyms, including "pudding", "sweet" and "afters", in the United Kingdom and some other Commonwealth countries. History to the world]] Sweets were fed to the gods in ancient Mesopotamia and ancient India and other ancient civilizations. Herodotus mentions that Persian meals featured many desserts, and were more varied in their sweet offerings than the main dishes. German army officer Helmuth von Moltke whilst serving in the Ottoman Empire noted the unusual presentation of courses with the sweet courses served between roasts and other savory dishes. Dried fruit and honey were probably the first sweeteners used in most of the world, but the spread of sugarcane around the world was essential to the development of dessert. Sugarcane was grown and refined in India before 500 BC and was crystallized, making it easy to transport, by AD 500. Sugar and sugarcane were traded, making sugar available to Macedonia by 303 BC and China by AD 600. In the Indian subcontinent, the Middle East, and China, sugar has been a staple of cooking and desserts for over a thousand years. Sugarcane and sugar were little known and rare in Europe until the twelfth century or later when the Crusades and then colonization spread its use. Europeans began to manufacture sugar in the Middle Ages, and more sweet desserts became available. Even then sugar was so expensive usually only the wealthy could indulge on special occasions. The first apple pie recipe was published in 1381; The earliest documentation of the term cupcake was in "Seventy-five Receipts for Pastry, Cakes, and Sweetmeats" in 1828 in Eliza Leslie's Receipts cookbook. The Industrial Revolution in Europe and later America led to the mass-production of foodstuffs, including desserts, that could be processed, preserved, canned, and packaged. Frozen foods, including desserts, became very popular starting in the 1920s. Ingredients Sweet desserts usually contain cane sugar, palm sugar, brown sugar, honey, or some types of syrup such as molasses, maple syrup, treacle, or corn syrup. Other common ingredients in Western-style desserts are flour or other starches, cooking fats such as butter or lard, dairy, eggs, salt, acidic ingredients such as lemon juice, and spices and other flavoring agents such as chocolate, coffee, peanut butter, fruits, and nuts. The proportions of these ingredients, along with the preparation methods, play a major part in the consistency, texture, and flavor of the end product. Sugars contribute moisture and tenderness to baked goods. Flour or starch components serves as a protein and gives the dessert structure. Fats contribute moisture and can enable the development of flaky layers in pastries and pie crusts. The dairy products in baked goods keep the desserts moist. Many desserts also contain eggs, in order to form custard or to aid in the rising and thickening of a cake-like substance. Egg yolks specifically contribute to the richness of desserts. Egg whites can act as a leavening agent or provide structure. Further innovation in the healthy eating movement has led to more information being available about vegan and gluten-free substitutes for the standard ingredients, as well as replacements for refined sugar. Desserts can contain many spices and extracts to add a variety of flavors. Salt and acids are added to desserts to balance sweet flavors and create a contrast in flavors. Some desserts are coffee-flavored, for example an iced coffee soufflé or coffee biscuits. Alcohols and liqueurs can also be used as an ingredient, to make alcoholic desserts.Varieties and elements Desserts consist of variations of tastes, textures, and appearances. Desserts can be defined as a usually sweeter course that concludes a meal. This definition includes a range of courses ranging from fruits or dried nuts to multi-ingredient cakes and pies. Many cultures have different variations of dessert. In modern times the variations of desserts have usually been passed down or come from geographical regions. This is one cause for the variation of desserts. These are some major categories in which desserts can be placed.Cakes , a layered cake filled and topped with a coconut-pecan frosting]] Cakes are sweet tender breads made with sugar and delicate flour. Cakes can vary from light, airy sponge cakes to dense cakes with less flour. Common flavorings include dried, candied or fresh fruit, nuts, cocoa or extracts. They may be filled with fruit preserves or dessert sauces (like pastry cream), iced with buttercream or other icings, and decorated with marzipan, piped borders, or candied fruit. Cake is often served as a celebratory dish on ceremonial occasions, for example weddings, anniversaries, and birthdays. Small-sized cakes have become popular, in the form of cupcakes and petits fours, an example of which can be the Portuguese "bolo de arroz". Puddings Puddings are similar to custards in that their base is cream or milk. However, their primary difference is that puddings are thickened with starches such as corn starch or tapioca. On the other hand, custards are thickened using only eggs and are usually more firm.Small cakes and pastries Biscuits or cookies are small disks of sweetened dough, similar in composition to a cake. The term "biscuit" is a derivation of Latin for twice-baked, while the term "cookie" is a Dutch diminutive for koek, meaning cake. Some examples of this dessert include a ginger nut, shortbread biscuit and chocolate chip cookie. In Commonwealth English, the term "biscuit" refers to this type of dessert in general, with "cookie" reserved for a specific type of drop cookie; in North America, the term "cookie" typically refers to all forms of this dessert, with "biscuit" more commonly referring to a type of bread. Other small cakes and pastries can also be counted as under these terms, due to their size and relative similarity to cookies and biscuits, such as jaffa cakes and Eccles cakes. Confection chocolates]] Confection, also called candy, sweets or lollies, features sugar or honey as a principal ingredient. Many involve sugar heated into crystals with subtle differences. Dairy and sugar based include caramel, fudge and toffee or taffy. There are multiple forms of egg and sugar meringues and similar confections. Unheated sugar dissolves into icings, preservatives and sauces with other ingredients. Chocolate Theobroma cacao beans are commonly mixed with sugar to form chocolate. Pure, unsweetened dark chocolate contains primarily cocoa solids. Cocoa butter is also added in varying proportions. Much of the chocolate currently consumed is in the form of sweet chocolate, combining chocolate with sugar. Milk chocolate is sweet chocolate that additionally contains milk powder or condensed milk. White chocolate contains cocoa butter, sugar, and milk, but no cocoa solids. Dark chocolate is produced by adding fat and sugar to the cacao mixture, with no milk or much less than milk chocolate. Mithai (sweets) Mithai, derived from the Sanskrit word '''sharkara', represents the range of Indian desserts. Custards These kinds of desserts usually include a thickened dairy base. Custards are cooked and thickened with eggs. Baked custards include crème brûlée and flan. They are often used as ingredients in other desserts, for instance as a filling for pastries or pies. Deep-fried topped with almond slivers is one of the most popular sweets from the Indian subcontinent.]] Many cuisines include a dessert made of deep-fried starch-based batter or dough. In many countries, a doughnut is a flour-based batter that has been deep-fried. It is sometimes filled with custard or jelly. Fritters are fruit pieces in a thick batter that have been deep fried. Gulab jamun is an Indian dessert made of milk solids kneaded into a dough, deep-fried, and soaked in honey. Churros are a deep-fried and sugared dough that is eaten as dessert or a snack in many countries. Frozen from India]] Ice cream, gelato, sorbet and shaved-ice desserts fit into this category. Ice cream is a cream base that is churned as it is frozen to create a creamy consistency. Gelato uses a milk base and has less air whipped in than ice cream, making it denser. Sorbet is made from churned fruit and is not dairy based. Shaved-ice desserts are made by shaving a block of ice and adding flavored syrup or juice to the ice shavings. Gelatin Jellied desserts are made with a sweetened liquid thickened with gelatin or another gelling agent. They are traditional in many cultures. Yōkan is a Japanese jellied dessert. In English-speaking countries, many dessert recipes are based on gelatin with fruit or whipped cream added. The vegetarian substitute for gelatin is agar agar. Marshmallow is also most commonly made with gelatin. Pastries Pastries are sweet baked pastry products. Pastries can either take the form of light and flaky bread with an airy texture, such as a croissant or unleavened dough with a high fat content and crispy texture, such as shortbread. Pastries are often flavored or filled with fruits, chocolate, nuts, and spices. Pastries are sometimes eaten with tea or coffee as a breakfast food. Pies, cobblers, and clafoutis Pies and cobblers consist of a filling enclosed by a crust, which can be made from either pastry or crumbs. The fillings of pies can vary from fruits to puddings, whereas cobbler fillings are mostly fruit-based. On the other hand, clafoutis is a dessert in which batter is poured over a fruit-based filling before being baked. Sweet soups ]] Tong sui, literally translated as "sugar water" and also known as tim tong, is a collective term for any sweet, warm soup or custard served as a dessert at the end of a meal in Cantonese cuisine. Tong sui are a Cantonese specialty and are rarely found in other regional cuisines of China. Outside of Cantonese-speaking communities, soupy desserts generally are not recognized as a distinct category, and the term tong sui'' is not used. Wines Dessert wines are sweet wines typically served with dessert. There is no simple definition of a dessert wine. In the UK, a dessert wine is considered to be any sweet wine drunk with a meal, as opposed to the white fortified wines (fino and amontillado sherry) drunk before the meal, and the red fortified wines (port and madeira) drunk after it. Thus, most fortified wines are regarded as distinct from dessert wines, but some of the less strong fortified white wines, such as Pedro Ximénez sherry and Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise, are regarded as honorary dessert wines. In the United States, by contrast, a dessert wine is legally defined as any wine over 14% alcohol by volume, which includes all fortified wines - and is taxed at higher rates as a result. Examples include Sauternes and Tokaji Aszú. Gallery <gallery mode"packed" caption"Dessert examples"> File:Apple pie.jpg\|Apple pie File:Baked Alaska (5097717743).jpg\|Baked Alaska, ice cream and cake topped with browned meringue File:Baklava - Turkish special, 80-ply.JPEG\|Baklava, a pastry comprising layers of filo with chopped nuts, sweetened and held together with syrup or honey File:Homemade Flan.jpg\|Baked custard File:Brennan's Bananas Foster.jpg\|Bananas Foster, made from bananas and vanilla ice cream with a sauce made from butter, brown sugar, cinnamon, dark rum and banana liqueur File:Plain cheesecake.jpg\|Cheesecake, a type of dessert with a layer of a mixture of soft, fresh cheese, eggs and sugar File:Cannoli siciliani (7472226896).jpg\|Cannoli with pistachio dust, candied and chocolate drops File:Chocolate mousse.jpg\|Chocolate mousse, a chocolate variety of a dessert incorporating air bubbles to give it a light and airy texture File:Coconutbar.jpg\|Coconut bar, made with coconut milk and set with either tang flour and corn starch, or agar agar and gelatin File:Creme brulee.jpg\|Preparation of crème brûlée, a rich custard base topped with a contrasting layer of hard caramel File:Egg custard tart by Stu Spivack.jpg\|Egg custard tarts, a pastry originating from Guangzhou, China File:Hwangnam bread (cropped).JPG\|Gyeongju bread, a small pastry with a filling of red bean paste File:씨앗호떡.jpg\|Hotteok (a variety of filled Korean pancake) with edible seeds, sugar, and cinnamon File:Kkultarae, Korean court cake.jpg\|Kkul-tarae, fine strands of honey and maltose, often with a sweet nut filling File:Jell-o cream cheese square.jpg\|Jell-O cream cheese square File:Lemon tart (cropped).jpg\|Lemon tart, a pastry shell with a lemon-flavored filling File:Mämmi, memma.jpg\|Mämmi, a Finnish Easter dessert File:Pastry assortment.jpg\|An assortment of pastries File:Rum cake.jpg\|Rum cake, a type of cake containing rum File:King of Spotted Dicks.jpg\|Spotted dick File:Tiramisu with blueberries and raspberries, July 2011.jpg\|Tiramisu File:Banana pudding, homemade.jpg\|Homemade banana pudding File:Homemade Flan.jpg\|Flan, a type of custard File:Bibingka with its usual toppings.jpg\|Bibingka, a rice cake with toppings File:Dinner Honoring Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II and His Royal Highness Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh.jpg\|Chocolate carriage with raspberries on waffle cookie </gallery> By region is a jelly-like dessert eaten in several Asian countries.]] Africa Throughout much of central and western Africa, there is no tradition of a dessert course following a meal. Fruit or fruit salad would be eaten instead, which may be spiced, or sweetened with a sauce. In some former colonies in the region, the colonial power has influenced desserts – for example, the Angolan cocada amarela (yellow coconut) resembles baked desserts in Portugal. In India, where sugarcane has been grown and refined since before 500 BC, desserts have been an important part of the diet for thousands of years; types of desserts include burfis, halvahs, jalebis, and laddus. Bubble tea, which originated in Taiwan, is a kind of dessert made with flavored tea or milk and tapioca. It is well known across the world. ]] Europe desserts like baklava, şöbiyet, sütlü nuriye, kalburabastı, burma kadayıf, kadayıf dolma, and badem tatlısı]]In Ukraine and Russia, breakfast foods such as nalysnyky or blintz or oladi (pancake), and syrniki are served with honey and jam as desserts. In the Netherlands vla is a popular dessert. It is a custard-like dessert that is served cold. Popular flavours are: vanilla, chocolate, caramel, and several fruit flavours. There is also hopjesvla which is flavoured like a Hopje, a Dutch coffee and caramel sweet. France Early use of the term The word dessert as a culinary term appears as early as 1393 in the Ménagier de Paris, where "desserte" is included in three of the twenty-nine menus. The desserte comes near the end of the meal, but before the issue (departure) of hypocras and wafers, included in ten of the menus; and before the boute-hors (sendoff) of wines and spices, included in four of the menus. The desserte was the last cooked course of the meal, but the boute-hors was the true final course of the meal. In the later printed book Petit traicté auquel verrez la maniere de faire cuisine (c. 1536), more widely known from the edition titled Livre fort excellent de cuisine (1542), the menus at the end of the book present the meal in four stages : the entree de table (entrance to the table), potaiges (foods boiled or simmered "in pots"), services de rost (meat or fowl "roasted" in dry heat), and issue de table (departure from the table). The issue de table includes fruit, nuts, pastries, jellies, cheese, and cream. The menus do not mention "dessert".Dessert in the “Classical Order” of table serviceBetween the mid-16th and mid-17th century, the stages of the meal underwent several significant changes. Notably, potage became the first stage of the meal, the entrée became the second stage, entremets came to be served in their own distinct stage after the roast, and the last course of the meal came to be called “dessert”. In the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, the dessert stage of the meal consisted entirely of foods "from the storeroom" (de l’office), such as fresh, stewed, preserved, and dried fruits; fruit jellies; nuts; cheese and other dairy dishes; dry biscuits (cookies) and wafers; and, beginning in the mid-18th century, ices and petits fours. On lean days out of Lent, the dishes in the dessert stage of the meal were the same as those served on meat days. In Lent, though, eggs were never served at any meal, and only dishes that did not include eggs were appropriate for the dessert stage. Despite the significance of dessert in the structured meals of the time, the dessert course was often not included on the menus or bills of fare of the 17th and 18th centuries.Changes in the 19th and 20th centuriesIn the late 19th century, the word dessert, which properly referred to the last stage of the meal, came to refer also to the dishes that were served in that stage. In the 20th century, cheeses came to be served in their own course just before the dessert course. Also in the 20th century, sweet dishes from the kitchen, such as freshly prepared pastries, meringues, custards, puddings, and baked fruits, which had traditionally been served in the entremets course, came to be included among the desserts. North America Ice cream in The United States is popular. Pie and Cheesecake is also fairly popular in the US. Some of Mexicos favorite desserts are Flan, Paletas, and Pastel de Tres Leches. South America are a traditional coconut candy or confectionery found in many parts of Latin America, made with eggs and shredded coconut.]] Dulce de leche is a very common confection in Argentina. In Bolivia, sugarcane, honey and coconut are traditionally used in desserts. Tawa tawa is a Bolivian sweet fritter prepared using sugar cane, and helado de canela is a dessert that is similar to sherbet which is prepared with cane sugar and cinnamon. In Chile, kuchen has been described as a "trademark dessert". Several desserts in Chile are prepared with manjar, (caramelized milk), including alfajor, flan, cuchufli and arroz con leche. puddings, nougat, coconut with syrup and thickened milk with sugarcane syrup. Desserts in Ecuador tend to be simple, and desserts are a moderate part of the cuisine. Desserts consumed in Ecuador include tres leches cake, flan, candies and various sweets. Many businesses have started advertising campaigns focusing solely on desserts. The tactics used to market desserts are very different depending on the audience; for example, desserts can be advertised with popular movie characters to target children. The rise of companies such as Food Network has produced many shows which feature desserts and their creation. Shows like these have displayed extreme desserts and made a game show atmosphere to make desserts a more competitive field. Desserts are a standard staple in restaurant menus, with different degrees of variety. Pie and cheesecake were among the most popular dessert courses ordered in U.S. restaurants in 2012. Nutrition Dessert foods often contain relatively high amounts of sugar and fats and, as a result, higher calorie counts per gram than other foods. Fresh or cooked fruit with minimal added sugar or fat is an exception. See also * Chinese desserts * Culinary art List articles * List of desserts * List of dessert sauces * List of Bangladeshi sweets and desserts * List of foods * List of Indian sweets and desserts * List of Indonesian desserts * List of Italian desserts * List of Pakistani sweets and desserts * List of Sri Lankan sweets and desserts * List of Turkish desserts Notes, references, and sources Notes }} }} References Sources * * * * * * * * * * * * Further reading * * Category:16th-century neologisms Category:Courses (food) Category:Foods	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dessert	2025-04-05T18:28:20.818687
7978	Data Encryption Standard	The intense academic scrutiny the algorithm received over time led to the modern understanding of block ciphers and their cryptanalysis. DES is insecure due to the relatively short 56-bit key size. In January 1999, distributed.net and the Electronic Frontier Foundation collaborated to publicly break a DES key in 22 hours and 15 minutes (see ). There are also some analytical results which demonstrate theoretical weaknesses in the cipher, although they are infeasible in practice. The algorithm is believed to be practically secure in the form of Triple DES, although there are theoretical attacks. This cipher has been superseded by the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES). DES has been withdrawn as a standard by the National Institute of Standards and Technology. Around the same time, engineer Mohamed Atalla in 1972 founded Atalla Corporation and developed the first hardware security module (HSM), the so-called "Atalla Box" which was commercialized in 1973. It protected offline devices with a secure PIN generating key, and was a commercial success. Banks and credit card companies were fearful that Atalla would dominate the market, which spurred the development of an international encryption standard. Atalla was an early competitor to IBM in the banking market, and was cited as an influence by IBM employees who worked on the DES standard. The IBM 3624 later adopted a similar PIN verification system to the earlier Atalla system. On 15 May 1973, after consulting with the NSA, NBS solicited proposals for a cipher that would meet rigorous design criteria. None of the submissions was suitable. A second request was issued on 27 August 1974. This time, IBM submitted a candidate which was deemed acceptable—a cipher developed during the period 1973–1974 based on an earlier algorithm, Horst Feistel's Lucifer cipher. The team at IBM involved in cipher design and analysis included Feistel, Walter Tuchman, Don Coppersmith, Alan Konheim, Carl Meyer, Mike Matyas, Roy Adler, Edna Grossman, Bill Notz, Lynn Smith, and Bryant Tuckerman. NSA's involvement in the design On 17 March 1975, the proposed DES was published in the Federal Register. Public comments were requested, and in the following year two open workshops were held to discuss the proposed standard. There was criticism received from public-key cryptography pioneers Martin Hellman and Whitfield Diffie, citing a shortened key length and the mysterious "S-boxes" as evidence of improper interference from the NSA. The suspicion was that the algorithm had been covertly weakened by the intelligence agency so that they—but no one else—could easily read encrypted messages. Alan Konheim (one of the designers of DES) commented, "We sent the S-boxes off to Washington. They came back and were all different." The United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence reviewed the NSA's actions to determine whether there had been any improper involvement. In the unclassified summary of their findings, published in 1978, the Committee wrote: However, it also found that Another member of the DES team, Walter Tuchman, stated "We developed the DES algorithm entirely within IBM using IBMers. The NSA did not dictate a single wire!" In contrast, a declassified NSA book on cryptologic history states: and Some of the suspicions about hidden weaknesses in the S-boxes were allayed in 1990, with the independent discovery and open publication by Eli Biham and Adi Shamir of differential cryptanalysis, a general method for breaking block ciphers. The S-boxes of DES were much more resistant to the attack than if they had been chosen at random, strongly suggesting that IBM knew about the technique in the 1970s. This was indeed the case; in 1994, Don Coppersmith published some of the original design criteria for the S-boxes. According to Steven Levy, IBM Watson researchers discovered differential cryptanalytic attacks in 1974 and were asked by the NSA to keep the technique secret. Coppersmith explains IBM's secrecy decision by saying, "that was because [differential cryptanalysis] can be a very powerful tool, used against many schemes, and there was concern that such information in the public domain could adversely affect national security." Levy quotes Walter Tuchman: "[t]hey asked us to stamp all our documents confidential... We actually put a number on each one and locked them up in safes, because they were considered U.S. government classified. They said do it. So I did it". The algorithm as a standard Despite the criticisms, DES was approved as a federal standard in November 1976, and published on 15 January 1977 as FIPS PUB 46, authorized for use on all unclassified data. It was subsequently reaffirmed as the standard in 1983, 1988 (revised as FIPS-46-1), 1993 (FIPS-46-2), and again in 1999 (FIPS-46-3), the latter prescribing "Triple DES" (see below). On 26 May 2002, DES was finally superseded by the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), following a public competition. On 19 May 2005, FIPS 46-3 was officially withdrawn, but NIST has approved Triple DES through the year 2030 for sensitive government information. The algorithm is also specified in ANSI X3.92 (Today X3 is known as INCITS and ANSI X3.92 as ANSI INCITS 92), NIST SP 800-67 (as a component of TDEA). Another theoretical attack, linear cryptanalysis, was published in 1994, but it was the Electronic Frontier Foundation's DES cracker in 1998 that demonstrated that DES could be attacked very practically, and highlighted the need for a replacement algorithm. These and other methods of cryptanalysis are discussed in more detail later in this article. The introduction of DES is considered to have been a catalyst for the academic study of cryptography, particularly of methods to crack block ciphers. According to a NIST retrospective about DES, :The DES can be said to have "jump-started" the nonmilitary study and development of encryption algorithms. In the 1970s there were very few cryptographers, except for those in military or intelligence organizations, and little academic study of cryptography. There are now many active academic cryptologists, mathematics departments with strong programs in cryptography, and commercial information security companies and consultants. A generation of cryptanalysts has cut its teeth analyzing (that is, trying to "crack") the DES algorithm. In the words of cryptographer Bruce Schneier, "DES did more to galvanize the field of cryptanalysis than anything else. Now there was an algorithm to study." An astonishing share of the open literature in cryptography in the 1970s and 1980s dealt with the DES, and the DES is the standard against which every symmetric key algorithm since has been compared. Chronology {\| class"wikitable" style"font-size:85%;" \|- ! Date ! Year ! Event \|- \| 15 May \| 1973 \| NBS publishes a first request for a standard encryption algorithm \|- \| 27 August \| 1974 \| NBS publishes a second request for encryption algorithms \|- \| 17 March \| 1975 \| DES is published in the Federal Register for comment \|- \| August \| 1976 \| First workshop on DES \|- \| September \| 1976 \| Second workshop, discussing mathematical foundation of DES \|- \| November \| 1976 \| DES is approved as a standard \|- \| 15 January \| 1977 \| DES is published as a FIPS standard FIPS PUB 46 \|- \| June \| 1977 \| Diffie and Hellman argue that the DES cipher can be broken by brute force. \|- \| 19 May \| 2005 \| NIST withdraws FIPS 46-3 (see [https://web.archive.org/web/20080625202735/http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/fips/05-9945-DES-Withdrawl.pdf Federal Register vol 70, number 96]) \|- \| April \| 2006 \| The FPGA-based parallel machine COPACOBANA of the Universities of Bochum and Kiel, Germany, breaks DES in 9 days at a $10,000 hardware cost. Within a year software improvements reduced the average time to 6.4 days. \|- \| Nov. \| 2008 \| The successor of COPACOBANA, the RIVYERA machine, reduced the average time to less than a single day. \|- \| August \| 2016 \| The Open Source password cracking software [https://hashcat.net/hashcat/ hashcat] added in DES brute force searching on general purpose GPUs. Benchmarking shows a single off the shelf Nvidia GeForce GTX 1080 Ti GPU costing US$1000 recovers a key in an average of 15 days (full exhaustive search taking 30 days). Systems have been built with eight GTX 1080 Ti GPUs which can recover a key in an average of under 2 days. \|- \| July \| 2017 \| A chosen-plaintext attack utilizing a rainbow table can recover the DES key for a single specific chosen plaintext 1122334455667788 in 25 seconds. A new rainbow table has to be calculated per plaintext. A limited set of rainbow tables have been made available for download. \|} Description <imagemap> File:DES-main-network.png\|thumb\|250px\|Figure 1— The overall Feistel structure of DES rect 0 130 639 229 Initial permutation rect 220 300 421 405 Feistel function rect 220 594 421 701 Feistel function rect 220 1037 421 1144 Feistel function rect 220 1330 421 1437 Feistel function rect 0 1478 639 1577 Final permutation circle 50 351 26 XOR circle 50 647 26 XOR circle 50 1090 26 XOR circle 50 1383 26 XOR </imagemap> DES is the archetypal block cipher—an algorithm that takes a fixed-length string of plaintext bits and transforms it through a series of complicated operations into another ciphertext bitstring of the same length. In the case of DES, the block size is 64 bits. DES also uses a key to customize the transformation, so that decryption can supposedly only be performed by those who know the particular key used to encrypt. The key ostensibly consists of 64 bits; however, only 56 of these are actually used by the algorithm. Eight bits are used solely for checking parity, and are thereafter discarded. Hence the effective key length is 56 bits. The key is nominally stored or transmitted as 8 bytes, each with odd parity. According to ANSI X3.92-1981 (Now, known as ANSI INCITS 92–1981), section 3.5: Like other block ciphers, DES by itself is not a secure means of encryption, but must instead be used in a mode of operation. FIPS-81 specifies several modes for use with DES. Further comments on the usage of DES are contained in FIPS-74. Decryption uses the same structure as encryption, but with the keys used in reverse order. (This has the advantage that the same hardware or software can be used in both directions.) Overall structure The algorithm's overall structure is shown in Figure 1: there are 16 identical stages of processing, termed rounds. There is also an initial and final permutation, termed IP and FP, which are inverses (IP "undoes" the action of FP, and vice versa). IP and FP have no cryptographic significance, but were included in order to facilitate loading blocks in and out of mid-1970s 8-bit based hardware. Before the main rounds, the block is divided into two 32-bit halves and processed alternately; this criss-crossing is known as the Feistel scheme. The Feistel structure ensures that decryption and encryption are very similar processes—the only difference is that the subkeys are applied in the reverse order when decrypting. The rest of the algorithm is identical. This greatly simplifies implementation, particularly in hardware, as there is no need for separate encryption and decryption algorithms. The ⊕ symbol denotes the exclusive-OR (XOR) operation. The F-function scrambles half a block together with some of the key. The output from the F-function is then combined with the other half of the block, and the halves are swapped before the next round. After the final round, the halves are swapped; this is a feature of the Feistel structure which makes encryption and decryption similar processes. The Feistel (F) function The F-function, depicted in Figure 2, operates on half a block (32 bits) at a time and consists of four stages: <imagemap> File:Data_Encription_Standard_Flow_Diagram.svg\|thumb\|250px\|Figure 2—The Feistel function (F-function) of DES rect 10 88 322 170 Expansion function rect 9 340 77 395 Substitution box 1 rect 89 340 157 395 Substitution box 2 rect 169 340 237 395 Substitution box 3 rect 247 340 315 395 Substitution box 4 rect 327 340 395 395 Substitution box 5 rect 405 340 473 395 Substitution box 6 rect 485 340 553 395 Substitution box 7 rect 565 340 633 395 Substitution box 8 rect 9 482 630 565 Permutation circle 319 232 21 XOR </imagemap> # Expansion: the 32-bit half-block is expanded to 48 bits using the expansion permutation, denoted E in the diagram, by duplicating half of the bits. The output consists of eight 6-bit (8 × 6 = 48 bits) pieces, each containing a copy of 4 corresponding input bits, plus a copy of the immediately adjacent bit from each of the input pieces to either side. # Key mixing: the result is combined with a subkey using an XOR operation. Sixteen 48-bit subkeys—one for each round—are derived from the main key using the key schedule (described below). # Substitution: after mixing in the subkey, the block is divided into eight 6-bit pieces before processing by the S-boxes, or substitution boxes. Each of the eight S-boxes replaces its six input bits with four output bits according to a non-linear transformation, provided in the form of a lookup table. The S-boxes provide the core of the security of DES—without them, the cipher would be linear, and trivially breakable. # Permutation: finally, the 32 outputs from the S-boxes are rearranged according to a fixed permutation, the P-box. This is designed so that, after permutation, the bits from the output of each S-box in this round are spread across four different S-boxes in the next round. The alternation of substitution from the S-boxes, and permutation of bits from the P-box and E-expansion provides so-called "confusion and diffusion" respectively, a concept identified by Claude Shannon in the 1940s as a necessary condition for a secure yet practical cipher. Key schedule <imagemap> File:DES-key-schedule.png\|thumb\|250px\|Figure 3— The key-schedule of DES rect 96 28 298 58 Permuted choice 1 rect 127 122 268 155 Permuted choice 2 rect 127 216 268 249 Permuted choice 2 rect 127 357 268 390 Permuted choice 2 rect 127 451 268 484 Permuted choice 2 rect 96 91 127 116 Left shift by 1 rect 268 91 299 116 Left shift by 1 rect 96 185 127 210 Left shift by 1 rect 268 185 299 210 Left shift by 1 rect 96 326 127 351 Left shift by 2 rect 268 326 299 351 Left shift by 2 rect 96 419 127 444 Left shift by 1 rect 268 419 299 444 Left shift by 1 </imagemap> Figure 3 illustrates the key schedule for encryption—the algorithm which generates the subkeys. Initially, 56 bits of the key are selected from the initial 64 by Permuted Choice 1 (PC-1)—the remaining eight bits are either discarded or used as parity check bits. The 56 bits are then divided into two 28-bit halves; each half is thereafter treated separately. In successive rounds, both halves are rotated left by one or two bits (specified for each round), and then 48 subkey bits are selected by Permuted Choice 2 (PC-2)—24 bits from the left half, and 24 from the right. The rotations (denoted by "<<<" in the diagram) mean that a different set of bits is used in each subkey; each bit is used in approximately 14 out of the 16 subkeys. The key schedule for decryption is similar—the subkeys are in reverse order compared to encryption. Apart from that change, the process is the same as for encryption. The same 28 bits are passed to all rotation boxes. Pseudocode Pseudocode for the DES algorithm follows. Security and cryptanalysis Although more information has been published on the cryptanalysis of DES than any other block cipher, the most practical attack to date is still a brute-force approach. Various minor cryptanalytic properties are known, and three theoretical attacks are possible which, while having a theoretical complexity less than a brute-force attack, require an unrealistic number of known or chosen plaintexts to carry out, and are not a concern in practice. Brute-force attack For any cipher, the most basic method of attack is brute force—trying every possible key in turn. The length of the key determines the number of possible keys, and hence the feasibility of this approach. For DES, questions were raised about the adequacy of its key size early on, even before it was adopted as a standard, and it was the small key size, rather than theoretical cryptanalysis, which dictated a need for a replacement algorithm. As a result of discussions involving external consultants including the NSA, the key size was reduced from 256 bits to 56 bits to fit on a single chip. 's US$250,000 DES cracking machine contained 1,856 custom chips and could brute-force a DES key in a matter of days—the photo shows a DES Cracker circuit board fitted with several Deep Crack chips.]] In academia, various proposals for a DES-cracking machine were advanced. In 1977, Diffie and Hellman proposed a machine costing an estimated US$20 million which could find a DES key in a single day. By 1993, Wiener had proposed a key-search machine costing US$1 million which would find a key within 7 hours. However, none of these early proposals were ever implemented—or, at least, no implementations were publicly acknowledged. The vulnerability of DES was practically demonstrated in the late 1990s. In 1997, RSA Security sponsored a series of contests, offering a $10,000 prize to the first team that broke a message encrypted with DES for the contest. That contest was won by the DESCHALL Project, led by Rocke Verser, Matt Curtin, and Justin Dolske, using idle cycles of thousands of computers across the Internet. The feasibility of cracking DES quickly was demonstrated in 1998 when a custom DES-cracker was built by the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF), a cyberspace civil rights group, at the cost of approximately US$250,000 (see EFF DES cracker). Their motivation was to show that DES was breakable in practice as well as in theory: "There are many people who will not believe a truth until they can see it with their own eyes. Showing them a physical machine that can crack DES in a few days is the only way to convince some people that they really cannot trust their security to DES." The machine brute-forced a key in a little more than 2 days' worth of searching. The next confirmed DES cracker was the COPACOBANA machine built in 2006 by teams of the Universities of Bochum and Kiel, both in Germany. Unlike the EFF machine, COPACOBANA consists of commercially available, reconfigurable integrated circuits. 120 of these field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) of type XILINX Spartan-3 1000 run in parallel. They are grouped in 20 DIMM modules, each containing 6 FPGAs. The use of reconfigurable hardware makes the machine applicable to other code breaking tasks as well. One of the more interesting aspects of COPACOBANA is its cost factor. One machine can be built for approximately $10,000. The cost decrease by roughly a factor of 25 over the EFF machine is an example of the continuous improvement of digital hardware—see Moore's law. Adjusting for inflation over 8 years yields an even higher improvement of about 30x. Since 2007, SciEngines GmbH, a spin-off company of the two project partners of COPACOBANA has enhanced and developed successors of COPACOBANA. In 2008 their COPACOBANA RIVYERA reduced the time to break DES to less than one day, using 128 Spartan-3 5000's. SciEngines RIVYERA held the record in brute-force breaking DES, having utilized 128 Spartan-3 5000 FPGAs. Their 256 Spartan-6 LX150 model has further lowered this time. In 2012, David Hulton and Moxie Marlinspike announced a system with 48 Xilinx Virtex-6 LX240T FPGAs, each FPGA containing 40 fully pipelined DES cores running at 400 MHz, for a total capacity of 768 gigakeys/sec. The system can exhaustively search the entire 56-bit DES key space in about 26 hours and this service is offered for a fee online. However, the service has been offline since the year 2024, supposedly for maintenance but probably permanently switched off. Attacks faster than brute force There are three attacks known that can break the full 16 rounds of DES with less complexity than a brute-force search: differential cryptanalysis (DC), these types of attack are sometimes termed certificational weaknesses. * Differential cryptanalysis was rediscovered in the late 1980s by Eli Biham and Adi Shamir; it was known earlier to both IBM and the NSA and kept secret. To break the full 16 rounds, differential cryptanalysis requires 2<sup>47</sup> chosen plaintexts. DES was designed to be resistant to DC. * Linear cryptanalysis was discovered by Mitsuru Matsui, and needs 2<sup>43</sup> known plaintexts (Matsui, 1993); the method was implemented (Matsui, 1994), and was the first experimental cryptanalysis of DES to be reported. There is no evidence that DES was tailored to be resistant to this type of attack. A generalization of LC—multiple linear cryptanalysis—was suggested in 1994 (Kaliski and Robshaw), and was further refined by Biryukov and others. (2004); their analysis suggests that multiple linear approximations could be used to reduce the data requirements of the attack by at least a factor of 4 (that is, 2<sup>41</sup> instead of 2<sup>43</sup>). A similar reduction in data complexity can be obtained in a chosen-plaintext variant of linear cryptanalysis (Knudsen and Mathiassen, 2000). Junod (2001) performed several experiments to determine the actual time complexity of linear cryptanalysis, and reported that it was somewhat faster than predicted, requiring time equivalent to 2<sup>39</sup>–2<sup>41</sup> DES evaluations. * ''Improved Davies' attack'': while linear and differential cryptanalysis are general techniques and can be applied to a number of schemes, Davies' attack is a specialized technique for DES, first suggested by Donald Davies in the eighties, and improved by Biham and Biryukov (1997). The most powerful form of the attack requires 2<sup>50</sup> known plaintexts, has a computational complexity of 2<sup>50</sup>, and has a 51% success rate. There have also been attacks proposed against reduced-round versions of the cipher, that is, versions of DES with fewer than 16 rounds. Such analysis gives an insight into how many rounds are needed for safety, and how much of a "security margin" the full version retains. Differential-linear cryptanalysis was proposed by Langford and Hellman in 1994, and combines differential and linear cryptanalysis into a single attack. An enhanced version of the attack can break 9-round DES with 2<sup>15.8</sup> chosen plaintexts and has a 2<sup>29.2</sup> time complexity (Biham and others, 2002). Minor cryptanalytic properties DES exhibits the complementation property, namely that :<math>E_K(P)C \iff E_{\overline{K}}(\overline{P})\overline{C}</math> where <math>\overline{x}</math> is the bitwise complement of <math>x.</math> <math>E_K</math> denotes encryption with key <math>K.</math> <math>P</math> and <math>C</math> denote plaintext and ciphertext blocks respectively. The complementation property means that the work for a brute-force attack could be reduced by a factor of 2 (or a single bit) under a chosen-plaintext assumption. By definition, this property also applies to TDES cipher. DES also has four so-called weak keys. Encryption (E) and decryption (D) under a weak key have the same effect (see involution): :<math>E_K(E_K(P)) P</math> or equivalently, <math>E_K D_K.</math> There are also six pairs of semi-weak keys. Encryption with one of the pair of semiweak keys, <math>K_1</math>, operates identically to decryption with the other, <math>K_2</math>: :<math>E_{K_1}(E_{K_2}(P)) P</math> or equivalently, <math>E_{K_2} D_{K_1}.</math> It is easy enough to avoid the weak and semiweak keys in an implementation, either by testing for them explicitly, or simply by choosing keys randomly; the odds of picking a weak or semiweak key by chance are negligible. The keys are not really any weaker than any other keys anyway, as they do not give an attack any advantage. DES has also been proved not to be a group, or more precisely, the set <math>\{E_K\}</math> (for all possible keys <math>K</math>) under functional composition is not a group, nor "close" to being a group. This was an open question for some time, and if it had been the case, it would have been possible to break DES, and multiple encryption modes such as Triple DES would not increase the security, because repeated encryption (and decryptions) under different keys would be equivalent to encryption under another, single key. Simplified DES Simplified DES (SDES) was designed for educational purposes only, to help students learn about modern cryptanalytic techniques. SDES has similar structure and properties to DES, but has been simplified to make it much easier to perform encryption and decryption by hand with pencil and paper. Some people feel that learning SDES gives insight into DES and other block ciphers, and insight into various cryptanalytic attacks against them. Replacement algorithms Concerns about security and the relatively slow operation of DES in software motivated researchers to propose a variety of alternative block cipher designs, which started to appear in the late 1980s and early 1990s: examples include RC5, Blowfish, IDEA, NewDES, SAFER, CAST5 and FEAL. Most of these designs kept the 64-bit block size of DES, and could act as a "drop-in" replacement, although they typically used a 64-bit or 128-bit key. In the Soviet Union the GOST 28147-89 algorithm was introduced, with a 64-bit block size and a 256-bit key, which was also used in Russia later. Another approach to strengthening DES was the development of Triple DES (3DES), which applies the DES algorithm three times to each data block to increase security. However, 3DES was later deprecated by NIST due to its inefficiencies and susceptibility to certain cryptographic attacks. To address these security concerns, modern cryptographic systems rely on more advanced encryption techniques such as RSA, ECC, and post-quantum cryptography. These replacements aim to provide stronger resistance against both classical and quantum computing attacks. A crucial aspect of DES involves its permutations and key scheduling, which play a significant role in its encryption process. Analyzing these permutations helps in understanding DES's security limitations and the need for replacement algorithms. A detailed breakdown of DES permutations and their role in encryption is available in this analysis of Data Encryption Standards Permutations. DES itself can be adapted and reused in a more secure scheme. Many former DES users now use Triple DES (TDES) which was described and analysed by one of DES's patentees (see FIPS Pub 46–3); it involves applying DES three times with two (2TDES) or three (3TDES) different keys. TDES is regarded as adequately secure, although it is quite slow. A less computationally expensive alternative is DES-X, which increases the key size by XORing extra key material before and after DES. GDES was a DES variant proposed as a way to speed up encryption, but it was shown to be susceptible to differential cryptanalysis. On January 2, 1997, NIST announced that they wished to choose a successor to DES. In 2001, after an international competition, NIST selected a new cipher, the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), as a replacement. The algorithm which was selected as the AES was submitted by its designers under the name Rijndael. Other finalists in the NIST AES competition included RC6, Serpent, MARS, and Twofish. See also * Brute Force: Cracking the Data Encryption Standard * DES supplementary material * Skipjack (cipher) * Triple DES Notes References * ([http://nfotemple.free.fr/site_cryptokg/site_roy/differential%20cryptanalysis%20of%20des-like%20cryptosystems.pdf preprint]) Biham, Eli and Shamir, Adi, Differential Cryptanalysis of the Data Encryption Standard, Springer Verlag, 1993. , . Biham, Eli and Alex Biryukov: An Improvement of Davies' Attack on DES. J. Cryptology 10(3): 195–206 (1997) Biham, Eli, Orr Dunkelman, Nathan Keller: Enhancing Differential-Linear Cryptanalysis. ASIACRYPT 2002: pp254–266 Biham, Eli: A Fast New DES Implementation in Software * [https://archive.org/details/crackingdessecre00elec Cracking DES: Secrets of Encryption Research, Wiretap Politics, and Chip Design], Electronic Frontier Foundation * ([https://web.archive.org/web/20070615132907/http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/rd/383/coppersmith.pdf preprint]). Campbell, Keith W., Michael J. Wiener: DES is not a Group. CRYPTO 1992: pp512–520 Coppersmith, Don. (1994). . IBM Journal of Research and Development, 38(3), 243–250. Diffie, Whitfield and Martin Hellman, "Exhaustive Cryptanalysis of the NBS Data Encryption Standard" IEEE Computer 10(6), June 1977, pp74–84 Ehrsam and others., Product Block Cipher System for Data Security, , Filed February 24, 1975 Gilmore, John, "Cracking DES: Secrets of Encryption Research, Wiretap Politics and Chip Design", 1998, O'Reilly, . Junod, Pascal. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090527065754/http://crypto.junod.info/sac01.html "On the Complexity of Matsui's Attack."] Selected Areas in Cryptography, 2001, pp199–211. * Kaliski, Burton S., Matt Robshaw: Linear Cryptanalysis Using Multiple Approximations. CRYPTO 1994: pp26–39 * Knudsen, Lars, John Erik Mathiassen: A Chosen-Plaintext Linear Attack on DES. Fast Software Encryption - FSE 2000: pp262–272 Langford, Susan K., Martin E. Hellman: Differential-Linear Cryptanalysis. CRYPTO 1994: 17–25 Levy, Steven, Crypto: How the Code Rebels Beat the Government—Saving Privacy in the Digital Age, 2001, . * * * National Bureau of Standards, Data Encryption Standard, FIPS-Pub.46. National Bureau of Standards, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington D.C., January 1977. * Christof Paar, Jan Pelzl, [https://web.archive.org/web/20181107092824/http://wiki.crypto.rub.de/Buch/en/movies.php#3 "The Data Encryption Standard (DES) and Alternatives"], free online lectures on Chapter 3 of "Understanding Cryptography, A Textbook for Students and Practitioners". Springer, 2009. External links [http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/fips/fips46-3/fips46-3.pdf FIPS 46-3: The official document describing the DES standard] (PDF) [http://www.sciengines.com/copacobana COPACOBANA, a $10,000 DES cracker based on FPGAs by the Universities of Bochum and Kiel] [https://web.archive.org/web/20080411130511/http://dhost.info/pasjagor/des/ DES step-by-step presentation and reliable message encoding application] [https://web.archive.org/web/20050312043710/http://www.cs.technion.ac.il/users/wwwb/cgi-bin/tr-get.cgi/1997/CS/CS0891.ps A Fast New DES Implementation in Software - Biham] [http://eprint.iacr.org/2004/057.ps.gz On Multiple Linear Approximations] [http://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc4772.txt RFC4772 : Security Implications of Using the Data Encryption Standard (DES)] *[https://github.com/greydoubt/DES-Full-Cipher Python code of DES Cipher implemented using DES Chapter from NIST SP 958 ] Category:Computer-related introductions in 1977 Category:1977 establishments in the United States Category:Broken block ciphers Category:American inventions	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Encryption_Standard	2025-04-05T18:28:20.868047
7983	Double-hulled tanker	thumb\|upright=1.4\|Plan of a double-hulled tanker A double-hulled tanker refers to an oil tanker which has a double hull. They reduce the likelihood of leaks occurring compared to single-hulled tankers, and their ability to prevent or reduce oil spills led to double hulls being standardized for oil tankers and other types of ships including by the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships or MARPOL Convention. After the Exxon Valdez oil spill disaster in Alaska in 1989, the US government required all new oil tankers built for use between US ports to be equipped with a full double hull. Reasons for use thumb\|The double-hulled SPT Champion in Curaçao A number of manufacturers have embraced oil tankers with a double hull because it strengthens the hull of ships, reducing the likelihood of oil disasters in low-impact collisions and groundings over single-hull ships. They reduce the likelihood of leaks occurring at low speed impacts in port areas when the ship is under pilotage. Research of impact damage of ships has revealed that double-hulled tankers are unlikely to perforate both hulls in a collision, preventing oil from seeping out. However, for smaller tankers, U-shaped tanks might be susceptible to "free flooding" across the double bottom and up to the outside water level each side of the cargo tank. Salvors prefer to salvage doubled-hulled tankers because they permit the use of air pressure to vacuum out the flood water. After the Exxon Valdez oil spill disaster, when that ship grounded on Bligh Reef outside the port of Valdez, Alaska in 1989, the US government required all new oil tankers built for use between US ports to be equipped with a full double hull. However, the damage to the Exxon Valdez penetrated sections of the hull (the slops oil tanks, or slop tanks) that were protected by a double bottom, or partial double hull. Maintenance issues thumb\|The double-hulled Polar Endeavour Although double-hulled tankers reduce the likelihood of ships grazing rocks and creating holes in the hull, a double hull does not protect against major, high-energy collisions or groundings which cause the majority of oil pollution, despite this being the reason that the double hull was mandated by United States legislation. Double-hulled tankers, if poorly designed, constructed, maintained and operated can be as problematic, if not more problematic than their single-hulled counterparts. and because the steel weight of doubled-hulled tanks should not be greater than that of single-hulled ships, the individual hull walls are typically thinner and theoretically less resistant to wear. Double hulls by no means eliminate the possibility of the hulls breaking apart. Due to the air space between the hulls, there is also a potential problem with volatile gases seeping out through worn areas of the internal hull, increasing the risk of an explosion. Although several international conventions against pollution are in place, as of 2003 there was still no formal body setting international mandatory standards, although the International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals (ISGOTT) does provide guidelines giving advice on optimum use and safety, such as recommending that ballast tanks are not entered while loaded with cargo, and that weekly samples are made of the atmosphere inside for hydrocarbon gas. See also Marine salvage Lloyd's Open Form References External links + + Category:Ship types Category:Ship design Category:Shipbuilding	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-hulled_tanker	2025-04-05T18:28:20.895447
7984	Drink	List of QI episodes}} is the secondmostconsumed drink in the world, after water.]] A drink or beverage is a liquid intended for human consumption. In addition to their basic function of satisfying thirst, drinks play important roles in human culture. Common types of drinks include plain drinking water, milk, juice, smoothies and soft drinks. Traditionally warm beverages include coffee, tea, and hot chocolate. Caffeinated drinks that contain the stimulant caffeine have a long history. In addition, alcoholic drinks such as wine, beer, and liquor, which contain the drug ethanol, have been part of human culture for more than 8,000 years. Non-alcoholic drinks often signify drinks that would normally contain alcohol, such as beer, wine and cocktails, but are made with a sufficiently low concentration of alcohol by volume. The category includes drinks that have undergone an alcohol removal process such as non-alcoholic beers and de-alcoholized wines. Biology When the human body becomes dehydrated, a person experiences thirst. This craving of fluids results in an instinctive need to drink. Thirst is regulated by the hypothalamus in response to subtle changes in the body's electrolyte levels, and also as a result of changes in the volume of blood circulating. The complete deprivation of drinks (that is, water) will result in death faster than the removal of any other substance besides oxygen. Water and milk have been basic drinks throughout history. As society developed, techniques were discovered to create alcoholic drinks from the plants that were available in different areas. The earliest archaeological evidence of wine production yet found has been at sites in Georgia ( BCE) and Iran ( BCE). Beer may have been known in Neolithic Europe as far back as 3000 BCE, and was mainly brewed on a domestic scale. The invention of beer (and bread) has been argued to be responsible for humanity's ability to develop technology and build civilization. Tea likely originated in Yunnan, China, during the Shang dynasty (1500 BCE–1046 BCE) as a medicinal drink.History 's interpretation of Bacchus]] Drinking has been a large part of socialising throughout the centuries. In ancient Greece, a social gathering for the purpose of drinking was known as a symposium, where watered down wine would be drunk. The purpose of these gatherings could be anything from serious discussions to direct indulgence. In ancient Rome, a similar concept of a convivium took place regularly. Many early societies considered alcohol a gift from the gods, leading to the creation of gods such as Dionysus. Other religions forbid, discourage, or restrict the drinking of alcoholic drinks for various reasons. In some regions with a dominant religion the production, sale, and consumption of alcoholic drinks is forbidden to everybody, regardless of religion. Toasting is a method of honoring a person or wishing good will by taking a drink. The drink was also banned in Ottoman Turkey during the 17th century for political reasons and was associated with rebellious political activities in Europe. Production A drink is a form of liquid which has been prepared for human consumption. The preparation can include a number of different steps, some prior to transport, others immediately prior to consumption. Purification of water Water is the chief constituent in all drinks, and the primary ingredient in most. Water is purified prior to drinking. Methods for purification include filtration and the addition of chemicals, such as chlorination. The importance of purified water is highlighted by the World Health Organization, who point out 94% of deaths from diarrhea – the third biggest cause of infectious death worldwide at 1.8 million annually – could be prevented by improving the quality of the victim's environment, particularly safe water.PasteurizationPasteurization is the process of heating a liquid for a period of time at a specified temperature, then immediately cooling. The process reduces the growth of microorganisms within the liquid, thereby increasing the time before spoilage. It is primarily used on milk, which prior to pasteurization is commonly infected with pathogenic bacteria and therefore is more likely than any other part of the common diet in the developed world to cause illness.Juicing , basket presses have a long history of use in winemaking.]] The process of extracting juice from fruits and vegetables can take a number of forms. Simple crushing of most fruits will provide a significant amount of liquid, though a more intense pressure can be applied to get the maximum amount of juice from the fruit. Both crushing and pressing are processes used in the production of wine. Infusion Infusion is the process of extracting flavors from plant material by allowing the material to remain suspended within water. This process is used in the production of teas, herbal teas and can be used to prepare coffee (when using a coffee press). Percolation The name is derived from the word "percolate" which means to cause (a solvent) to pass through a permeable substance especially for extracting a soluble constituent. In the case of coffee-brewing the solvent is water, the permeable substance is the coffee grounds, and the soluble constituents are the chemical compounds that give coffee its color, taste, aroma, and stimulating properties.CarbonationCarbonation is the process of dissolving carbon dioxide into a liquid, such as water.Fermentation Fermentation is a metabolic process that converts sugar to ethanol. Fermentation has been used by humans for the production of drinks since the Neolithic age. In winemaking, grape juice is combined with yeast in an anaerobic environment to allow the fermentation. The amount of sugar in the wine and the length of time given for fermentation determine the alcohol level and the sweetness of the wine. When brewing beer, there are four primary ingredients – water, grain, yeast and hops. The grain is encouraged to germinate by soaking and drying in heat, a process known as malting. It is then milled before soaking again to create the sugars needed for fermentation. This process is known as mashing. Hops are added for flavouring, then the yeast is added to the mixture (now called wort) to start the fermentation process.Distillation still]] Distillation is a method of separating mixtures based on differences in volatility of components in a boiling liquid mixture. It is one of the methods used in the purification of water. It is also a method of producing spirits from milder alcoholic drinks. Mixing An alcoholic mixed drink that contains two or more ingredients is referred to as a cocktail. Cocktails were originally a mixture of spirits, sugar, water, and bitters. The term is now often used for almost any mixed drink that contains alcohol, including mixers, mixed shots, etc. A cocktail today usually contains one or more kinds of spirit and one or more mixers, such as soda or fruit juice. Additional ingredients may be sugar, honey, milk, cream, and various herbs. Type Non-alcoholic drinks ]] A non-alcoholic drink is one that contains little or no alcohol. This category includes low-alcohol beer, non-alcoholic wine, and apple cider if they contain a sufficiently low concentration of alcohol by volume (ABV). The exact definition of what is "non-alcoholic" and what is not depends on local laws: in the United Kingdom, "alcohol-free beer" is under 0.05% ABV, "de-alcoholised beer" is under 0.5%, while "low-alcohol beer" can contain no more than 1.2% ABV. The term "soft drink" specifies the absence of alcohol in contrast to "hard drink" and "drink". The term "drink" is theoretically neutral, but often is used in a way that suggests alcoholic content. Drinks such as soda pop, sparkling water, iced tea, lemonade, root beer, fruit punch, milk, hot chocolate, tea, coffee, milkshakes, tap water, bottled water, juice, and energy drinks are all soft drinks.Water Water is the world's most consumed drink, however, 97% of water on Earth is non-drinkable salt water. Fresh water is found in rivers, lakes, wetlands, groundwater, and frozen glaciers. Less than 1% of the Earth's fresh water supplies are accessible through surface water and underground sources which are cost effective to retrieve. In western cultures, water is often drunk cold. In the Chinese culture, it is typically drunk hot.MilkMilk is regarded as one of the "original" drinks; milk is the primary source of nutrition for babies. In many cultures of the world, especially the Western world, humans continue to consume dairy milk beyond infancy, using the milk of other animals (especially cattle, goats and sheep) as a drink.Carbonated drinks Carbonated drinks refer to drinks which have carbon dioxide dissolved into them. This can happen naturally through fermenting and in natural water spas or artificially by the dissolution of carbon dioxide under pressure. The first commercially available artificially carbonated drink is believed to have been produced by Thomas Henry in the late 1770s. Cola, orange, various roots, ginger, and lemon/lime are commonly used to create non-alcoholic carbonated drinks; sugars and preservatives may be added later. The most consumed carbonated soft drinks are produced by three major global brands: Coca-Cola, PepsiCo and the Dr Pepper Snapple Group. Hot drinks These drinks are often served warm or hot. Coffee ]] Coffee is a brewed drink prepared from the roasted seeds of several species of an evergreen shrub of the genus Coffea. The two most common sources of coffee beans are the highly regarded Coffea arabica, and the "robusta" form of the hardier Coffea canephora. Coffee plants are cultivated in more than 70 countries. Once ripe, coffee "berries" are picked, processed, and dried to yield the seeds inside. The seeds are then roasted to varying degrees, depending on the desired flavor, before being ground and brewed to create coffee. Coffee is slightly acidic (pH 5.0–5.1) and can have a stimulating effect on humans because of its caffeine content. It is one of the most popular drinks in the world. It can be prepared and presented in a variety of ways. The effect of coffee on human health has been a subject of many studies; however, results have varied in terms of coffee's relative benefit. Coffee cultivation first took place in southern Arabia; Coffee may have been used socially in the renaissance period of the 17th century. The increasing trades between Europe and North Africa regions made coffee more widely available to Europeans gathering at social locations that served coffee, possibly contributing to the growth of coffeehouses. The first chocolate drink is believed to have been created by the Mayans around 2,500-3,000 years ago, and a cocoa drink was an essential part of Aztec culture by 1400 AD, by which they referred to as xocōlātl. The drink became popular in Europe after being introduced from Mexico in the New World and has undergone multiple changes since then. Until the 19th century, hot chocolate was even used medicinally to treat ailments such as liver and stomach diseases. Hot chocolate is consumed throughout the world and comes in multiple variations, including the spiced chocolate para mesa of Latin America, the very thick cioccolata calda served in Italy and chocolate a la taza served in Spain, and the thinner hot cocoa consumed in the United States. Prepared hot chocolate can be purchased from a range of establishments, including cafeterias, fast food restaurants, coffeehouses and teahouses. Powdered hot chocolate mixes, which can be added to boiling water or hot milk to make the drink at home, are sold at grocery stores and online. Tea tea]] Tea, the second most consumed drink in the world, is produced from infusing dried leaves of the Camellia sinensis shrub, in boiling water. There are many ways in which tea is prepared for consumption: lemon or milk and sugar are among the most common additives worldwide. Other additions include butter and salt in Bhutan, Nepal, and Tibet; bubble tea in Taiwan; fresh ginger in Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore; mint in North Africa and Senegal; cardamom in Central Asia; rum to make Jagertee in Central Europe; and coffee to make yuanyang in Hong Kong. Tea is also served differently from country to country: in China, Japan and South Korea tiny cups are used to serve tea; in Thailand and the United States tea is often served cold (as "iced tea") or with a lot of sweetener; Indians boil tea with milk and a blend of spices as masala chai; tea is brewed with a samovar in Iran, Kashmir, Russia and Turkey; and in the Australian Outback it is traditionally brewed in a billycan. Tea leaves can be processed in different ways resulting in a drink which appears and tastes different. Chinese yellow and green tea are steamed, roasted and dried; Oolong tea is semi-oxidised and appears green-black and black teas are fully oxidised.Herbal tea Around the world, people refer to other herbal infusions as "teas"; it is also argued that these were popular long before the Camellia sinensis shrub was used for tea making. Leaves, flowers, roots or bark can be used to make a herbal infusion and can be bought fresh, dried or powdered.Juice and plant drinks juice is usually served cold.]] Fruit juice is a natural product that contains few or no additives. Citrus products such as orange juice and tangerine juice are familiar breakfast drinks, while grapefruit juice, pineapple, apple, grape, lime, and lemon juice are also common. Coconut water is a highly nutritious and refreshing juice. Many kinds of berries are crushed; their juices are mixed with water and sometimes sweetened. Raspberry, blackberry and currants are popular juices drinks but the percentage of water also determines their nutritive value. Grape juice allowed to ferment produces wine. Fruits are highly perishable so the ability to extract juices and store them was of significant value. Some fruits are highly acidic and mixing them with water and sugars or honey was often necessary to make them palatable. Fruits can also be blended with ice and other ingredients to make a smoothie. Early storage of fruit juices was labor-intensive, requiring the crushing of the fruits and the mixing of the resulting pure juices with sugars before bottling. {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Type of fruit drink !! Percentage of fruit needed in drink !! Description \|- \| Fruit juice \|\| 100% \|\| Largely regulated throughout the world; 'juice' is often protected to be used for only 100% fruit. \|\| 30% \|\| All 'suspended matter' is eliminated by filtration or clarification. \|\| - \|\| Cooled drink of sweetened diluted fruit juice. Beer Beer is an alcoholic drink produced by the saccharification of starch and fermentation of the resulting sugar. The starch and saccharification enzymes are often derived from malted cereal grains, most commonly malted barley and malted wheat. Most beer is also flavoured with hops, which add bitterness and act as a natural preservative, though other flavourings such as herbs or fruit may occasionally be included. The preparation of beer is called brewing. Beer is the world's most widely consumed alcoholic drink, and is the third-most consumed drink overall, after water and tea. It is said to have been discovered by goddess Ninkasi around 5300 BCE, when she accidentally discovered yeast after leaving grain in jars that were later rained upon and left for several days. Women have been the chief creators of beer throughout history due to its association with domesticity and it, throughout much of history, being brewed in the home for family consumption. Only in recent history have men begun to dabble in the field. It is thought by some to be the oldest fermented drink. Some of humanity's earliest known writings refer to the production and distribution of beer: the Code of Hammurabi included laws regulating beer and beer parlours, and "The Hymn to Ninkasi", a prayer to the Mesopotamian goddess of beer, served as both a prayer and as a method of remembering the recipe for beer in a culture with few literate people. Today, the brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries.CiderCider is a fermented alcoholic drink made from fruit juice, most commonly and traditionally apple juice, but also the juice of peaches, pears ("Perry" cider) or other fruit. Cider may be made from any variety of apple, but certain cultivars grown solely for use in cider are known as cider apples. The United Kingdom has the highest per capita consumption of cider, as well as the largest cider-producing companies in the world, , the U.K. produces 600 million litres of cider each year (130 million imperial gallons).Wine Wine is an alcoholic drink made from fermented grapes or other fruits. The natural chemical balance of grapes lets them ferment without the addition of sugars, acids, enzymes, water, or other nutrients. Yeast consumes the sugars in the grapes and converts them into alcohol and carbon dioxide. Different varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts produce different styles of wine. The well-known variations result from the very complex interactions between the biochemical development of the fruit, reactions involved in fermentation, terroir and subsequent appellation, along with human intervention in the overall process. The final product may contain tens of thousands of chemical compounds in amounts varying from a few percent to a few parts per billion. Wines made from produce besides grapes are usually named after the product from which they are produced (for example, rice wine, pomegranate wine, apple wine and elderberry wine) and are generically called fruit wine. The term "wine" can also refer to starch-fermented or fortified drinks having higher alcohol content, such as barley wine, huangjiu, or sake. Wine has a rich history dating back thousands of years, with the earliest production so far discovered having occurred BC in Georgia. The Greek cult and mysteries of Dionysus, carried on by the Romans in their Bacchanalia, were the origins of western theater. Judaism incorporates it in the Kiddush and Christianity in its Eucharist, while alcohol consumption was forbidden in Islam.Spirits Spirits are distilled beverages that contain no added sugar and have at least 20% alcohol by volume (ABV). Popular spirits include borovička, brandy, gin, rum, slivovitz, tequila, vodka, and whisky. Brandy is a spirit created by distilling wine, whilst vodka may be distilled from any starch- or sugar-rich plant matter; most vodka today is produced from grains such as sorghum, corn, rye, or wheat. In culture Places to drink , September 1888, by Vincent van Gogh]] Throughout history, people have come together in establishments to socialise whilst drinking. This includes cafés and coffeehouses, focus on providing hot drinks as well as light snacks. Many coffee houses in the Middle East, and in West Asian immigrant districts in the Western world, offer shisha (nargile'' in Turkish and Greek), flavored tobacco smoked through a hookah. Espresso bars are a type of coffeehouse that specialize in serving espresso and espresso-based drinks. In China and Japan, the establishment would be a tea house, where people would socialise while drinking tea. Chinese scholars have used the teahouse as a place to share ideas. Alcoholic drinks are served in drinking establishments, which have different cultural connotations. For example, pubs are fundamental to the culture of The United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, Canada, New England, Metro Detroit, South Africa and New Zealand. In many places, especially in villages, a pub can be the focal point of the community. The writings of Samuel Pepys describe the pub as the heart of England. Many pubs are controlled by breweries, so cask ale or keg beer may be a better value than wines and spirits. In contrast, types of bars range from seedy bars or nightclubs, sometimes termed "dive bars", to elegant places of entertainment for the elite. Bars provide stools or chairs that are placed at tables or counters for their patrons. The term "bar" is derived from the specialized counter on which drinks are served. Some bars have entertainment on a stage, such as a live band, comedians, go-go dancers, or strippers. Patrons may sit or stand at the bar and be served by the bartender, or they may sit at tables and be served by cocktail servers.Matching with food and bottle]] Food and drink are often paired together to enhance the taste experience. This primarily happens with wine and a culture has grown up around the process. Weight, flavors and textures can either be contrasted or complemented. In recent years, food magazines began to suggest particular wines with recipes and restaurants would offer multi-course dinners matched with a specific wine for each course. Presentation Different drinks have unique receptacles for their consumption. This is sometimes purely for presentations purposes, such as for cocktails. In other situations, the drinkware has practical application, such as coffee cups which are designed for insulation or brandy snifters which are designed to encourage evaporation but trap the aroma within the glass. Many glasses include a stem, which allows the drinker to hold the glass without affecting the temperature of the drink. In champagne glasses, the bowl is designed to retain champagne's signature carbonation, by reducing the surface area at the opening of the bowl. Historically, champagne has been served in a champagne coupe, the shape of which allowed carbonation to dissipate even more rapidly than from a standard wine glass. Commercial trade International exports and imports An important export commodity, coffee was the top agricultural export for twelve countries in 2004, and it was the world's seventh-largest legal agricultural export by value in 2005. Green (unroasted) coffee is one of the most traded agricultural commodities in the world.InvestmentSome drinks, such as wine, can be used as an alternative investment. This can be achieved by either purchasing and reselling individual bottles or cases of particular wines, or purchasing shares in an investment wine fund that pools investors' capital. <!--Health Issues Drought Dehydration Unclean water Water poisoning – too much Regulatory bodies Alcohol intake – recommended limits Obesity/ diabetes – sugar & fats Addiction – caffine & alcohol & cocoa --> See also * List of beverages * List of hot drinks * List of national drinks * List of food and drink monuments * Sweetened beverage References Bibliography * External links * * * [http://ec.europa.eu/health-eu/my_lifestyle/alcohol/index_en.htm Health-EU Portal – Alcohol] * [http://wikibooks.org/wiki/Cookbook Wikibooks Cookbook] * [https://www.womenshistory.org/articles/women-and-beer-forgotten-pairing Women and Beer: A Forgotten Pairing] (National Women's History Museum) Category:Drinks *	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drink	2025-04-05T18:28:20.942439
7985	Dill	}} Dill (Anethum graveolens) is an annual herb in the celery family Apiaceae.<!-- Not sure if important for English? Most Slavic language names come from Proto-Slavic koprъ, which developed from the PIE root ku̯ə<sub>1</sub>po- 'aroma, odor'. --> Taxonomy The genus name Anethum is the Latin form of Greek ἄνῑσον / ἄνησον / ἄνηθον / ἄνητον, which meant both "dill" and "anise". The form 'anīsum' came to be used for anise, and 'anēthum' for dill. The Latin word is the origin of dill's names in the Western Romance languages ('anet', 'aneldo' etc.), and also of the obsolete English 'anet'. Botany Dill grows up to from a taproot like a carrot. Its stems are slender and hollow with finely divided, softly delicate leaves; the leaves are alternately arranged, long with ultimate leaf divisions are broad, slightly broader than the similar leaves of fennel, which are threadlike, less than broad, but harder in texture. <gallery mode"packed" heights150px> File:20141003Anethum graveolens.jpg\|Yellow dill umbels File:Dill1 (cropped).jpg\|Closeup of a dill umbel </gallery> In hot or dry weather, small white to yellow scented flowers form in small umbels diameter from one long stalk. The seeds come from dried up fruit It also prefers rich, well-drained soil. The seed is harvested by cutting the flower heads off the stalks when the seed is beginning to ripen. The seed heads are placed upside down in a paper bag and left in a warm, dry place for a week. The seeds then separate from the stems easily for storage in an airtight container. These plants, like their fennel and parsley relatives, often are eaten by black swallowtail caterpillars in areas where that species occurs. For this reason, they may be included in some butterfly gardens. History Dill has been found in the tomb of Egyptian Pharaoh Amenhotep II, dating to around 1400 BC. It was also later found in the Greek city of Samos, around the 7th century BC, and mentioned in the writings of Theophrastus (371–287 BC). Uses Culinary Aroma profile * Apiole and dillapiole * Carvone * Myristicin * Umbelliferone Dill is the eponymous ingredient in dill pickles. Central and eastern Europe In central and eastern Europe, the Nordic countries, the Baltic states, Ukraine, and Russia, dill is a staple culinary herb along with chives and parsley. Fresh, finely cut dill leaves are used as a topping in soups, especially the hot red borsht and the cold borsht mixed with curds, kefir, yogurt, or sour cream, which is served during hot summer weather and is called 'okroshka'. It also is popular in summer to drink fermented milk (curds, kefir, yogurt, or buttermilk) mixed with dill (and sometimes other herbs). In the same way, dill is used as a topping for boiled potatoes covered with fresh butter – especially in summer when there are so-called new, or young, potatoes. The dill leaves may be mixed with butter, making a dill butter, to serve the same purpose. Dill leaves mixed with tvorog form one of the traditional cheese spreads used for sandwiches. Fresh dill leaves are used throughout the year as an ingredient in salads, e.g., one made of lettuce, fresh cucumbers, and tomatoes, as basil leaves are used in Italy and Greece. Russian cuisine is noted for liberal use of dill, where it is known as . It is supposed to have antiflatulent properties; some Russian cosmonauts recommended its use in human spaceflight due to such properties being beneficial in confined quarters with a closed air supply. In Polish cuisine, fresh dill leaves mixed with sour cream are the basis for dressings. It is especially popular to use this kind of sauce with freshly cut cucumbers, which are almost wholly immersed in the sauce, making a salad called 'mizeria'. Dill sauce is used hot for baked freshwater fish and for chicken or turkey breast, or used hot or cold for hard-boiled eggs. A dill-based soup, (zupa koperkowa), served with potatoes and hard-boiled eggs, is popular in Poland. Whole stems including roots and flower buds are used traditionally to prepare Polish-style pickled cucumbers (ogórki kiszone), especially the so-called low-salt cucumbers (ogórki małosolne). Whole stems of dill (often including the roots) also are cooked with potatoes, especially the potatoes of autumn and winter, so they resemble the flavour of the newer potatoes found in summer. Some kinds of fish, especially trout and salmon, traditionally are baked with the stems and leaves of dill. In the Czech Republic, white dill sauce made of cream (or milk), butter, flour, vinegar, and dill is called 'koprová omáčka' (also 'koprovka' or 'kopračka') and is served either with boiled eggs and potatoes, or with dumplings and boiled beef. Another Czech dish with dill is a soup called 'kulajda' that contains mushrooms (traditionally wild ones). In Germany, dill is popular as a seasoning for fish and many other dishes, chopped as a garnish on potatoes, and as a flavouring in pickles. In the UK, dill may be used in fish pie. In Bulgaria dill is widely used in traditional vegetable salads, and most notably the yogurt-based cold soup Tarator. It is also used in the preparation of sour pickles, cabbage, and other dishes. In Romania dill (mărar) is widely used as an ingredient for soups such as 'borş' (pronounced "borsh"), pickles, and other dishes, especially those based on peas, beans, and cabbage. It is popular for dishes based on potatoes and mushrooms and may be found in many summer salads (especially cucumber salad, cabbage salad and lettuce salad). During springtime, it is used in omelets with spring onions. It often complements sauces based on sour cream or yogurt and is mixed with salted cheese and used as a filling. Another popular dish with dill as a main ingredient is dill sauce, which is served with eggs and fried sausages. In Hungary, dill is very widely used. It is popular as a sauce or filling, and mixed with a type of cottage cheese. Dill is also used for pickling and in salads. The Hungarian name for dill is 'kapor'. In Serbia, dill is known as 'mirodjija' and is used as an addition to soups, potato and cucumber salads, and French fries. It features in the Serbian proverb, "бити мирођија у свакој чорби" /biti mirodjija u svakoj čorbi/ (to be a dill in every soup), which corresponds to the English proverb "to have a finger in every pie". In Greece, dill is known as 'άνηθος' (anithos). In antiquity it was used as an ingredient in wines that were called "anithites oinos" (wine with anithos-dill). In modern days, dill is used in salads, soups, sauces, and fish and vegetable dishes. In Santa Maria, Azores, dill (endro) is the most important ingredient of the traditional Holy Ghost soup (sopa do Espírito Santo). Dill is found ubiquitously in Santa Maria, yet, is rare in the other Azorean Islands. In Sweden, dill is a common spice or herb. The flowers of fully grown dill are called 'krondill' (crown dill) and used when cooking crayfish. The krondill is put into the water after the crayfish is boiled, but still in hot and salt water. Then the entire dish is refrigerated for at least 24 hours before being served (with toasted bread and butter). Krondill is also used to flavor pickles and vodka. After a month or two of fermentation, the cucumber pickles are ready to eat, for instance, with pork, brown sauce, and potatoes, as a sweetener. The thinner part of dill and young plants may be used with boiled fresh potatoes (especially the first potatoes of the year, new potatoes, which usually are small and have a very thin skin). In salads it is used together with, or instead, of other green herbs, such as parsley, chives, and basil. It is often paired up with chives when used in food. Dill is often used to flavour fish and seafood in Sweden, for example, gravlax and various herring pickles, among them the traditional, 'sill i dill' (literally 'herring in dill'). In contrast to the various fish dishes flavoured with dill, there is also a traditional Swedish dish called, 'dillkött', which is a meaty stew flavoured with dill. The dish commonly contains pieces of veal or lamb that are boiled until tender and then served together with a vinegary dill sauce. Dill seeds may be used in breads or 'akvavit'. A newer, non-traditional use of dill is to pair it with chives as a flavouring for potato chips. These are called 'dillchips' and are quite popular in Sweden. In Finland, the uses of dill are very similar to those in Sweden, including flavouring potato chips and, less popularly, in a dish similar to 'dillkött' ('tilliliha'). However, the use of dill in Finland is not as extensive as in large parts of central and eastern Europe, particularly Russia but including even the ethnolinguistically close Estonia. Asia and Middle East {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Nation/region !! Language !! Local name of dill !! Dishes commonly used in \|- \| Arab world \|\| Arabic\|\| () \|\| As flavouring in various dishes \|- \| Bangladesh \|\| Bangla \|\| (Śaluka, śulaphā) \|\| \|- \| China \|\| Chinese \|\| () or colloquially () \|\| , , \|- \| India \|\| Bengali \|\| \| \|- \| India \|\| Gujarati \|\| \|\| (with potato) \|- \| India \|\| Hindi \|\| () \|\|Soa Sabzi (with potato). As a flavour in: Green Kheema, Kheema samosa \|- \| India \|\| Kannada \|\| () \|\| Curry \|- \| India \|\| Konkani \|\| () ()\|\| \|- \| India \|\| Malayalam\|\| ()\|\| \|- \| India \|\| Marathi \|\| Shepu (शेपू) \|\| Shepuchi Bhaji, Shepu Pulao, Ashe Mast \|- \| India \|\| Tamil \|\| () \|\| Curry \|- \| India \|\| Telugu \|\| () \|\| \|- \| India \|\| Punjabi \|\| \|- \|Israel/Jewish Diaspora \|Hebrew \|שֶבֶת (shevet, sheves, sheveth) שָׁמִיר (shamir) \|- \| Iran \|\| Persian\|\| \|\| 'Aash', 'Baghali Polo', 'Shevid Polo', 'Mast O Khiar' \|- \| Thailand\|\| Thai\|\| () \|\| () \|- \| Vietnam \|\| Vietnamese\|\| \|\| Many fish dishes in northern Vietnam \|} In Iran, dill is known as 'shevid' and sometimes, is used with rice and called 'shevid-polo'. It also is used in Iranian 'aash' recipes, and similarly, is called in Persian. In India, dill is known as 'Sholpa' in Bengali, (शेपू) in Marathi, sheppi (शेप्पी) in Konkani, in Hindi, or in Punjabi. In Telugu, it is called 'Soa-kura' (herb greens). It also is called (ಸಬ್ಬಸಿಗೆ ಸೊಪ್ಪು) in Kannada. In Tamil it is known as (சதகுப்பி). In Malayalam, it is ചതകുപ്പ () or (). In Sanskrit, this herb is called . In Gujarati, it is known as (સૂવા). In India, dill is prepared in the manner of yellow 'moong dal', as a main-course dish. It is considered to have very good antiflatulent properties, so it is used as 'mukhwas', or an after-meal digestive. Traditionally, it is given to mothers immediately after childbirth. In the state of Uttar Pradesh in India, a small amount of fresh dill is cooked along with cut potatoes and fresh fenugreek leaves (Hindi आलू-मेथी-सोया). In Manipur, dill, locally known as , is an essential ingredient of – a traditional Manipuri dish made with fermented soybean and rice. In Laos and parts of northern Thailand, dill is known in English as Lao coriander ( or ), and served as a side with salad yum or papaya salad. In the Lao language, it is called 'phak see', and in Thai, it is known as 'phak chee Lao'. In Lao cuisine, Lao coriander is used extensively in traditional Lao dishes such as 'mok pa' (steamed fish in banana leaf) and several coconut milk curries that contain fish or prawns. In China dill is called colloquially, 'huíxiāng' (, perfume of Hui people), or more properly 'shíluó' (). It is a common filling in 'baozi', 'jiaozi' and 'xianbing' and may be used as vegetarian with rice vermicelli, or combined with either meat or eggs. Vegetarian dill baozi are a common part of a Beijing breakfast. In baozi and xianbing, it often is interchangeable with non-bulbing fennel and the term also may refer to fennel, similarly to caraway and coriander leaf, sharing a name in Chinese as well. Dill also may be stir fried as a potherb, often with egg, in the same manner as Chinese chives. In Northern China, Beijing, Inner-Mongolia, Ningxia, Gansu, and Xinjiang, dill seeds commonly are called 'zīrán' (), but also 'kūmíng' (), 'kūmíngzi' (), 'shíluózi' (), 'xiǎohuíxiāngzi' () and are used with pepper for lamb meat. In the whole of China, 'yángchuàn' () or 'yángròu chuàn' (), lamb brochette, a speciality from Uyghurs, uses cumin and pepper. In Taiwan, it is also commonly used as a filling in steamed buns (baozi) and dumplings (jiaozi). In Vietnam, the use of dill in cooking is regional. It is used mainly in northern Vietnamese cuisine. Middle East In Arab countries, dill seed, called (grasshopper's eye), is used as a spice in cold dishes such as 'fattoush' and pickles. In Arab countries of the Persian Gulf, dill is called 'shibint' and is used mostly in fish dishes. In Egypt, dillweed is commonly used to flavour cabbage dishes, including 'mahshi koronb' (stuffed cabbage leaves). In Israel, dill weed is used in salads and also to flavour omelettes, often alongside parsley. Companion planting When used as a companion plant, dill attracts many beneficial insects as the umbrella flower heads go to seed. It makes a good companion plant for cucumbers and broccoli. Tomato plants benefit from dill when it is young because it repels harmful pests while attracting pollinators. But the dill must be pruned before it flowers, otherwise it can slow or stop the growth of the tomatoes. See also * List of Indian spices References External links * * [http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Anethum%20graveolens Plants for a Future: Anethum graveolens] Category:Arab cuisine Category:Edible Apiaceae Category:Flora of temperate Asia Category:Flora of Europe Category:Herbs Category:Iranian cuisine Category:Iraqi cuisine Category:Medicinal plants Category:Monoamine oxidase inhibitors Category:Plants described in 1753 Category:Spices Category:Apioideae	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dill	2025-04-05T18:28:20.984592
7988	Dual space	In mathematics, any vector space <math>V</math> has a corresponding dual vector space (or just dual space for short) consisting of all linear forms on <math>V,</math> together with the vector space structure of pointwise addition and scalar multiplication by constants. The dual space as defined above is defined for all vector spaces, and to avoid ambiguity may also be called the . When defined for a topological vector space, there is a subspace of the dual space, corresponding to continuous linear functionals, called the continuous dual space. Dual vector spaces find application in many branches of mathematics that use vector spaces, such as in tensor analysis with finite-dimensional vector spaces. When applied to vector spaces of functions (which are typically infinite-dimensional), dual spaces are used to describe measures, distributions, and Hilbert spaces. Consequently, the dual space is an important concept in functional analysis. Early terms for dual include polarer Raum [Hahn 1927], espace conjugué, adjoint space [Alaoglu 1940], and transponierter Raum [Schauder 1930] and [Banach 1932]. The term dual is due to Bourbaki 1938. Algebraic dual space Given any vector space <math>V</math> over a field <math>F</math>, the (algebraic) dual space <math>V^{}</math> (alternatively denoted by <math>V^{\lor}</math> or <math>V'</math>) is defined as the set of all linear maps <math>\varphi: V \to F</math> (linear functionals). Since linear maps are vector space homomorphisms, the dual space may be denoted <math>\hom (V, F)</math>. or <math>\varphi (x) \langle x, \varphi \rangle</math>. This pairing defines a nondegenerate bilinear mapping <math>\langle \cdot, \cdot \rangle : V \times V^ \to F</math> called the natural pairing. Finite-dimensional case If <math>V</math> is finite-dimensional, then <math>V^</math> has the same dimension as <math>V</math>. Given a basis <math>\{\mathbf{e}_1,\dots,\mathbf{e}_n\}</math> in <math>V</math>, it is possible to construct a specific basis in <math>V^</math>, called the dual basis. This dual basis is a set <math>\{\mathbf{e}^1,\dots,\mathbf{e}^n\}</math> of linear functionals on <math>V</math>, defined by the relation : <math> \mathbf{e}^i(c^1 \mathbf{e}_1+\cdots+c^n\mathbf{e}_n) c^i, \quad i1,\ldots,n </math> for any choice of coefficients <math>c^i\in F</math>. In particular, letting in turn each one of those coefficients be equal to one and the other coefficients zero, gives the system of equations : <math> \mathbf{e}^i(\mathbf{e}_j) = \delta^{i}_{j} </math> where <math>\delta^{i}_{j}</math> is the Kronecker delta symbol. This property is referred to as the bi-orthogonality property. Consider <math>\{\mathbf{e}_1,\dots,\mathbf{e}_n\}</math> the basis of V. Let <math>\{\mathbf{e}^1,\dots,\mathbf{e}^n\}</math> be defined as the following: <math> \mathbf{e}^i(c^1 \mathbf{e}_1+\cdots+c^n\mathbf{e}_n) c^i, \quad i1,\ldots,n </math>. These are a basis of <math>V^</math> because: # The <math>\mathbf{e}^i , i1, 2, \dots, n, </math> are linear functionals, which map <math> x,y \in V </math> such as <math> x \alpha_1\mathbf{e}_1 + \dots + \alpha_n\mathbf{e}_n </math> and <math> y \beta_1\mathbf{e}_1 + \dots + \beta_n \mathbf{e}_n </math> to scalars <math> \mathbf{e}^i(x)\alpha_i </math> and <math> \mathbf{e}^i(y)\beta_i</math>. Then also, <math> x+\lambda y(\alpha_1+\lambda \beta_1)\mathbf{e}_1 + \dots + (\alpha_n+\lambda\beta_n)\mathbf{e}_n </math> and <math> \mathbf{e}^i(x+\lambda y)\alpha_i+\lambda\beta_i\mathbf{e}^i(x)+\lambda \mathbf{e}^i(y) </math>. Therefore, <math> \mathbf{e}^i \in V^ </math> for <math> i= 1, 2, \dots, n </math>. # Suppose <math> \lambda_1 \mathbf{e}^1 + \cdots + \lambda_n \mathbf{e}^n 0 \in V^</math>. Applying this functional on the basis vectors of <math> V </math> successively, lead us to <math> \lambda_1\lambda_2\dots\lambda_n=0 </math> (The functional applied in <math> \mathbf{e}_i </math> results in <math> \lambda_i </math>). Therefore, <math>\{\mathbf{e}^1,\dots,\mathbf{e}^n\}</math> is linearly independent on <math>V^</math>. #Lastly, consider <math> g \in V^* </math>. Then :<math> g(x)g(\alpha_1\mathbf{e}_1 + \dots + \alpha_n\mathbf{e}_n)\alpha_1g(\mathbf{e}_1) + \dots + \alpha_ng(\mathbf{e}_n)=\mathbf{e}^1(x)g(\mathbf{e}_1) + \dots + \mathbf{e}^n(x)g(\mathbf{e}_n) </math> and <math>\{\mathbf{e}^1,\dots,\mathbf{e}^n\}</math> generates <math>V^</math>. Hence, it is a basis of <math> V^</math>. For example, if <math>V</math> is <math>\R^2</math>, let its basis be chosen as <math>\{\mathbf{e}_1(1/2,1/2),\mathbf{e}_2(0,1)\}</math>. The basis vectors are not orthogonal to each other. Then, <math>\mathbf{e}^1</math> and <math>\mathbf{e}^2</math> are one-forms (functions that map a vector to a scalar) such that <math>\mathbf{e}^1(\mathbf{e}_1)1</math>, <math>\mathbf{e}^1(\mathbf{e}_2)0</math>, <math>\mathbf{e}^2(\mathbf{e}_1)0</math>, and <math>\mathbf{e}^2(\mathbf{e}_2)1</math>. (Note: The superscript here is the index, not an exponent.) This system of equations can be expressed using matrix notation as :<math> \begin{bmatrix} e^{11} & e^{12} \\ e^{21} & e^{22} \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} e_{11} & e_{21} \\ e_{12} & e_{22} \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix}. </math> Solving for the unknown values in the first matrix shows the dual basis to be <math>\{\mathbf{e}^1(2,0),\mathbf{e}^2(-1,1)\}</math>. Because <math>\mathbf{e}^1</math> and <math>\mathbf{e}^2</math> are functionals, they can be rewritten as <math>\mathbf{e}^1(x,y)2x</math> and <math>\mathbf{e}^2(x,y)-x+y</math>. In general, when <math>V</math> is <math>\R^n</math>, if <math>E[\mathbf{e}_1\|\cdots\|\mathbf{e}_n]</math> is a matrix whose columns are the basis vectors and <math>\hat{E}[\mathbf{e}^1\|\cdots\|\mathbf{e}^n]</math> is a matrix whose columns are the dual basis vectors, then :<math>\hat{E}^\textrm{T}\cdot E = I_n,</math> where <math>I_n</math> is the identity matrix of order <math>n</math>. The biorthogonality property of these two basis sets allows any point <math>\mathbf{x}\in V</math> to be represented as :<math>\mathbf{x} \sum_i \langle\mathbf{x},\mathbf{e}^i \rangle \mathbf{e}_i \sum_i \langle \mathbf{x}, \mathbf{e}_i \rangle \mathbf{e}^i,</math> even when the basis vectors are not orthogonal to each other. Strictly speaking, the above statement only makes sense once the inner product <math>\langle \cdot, \cdot \rangle</math> and the corresponding duality pairing are introduced, as described below in . In particular, <math>\R^n</math> can be interpreted as the space of columns of <math>n</math> real numbers, its dual space is typically written as the space of rows of <math>n</math> real numbers. Such a row acts on <math>\R^n</math> as a linear functional by ordinary matrix multiplication. This is because a functional maps every <math>n</math>-vector <math>x</math> into a real number <math>y</math>. Then, seeing this functional as a matrix <math>M</math>, and <math>x</math> as an <math>n\times 1</math> matrix, and <math>y</math> a <math>1\times 1</math> matrix (trivially, a real number) respectively, if <math>Mx=y</math> then, by dimension reasons, <math>M</math> must be a <math>1\times n</math> matrix; that is, <math>M</math> must be a row vector. If <math>V</math> consists of the space of geometrical vectors in the plane, then the level curves of an element of <math>V^</math> form a family of parallel lines in <math>V</math>, because the range is 1-dimensional, so that every point in the range is a multiple of any one nonzero element. So an element of <math>V^</math> can be intuitively thought of as a particular family of parallel lines covering the plane. To compute the value of a functional on a given vector, it suffices to determine which of the lines the vector lies on. Informally, this "counts" how many lines the vector crosses. More generally, if <math>V</math> is a vector space of any dimension, then the level sets of a linear functional in <math>V^</math> are parallel hyperplanes in <math>V</math>, and the action of a linear functional on a vector can be visualized in terms of these hyperplanes. Infinite-dimensional case If <math>V</math> is not finite-dimensional but has a basis <math>\mathbf{e}_\alpha</math> indexed by an infinite set <math>A</math>, then the same construction as in the finite-dimensional case yields linearly independent elements <math>\mathbf{e}^\alpha</math> (<math>\alpha\in A</math>) of the dual space, but they will not form a basis. For instance, consider the space <math>\R^\infty</math>, whose elements are those sequences of real numbers that contain only finitely many non-zero entries, which has a basis indexed by the natural numbers <math>\N</math>. For <math>i \in \N</math>, <math>\mathbf{e}_i</math> is the sequence consisting of all zeroes except in the <math>i</math>-th position, which is 1. The dual space of <math>\R^\infty</math> is (isomorphic to) <math>\R^\N</math>, the space of all sequences of real numbers: each real sequence <math>(a_n)</math> defines a function where the element <math>(x_n)</math> of <math>\R^\infty</math> is sent to the number :<math>\sum_n a_nx_n,</math> which is a finite sum because there are only finitely many nonzero <math>x_n</math>. The dimension of <math>\R^\infty</math> is countably infinite, whereas <math>\R^\N</math> does not have a countable basis. This observation generalizes to any The exact dimension of the dual is given by the Erdős–Kaplansky theorem. Bilinear products and dual spaces If V is finite-dimensional, then V is isomorphic to V<sup>∗</sup>. But there is in general no natural isomorphism between these two spaces. Any bilinear form ·,·}} on V gives a mapping of V into its dual space via :<math>v\mapsto \langle v, \cdot\rangle</math> where the right hand side is defined as the functional on V taking each to v, w}}. In other words, the bilinear form determines a linear mapping :<math>\Phi_{\langle\cdot,\cdot\rangle} : V\to V^</math> defined by :<math>\left[\Phi_{\langle\cdot,\cdot\rangle}(v), w\right] = \langle v, w\rangle.</math> If the bilinear form is nondegenerate, then this is an isomorphism onto a subspace of V<sup>∗</sup>. If V is finite-dimensional, then this is an isomorphism onto all of V<sup>∗</sup>. Conversely, any isomorphism <math>\Phi</math> from V to a subspace of V<sup>∗</sup> (resp., all of V<sup>∗</sup> if V is finite dimensional) defines a unique nondegenerate bilinear form {{math\|<math> \langle \cdot, \cdot \rangle_{\Phi} </math>}} on V by :<math> \langle v, w \rangle_\Phi (\Phi (v))(w) [\Phi (v), w].\,</math> Thus there is a one-to-one correspondence between isomorphisms of V to a subspace of (resp., all of) V<sup>∗</sup> and nondegenerate bilinear forms on V. If the vector space V is over the complex field, then sometimes it is more natural to consider sesquilinear forms instead of bilinear forms. In that case, a given sesquilinear form ·,·}} determines an isomorphism of V with the complex conjugate of the dual space : <math> \Phi_{\langle \cdot, \cdot \rangle} : V\to \overline{V^}. </math> The conjugate of the dual space <math>\overline{V^}</math> can be identified with the set of all additive complex-valued functionals such that : <math> f(\alpha v) = \overline{\alpha}f(v). </math> Injection into the double-dual There is a natural homomorphism <math>\Psi</math> from <math>V</math> into the double dual <math>V^{*}\hom (V^, F)</math>, defined by <math>(\Psi(v))(\varphi)\varphi(v)</math> for all <math>v\in V, \varphi\in V^</math>. In other words, if <math>\mathrm{ev}_v:V^\to F</math> is the evaluation map defined by <math>\varphi \mapsto \varphi(v)</math>, then <math>\Psi: V \to V^{*}</math> is defined as the map <math>v\mapsto\mathrm{ev}_v</math>. This map <math>\Psi</math> is always injective; Indeed, the isomorphism of a finite-dimensional vector space with its double dual is an archetypal example of a natural isomorphism. Infinite-dimensional Hilbert spaces are not isomorphic to their algebraic double duals, but instead to their continuous double duals. Transpose of a linear map <!-- matrix (mathematics) and transpose link here --> If is a linear map, then the transpose (or dual) : W → V}} is defined by : <math> f^(\varphi) = \varphi \circ f \, </math> for every <math>\varphi \in W^</math>. The resulting functional <math>f^ (\varphi)</math> in <math>V^</math> is called the pullback of <math>\varphi</math> along <math>f</math>. The following identity holds for all <math>\varphi \in W^</math> and <math>v \in V</math>: : <math> [f^(\varphi),\, v] = [\varphi,\, f(v)], </math> where the bracket [·,·] on the left is the natural pairing of V with its dual space, and that on the right is the natural pairing of W with its dual. This identity characterizes the transpose, and is formally similar to the definition of the adjoint. The assignment }} produces an injective linear map between the space of linear operators from V to W and the space of linear operators from W to V; this homomorphism is an isomorphism if and only if W is finite-dimensional. If then the space of linear maps is actually an algebra under composition of maps, and the assignment is then an antihomomorphism of algebras, meaning that gf}}. In the language of category theory, taking the dual of vector spaces and the transpose of linear maps is therefore a contravariant functor from the category of vector spaces over F to itself. It is possible to identify (f) with f using the natural injection into the double dual. If the linear map f is represented by the matrix A with respect to two bases of V and W, then f is represented by the transpose matrix A<sup>T</sup> with respect to the dual bases of W and V, hence the name. Alternatively, as f is represented by A acting on the left on column vectors, f is represented by the same matrix acting on the right on row vectors. These points of view are related by the canonical inner product on R<sup>n</sup>, which identifies the space of column vectors with the dual space of row vectors. Quotient spaces and annihilators Let <math>S</math> be a subset of <math>V</math>. The annihilator of <math>S</math> in <math>V^</math>, denoted here <math>S^0</math>, is the collection of linear functionals <math>f\in V^</math> such that <math>[f,s]=0</math> for all <math>s\in S</math>. That is, <math>S^0</math> consists of all linear functionals <math>f:V\to F</math> such that the restriction to <math>S</math> vanishes: <math>f\|_S = 0</math>. Within finite dimensional vector spaces, the annihilator is dual to (isomorphic to) the orthogonal complement. The annihilator of a subset is itself a vector space. The annihilator of the zero vector is the whole dual space: <math>\{ 0 \}^0 V^</math>, and the annihilator of the whole space is just the zero covector: <math>V^0 \{ 0 \} \subseteq V^</math>. Furthermore, the assignment of an annihilator to a subset of <math>V</math> reverses inclusions, so that if <math>\{ 0 \} \subseteq S\subseteq T\subseteq V</math>, then : <math> \{ 0 \} \subseteq T^0 \subseteq S^0 \subseteq V^ . </math> If <math>A</math> and <math>B</math> are two subsets of <math>V</math> then : <math> A^0 + B^0 \subseteq (A \cap B)^0 . </math> If <math>(A_i)_{i\in I}</math> is any family of subsets of <math>V</math> indexed by <math>i</math> belonging to some index set <math>I</math>, then : <math> \left( \bigcup_{i\in I} A_i \right)^0 = \bigcap_{i\in I} A_i^0 . </math> In particular if <math>A</math> and <math>B</math> are subspaces of <math>V</math> then : <math> (A + B)^0 = A^0 \cap B^0 </math> and Under the natural pairing, these units cancel, and the resulting scalar value is dimensionless, as expected. For example, in (continuous) Fourier analysis, or more broadly time–frequency analysis: given a one-dimensional vector space with a unit of time , the dual space has units of frequency: occurrences per unit of time (units of ). For example, if time is measured in seconds, the corresponding dual unit is the inverse second: over the course of 3 seconds, an event that occurs 2 times per second occurs a total of 6 times, corresponding to <math>3s \cdot 2s^{-1} 6</math>. Similarly, if the primal space measures length, the dual space measures inverse length. Continuous dual space<!-- This section is linked from Reflexive space --> When dealing with topological vector spaces, the continuous linear functionals from the space into the base field <math>\mathbb{F} = \Complex</math> (or <math>\R</math>) are particularly important. This gives rise to the notion of the "continuous dual space" or "topological dual" which is a linear subspace of the algebraic dual space <math>V^</math>, denoted by <math>V'</math>. For any finite-dimensional normed vector space or topological vector space, such as Euclidean n-space, the continuous dual and the algebraic dual coincide. This is however false for any infinite-dimensional normed space, as shown by the example of discontinuous linear maps. Nevertheless, in the theory of topological vector spaces the terms "continuous dual space" and "topological dual space" are often replaced by "dual space". For a topological vector space <math>V</math> its continuous dual space, or topological dual space, or just dual space (in the sense of the theory of topological vector spaces) <math>V'</math> is defined as the space of all continuous linear functionals <math>\varphi:V\to{\mathbb F}</math>. Important examples for continuous dual spaces are the space of compactly supported test functions <math>\mathcal{D}</math> and its dual <math>\mathcal{D}',</math> the space of arbitrary distributions (generalized functions); the space of arbitrary test functions <math>\mathcal{E}</math> and its dual <math>\mathcal{E}',</math> the space of compactly supported distributions; and the space of rapidly decreasing test functions <math>\mathcal{S},</math> the Schwartz space, and its dual <math>\mathcal{S}',</math> the space of tempered distributions (slowly growing distributions) in the theory of generalized functions. Properties If is a Hausdorff topological vector space (TVS), then the continuous dual space of is identical to the continuous dual space of the completion of . Topologies on the dual There is a standard construction for introducing a topology on the continuous dual <math>V'</math> of a topological vector space <math>V</math>. Fix a collection <math>\mathcal{A}</math> of bounded subsets of <math>V</math>. This gives the topology on <math>V</math> of uniform convergence on sets from <math>\mathcal{A},</math> or what is the same thing, the topology generated by seminorms of the form :<math>\\|\varphi\\|_A = \sup_{x\in A} \|\varphi(x)\|,</math> where <math>\varphi</math> is a continuous linear functional on <math>V</math>, and <math>A</math> runs over the class <math>\mathcal{A}.</math> This means that a net of functionals <math>\varphi_i</math> tends to a functional <math>\varphi</math> in <math>V'</math> if and only if :<math>\text{ for all } A\in\mathcal{A}\qquad \\|\varphi_i-\varphi\\|_A = \sup_{x\in A} \|\varphi_i(x)-\varphi(x)\|\underset{i\to\infty}{\longrightarrow} 0. </math> Usually (but not necessarily) the class <math>\mathcal{A}</math> is supposed to satisfy the following conditions: Each point <math>x</math> of <math>V</math> belongs to some set <math>A\in\mathcal{A}</math>: :<math>\text{ for all } x \in V\quad \text{ there exists some } A \in \mathcal{A}\quad \text{ such that } x \in A.</math> Each two sets <math>A \in \mathcal{A}</math> and <math>B \in \mathcal{A}</math> are contained in some set <math>C \in \mathcal{A}</math>: :<math>\text{ for all } A, B \in \mathcal{A}\quad \text{ there exists some } C \in \mathcal{A}\quad \text{ such that } A \cup B \subseteq C.</math> <math>\mathcal{A}</math> is closed under the operation of multiplication by scalars: :<math>\text{ for all } A \in \mathcal{A}\quad \text{ and all } \lambda \in {\mathbb F}\quad \text{ such that } \lambda \cdot A \in \mathcal{A}.</math> If these requirements are fulfilled then the corresponding topology on <math>V'</math> is Hausdorff and the sets :<math>U_A ~=~ \left \{ \varphi \in V' ~:~ \quad \\|\varphi\\|_A < 1 \right \},\qquad \text{ for } A \in \mathcal{A}</math> form its local base. Here are the three most important special cases. The strong topology on <math>V'</math> is the topology of uniform convergence on bounded subsets in <math>V</math> (so here <math>\mathcal{A}</math> can be chosen as the class of all bounded subsets in <math>V</math>). If <math>V</math> is a normed vector space (for example, a Banach space or a Hilbert space) then the strong topology on <math>V'</math> is normed (in fact a Banach space if the field of scalars is complete), with the norm ::<math>\\|\varphi\\| = \sup_{\\|x\\| \le 1 } \|\varphi(x)\|.</math> * The stereotype topology on <math>V'</math> is the topology of uniform convergence on totally bounded sets in <math>V</math> (so here <math>\mathcal{A}</math> can be chosen as the class of all totally bounded subsets in <math>V</math>). * The weak topology on <math>V'</math> is the topology of uniform convergence on finite subsets in <math>V</math> (so here <math>\mathcal{A}</math> can be chosen as the class of all finite subsets in <math>V</math>). Each of these three choices of topology on <math>V'</math> leads to a variant of reflexivity property for topological vector spaces: * If <math>V'</math> is endowed with the strong topology, then the corresponding notion of reflexivity is the standard one: the spaces reflexive in this sense are just called reflexive. * If <math>V'</math> is endowed with the stereotype dual topology, then the corresponding reflexivity is presented in the theory of stereotype spaces: the spaces reflexive in this sense are called stereotype. * If <math>V'</math> is endowed with the weak topology, then the corresponding reflexivity is presented in the theory of dual pairs: the spaces reflexive in this sense are arbitrary (Hausdorff) locally convex spaces with the weak topology. Examples Let 1 < p < ∞ be a real number and consider the Banach space ℓ<sup> p</sup> of all sequences for which :<math>\\|\mathbf{a}\\|_p \left ( \sum_{n0}^\infty \|a_n\|^p \right) ^{\frac{1}{p}} < \infty.</math> Define the number q by . Then the continuous dual of ℓ<sup> p</sup> is naturally identified with ℓ<sup> q</sup>: given an element <math>\varphi \in (\ell^p)'</math>, the corresponding element of is the sequence <math>(\varphi(\mathbf {e}_n))</math> where <math>\mathbf {e}_n</math> denotes the sequence whose -th term is 1 and all others are zero. Conversely, given an element , the corresponding continuous linear functional <math>\varphi</math> on is defined by :<math>\varphi (\mathbf{b}) = \sum_n a_n b_n</math> for all (see Hölder's inequality). In a similar manner, the continuous dual of is naturally identified with (the space of bounded sequences). Furthermore, the continuous duals of the Banach spaces c (consisting of all convergent sequences, with the supremum norm) and c<sub>0</sub> (the sequences converging to zero) are both naturally identified with . By the Riesz representation theorem, the continuous dual of a Hilbert space is again a Hilbert space which is anti-isomorphic to the original space. This gives rise to the bra–ket notation used by physicists in the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics. By the Riesz–Markov–Kakutani representation theorem, the continuous dual of certain spaces of continuous functions can be described using measures. Transpose of a continuous linear map If is a continuous linear map between two topological vector spaces, then the (continuous) transpose is defined by the same formula as before: :<math>T'(\varphi) = \varphi \circ T, \quad \varphi \in W'.</math> The resulting functional is in . The assignment produces a linear map between the space of continuous linear maps from V to W and the space of linear maps from to . When T and U are composable continuous linear maps, then :<math>(U \circ T)' = T' \circ U'.</math> When V and W are normed spaces, the norm of the transpose in is equal to that of T in . Several properties of transposition depend upon the Hahn–Banach theorem. For example, the bounded linear map T has dense range if and only if the transpose is injective. When T is a compact linear map between two Banach spaces V and W, then the transpose is compact. This can be proved using the Arzelà–Ascoli theorem. When V is a Hilbert space, there is an antilinear isomorphism i<sub>V</sub> from V onto its continuous dual . For every bounded linear map T on V, the transpose and the adjoint operators are linked by :<math>i_V \circ T^* = T' \circ i_V.</math> When T is a continuous linear map between two topological vector spaces V and W, then the transpose is continuous when and are equipped with "compatible" topologies: for example, when for and , both duals have the strong topology of uniform convergence on bounded sets of X, or both have the weak-∗ topology of pointwise convergence on X. The transpose is continuous from to , or from to . Annihilators Assume that W is a closed linear subspace of a normed space V, and consider the annihilator of W in , :<math>W^\perp = \{ \varphi \in V' : W \subseteq \ker \varphi\}.</math> Then, the dual of the quotient can be identified with W<sup>⊥</sup>, and the dual of W can be identified with the quotient . Indeed, let P denote the canonical surjection from V onto the quotient ; then, the transpose is an isometric isomorphism from into , with range equal to W<sup>⊥</sup>. If j denotes the injection map from W into V, then the kernel of the transpose is the annihilator of W: :<math>\ker (j') = W^\perp</math> and it follows from the Hahn–Banach theorem that induces an isometric isomorphism . Further properties If the dual of a normed space is separable, then so is the space itself. The converse is not true: for example, the space is separable, but its dual is not. Double dual of vector addition from a vector space to its double dual. x<sub>1</sub>, x<sub>2</sub>}} denotes the ordered pair of two vectors. The addition + sends x<sub>1</sub> and x<sub>2</sub> to . The addition +′ induced by the transformation can be defined as ''<math>[\Psi(x_1) +' \Psi(x_2)](\varphi) \varphi(x_1 + x_2) \varphi(x)</math> for any <math>\varphi</math> in the dual space.]] In analogy with the case of the algebraic double dual, there is always a naturally defined continuous linear operator from a normed space V into its continuous double dual , defined by :<math> \Psi(x)(\varphi) = \varphi(x), \quad x \in V, \ \varphi \in V' .</math> As a consequence of the Hahn–Banach theorem, this map is in fact an isometry, meaning for all . Normed spaces for which the map Ψ is a bijection are called reflexive. When V is a topological vector space then Ψ(x) can still be defined by the same formula, for every , however several difficulties arise. First, when V is not locally convex, the continuous dual may be equal to { 0 } and the map Ψ trivial. However, if V is Hausdorff and locally convex, the map Ψ is injective from V to the algebraic dual of the continuous dual, again as a consequence of the Hahn–Banach theorem. Second, even in the locally convex setting, several natural vector space topologies can be defined on the continuous dual , so that the continuous double dual is not uniquely defined as a set. Saying that Ψ maps from V to , or in other words, that Ψ(x) is continuous on for every , is a reasonable minimal requirement on the topology of , namely that the evaluation mappings : <math> \varphi \in V' \mapsto \varphi(x), \quad x \in V , </math> be continuous for the chosen topology on . Further, there is still a choice of a topology on , and continuity of Ψ depends upon this choice. As a consequence, defining reflexivity in this framework is more involved than in the normed case. See also * Covariance and contravariance of vectors * Dual module * Dual norm * Duality (mathematics) * Duality (projective geometry) * Pontryagin duality * Reciprocal lattice – dual space basis, in crystallography Notes References Bibliography* * * * * * * * . * * <!-- --> * * <!-- --> * * * <!-- --> * <!-- -->External links* Category:Functional analysis Category:Linear algebra Space Category:Linear functionals	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_space	2025-04-05T18:28:21.042683
7989	Dianetics	Dianetics is a set of ideas and practices, invented in 1950 by science fiction writer L.Ron Hubbard, regarding the human mind. Dianetics was originally conceived as a form of psychological treatment, but was rejected by the psychological and medical establishments as pseudoscientific. It was the precursor to Scientology and has since been incorporated into it. It involves a process referred to as "auditing", which utilizes an electrical resistance meter, ostensibly to remove emotional burdens and "cure" people from their troubles. "Auditing" uses techniques from hypnosis that are intended to create dependency and obedience in the auditing subject. after several practitioners had been arrested for practicing medicine without a license, and a prosecution trial was pending against the first Dianetics organization that Hubbard founded in Elizabeth, New Jersey. As well as escaping prosecution, Hubbard also saw the possibility of reducing the tax burden from the sale of dianetics books and methods. Premise The word Dianetics was coined from Greek dia meaning "through" and nous meaning "mind". Dianetics theory describes the human mind as two parts: the conscious "analytical mind" and the subconscious "reactive mind". The stated purpose of Dianetics technique, called "auditing", is to erase the contents of the reactive mind—the holder of painful and destructive emotions which can act on a person as posthypnotic suggestions. "Auditing" uses techniques from hypnosis which are intended to create dependency and obedience in the auditing subject. In auditing, the person is asked questions intended to help them locate and deal with painful past experiences. Dianetics theory posits that "the basic principle of existence is to survive" and that the basic personality of humans is sincere, intelligent, and good. The drive for goodness and survival is distorted and inhibited by aberrations (deviations from rational thinking). Hubbard claimed that Dianetics could increase intelligence, eliminate unwanted emotions and alleviate a wide range of illnesses he believed to be psychosomatic. Conditions purportedly treatable with Dianetics included arthritis, allergies, asthma, some coronary difficulties, eye trouble, ulcers, migraine headaches, and sexual deviation. History According to Hubbard, when he was sedated for a dental operation in 1938, he had a near-death experience which inspired him to write the manuscript Excalibur. Though it was never published, this work would allegedly become the basis for Dianetics. The first publication on Dianetics was Dianetics: The Evolution of a Science, an article by Hubbard in Astounding Science Fiction (cover date May 1950). This was followed by the book Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health (DMSMH) published May 9, 1950. In these works Hubbard claimed that the source of all psychological pain, and therefore the cause of mental and physical health problems, was a form of memory known as "engrams". According to Hubbard, individuals could reach a state he named "Clear" when all of their engrams had been removed through talking with an "auditor". While the technique was not accepted by the medical and scientific establishment, in the first two years of its publication DMSMH sold over 100,000 copies. Publication of DMSMH brought in a flood of revenue, which Hubbard used to establish Dianetics foundations in six major American cities. Two of the strongest initial supporters of Dianetics in the 1950s were John W. Campbell, editor of Astounding Science Fiction, and Joseph Augustus Winter, a writer and medical physician. Campbell published some of Hubbard's short stories, and Winter hoped that his own colleagues would likewise be attracted to Hubbard's Dianetics system. Readers formed groups to study and practice Dianetics technique. According to sociologist Roy Wallis, this period was one of "excited experimentation" and Hubbard's work was regarded as "an initial exploration to be developed further by others". Per Wallis, it was Dianetics' popularity as a lay psychotherapy that contributed to the Dianetics Foundation's downfall. Most people read the book, tried it out, then put it down. The remaining practitioners had no ties to the Foundation. Factions formed and followers challenged Hubbard's movement and his authority. The craze of 1950–51 was dead by 1952. In 1951, with debts piled up and facing bankruptcy, the Foundation was bailed out by Don Purcell, a wealthy Dianetics follower from Wichita. The relief was short-lived, however, and the Foundation fell to bankruptcy in 1952. Hubbard fled to Phoenix, Arizona, having lost the Foundation, the rights to Dianetics, and the DMSMH copyrights to Purcell. Hubbard sued and in 1954 Purcell settled by giving the copyrights back to Hubbard. In Phoenix, Hubbard created "Scientology"; its techniques were intended to rehabilitate a person so that they might reach their full potential as a spiritual being. Dianetics was incorporated into Scientology. In 1978, Hubbard introduced "New Era Dianetics" (NED) and New Era Dianetics for OTs, and added them to The Bridge to Total Freedom. Concepts In the book, Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health, Hubbard describes techniques that he suggests can rid individuals of fears and psychosomatic illnesses. A basic idea in Dianetics is that the mind consists of two parts: the "analytical mind" and the "reactive mind". The "reactive mind", the mind which operates when a person is physically unconscious, acts as a record of shock, trauma, pain, and otherwise harmful memories. Experiences such as these, stored in the "reactive mind" are dubbed "engrams". Dianetics is proposed as a method to erase these engrams in the reactive mind to achieve a state of clear. In Dianetics, the unconscious or reactive mind is described as a collection of "mental image pictures", which contain the recorded experience of past moments of unconsciousness, including all sensory perceptions and feelings involved, ranging from pre-natal experiences, infancy and childhood, to even the traumatic feelings associated with events from past lives and extraterrestrial cultures. The type of mental image picture created during a period of unconsciousness involves the exact recording of a painful experience. Hubbard called this phenomenon an engram, and defined it as "a moment of 'unconsciousness' containing physical pain or painful emotion and all perceptions and is not available to the analytical mind as experience". Hubbard proposed that these engrams caused "aberrations" (deviations from rational thinking) in the mind, which produced lasting adverse physical and emotional effects. When the analytical (conscious) mind shut down during these moments, events and perceptions of this period were stored as engrams in the unconscious or reactive mind. In Hubbard's earliest publications on the subject, engrams were variously referred to as norn, impediment, and comanome before "engram" was adapted from its existing usage at the suggestion of Joseph Augustus Winter, MD. Some commentators noted Dianetics's blend of science fiction and occult orientations at the time.}} According to Bent Corydon, Hubbard created the illusion that Dianetics was the first psychotherapy to address traumatic experiences in their own time, but others had done so before as standard procedure. Hugh Urban wrote it was clear that Hubbard's work had been influenced by Carl Jung, Sigmund Freud and Otto Rank, and Hubbard himself mentioned similarities between Dianetics and Freud. Hubbard claimed that by using Dianetics technique the reactive mind could be emptied of all engrams; "cleared" of its contents. A person who has completed this process would be "Clear". The benefits of Clear might include a higher IQ, better relationships, or career success. Procedure The procedure of Dianetics therapy (known as auditing) is a two-person activity. One person, the "auditor", guides the other person, the preclear, through the procedures. The preclear's job is to look at their mind and talk to the auditor. The auditor acknowledges what the preclear says and controls the process. The auditor and preclear sit down facing each other. After getting settled, the auditor tells the preclear to close their eyes and locate something that happened to them in the past. The preclear tells the auditor what happened in the incident like he is re-experiencing it again. The auditor coaxes the preclear to recall as much as possible, and goes back over the incident several times until the preclear is cheerful about it, at which point the auditor may end the session or find another incident and repeat the process. Therapeutic claims }} In August 1950, amidst the success of Dianetics, Hubbard held a demonstration in Los Angeles' Shrine Auditorium where he presented a young woman called Sonya Bianca (a pseudonym) to a large audience including many reporters and photographers as "the world's first Clear". Despite Hubbard's claim that she had "full and perfect recall of every moment of her life", Bianca proved unable to answer questions from the audience testing her memory and analytical abilities, including the question of the color of Hubbard's tie. Hubbard explained Bianca's failure to display her promised powers of recall to the audience by saying that he had used the word "now" in calling her to the stage, and thus inadvertently froze her in "present time", which blocked her abilities. Later, in the late 1950s, Hubbard would claim that several people had reached the state of Clear by the time he presented Bianca as the world's first; these others, Hubbard said, he had successfully cleared in the late 1940s while working incognito in Hollywood posing as a swami. In 1966, Hubbard declared South African Scientologist John McMaster to be the first true Clear. Hubbard claimed, in an interview with The New York Times in November 1950, that "he had already submitted proof of claims made in the book to a number of scientists and associations." He added that the public as well as proper organizations were entitled to such proof and that he was ready and willing to give such proof in detail. In January 1951, the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation of Elizabeth, New Jersey, published Dianetic Processing: A Brief Survey of Research Projects and Preliminary Results, a booklet providing the results of psychometric tests conducted on 88 people undergoing Dianetics therapy. It presents case histories and a number of X-ray plates to support claims that Dianetics had cured "aberrations" including manic depression, asthma, arthritis, colitis and "overt homosexuality", and that after Dianetic processing, test subjects experienced significantly increased scores on a standardized IQ test. The report's subjects are not identified by name, but one of them is clearly Hubbard himself ("Case 1080A, R. L."). The authors provide no qualifications, although they are described in Hubbard's book Science of Survival (where some results of the same study were reprinted) as psychotherapists. Critics of Dianetics are skeptical of this study, both because of the bias of the source and because the researchers appear to ascribe all physical benefits to Dianetics without considering possible outside factors; in other words, the report lacks any scientific controls. Winter was originally an associate of Hubbard and an early adopter of Dianetics, but by the end of 1950 had cut ties with Hubbard and written an account of his personal experiences with Dianetics. He described Hubbard as "absolutistic and authoritarian", Hubbard writes: "Again, Dianetics is not being released to a profession, for no profession could encompass it."Scientific rejectionHubbard's original book on Dianetics attracted highly critical reviews from science and medical writers and organizations. The American Psychological Association passed a resolution in 1950 calling "attention to the fact that these claims are not supported by empirical evidence of the sort required for the establishment of scientific generalizations." Subsequently, Dianetics has achieved no acceptance as a scientific theory, and scientists cite Dianetics as an example of a pseudoscience. Few scientific investigations into the effectiveness of Dianetics have been published. Professor John A. Lee states in his 1970 evaluation of Dianetics: }} The validity and practice of auditing have been questioned by a variety of non-Scientologist commentators. Commenting on the example cited by Winter, the science writer Martin Gardner asserts that "nothing could be clearer from the above dialogue than the fact that the dianetic explanation for the headache existed only in the mind of the therapist, and that it was with considerable difficulty that the patient was maneuvered into accepting it." Other critics and medical experts have suggested that Dianetic auditing is a form of hypnosis. Hubbard, who had previously used hypnosis for entertainment purposes, strongly denied this connection and cautioned against hypnosis in Dianetics auditing. Professor Richard J. Ofshe, a leading expert on false memories, suggests that the feeling of well-being reported by preclear at the end of an auditing session may be induced by post-hypnotic suggestion. Other researchers have identified quotations in Hubbard's work suggesting evidence that false memories were created in Dianetics, specifically in the form of birth and pre-birth memories. According to an article by physician Martin Gumpert, "Hubbard's concept of psychosomatic disease is definitely wrong. Psychosomatic ailments are not simply caused by emotional disturbances: they are diseases in which the emotional and the organic factor are closely involved and interdependent." }} See also * Auditing (Scientology) * Bibliography of Scientology * Co-counselling References Further reading * * Breuer J, Freud S, "Studies in Hysteria", Vol II of the Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud (Hogarth Press, London, 1955). * Fischer, Harvey Jay: "Dianetic therapy: an experimental evaluation. A statistical analysis of the effect of dianetic therapy as measured by group tests of intelligence, mathematics and personality. " Abstract of Ph.D. thesis, 1953, New York University * * O'Brien, Helen: Dianetics in Limbo. Whitmore, Philadelphia, 1966 * * van Vogt, A.E.: Dianetics and the Professions, 1953 * External links * Category:Scientology Category:Nation of Islam Category:Pseudoscience Category:1950 introductions Category:American inventions	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dianetics	2025-04-05T18:28:21.082249
7990	Data warehouse	overview, with Data Marts shown in the top right.]] In computing, a data warehouse (DW or DWH), also known as an enterprise data warehouse (EDW), is a system used for reporting and data analysis and is a core component of business intelligence. Data warehouses are central repositories of data integrated from disparate sources. They store current and historical data organized in a way that is optimized for data analysis, generation of reports, and developing insights across the integrated data. They are intended to be used by analysts and managers to help make organizational decisions. The data stored in the warehouse is uploaded from operational systems (such as marketing or sales). The data may pass through an operational data store and may require data cleansing for additional operations to ensure data quality before it is used in the data warehouse for reporting. The two main workflows for building a data warehouse system are extract, transform, load (ETL) and extract, load, transform (ELT). Components The environment for data warehouses and marts includes the following: * Source systems of data (often, the company's operational databases, such as relational databases As with warehouses, stored data is usually not normalized. {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Difference between data warehouse and \|- ! Attribute ! Data warehouse ! Data mart \|- ! style="text-align: left" \| Scope of the data \| enterprise \| department \|- ! style="text-align: left" \| Number of subject areas \| multiple \| single \|- ! style="text-align: left" \| How difficult to build \| difficult \| easy \|- ! style="text-align: left" \| Memory required \| larger \| limited \|} Types of data marts include dependent, independent, and hybrid data marts. Variants ETL The typical extract, transform, load (ETL)-based data warehouse uses staging, data integration, and access layers to house its key functions. The staging layer or staging database stores raw data extracted from each of the disparate source data systems. The integration layer integrates disparate data sets by transforming the data from the staging layer, often storing this transformed data in an operational data store (ODS) database. The integrated data are then moved to yet another database, often called the data warehouse database, where the data is arranged into hierarchical groups, often called dimensions, and into facts and aggregate facts. The combination of facts and dimensions is sometimes called a star schema. The access layer helps users retrieve data. The main source of the data is cleansed, transformed, catalogued, and made available for use by managers and other business professionals for data mining, online analytical processing, market research and decision support. However, the means to retrieve and analyze data, to extract, transform, and load data, and to manage the data dictionary are also considered essential components of a data warehousing system. Many references to data warehousing use this broader context. Thus, an expanded definition of data warehousing includes business intelligence tools, tools to extract, transform, and load data into the repository, and tools to manage and retrieve metadata. ELT -based data warehouse architecture]] ELT-based data warehousing gets rid of a separate ETL tool for data transformation. Instead, it maintains a staging area inside the data warehouse itself. In this approach, data gets extracted from heterogeneous source systems and are then directly loaded into the data warehouse, before any transformation occurs. All necessary transformations are then handled inside the data warehouse itself. Finally, the manipulated data gets loaded into target tables in the same data warehouse. Benefits A data warehouse maintains a copy of information from the source transaction systems. This architectural complexity provides the opportunity to: * Integrate data from multiple sources into a single database and data model. More congregation of data to single database so a single query engine can be used to present data in an operational data store. * Mitigate the problem of isolation-level lock contention in transaction processing systems caused by long-running analysis queries in transaction processing databases. * Maintain data history, even if the source transaction systems do not. * Integrate data from multiple source systems, enabling a central view across the enterprise. This benefit is always valuable, but particularly so when the organization grows via merging. * Improve data quality, by providing consistent codes and descriptions, flagging or even fixing bad data. * Present the organization's information consistently. * Provide a single common data model for all data of interest regardless of data source. * Restructure the data so that it makes sense to the business users. * Restructure the data so that it delivers excellent query performance, even for complex analytic queries, without impacting the operational systems. * Add value to operational business applications, notably customer relationship management (CRM) systems. * Make decision–support queries easier to write. * Organize and disambiguate repetitive data. History The concept of data warehousing dates back to the late 1980s when IBM researchers Barry Devlin and Paul Murphy developed the "business data warehouse". In essence, the data warehousing concept was intended to provide an architectural model for the flow of data from operational systems to decision support environments. The concept attempted to address the various problems associated with this flow, mainly the high costs associated with it. In the absence of a data warehousing architecture, an enormous amount of redundancy was required to support multiple decision support environments. In larger corporations, it was typical for multiple decision support environments to operate independently. Though each environment served different users, they often required much of the same stored data. The process of gathering, cleaning and integrating data from various sources, usually from long-term existing operational systems (usually referred to as legacy systems), was typically in part replicated for each environment. Moreover, the operational systems were frequently reexamined as new decision support requirements emerged. Often new requirements necessitated gathering, cleaning and integrating new data from "data marts" that was tailored for ready access by users. Additionally, with the publication of The IRM Imperative (Wiley & Sons, 1991) by James M. Kerr, the idea of managing and putting a dollar value on an organization's data resources and then reporting that value as an asset on a balance sheet became popular. In the book, Kerr described a way to populate subject-area databases from data derived from transaction-driven systems to create a storage area where summary data could be further leveraged to inform executive decision-making. This concept served to promote further thinking of how a data warehouse could be developed and managed in a practical way within any enterprise. Key developments in early years of data warehousing: * 1960s – General Mills and Dartmouth College, in a joint research project, develop the terms dimensions and facts. * 1970s – ACNielsen and IRI provide dimensional data marts for retail sales. * 1975 – Sperry Univac introduces MAPPER (MAintain, Prepare, and Produce Executive Reports), a database management and reporting system that includes the world's first 4GL. It is the first platform designed for building Information Centers (a forerunner of contemporary data warehouse technology). * 1983 – Teradata introduces the DBC/1012 database computer specifically designed for decision support. * 1984 – Metaphor Computer Systems, founded by David Liddle and Don Massaro, releases a hardware/software package and GUI for business users to create a database management and analytic system. * 1988 – Barry Devlin and Paul Murphy publish the article "An architecture for a business and information system" where they introduce the term "business data warehouse". * 1990 – Red Brick Systems, founded by Ralph Kimball, introduces Red Brick Warehouse, a database management system specifically for data warehousing. * 1991 – James M. Kerr authors The IRM Imperative, which suggests data resources could be reported as an asset on a balance sheet, furthering commercial interest in the establishment of data warehouses. * 1991 – Prism Solutions, founded by Bill Inmon, introduces Prism Warehouse Manager, software for developing a data warehouse. * 1992 – Bill Inmon publishes the book Building the Data Warehouse. * 1995 – The Data Warehousing Institute, a for-profit organization that promotes data warehousing, is founded. * 1996 – Ralph Kimball publishes the book The Data Warehouse Toolkit. * 1998 – Focal modeling is implemented as an ensemble (hybrid) data warehouse modeling approach, with Patrik Lager as one of the main drivers. * 2000 – Dan Linstedt releases in the public domain the Data vault modeling, conceived in 1990 as an alternative to Inmon and Kimball to provide long-term historical storage of data coming in from multiple operational systems, with emphasis on tracing, auditing and resilience to change of the source data model. * 2008 – Bill Inmon, along with Derek Strauss and Genia Neushloss, publishes "DW 2.0: The Architecture for the Next Generation of Data Warehousing", explaining his top-down approach to data warehousing and coining the term, data-warehousing 2.0. * 2008 – Anchor modeling was formalized in a paper presented at the International Conference on Conceptual Modeling, and won the best paper award * 2012 – Bill Inmon develops and makes public technology known as "textual disambiguation". Textual disambiguation applies context to raw text and reformats the raw text and context into a standard data base format. Once raw text is passed through textual disambiguation, it can easily and efficiently be accessed and analyzed by standard business intelligence technology. Textual disambiguation is accomplished through the execution of textual ETL. Textual disambiguation is useful wherever raw text is found, such as in documents, Hadoop, email, and so forth. * 2013 – Data vault 2.0 was released, having some minor changes to the modeling method, as well as integration with best practices from other methodologies, architectures and implementations including agile and CMMI principles Data organization Facts A fact is a value or measurement in the system being managed. Raw facts are ones reported by the reporting entity. For example, in a mobile telephone system, if a base transceiver station (BTS) receives 1,000 requests for traffic channel allocation, allocates for 820, and rejects the rest, it could report three facts to a management system: * 1000}} * 820}} * 180}} Raw facts are aggregated to higher levels in various dimensions to extract information more relevant to the service or business. These are called aggregated facts or summaries. For example, if there are three BTSs in a city, then the facts above can be aggregated to the city level in the network dimension. For example: * tch_req_success_bts1 + tch_req_success_bts2 + tch_req_success_bts3}} * (tch_req_success_bts1 + tch_req_success_bts2 + tch_req_success_bts3) / 3}}Dimensional versus normalized approach for storage of dataThe two most important approaches to store data in a warehouse are dimensional and normalized. The dimensional approach uses a star schema as proposed by Ralph Kimball. The normalized approach, also called the third normal form (3NF) is an entity-relational normalized model proposed by Bill Inmon. Dimensional approach In a dimensional approach, transaction data is partitioned into "facts", which are usually numeric transaction data, and "dimensions", which are the reference information that gives context to the facts. For example, a sales transaction can be broken up into facts such as the number of products ordered and the total price paid for the products, and into dimensions such as order date, customer name, product number, order ship-to and bill-to locations, and salesperson responsible for receiving the order. This dimensional approach makes data easier to understand and speeds up data retrieval. where dimensions are the categorical coordinates in a multi-dimensional cube, the fact is a value corresponding to the coordinates. The main disadvantages of the dimensional approach are: # It is complicated to maintain the integrity of facts and dimensions, loading the data warehouse with data from different operational systems # It is difficult to modify the warehouse structure if the organization changes the way it does business. Normalized approach In the normalized approach, the data in the warehouse are stored following, to a degree, database normalization rules. Normalized relational database tables are grouped into subject areas (for example, customers, products and finance). When used in large enterprises, the result is dozens of tables linked by a web of joins.(Kimball, Ralph 2008). The main advantage of this approach is that it is straightforward to add information into the database. Disadvantages include that, because of the large number of tables, it can be difficult for users to join data from different sources into meaningful information and access the information without a precise understanding of the date sources and the data structure of the data warehouse. Both normalized and dimensional models can be represented in entity–relationship diagrams because both contain joined relational tables. The difference between them is the degree of normalization. These approaches are not mutually exclusive, and there are other approaches. Dimensional approaches can involve normalizing data to a degree (Kimball, Ralph 2008). In Information-Driven Business, Robert Hillard compares the two approaches based on the information needs of the business problem. He concludes that normalized models hold far more information than their dimensional equivalents (even when the same fields are used in both models) but at the cost of usability. The technique measures information quantity in terms of information entropy and usability in terms of the Small Worlds data transformation measure. Design methods Bottom-up designIn the bottom-up approach, data marts are first created to provide reporting and analytical capabilities for specific business processes. These data marts can then be integrated to create a comprehensive data warehouse. The data warehouse bus architecture is primarily an implementation of "the bus", a collection of conformed dimensions and conformed facts, which are dimensions that are shared (in a specific way) between facts in two or more data marts.Top-down designThe top-down approach is designed using a normalized enterprise data model. "Atomic" data, that is, data at the greatest level of detail, are stored in the data warehouse. Dimensional data marts containing data needed for specific business processes or specific departments are created from the data warehouse. Hybrid design Data warehouses often resemble the hub and spokes architecture. Legacy systems feeding the warehouse often include customer relationship management and enterprise resource planning, generating large amounts of data. To consolidate these various data models, and facilitate the extract transform load process, data warehouses often make use of an operational data store, the information from which is parsed into the actual data warehouse. To reduce data redundancy, larger systems often store the data in a normalized way. Data marts for specific reports can then be built on top of the data warehouse. A hybrid (also called ensemble) data warehouse database is kept on third normal form to eliminate data redundancy. A normal relational database, however, is not efficient for business intelligence reports where dimensional modelling is prevalent. Small data marts can shop for data from the consolidated warehouse and use the filtered, specific data for the fact tables and dimensions required. The data warehouse provides a single source of information from which the data marts can read, providing a wide range of business information. The hybrid architecture allows a data warehouse to be replaced with a master data management repository where operational (not static) information could reside. The data vault modeling components follow hub and spokes architecture. This modeling style is a hybrid design, consisting of the best practices from both third normal form and star schema. The data vault model is not a true third normal form, and breaks some of its rules, but it is a top-down architecture with a bottom up design. The data vault model is geared to be strictly a data warehouse. It is not geared to be end-user accessible, which, when built, still requires the use of a data mart or star schema-based release area for business purposes. Characteristics There are basic features that define the data in the data warehouse that include subject orientation, data integration, time-variant, nonvolatile data, and data granularity. Subject-oriented Unlike the operational systems, the data in the data warehouse revolves around the subjects of the enterprise. Subject orientation is not database normalization. Subject orientation can be really useful for decision-making. Gathering the required objects is called subject-oriented. Integrated The data found within the data warehouse is integrated. Since it comes from several operational systems, all inconsistencies must be removed. Consistencies include naming conventions, measurement of variables, encoding structures, physical attributes of data, and so forth. Time-variant While operational systems reflect current values as they support day-to-day operations, data warehouse data represents a long time horizon (up to 10 years) which means it stores mostly historical data. It is mainly meant for data mining and forecasting. (E.g. if a user is searching for a buying pattern of a specific customer, the user needs to look at data on the current and past purchases.)NonvolatileThe data in the data warehouse is read-only, which means it cannot be updated, created, or deleted (unless there is a regulatory or statutory obligation to do so). Options Aggregation In the data warehouse process, data can be aggregated in data marts at different levels of abstraction. The user may start looking at the total sale units of a product in an entire region. Then the user looks at the states in that region. Finally, they may examine the individual stores in a certain state. Therefore, typically, the analysis starts at a higher level and drills down to lower levels of details.ArchitectureThe different methods used to construct/organize a data warehouse specified by an organization are numerous. The hardware utilized, software created and data resources specifically required for the correct functionality of a data warehouse are the main components of the data warehouse architecture. All data warehouses have multiple phases in which the requirements of the organization are modified and fine-tuned.Evolution in organization use These terms refer to the level of sophistication of a data warehouse: ; Offline operational data warehouse: Data warehouses in this stage of evolution are updated on a regular time cycle (usually daily, weekly or monthly) from the operational systems and the data is stored in an integrated reporting-oriented database. ; Offline data warehouse: Data warehouses at this stage are updated from data in the operational systems on a regular basis and the data warehouse data are stored in a data structure designed to facilitate reporting. ; On-time data warehouse: Online Integrated Data Warehousing represent the real-time Data warehouses stage data in the warehouse is updated for every transaction performed on the source data ; Integrated data warehouse: These data warehouses assemble data from different areas of business, so users can look up the information they need across other systems.See also * List of business intelligence software * * References Further reading * Davenport, Thomas H. and Harris, Jeanne G. Competing on Analytics: The New Science of Winning (2007) Harvard Business School Press. * Ganczarski, Joe. Data Warehouse Implementations: Critical Implementation Factors Study (2009) VDM Verlag * Kimball, Ralph and Ross, Margy. The Data Warehouse Toolkit Third Edition (2013) Wiley, * Linstedt, Graziano, Hultgren. The Business of Data Vault Modeling Second Edition (2010) Dan linstedt, * William Inmon. Building the Data Warehouse (2005) John Wiley and Sons, Category:Data engineering	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_warehouse	2025-04-05T18:28:21.107930
7991	Disperser	}} A disperser is a one-sided extractor. Where an extractor requires that every event gets the same probability under the uniform distribution and the extracted distribution, only the latter is required for a disperser. So for a disperser, an event <math>A \subseteq \{0,1\}^{m}</math> we have: <math>Pr_{U_{m}}[A] > 1 - \epsilon</math> Definition (Disperser): A <math>(k, \epsilon)</math>-disperser is a function <math>Dis: \{0,1\}^{n}\times \{0,1\}^{d}\rightarrow \{0,1\}^{m}</math> such that for every distribution <math>X</math> on <math>\{0,1\}^{n}</math> with <math>H_{\infty}(X) \geq k</math> the support of the distribution <math>Dis(X,U_{d})</math> is of size at least <math>(1-\epsilon)2^{m}</math>. Graph theory An '(N, M, D, K, e)-disperser' is a bipartite graph with N vertices on the left side, each with degree D, and M vertices on the right side, such that every subset of K vertices on the left side is connected to more than (1 − e)M vertices on the right. An extractor is a related type of graph that guarantees an even stronger property; every '(N, M, D, K, e)-extractor is also an (N, M, D, K, e)-disperser'. Other meanings A disperser is a high-speed mixing device used to disperse or dissolve pigments and other solids into a liquid. See also *Expander graph References Category:Graph families	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disperser	2025-04-05T18:28:21.127818
7992	Devonian	\| lower_gssp_accept_date 1972 \| upper_boundary_def FAD of the Conodont Siphonodella sulcata (discovered to have biostratigraphic issues as of 2006). \| upper_gssp_location = La Serre, Montagne Noire, France \| upper_gssp_coords \| upper_gssp_accept_date 1990 <!--Atmospheric and Climatic Data--> \| sea_level Relatively steady around 189 m, gradually falling to 120 m through period }} The Devonian ( ) is a geologic period and system of the Paleozoic era during the Phanerozoic eon, spanning 60.3 million years from the end of the preceding Silurian period at million years ago (Ma), to the beginning of the succeeding Carboniferous period at Ma. It is the fourth period of both the Paleozoic and the Phanerozoic. It is named after Devon, South West England, where rocks from this period were first studied. The first significant evolutionary radiation of life on land occurred during the Devonian, as free-sporing land plants (pteridophytes) began to spread across dry land, forming extensive coal forests which covered the continents. By the middle of the Devonian, several groups of vascular plants had evolved leaves and true roots, and by the end of the period the first seed-bearing plants (pteridospermatophytes) appeared. This rapid evolution and colonization process, which had begun during the Silurian, is known as the Silurian-Devonian Terrestrial Revolution. The earliest land animals, predominantly arthropods such as myriapods, arachnids and hexapods, also became well-established early in this period, after beginning their colonization of land at least from the Ordovician period.<!--Arthropods had been on the land since the Silur/Ordovician. See Tumblagooda sandstone.--> Fishes, especially jawed fish, reached substantial diversity during this time, leading the Devonian to be called the Age of Fishes. The armored placoderms began dominating almost every known aquatic environment. In the oceans, cartilaginous fishes such as primitive sharks became more numerous than in the Silurian and Late Ordovician. Tetrapodomorphs, which include the ancestors of all four-limbed vertebrates (i.e. tetrapods), began diverging from freshwater lobe-finned fish as their more robust and muscled pectoral and pelvic fins gradually evolved into forelimbs and hindlimbs, though they were not fully established for life on land until the Late Carboniferous. The first ammonites, a subclass of cephalopod molluscs, appeared. Trilobites, brachiopods and the great coral reefs were still common during the Devonian. The Late Devonian extinction, which started about 375 Ma, severely affected marine life, killing off most of the reef systems, most of the jawless fish, the placoderms, and nearly all trilobites save for a few species of the order Proetida. The subsequent end-Devonian extinction, which occurred at around 359 Ma, further impacted the ecosystems and completed the extinction of all calcite sponge reefs and placoderms. Devonian palaeogeography was dominated by the supercontinent Gondwana to the south, the small continent of Siberia to the north, and the medium-sized continent of Laurussia to the east. Major tectonic events include the closure of the Rheic Ocean, the separation of South China from Gondwana, and the resulting expansion of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean. The Devonian experienced several major mountain-building events as Laurussia and Gondwana approached; these include the Acadian Orogeny in North America and the beginning of the Variscan Orogeny in Europe. These early collisions preceded the formation of the single supercontinent Pangaea in the Late Paleozoic. History in Devon played an early role in defining the Devonian Period]] The period is named after Devon, a county in southwestern England, where a controversial argument in the 1830s over the age and structure of the rocks found throughout the county was resolved by adding the Devonian Period to the geological timescale. The Great Devonian Controversy was a lengthy debate between Roderick Murchison, Adam Sedgwick and Henry De la Beche over the naming of the period. Murchison and Sedgwick won the debate and named it the Devonian System. "Again, Mr. Lonsdale, after an extensive examination of the fossils of South Devon, had pronounced them, more than a year since, to form a group intermediate between those of the Carboniferous and Silurian systems". William Lonsdale stated that in December 1837 he had suggested the existence of a stratum between the Silurian and Carboniferous ones: "Mr. Austen's communication [was] read December 1837 ... . It was immediately after the reading of that paper ... that I formed the opinion relative to the limestones of Devonshire being of the age of the old red sandstone; and which I afterwards suggested first to Mr. Murchison and then to Prof. Sedgwick".}} While the rock beds that define the start and end of the Devonian Period are well identified, the exact dates are uncertain. According to the International Commission on Stratigraphy, the Devonian extends from the end of the Silurian Ma, to the beginning of the Carboniferous Ma – in North America, at the beginning of the Mississippian subperiod of the Carboniferous. In 19th-century texts, the Devonian has been called the "Old Red Age", after the red and brown terrestrial deposits known in the United Kingdom as the Old Red Sandstone in which early fossil discoveries were found. Another common term is "Age of the Fishes", referring to the evolution of several major groups of fish that took place during the period. Older literature on the Anglo-Welsh basin divides it into the Downtonian, Dittonian, Breconian, and Farlovian stages, the latter three of which are placed in the Devonian. The Devonian has also erroneously been characterised as a "greenhouse age", due to sampling bias: most of the early Devonian-age discoveries came from the strata of Western Europe and eastern North America, which at the time straddled the Equator as part of the supercontinent of Euramerica where fossil signatures of widespread reefs indicate tropical climates that were warm and moderately humid. In fact, the climate in the Devonian differed greatly during its epochs and between geographic regions. For example, during the Early Devonian, arid conditions were prevalent through much of the world including Siberia, Australia, North America, and China, but Africa and South America had a warm temperate climate. In the Late Devonian, by contrast, arid conditions were less prevalent across the world and temperate climates were more common.SubdivisionsThe Devonian Period is formally broken into Early, Middle and Late subdivisions. The rocks corresponding to those epochs are referred to as belonging to the Lower, Middle and Upper parts of the Devonian System. Early Devonian The Early Devonian lasted from to Ma. It began with the Lochkovian Stage from to Ma, which was followed by the Pragian from to Ma and then by the Emsian, which lasted until the Middle Devonian began at Ma. During this time, the first ammonoids appeared, descending from bactritoid nautiloids. Ammonoids during this time period were simple and differed little from their nautiloid counterparts. These ammonoids belong to the order Agoniatitida, which in later epochs evolved to new ammonoid orders, for example Goniatitida and Clymeniida. This class of cephalopod molluscs would dominate the marine fauna until the beginning of the Mesozoic Era. Middle Devonian The Middle Devonian comprised two subdivisions: first the Eifelian, which then gave way to the Givetian at Ma. During this time, the jawless agnathan fishes began to decline in diversity in freshwater and marine environments partly due to drastic environmental changes and partly due to the increasing competition, predation, and diversity of jawed fishes. The shallow, warm, oxygen-depleted waters of Devonian inland lakes, surrounded by primitive plants, provided the environment necessary for certain early fish to develop such essential characteristics as well developed lungs and the ability to crawl out of the water and onto the land for short periods of time. Late Devonian Finally, the Late Devonian started with the Frasnian, from to Ma, during which the first forests took shape on land. The first tetrapods appeared in the fossil record in the ensuing Famennian subdivision, the beginning and end of which are marked with extinction events. This lasted until the end of the Devonian at Ma. The temperature gradient from the equator to the poles was not as large as it is today. The weather was also very arid, mostly along the equator where it was the driest. levels dropped steeply throughout the Devonian Period. The newly evolved forests drew carbon out of the atmosphere, which were then buried into sediments. This may be reflected by a Mid-Devonian cooling of around . The climate would have affected the dominant organisms in reefs; microbes would have been the main reef-forming organisms in warm periods, with corals and stromatoporoid sponges taking the dominant role in cooler times. The warming at the end of the Devonian may even have contributed to the extinction of the stromatoporoids. At the terminus of the Devonian, Earth rapidly cooled into an icehouse, marking the beginning of the Late Paleozoic icehouse.PaleogeographyThe Devonian world involved many continents and ocean basins of various sizes. The largest continent, Gondwana, was located entirely within the Southern Hemisphere. It corresponds to modern day South America, Africa, Australia, Antarctica, and India, as well as minor components of North America and Asia. The second-largest continent, Laurussia, was northwest of Gondwana, and corresponds to much of modern-day North America and Europe. Various smaller continents, microcontinents, and terranes were present east of Laurussia and north of Gondwana, corresponding to parts of Europe and Asia. The Devonian Period was a time of great tectonic activity, as the major continents of Laurussia and Gondwana drew closer together. Sea levels were high worldwide, and much of the land lay under shallow seas, where tropical reef organisms lived. The enormous "world ocean", Panthalassa, occupied much of the Northern Hemisphere as well as wide swathes east of Gondwana and west of Laurussia. Other minor oceans were the Paleo-Tethys Ocean and Rheic Ocean. For much of the Devonian, the majority of western Laurussia (North America) was covered by subtropical inland seas which hosted a diverse ecosystem of reefs and marine life. Devonian marine deposits are particularly prevalent in the midwestern and northeastern United States. Devonian reefs also extended along the southeast edge of Laurussia, a coastline now corresponding to southern England, Belgium, and other mid-latitude areas of Europe. Mountain building could also be found in the far northeastern extent of the continent, as minor tropical island arcs and detached Baltic terranes re-join the continent. Deformed remnants of these mountains can still be found on Ellesmere Island and Svalbard. Many of the Devonian collisions in Laurussia produce both mountain chains and foreland basins, which are frequently fossiliferous. These collisions were associated with volcanic activity and plutons, but by the Late Devonian the tectonic situation had relaxed and much of South America was covered by shallow seas. These south polar seas hosted a distinctive brachiopod fauna, the Malvinokaffric Realm, which extended eastward to marginal areas now equivalent to South Africa and Antarctica. Malvinokaffric faunas even managed to approach the South Pole via a tongue of Panthalassa which extended into the Paraná Basin. Siberia was located just north of the equator as the largest landmass in the Northern Hemisphere. At the beginning of the Devonian, Siberia was inverted (upside down) relative to its modern orientation. Later in the period it moved northwards and began to twist clockwise, though it was not near its modern location. Siberia approached the eastern edge of Laurussia as the Devonian progressed, but it was still separated by a seaway, the Ural Ocean. Although Siberia's margins were generally tectonically stable and ecologically productive, rifting and deep mantle plumes impacted the continent with flood basalts during the Late Devonian. The Altai-Sayan region was shaken by volcanism in the Early and Middle Devonian, while Late Devonian magmatism was magnified further to produce the Vilyuy Traps, flood basalts which may have contributed to the Late Devonian Mass Extinction. The last major round of volcanism, the Yakutsk Large Igneous Province, continued into the Carboniferous to produce extensive kimberlite deposits.LifeMarine biota Sea levels in the Devonian were generally high. Marine faunas continued to be dominated by conodonts, bryozoans, diverse and abundant brachiopods, the enigmatic hederellids, microconchids, Lily-like crinoids (animals, their resemblance to flowers notwithstanding) were abundant, and trilobites were still fairly common. Bivalves became commonplace in deep water and outer shelf environments. The first ammonites also appeared during or slightly before the early Devonian Period around 400 Ma. Bactritoids make their first appearance in the Early Devonian as well; their radiation, along with that of ammonoids, has been attributed by some authors to increased environmental stress resulting from decreasing oxygen levels in the deeper parts of the water column. Among vertebrates, jawless armored fish (ostracoderms) declined in diversity, while the jawed fish (gnathostomes) simultaneously increased in both the sea and fresh water. Armored placoderms were numerous during the early ages of the Devonian Period and became extinct in the Late Devonian, perhaps because of competition for food against the other fish species. Early cartilaginous (Chondrichthyes) and bony fishes (Osteichthyes) also become diverse and played a large role within the Devonian seas. The first abundant genus of cartilaginous fish, Cladoselache, appeared in the oceans during the Devonian Period. The great diversity of fish around at the time has led to the Devonian being given the name "The Age of Fishes" in popular culture. s and various lobe-finned fishes including the tetrapod transitional species]] The Devonian saw significant expansion in the diversity of nektonic marine life driven by the abundance of planktonic microorganisms in the free water column as well as high ecological competition in benthic habitats, which were extremely saturated; this diversification has been labeled the Devonian Nekton Revolution by many researchers. However, other researchers have questioned whether this revolution existed at all; a 2018 study found that although the proportion of biodiversity constituted by nekton increased across the boundary between the Silurian and Devonian, it decreased across the span of the Devonian, particularly during the Pragian, and that the overall diversity of nektonic taxa did not increase significantly during the Devonian compared to during other geologic periods, and was in fact higher during the intervals spanning from the Wenlock to the Lochkovian and from the Carboniferous to the Permian. The study's authors instead attribute the increased overall diversity of nekton in the Devonian to a broader, gradual trend of nektonic diversification across the entire Palaeozoic. Reefs A now-dry barrier reef, located in present-day Kimberley Basin of northwest Australia, once extended , fringing a Devonian continent. Reefs are generally built by various carbonate-secreting organisms that can erect wave-resistant structures near sea level. Although modern reefs are constructed mainly by corals and calcareous algae, Devonian reefs were either microbial reefs built up mostly by autotrophic cyanobacteria or coral-stromatoporoid reefs built up by coral-like stromatoporoids and tabulate and rugose corals. Microbial reefs dominated under the warmer conditions of the early and late Devonian, while coral-stromatoporoid reefs dominated during the cooler middle Devonian. Terrestrial biota By the Devonian Period, life was well underway in its colonization of the land. The moss forests and bacterial and algal mats of the Silurian were joined early in the period by primitive rooted plants that created the first stable soils and harbored arthropods like mites, scorpions, trigonotarbids and myriapods (although arthropods appeared on land much earlier than in the Early Devonian and the existence of fossils such as Protichnites suggest that amphibious arthropods may have appeared as early as the Cambrian). By far the largest land organism at the beginning of this period was the enigmatic Prototaxites, which was possibly the fruiting body of an enormous fungus, rolled liverwort mat, or another organism of uncertain affinities that stood more than tall, and towered over the low, carpet-like vegetation during the early part of the Devonian. Also, the first possible fossils of insects appeared around 416 Ma, in the Early Devonian. Evidence for the earliest tetrapods takes the form of trace fossils in shallow lagoon environments within a marine carbonate platform/shelf during the Middle Devonian, although these traces have been questioned and an interpretation as fish feeding traces (Piscichnus) has been advanced.The greening of land s. With large land-dwelling herbivores not yet present, large forests grew and shaped the landscape.]] Many Early Devonian plants did not have true roots or leaves like extant plants, although vascular tissue is observed in many of those plants. Some of the early land plants such as Drepanophycus likely spread by vegetative growth and spores. The earliest land plants such as Cooksonia consisted of leafless, dichotomous axes with terminal sporangia and were generally very short-statured, and grew hardly more than a few centimetres tall. Fossils of Armoricaphyton chateaupannense, about 400 million years old, represent the oldest known plants with woody tissue. By the Middle Devonian, shrub-like forests of primitive plants existed: lycophytes, horsetails, ferns, and progymnosperms evolved. Most of these plants had true roots and leaves, and many were quite tall. The earliest-known trees appeared in the Middle Devonian. These included a lineage of lycopods and another arborescent, woody vascular plant, the cladoxylopsids and progymnosperm Archaeopteris. These tracheophytes were able to grow to large size on dry land because they had evolved the ability to biosynthesize lignin, which gave them physical rigidity and improved the effectiveness of their vascular system while giving them resistance to pathogens and herbivores. In Eifelian age, cladoxylopsid trees formed the first forests in Earth history. By the end of the Devonian, the first seed-forming plants had appeared. This rapid appearance of many plant groups and growth forms has been referred to as the Devonian Explosion or the Silurian-Devonian Terrestrial Revolution. The 'greening' of the continents acted as a carbon sink, and atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide may have dropped. This may have cooled the climate and led to a massive extinction event. (See Late Devonian extinction). Animals and the first soils Primitive arthropods co-evolved with this diversified terrestrial vegetation structure. The evolving co-dependence of insects and seed plants that characterized a recognizably modern world had its genesis in the Late Devonian Epoch. The development of soils and plant root systems probably led to changes in the speed and pattern of erosion and sediment deposition. The rapid evolution of a terrestrial ecosystem that contained copious animals opened the way for the first vertebrates to seek terrestrial living. By the end of the Devonian, arthropods were solidly established on the land. Gallery <gallery mode="packed"> File:Dunkleosteus terrelli 2024 reconstruction.jpg\|Dunkleosteus, one of the largest armoured fish ever to roam the planet, lived during the Late Devonian File:Titanichthys clarki (2024).png\|Titanichthys, a planktivorous arthrodire from the Famennian of the Cleveland Shale of Ohio. File:Eastmanosteus pustulosus.jpg\|Lower jaw of Eastmanosteus pustulosus from the Middle Devonian of Wisconsin File:Onychodus.jpg\|Tooth of the lobe-finned fish Onychodus from the Middle Devonian of Wisconsin File:Bothriolepis canadensis (2024).png\|Bothriolepis, a diverse antiarch genus that lived from the Mid to Late Devonian. File:Devonianfishes ntm 1905 smit 1929.gif\|Shark-like Cladoselache, several lobe-finned fishes, including Eusthenopteron that was an early marine tetrapodomorph, and the placoderm Bothriolepis in a painting from 1905 File:Melocrinites nodosus spinosus.jpg\|Melocrinites nodosus spinosus, a spiny, stalked crinoid from the Middle Devonian of Wisconsin File:PhacopidDevonian.jpg\|Enrolled phacopid trilobite from the Devonian of Ohio File:AuloporaDevonianSilicaShale.jpg\|The common tabulate coral Aulopora from the Middle Devonian of Ohio – view of colony encrusting a brachiopod valve File:Tropidoleptus carinatus.jpg\|Tropidoleptus carinatus, an orthid brachiopod from the Middle Devonian of New York File:Pleurodictyum americanum Kashong.jpg\|Pleurodictyum americanum, a unique Tabulate coral, Kashong Shale, Middle Devonian of New York File:HederelloidSEM.jpg\|SEM image of a hederelloid from the Devonian of Michigan (largest tube diameter is 0.75 mm) File:HederellaOH3.jpg\|Devonian spiriferid brachiopod from Ohio which served as a host substrate for a colony of hederelloids File:Prototaxites Dawson1888.PNG\|Prototaxites, an 8-meter genus of fungus. </gallery> Late Devonian extinction The Late Devonian extinction is not a single event, but rather is a series of pulsed extinctions at the Givetian-Frasnian boundary, the Frasnian-Famennian boundary, and the Devonian-Carboniferous boundary. Together, these are considered one of the "Big Five" mass extinctions in Earth's history. The Devonian extinction crisis primarily affected the marine community, and selectively affected shallow warm-water organisms rather than cool-water organisms. The most important group to be affected by this extinction event were the reef-builders of the great Devonian reef systems. Amongst the severely affected marine groups were the brachiopods, trilobites, ammonites, and acritarchs, and the world saw the disappearance of an estimated 96% of vertebrates like conodonts and bony fishes, and all of the ostracoderms and placoderms. Land plants as well as freshwater species, such as our tetrapod ancestors, were relatively unaffected by the Late Devonian extinction event (there is a counterargument that the Devonian extinctions nearly wiped out the tetrapods). The reasons for the Late Devonian extinctions are still unknown, and all explanations remain speculative. Canadian paleontologist Digby McLaren suggested in 1969 that the Devonian extinction events were caused by an asteroid impact. However, while there were Late Devonian collision events (see the Alamo bolide impact), little evidence supports the existence of a large enough Devonian crater. See also * . One of the largest exposed Devonian fossil beds in the world. * * * (with link directory) * , a Devonian trilobite ;Categories: * Notes References External links * * – site introduces the Devonian * * * * * Category:Geological periods .	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devonian	2025-04-05T18:28:21.167333
7993	Dungeon Master (disambiguation)	A Dungeon Master is the organizer of a Dungeons & Dragons role-playing game. Dungeon Master may also refer to: Games Dungeon Master (video game), a 1987 video game series The Dungeon Master (video game), a 1983 video game for the ZX Spectrum Zork III: The Dungeon Master, a 1982 interactive fiction game Film and television Dungeon Master, a character in Dungeons & Dragons (TV series) The Dungeonmaster, a 1984 film The Dungeon Masters, a 2008 documentary film Other uses Dungeon monitor, or dungeon master, a person charged with supervising a playspace at BDSM events The Dungeon Master: The Disappearance of James Dallas Egbert III, a 1985 non-fiction book by William Dear See also Dungeon (disambiguation)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dungeon_Master_(disambiguation)	2025-04-05T18:28:21.186128
7994	David Thompson (explorer)	David Thompson}} \| birth_place = Westminster, England \| death_date \| death_place = Longueuil, Canada East \| occupation = Explorer and Map Maker \| spouse = Charlotte Small \| parents = David and Ann Thompson \| children = Fanny (1801), Samuel (1804), Emma (1806), John (1808), Joshuah (1811), Henry (1813), Charlotte (1815), Elizabeth (1817), William (1819), Thomas (1822), George (1824), Mary (1827), Eliza (1829) \| signature = David Thompson signature.svg }} David Thompson (30 April 1770 – 10 February 1857) was an Anglo-Canadian fur trader, surveyor, and cartographer, known to some native people as "Koo-Koo-Sint" or "the Stargazer". Over Thompson's career, he travelled across North America, mapping of the continent along the way. For this historic feat, Thompson has been described as the "greatest practical land geographer that the world has produced". Early life David Thompson was born in Westminster, Middlesex, to recent Welsh migrants David and Ann Thompson. When Thompson was two, his father died. Due to his widowed mother not having financial resources, she placed Thompson, 29 April 1777, the day before his seventh birthday, and his older brother in the Grey Coat Hospital, a school for the disadvantaged of Westminster. Thompson graduated to the Grey Coat mathematical school, well known for teaching navigation and surveying. He received an education for the Royal Navy: including mathematics of trigonometry and geometry, practical navigation including using of nautical instruments, finding latitudes and longitudes and making navigational calculations from observing the sun, moon and tide, and drawing maps and charts, taking land measurements, and sketching landscapes. He later built on these skills to make his career. In 1784, when Thompson was 14, the Grey Coat treasurer paid the Hudson's Bay Company the sum of five pounds, upon which the youth became an apprentice employee of the company, contracted for a period of seven years to be trained as a clerk. He set sail on a ship to North America on 28 May of that year, leaving England. Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) On 2 September 1784, The next year he was transferred to nearby York Factory, and over the next few years spent time as a secretary at Cumberland House, and South Branch House of the Hudson's Bay Company before being transferred to Manchester House in 1787. During those years he learned to keep accounts and other records, calculate values of furs (it was noted that he also had several expensive beaver pelts at that time even when a secretary's job would not pay terribly well), track supplies and other duties. On 23 December 1788, Thompson seriously fractured his tibia, forcing him to spend the next two winters at Cumberland House convalescing. It was during this time that he greatly refined and expanded his mathematical, astronomical, and surveying skills under the tutelage of Hudson's Bay Company surveyor Philip Turnor. It was also during this time that he lost sight in his right eye. In 1790, with his apprenticeship nearing its end, Thompson requested a set of surveying tools in place of the typical parting gift of fine clothes offered by the company to those completing their indenture. He received both. He entered the employ of the Hudson's Bay Company as a fur trader. In 1792 he completed his first significant survey, mapping a route to Lake Athabasca (where today's Alberta/Saskatchewan border is located). The mean error of the 34 observations was about 15' of longitude. Broughton (2009) notes that the precision of the type of sextant used by Thompson was 15" of arc, corresponding to 7.5' of longitude giving an absolute limit to the precision of an individual observation. The error in Thompson's mean was several times less than this. The time he took on these observations, about 3 hours of calculation each, indicates that he understood the power of averages. Thompson spent the next few seasons trading based in Fort George (now in Alberta), and during this time led several expeditions into the Rocky Mountains. On 10 July 1804, at the annual meeting of the North West Company in Kaministiquia, Thompson was made a full partner of the company. He became a 'wintering partner', who was based in the field rather than Montreal, and was granted two of the 92 NWC's shares worth more than £4,000. He spent the next few seasons based there managing the fur trading operations, but still finding time to expand his surveys of the waterways around Lake Superior. At the 1806 company meeting, officers decided to send Thompson back into the interior. Concern over the United States-backed expedition of Lewis and Clark prompted the North West Company to charge Thompson with the task of finding a route to the Pacific to open up the lucrative trading territories of the Pacific Northwest.Columbia River travels in 1811. This map of the Columbia and its tributaries shows modern political boundaries.]] After the general meeting in 1806, Thompson travelled to Rocky Mountain House and prepared for an expedition to follow the Columbia River to the Pacific Ocean. In June 1807 Thompson crossed the Rocky Mountains and spent the summer surveying the Columbia basin; he continued to survey the area over the next few seasons. Thompson mapped and established trading posts in Northwestern Montana, Idaho, Washington, and Western Canada. Trading posts he founded included Kootenae House, Kullyspell House and Saleesh House; the latter two were the first trading posts west of the Rockies in Idaho and Montana, respectively. The North West Company established its post of Fort Nez Percés near the Snake River confluence several years later. Continuing down the Columbia, Thompson passed over the Celilo Falls, almost losing the canoe on the rocks, and portaged around the rapids of The Dalles and the Cascades Rapids. On 14 July 1811, Thompson reached the partially constructed Fort Astoria at the mouth of the Columbia, arriving two months after the Pacific Fur Company's ship, the Tonquin. Before returning upriver and across the mountains, Thompson hired Naukane, a Native Hawaiian Takane labourer brought to Fort Astoria by the Pacific Fur Company's ship Tonquin. Naukane, known as Coxe to Thompson, accompanied Thompson across the continent to Lake Superior before journeying on to England. Thompson wintered at Saleesh House before beginning his final journey in 1812 back to Montreal, where the North West Company was based. In his published journals, Thompson recorded seeing large footprints (“which measured fourteen inches in length by eight inches in breadth”) near what is now Jasper, Alberta, in 1811. It has been suggested that these prints were similar to what has since been called the sasquatch. However, Thompson noted that these tracks showed "a small Nail at the end of each [toe]", which led him to surmise it was a bear, but he had doubts, saying, "I held it to be the track of a large old grizzled bear; yet the shortness of the nails, the ball of the foot, and its great size was not that of a Bear". The years 1807-1812 are the most carefully scrutinized in his career and comprise his most enduring historical legacy, due to his development of the commercial routes across the Rockies, and his mapping of the lands they traverse. Appearance and personality In 1820, the English geologist, John Jeremiah Bigsby, attended a dinner party given by The Hon. William McGillivray at his home, Chateau St. Antoine, one of the early estates in Montreal's Golden Square Mile. He describes the party and some of the guests in his entertaining book The Shoe and Canoe, giving an excellent description of David Thompson: . He and Charlotte had 13 children together; five of them were born before he left the fur trade. The family did not adjust easily to life in Eastern Canada; they lived in Montreal while he was travelling. Two of the children, John (aged 5) and Emma (aged 7), died of round worms, a common parasite. In 1815, Thompson moved his family to Williamstown, Upper Canada, and a few years later was employed to survey the newly established borders with the United States from Lake of the Woods to the Eastern Townships of Quebec, established by Treaty of Ghent after the War of 1812. In 1843 Thompson completed his atlas of the region from Hudson Bay to the Pacific Ocean. Afterwards, Thompson returned to a life as a land owner, but soon financial misfortune would ruin him. By 1831 he was so deeply in debt he was forced to take up a position as a surveyor for the British American Land Company to provide for his family. His luck continued to worsen and he was forced to move in with his daughter and son-in-law in 1845. He began work on a manuscript chronicling his life exploring the continent, but this project was left unfinished when his sight failed him completely in 1851. Death and afterward The land mass mapped by Thompson amounted to of wilderness (one-fifth of the continent). His contemporary, the great explorer Alexander Mackenzie, remarked that Thompson did more in ten months than he would have thought possible in two years. Despite these significant achievements, Thompson died in Montreal in near obscurity on 10 February 1857, his accomplishments almost unrecognised. He never finished the book of his 28 years in the fur trade, based on his 77 field notebooks, before he died. In the 1890s geologist J.B. Tyrrell resurrected Thompson's notes and in 1916 published them as ''David Thompson's Narrative'', as part of the General Series of the Champlain Society. , where he landed on 4 October 1798.]] Thompson's body was interred in Montreal's Mount Royal Cemetery in an unmarked grave. It was not until 1926 that efforts by J.B. Tyrrell and the Canadian Historical Society resulted in the placing of a tombstone to mark his grave. The next year, Thompson was named a National Historic Person by the federal government, one of the earliest such designations. A federal plaque reflecting that status is at Jasper National Park, Alberta. Meantime, Thompson's achievements are central reasons for other national historic designations: * David Thompson on the Columbia River National Historic Event, marked at Castlegar, BC * Athabasca Pass National Historic Site (NHS), at Jasper National Park * Boat Encampment NHS, BC * Howse Pass NHS, Banff National Park, Alberta * Kootenae House NHS, BC * Rocky Mountain House NHS, Alberta In 1957, one hundred years after his death, Canada's post office department honoured him with his image on a postage stamp. The David Thompson Highway in Alberta was named in his honour, along with David Thompson High School on the side of the highway near Leslieville, Alberta. There are also two David Thompson Secondary Schools, one in Vancouver, BC, and one in Invermere, BC. His prowess as a geographer is now well-recognized. He has been called "the greatest land geographer that the world has produced." Thompson Falls, Montana, and British Columbia's Thompson River and Thompson Falls on the Blaeberry River are also named after the explorer. The year 2007 marked the 150th year of Thompson's death and the 200th anniversary of his first crossing of the Rocky Mountains. Commemorative events and exhibits were planned across Canada and the United States from 2007 to 2011 as a celebration of his accomplishments. In 2007, a commemorative plaque was placed on a wall at the Grey Coat Hospital, the school for the disadvantaged of Westminster David Thompson attended as a boy, by English author and TV presenter Ray Mears. as well as the BBC2 programme ''Ray Mears' Northern Wilderness'' (Episode 5), broadcast in November 2009. He's also the subject of 2010 KSPS-TV film Uncharted Territory: David Thompson on the Columbia Plateau. He is referenced in the 1981 folk song "Northwest Passage" by Stan Rogers. The national park service, Parks Canada, announced in 2018 that it had named its new research vessel , to be used for underwater archaeology, including sea floor mapping, and for marine science in the Pacific, Atlantic, Arctic Oceans, and the Great Lakes. It will be the main platform for research on the Wrecks of HMS Erebus and HMS Terror National Historic Site. The David Thompson Astronomical Observatory at Fort William Historical Park was named to commemorate David Thompson and his discoveries. See also * Exploration of North America * Fur trade Works * 1814: Map of the North-West Territory of the Province of Canada * 1897: New light on the early history of the greater Northwest (edited by Elliott Coues) [https://www.canadiana.ca/view/oocihm.30487 Volume I]; [https://www.canadiana.ca/view/oocihm.30488 Volume II]; [https://www.canadiana.ca/view/oocihm.30489 Volume III] * 1916: ''[https://www.canadiana.ca/view/oocihm.9_92052/3 David Thompson's narrative of his explorations in western America, 1784–1812] (edited by J.B. Tyrrell) * 1950: [https://books.google.com/books?idcJenGAAACAAJ&pgPP1 David Thompson's journals relating to Montana and adjacent regions, 1808–1812] (edited by M. Catherine White) * 1962: [https://archive.today/20130101104245/http://link.library.utoronto.ca/champlain/item_record.cfm?Idno9_96867&langeng&query9_96867&searchtypeBibrecord&startrow1&LimitAll David Thompson's narrative, 1784–1812] (edited by Richard Glover) * 1974: David Thompson's journal of the international boundary survey, 1817–1827: western Lake Erie, August–September 1819 (edited by Clarke E. Leverette) * 1993: Columbia Journals'' (edited by Barbara Belyea) * 2006: "[http://www.arcturusconsulting.net/products.htm Moccasin Miles – The Travels of Charlotte Small Thompson 1799–1812] " Contemporary and Historical Maps: Charlotte Small (S. Leanne Playter/Andreas N. Korsos\|Publisher: Arcturus Consulting) * 2006/2007: [http://www.arcturusconsulting.net/products.htm "David Thompson in Alberta 1787–1812"; "David Thompson on the Columbia River 1807–1812"; "The Explorations and Travels of David Thompson 1784–1812"; "Posts and Forts of the North American Fur Trade 1600–1870"] Contemporary and Historical Maps: David Thompson (Andreas N. Korsos\|Publisher: Arcturus Consulting) * 2010 : Official Documentary of Thompson was released by national geographic, ca. References Notes * * * * * 2006: "Moccasin Miles – The Travels of Charlotte Small Thompson 1799–1812" Contemporary and Historical Maps: Charlotte Small (S. Leanne Playter/Andreas N. Korsos\|Publisher: Arcturus Consulting) Further reading * * * [https://archive.today/20121214120528/http://www.secstate.wa.gov/history/publications_detail.aspx?p=86 Available online through the Washington State Library's Classics in Washington History collection] * * * * * External links * David Thompson's Narrative of His Explorations in Western America 1784–1812 Vol's I and II, Champlain Society 1916, [https://archive.org/download/davidthompsonsna00thom/davidthompsonsna00thom_bw.pdf PDF (B/W) 25.1 MB] * [http://link.library.utoronto.ca/champlain/item_record.cfm?Idno9_96855&langeng&querythompson%20AND%20david&searchtypeAuthor&startrow1&LimitAll Complete text of David Thompson's Narrative (Tyrrell edition)] Champlain Society digital collection * [https://champlainsociety.utpjournals.press/doi/book/10.3138/9781442618237 Complete text of David Thompson's Narrative (Glover edition)] Champlain Society digital collection * * [http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e.php?&id_nbr=4218 Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online] * [http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/thompson/index.aspx David Thompson: Map Maker, Explorer and Visionary], online exhibit on Archives of Ontario website * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060719085105/http://www.davidthompson200.org/cms/ DavidThompson200]: bicentennial commemorations of Thompson's explorations * KSPS Public TV (PBS), , Narrative of David Thompson's life and travels. / Feb 2011 * [https://champlainsociety.utpjournals.press/doi/book/10.3138/9781442620766 The Writings of David Thompson] edited by William E. Moreau. Three volumes. * [http://www.library.utoronto.ca/fisher/collections/findaids/thompson_david.pdf David Thompson Papers, Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library] Category:North West Company Category:English surveyors Category:Canadian people of Welsh descent Category:English cartographers Category:English explorers Category:Canadian cartographers Category:Canadian male canoeists Category:Canadian explorers Category:Canadian surveyors Category:English emigrants to pre-Confederation Canada Category:Explorers of British Columbia Category:Explorers of Canada Category:North West Company people Category:People from Westminster Category:People from Montreal Category:Pre-Confederation Quebec people Category:Interior of British Columbia Category:Hudson's Bay Company people Category:1770 births Category:1857 deaths Category:History of the Pacific Northwest Category:Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada) Category:Explorers of Washington (state) Category:People educated at Grey Coat Hospital Category:English explorers of North America Category:Welsh topographers Category:Burials at Mount Royal Cemetery	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Thompson_(explorer)	2025-04-05T18:28:21.235213
7995	Dioscoreales	\| image = Tamus communis02.jpg \| image_caption = Dioscorea communis \| authority Mart. }} Bibliography Articles and chapters * }}, In * }}, In ** [https://books.google.com/books?idYzQBUQqLS0YC&pgPA476 Excerpts] * \|doi-access=free}} * \|jstor=1554967}} * \|jstor2399846\|urlhttps://spectrum.library.concordia.ca/6741/1/Dayanandan_AnnalsMissouriBotanicalGardens_1993.pdf\|hdl1969.1/179875\|hdl-access=free}} * * * \|doi-access=free }} * \|hdl1959.14/356756\|doi-accessfree}} * * * * \|urlhttps://lirias.kuleuven.be/handle/123456789/249090\|doi-accessfree}} * \|access-date31 January 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160201071732/http://www.binco.eu/burmannia/Vincent_Merckx/Publications_files/Monocots%202010%20Merckx.pdf\|archive-date1 February 2016\|url-statusdead}}, In * * }} * Books and symposia * * \|year1982 \|locationLondon and New York \|publisherAcademic Press }} * * * * * * * * }} * * * Databases * * * }} * APG * * * * External links * [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/monocots/liliflorae/dioscoreales.html Dioscoreales: Air potatoes and Bat flowers] * [http://www.britannica.com/plant/Dioscoreales Kress WJ. Dioscoreales. Encyclopædia Britannica 2016] Category:Angiosperm orders Category:Extant Aptian first appearances	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dioscoreales	2025-04-05T18:28:21.279134
8000	Default	Default may refer to: Law Default (law), the failure to do something required by law Default (finance), failure to satisfy the terms of a loan obligation or failure to pay back a loan Default judgment, a binding judgment in favor of either party based on some failure to take action by the other party Default rule, a rule of law that can be overridden by a contract, trust, will, or other legally effective agreement Science, technology Default (computer science), a preset setting or value that will be used if no choice is done during program use or installation and setup Default password, allows the device to be accessed during its initial setup, or after resetting to factory defaults defaults (software), a command line utility for plist (preference) files for macOS and GNUstep Music "Default" (Atoms for Peace song), 2012 Default (band), a Canadian post-grunge and alternative rock band "Default" (Django Django song), 2012 By Default, a 2016 album by Band of Skulls Other uses Default (2014 film), an American action thriller film Default (2018 film), a South Korean drama film Default (tennis), a disqualification in the game of tennis See also Walkover or win by default, in sport	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Default	2025-04-05T18:28:21.285531
8002	Deposition	Deposition may refer to: Deposition (law), taking testimony outside of court Deposition (politics), the removal of a person of authority from political power Deposition (university), a widespread initiation ritual for new students practiced from the Middle Ages until the 18th century Art Deposition from the Cross, the depiction of the removal of Jesus from the cross Deposition (Bellini), a 1515–16 painting by Giovanni Bellini and his workshop Deposition of Christ (Bronzino), a 1545 oil painting The Deposition (Michelangelo), a 1547–55 marble sculpture The Deposition from the Cross (Pontormo), a 1528 oil painting Deposition from the Cross, Volterra (Rosso Fiorentino) The Deposition (Raphael), a 1507 oil painting The Deposition (Rubens), a 1602 painting by Peter Paul Rubens (previously attributed to van Dyck) now in the Galleria Borghese Deposition (Rogier van der Weyden) or The Descent from the Cross, an oil painting, c.1435 Deposition (van Dyck, 1615), a 1615 painting by Anthony van Dyck, now in the Alte Pinakothek in Munich Deposition (van Dyck, 1618), a 1618–20 painting, now in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna Deposition (van Dyck, 1619), a c. 1619 painting, now in the Ashmolean Museum Deposition (van Dyck, 1629), a c. 1629 painting, now in the Royal Museum of Fine Arts Antwerp Deposition (van Dyck, 1629–30) or Lamentation over the Dead Christ, lost 1945 Deposition (van Dyck, 1634), a 1634 painting, now in the Alte Pinakothek in Munich Deposition (van Dyck, 1635), a 1635 painting, now in the now in the Royal Museum of Fine Arts Antwerp Deposition (van Dyck, 1640), a 1634–40 painting, now in the Valdes Izaguirre collection Science Deposition (chemistry), molecules settling out of a solution Deposition (geology), material such as sediment being added to a landform Deposition (phase transition), the process by which a gas is transformed into a solid Deposition (aerosol physics), a process where aerosol particles set down onto surfaces Technology Cathodic arc deposition, a physical vapor deposition technique using an electric arc to vaporize material from a cathode target Chemical vapor deposition, a chemical process used in the semiconductor industry to produce thin films Electron beam-induced deposition, a process of decomposing gaseous molecules by an electron beam Electrospark deposition, a micro-welding manufacturing process typically used to repair damage to mechanical components Electrophoretic deposition Ion beam-assisted deposition, a combination of ion implantation with a physical vapor deposition technique Molecular vapor deposition, the gas-phase reaction between surface reactive chemicals and an appropriately receptive surface Nanoparticle deposition, the process of attaching nanoparticles to solid surfaces called substrates to create coatings of nanoparticles Particle deposition, the spontaneous attachment of particles to surfaces Physical vapor deposition, a variety of vacuum deposition methods used to produce thin films and coatings Pulsed laser deposition, a physical vapor deposition technique using a high-power pulsed laser beam in a vacuum chamber Other uses Defrocking or deposition, the opposite of ordination in many Christian churches "Depositions" (Superstore), an episode of the TV series Superstore "The Deposition" (The Office), an episode of the TV series The Office See also Depo (disambiguation) Deposit (disambiguation) ia:Deposition	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deposition	2025-04-05T18:28:21.307003
8005	Dentistry	\| type = Profession \| activity_sector = Health care, Anatomy, Physiology, Pathology, Medicine, Pharmacology, Surgery \| competencies = \| formation = Dental Degree \| employment_field = \| related_occupation = }} - \| MeshID = D003813 \| OPS301 \| OtherCodes \| HCPCSlevel2 = }} and dental assistant removing a wisdom tooth]] Dentistry, also known as dental medicine and oral medicine, is the branch of medicine focused on the teeth, gums, and mouth. It consists of the study, diagnosis, prevention, management, and treatment of diseases, disorders, and conditions of the mouth, most commonly focused on dentition (the development and arrangement of teeth) as well as the oral mucosa. Dentistry may also encompass other aspects of the craniofacial complex including the temporomandibular joint. The practitioner is called a dentist. The history of dentistry is almost as ancient as the history of humanity and civilization, with the earliest evidence dating from 7000 BC to 5500 BC. Dentistry is thought to have been the first specialization in medicine which has gone on to develop its own accredited degree with its own specializations. Dentistry is often also understood to subsume the now largely defunct medical specialty of stomatology (the study of the mouth and its disorders and diseases) for which reason the two terms are used interchangeably in certain regions. However, some specialties such as oral and maxillofacial surgery (facial reconstruction) may require both medical and dental degrees to accomplish. In European history, dentistry is considered to have stemmed from the trade of barber surgeons. Dental treatments are carried out by a dental team, which often consists of a dentist and dental auxiliaries (such as dental assistants, dental hygienists, dental technicians, and dental therapists). Most dentists either work in private practices (primary care), dental hospitals, or (secondary care) institutions (prisons, armed forces bases, etc.). The modern movement of evidence-based dentistry calls for the use of high-quality scientific research and evidence to guide decision-making such as in manual tooth conservation, use of fluoride water treatment and fluoride toothpaste, dealing with oral diseases such as tooth decay and periodontitis, as well as systematic diseases such as osteoporosis, diabetes, celiac disease, cancer, and HIV/AIDS which could also affect the oral cavity. Other practices relevant to evidence-based dentistry include radiology of the mouth to inspect teeth deformity or oral malaises, haematology (study of blood) to avoid bleeding complications during dental surgery, cardiology (due to various severe complications arising from dental surgery with patients with heart disease), etc. Terminology The term dentistry comes from dentist, which comes from French dentiste, which comes from the French and Latin words for tooth. The term for the associated scientific study of teeth is odontology (from ) – the study of the structure, development, and abnormalities of the teeth. Dental treatment Dentistry usually encompasses practices related to the oral cavity. According to the World Health Organization, oral diseases are major public health problems due to their high incidence and prevalence across the globe, with the disadvantaged affected more than other socio-economic groups. The majority of dental treatments are carried out to prevent or treat the two most common oral diseases which are dental caries (tooth decay) and periodontal disease (gum disease or pyorrhea). Common treatments involve the restoration of teeth, extraction or surgical removal of teeth, scaling and root planing, endodontic root canal treatment, and cosmetic dentistry By nature of their general training, dentists, without specialization can carry out the majority of dental treatments such as restorative (fillings, crowns, bridges), prosthetic (dentures), endodontic (root canal) therapy, periodontal (gum) therapy, and extraction of teeth, as well as performing examinations, radiographs (x-rays), and diagnosis. Dentists can also prescribe medications used in the field such as antibiotics, sedatives, and any other drugs used in patient management. Depending on their licensing boards, general dentists may be required to complete additional training to perform sedation, dental implants, etc. discoloration, acid reflux or other causes. The National Institutes of Health include a dental exam in the diagnostic protocol of celiac disease. Many studies have also shown that gum disease is associated with an increased risk of diabetes, heart disease, and preterm birth. The concept that oral health can affect systemic health and disease is referred to as "oral-systemic health". Education and licensing ]] John M. Harris started the world's first dental school in Bainbridge, Ohio, and helped to establish dentistry as a health profession. It opened on 21 February 1828, and today is a dental museum. The first dental college, Baltimore College of Dental Surgery, opened in Baltimore, Maryland, US in 1840. The second in the United States was the Ohio College of Dental Surgery, established in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1845. The Philadelphia College of Dental Surgery followed in 1852. In 1907, Temple University accepted a bid to incorporate the school. Studies show that dentists that graduated from different countries, or even from different dental schools in one country, may make different clinical decisions for the same clinical condition. For example, dentists that graduated from Israeli dental schools may recommend the removal of asymptomatic impacted third molar (wisdom teeth) more often than dentists that graduated from Latin American or Eastern European dental schools. In the United Kingdom, the first dental schools, the London School of Dental Surgery and the Metropolitan School of Dental Science, both in London, opened in 1859. The British Dentists Act of 1878 and the 1879 Dentists Register limited the title of "dentist" and "dental surgeon" to qualified and registered practitioners. The practice of dentistry in the United Kingdom became fully regulated with the 1921 Dentists Act, which required the registration of anyone practising dentistry. The British Dental Association, formed in 1880 with Sir John Tomes as president, played a major role in prosecuting dentists practising illegally. Dental degrees awarded around the world include the Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS) and Doctor of Dental Medicine (DMD) in North America (US and Canada), and the Bachelor of Dental Surgery/Baccalaureus Dentalis Chirurgiae (BDS, BDent, BChD, BDSc) in the UK and current and former British Commonwealth countries. All dentists in the United States undergo at least three years of undergraduate studies, but nearly all complete a bachelor's degree. This schooling is followed by four years of dental school to qualify as a "Doctor of Dental Surgery" (DDS) or "Doctor of Dental Medicine" (DMD). Specialization in dentistry is available in the fields of Anesthesiology, Dental Public Health, Endodontics, Oral Radiology, Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Oral Medicine, Orofacial Pain, Pathology, Orthodontics, Pediatric Dentistry (Pedodontics), Periodontics, and Prosthodontics. Specialties , Finland]] Some dentists undertake further training after their initial degree in order to specialize. Exactly which subjects are recognized by dental registration bodies varies according to location. Examples include: * Anesthesiology – The specialty of dentistry that deals with the advanced use of general anesthesia, sedation and pain management to facilitate dental procedures. Cosmetic dentistry – Focuses on improving the appearance of the mouth, teeth and smile. Dental public health – The study of epidemiology and social health policies relevant to oral health. * Endodontics (also called endodontology) – Root canal therapy and study of diseases of the dental pulp and periapical tissues. * Forensic odontology – The gathering and use of dental evidence in law. This may be performed by any dentist with experience or training in this field. The function of the forensic dentist is primarily documentation and verification of identity. * Geriatric dentistry or geriodontics – The delivery of dental care to older adults involving the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of problems associated with normal aging and age-related diseases as part of an interdisciplinary team with other health care professionals. * Oral and maxillofacial pathology – The study, diagnosis, and sometimes the treatment of oral and maxillofacial related diseases. * Oral and maxillofacial radiology – The study and radiologic interpretation of oral and maxillofacial diseases. * Oral and maxillofacial surgery (also called oral surgery) – Extractions, implants, and surgery of the jaws, mouth and face. * Oral biology – Research in dental and craniofacial biology * Oral Implantology – The art and science of replacing extracted teeth with dental implants. * Oral medicine – The clinical evaluation and diagnosis of oral mucosal diseases * Orthodontics and dentofacial orthopedics – The straightening of teeth and modification of midface and mandibular growth. * Pediatric dentistry (also called pedodontics) – Dentistry for children * Periodontology (also called periodontics) – The study and treatment of diseases of the periodontium (non-surgical and surgical) as well as placement and maintenance of dental implants * Prosthodontics (also called prosthetic dentistry) – Dentures, bridges and the restoration of implants. ** Some prosthodontists super-specialize in maxillofacial prosthetics, which is the discipline originally concerned with the rehabilitation of patients with congenital facial and oral defects such as cleft lip and palate or patients born with an underdeveloped ear (microtia). Today, most maxillofacial prosthodontists return function and esthetics to patients with acquired defects secondary to surgical removal of head and neck tumors, or secondary to trauma from war or motor vehicle accidents. * Special needs dentistry (also called special care dentistry) – Dentistry for those with developmental and acquired disabilities. * Sports dentistry – the branch of sports medicine dealing with prevention and treatment of dental injuries and oral diseases associated with sports and exercise. The sports dentist works as an individual consultant or as a member of the Sports Medicine Team. * Veterinary dentistry – The field of dentistry applied to the care of animals. It is a specialty of veterinary medicine. History , ]] Tooth decay was low in pre-agricultural societies, but the advent of farming society about 10,000 years ago correlated with an increase in tooth decay (cavities). An infected tooth from Italy partially cleaned with flint tools, between 13,820 and 14,160 years old, represents the oldest known dentistry, although a 2017 study suggests that 130,000 years ago the Neanderthals already used rudimentary dentistry tools. In Italy evidence dated to the Paleolithic, around 13,000 years ago, points to bitumen used to fill a tooth and in Neolithic Slovenia, 6500 years ago, beeswax was used to close a fracture in a tooth. The Indus valley has yielded evidence of dentistry being practised as far back as 7000 BC, during the Stone Age. The Neolithic site of Mehrgarh (now in Pakistan's south western province of Balochistan) indicates that this form of dentistry involved curing tooth related disorders with bow drills operated, perhaps, by skilled bead-crafters. The earliest dental filling, made of beeswax, was discovered in Slovenia and dates from 6500 years ago. Dentistry was practised in prehistoric Malta, as evidenced by a skull which had a dental abscess lanced from the root of a tooth dating back to around 2500 BC. The practice of dentistry dates back thousands of years, with evidence of dental procedures such as tooth extraction and fillings found in ancient civilizations like the Egyptians and the Greeks. One notable historical figure is Pierre Fauchard, often referred to as the 'father of modern dentistry,' who wrote the first comprehensive book on the subject in 1728. An ancient Sumerian text describes a "tooth worm" as the cause of dental caries. Evidence of this belief has also been found in ancient India, Egypt, Japan, and China. The legend of the worm is also found in the Homeric Hymns, and as late as the 14th century AD the surgeon Guy de Chauliac still promoted the belief that worms cause tooth decay. Recipes for the treatment of toothache, infections and loose teeth are spread throughout the Ebers Papyrus, Kahun Papyri, Brugsch Papyrus, and Hearst papyrus of Ancient Egypt. The Edwin Smith Papyrus, written in the 17th century BC but which may reflect previous manuscripts from as early as 3000 BC, discusses the treatment of dislocated or fractured jaws. In the 18th century BC, the Code of Hammurabi referenced dental extraction twice as it related to punishment. Examination of the remains of some ancient Egyptians and Greco-Romans reveals early attempts at dental prosthetics. However, it is possible the prosthetics were prepared after death for aesthetic reasons. Use of dental appliances, bridges and dentures was applied by the Etruscans in northern Italy, from as early as 700 BC, of human or other animal teeth fastened together with gold bands. The Romans had likely borrowed this technique by the 5th century BC. The Phoenicians crafted dentures during the 6th–4th century BC, fashioning them from gold wire and incorporating two ivory teeth. In ancient Egypt, Hesy-Ra is the first named "dentist" (greatest of the teeth). The Egyptians bound replacement teeth together with gold wire. Roman medical writer Cornelius Celsus wrote extensively of oral diseases as well as dental treatments such as narcotic-containing emollients and astringents. The earliest dental amalgams were first documented in a Tang dynasty medical text written by the Chinese physician Su Kung in 659, and appeared in Germany in 1528. During the Islamic Golden Age Dentistry was discussed in several famous books of medicine such as The Canon in medicine written by Avicenna and Al-Tasreef by Al-Zahrawi who is considered the greatest surgeon of the Middle Ages, Avicenna said that jaw fracture should be reduced according to the occlusal guidance of the teeth; this principle is still valid in modern times. Al-Zahrawi invented over 200 surgical tools that resemble the modern kind. Historically, dental extractions have been used to treat a variety of illnesses. During the Middle Ages and throughout the 19th century, dentistry was not a profession in itself, and often dental procedures were performed by barbers or general physicians. Barbers usually limited their practice to extracting teeth which alleviated pain and associated chronic tooth infection. Instruments used for dental extractions date back several centuries. In the 14th century, Guy de Chauliac most probably invented the dental pelican (resembling a pelican's beak) which was used to perform dental extractions up until the late 18th century. The pelican was replaced by the dental key which, in turn, was replaced by modern forceps in the 19th century. designed by Fauchard in the late 17th century to use in prosthodontics]] The first book focused solely on dentistry was the "Artzney Buchlein" in 1530, In the United Kingdom, there was no formal qualification for the providers of dental treatment until 1859 and it was only in 1921 that the practice of dentistry was limited to those who were professionally qualified. The Royal Commission on the National Health Service in 1979 reported that there were then more than twice as many registered dentists per 10,000 population in the UK than there were in 1921. Modern dentistry It was between 1650 and 1800 that the science of modern dentistry developed. The English physician Thomas Browne in his A Letter to a Friend ( pub. 1690) made an early dental observation with characteristic humour: The French surgeon Pierre Fauchard became known as the "father of modern dentistry". Despite the limitations of the primitive surgical instruments during the late 17th and early 18th century, Fauchard was a highly skilled surgeon who made remarkable improvisations of dental instruments, often adapting tools from watchmakers, jewelers and even barbers, that he thought could be used in dentistry. He introduced dental fillings as treatment for dental cavities. He asserted that sugar-derived acids like tartaric acid were responsible for dental decay, and also suggested that tumors surrounding the teeth and in the gums could appear in the later stages of tooth decay. Fauchard was the pioneer of dental prosthesis, and he invented many methods to replace lost teeth. He suggested that substitutes could be made from carved blocks of ivory or bone. He also introduced dental braces, although they were initially made of gold, he discovered that the teeth position could be corrected as the teeth would follow the pattern of the wires. Waxed linen or silk threads were usually employed to fasten the braces. His contributions to the world of dental science consist primarily of his 1728 publication Le chirurgien dentiste or The Surgeon Dentist. The French text included "basic oral anatomy and function, dental construction, and various operative and restorative techniques, and effectively separated dentistry from the wider category of surgery". Major advances in science were made in the 19th century, and dentistry evolved from a trade to a profession. The profession came under government regulation by the end of the 19th century. In the UK, the Dentist Act was passed in 1878 and the British Dental Association formed in 1879. In the same year, Francis Brodie Imlach was the first ever dentist to be elected President of the Royal College of Surgeons (Edinburgh), raising dentistry onto a par with clinical surgery for the first time.Hazards in modern dentistry Long term occupational noise exposure can contribute to permanent hearing loss, which is referred to as noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) and tinnitus. Noise exposure can cause excessive stimulation of the hearing mechanism, which damages the delicate structures of the inner ear. NIHL can occur when an individual is exposed to sound levels above 90 dBA according to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Regulations state that the permissible noise exposure levels for individuals is 90 dBA. For the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), exposure limits are set to 85 dBA. Exposures below 85 dBA are not considered to be hazardous. Time limits are placed on how long an individual can stay in an environment above 85 dBA before it causes hearing loss. OSHA places that limitation at 8 hours for 85 dBA. The exposure time becomes shorter as the dBA level increases. Within the field of dentistry, a variety of cleaning tools are used including piezoelectric and sonic scalers, and ultrasonic scalers and cleaners. While a majority of the tools do not exceed 75 dBA, prolonged exposure over many years can lead to hearing loss or complaints of tinnitus. Few dentists have reported using personal hearing protective devices, which could offset any potential hearing loss or tinnitus.Evidence-based dentistry There is a movement in modern dentistry to place a greater emphasis on high-quality scientific evidence in decision-making. Evidence-based dentistry (EBD) uses current scientific evidence to guide decisions. It is an approach to oral health that requires the application and examination of relevant scientific data related to the patient's oral and medical health. Along with the dentist's professional skill and expertise, EBD allows dentists to stay up to date on the latest procedures and patients to receive improved treatment. A new paradigm for medical education designed to incorporate current research into education and practice was developed to help practitioners provide the best care for their patients. It was first introduced by Gordon Guyatt and the Evidence-Based Medicine Working Group at McMaster University in Ontario, Canada in the 1990s. It is part of the larger movement toward evidence-based medicine and other evidence-based practices, especially since a major part of dentistry involves dealing with oral and systemic diseases. Other issues relevant to the dental field in terms of evidence-based research and evidence-based practice include population oral health, dental clinical practice, tooth morphology etc. Ethical and medicolegal issues Dentistry is unique in that it requires dental students to have competence-based clinical skills that can only be acquired through supervised specialized laboratory training and direct patient care. This necessitates the need for a scientific and professional basis of care with a foundation of extensive research-based education. According to some experts, the accreditation of dental schools can enhance the quality and professionalism of dental education. See also * Dental aerosol * Dental instrument * Dental public health * Domestic healthcare: Dentistry in ancient Rome Dentistry in Canada Dentistry in the Philippines Dentistry in Israel Dentistry in the United Kingdom Dentistry in the United States * Eco-friendly dentistry * Geriatric dentistry * List of dental organizations * Pediatric dentistry * Sustainable dentistry * Veterinary dentistry Notes ReferencesExternal links <!-- \| PLEASE BE CAUTIOUS IN ADDING MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. 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8007	Diameter	<!-- so centre not center --> C}} ]] In geometry, a diameter of a circle is any straight line segment that passes through the centre of the circle and whose endpoints lie on the circle. It can also be defined as the longest chord of the circle. Both definitions are also valid for the diameter of a sphere. In more modern usage, the length <math>d</math> of a diameter is also called the diameter. In this sense one speaks of diameter rather than diameter (which refers to the line segment itself), because all diameters of a circle or sphere have the same length, this being twice the radius <math>r.</math> :<math>d 2r \qquad\text{or equivalently}\qquad r \frac{d}{2}.</math> The word "diameter" is derived from (), "diameter of a circle", from (), "across, through" and (), "measure". It is often abbreviated <math>\text{DIA}, \text{dia}, d,</math> or <math>\varnothing.</math> Constructions With straightedge and compass, a diameter of a given circle can be constructed as the perpendicular bisector of an arbitrary chord. Drawing two diameters in this way can be used to locate the center of a circle, as their crossing point. To construct a diameter parallel to a given line, choose the chord to be perpendicular to the line. The circle having a given line segment as its diameter can be constructed by straightedge and compass, by finding the midpoint of the segment and then drawing the circle centered at the midpoint through one of the ends of the line segment. Symbol marked as having a 58mm thread diameter]] The symbol or variable for diameter, , is sometimes used in technical drawings or specifications as a prefix or suffix for a number (e.g. "⌀ 55 mm"), indicating that it represents diameter. Photographic filter thread sizes are often denoted in this way. The symbol has a code point in Unicode at , in the Miscellaneous Technical set. It should not be confused with several other characters (such as or ) that resemble it but have unrelated meanings. It has the compose sequence . Generalizations The definitions given above are only valid for circles and spheres. However, they are special cases of a more general definition that is valid for any kind of <math>n</math>-dimensional object, or a set of scattered points. The diameter of a set is the least upper bound of the set of all distances between pairs of points in the subset. A different and incompatible definition is sometimes used for the diameter of a conic section. In this context, a diameter is any chord which passes through the conic's centre. A diameter of an ellipse is any line passing through the centre of the ellipse. Half of any such diameter may be called a semidiameter, although this term is most often a synonym for the radius of a circle or sphere. The longest diameter is called the major axis. Conjugate diameters are a pair of diameters where one is parallel to a tangent to the ellipse at the endpoint of the other diameter. Several kinds of object can be measured by equivalent diameter, the diameter of a circular or spherical approximation to the object. This includes hydraulic diameter, the equivalent diameter of a channel or pipe through which liquid flows, and the Sauter mean diameter of a collection of particles. The diameter of a circle is exactly twice its radius. However, this is true only for a circle, and only in the Euclidean metric. Jung's theorem provides more general inequalities relating the diameter to the radius. See also * Caliper, micrometer, tools for measuring diameters * Eratosthenes, who calculated the diameter of the Earth around 240 BC. * References Category:Elementary geometry Category:Length Category:Circles	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diameter	2025-04-05T18:28:21.359572
8008	Direct examination	The direct examination or examination-in-chief is one stage in the process of adducing evidence from witnesses in a court of law. Direct examination is the questioning of a witness by the lawyer/side/party that called such witness in a trial. Direct examination is usually performed to elicit evidence in support of facts which will satisfy a required element of a party's claim or defense. In direct examination, one is generally prohibited from asking leading questions. This prevents a lawyer from feeding answers to a favorable witness. An exception to this rule occurs if one side has called a witness, but it is either understood or becomes clear, that the witness is hostile to the calling lawyer's side of the controversy, the lawyer who called the witness may then ask the court to declare the person on the stand a hostile witness. If the court does so, the lawyer may thereafter ask witness leading questions during direct examination. The techniques of direct examination are taught in courses on trial advocacy. Each direct examination is integrated with the overall case strategy through either a theme and theory or, with more advanced strategies, a line of effort. See also Reference List Category:Civil procedure Category:Evidence law Category:Legal terminology	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_examination	2025-04-05T18:28:21.364827
8011	Alcohol intoxication	* Vomiting When severe it may become a medical emergency. Some effects of alcohol intoxication, such as euphoria and lowered social inhibition, are central to alcohol's desirability. As drinking increases, people become sleepy or fall into a stupor. At very high blood alcohol concentrations, for example above 0.3%, the respiratory system becomes depressed and the person may stop breathing. Comatose patients may aspirate their vomit (resulting in vomitus in the lungs, which may cause "drowning" and later pneumonia if survived). CNS depression and impaired motor coordination along with poor judgment increase the likelihood of accidental injury occurring. It is estimated that about one-third of alcohol-related deaths are due to accidents and another 14% are from intentional injury. In addition to respiratory failure and accidents caused by its effects on the central nervous system, alcohol causes significant metabolic derangements. Hypoglycaemia occurs due to ethanol's inhibition of gluconeogenesis, especially in children, and may cause lactic acidosis, ketoacidosis, and acute kidney injury. Metabolic acidosis is compounded by respiratory failure. Patients may also present with hypothermia. Pathophysiology ]] Alcohol is metabolized by a normal liver at the rate of about 8 grams of pure ethanol per hour. 8 grams or is one British standard unit. An "abnormal" liver with conditions such as hepatitis, cirrhosis, gall bladder disease, and cancer is likely to result in a slower rate of metabolism.Diagnosis Alcohol intoxication is described as a mental and behavioural disorder by the International Classification of Diseases. (ICD-10). Definitive diagnosis relies on a blood test for alcohol, usually performed as part of a toxicology screen. Law enforcement officers in the United States and other countries often use breathalyzer units and field sobriety tests as more convenient and rapid alternatives to blood tests. There are also various models of breathalyzer units that are available for consumer use. Because these may have varying reliability and may produce different results than the tests used for law-enforcement purposes, the results from such devices should be conservatively interpreted. Many informal intoxication tests exist, which, in general, are unreliable and not recommended as deterrents to excessive intoxication or as indicators of the safety of activities such as motor vehicle driving, heavy equipment operation, machine tool use, etc. For determining whether someone is intoxicated by alcohol by some means other than a blood-alcohol test, it is necessary to rule out other conditions such as hypoglycemia, stroke, usage of other intoxicants, mental health issues, and so on. It is best if their behavior has been observed while the subject is sober to establish a baseline. Several well-known criteria can be used to establish a probable diagnosis. For a physician in the acute-treatment setting, acute alcohol intoxication can mimic other acute neurological disorders or is frequently combined with other recreational drugs that complicate diagnosis and treatment. Management Acute alcohol poisoning is a medical emergency due to the risk of death from respiratory depression or aspiration of vomit if vomiting occurs while the person is unresponsive. Emergency treatment strives to stabilize and maintain an open airway and sufficient breathing while waiting for the alcohol to metabolize. This can be done by removal of any vomit or, if the person is unconscious or has impaired gag reflex, intubation of the trachea. Other measures may include * Administer the vitamin thiamine to prevent Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome, which can cause a seizure (more usually a treatment for chronic alcoholism, but in the acute context usually co-administered to ensure maximal benefit). * Hemodialysis if the blood concentration is very high at >130 mmol/L (>600 mg/dL) * Provide oxygen therapy as needed via nasal cannula or non-rebreather mask. * Administration of intravenous fluids in cases involving hypoglycemia and electrolyte imbalance. * While the medication metadoxine may speed the breakdown of alcohol, use in alcohol intoxication requires further study as of 2017. Additional medication may be indicated for treatment of nausea, tremor, and anxiety. Clinical findings Hospital admissions Alcohol intoxication was found to be prevalent in clinical populations within the United States involving people treated for trauma and in the age group of people aged within their 18th–24th years (in a study of a group for the years 1999–2004). In the United States during the years 2010–2012, acute intoxication was found to be the direct cause of an average of 2,221 deaths, in the sample group of those aged within their 15th year or older. The same mortality route is thought to cause indirectly more than 30,000 deaths per year. People having drunk heavily for several days or weeks may have withdrawal symptoms after the acute intoxication has subsided. A person consuming a dangerous amount of alcohol persistently can develop memory blackouts and idiosyncratic intoxication or pathological drunkenness symptoms. Long-term persistent consumption of excessive amounts of alcohol can cause liver damage and have other deleterious health effects. Society and culture ]] Alcohol intoxication is a risk factor in some cases of catastrophic injury, in particular for unsupervised recreational activity. A study in the province of Ontario based on epidemiological data from 1986, 1989, 1992, and 1995 states that 79.2% of the 2,154 catastrophic injuries recorded for the study were preventable, of which 346 (17%) involved alcohol consumption. The activities most commonly associated with alcohol-related catastrophic injury were snowmobiling (124), fishing (41), diving (40), boating (31) and canoeing (7), swimming (31), riding an all-terrain vehicle (24), and cycling (23). It is also a criminal offense to fly an aircraft or (in some American states) to assemble or operate an amusement park ride while drunk. Similar laws also exist in the United Kingdom and most other countries. In some jurisdictions, it is also an offense to serve alcohol to an already-intoxicated person, and, often, alcohol can only be sold by persons qualified to serve responsibly through alcohol server training. The blood alcohol content (BAC) for legal operation of a vehicle is typically measured as a percentage of a unit volume of blood. This percentage ranges from 0.00% in Romania and the United Arab Emirates; to 0.05% in Australia, South Africa, Germany, Scotland, and New Zealand (0.00% for underage individuals); to 0.08% in England and Wales, the United States and Canada. The United States Federal Aviation Administration prohibits crew members from performing their duties within eight hours of consuming an alcoholic beverage, while under the influence of alcohol, or with a BAC greater than 0.04%. In the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia, public intoxication is a crime (also known as "being drunk and disorderly" or "being drunk and incapable"). In some countries, there are special facilities, sometimes known as "drunk tanks", for the temporary detention of persons found to be drunk. Religious views Some religious groups permit the consumption of alcohol; some permit consumption but prohibit intoxication; others prohibit any amount of alcohol consumption altogether. Christianity by Giovanni Bellini]] by Hendrick Goltzius]] Most denominations of Christianity, such as Catholicism, Orthodoxy and Lutheranism, use wine as a part of the Eucharist (Holy Communion) and permit its consumption, but consider it sinful to become intoxicated. Romans 13:13–14, 1 Corinthians 6:9–11, Galatians 5:19–21 and Ephesians 5:18 are among a number of other Bible passages that speak against intoxication. Some Protestant Christian denominations prohibit the consumption of alcohol based upon biblical passages that condemn drunkenness, In the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, alcohol consumption is forbidden, and teetotalism has become a distinguishing feature of its members. Jehovah's Witnesses allow moderate alcohol consumption among its members. Islam In the Quran, there is a prohibition on the consumption of grape-based alcoholic beverages, and intoxication is considered an abomination in the hadith of Muhammad. The schools of thought of Islamic jurisprudence have interpreted this as a strict prohibition of the consumption of all types of alcohol and declared it to be haram (), although other uses may be permitted. Buddhism supported and escorted by a demon, by Guo Xu, Ming dynasty China.]] In Buddhism, in general, the consumption of intoxicants is discouraged for both monastics and lay followers. Many Buddhists observe a basic code of ethics known as the five precepts, of which the fifth precept is an undertaking to refrain from the consumption of intoxicating substances (except for medical reasons). In the bodhisattva vows of the Brahmajala Sutra, observed by Mahayana Buddhist communities, distribution of intoxicants is likewise discouraged, as well as consumption. Hinduism In the Gaudiya Vaishnavism branch of Hinduism, one of the four regulative principles forbids the taking of intoxicants, including alcohol. Judaism and his daughters, from an illustrated Torah]] In the Bible, the Book of Proverbs contains several chapters related to the negative effects of drunkenness and warns to stay away from intoxicating beverages. The Book of Genesis refers to the use of wine by Lot's daughters to rape him. The story of Samson in the Book of Judges tells of a monk from the Israelite tribe of Dan who, as a Nazirite, is prohibited from cutting his hair and drinking wine. Proverbs 31:4 warns against kings and other rulers drinking wine and similar alcoholic beverages, Proverbs 31:6–7 promotes giving such beverages to the perishing and wine to those whose lives are bitter as a coping mechanism against the likes of poverty and other troubles. In Judaism, in accordance with the biblical stance against drinking, The biblical command to sanctify the Sabbath and other holidays has been interpreted as having three ceremonial meals with wine or grape juice, known as Kiddush. A number of Jewish marriage ceremonies end with the bride and groom drinking a shared cup of wine after reciting seven blessings; this occurs after a fasting day in some Ashkenazi traditions. It has been customary and in many cases even mandated to drink moderately so as to stay sober, and only after the prayers are over. During the Seder on Passover, there is an obligation to drink four ceremonial cups of wine while reciting the Haggadah. It has been assumed as the source of the wine-drinking ritual at communion in some Christian groups. During Purim, there is an obligation to become intoxicated; however, as with many other decrees, this has been avoided in many communities by allowing sleep during the day as a replacement. During the U.S. Prohibition era in the 1920s, a rabbi from the Reform Judaism movement proposed using grape juice for the ritual instead of wine. Although refuted at first, the practice became widely accepted by orthodox Jews as well.Other animalsIn the film Animals Are Beautiful People, an entire section was dedicated to showing many different animals including monkeys, elephants, hogs, giraffes, and ostriches, eating over-ripe marula tree fruit causing them to sway and lose their footing in a manner similar to human drunkenness. Birds may become intoxicated with fermented berries and some die colliding with hard objects when flying under the influence. In elephant warfare, practiced by the Greeks during the Maccabean revolt and by Hannibal during the Punic wars, it has been recorded that the elephants would be given wine before the attack, and only then would they charge forward after being agitated by their driver. It is a regular practice to give small amounts of beer to race horses in Ireland. Ruminant farm animals have natural fermentation occurring in their stomach, and adding alcoholic beverages in small amounts to their drink will generally do them no harm, and will not cause them to become drunk. Alcoholic beverages are extremely harmful to dogs, and often for reasons of additives such as xylitol, an artificial sweetener in some mixers. Dogs can absorb ethyl alcohol in dangerous amounts through their skin as well as through drinking the liquid or consuming it in foods. Even fermenting bread dough can be dangerous to dogs. In 1999, one of the royal footmen for Britain's Queen Elizabeth II was demoted from Buckingham Palace due to his "party trick" of spiking the meals and drinks of the Queen's pet corgi dogs with alcohol which in turn would lead the dogs to run around drunk.See also * A Night of Serious Drinking * Alcohol and sex * Alcohol enema * Alcohol flush reaction * Disulfiram-alcohol reaction * Driving under the influence * In vino veritas * Long-term effects of alcohol consumption * Low alcoholic drinks * Short-term effects of alcohol consumption References Bibliography * Bales, Robert F. "Attitudes toward Drinking in the Irish Culture". In: Pittman, David J. and Snyder, Charles R. (Eds.) Society, Culture and Drinking Patterns. New York: Wiley, 1962, pp. 157–187. * Gentry, Kenneth L. Jr., God Gave Wine: What the Bible Says about Alcohol. Lincoln, Calif.: Oakdown, 2001. * Rorabaugh, W.J. "The Alcoholic Republic," Chapter 2 & 5, Oxford University Press. * Sigmund, Paul. St. Thomas Aquinas on Politics and Ethics. W.W. Norton & Company, Inc, 1988, p. 77. * Walton, Stuart. Out of It. A Cultural History of Intoxication. Penguin Books, 2002. . * Slingerland, Edward. Drunk: How We Sipped, Danced, and Stumbled Our Way to Civilization. Little, Brown Spark, 2021. External links * [https://www.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/brochures-and-fact-sheets/understanding-dangers-of-alcohol-overdose Alcohol overdose]: NIAAA * [http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/alcohol-poisoning/Pages/Introduction.aspx Alcohol poisoning]: NHS Choices , \| ICD10 = , \| ICD9 = , \| ICDO \| OMIM \| MedlinePlus = 002644 \| eMedicineSubj \| eMedicineTopic \| MeshID = D000435 }} Category:Alcohol abuse Category:Drinking culture Intox Category:Substance intoxication Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate Category:Disorders due to use of alcohol	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_intoxication	2025-04-05T18:28:21.429886
8013	Data compression	In information theory, data compression, source coding, but compression can be slow. In the mid-1980s, following work by Terry Welch, the Lempel–Ziv–Welch (LZW) algorithm rapidly became the method of choice for most general-purpose compression systems. LZW is used in GIF images, programs such as PKZIP, and hardware devices such as modems. LZ methods use a table-based compression model where table entries are substituted for repeated strings of data. For most LZ methods, this table is generated dynamically from earlier data in the input. The table itself is often Huffman encoded. Grammar-based codes like this can compress highly repetitive input extremely effectively, for instance, a biological data collection of the same or closely related species, a huge versioned document collection, internet archival, etc. The basic task of grammar-based codes is constructing a context-free grammar deriving a single string. Other practical grammar compression algorithms include Sequitur and Re-Pair. The strongest modern lossless compressors use probabilistic models, such as prediction by partial matching. The Burrows–Wheeler transform can also be viewed as an indirect form of statistical modelling. Lossy In the late 1980s, digital images became more common, and standards for lossless image compression emerged. In the early 1990s, lossy compression methods began to be widely used. Examples of software that can perform AI-powered image compression include OpenCV, TensorFlow, MATLAB's Image Processing Toolbox (IPT) and High-Fidelity Generative Image Compression. In unsupervised machine learning, k-means clustering can be utilized to compress data by grouping similar data points into clusters. This technique simplifies handling extensive datasets that lack predefined labels and finds widespread use in fields such as image compression. Data compression aims to reduce the size of data files, enhancing storage efficiency and speeding up data transmission. K-means clustering, an unsupervised machine learning algorithm, is employed to partition a dataset into a specified number of clusters, k, each represented by the centroid of its points. This process condenses extensive datasets into a more compact set of representative points. Particularly beneficial in image and signal processing, k-means clustering aids in data reduction by replacing groups of data points with their centroids, thereby preserving the core information of the original data while significantly decreasing the required storage space. Large language models (LLMs) are also efficient lossless data compressors on some data sets, as demonstrated by DeepMind's research with the Chinchilla 70B model. Developed by DeepMind, Chinchilla 70B effectively compressed data, outperforming conventional methods such as Portable Network Graphics (PNG) for images and Free Lossless Audio Codec (FLAC) for audio. It achieved compression of image and audio data to 43.4% and 16.4% of their original sizes, respectively. There is, however, some reason to be concerned that the data set used for testing overlaps the LLM training data set, making it possible that the Chinchilla 70B model is only an efficient compression tool on data it has already been trained on. Data differencing of two revisions of a file]] Data compression can be viewed as a special case of data differencing. Its highly efficient DCT-based compression algorithm was largely responsible for the wide proliferation of digital images and digital photos. Lempel–Ziv–Welch (LZW) is a lossless compression algorithm developed in 1984. It is used in the GIF format, introduced in 1987. DEFLATE, a lossless compression algorithm specified in 1996, is used in the Portable Network Graphics (PNG) format. Wavelet compression, the use of wavelets in image compression, began after the development of DCT coding. In contrast to the DCT algorithm used by the original JPEG format, JPEG 2000 instead uses discrete wavelet transform (DWT) algorithms. JPEG 2000 technology, which includes the Motion JPEG 2000 extension, was selected as the video coding standard for digital cinema in 2004. Audio Audio data compression, not to be confused with dynamic range compression, has the potential to reduce the transmission bandwidth and storage requirements of audio data. Audio compression formats compression algorithms are implemented in software as audio codecs. In both lossy and lossless compression, information redundancy is reduced, using methods such as coding, quantization, DCT and linear prediction to reduce the amount of information used to represent the uncompressed data. Lossy audio compression algorithms provide higher compression and are used in numerous audio applications including Vorbis and MP3. These algorithms almost all rely on psychoacoustics to eliminate or reduce fidelity of less audible sounds, thereby reducing the space required to store or transmit them. The acceptable trade-off between loss of audio quality and transmission or storage size depends upon the application. For example, one 640 MB compact disc (CD) holds approximately one hour of uncompressed high fidelity music, less than 2 hours of music compressed losslessly, or 7 hours of music compressed in the MP3 format at a medium bit rate. A digital sound recorder can typically store around 200 hours of clearly intelligible speech in 640 MB. Perceptual coding was first used for speech coding compression, with linear predictive coding (LPC). Initial concepts for LPC date back to the work of Fumitada Itakura (Nagoya University) and Shuzo Saito (Nippon Telegraph and Telephone) in 1966. During the 1970s, Bishnu S. Atal and Manfred R. Schroeder at Bell Labs developed a form of LPC called adaptive predictive coding (APC), a perceptual coding algorithm that exploited the masking properties of the human ear, followed in the early 1980s with the code-excited linear prediction (CELP) algorithm which achieved a significant compression ratio for its time. Dolby Digital, and AAC. MDCT was proposed by J. P. Princen, A. W. Johnson and A. B. Bradley in 1987, following earlier work by Princen and Bradley in 1986. The world's first commercial broadcast automation audio compression system was developed by Oscar Bonello, an engineering professor at the University of Buenos Aires. In 1983, using the psychoacoustic principle of the masking of critical bands first published in 1967, 35 years later, almost all the radio stations in the world were using this technology manufactured by a number of companies because the inventor refused to patent his work, preferring to publish it and leave it in the public domain. A literature compendium for a large variety of audio coding systems was published in the IEEE's Journal on Selected Areas in Communications (JSAC), in February 1988. While there were some papers from before that time, this collection documented an entire variety of finished, working audio coders, nearly all of them using perceptual techniques and some kind of frequency analysis and back-end noiseless coding. Most video codecs are used alongside audio compression techniques to store the separate but complementary data streams as one combined package using so-called container formats. The DCT, which is fundamental to modern video compression, It was the first video coding format based on DCT compression. H.261 was developed by a number of companies, including Hitachi, PictureTel, NTT, BT and Toshiba. The most popular video coding standards used for codecs have been the MPEG standards. MPEG-1 was developed by the Motion Picture Experts Group (MPEG) in 1991, and it was designed to compress VHS-quality video. It was succeeded in 1994 by MPEG-2/H.262, MPEG-2 became the standard video format for DVD and SD digital television. H.264/MPEG-4 AVC was developed in 2003 by a number of organizations, primarily Panasonic, Godo Kaisha IP Bridge and LG Electronics. AVC commercially introduced the modern context-adaptive binary arithmetic coding (CABAC) and context-adaptive variable-length coding (CAVLC) algorithms. AVC is the main video encoding standard for Blu-ray Discs, and is widely used by video sharing websites and streaming internet services such as YouTube, Netflix, Vimeo, and iTunes Store, web software such as Adobe Flash Player and Microsoft Silverlight, and various HDTV broadcasts over terrestrial and satellite television.GeneticsGenetics compression algorithms are the latest generation of lossless algorithms that compress data (typically sequences of nucleotides) using both conventional compression algorithms and genetic algorithms adapted to the specific datatype. In 2012, a team of scientists from Johns Hopkins University published a genetic compression algorithm that does not use a reference genome for compression. HAPZIPPER was tailored for HapMap data and achieves over 20-fold compression (95% reduction in file size), providing 2- to 4-fold better compression and is less computationally intensive than the leading general-purpose compression utilities. For this, Chanda, Elhaik, and Bader introduced MAF-based encoding (MAFE), which reduces the heterogeneity of the dataset by sorting SNPs by their minor allele frequency, thus homogenizing the dataset. It is estimated that the combined technological capacity of the world to store information provides 1,300 exabytes of hardware digits in 2007, but when the corresponding content is optimally compressed, this only represents 295 exabytes of Shannon information. }} External links * * * * * * [http://tech.ebu.ch/docs/tech/tech3296.pdf EBU subjective listening tests on low-bitrate audio codecs] * [http://techgage.com/article/audio_archiving_guide_part_1_-_music_formats/ Audio Archiving Guide: Music Formats] (Guide for helping a user pick out the right codec) * * [http://wiki.hydrogenaud.io/index.php?title=Lossless_comparison hydrogenaudio wiki comparison] * [https://www.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs/project/pscico-guyb/realworld/www/compression.pdf Introduction to Data Compression] by Guy E Blelloch from CMU * [http://www.monkeysaudio.com/theory.html Explanation of lossless signal compression method used by most codecs] * * * [http://siliconmentor.blogspot.in/2014/12/what-is-run-length-coding-in-video.html What is Run length Coding in video compression] Category:Digital audio Category:Digital television Category:Film and video technology Category:Video compression Category:Videotelephony Category:Utility software types	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_compression	2025-04-05T18:28:21.465329
8022	History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo	The earliest known human settlements in what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo have been dated back to the Middle Stone Age, approximately 90,000 years ago. The first real states, such as the Kongo, the Lunda, the Luba and Kuba, appeared south of the equatorial forest on the savannah from the 14th century onwards. The Kingdom of Kongo controlled much of western and central Africa including what is now the western portion of the DR Congo between the 14th and the early 19th centuries. At its peak it had many as 500,000 people, and its capital was known as Mbanza-Kongo (south of Matadi, in modern-day Angola). In the late 15th century, Portuguese sailors arrived in the Kingdom of Kongo, and this led to a period of great prosperity and consolidation, with the king's power being founded on Portuguese trade. King Afonso I (1506–1543) had raids carried out on neighboring districts in response to Portuguese requests for slaves. After his death, the kingdom underwent a deep crisis. Early history The area now known as the Democratic Republic of the Congo was populated as early as 90,000 years ago, as shown by the 1988 discovery of the Semliki harpoon at Katanda, one of the oldest barbed harpoons ever found, which is believed to have been used to catch giant river catfish. By the 13th century there were three main confederations of states in the western Congo Basin. In the east were the Seven Kingdoms of Kongo dia Nlaza, considered to be the oldest and most powerful, which likely included Nsundi, Mbata, Mpangu, and possibly Kundi and Okanga. South of these was Mpemba which stretched from modern-day Angola to the Congo River. It included various kingdoms such as Mpemba Kasi and Vunda. To its west across the Congo River was a confederation of three small states; Vungu (its leader), Kakongo, and Ngoyo. The Kingdom of Kongo existed from the 14th to the early 19th century. Until the arrival of the Portuguese it was the dominant force in the region along with the Kingdom of Luba, the Kingdom of Lunda, the Mongo people and the Anziku Kingdom. Colonial rule Congo Free State (1885–1908) The Congo Free State was a privately controlled by Leopold II of Belgium through the Association Internationale africaine, a non-governmental organization. Leopold was the sole shareholder and chairman. The state included the entire area of the present the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Under Leopold II, the Congo Free State became one of the most infamous international scandals of the turn of the twentieth century. The report of the British Consul Roger Casement led to the arrest and punishment of white officials who had been responsible for cold-blooded killings during a rubber-collecting expedition in 1900, including a Belgian national who caused the shooting of at least 122 Congolese natives. Estimates of the total death toll vary considerably. The first census was only done in 1924, so it is even more difficult to quantify the population loss of the period. Roger Casement's famous 1904 report estimated ten million people. According to Casement's report, indiscriminate "war", starvation, reduction of births and Tropical diseases caused the country's depopulation. European and U.S. press agencies exposed the conditions in the Congo Free State to the public in 1900. By 1908 public and diplomatic pressure had led Leopold II to annex the Congo as the Belgian Congo colony. Belgian Congo (1908–60) On 15 November 1908 King Leopold II of Belgium formally relinquished personal control of the Congo Free State. The renamed Belgian Congo was put under the direct administration of the Belgian government and its Ministry of Colonies. Belgian rule in the Congo was based around the "colonial trinity" (trinité colonial) of state, missionary and private company interests. The privileging of Belgian commercial interests meant that large amounts of capital flowed into the Congo and that individual regions became specialized. The interests of the government and private enterprise became closely tied; the state helped companies break strikes and remove other barriers imposed by the indigenous population. The country was split into nesting, hierarchically organized administrative subdivisions, and run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (politique indigène)—in contrast to the British and the French, who generally favored the system of indirect rule whereby traditional leaders were retained in positions of authority under colonial oversight. There was also a high degree of racial segregation. Large numbers of white immigrants who moved to the Congo after the end of World War II came from across the social spectrum, but were nonetheless always treated as superior to blacks. During the 1940s and 1950s, the Congo experienced an unprecedented level of urbanization and the colonial administration began various development programs aimed at making the territory into a "model colony". Notable advances were made in treating diseases such as African trypanosomiasis. One of the results of these measures was the development of a new middle class of Europeanised African évolués in the cities. By the 1950s the Congo had a wage labor force twice as large as that in any other African colony. The Congo's rich natural resources, including uranium—much of the uranium used by the U.S. nuclear programme during World War II was Congolese—led to substantial interest in the region from both the Soviet Union and the United States as the Cold War developed. Rise in Congolese political activity During the latter stages of World War II a new social stratum emerged in the Congo, known as the évolués. Forming an African middle class in the colony, they held skilled positions (such as clerks and nurses) made available by the economic boom. While there were no universal criteria for determining évolué status, it was generally accepted that one would have "a good knowledge of French, adhere to Christianity, and have some form of post-primary education." Early on in their history, évolués sought to use their unique status to earn special privileges in the Congo. Since opportunities for upward mobility through the colonial structure were limited, the évolué class institutionally manifested itself in elite clubs through which they could enjoy trivial privileges that made them feel distinct from the Congolese "masses". Additional groups, such as labor unions, alumni associations, and ethnic syndicates, provided other Congolese the means of organization. Among the most important of these was the Alliance des Bakongo (ABAKO), representing the Kongo people of the Lower Congo. However, they were restricted in their actions by the administration. While white settlers were consulted in the appointment of certain officials, the Congolese had no means of expressing their beliefs through the governing structures. Though native chiefs held legal authority in some jurisdictions, in practice they were used by the administration to further its own policies. Up into the 1950s, most évolués were concerned only with social inequalities and their treatment by the Belgians. Questions of self-government were not considered until 1954 when ABAKO requested that the administration consider a list of suggested candidates for a Léopoldville municipal post. That year the association was taken over by Joseph Kasa-Vubu, and under his leadership, it became increasingly hostile to the colonial authority and sought autonomy for the Kongo regions in the Lower Congo. In 1956 a group of Congolese intellectuals under the tutelage of several European academics issued a manifesto calling for a transition to independence over the course of 30 years. The ABAKO quickly responded with a demand for "immediate independence". The Belgian government was not prepared to grant the Congo independence and even when it started realizing the necessity of a plan for decolonization in 1957, it was assumed that such a process would be solidly controlled by Belgium. In December 1957 the colonial administration instituted reforms that permitted municipal elections and the formation of political parties. Some Belgian parties attempted to establish branches in the colony, but these were largely ignored by the population in favour of Congolese-initiated groups. Nationalism fermented in 1958 as more évolués began interacting with others outside of their own locales and started discussing the future structures of a post-colonial Congolese state. Nevertheless, most political mobilisation occurred along tribal and regional divisions. In Katanga, various tribal groups came together to form the Confédération des associations tribales du Katanga (CONAKAT) under the leadership of Godefroid Munongo and Moïse Tshombe. Hostile to immigrant peoples, it advocated provincial autonomy and close ties with Belgium. Most of its support was rooted in individual chiefs, businessmen, and European settlers of southern Katanga. It was opposed by Jason Sendwe's Association Générale des Baluba du Katanga (BALUBAKAT). , founding member and leader of the MNC]] In October 1958 a group of Léopoldville évolués including Patrice Lumumba, Cyrille Adoula and Joseph Iléo established the Mouvement National Congolais (MNC). Diverse in membership, the party sought to peacefully achieve Congolese independence, promote the political education of the populace, and eliminate regionalism. The MNC drew most of its membership from the residents of the eastern city of Stanleyville, where Lumumba was well known, and from the population of the Kasai Province, where efforts were directed by a Muluba businessman, Albert Kalonji. Belgian officials appreciated its moderate and anti-separatist stance and allowed Lumumba to attend the All-African Peoples' Conference in Accra, Ghana, in December 1958 (Kasa-Vubu was informed that the documents necessary for his travel to the event were not in order and was not permitted to go). Lumumba was deeply impressed by the Pan-Africanist ideals of Ghanaian President Kwame Nkrumah and returned to the Congo with a more radical party programme. He reported on his trip during a widely attended rally in Léopoldville and demanded the country's "genuine" independence. Fearing that they were being overshadowed by Lumumba and the MNC, Kasa-Vubu and the ABAKO leadership announced that they would be hosting their own rally in the capital on 4 January 1959. The municipal government (under Belgian domination) was given short notice, and communicated that only a "private meeting" would be authorised. On the scheduled day of the rally the ABAKO leadership told the crowd that had gathered that the event was postponed and that they should disperse. The mass was infuriated and instead began hurling stones at the police and pillaging European property, initiating three days of violent and destructive riots. The Force Publique, the colonial army, was called into service and suppressed the revolt with considerable brutality. In wake of the riots Kasa-Vubu and his lieutenants were arrested. Unlike earlier expressions of discontent, the grievances were conveyed primarily by uneducated urban residents, not évolués. Popular opinion in Belgium was one of extreme shock and surprise. An investigative commission found the riots to be the culmination of racial discrimination, overcrowding, unemployment, and wishes for more political self-determination. On 13 January the administration announced several reforms, and the Belgian King, Baudouin, declared that independence would be granted to the Congo in the future. Meanwhile, discontent surfaced among the MNC leadership, who were bothered by Lumumba's domination over the party's politics. Relations between Lumumba and Kalonji also grew tense, as the former was upset with how the latter was transforming the Kasai branch into an exclusively Luba group and antagonising other tribes. This culminated into the split of the party into the MNC-Lumumba/MNC-L under Lumumba and the MNC-Kalonji/MNC-K under Kalonji and Iléo. The latter began advocating federalism. Adoula left the organisation. Alone to lead his own faction and facing competition from ABAKO, Lumumba became increasingly insistent in his demands for independence. Following an October riot in Stanleyville he was arrested. Nevertheless, the influence of himself and the MNC-L continued to grow rapidly. The party advocated for a strong unitary state, nationalism, and the termination of Belgian rule and began forming alliances with regional groups, such as the Kivu-based Centre du Regroupement Africain (CEREA). Though the Belgians supported a unitary system over the federal models suggested by ABAKO and CONAKAT, they and more moderate Congolese were unnerved by Lumumba's increasingly extremist attitudes. With the implicit support of the colonial administration, the moderates formed the Parti National du Progrès (PNP) under the leadership of Paul Bolya and Albert Delvaux. It advocated centralisation, respect for traditional elements, and close ties with Belgium. In southern Léopoldville Province, a socialist-federalist party, the Parti Solidaire Africain (PSA) was founded. Antoine Gizenga served as its president, and Cléophas Kamitatu was in charge of the Léopoldville Province chapter. Independence and the Congo Crisis (1960–65) Following the riots in Leopoldville (4–7 January 1959) and in Stanleyville (31 October 1959), the Belgians realised they could not maintain control of such a vast country in the face of rising demands for independence. Belgian and Congolese political leaders held a Round Table Conference in Brussels beginning on 18 January 1960. At the end of the conference, on 27 January 1960, it was announced that elections would be held in the Congo on 22 May 1960, and full independence granted on 30 June 1960. The elections produced the nationalist Patrice Lumumba as prime minister, and Joseph Kasavubu as president. On independence the country adopted the name "Republic of the Congo" (République du Congo). The French colony of Middle Congo (Moyen Congo) also chose the name Republic of the Congo upon its independence, so the two countries were more commonly known as Congo-Léopoldville and Congo-Brazzaville, after their capital cities. In 1960, the country was very unstable—regional tribal leaders held far more power than the central government—and with the departure of the Belgian administrators, almost no skilled bureaucrats remained in the country. The first Congolese graduated from university only in 1956, and very few in the new nation had any idea how to manage a country of such size. On 5 July 1960, a military mutiny by Congolese soldiers against their European officers broke out in the capital and rampant looting began. On 11 July 1960 the richest province of the country, Katanga, seceded under Moise Tshombe. The United Nations sent 20,000 peacekeepers to protect Europeans in the country and try to restore order. Western paramilitaries and mercenaries, often hired by mining companies to protect their interests, also began to pour into the country. In this period Congo's second richest province, Kasai, also announced its independence on 8 August 1960. After trying to get help from the United States and the United Nations, Prime Minister Lumumba turned to the USSR for assistance. Nikita Khrushchev agreed to help, offering advanced weaponry and technical advisors. The United States viewed the Soviet presence as an attempt to take advantage of the situation and gain a proxy state in sub-Saharan Africa. UN forces were ordered to block any shipments of arms into the country. The United States also looked for a way to replace Lumumba as leader. President Kasavubu had clashed with Prime Minister Lumumba and advocated an alliance with the West rather than the Soviets. The U.S. sent weapons and CIA personnel to aid forces allied with Kasavubu and combat the Soviet presence. On 23 August, the Congolese armed forces invaded South Kasai and perpetrated massacres against the Luba people. Lumumba was dismissed from office on 5 September 1960 by Kasavubu who publicly blamed him for the massacres in South Kasai and for involving Soviets in the country. On 14 September 1960, with CIA support, Colonel Joseph Mobutu overthrew the government and arrested Lumumba. A technocratic government, the College of Commissioners-General, was established. On 17 January 1961 Mobutu sent Lumumba to Élisabethville (now Lubumbashi), capital of Katanga. In full view of the press he was beaten and forced to eat copies of his own speeches. For three weeks afterward, he was not seen or heard from. Then Katangan radio announced implausibly that he had escaped and been killed by villagers. It was soon clear that in fact he had been tortured and killed along with two others shortly after his arrival. In 2001, a Belgian inquiry established that he had been shot by Katangan gendarmes in the presence of Belgian officers, under Katangan command. Lumumba was beaten, placed in front of a firing squad with two allies, cut up, buried, dug up and what remained was dissolved in acid. In Stanleyville, those loyal to the deposed Lumumba set up a rival government under Antoine Gizenga which lasted from 31 March 1961 until it was reintegrated on 5 August 1961. After some reverses, UN and Congolese government forces succeeded in recapturing the breakaway provinces of South Kasai on 30 December 1961, and Katanga on 15 January 1963. Beginning in 1964, in the east of the country, Soviet and Cuban backed rebels called the Simbas rose up, taking a significant amount of territory and proclaiming a communist "People's Republic of the Congo" in Stanleyville. As the Congolese government was reclaiming territory from the Simbas, the rebels resorted to taking the local white population hostage. Belgian and American forces pushed the Simbas out of Stanleyville in November 1964 during a hostage rescue operation. Congolese government forces, supported by European mercenaries, fully defeated the Simba rebels by November 1965. The Simba rebels executed 20,000 Congolese and 392 Western hostages, including 268 Belgians, during the rebellion. Tens of thousands of people were killed in total during the suppression of the Simbas. Zaire (1965–1997) Unrest and rebellion plagued the government until November 1965, when Lieutenant General Joseph-Désiré Mobutu, by then commander in chief of the national army, seized control of the country and declared himself president for the next five years. Mobutu quickly consolidated his power, despite the Stanleyville mutinies of 1966 and 1967, and was elected unopposed as president in a sham election in 1970 for a seven-year term. Embarking on a campaign of cultural awareness, President Mobutu renamed the country the "Republic of Zaire" in 1971 and required citizens to adopt African names and drop their French-language ones. The name comes from Portuguese, adapted from the Kongo word nzere or nzadi ("river that swallows all rivers"). Among other changes, Leopoldville became Kinshasa and Katanga Shaba. President Idi Amin Visits Zaire and Meets Mobutu during The Shaba I Conflict]] Relative peace and stability prevailed until 1977 and 1978 when Katangan Front for Congolese National Liberation rebels, based in the Angolan People's Republic, launched the Shaba I and II invasions into the southeast Shaba region. These rebels were driven out with the aid of French and Belgian paratroopers plus Moroccan troops. An Inter-African Force remained in the region for some time afterwards. Zaire remained a one-party state in the 1980s. Although Mobutu successfully maintained control during this period, opposition parties, most notably the Union pour la Démocratie et le Progrès Social (UDPS), were active. Mobutu's attempts to quell these groups drew significant international criticism. As the Cold War came to a close, internal and external pressures on Mobutu increased. In late 1989 and early 1990, Mobutu was weakened by a series of domestic protests, by heightened international criticism of his regime's human rights practices, by a faltering economy, and by government corruption, most notably his own massive embezzlement of government funds for personal use. In April 1990, Mobutu declared the Third Republic, agreeing to a limited multi-party system with free elections and a constitution. As details of the reforms were delayed, soldiers in September 1991 began looting Kinshasa to protest their unpaid wages. Two thousand French and Belgian troops, some of whom were flown in on U.S. Air Force planes, arrived to evacuate the 20,000 endangered foreign nationals in Kinshasa. In 1992, after previous similar attempts, the long-promised Sovereign National Conference was staged, encompassing over 2,000 representatives from various political parties. The conference gave itself a legislative mandate and elected Archbishop Laurent Monsengwo Pasinya as its chairman, along with Étienne Tshisekedi, leader of the UDPS, as prime minister. By the end of the year Mobutu had created a rival government with its own prime minister. The ensuing stalemate produced a compromise merger of the two governments into the High Council of Republic-Parliament of Transition (HCR-PT) in 1994, with Mobutu as head of state and Kengo Wa Dondo as prime minister. Although presidential and legislative elections were scheduled repeatedly over the next two years, they never took place.Civil wars (1996–2003)First Congo War (1996–97) By 1996, tensions from the war and genocide in neighboring Rwanda had spilled over into Zaire. Rwandan Hutu militia forces (Interahamwe) who had fled Rwanda following the ascension of a Tutsi-led government had been using Hutu refugee camps in eastern Zaire as bases for incursions into Rwanda. In October 1996 Rwandan forces attacked refugee camps in the Ruzizi Plain near the intersection of the Congolese, Rwandan and Burundi borders meet, scattering refugees. They took Uvira, then Bukavu, Goma and Mugunga. Hutu militia forces soon allied with the Zairian armed forces (FAZ) to launch a campaign against Congolese ethnic Tutsis in eastern Zaire. In turn, these Tutsis formed a militia to defend themselves against attacks. When the Zairian government began to escalate the massacres in November 1996, Tutsi militias erupted in rebellion against Mobutu. The Tutsi militia was soon joined by various opposition groups and supported by several countries, including Rwanda and Uganda. This coalition, led by Laurent-Desire Kabila, became known as the Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération du Congo-Zaïre (AFDL). The AFDL, now seeking the broader goal of ousting Mobutu, made significant military gains in early 1997. Various Zairean politicians who had unsuccessfully opposed the dictatorship of Mobutu for many years now saw an opportunity for them in the invasion of Zaire by two of the region's strongest military forces. Following failed peace talks between Mobutu and Kabila in May 1997, Mobutu left the country on 16 May. The AFDL entered Kinshasa unopposed a day later, and Kabila named himself president, reverting the name of the country to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. He marched into Kinshasa on 20 May and consolidated power around himself and the AFDL. In September 1997, Mobutu died in exile in Morocco. Second Congo War (1998–2003) Kabila demonstrated little ability to manage the problems of his country, and lost his allies. To counterbalance the power and influence of Rwanda in DRC, Ugandan troops created another rebel movement called the Movement for the Liberation of Congo (MLC), led by the Congolese warlord Jean-Pierre Bemba. They attacked in August 1998, backed by Rwandan and Ugandan troops. Soon afterwards, Angola, Namibia, and Zimbabwe became involved militarily in the Congo, with Angola and Zimbabwe supporting the government. While the six African governments involved in the war signed a ceasefire accord in Lusaka in July 1999, the Congolese rebels did not and the ceasefire broke down within months. Kabila was assassinated in 2001 by a bodyguard called Rashidi Kasereka, 18, who was then shot dead, according to Justice Minister Mwenze Kongolo. Another account of the assassination says that the real killer escaped. Kabila was succeeded by his son, Joseph. Upon taking office, Kabila called for multilateral peace talks to end the war. Kabila partly succeeded when a further peace deal was brokered between him, Uganda, and Rwanda leading to the apparent withdrawal of foreign troops. Currently, the Ugandans and the MLC still hold a wide section of the north of the country; Rwandan forces and its front, the Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie (RCD) control a large section of the east; and government forces or their allies hold the west and south of the country. There were reports that the conflict is being prolonged as a cover for extensive looting of the substantial natural resources in the country, including diamonds, copper, zinc, and coltan. The conflict was reignited in January 2002 by ethnic clashes in the northeast and both Uganda and Rwanda then halted their withdrawal and sent in more troops. Talks between Kabila and the rebel leaders, held in Sun City, lasted a full six weeks, beginning in April 2002. In June, they signed a peace accord under which Kabila would share power with former rebels. By June 2003, all foreign armies except those of Rwanda had pulled out of Congo. Few people in the Congo have been unaffected by the conflict. A survey conducted in 2009 by the ICRC and Ipsos shows that three-quarters (76%) of the people interviewed have been affected in some way–either personally or due to the wider consequences of armed conflict. The response of the international community has been incommensurate with the scale of the disaster resulting from the war in the Congo. Its support for political and diplomatic efforts to end the war has been relatively consistent, but it has taken no effective steps to abide by repeated pledges to demand accountability for the war crimes and crimes against humanity that were routinely committed in Congo. The United Nations Security Council and the U.N. Secretary-General have frequently denounced human rights abuses and the humanitarian disaster that the war unleashed on the local population, but have shown little will to tackle the responsibility of occupying powers for the atrocities taking place in areas under their control, areas where the worst violence in the country took place. In particular Rwanda and Uganda have escaped any significant sanction for their role.Joseph Kabila periodTransitional government (2003–2006) DR Congo had a transitional government in July 2003 until the election was over. A constitution was approved by voters and on 30 July 2006 the Congo held its first multi-party elections since independence in 1960. Joseph Kabila took 45% of the votes and his opponent Jean-Pierre Bemba 20%. That was the origin of a fight between the two parties from 20 to 22 August 2006 in the streets of the capital, Kinshasa. Sixteen people died before policemen and MONUC took control of the city. A new election was held on 29 October 2006, which Kabila won with 70% of the vote. Bemba has decried election "irregularities". On 6 December 2006 Joseph Kabila was sworn in as president. Kabila overstays his term In December 2011, Joseph Kabila was re-elected for a second term as president. After the results were announced on 9 December, there was violent unrest in Kinshasa and Mbuji-Mayi, where official tallies showed that a strong majority had voted for the opposition candidate Étienne Tshisekedi. Official observers from the Carter Center reported that returns from almost 2,000 polling stations in areas where support for Tshisekedi was strong had been lost and not included in the official results. They described the election as lacking credibility. On 20 December, Kabila was sworn in for a second term, promising to invest in infrastructure and public services. However, Tshisekedi maintained that the result of the election was illegitimate and said that he intended also to "swear himself in" as president. On 19 January 2015 protests led by students at the University of Kinshasa broke out. The protests began following the announcement of a proposed law that would allow Kabila to remain in power until a national census can be conducted (elections had been planned for 2016). By Wednesday 21 January clashes between police and protesters had claimed at least 42 lives (although the government claimed only 15 people had been killed). Félix Tshisekedi Presidency (2019–present) On 30 December 2018 the presidential election to determine the successor to Kabila was held. On 10 January 2019, the electoral commission announced opposition candidate Félix Tshisekedi as the winner of the vote. He was officially sworn in as president on 24 January 2019. in the ceremony of taking of the office Félix Tshisekedi appointed Vital Kamerhe as his chief of staff. In June 2020, chief of staff Vital Kamerhe was found guilty of embezzling public funds and he was sentenced to 20 years in prison. However, Kamerhe was released in December 2021. The political allies of former president Joseph Kabila, who stepped down in January 2019, maintained control of key ministries, the legislature, judiciary and security services. However, President Felix Tshisekedi succeeded to strengthen his hold on power. In a series of moves, he won over more legislators, gaining the support of almost 400 out of 500 members of the National Assembly. The pro-Kabila speakers of both houses of parliament were forced out. In April 2021, the new government was formed without the supporters of Kabila. President Felix Tshisekedi succeeded to oust the last remaining elements of his government who were loyal to former leader Joseph Kabila. In January 2021, DRC's President Félix Tshisekedi pardoned all those convicted in the murder of Laurent-Désiré Kabila in 2001. Colonel Eddy Kapend and his co-defendants, who have been incarcerated for 15 years, were released. After the 2023 presidential election, Tshisekedi had a clear lead in his run for a second term. On 31 December 2023, officials said that President Felix Tshisekedi had been re-elected with 73% of the vote. Nine opposition candidates signed a declaration rejecting the election and called for a rerun.Continued conflictsThe inability of the state and the world's largest United Nations peacekeeping force to provide security throughout the vast country has led to the emergence of up to 120 armed groups by 2018, perhaps the largest number in the world. Armed groups are often accused of being proxies or being supported by regional governments interested in Eastern Congo's vast mineral wealth. Some argue that much of the lack of security by the national army is strategic on the part of the government, who let the army profit from illegal logging and mining operations in return for loyalty. Conflict in Kivu (2004–present) Tutsi led insurgency Laurent Nkunda with other soldiers from RCD-Goma who were integrated into the army defected and called themselves the National Congress for the Defence of the People (CNDP). Starting in 2004, CNDP, believed to be backed by Rwanda as a way to tackle the Hutu group Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR), rebelled against the government, claiming to protect the Banyamulenge (Congolese Tutsis). In 2009, after a deal between the DRC and Rwanda, Rwandan troops entered the DRC and arrested Nkunda and were allowed to pursue FDLR militants. The CNDP signed a peace treaty with the government where its soldiers would be integrated into the national army. In April 2012, the leader of the CNDP, Bosco Ntaganda and troops loyal to him mutinied, claiming a violation of the peace treaty and formed a rebel group, the March 23 Movement (M23), which was believed to be backed by Rwanda. On 20 November 2012, M23 took control of Goma, a provincial capital with a population of one million people. The UN authorized the Force Intervention Brigade (FIB), which was the first UN peacekeeping force with a mandate to neutralize opposition rather than a defensive mandate, and the FIB quickly defeated M23. The FIB was then to fight the FDLR but were hampered by the efforts of the Congolese government, who some believe tolerate the FDLR as a counterweight to Rwandan interests. Since 2017, fighters from M23, most of whom had fled into Uganda and Rwanda (both were believed to have supported them), started crossing back into DRC with the rising crisis over Kabila's extension of his term limit. After rising insecurity, President Tshisekedi declared a "state of siege" or state of emergency in North Kivu, as well as Ituri province, in the first such declaration since the country's independence. The military and police took over positions from civilian authorities and some saw it as a powerplay since the civilian officials were part of the opposition to the President. A similar declaration was avoided for South Kivu, in a move believed to avoid antagonizing armed groups with ties to regional powers such as Rwanda.Mai Mai insurgenciesEthnic conflict in Kivu has often involved the Congolese Tutsis known as Banyamulenge, a cattle herding group of Rwandan origin derided as outsiders, and other ethnic groups who consider themselves indigenous. Additionally, neighboring Burundi and Rwanda, who have a thorny relationship, are accused of being involved, with Rwanda accused of training Burundi rebels who have joined with Mai Mai against the Banyamulenge and the Banyamulenge is accused of harboring the RNC, a Rwandan opposition group supported by Burundi. In June 2017, the group was formed called the National Coalition of the People for the Sovereignty of Congo (CNPSC) or Alliance of Article 64, a reference to Article 64 of the constitution, which says the people have an obligation to fight the efforts of those who seek to take power by force, in reference to President Kabila. It is one of three alliances of various Mai-Mai militias and is led by Bembe warlord William Yakutumba whose Mai-Mai Yakutumba is the largest component of the CNPSC and has had friction with the Congolese Tutsis. In May 2019, Banyamulenge fighters killed a Banyindu traditional chief, Kawaza Nyakwana. Later in 2019, a coalition of militias from the Bembe, Bafuliru and Banyindu are estimated to have burnt more than 100, mostly Banyamulenge, villages and stole tens of thousands of cattle from the largely cattle-herding Banyamulenge. About 200,000 people fled their homes. In 2015, the army then launched an offensive against the FDLR militia. The FDLR and Nyatura were accused of killing Nande people The Nande-dominate UPDI militia, a Nande militia called Mai-Mai Mazembe and a militia dominated by Nyanga people, the "Nduma Defense of Congo" (NDC), also called Maï-Maï Sheka and led by Gédéon Kyungu Mutanga, are accused of attacking Hutus. In North Kivu, in 2017, an alliance of Mai-Mai groups called the National Movement of Revolutionaries (MNR) began attacks in June 2017 includes Nande Mai-Mai leaders from groups such as Corps du Christ and Mai-Mai Mazembe. In September 2019, the army declared it had killed Sylvestre Mudacumura, head of the FDLR, and in November that year the army declared it had killed Juvenal Musabimana, who had led a splinter group of the FDLR. Allied Democratic Forces insurgency The Allied Democratic Forces (ADF) has been waging an insurgency in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and is blamed for the Beni massacre in 2016. While the Congolese army maintains that the ADF is an Islamist insurgency, most observers feel that they are only a criminal group interested in gold mining and logging. In March 2021, the United States claimed that the ADF was linked to the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant as part of the Islamic State's Central Africa Province. By 2021, the ADF was considered the deadliest of the many armed groups in the east of the country. Conflict in Katanga In Northern Katanga Province starting in 2013, the Pygmy Batwa people, whom the Luba people often exploit and allegedly enslave, The weapons used in the conflict are often arrows and axes, rather than guns. Conflict in Kasai province, where the Kamwina Nsapu militia clashes with security forces began.]] In the Kasaï-Central province, starting in 2016, the largely Luba Kamwina Nsapu militia led by Kamwina Nsapu attacked state institutions. The leader was killed by authorities in August 2016 and the militia reportedly took revenge by attacking civilians. By June 2017, more than 3,300 people had been killed and 20 villages have been completely destroyed, half of them by government troops. The militia has expanded to the neighboring Kasai-Oriental area, Kasaï and Lomami. The UN discovered dozens of mass graves. There was an ethnic nature to the conflict with the rebels being mostly Luba and Lulua and have selectively killed non-Luba people while the government allied militia, the Bana Mura, constituting people from the Chokwe, Pende, and Tetela, have committed ethnically motivated attacks against the Luba and Lulua. Conflict in Ituri The Ituri conflict in the Ituri region of the north-eastern DRC involved fighting between the agriculturalist Lendu and pastoralist Hema ethnic groups, who together made up around 40% of Ituri's population, with other groups including the Ndo-Okebo and the Nyali. During Belgian rule, the Hema were given privileged positions over the Lendu while long time leader Mobutu Sese Seko also favored the Hema. While "Ituri conflict" often refers to the major fighting from 1999 to 2003, fighting has existed before and continues since that time. During the Second Congolese Civil War, Ituri was considered the most violent region. In late 2020, CODECO briefly held the capital of the province, Bunia, but retreated. In June 2019, attacks by CODECO led to 240 people being killed and more than 300,000 people fleeing. The Allied Democratic Forces (ADF), mostly active in North and South Kivu has also been involved in Ituri province. President Tshisekedi declared a "state of siege" or state of emergency in the province in May 2021 to tackle ADF. However, ADF killed 57 civilians in one attack in the same month in one of its deadliest single attacks. The President is accused of promoting former rebel leaders and generals accused of war crimes to be in charge of the province.Conflict in the NorthwestDongo Conflict In October 2009 a conflict started in Dongo, Sud-Ubangi District where clashes had broken out over access to fishing ponds. Yumbi Massacre (2018) Nearly 900 people were killed between 16 and 17 December 2018 around Yumbi, a few weeks before the Presidential election, when mostly those of the Batende tribe massacred mostly those of the Banunu tribe. About 16,000 fled to neighboring Republic of the Congo. It was alleged that it was a carefully planned massacre, involving elements of the national military. See also Economic history of the Democratic Republic of the Congo Former place names in the Democratic Republic of the Congo History of Africa List of heads of state of the Democratic Republic of the Congo List of heads of government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo Politics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo * Cities in DR Congo: Bukavu history and timeline Goma history and timeline Kinshasa history and timeline Kisangani history and timeline ** Lubumbashi history and timeline Notes References Sources * * * * * * * * * * External links [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1076399.stm BBC, Country profile: Democratic Republic of Congo] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/guides/456900/456977/html/nn1page1.stm BBC, DR Congo: Key facts] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3075537.stm BBC, Q&A: DR Congo conflict] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1072684.stm Timeline: Democratic Republic of Congo] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_pictures/7702602.stm BBC, In pictures: Congo crisis] [https://kivusecurity.org/ Kivu Security Tracker – data on armed groups and casualty figures] * Democratic Republic of the Congo da:Demokratiske Republik Congo#Historie	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo	2025-04-05T18:28:21.585770
8023	Geography of the Democratic Republic of the Congo	<!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE --> <span lang"fr">The Democratic Republic of the Congo is the largest country of sub-Saharan Africa, occupying some . The country lies on the equator. Most of the country lies within the vast hollow of the Congo River Basin. is an extension of the southern uplands that drops sharply to a very narrow shore about long. Weatherbase (extremes) \|source 2 Danish Meteorological Institute (precipitation, sun, and humidity) }} Climate change As of 2023, the DRC is the 18th highest emitting nation of greenhouse gases and the highest emitter on the African continent. The majority of these emissions arise from land use change and deforestation, as the country uses little fossil fuels and only one-fifth of the population has access to electricity. The DRC is one of the most vulnerable nations to climate change and the least prepared to deal with its impacts. Climate change in the DRC is predicted to cause more frequent and intense floods, droughts and exacerbated disease epidemics. Sectors vulnerable to climate change include agriculture, forestry and energy. Data Area: <br />total: 2,344,858 km<sup>2</sup> <br />land: 2,267,048 km<sup>2</sup> <br />water: 77,810 km<sup>2</sup> in South Kivu.]] Area - comparative: :11th-largest country in the world (and 2nd in Africa) :smaller than Algeria but larger than Greenland and Saudi Arabia :about the size of the United States as a whole : Australia comparative: slightly smaller than Western Australia :* Canada comparative: slightly less than twice the size of the Northwest Territories , which last erupted in 2021.]] .]] Land boundaries: <br/>total: 10,481 km <br/>border countries: "Angola 2,646 km, Burundi 236 km, Central African Republic 1,747 km, Republic of the Congo 1,229 km, Rwanda 221 km, South Sudan 714 km, Tanzania 479 km, Uganda 877 km, Zambia 2,332 km" Coastline: . Maritime claims: <br/>territorial sea: <br/>exclusive economic zone: boundaries with neighbors Climate: tropical; hot and humid in equatorial river basin; cooler and drier in southern highlands; cooler-cold and wetter in eastern highlands and the Ruwenzori Range; north of Equator - wet season April to October, dry season December to February; south of Equator - wet season November to March, dry season April to October Terrain: vast central plateau covered by tropical rainforest, surrounded by mountains in the west, plains and savanna in the south/southwest, and grasslands in the north. The high mountains of the Ruwenzori Range on the eastern borders. Elevation extremes: <br/>lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m <br/>highest point: Pic Marguerite on Mont Ngaliema (Mount Stanley) 5,110 m Natural resources: cobalt, copper, niobium, petroleum, industrial and gem diamonds, gold, silver, zinc, manganese, tin, uranium, coal, hydropower, timber Land use: <br/>arable land: 3.09% <br/>permanent crops: 0.36% 96.55 (2012 est.) Irrigated land: 105 km<sup>2</sup> (2003) Total renewable water resources: 1,283 km<sup>3</sup> (2011) Freshwater withdrawal total: 0.68 km<sup>3</sup>/yr (68%/21%/11%) per capita: 11.25 m<sup>3</sup>/yr (2005) Natural hazards Periodic droughts in south; Congo River floods (seasonal); in the east, in the Albertine Rift, there are active volcanoes Environment , half of its population live in the DRC's Virunga National Park, making the park a critical habitat for these animals.]] Current issues Poaching threatens wildlife populations (for example, the painted hunting dog, Lycaon pictus, is now considered extirpated from the Congo due to human overpopulation and poaching); water pollution; deforestation (chiefly due to land conversion to agriculture by indigenous farmers); refugees responsible for significant deforestation, soil erosion, and wildlife poaching; mining of minerals (coltan — a mineral used in creating capacitors, diamonds, and gold) causing environmental damage International environmental agreements party to: Biodiversity, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands <br/>signed, but not ratified: Environmental Modification Extreme points This is a list of the extreme points of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location. * Northernmost point - unnamed location on the border with the Central African Republic in the Bomu river immediately west of the town of Mbaga in CAR, Orientale Province * Easternmost point - at the point where the northern section of the border with Uganda enters Lake Albert immediately west of Mahagi Port, Orientale Province * Southernmost point - unnamed location on the border with Zambia immediately to north-west of the Zambian town of Ndabala, Katanga province * Westernmost point - the point at which the border with Cabinda enters the Atlantic Ocean, Bas-Congo province See also * Subdivisions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo * Democratic Republic of the Congo * Former place names in the Democratic Republic of the Congo References	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo	2025-04-05T18:28:21.620110
8024	Demographics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo	( est.)\|nationCongolese\|officialFrench\|age_0–14_years46.38%\|age_65_years2.47%\|birth40.08 births/1,000 population (2022 est.)\|growth3.24% (2022 est.)\|death7.94 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.)\|net_migration-0.71 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.)\|sr_under_151.01 male(s)/female\|sr_at_birth1.03 male(s)/female\|sr_65_years_over0.6 male(s)/female\|total_mf_ratio1 male(s)/female (2022 est.)\|infant_mortality60.85 deaths/1,000 live births\|life61.83 years\|life_male60.03 years\|life_female63.69 years\|fertility6.16 children born/woman (2022 est.)}} Demographic features of the population of the Democratic Republic of the Congo include ethnicity, education level, health, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. As many as 250 ethnic groups have been distinguished and named. The most numerous people are the Luba, Mongo, and Kongo. Although 700 local languages and dialects are spoken, the linguistic variety is bridged both by the use of French, and the intermediary languages Kikongo ya leta, Tshiluba, Swahili, and Lingala. Population The CIA World Factbook estimated the population to be over 105 million as of 2022 (the exact number being 108,407,721), now exceeding that of Vietnam (with 98,721,275 inhabitants as of 2020) and ascending the country to the rank of 14th most populous in the world. The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2020 was 46.38%, 51.15% of the population was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 2.47% was 65 years or older. {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align: right;" \|- ! ! style"width:80pt;"\|Total population {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! width="80pt"\|Age Group ! width="80pt"\|Male ! width="80pt"\|Female ! width="80pt"\|Total ! width="80pt"\|% \|- \| align="right" \| Total \| align="right" \| 50 286 000 \| align="right" \| 51 472 000 \| align="right" \| 101 758 000 \| align="right" \| 100 \|- \| align="right" \| 0–4 \| align="right" \| 9 956 000 \| align="right" \| 9 780 000 \| align="right" \| 19 736 000 \| align="right" \| 19.40 \|- \| align="right" \| 5–9 \| align="right" \| 8 046 000 \| align="right" \| 7 978 000 \| align="right" \| 16 024 000 \| align="right" \| 15.75 \|- \| align="right" \| 10–14 \| align="right" \| 6 638 000 \| align="right" \| 6 588 000 \| align="right" \| 13 226 000 \| align="right" \| 13.00 \|- \| align="right" \| 15–19 \| align="right" \| 5 280 000 \| align="right" \| 5 250 000 \| align="right" \| 10 530 000 \| align="right" \| 10.35 \|- \| align="right" \| 20–24 \| align="right" \| 4 224 000 \| align="right" \| 4 272 000 \| align="right" \| 8 496 000 \| align="right" \| 8.35 \|- \| align="right" \| 25–29 \| align="right" \| 3 621 000 \| align="right" \| 3 603 000 \| align="right" \| 7 224 000 \| align="right" \| 7.10 \|- \| align="right" \| 30–34 \| align="right" \| 3 017 000 \| align="right" \| 3 037 000 \| align="right" \| 6 054 000 \| align="right" \| 5.95 \|- \| align="right" \| 35–39 \| align="right" \| 2 565 000 \| align="right" \| 2 728 000 \| align="right" \| 5 293 000 \| align="right" \| 5.20 \|- \| align="right" \| 40–44 \| align="right" \| 2 011 000 \| align="right" \| 2 059 000 \| align="right" \| 4 070 000 \| align="right" \| 4.00 \|- \| align="right" \| 45–49 \| align="right" \| 1 307 000 \| align="right" \| 1 493 000 \| align="right" \| 2 800 000 \| align="right" \| 2.75 \|- \| align="right" \| 50–54 \| align="right" \| 1 056 000 \| align="right" \| 1 287 000 \| align="right" \| 2 343 000 \| align="right" \| 2.30 \|- \| align="right" \| 55–59 \| align="right" \| 704 000 \| align="right" \| 926 000 \| align="right" \| 1 630 000 \| align="right" \| 1.60 \|- \| align="right" \| 60–64 \| align="right" \| 704 000 \| align="right" \| 926 000 \| align="right" \| 1 630 000 \| align="right" \| 1.60 \|- \| align="right" \| 65–69 \| align="right" \| 553 000 \| align="right" \| 721 000 \| align="right" \| 1 274 000 \| align="right" \| 1.25 \|- \| align="right" \| 70–74 \| align="right" \| 302 000 \| align="right" \| 412 000 \| align="right" \| 714 000 \| align="right" \| 0.70 \|- \| align="right" \| 75+ \| align="right" \| 302 000 \| align="right" \| 412 000 \| align="right" \| 714 000 \| align="right" \| 0.70 \|- ! width="50"\|Age group ! width="80pt"\|Male ! width="80"\|Female ! width="80"\|Total ! width="50"\|Percent \|- \| align="right" \| 0–14 \| align="right" \| 24 640 000 \| align="right" \| 24 346 000 \| align="right" \| 48 986 000 \| align="right" \| 48.14 \|- \| align="right" \| 15–64 \| align="right" \| 24 489 000 \| align="right" \| 25 581 000 \| align="right" \| 50 070 000 \| align="right" \| 49.20 \|- \| align="right" \| 65+ \| align="right" \| 1 157 000 \| align="right" \| 1 545 000 \| align="right" \| 2 702 000 \| align="right" \| 2.66 \|- \|} Census The first and so far only census conducted in DR Congo dates from 1984. A census is supposed to be conducted decennially, but this has been obstructed by periods of instability such as the political reorganization in 1991 and the civil war in 1996. In January 2015, the parliament passed a law requiring that a census be completed before the next election. Opponents said this was intended to keep Joseph Kabila in power by delaying the next election, leading to protests that caused several deaths. The parliament repealed the law and the census did not take place. The second general census of population and housing is underway as of 2024. President Félix Tshisekedi called for a census to improve demographic policies and to enable the creation of national identity cards. Data collection began on 2 March 2020 and was scheduled to end on 10 June, but implementation was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Data collection was arranged by the Ministries of Planning, Budget, and Finance, and the electoral commission sent materials to the ONIP and the . The census is planned to be completed in 2025 with an expected budget of US$153,700,453. {\| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align: right;" \|- ! style="width:70pt;"\|Period ! style="width:70pt;"\|Population (in thousands) ! style="width:70pt;"\|Live births per year ! style="width:70pt;"\|Deaths per year ! style="width:70pt;"\|Natural change per year ! style="width:70pt;"\|CBR* ! style="width:70pt;" \|CDR* ! style="width:70pt;" \|NC* ! style="width:70pt;"\|TFR* ! style="width:70pt;"\|IMR* ! style="width:70pt;"\|Life expectancy \|- \|1950 \| 12,174 \| 566,000 \| 326,000 \| 239,000 \|46.0 \|26.6 \|19.5 \|style="color:red" \|5.97 \|179.9 \|38.31 \|- \|1951 \| 12,415 \| 579,000 \| 328,000 \| 251,000 \|46.1 \|26.2 \|20.0 \|5.97 \|178.5 \|38.44 \|- \|1952 \| 12,671 \| 592,000 \| 327,000 \| 264,000 \|46.2 \|25.6 \|20.6 \|5.97 \|175.8 \|38.85 \|- \|1953 \| 12,937 \| 607,000 \| 329,000 \| 278,000 \|46.4 \|25.1 \|21.2 \|5.98 \|173.3 \|39.14 \|- \|1954 \| 13,202 \| 619,000 \| 330,000 \| 289,000 \|46.3 \|24.7 \|21.6 \|5.98 \|171.0 \|39.47 \|- \|1955 \| 13,484 \| 632,000 \| 333,000 \| 299,000 \|46.3 \|24.4 \|21.9 \|5.98 \|168.8 \|39.72 \|- \|1956 \| 13,777 \| 646,000 \| 336,000 \| 311,000 \|46.4 \|24.1 \|22.3 \|5.99 \|166.7 \|39.98 \|- \|1957 \| 14,084 \| 663,000 \| 338,000 \| 325,000 \|46.5 \|23.7 \|22.8 \|6.01 \|164.7 \|40.32 \|- \|1958 \| 14,402 \| 681,000 \| 343,000 \| 338,000 \|46.7 \|23.5 \|23.2 \|6.04 \|162.9 \|40.50 \|- \|1959 \| 14,714 \| 698,000 \| 348,000 \| 349,000 \|46.8 \|23.4 \|23.4 \|6.07 \|161.2 \|40.64 \|- \|1960 \| 15,069 \| 716,000 \| 354,000 \| 362,000 \|46.9 \|23.2 \|23.7 \|6.08 \|159.8 \|40.86 \|- \|1961 \| 15,460 \| 738,000 \| 370,000 \| 368,000 \|47.1 \|23.6 \|23.5 \|6.11 \|159.6 \|40.24 \|- \|1962 \| 15,864 \| 761,000 \| 378,000 \| 383,000 \|47.4 \|23.5 \|23.8 \|6.13 \|158.1 \|40.34 \|- \|1963 \| 16,287 \| 785,000 \| 385,000 \| 400,000 \|47.5 \|23.3 \|24.2 \|6.16 \|156.5 \|40.60 \|- \|1964 \| 16,728 \| 808,000 \| 403,000 \| 406,000 \|47.7 \|23.8 \|24.0 \|6.18 \|155.7 \|40.05 \|- \|1965 \| 17,183 \| 833,000 \| 404,000 \| 429,000 \|47.9 \|23.2 \|24.7 \|6.21 \|153.1 \|40.70 \|- \|1966 \| 17,673 \| 859,000 \| 397,000 \| 462,000 \|47.9 \|22.1 \|25.8 \|6.24 \|149.5 \|42.05 \|- \|1967 \| 18,191 \| 885,000 \| 405,000 \| 480,000 \|style="color:blue" \| 48.0 \|21.9 \|26.0 \|6.27 \|147.3 \|42.31 \|- \|1968 \| 18,735 \| 910,000 \| 411,000 \| 500,000 \|47.9 \|21.6 \|26.3 \|6.30 \|145.1 \|42.71 \|- \|1969 \| 19,290 \| 935,000 \| 418,000 \| 517,000 \|47.8 \|21.4 \|26.4 \|6.32 \|142.7 \|42.98 \|- \|1970 \| 19,851 \| 959,000 \| 425,000 \| 534,000 \|47.6 \|21.1 \|26.5 \|6.34 \|140.5 \|43.28 \|- \|1971 \| 20,424 \| 985,000 \| 431,000 \| 554,000 \|47.5 \|20.8 \|26.8 \|6.38 \|138.3 \|43.66 \|- \|1972 \| 20,967 \| 1,006,000 \| 437,000 \| 569,000 \|47.3 \|20.5 \|26.8 \|6.40 \|136.4 \|43.93 \|- \|1973 \| 21,535 \| 1,026,000 \| 445,000 \| 582,000 \|47.0 \|20.4 \|26.6 \|6.41 \|134.7 \|44.10 \|- \|1974 \| 22,121 \| 1,047,000 \| 451,000 \| 597,000 \|46.7 \|20.1 \|26.6 \|6.42 \|133.3 \|44.41 \|- \|1975 \| 22,717 \| 1,070,000 \| 460,000 \| 610,000 \|46.4 \|20.0 \|26.4 \|6.42 \|132.1 \|44.47 \|- \|1976 \| 23,325 \| 1,091,000 \| 468,000 \| 623,000 \|46.1 \|19.8 \|26.3 \|6.43 \|130.9 \|44.66 \|- \|1977 \| 23,923 \| 1,111,000 \| 476,000 \| 634,000 \|45.8 \|19.6 \|26.1 \|6.43 \|129.8 \|44.76 \|- \|1978 \| 24,535 \| 1,134,000 \| 491,000 \| 643,000 \|45.6 \|19.7 \|25.8 \|6.44 \|129.1 \|44.54 \|- \|1979 \| 25,450 \| 1,184,000 \| 496,000 \| 688,000 \|45.9 \|19.2 \|26.7 \|6.46 \|126.9 \|45.21 \|- \|1980 \| 26,323 \| 1,227,000 \| 507,000 \| 720,000 \|46.0 \|19.0 \|27.0 \|6.47 \|125.1 \|45.47 \|- \|1981 \| 27,099 \| 1,260,000 \| 517,000 \| 744,000 \|45.9 \|18.8 \|27.1 \|6.49 \|123.5 \|45.72 \|- \|1982 \| 27,902 \| 1,293,000 \| 526,000 \| 766,000 \|45.8 \|18.6 \|27.2 \|6.50 \|121.9 \|45.92 \|- \|1983 \| 28,774 \| 1,333,000 \| 535,000 \| 798,000 \|45.9 \|18.5 \|27.5 \|6.55 \|120.3 \|46.18 \|- \|1984 \| 29,728 \| 1,377,000 \| 545,000 \| 832,000 \|46.2 \|18.3 \|27.9 \|6.60 \|118.7 \|46.45 \|- \|1985 \| 30,763 \| 1,433,000 \| 559,000 \| 873,000 \|46.5 \|18.2 \|28.4 \|6.65 \|117.4 \|46.62 \|- \|1986 \| 31,767 \| 1,480,000 \| 571,000 \| 910,000 \|46.7 \|18.0 \|28.7 \|6.69 \|116.1 \|46.91 \|- \|1987 \| 32,763 \| 1,529,000 \| 579,000 \| 950,000 \|46.8 \|17.7 \|29.1 \|style="color:blue" \|6.74 \|114.9 \|47.34 \|- \|1988 \| 33,834 \| 1,568,000 \| 588,000 \| 980,000 \|46.5 \|17.4 \|29.1 \|6.73 \|113.7 \|47.77 \|- \|1989 \| 34,931 \| 1,610,000 \| 596,000 \| 1,014,000 \|46.3 \|17.1 \|29.1 \|6.74 \|112.6 \|48.17 \|- \|1990 \| 36,043 \| 1,652,000 \| 604,000 \| 1,047,000 \|46.0 \|16.8 \|29.2 \|6.70 \|111.3 \|48.60 \|- \|1991 \| 37,325 \| 1,713,000 \| 617,000 \| 1,097,000 \|46.1 \|16.6 \|29.5 \|6.69 \|110.1 \|48.95 \|- \|1992 \| 38,526 \| 1,761,000 \| 629,000 \| 1,132,000 \|45.9 \|16.4 \|29.5 \|6.67 \|108.9 \|49.24 \|- \|1993 \| 39,932 \| 1,804,000 \| 638,000 \| 1,165,000 \|45.7 \|16.2 \|29.5 \|6.64 \|108.1 \|49.55 \|- \|1994 \| 41,381 \| 1,878,000 \| 653,000 \| 1,225,000 \|45.9 \|16.0 \|29.9 \|6.67 \|107.0 \|49.88 \|- \|1995 \| 43,873 \| 2,046,000 \| 682,000 \| 1,364,000 \|47.1 \|15.7 \|31.4 \|6.71 \|105.7 \|50.41 \|- \|1996 \| 44,995 \| 2,083,000 \| 730,000 \| 1,353,000 \|46.8 \|16.4 \|30.4 \|6.72 \|106.4 \|49.31 \|- \|1997 \| 45,598 \| 2,067,000 \| 707,000 \| 1,360,000 \|45.8 \|15.7 \|30.2 \|6.73 \|103.7 \|50.40 \|- \|1998 \| 46,462 \| 2,071,000 \| 729,000 \| 1,342,000 \|45.1 \|15.9 \|29.2 \|6.73 \|101.5 \|49.70 \|- \|1999 \| 48,133 \| 2,128,000 \| 739,000 \| 1,389,000 \|45.0 \|15.6 \|29.4 \|6.72 \|99.5 \|49.95 \|- \|2000 \| 49,693 \| 2,189,000 \| 712,000 \| 1,477,000 \|45.0 \|14.6 \|30.4 \|6.72 \|97.3 \|51.78 \|- \|2001 \| 51,322 \| 2,245,000 \| 721,000 \| 1,525,000 \|44.8 \|14.4 \|30.4 \|6.70 \|95.0 \|52.12 \|- \|2002 \| 52,943 \| 2,310,000 \| 733,000 \| 1,577,000 \|44.7 \|14.2 \|30.5 \|6.67 \|92.6 \|52.33 \|- \|2003 \| 54,558 \| 2,372,000 \| 738,000 \| 1,634,000 \|44.5 \|13.9 \|30.7 \|6.64 \|89.9 \|52.83 \|- \|2004 \| 56,130 \| 2,426,000 \| 738,000 \| 1,688,000 \|44.3 \|13.5 \|30.8 \|6.62 \|87.2 \|53.43 \|- \|2005 \| 57,865 \| 2,499,000 \| 743,000 \| 1,757,000 \|44.2 \|13.1 \|31.1 \|6.60 \|84.6 \|53.93 \|- \|2006 \| 59,686 \| 2,592,000 \| 746,000 \| 1,846,000 \|44.4 \|12.8 \|31.6 \|6.59 \|82.0 \|54.53 \|- \|2007 \| 61,546 \| 2,675,000 \| 756,000 \| 1,920,000 \|44.4 \|12.5 \|31.8 \|6.58 \|79.4 \|54.92 \|- \|2008 \| 63,410 \| 2,767,000 \| 764,000 \| 2,003,000 \|44.4 \|12.3 \|32.2 \|6.58 \|77.0 \|55.34 \|- \|2009 \| 65,372 \| 2,867,000 \| 771,000 \| 2,096,000 \|44.6 \|12.0 \|32.6 \|6.59 \|74.5 \|55.84 \|- \|2010 \| 67,453 \| 2,957,000 \| 774,000 \| 2,183,000 \|44.5 \|11.7 \|32.9 \|6.59 \|72.2 \|56.42 \|- \|2011 \| 69,674 \| 3,069,000 \| 776,000 \| 2,293,000 \|44.7 \|11.3 \|33.4 \|6.58 \|70.0 \|57.07 \|- \|2012 \| 72,025 \| 3,171,000 \| 793,000 \| 2,378,000 \|44.6 \|11.2 \|style="color:blue" \|33.5 \|6.56 \|68.0 \|57.25 \|- \|2013 \| 74,484 \| 3,247,000 \| 797,000 \| 2,450,000 \|44.2 \|10.9 \|33.4 \|6.53 \|65.9 \|57.76 \|- \|2014 \| 77,095 \| 3,345,000 \| 802,000 \| 2,543,000 \|44.0 \|10.6 \|33.4 \|6.48 \|64.0 \|58.30 \|- \|2015 \| 79,712 \| 3,433,000 \| 818,000 \| 2,615,000 \|43.6 \|10.4 \|33.2 \|6.44 \|62.2 \|58.49 \|- \|2016 \| 82,359 \| 3,532,000 \| 820,000 \| 2,712,000 \|43.4 \|10.1 \|33.3 \|6.39 \|60.4 \|59.07 \|- \|2017 \| 85,554 \| 3,647,000 \| 832,000 \| 2,815,000 \|43.3 \|9.9 \|33.4 \|6.35 \|58.6 \|59.41 \|- \|2018 \| 88,613 \| 3,748,000 \| 835,000 \| 2,913,000 \|43.0 \|9.6 \|33.4 \|6.30 \|56.9 \|59.94 \|- \|2019 \| 91,482 \| 3,839,000 \| 844,000 \| 2,995,000 \|42.7 \|9.4 \|33.3 \|6.25 \|55.5 \|60.28 \|- \|2020 \| 94,413 \| 3,930,000 \| 886,000 \| 3,044,000 \|42.3 \|9.5 \|32.8 \|6.21 \|53.9 \|59.74 \|- \|2021 \| 97,567 \| 4,158,000 \| 930,000 \| 3,163,000 \|\|41.9 \|9.4 \|31.9 \|6.16 \|52.0 \|60.0 \|- \|2022 \| 100,731 \| 4,262,000 \| 914,000 \| 3,333,000 \| 41.6 \|8.9 \|32.6 \|6.11 \|50.5 \|61.0 \|- \|2023 \| 104,063 \| style="color:blue"\|4,370,000 \| 902,000 \|style="color:blue"\|3,453,000 \|style="color:red"\|41.3 \|style="color:blue" \|8.5 \|32.6 \|6.05 \|49.3 \|61.9 \|- \| colspan"10" style"text-align:left;" \| <small>CBR crude birth rate (per 1000 people); CDR crude death rate (per 1000 people); NC natural change (per 1000 people), also equals CBR minus CDR; IMR infant mortality rate per 1000 births; TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman)</small> \|} Population estimates by INS The Institute of National Statistics of the DRC has provided population estimates from 1984 and 2000-2019: 1984: 30,631,000 2000: 52,099,000 2001: 53,870,000 2002: 55,702,000 2003: 57,596,000 2004: 59,554,000 2005: 61,579,000 2006: 63,673,000 2007: 65,837,000 2008: 68,076,000 2009: 70,391,000 2010: 72,784,000 2011: 75,259,000 2012: 77,817,000 2013: 80,462,000 2014: 83,197,000 2015: 86,024,000 2016: 88,957,000 2017: 91,994,000 2018: 94,921,000 2019: 98,370,000 Demographic and Health Surveys Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR) for urban and rural areas: The Wanted Fertility Rate is an estimate of what the fertility rate would be if all unwanted births were avoided. {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! style="width:50pt;"\| Year ! style="width:50pt;"\| CBR (Total) ! style="width:50pt;"\| TFR (Total) ! style="width:50pt;"\| CBR (Urban) ! style="width:50pt;"\| TFR (Urban) ! style="width:50pt;"\| CBR (Rural) ! style="width:50pt;"\| TFR (Rural) \|- \| 2007 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 44.1 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 6.3 (5.6) \| style="text-align:right;"\| 40.4 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 5.4 (4.8) \| style="text-align:right;"\| 46.8 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 7.0 (6.2) \|- \| 2013–14 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 44.1 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 6.6 (5.7) \| style="text-align:right;"\| 40.5 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 5.4 (4.6) \| style="text-align:right;"\| 45.9 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 7.3 (6.5) \|- \| 2023–24 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 35.7 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 5.5 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 30.4 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 4.2 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 38.6 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 6.4 \|- \|} Fertility data per province, as of 2014: {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|- ! style="width:100pt;"\| Province ! style="width:100pt;"\| Total fertility rate ! style="width:100pt;"\| Percentage of women age 15-49 currently pregnant ! style="width:100pt;"\| Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49 \|- \|Kinshasa\|\| 4.2 \|\| 5.7 \|\| 4.8 \|- \|Bas-Congo\|\| 6.0 \|\| 12.6 \|\| 6.5 \|- \|Bandundu\|\| 6.3 \|\| 12.1 \|\| 6.1 \|- \|Équateur\|\| 7.0 \|\| 14.3 \|\| 6.5 \|- \|Orientale\|\| 5.9 \|\| 11.6 \|\| 5.3 \|- \|Nord-Kivu\|\| 6.5 \|\| 9.7 \|\| 6.7 \|- \|Sud-Kivu\|\| 7.7 \|\| 12.5 \|\| 7.4 \|- \|Maniema\|\| 6.9 \|\| 14.8 \|\| 7.0 \|- \|Katanga\|\| 7.8 \|\| 12.8 \|\| 7.3 \|- \|Kasaï Oriental\|\| 7.3 \|\| 12.4 \|\| 7.5 \|- \|Kasaï Occidental\|\| 8.2 \|\| 14.2 \|\| 7.5 \|} Life expectancy in DR Congo since 1950]] {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center;" !Period !Life expectancy in <br /> Years \|- \|1950–1955 \|39.06 \|- \|1955–1960 \| 40.55 \|- \|1960–1965 \| 41.63 \|- \|1965–1970 \| 42.99 \|- \|1970–1975 \| 44.77 \|- \|1975–1980 \| 45.63 \|- \|1980–1985 \| 47.13 \|- \|1985–1990 \| 48.25 \|- \|1990–1995 \| 49.59 \|- \|1995–2000 \| 48.89 \|- \|2000–2005 \| 51.84 \|- \|2005–2010 \| 55.48 \|- \|2010–2015 \| 58.10 \|} Ethnic groups Over 250 ethnic groups and 450 tribes (ethnic subgroups) populate the Democratic Republic of Congo. These ethnic groups are from the Bantu, Sudanic, Nilotic, Ubangian and Pygmy linguistic groups. There is no dominant ethnic group in Congo; the following ethnic groups account for 51.5% of the population: * Luba-Kasaï * Kongo * Mongo * Lubakat * Lulua * Tetela * Nande * Ngbandi * Ngombe * Yaka * Ngbaka Ethnic groups include: * Bantu peoples: Ambala, Ambuun, Angba, Babindi, Baboma, Baholo, Bangala, Bango, Bapindi, Batsamba, Bazombe, Bemba, Bembe, Bira, Bowa, Dikidiki, Dzing, Fuliru, Havu, Hema, Hima, Hunde, Iboko, Kanioka, Kaonde, Kongo, Kuba, Kumu, Kwango, Lengola, Lokele, Luba, Lunda, Lupu, Lwalwa, Mbala, Mbole, Mbuza (Budja), Mongo, Nande, Ngoli, Bangoli, Ngombe, Nkumu, Nyanga, Pende, Popoi, Poto, Sango, Shi, Nyindu, Songo, Sukus, Tabwa, Chokwe, Téké, Tembo, Tetela, Topoke, Ungana, Vira, Wakuti, Yaka, Yakoma, Yanzi, Yéké, Yela, etc. * Central Sudanic: Manvu, Mbunja, Moru-Mangbetu, Lugbara * Nilotic peoples: Alur, Bari, Kakwa, Logo * Ubangian: Azande, Banda, Ngbandi, Ngbaka * Pygmy peoples: Mbuti, Twa, Baka, Babinga Languages \|captionPercentage of the DRC population who speak each of the five national languages, plus English. }} The five major languages in the DRC are French (official), Lingala (a lingua franca, or trade language), Swahili (more specifically Congo Swahili such as the Kingwana dialect), Kikongo ya leta or Kituba (a Kikongo-based creole language), and Tshiluba or Luba-Kasai. In total, there are over 200 languages spoken in the DRC. French, the official language, is generally the language of instruction in schools. However, English is taught as a compulsory foreign language in secondary schools around the country. It is a required subject in the Faculty of Economics at major universities around the country, and there are numerous language schools in the country that teach it. Many Congolese, such as former president Joseph Kabila, are fluent in both English and French. Religions A survey conducted by the Demographic and Health Surveys program in 2013–2014 indicated that Christians constituted 93.7% of the population (Catholics 29.7%, Protestants 26.8%, and other Christians 37.2%). An indigenous religion, Kimbanguism, was practiced by 2.8% of the population, while Muslims make up 1.2%. Another estimate (by the Pew Research Center in 2010) found Christianity was followed by 95.8% of the population. The CIA The World Factbook gives the following percentages: Roman Catholic 29.9%, Protestant 26.7%, Kimbanguist 2.8%, Other Christian 36.5%, Islam 1.3%, Other (includes Syncretic Sects and Indigenous beliefs) 2.7%. , fertility rate and net reproduction rate, United Nations estimates]] Congolese diaspora The table below shows DRC born people who have emigrated abroad in selected Western countries (although it excludes their descendants). {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Rank ! Country ! Region ! Year ! DRC born population \|- \| 1 \| \| Europe \| 2010 \| [https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/democratic-republic-congo-migration-history-marked-crises-and-restrictions 59,641] \|- \| 2 \| \| Europe \| 2015 \| [https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/democratic-republic-congo-migration-history-marked-crises-and-restrictions 44,715] \|- \| 3 \| \| North America \| 2021 \| 39,475 \|- \| 4 \| \| North America \| 2011–13 \| [https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/democratic-republic-congo-migration-history-marked-crises-and-restrictions 20,410] \|- \| 5 \| \| Europe \| 2011 \| [https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/democratic-republic-congo-migration-history-marked-crises-and-restrictions 19,193] \|- \| 6 \| \| Europe \| 2011 (foreign citizens) \| [https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/democratic-republic-congo-migration-history-marked-crises-and-restrictions 9,299] \|- \| 7 \| \| Europe \| 2011 \| [https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/democratic-republic-congo-migration-history-marked-crises-and-restrictions 6,724] \|- \| 8 \| \| Europe \| 2015 \| [https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/democratic-republic-congo-migration-history-marked-crises-and-restrictions 6,010] \|- \| 9 \| \| Europe \| 2015 \| [https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/democratic-republic-congo-migration-history-marked-crises-and-restrictions 4,973] \|- \| 10 \| \| Europe \| 2015 \| [https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/democratic-republic-congo-migration-history-marked-crises-and-restrictions 3,092] \|- \| 11 \| \| South America \| 2024 \| [https://www.nepo.unicamp.br/observatorio/bancointerativo/numeros-imigracao-internacional/sincre-sismigra/ 2,579] \|- \| 12 \| \| Oceania \| 2011 \| [https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/democratic-republic-congo-migration-history-marked-crises-and-restrictions 2,576] \|- \| 13 \| \| Europe \| 2015 \| [https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/democratic-republic-congo-migration-history-marked-crises-and-restrictions 2,210] \|- \| 14 \| \| Europe \| 2013 \| [https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/democratic-republic-congo-migration-history-marked-crises-and-restrictions 1,494] \|- \| 15 \| \| Europe \| 2015 \| [https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/democratic-republic-congo-migration-history-marked-crises-and-restrictions 1,523] \|- \| 16 \| \| Europe \| 2015 \| [https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/democratic-republic-congo-migration-history-marked-crises-and-restrictions 1,264] \|- \| 17 \| \| Europe \| 2015 \| [https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/democratic-republic-congo-migration-history-marked-crises-and-restrictions 1,258] \|} These are only estimates and do not account for Congolese migrants residing illegally in these and other countries. See also Congolese ethnic groups: Alur Azande Chokwe Hema Kakwa Lendu Luba Mangbetu Twa Yaka Lunda Other articles Health in the Democratic Republic of the Congo References <references /> External links * , International Rescue Committee, January 2008 (estimates 5.4 million excess deaths above sub-Saharan average from 1998 to 2007) Category:Society of the Democratic Republic of the Congo	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo	2025-04-05T18:28:21.678951
8025	Economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo	\| population 95,894,118 (2021) \| gdp = $79.244 billion (nominal, 2025 est.) * $203.34 billion (PPP, 2025 est.)}} \| per capita = $743 (nominal, 2025 est.) 76.6% on less than $1.90/day (2012)}} \| gini 42.1 (2012) \| hdi = 0.479 (2021) (179th) 0.341 IHDI (2021)}} \| cpi = 20 out of 100 points (2023, 162nd rank) \| edbr 183rd (below average, 2020) \| labor = 29,699,289 (2019) 63.1% employment rate (2012)}} \| occupations = N/A \| unemployment = 4.5% (2022) \| industries = mining (copper, cobalt, gold, diamonds, coltan, zinc, tin, tungsten), mineral processing, consumer products (including textiles, plastics, footwear, cigarettes, processed foods, beverages), metal products, lumber, cement, commercial ship repair \| exports = $8.872 billion (2012 est.) \| export-goods = gold, diamonds, copper, cobalt, coltan, zinc, tin, tungsten, crude oil, wood products, coffee \| export-partners = 68.9% 7.02% (2023)}} \| imports = $8.187 billion (2012 est.) \| import-goods = machinery, transportation equipment, fuel, food \| import-partners = 34.9% * 12.5% * 12.1% (2023)}} \| gross external debt = $6.089 billion (31 December 2012 est.) \| FDI \| debt \| revenue = $4.943 billion (2018 est.) \| expenses = $5.198 billion (2018 est.) \| aid \| credit \| reserves = $1.633 billion (31 December 2012 est.) \| cianame = congo-democratic-republic-of-the \| spelling = }} The economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo declined drastically in the years leading up to and during the First and Second Congo Wars, despite being home to vast potential in natural resources and mineral wealth; its gross domestic product is $69.474 billion as of 2023. During the last five reported years, the exports of the Democratic Republic of the Congo have changed by $15.2B from $13.3B in 2017 to $28.5B in 2022. Since 2003, the DRC's economy has gradually grown, but it remains one of the poorest countries in the world. At the time of its independence in 1960, the Democratic Republic of the Congo was the second most industrialized country in Africa after South Africa. It had a thriving mining sector, and its agriculture sector was relatively productive. Since then, decades of corruption, war, and political instability have been a severe detriment to further growth, today leaving DRC with a GDP per capita and a HDI rating that rank among the world's lowest and make the DRC one of the most fragile and, according to the United Nations, least developed countries in the world. Despite this, the DRC is quickly modernizing; it tied with Malaysia for the largest positive change in HDI development in 2016. Government projects include strengthening the health system for maternal and child health, expansion of electricity access, water supply reconstructions, and urban and social rehabilitation programs. Economic implications of conflicts The two recent conflicts (the First and Second Congo Wars), which began in 1996, have dramatically reduced national output and government revenue, Malnutrition affects approximately two-thirds of the country's population. Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy, accounting for 57.9% of GDP in 1997. In 1996, agriculture employed 66% of the workforce. In 2006, Transparency International ranked the Democratic Republic of the Congo 156 out of 163 countries in the Corruption Perception Index, tying Bangladesh, Chad, and Sudan with a 2.0 rating. President Joseph Kabila established the Commission of Repression of Economic Crimes upon his ascension to power in 2001. The conflicts in the Democratic Republic of Congo were over water, minerals, and other resources. Political agendas have worsened the economy, as in times of crisis, the elite benefit while the general populace suffers. This is worsened as a result of corrupt national and international corporations. The corporations instigate and allow the fighting for resources because they benefit from it. A large proportion of fatalities in the country are attributed to a lack of basic services, recognized as "communicable, maternal, perinatal, and nutritional conditions," which account for 56% of deaths by broad cause. The influx of refugees since the war in 1998 only serves to worsen the issue of poverty. Money of the taxpayers in the DRC is often misappropriated by the corrupt leaders of the country, who use the money to benefit themselves instead of the citizens of the DRC. The DRC is consistently ranked among the lowest countries on the UN Human Development Index. Economic history After Leopold Forced labor (slavery) was important for the rural sector. The corporations that dominated the economy were mostly owned by Belgium, but British capital also played an important role. The 1950s were a period of rising income and expectations. Congo was said to have the best public health system in Africa, but there was also a huge wealth disparity. Belgian companies favored workers in certain areas more and exported them to work in different areas, restricting opportunities for others. Favored groups also received better education and were able to secure jobs for people in the same ethnic group, which increased tensions. In 1960 there were only 16 university graduates out of a population of 20 million. Belgium still had economic power, and independence gave little opportunity for improvement. Common refrains included "no elite, no trouble" and "before independence after independence." When the Belgians left, most of the government officials and educated residents left with them. Before independence, there were just 3 out of 5000 government jobs held by Congolese people. The resulting loss of institutional knowledge and human capital crippled the government. Zaire After the Congo Crisis, Mobutu arose as the country's sole ruler and stabilized the country politically. Economically, however, the situation continued to decline, and by 1979, the purchasing power was only 4% of that from 1960. Starting in 1976, the IMF provided stabilizing loans to the dictatorship. Much of the money was embezzled by Mobutu and his circle. Blumenthal indicated that there was "no chance" that creditors would ever recover their loans. Yet the IMF and the World Bank continued to lend money that was either embezzled, stolen, or "wasted on white elephant projects". "Structural adjustment programmes" implemented as a condition of IMF loans cut support for health care, education, and infrastructure.Special economic zonesThe DRC planned to establish special economic zones (SEZ) to encourage the revival of its industry. The first SEZ was planned to come into being in 2012 in N'Sele, a commune of Kinshasa, and will focus on agro-industries. The Congolese authorities also planned to open another zone dedicated to mining (Katanga) and a third dedicated to cement (in the Bas-Congo). There are three phases to the program that each have their own objectives. Phase I was the precursor to the actual investment in the Special Economic Zone, where policymakers agreed to the framework, the framework was studied for its establishment, and to predict the potential market demand for the land. Stage one of Phase II involved submitting laws for the Special Economic Zone, finding good sites for businesses, and currently there is an effort to help the government attract foreign investment. Stage two of Phase II hasn't been started yet, and it involves assisting the government in creating a framework for the country, creating an overall plan for the site, figuring out what the environmental impact of the project will be, and guessing how much it will cost and what the return can be made on the investment. Phase III involves the World Bank creating a transaction phase that will keep everything competitive. The program is looking for options to hand over the program to the World Bank, which could be very beneficial for the western part of the country. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) GDP (Nominal) during the period <br/> 1980-2030 (In millions of nominal US$ dollars)}} <timeline> Colors= id:lightgrey value:gray(0.9) id:darkgrey value:gray(0.7) id:sfondo value:rgb(1,1,1) id:barra value:rgb(0.2,0.6,1) ImageSize = width:1600 height:370 PlotArea = left:41 bottom:17 top:10 right:10 DateFormat = x.y Period = from:000 till:80000 TimeAxis = orientation:vertical AlignBars = late ScaleMajor = gridcolor:darkgrey increment:10000 start:000 ScaleMinor = gridcolor:lightgrey increment:10000 start:000 BackgroundColors = canvas:sfondo BarData= bar:1980 text:1980 bar:1981 text:1981 bar:1982 text:1982 bar:1983 text:1983 bar:1984 text:1984 bar:1985 text:1985 bar:1986 text:1986 bar:1987 text:1987 bar:1988 text:1988 bar:1989 text:1989 bar:1990 text:1990 bar:1991 text:1991 bar:1992 text:1992 bar:1993 text:1993 bar:1994 text:1994 bar:1995 text:1995 bar:1996 text:1996 bar:1997 text:1997 bar:1998 text:1998 bar:1999 text:1999 bar:2000 text:2000 bar:2001 text:2001 bar:2002 text:2002 bar:2003 text:2003 bar:2004 text:2004 bar:2005 text:2005 bar:2006 text:2006 bar:2007 text:2007 bar:2008 text:2008 bar:2009 text:2009 bar:2010 text:2010 bar:2011 text:2011 bar:2012 text:2012 bar:2013 text:2013 bar:2014 text:2014 bar:2015 text:2015 bar:2016 text:2016 bar:2017 text:2017 bar:2018 text:2018 bar:2019 text:2019 bar:2020 text:2020 bar:2021 text:2021 bar:2022 text:2022 bar:2023 text:2023 bar:2024 text:2024 bar:2025 text:2025 bar:2026 text:2026 bar:2027 text:2027 bar:2028 text:2028 bar:2029 text:2029 bar:2030 text:2030 PlotData= color:barra width:23 align:center bar:1980 from:000 till: 68606 bar:1981 from:000 till: 59726 bar:1982 from:000 till: 64939 bar:1983 from:000 till: 52378 bar:1984 from:000 till: 34951 bar:1985 from:000 till: 31943 bar:1986 from:000 till: 35840 bar:1987 from:000 till: 33932 bar:1988 from:000 till: 39314 bar:1989 from:000 till: 40006 bar:1990 from:000 till: 41448 bar:1991 from:000 till: 40250 bar:1992 from:000 till: 36333 bar:1993 from:000 till: 47450 bar:1994 from:000 till: 25746 bar:1995 from:000 till: 25021 bar:1996 from:000 till: 32099 bar:1997 from:000 till: 28819 bar:1998 from:000 till: 21089 bar:1999 from:000 till: 19147 bar:2000 from:000 till: 19077 bar:2001 from:000 till: 7246 bar:2002 from:000 till: 8720 bar:2003 from:000 till: 9022 bar:2004 from:000 till: 10275 bar:2005 from:000 till: 12720 bar:2006 from:000 till: 15403 bar:2007 from:000 till: 18598 bar:2008 from:000 till: 22665 bar:2009 from:000 till: 18626 bar:2010 from:000 till: 22340 bar:2011 from:000 till: 26406 bar:2012 from:000 till: 30074 bar:2013 from:000 till: 34908 bar:2014 from:000 till: 38355 bar:2015 from:000 till: 40154 bar:2016 from:000 till: 38086 bar:2017 from:000 till: 39461 bar:2018 from:000 till: 48037 bar:2019 from:000 till: 50891 bar:2020 from:000 till: 49613 bar:2021 from:000 till: 57592 bar:2022 from:000 till: 65768 bar:2023 from:000 till: 66923 bar:2024 from:000 till: 72483 bar:2025 bar:2026 bar:2027 bar:2028 bar:2029 bar:2030 PlotData= bar:1980 at:68606 fontsize:S text:68,606 shift:(0,2) bar:1981 at:59726 fontsize:S text:59,726 shift:(0,2) bar:1982 at:64939 fontsize:S text:64,939 shift:(0,2) bar:1983 at:52378 fontsize:S text:52,378 shift:(0,2) bar:1984 at:34951 fontsize:S text:34,951 shift:(0,2) bar:1985 at:31943 fontsize:S text:31,943 shift:(0,2) bar:1986 at:35840 fontsize:S text:35,840 shift:(0,2) bar:1987 at:33932 fontsize:S text:33,932 shift:(0,2) bar:1988 at:39314 fontsize:S text:39,314 shift:(0,2) bar:1989 at:40006 fontsize:S text:40,006 shift:(0,2) bar:1990 at:41448 fontsize:S text:41,448 shift:(0,3) bar:1991 at:40250 fontsize:S text:40,250 shift:(0,2) bar:1992 at:36333 fontsize:S text:36,333 shift:(0,2) bar:1993 at:47450 fontsize:S text:47,450 shift:(0,2) bar:1994 at:25746 fontsize:S text:25,746 shift:(0,3) bar:1995 at:25021 fontsize:S text:25,021 shift:(0,2) bar:1996 at:32099 fontsize:S text:32,099 shift:(0,2) bar:1997 at:28819 fontsize:S text:28,819 shift:(0,2) bar:1998 at:21089 fontsize:S text:21,089 shift:(0,2) bar:1999 at:19147 fontsize:S text:19,147 shift:(0,2) bar:2000 at:19077 fontsize:S text:19,077 shift:(0,2) bar:2001 at:7246 fontsize:S text:7,246 shift:(0,2) bar:2002 at:8720 fontsize:S text:8,720 shift:(0,2) bar:2003 at:9022 fontsize:S text:9,022 shift:(0,2) bar:2004 at:10275 fontsize:S text:10,275 shift:(0,2) bar:2005 at:12720 fontsize:S text:12,720 shift:(0,2) bar:2006 at:15403 fontsize:S text:15,403 shift:(0,2) bar:2007 at:18598 fontsize:S text:18,598 shift:(0,2) bar:2008 at:22665 fontsize:S text:22,665 shift:(0,2) bar:2009 at:18626 fontsize:S text:18,626 shift:(0,2) bar:2010 at:22340 fontsize:S text:22,340 shift:(0,2) bar:2011 at:26406 fontsize:S text:26,406 shift:(0,2) bar:2012 at:30074 fontsize:S text:30,074 shift:(0,2) bar:2013 at:34908 fontsize:S text:34,908 shift:(0,2) bar:2014 at:38355 fontsize:S text:38,355 shift:(0,2) bar:2015 at:40154 fontsize:S text:40,154 shift:(0,2) bar:2016 at:38086 fontsize:S text:38,086 shift:(0,2) bar:2017 at:39461 fontsize:S text:39,461 shift:(0,3) bar:2018 at:48037 fontsize:S text:48,037 shift:(0,2) bar:2019 at:50891 fontsize:S text:50,891 shift:(0,2) bar:2020 at:49613 fontsize:S text:49,613 shift:(0,2) bar:2021 at:57592 fontsize:S text:57,592 shift:(0,2) bar:2022 at:65768 fontsize:S text:65,768 shift:(0,2) bar:2023 at:66923 fontsize:S text:66,923 shift:(0,3) bar:2024 at:72483 fontsize:S text:72,483 shift:(0,2) bar:2025 bar:2026 bar:2027 bar:2028 bar:2029 bar:2030 </timeline> Source: International Monetary Fund (IMF) GDP per capita (nominal) <timeline> Colors= id:lightgrey value:gray(0.9) id:darkgrey value:gray(0.7) id:sfondo value:rgb(1,1,1) id:barra value:rgb(0.2,0.6,1) ImageSize = width:1600 height:330 PlotArea = left:36 bottom:15 top:10 right:10 DateFormat = x.y Period = from:0 till:3000 TimeAxis = orientation:vertical AlignBars = late ScaleMajor = gridcolor:darkgrey increment:500 start:000 ScaleMinor = gridcolor:lightgrey increment:500 start:000 BackgroundColors = canvas:sfondo BarData= bar:1980 text:1980 bar:1981 text:1981 bar:1982 text:1982 bar:1983 text:1983 bar:1984 text:1984 bar:1985 text:1985 bar:1986 text:1986 bar:1987 text:1987 bar:1988 text:1988 bar:1989 text:1989 bar:1990 text:1990 bar:1991 text:1991 bar:1992 text:1992 bar:1993 text:1993 bar:1994 text:1994 bar:1995 text:1995 bar:1996 text:1996 bar:1997 text:1997 bar:1998 text:1998 bar:1999 text:1999 bar:2000 text:2000 bar:2001 text:2001 bar:2002 text:2002 bar:2003 text:2003 bar:2004 text:2004 bar:2005 text:2005 bar:2006 text:2006 bar:2007 text:2007 bar:2008 text:2008 bar:2009 text:2009 bar:2010 text:2010 bar:2011 text:2011 bar:2012 text:2012 bar:2013 text:2013 bar:2014 text:2014 bar:2015 text:2015 bar:2016 text:2016 bar:2017 text:2017 bar:2018 text:2018 bar:2019 text:2019 bar:2020 text:2020 bar:2021 text:2021 bar:2022 text:2022 bar:2023 text:2023 bar:2024 text:2024 bar:2025 text:2025 bar:2026 text:2026 bar:2027 text:2027 bar:2028 text:2028 bar:2029 text:2029 bar:2030 text:2030 PlotData= color:barra width:20 align:center bar:1980 from:000 till: 2730 bar:1981 from:000 till: 2301 bar:1982 from:000 till: 2422 bar:1983 from:000 till: 1891 bar:1984 from:000 till: 1221 bar:1985 from:000 till: 1080 bar:1986 from:000 till: 1174 bar:1987 from:000 till: 1075 bar:1988 from:000 till: 1206 bar:1989 from:000 till: 1188 bar:1990 from:000 till: 1192 bar:1991 from:000 till: 1120 bar:1992 from:000 till: 973 bar:1993 from:000 till: 1222 bar:1994 from:000 till: 639 bar:1995 from:000 till: 601 bar:1996 from:000 till: 750 bar:1997 from:000 till: 642 bar:1998 from:000 till: 461 bar:1999 from:000 till: 410 bar:2000 from:000 till: 397 bar:2001 from:000 till: 146 bar:2002 from:000 till: 171 bar:2003 from:000 till: 171 bar:2004 from:000 till: 189 bar:2005 from:000 till: 226 bar:2006 from:000 till: 265 bar:2007 from:000 till: 310 bar:2008 from:000 till: 366 bar:2009 from:000 till: 291 bar:2010 from:000 till: 338 bar:2011 from:000 till: 387 bar:2012 from:000 till: 427 bar:2013 from:000 till: 481 bar:2014 from:000 till: 512 bar:2015 from:000 till: 519 bar:2016 from:000 till: 477 bar:2017 from:000 till: 478 bar:2018 from:000 till: 564 bar:2019 from:000 till: 578 bar:2020 from:000 till: 546 bar:2021 from:000 till: 614 bar:2022 from:000 till: 679 bar:2023 from:000 till: 669 bar:2024 from:000 till: 702 bar:2025 bar:2026 bar:2027 bar:2028 bar:2029 bar:2030 PlotData= bar:1980 at:2730 fontsize:S text:2,730 shift:(0,2) bar:1981 at:2301 fontsize:S text:2,301 shift:(0,2) bar:1982 at:2422 fontsize:S text:2,422 shift:(0,2) bar:1983 at:1891 fontsize:S text:1,891 shift:(0,2) bar:1984 at:1221 fontsize:S text:1,221 shift:(0,2) bar:1985 at:1080 fontsize:S text:1,080 shift:(0,2) bar:1986 at:1174 fontsize:S text:1,174 shift:(0,2) bar:1987 at:1075 fontsize:S text:1,075 shift:(0,2) bar:1988 at:1206 fontsize:S text:1,206 shift:(0,2) bar:1989 at:1188 fontsize:S text:1,188 shift:(0,2) bar:1990 at:1192 fontsize:S text:1,192 shift:(0,2) bar:1991 at:1120 fontsize:S text:1,120 shift:(0,2) bar:1992 at:973 fontsize:S text:973 shift:(0,2) bar:1993 at:1222 fontsize:S text:1,222 shift:(0,2) bar:1994 at:639 fontsize:S text:639 shift:(0,2) bar:1995 at:601 fontsize:S text:601 shift:(0,2) bar:1996 at:750 fontsize:S text:750 shift:(0,2) bar:1997 at:642 fontsize:S text:642 shift:(0,2) bar:1998 at:461 fontsize:S text:461 shift:(0,2) bar:1999 at:410 fontsize:S text:410 shift:(0,2) bar:2000 at:397 fontsize:S text:397 shift:(0,2) bar:2001 at:146 fontsize:S text:146 shift:(0,2) bar:2002 at:171 fontsize:S text:171 shift:(0,2) bar:2003 at:171 fontsize:S text:171 shift:(0,2) bar:2004 at:189 fontsize:S text:189 shift:(0,2) bar:2005 at:226 fontsize:S text:226 shift:(0,2) bar:2006 at:265 fontsize:S text:265 shift:(0,2) bar:2007 at:310 fontsize:S text:310 shift:(0,2) bar:2008 at:366 fontsize:S text:366 shift:(0,2) bar:2009 at:291 fontsize:S text:291 shift:(0,2) bar:2010 at:338 fontsize:S text:338 shift:(0,2) bar:2011 at:387 fontsize:S text:387 shift:(0,2) bar:2012 at:427 fontsize:S text:427 shift:(0,2) bar:2013 at:481 fontsize:S text:481 shift:(0,2) bar:2014 at:512 fontsize:S text:512 shift:(0,2) bar:2015 at:519 fontsize:S text:519 shift:(0,2) bar:2016 at:477 fontsize:S text:477 shift:(0,2) bar:2017 at:478 fontsize:S text:478 shift:(0,2) bar:2018 at:564 fontsize:S text:564 shift:(0,2) bar:2019 at:578 fontsize:S text:578 shift:(0,2) bar:2020 at:546 fontsize:S text:546 shift:(0,2) bar:2021 at:614 fontsize:S text:614 shift:(0,2) bar:2022 at:679 fontsize:S text:679 shift:(0,2) bar:2023 at:669 fontsize:S text:669 shift:(0,2) bar:2024 at:702 fontsize:S text:702 shift:(0,2) bar:2025 bar:2026 bar:2027 bar:2028 bar:2029 bar:2030 </timeline> Source: International Monetary Fund (IMF) Economic implications of instability Ongoing conflicts dramatically reduced government revenue and increased external debt. International relations Poor infrastructure, an uncertain legal framework, corruption, and lack of openness in government economic policy and financial operations remain a brake on investment and growth. !Goods Imports<br /><small>(in</small> b<small>illion US$)</small> !Net trade<br /><small>(in</small> b<small>illion US$)</small> \|- \|2023 \|$29.6 \|$28.0 \|$1.6 \|- \|2022 \|$28.7 \|$26.7 \|$2.0 \|- \|2021 \|$22.2 \|$18.3 \|$3.9 \|- \|2020 \|$13.8 \|$11.9 \|$1.9 \|- \|2015 \|$10.3 \|$10.6 \|$-0.3 \|- \|2010 \|$8.5 \|$8.0 \|$0.4 \|- \|2005 \|$2.4 \|$2.7 \|$-0.3 \|} World Bank With the help of the International Development Association the DRC has worked toward the reestablishment of social services. This is done by giving 15 million people access to basic health services and giving bed nets to prevent malaria from spreading to people. With the Emergency Demobilization and Reintegration Program, more than 107,000 adults and 34,000 child soldiers stood down their militarized posture. The travel time from Lubumbashi to Kasomeno in Katanga went down from seven days to two hours because of the improved roads, which led to the decrease of prices of main goods by 60%. With the help of the IFC, KfW, and the EU, the DRC improved its businesses by reducing the time it took to create a business by 51%, reducing the time it took to get construction permits by 54%, and reducing the number of taxes from 118 to 30. Improvements in health have been noticeable, specifically that deliveries attended by trained staff jumped from 47 to 80%. In education, 14 million textbooks were provided to children, completion rates of school have increased, and higher education was made available to students that chose to pursue it. International Monetary Fund The IMF plans on giving the DRC a $1 billion loan after its two-year suspension after it failed to give details about a mining deal from one of its state-owned mines and an Israeli billionaire, Dan Gertler. The loan may be necessary for the country because there will be elections in December 2016 for the next president, and the cost of funding this would range around $1.1 billion. The biggest problem with the vote is getting a country of 68 million people the size of Western Europe to polling stations with less than 1,860 miles of paved roads.SectorsAgriculture Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy, accounting for 57.9% of the GDP in 1997. Fishing The Democratic Republic of Congo also possesses 50 percent of Africa's forests and a river system that could provide hydro-electric power to the entire continent, according to a United Nations report on the country's strategic significance and its potential role as an economic power in central Africa. Fish are the single most important source of animal protein in the DRC. Total production of marine, river, and lake fisheries in 2003 was estimated at 222,965 tons, all but 5,000 tons from inland waters. PEMARZA, a state agency, carries on marine fishing. Forestry Forests cover 60 percent of the total land area. There are vast timber resources, and commercial development of the country's of exploitable wooded area is only beginning. The Mayumbe area of Bas-Congo was once the major center of timber exploitation, but forests in this area were nearly depleted. The more extensive forest regions of the central cuvette and of the Ubangi River valley have increasingly been tapped. Roundwood removals were estimated at 72,170,000 m<sup>2</sup> in 2003, about 95 percent for fuel. Some 14 species are presently being harvested. Exports of forest products in 2003 totaled $25.7 million. Foreign capital is necessary in order for forestry to expand, and the government recognizes that changes in tax structure and export procedures will be needed to facilitate economic growth.Mining Rich in minerals, the DRC has a difficult history of predatory mineral extraction, which has been at the heart of many struggles within the country for many decades, but particularly in the 1990s. Although the economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the second largest country in Africa who has historically relied heavily on mining, is no longer reflected in the GDP data as the mining industry has suffered from a long-term "uncertain legal framework, corruption, and a lack of transparency in government policy." The informal sector. and therefore is not reflected in the GDP. Exploitation of mineral substances by companies in 2024.]] The economy of the second largest country in Africa relies heavily on mining. The Congo is the world's largest producer of cobalt ore, and a major producer of copper and industrial diamonds. The Congo has more than 30% of the world's diamond reserves., mostly in the form of small, industrial diamonds. The coltan is a major source of tantalum, which is used in the fabrication of electronic components in computers and mobile phones. In 2002, tin was discovered in the east of the country, but, to date, mining has been done on a small scale. Manono in Central DRC has a significant deposit of lithium and tin with tantalum and niobium and is being developed by an Australian company. Production is expected in 2023. According to a 2011 report, the total value of the major mineral reserves in the DRC amounted to a total of over 300 billion US dollars at the time. Smuggling of the conflict minerals, coltan and cassiterite (ores of tantalum and tin, respectively), has helped fuel the war in the Eastern Congo. Today's larger mining companies are making changes and adhering to global demand for ESG (Environmental, Social and Governance) and IRMA (Initiative for Responsible Mining Assurance). One such globally recognised certification is the [https://www.pactworld.org/features/itsci-decade-success 3T iTSCi], the only widely implemented and accepted mineral traceability and due diligence system in the region for the 3T minerals—tin, tantalum and tungsten—an internationally recognised certification for responsible mining and traceability under the 2010 Dodd-Frank Act. Today, four central African countries, including the DRC, provides legitimate and ethical 3T minerals. ITSCI is the only industry initiative with standards 100% aligned with the OECD Guidance. Much has been done in the last 15 years, providing artisanal and small-scale miners a support network through iTSCi to build the foundations and regulate the industry. [https://www.pactworld.org/features/itsci-decade-success At the end of 2019 ITSCI has seen to 2000 mines, employment of around 80,000 miners, and the supply of over 2000 tonnes of tin, tantalum and tungsten minerals per month; the initiative has come a long way in the last decade.] A report had been done by [https://www.pactworld.org/our-promise Pact] in 2015, detailing iTSCi's progress over the previous five years; it discusses the successes, the challenges ahead and the work yet to be done. Entitled [http://www.pactworld.org/sites/default/files/unconflicted.pdf Unconflicted: Making Conflict-Free Mining a Reality in the DRC, Rwanda and Burundi.] Copper and cobalt Katanga Mining Limited, a London-based company, owns the Luilu Metallurgical Plant, which has a capacity of 175,000 tonnes of copper and 8,000 tonnes of cobalt per year, making it the largest cobalt refinery in the world. After a major rehabilitation program, the company restarted copper production in December 2007 and cobalt production in May 2008. Informal sector Much economic activity occurs in the informal sector and is not reflected in GDP data. {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center;" !Year !GDP <br />(in billion US$ PPP) !GDP per capita <br />(in US$ PPP) !GDP<br />(in billion US$ nominal) !GDP growth (real) !Inflation (in Percent) !Government debt <br />(in % of GDP) \|- !1980 \|19.2 \|766 \|68.6 \|2.4% \|40.0% \|... \|- !1985 \|26.6 \|902 \|31.9 \|0.5% \|23.5% \|... \|- !1990 \|31.0 \|892 \|41.4 \|−6.6% \|81.3% \|... \|- !1995 \|23.9 \|602 \|25.0 \|2.8% \|541.8% \|... \|- !2000 \|20.0 \|415 \|19.1 \|−8.1% \|550.0% \|135% \|- !2005 \|28.4 \|507 \|12.7 \|9.8% \|21.5% \|101% \|- !2006 \|30.8 \|532 \|15.4 \|5.1% \|12.8% \|104% \|- !2007 \|34.3 \|574 \|18.6 \|8.5% \|16.7% \|87% \|- !2008 \|37.6 \|608 \|22.7 \|7.4% \|18.0% \|74% \|- !2009 \|38.1 \|596 \|18.6 \|0.6% \|46.1% \|85% \|- !2010 \|41.5 \|630 \|22.3 \|7.8% \|23.5% \|31% \|- !2011 \|45.6 \|670 \|26.4 \|7.6% \|15.0% \|25% \|- !2012 \|47.4 \|674 \|30.1 \|8.7% \|0.9% \|23% \|- !2013 \|57.4 \|791 \|34.9 \|9.6% \|0.9% \|20% \|- !2014 \|67.0 \|894 \|38.4 \|7.3% \|1.2% \|18% \|- !2015 \|73.1 \|946 \|40.2 \|6.4% \|1.0% \|16% \|- !2016 \|78.9 \|989 \|38.1 \|0.4% \|3.2% \|19% \|- !2017 \|89.6 \|1,087 \|39.5 \|3.7% \|35.7% \|18% \|- !2018 \|96.2 \|1,130 \|48.0 \|4.8% \|29.3% \|15% \|- !2019 \|102.3 \|1,164 \|50.9 \|4.5% \|4.7% \|15% \|- !2020 \|105.4 \|1,161 \|48.7 \|1.7% \|11.4% \|17% \|- !2021 \|117.0 \|1,248 \|57.3 \|6.2% \|9.0% \|16% \|- !2022 \|136.3 \|1,409 \|65.8 \|8.9% \|9.3% \|15% \|- !2023 \|150.9 \|1,510 \|67.5 \|6.7% \|19.1% \|13% \|} See also Democratic Republic of the Congo List of companies based in the Democratic Republic of the Congo Mining industry of the Democratic Republic of the Congo United Nations Economic Commission for Africa References * External links * * * [http://www.trademap.org/open_access/Index.aspx?proceedtrue&reporter180 Democratic Republic of the Congo latest trade data on ITC Trade Map] * Dias, Elizabeth (24 July 2009). [https://web.archive.org/web/20090728070519/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1912594,00.html?xid=rss-topstories "First Blood Diamonds, Now Blood Computers?"]. Time. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110512004925/http://congoeconomie.org/growth%20accounting%20%20drc%20version%20WP-DT2-2010.pdf Oasis Kodila Tedika et Francklin Kyayima Muteba, The sources of growth in DRC before independence. A cointegration analysis, CRE Working paper, n°02/10, juin 2010] * [http://econpapers.repec.org/paper/innwpaper/2007-31.htm Exenberger, Andreas/Hartmann, Simon (2007): The Dark Side of Globalization. The Vicious Cycle of Exploitation from World Market Integration: Lesson from the Congo, Working Papers in Economics and Statistics 31-2007] * * "The lucrative mining industry is unscrupulous, environmentally disastrous, and a linchpin of Congo’s economy. How can it be reformed?" Review of 5 books on the topic. Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo	2025-04-05T18:28:21.760613
8026	Politics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo	Politics of the Democratic Republic of Congo take place in the framework of a republic in transition from a civil war to a semi-presidential republic. On 18 and 19 December 2005, a nationwide referendum was carried out on a draft constitution, which set the stage for elections in 2006. The voting process, though technically difficult due to the lack of infrastructure, was facilitated and organized by the Congolese Independent Electoral Commission with support from the UN mission to the Congo (MONUC). Early UN reports indicate that the voting was for the most part peaceful, but spurred violence in many parts of the war-torn east and the Kasais. Since 1996, the Democratic Republic of Congo has been a battleground, starting with neighboring states invading Zaire, which ended the 32-year rule of Joseph Mobutu and saw Laurent-Désiré Kabila becoming the new president. These conflicts originated from the 1994 Rwanda genocide and subsequent destabilization of the DRC's eastern region. There were nine African countries involved directly, with many more offering military, financial, and political support. Internal rebellions further complicated matters. This has led to a severe humanitarian crisis. In 2001, Laurent Kabila was killed, and his son Joseph Kabila took over as the leader of the country. Under the new president's leadership, efforts were made to bring an end to the presence of foreign troops in the eastern DRC, instead a cooperative approach was adopted, focusing on diplomatic discussions to resolve conflicts. By 2002, the Pretoria Accord was achieved through negotiations known as the Inter-Congolese Dialogue. This agreement involved all warring factions, political opposition groups, and civil society, aiming to halt the fighting and establish a government of national unity. Referred to as the “Global and All-Inclusive Agreement on the Transition,” it outlined a plan toward stability, peace, and democracy in the DRC. The agreement proposed that former warring factions, civil society, and political opposition would share political, military, and economic authority during a two-year transition phase, extendable by two six-month periods. During this period, plans were made for a referendum on the post-transition constitution and the conduct of general elections. In 2006, many Congolese complained that the constitution was a rather ambiguous document and were unaware of its contents. This is due in part to the high rates of illiteracy in the country. However, interim President Kabila urged Congolese to vote 'Yes', saying the constitution is the country's best hope for peace in the future. 25 million Congolese turned out for the two-day balloting. According to results released in January 2006, the constitution was approved by 84% of voters. The new constitution also aims to decentralize authority, dividing the vast nation into 25 semi-autonomous provinces, drawn along ethnic and cultural lines. The country's first democratic elections in four decades were held on 30 July 2006. Political history From the day of the arguably ill-prepared independence of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the tensions between the powerful leaders of the political elite, such as Joseph Kasa Vubu, Patrice Lumumba, Moise Tshombe, Joseph Mobutu and others, jeopardize the political stability of the new state. From Tshombe's secession of the Katanga, to the assassination of Lumumba, to the two coups d'état of Mobutu, the country has known periods of true nationwide peace, but virtually no period of genuine democratic rule. The Mobutu era The regime of President Mobutu Sese Seko lasted 32 years (1965–1997), during which all but the first seven years the country was named Zaire. His dictatorship operated as a one-party state, which saw most of the powers concentrated between President Mobutu, who was simultaneously the head of both the party and the state through the Popular Movement of the Revolution (MPR), and a series of essentially rubber-stamping institutions. One particularity of the Regime was the claim to be thriving for an authentic system, different from Western or Soviet influences. This lasted roughly between the establishment of Zaire in 1971, and the official beginning of the transition towards democracy, on 24 April 1990. This was true at the regular people's level as everywhere else. People were ordered by law to drop their Western Christian names; the titles Mr. and Mrs. were abandoned for the male and female versions of the French word for "citizen"; Men were forbidden to wear suits, and women to wear pants. At the institutional level, many of the institutions also changed denominations, but the result was a system that borrowed from both systems: The MPR's Central Committee: Under the system of the "party-state", this committee had a higher position in the institutional make-up than the government or cabinet. It had both executive oversight authority, and in practice, binding legislative authority, as it dictated the party platform. Mobutu headed the Central Committee as Founding-President. The vice-president of the Central Committee was essentially the country's vice president, without the succession rights. The Executive Council: Known elsewhere as the Government or the Cabinet, this council was the executive authority in the country, made of State Commissioners (known elsewhere as ministers). For a long period of time, Mobutu was the sole leader of the Executive Council. He eventually would appoint First State Commissioners (known elsewhere as prime ministers) with largely coordinating powers and very little executive power. The last "First State Commissioner" was Kengo Wa Dondo. The Legislative Council: essentially the rubber-stamp parliament, it was made up of People Commissioners (known elsewhere as MPs), who were sometimes elected, as individual members of the MPR, and always on the party platform. The Supreme Court: As the judiciary, this court was seemingly the only independent branch of government, but in effect it was subordinate to a Judicial Council over which the regime had a very strong influence. Every corporation, whether financial or union, as well as every division of the administration, was set up as branches of the party. CEOs, union leaders, and division directors were each sworn in as section presidents of the party. Every aspect of life was regulated to some degree by the party, and the will of its founding-president, Mobutu Sese Seko. Most of the petty aspects of the regime disappeared after 1990 with the beginning of the democratic transition. Democratization would prove to be fairly short-lived, as Mobutu's power plays dragged it in length until ultimately 1997, when forces led by Laurent Kabila eventually successfully toppled the regime, after a 9-month-long military campaign. The Kabilas' governments and war The government of former president Mobutu Sese Seko was toppled by a rebellion led by Laurent Kabila in May 1997, with the support of Rwanda and Uganda. They were later to turn against Kabila and backed a rebellion against him in August 1998. Troops from Zimbabwe, Angola, Namibia, Chad, and Sudan intervened to support the Kinshasa regime. A cease-fire was signed on 10 July 1999 by the DROC, Zimbabwe, Angola, Uganda, Namibia, Rwanda, and Congolese armed rebel groups, but fighting continued. Under Laurent Kabila's regime, all executive, legislative, and military powers were first vested in the President, Laurent-Désiré Kabila. The judiciary was independent, with the president having the power to dismiss or appoint. The president was first head of a 26-member cabinet dominated by the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (ADFL). Towards the end of the 90s, Laurent Kabila created and appointed a Transitional Parliament, with a seat in the buildings of the former Katanga Parliament, in the southern town of Lubumbashi, in a move to unite the country, and to legitimate his regime. Kabila was assassinated on 16 January 2001 and his son Joseph Kabila was named head of state ten days later. Initially underestimated as a mere figurehead chosen by his father's advisors, Kabila surprised many by quickly asserting his authority and turning the government in new directions. Shortly after taking office, he went on his first international trip, where he engaged in diplomatic talks with leaders from France, Belgium, and the United States, including the Secretary of State Colin Powell, as well as officials from global institutions like the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the United Nations. During his visit to the United States, he met with Paul Kagame, the Rwandan president, despite their past differences. In a significant move in February 2001, Kabila committed to implementing a ceasefire agreement signed in July 1999, which had previously been disregarded by all involved. He initiated discussions with rebel groups and negotiated the withdrawal of troops from Rwanda, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Angola, and Namibia, which had a military presence in Congo. UN peacekeepers were deployed in March to oversee the ceasefire and troop withdrawals. The younger Kabila continued with his father's Transitional Parliament, but overhauled his entire cabinet, replacing it with a group of technocrats, with the stated aim of putting the country back on the track of development, and coming to a decisive end of the Second Congo War. In October 2002, the new president was successful in getting occupying Rwandan forces to withdraw from eastern Congo; two months later, an agreement was signed by all remaining warring parties to end the fighting and set up a Transition Government, the make-up of which would allow representation for all negotiating parties. Two founding documents emerged from this: The Transition Constitution, and the Global and Inclusive Agreement, both of which describe and determine the make-up and organization of the Congolese institutions, until planned elections in July 2006, at which time the provisions of the new constitution, democratically approved by referendum in December 2005, will take full effect and that is how it happened. Under the Global and All-Inclusive Agreement, signed on 17 December 2002, in Pretoria, there was to be one President and four Vice-Presidents, one from the government, one from the Rally for Congolese Democracy, one from the MLC, and one from civil society. The position of vice-president expired after the 2006 elections. After being for three years (2003–06) in the interregnum between two constitutions, the Democratic Republic of the Congo is now under the regime of the Constitution of the Third Republic. The constitution, adopted by referendum in 2005, and promulgated by President Joseph Kabila in February 2006, establishes a decentralized semi-presidential republic, with a separation of powers between the three branches of government - executive, legislative and judiciary, and a distribution of prerogatives between the central government and the provinces. In September 2016, violent protests were met with brutal force by the police and Republican Guard soldiers. Opposition groups claim 80 dead, including the Students' Union leader. From Monday 19 September Kinshasa residents, as well as residents elsewhere in Congo, where mostly confined to their homes. Police arrested anyone remotely connected to the opposition as well as innocent onlookers. Government propaganda, on television, and actions of covert government groups in the streets, acted against opposition as well as foreigners. The president's mandate was due to end on 19 December 2016, but no plans were made to elect a replacement at that time and this caused further protests. As of 8 August 2017 there are 54 political parties legally operating in the Congo. On 15 December 2018 US State Department announced it had decided to evacuate its employees’ family members from Democratic Republic of Congo just before the Congolese elections to choose a successor to President Joseph Kabila. Félix Tshisekedi Presidency (2019–present) On 30 December 2018 the presidential election to determine the successor to Kabila was held. On 10 January 2019, the electoral commission announced opposition candidate Félix Tshisekedi as the winner of the vote. He was officially sworn in as president on 24 January 2019. In the ceremony of taking of the office Félix Tshisekedi appointed Vital Kamerhe as his chief of staff. In June 2020, chief of staff Vital Kamerhe was found guilty of embezzling public funds and he was sentenced to 20 years in prison. His initial campaign pledged to enhance living standards in the DRC, a country abundant in minerals but plagued by widespread poverty among its 100 million people, and to bring an end to 25 years of violence in the eastern region. The political allies of former president Joseph Kabila, who stepped down in January 2019, maintained control of key ministries, the legislature, judiciary and security services. However, President Felix Tshisekedi succeeded to strengthen his hold on power. In a series of moves, he won over more legislators, gaining the support of almost 400 out of 500 members of the National Assembly. The pro-Kabila speakers of both houses of parliament were forced out. In April 2021, the new government was formed without the supporters of Kabila. President Felix Tshisekedi succeeded to oust the last remaining elements of his government who were loyal to former leader Joseph Kabila. After the 2023 presidential election, Tshisekedi had a clear lead in his run for a second term. Despite the economic growth, numerous Congolese citizens were voicing concerns about the decline of the Congolese franc, which is significantly affecting their everyday experiences. Despite the nation's abundant mineral resources and sizable population, the quality of life has not substantially improved for the majority, as conflict, corruption, and inadequate governance continue to endure. During his reelection campaign, he reiterated promises from five years prior, including job creation, enhancing economic stability, and addressing the persistent insecurity that has plagued the eastern region for thirty years, resulting in the loss of millions of lives. On 20 December 2023, official said that President Felix Tshisekedi had been re-elected with 73% of the vote. Nine opposition candidates signed a declaration rejecting the election and called for a rerun. In January, following the election, the major opposition candidate, Moise Katumbi was momentarily placed under house arrest but this was quickly rectified by the governor of Haut-Katanga province. The ruling party, President Tshisekedi's UDPS, won the majority of seats in general elections, winning 69 seats in the 500-member National Assembly ahead of 44 other parties. Executive branch Since the July 2006 elections, the country is led by a semi-presidential, strongly-decentralized state. The executive at the central level, is divided between the President, and a Prime Minister appointed by him/her from the party having the majority of seats in Parlement. Should there be no clear majority, the President can appoint a "government former" that will then have the task to win the confidence of the National Assembly. The President appoints the government members (ministers) at the proposal of the Prime Minister. In coordination, the President and the government are in charge of the executive, but the Prime minister and the government are responsible to the lower-house of Parliament, the National Assembly. At the province level, the Provincial legislature (Provincial Assembly) elects a governor, and the governor, with his government of up to 10 ministers, is in charge of the provincial executive. Some domains of government power are of the exclusive provision of the Province, and some are held concurrently with the Central government. This is not a Federal state; however, it is simply a decentralized one, as the majority of the domains of power are still vested in the Central government. The governor is responsible to the Provincial Assembly. Criticisms The semi-presidential system has been described by some as "conflictogenic" and "dictatogenic", as it ensures frictions, and a reduction of pace in government life, should the President and the Prime Minister be from different sides of the political arena. This was seen several times in France, a country that shares the semi-presidential model. It was also, arguably, in the first steps of the Congo into independence, the underlying cause of the crisis between Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba and President Joseph Kasa Vubu, who ultimately dismissed each other, in 1960. In January 2015 the 2015 Congolese protests broke out in the country's capital following the release of a draft law that would extend the presidential term limits and allow Joseph Kabila to run again for office. Legislative branch thumb\|Palais du Peuple, seat of the parliament in Kinshasa Under the Transition Constitution The Inter-Congolese dialogue, that set-up the transitional institutions, created a bicameral parliament, with a National Assembly and Senate, made up of appointed representatives of the parties to the dialogue. These parties included the preceding government, the rebel groups that were fighting against the government, with heavy Rwandan and Ugandan support, the internal opposition parties, and the Civil Society. At the beginning of the transition, and up until recently, the National Assembly is headed by the MLC with Speaker Hon. Olivier Kamitatu, while the Senate is headed by a representative of the Civil Society, namely the head of the Church of Christ in Congo, Mgr. Pierre Marini Bodho. Hon. Kamitatu has since left both the MLC and the Parliament to create his own party, and ally with current President Joseph Kabila. Since then, the position of Speaker is held by Hon. Thomas Luhaka, of the MLC. Aside from the regular legislative duties, the Senate had the charge to draft a new constitution for the country. That constitution was adopted by referendum in December 2005, and decreed into law on 18 February 2006. Under the New Constitution The Parliament of the third republic is also bicameral, with a National Assembly and a Senate. Members of the National Assembly, the lower - but the most powerful - house, are elected by direct suffrage. Senators are elected by the legislatures of the 26 provinces. Judicial branch Under the Transition Constitution Under the New Constitution Administrative divisions Under the Transition Constitution 10 provinces (provinces, singular - province) and one city* (ville): Bandundu, Bas-Congo, Équateur, Kasai-Occidental, Kasai-Oriental, Katanga, Kinshasa, Maniema, North Kivu, Orientale. Each province is divided into districts and cities. Under the New Constitution 25 provinces (provinces, singular - province) and city (ville): Bas-Uele \| Équateur \| Haut-Lomami \| Haut-Katanga \| Haut-Uele \| Ituri \| Kasaï \| Kasaï oriental \| Kongo central \| Kwango \| Kwilu \| Lomami \| Lualaba \| Lulua \| Mai-Ndombe \| Maniema \| Mongala \| North Kivu \| Nord-Ubangi \| Sankuru \| South Kivu \| Sud-Ubangi \| Tanganyika \| Tshopo \| Tshuapa \| Kinshasa* Each province is divided into territories and cities. Political parties and elections Presidential elections Parliamentary elections International organization participation ACCT, ACP, AfDB, AU, CEEAC, CEPGL, East African Community, ECA, FAO, G-19, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UPU, WCO WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO References External links	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo	2025-04-05T18:28:21.783682
8027	Telecommunications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo	Telecommunications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet. Radio and television Radio stations: Two state-owned radio stations are supplemented by more than 100 private radio stations; transmissions of at least 2 international broadcasters are available (2007); 27 stations (2005); 13 stations: 3 AM, 11 FM, and 2 shortwave (2001); 16 stations: 3 AM, 12 FM, and 1 shortwave (1999). Radios: 18.0 million (1997). Television stations: One state-owned TV broadcast station with near national coverage; more than a dozen privately owned TV stations with two having near national coverage (2007); Radio Okapi Radio Okapi was first established in February 2002 by the United Nations Mission in the Democratic of Republic of Congo (MONUC). Radio Okapi provides news, music, and political information to all corners of the Democratic Republic of Congo. The major purpose behind Radio Okapi is to provide all DRC citizens with radio services regardless of political affiliation. The FM waves Radio Okapi provided were aimed to be free of hate speech. Most importantly, Radio Okapi caters to the various different ethnicities within the DRC. This is done through the broadcasting of content in 5 of major languages spoken in the DRC. These five languages are French, Lingala, Swahili, Tshiluba, and Kikongo. Political uses of media Hate Speech Specific media platforms in the Democratic Republic of Congo have used its platforms for the dissemination of hate speech. Media in the DRC has propagated hatred and ethnic divisions by reinforcing nationalistic sentiments. Numerous media outlets are owned by presidential candidates and their supporters. This increases the probability that news will tend to favor the political base of these presidential candidates. These presidential candidates use their media platforms to attack political opponents which include ethnically charged hate speech. Main lines: 58,200 lines in use, 161st in the world (2012); In 2023 22.9% of the population had Internet access, which is about 23 million people. 290,000 users, 132nd in the world (2008); Internet Service Providers: 188 ISPs (2005); 1 ISP (1999). Internet cables List of terrestrial fibre optic cable projects in Africa West Africa Cable System (WACS), a fibre optic submarine communications cable linking countries along the west coast of Africa with the United Kingdom, was connected in early 2013. Internet Censorship and Surveillance After the First Congo War (1996–1997) and Second Congo War (1998–2003), the nation transitioned to a renewed national unity under the rule of President Joseph Kabila and 4 vice presidents, all from former rebel and political opposition groups. The establishment of a democratic model required checks on corruption in public finance and natural resources, executive political parties, and hyperlocal militias and bandits. Peace agreements, in turn, did not end state violence, hence the need for absolute clarity to the public. The right to report on hostile resolutions was adopted in a 2002 resolution as a part of the eventual Inter-Congolese Dialogue. This accord declared that “independent, free, responsible and efficient media are a guarantee for public freedoms, the smooth running of democracy and social cohesion”, giving the voters direct insight into public figures, programs, and overall transparency. Article 27, 28, and Clause 29 established individual freedom of expression, moral press freedom, and the public right to information, respectively. During the time of continuing 2002 conflict, radios served as stages for peace songs and “come-home” messaging. Hosts had conversations with military and government officials, army members, and rebels to discuss the challenges of peace talks and demobilization. Censorship was lenient as long as radio personnel covered both sides. Major exceptions to the right of free press imminently ensued. In 1996, censorship had begun to target Congo's artistic freedoms. Beyond broadcasts and news, the nation began to censor those who expressed political sentiments through music. The National Censorship Commission banned six songs that mentioned common opposition outcries relating to employment opportunities, civilian killings, corruption, and faltering human rights. If these songs are played on the radio, the artists may be fined up to $500 per song in accordance with a 1996 censorship decree. Freedom of the press was restricted for artists offending political elites or speaking against Congolese leaders and parties. For those using telecommunications as an outlet, interference was backed by such legislation. Open discussion about political corruption or unmentioned events, such as riots or uprisings against the ruling party, are avoided in news media but continuously active on pavement radio. Intentional Shutdowns The Congolese government performed a series of intentional internet shutdowns. The first was conducted in December 2011 and lasted approximately 25 days. During the 25 days, Short Message Service otherwise known as SMS was the only one affected by the shutdown. According to an article by CIPESA, "One of the reasons cited by the government for blocking communication was to prevent the spread of fake results over the internet before the electoral commission announced official results" Unlike the first shutdown the second intentional shutdown had a broader range of impact.The second intentional shutdown occurred in January 2015. The Congolese government directed telecommunication companies within the country to halt all its services. Not only was SMS affected, but the entire internet itself. This action by the government came on the eve of political protest on a proposed electoral bill. The most recent government shutdown occurred on December 19, 2016. This was an important date as President Joseph Kabila was supposed to step down as head of state. In order to quell, political upheaval the Congolese government ordered telecom operators to block social media in the country. In September 2016, the government cut the signals of the Radio France Internationale (RFI) and United Nations Radio Okapi (UNRO). Later, the general and program director of the Radio-Télévision Manika de Kolwezi was arrested after intentionally broadcasting a phone interview with Katumbi, the opposition leader. The censorship of human freedoms of expression to information was condemned by the Congo's United Nations on Human Rights. Kabila was given until December 19, 2016, to step down. If he decided not to, precautionary measures were set to counter organization and public protests. The government ordered a temporary blocking of images, videos, and voiceovers on social networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter, Skype, and WhatsApp right after Kabila was to step down. Digital media was the central counter to government oversight and regulation seen in other telecommunication outlets. Media was used in lieu of radio broadcasting to avoid self-censorship, financial restraints that may affect networks, or news station shutdowns. Removing the intermediary for independent journalism and coverage prevented communication among those who wanted to organize and speak out against Kabila. Black-outs were utilized to prevent anticipated politically motivated violence. Additionally, the then Telecommunications Minister Thomas Luhaka was “not informed” of such interference by the government. See also Radio-Télévision Nationale Congolaise (RTNC), the state-run national broadcaster. Internet freedom in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Media of the Democratic Republic of the Congo References External links NIC.cd, domain name registrar for the .cd domain. Images File:1955 telecommunications map Atlas General du Congo 742.jpg\|Map of telecommunications in the Congo, 1955	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo	2025-04-05T18:28:21.809793
8028	Transport in the Democratic Republic of the Congo	thumb\|550px\|A diagrammatic map of ground and water transport in the DR Congo in 2000 (roads) and 2006 (waterways and railways) Ground transport in the Democratic Republic of the Congo has always been problematic. Despite other countries being able to conquer terrain and climate similar to that of the Congo Basin it is chronic economic mismanagement and internal conflict that has led to serious under-investment over many years. On the other hand, the DRC has thousands of kilometres of navigable waterways. Historically water transport has been the dominant means of moving around a large part of the country. Transport problems As an illustration of transport difficulties in the DRC, even before wars damaged the infrastructure, the so-called "national" route, used to get supplies to Bukavu from the seaport of Matadi, consisted of the following: Matadi to Kinshasa – rail Kinshasa to Kisangani – river boat Kisangani to Ubundu – rail Ubundu to Kindu – river boat Kindu to Kalemie – rail Kalemie to Kalundu (the lake port at Uvira) – boat on Lake Tanganyika Kalundu to Bukavu – road In other words, goods had to be loaded and unloaded eight times and the total journey would take many months. thumb\|Truck stuck in the mud after a heavy rain Many of the routes listed below are in poor condition and may be operating at only a fraction of their original capacity (if at all), despite recent attempts to make improvements. Up to 2006 the United Nations Joint Logistics Centre (UNJLC) had an operation in Congo to support humanitarian relief agencies working there, and its bulletins and maps about the transport situation are archived on ReliefWeb. The First and Second Congo Wars saw great destruction of transport infrastructure from which the country has not yet recovered. Many vehicles were destroyed or commandeered by militias, especially in the north and east of the country, and the fuel supply system was also badly affected. Consequently, outside of Kinshasa, Matadi and Lubumbashi, private and commercial road transport is almost non-existent and traffic is scarce even where roads are in good condition. The few vehicles in use outside these cities are run by the United Nations, aid agencies, the DRC government, and a few larger companies such as those in the mining and energy sectors. High-resolution satellite photos on the Internet show large cities such as Bukavu, Butembo and Kikwit virtually devoid of traffic, compared to similar photos of towns in neighbouring countries. Air transport is the only effective means of moving between many places within the country. The Congolese government, the United Nations, aid organisations and large companies use air rather than ground transport to move personnel and freight. The UN operates a large fleet of aircraft and helicopters, and compared to other African countries the DRC has a large number of small domestic airlines and air charter companies. The transport (and smuggling) of minerals with a high value for weight is also carried out by air, and in the east, some stretches of paved road isolated by destroyed bridges or impassable sections have been turned into airstrips. For the ordinary citizen though, especially in rural areas, often the only options are to cycle, walk or go by dugout canoe. Some parts of the DRC are more accessible from neighbouring countries than from Kinshasa. For example, Bukavu itself and Goma and other north-eastern towns are linked by paved road from the DRC border to the Kenyan port of Mombasa, and most goods for these cities have been brought via this route in recent years. Similarly, Lubumbashi and the rest of Katanga Province is linked to Zambia, through which the paved highway and rail networks of Southern Africa can be accessed. Such links through neighbouring countries are generally more important for the east and south-east of the country, and are more heavily used, than surface links to the capital. Major infrastructure programs In 2007 China agreed to lend the DRC US$5bn for two major transport infrastructure projects to link mineral-rich Katanga, specifically Lubumbashi, by rail to an ocean port (Matadi) and by road to the Kisangani river port, and to improve its links to the transport network of Southern Africa in Zambia. The two projects would also link the major parts of the country not served by water transport, and the main centres of the economy. Loan repayments will be from concessions for raw materials which China desperately needs: copper, cobalt, gold and nickel, as well as by toll revenues from the road and railway. In the face of reluctance by the international business community to invest in DRC, this represents a revitalisation of DRC's infrastructure much needed by its government. The China Railway Seventh Group Co. Ltd were in charge of the contract, under signed by the China Railway Engineering Corporation, with construction to be started from June 2008. Railways Rail transport is provided in the Democratic Republic of the Congo by the Société Nationale des Chemins de Fer du Congo (SNCC), the Société commerciale des transports et des ports (SCTP) (previously Office National des Transports (ONATRA) until 2011), and the Office des Chemins de fer des Ueles (CFU). The national system is mostly operated by the Société Nationale des Chemins de Fer du Congo, SNCC. Not all rail lines link up, but they are generally connected by river transport.thumb\|Train from Lubumbashi arriving in Kindu on newly refurbished line Highways The Democratic Republic of the Congo has fewer all-weather paved highways than any country of its population and size in Africa — a total of 2250 km, of which only 1226 km is in good condition (see below). To put this in perspective, the road distance across the country in any direction is more than 2500 km (e.g. Matadi to Lubumbashi, 2700 km by road). The figure of 2250 km converts to 35 km of paved road per 1,000,000 of population. Comparative figures for Zambia and Botswana are 721 km and 3427 km respectively. Categories The road network is theoretically divided into four categories (national roads, priority regional roads, secondary regional roads and local roads), however, the United Nations Joint Logistics Centre (UNJLC) reports that this classification is of little practical use because some roads simply do not exist. For example, National Road 9 is not operational and cannot be detected by remote sensing methods. unpaved: 15,000 km tracks 43,000 km country roads 21,000 km local roads or footpaths 90,000 km total: 171,250 km The UNJLC also points out that the pre-Second Congo War network no longer exists, and is dependent upon 20,000 bridges and 325 ferries, most of which are in need of repair or replacement. In contrast, a Democratic Republic of the Congo government document shows that, also in 2005, the network of main highways in good condition was as follows: paved: 1,226 km unpaved: 607 km The 2000 Michelin Motoring and Tourist Map 955 of Southern and Central Africa, which categorizes roads as "surfaced", "improved" (generally unsurfaced but with gravel added and graded), "partially improved" and "earth roads" and "tracks" shows that there were 2694 km of paved highway in 2000. These figures indicate that, compared to the more recent figures above, there has been a deterioration this decade, rather than improvement. International highways Three routes in the Trans-African Highway network pass through DR Congo: Tripoli-Cape Town Highway: this route crosses the western extremity of the country on National Road No. 1 between Kinshasa and Matadi, a distance of 285 km on one of the only paved sections in fair condition. Lagos-Mombasa Highway: the DR Congo is the main missing link in this east–west highway and requires a new road to be constructed before it can function. Beira-Lobito Highway: this east–west highway crosses Katanga and requires re-construction over most of its length, being an earth track between the Angolan border and Kolwezi, a paved road in very poor condition between Kolwezi and Lubumbashi, and a paved road in fair condition over the short distance to the Zambian border. Waterways The DRC has more navigable rivers and moves more passengers and goods by boat and ferry than any other country in Africa. Kinshasa, with 7 km of river frontage occupied by wharfs and jetties, is the largest inland waterways port on the continent. However, much of the infrastructure — vessels and port handling facilities — has, like the railways, suffered from poor maintenance and internal conflict. The total length of waterways is estimated at 16,238 km including the Congo River, its tributaries, and unconnected lakes. The 1000-kilometre Kinshasa-Kisangani route on the Congo River is the longest and best-known. It is operated by river tugs pushing several barges lashed together, and for the hundreds of passengers and traders these function like small floating towns. Rather than mooring at riverside communities along the route, traders come out by canoe and small boat alongside the river barges and transfer goods on the move. Most waterway routes do not operate to regular schedules. It is common for an operator to moor a barge at a riverside town and collect freight and passengers over a period of weeks before hiring a river tug to tow or push the barge to its destination. Description of Inland Waterways in the Congo from the UN Joint Logistics Centre International links via inland waterways Kinshasa is linked to Brazzaville (Republic of the Congo) by regular boat and ferry services 3.5 km across the Congo River. Kinshasa and other river ports via the Ubangui River to Bangui (Central African Republic). Goma and Bukavu on Lake Kivu to Gisenyi, Kibuye and Cyangugu in Rwanda. Kalemie, Kulundu-Uvira and Moba on Lake Tanganyika to Kigoma (Tanzania), Bujumbura (Burundi) and Mpulungu (Zambia). Kasenga and Pweto on the Luapula River-Lake Mweru system to Nchelenge, Kashikishi and Kashiba in Zambia. Lake Albert: two small ports on the DRC side, Kisenye near Bunia and Mahadi-Port in the north can link to Ugandan ports at Butiaba and Pakwach (served by Uganda Railways) on the Albert Nile, which is navigable as far as Nimule in southern Sudan. Water transport is conducted principally in small craft, and commercial water transport is relatively absent. Lake Edward: located within national parks, settlements are small, water transport is conducted principally in small craft, commercial water transport is absent. Domestic links via inland waterways The middle Congo River and its tributaries from the east are the principal domestic waterways in the DRC. The two principal river routes are: Kinshasa to Mbandaka and Kisangani on the River Congo Kinshasa to Ilebo on the Kasai River See the diagrammatic transport map above for other river waterways. The most-used domestic lake waterways are: Kalemie to Kalundu-Uvira on Lake Tanganyika Bukavu to Goma on Lake Kivu Fimi River to Inongo on Lake Mai-Ndombe Irebu on the Congo to Bikoro on Lake Tumba Kasenga to Pweto on the Luapula-Mweru system Kisenye to Mahadi-Port on Lake Albert. Most large Congo river ferry boats were destroyed during the civil war. Only smaller boats are running and they are irregular. Ports and harbors Atlantic Ocean Matadi - largest port, and railhead for portage railway to Kinshasa - draft: 6.4 m Banana - oil terminal for pipeline to Kinshasa Boma - second-largest port Inland river ports Bumba Ilebo - railhead Kindu - railhead Kinshasa - railhead Kisangani - railhead Mbandaka N'dangi - former military harbor Lake Tanganyika Kalemie - railhead Kalundu-Uvira Moba Lake Kivu Bukavu Idjwi Goma Pipelines petroleum products 390 km Merchant marine 1 petroleum tanker Airports Due to the lack of roads, operating railroads and ferry transportation many people traveling around the country fly on aircraft. As of 2016 the country does not have an international passenger airline and relies on foreign-based airlines for international connections. Congo Airways provides domestic flights and are based at Kinshasa's N'djili Airport which serves as the country's main international airport. Lubumbashi International Airport in the country's south-east is also serviced by several international airlines. Airports - with paved runways total: 24 over 3,047 m: 4 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2 1,524 to 2,437 m: 16 914 to 1,523 m: 2 (2002 est.) Airports - with unpaved runways total: 205 1,524 to 2,437 m: 19 914 to 1,523 m: 95 under 914 m: 91 (2002 est.) Transport safety and incidents All air carriers certified by the Democratic Republic of the Congo have been banned from operating at airports in the European Community by the European Commission because of inadequate safety standards. 2010 Kasai River disaster. A passenger ferry capsized on the Kasai River in July with at least 80 dead. 2008 2008 Hewa Bora Airways crash - April 15 plane crash killed at least 18 people after taking off from the Goma International Airport, tearing the roofs off houses as it plowed through a densely populated marketplace near the runway. 2007 August 1 train derailment killed 100, many riding on roof. 2005 Kindu rail accident, on November 29, at least 60 people were killed See also Congo River Democratic Republic of the Congo Lake Chad replenishment project (possible waterway, proposed waterflow is the same waterflow 100 m3/s as in the Moscow Canal). References External links "Congo Road Trip", PRI's The World, November 25, 2011	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo	2025-04-05T18:28:21.825927
8029	Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo	\| image = FARDC Logo.png \| alt \| caption Insignia of FARDC \| image2 \| alt2 \| caption2 \| motto \| founded = 30 June 1960 \| current_form \| disbanded \| branches = Land Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo<br>Democratic Republic of the Congo Air Force<br>Democratic Republic of the Congo Navy \| headquarters = Colonel Tshatshi Military Camp, Kinshasa \| flying_hours \| website <!----> <!-- Leadership -->\| commander-in-chief = Félix Tshisekedi \| commander-in-chief_title = President \| chief minister \| chief minister_title \| minister = Guy Kabombo Muadiamvita \| minister_title = Minister of Defence and Veterans \| commander = Army General Jules Banza Mwilambwe \| commander_title = Chief of General Staff <!-- Manpower -->\| age As of 2008, there are 'nearly 20,000' soldiers that are over 60 years old. \| conscription \| manpower_data \| manpower_age \| available \| available_f \| fit \| fit_f \| reaching \| reaching_f \| active 197,380 (30,800 inactive) (mid-2021) \| ranked \| reserve \| deployed = <!-- Financial --> \| amount = US$93.5 million (2004 est.) \| percent_GDP 1.34 (2016 est.) <!-- Industrial -->\| domestic_suppliers At least one ammunition plant in Likasi. \| foreign_suppliers = <br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br> \| imports \| exports <!-- Related articles --> \| history \| ranks Military ranks }} The Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (, FARDC) is the state organisation responsible for defending the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The FARDC was rebuilt patchily as part of the peace process which followed the end of the Second Congo War, in July 2003. The majority of FARDC members are land forces, but it also has a small air force and an even smaller navy. In 2010–2011, the three services may have numbered between 144,000 and 159,000 personnel. In addition, there is a presidential force called the Republican Guard, but it and the Congolese National Police (PNC) are not part of the Armed Forces. The government in the capital city Kinshasa, the United Nations, the European Union, and bilateral partners which include Angola, South Africa, and Belgium attempted to create a viable force with the ability to provide the Democratic Republic of Congo with stability and security. However, this process has been hampered by corruption, inadequate donor coordination, and competition between donors. The various military units now grouped under the FARDC banner are some of the most unstable in Africa after years of war and underfunding. The FARDC has been a mix of the former Zairian armed forces, integrated rebel groups from the Second Congo War, and militias that became part of it more recently. Since 2014, it has been organized under three geographic combatant commands known as defense zones, one each covering the western, south-central, and eastern DRC. To assist post-war governments, the United Nations has had the United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo (now called MONUSCO), which until 2023 had a strength of over 16,000 peacekeepers in the country. Its principal tasks were to provide security in key areas, such as the South Kivu and North Kivu in the east, and to assist the government in reconstruction. Foreign rebel groups are also in the Congo, as they have been for most of the last half-century. The most important is the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR), against which Laurent Nkunda's troops were fighting, but other smaller groups such as the anti-Ugandan Lord's Resistance Army are also present. The legal standing of the FARDC was laid down in the Transitional Constitution, articles 118 and 188. This was then superseded by provisions in the 2006 Constitution, articles 187 to 192. Law 04/023 of 12 November 2004 establishes the General Organisation of Defence and the Armed Forces. In mid-2010, the Congolese Parliament was debating a new defence law, provisionally designated Organic Law 130. History Background pictured in 1928]] The first organised Congolese troops, known as the , were created in 1888 when King Leopold II of Belgium, who held the Congo Free State as his private property, ordered his Secretary of the Interior to create military and police forces for the state. In 1908, under international pressure, Leopold ceded administration of the colony to the government of Belgium as the Belgian Congo. It remained under the command of a Belgian officer corps through to the independence of the colony in 1960. Throughout 1916 and 1917, the Force Publique saw combat in Cameroun, and successfully invaded and conquered areas of German East Africa, notably present day Rwanda, during World War I. Elements of the Force Publique were also used to form Belgian colonial units that fought in the East African Campaign during World War II. Independence and revolt At independence on 30 June 1960, the army suffered from a dramatic deficit of trained leaders, particularly in the officer corps. This was because the Force Publique'' had always only been officered by Belgian or other expatriate whites. The Belgian Government made no effort to train Congolese commissioned officers until the very end of the colonial period, and in 1958, only 23 African cadets had been admitted even to the military secondary school. The highest rank available to Congolese was adjutant, which only four soldiers achieved before independence.}} Though 14 Congolese cadets were enrolled in the Royal Military Academy in Brussels in May, they were not scheduled to graduate as second lieutenants until 1963. Ill-advised actions by Belgian officers led to an enlisted ranks' rebellion on 5 July 1960, which helped spark the Congo Crisis. Lieutenant General Émile Janssens, the Force Publique commander, wrote during a meeting of soldiers that 'Before independenceAfter Independence', pouring cold water on the soldiers' desires for an immediate raise in their status. Historian Louis-François Vanderstraeten says that on the morning of 8 July 1960, following a night during which all control had been lost over the soldiers, numerous ministers arrived at Camp Leopold with the aim of calming the situation. Both Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba and President Joseph Kasa-Vubu eventually arrived, and the soldiers listened to Kasa-Vubu "religiously." After his speech, Kasa-Vubu and the ministers present retired into the camp canteen to hear a delegation from the soldiers. Vanderstraeten says that, according to Joseph Ileo, their demands (revendications) included the following: that the defence portfolio not be given to the Prime Minister that the name Force Publique be changed to Armée Nationale Congolaise (ANC) and that the commander-in-chief and chief of staff should not necessarily be Belgians The "laborious" discussions which then followed were later retrospectively given the label of an "extraordinary ministerial council." Gérard-Libois writes that "...the special meeting of the council of ministers took steps for the immediate Africanisation of the officer corps and named Victor Lundula, who was born in Kasai and was burgomaster of Jadotville, as Commander-in-Chief of the ANC; Colonel Joseph-Désiré Mobutu as chief of staff; and the Belgian, Colonel Henniquiau, as chief advisor to the ANC". Thus General Janssens was dismissed. Both Lundula and Mobutu were former sergeants of the Force Publique. On 8–9 July 1960, the soldiers were invited to appoint black officers, and "command of the army passed securely into the hands of former sergeants," as the soldiers in general chose the most-educated and highest-ranked Congolese army soldiers as their new officers. Most of the Belgian officers were retained as advisors to the new Congolese hierarchy, and calm returned to the two main garrisons at Leopoldville and Thysville. The Force Publique was renamed the Armée nationale congolaise (ANC), or Congolese National Armed Forces. However, in Katanga Belgian officers resisted the Africanisation of the army. There was a Force Publique mutiny at Camp Massart, in Elizabethville, on 9 July 1960; five or seven Europeans were killed. The army revolt and resulting rumours caused severe panic across the country, and Belgium despatched troops and the naval Task Group 218.2 to protect its citizens. Belgian troops intervened in Elisabethville and Luluabourg (10 July), Matadi (11 July), Leopoldville (13 July) and elsewhere. There were immediate suspicions that Belgium planned to re-seize their former colony whilst doing so. Large numbers of Belgian colonists fled the country. At the same time, on 11 July, Moise Tshombe declared the independence of Katanga Province in the south-east, closely backed by remaining Belgian administrators and soldiers. On 14 July 1960, in response to requests by Prime Minister Lumumba, the UN Security Council adopted United Nations Security Council Resolution 143. This called upon Belgium to remove its troops and for the UN to provide military assistance to the Congolese forces to allow them "to meet fully their tasks". Lumumba demanded that Belgium remove its troops immediately, threatening to seek help from the Soviet Union if they did not leave within two days. The UN reacted quickly and established the United Nations Operation in the Congo (ONUC). The first UN troops arrived the next day but there was instant disagreement between Lumumba and the UN over the new force's mandate. Because the Congolese army had been in disarray since the mutiny, Lumumba wanted to use the UN troops to subdue Katanga by force. Lumumba became extremely frustrated with the UN's unwillingness to use force against Tshombe and his secession. He cancelled a scheduled meeting with Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld on 14 August and wrote a series of angry letters instead. To Hammarskjöld, the secession of Katanga was an internal Congolese matter and the UN was forbidden to intervene by Article 2 of the United Nations Charter. Disagreements over what the UN force could and could not do continued throughout its deployment. A total of 3,500 troops for ONUC had arrived in the Congo by 20 July 1960. The first contingent of Belgian forces had left Leopoldville on 16 July upon the arrival of the United Nations troops. Following assurances that contingents of the Force would arrive in sufficient numbers, the Belgian authorities agreed to withdraw all their forces from the Leopoldville area by 23 July. The last Belgian troops left the country by 23 July, as United Nations forces continued to deploy throughout the Congo. The build of ONUC continued, its strength increasing to over 8,000 by 25 July and to over 11,000 by 31 July 1960. A basic agreement between the United Nations and the Congolese Government on the operation of the Force was agreed by 27 July. On 9 August, Albert Kalonji proclaimed the independence of South Kasai. During the crucial period of July–August 1960, Mobutu built up "his" national army by channeling foreign aid to units loyal to him, by exiling unreliable units to remote areas, and by absorbing or dispersing rival armies. He tied individual officers to him by controlling their promotion and the flow of money for payrolls. Researchers working from the 1990s have concluded that money was directly funnelled to the army by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, the United Nations, and Belgium. Despite this, by September 1960, following the four-way division of the country, there were four separate armed forces: Mobotu's ANC itself, numbering about 12,000, the South Kasai Constabulary loyal to Albert Kalonji (3,000 or less), the Katanga Gendarmerie which were part of Moise Tshombe's regime (totalling about 10,000), and the Stanleyville dissident ANC loyal to Antoine Gizenga (numbering about 8,000). In August 1960, due to the rejection of requests for UN assistance to suppress the South Kasai and Katanga revolts, Lumumba's government decided to request Soviet help. De Witte writes that "Leopoldville asked the Soviet Union for planes, lorries, arms, and equipment...Shortly afterwards, on 22 or 23 August, about 1,000 soldiers left for Kasai." On 26–27 August, the ANC seized Bakwanga, Albert Kalonji's capital in South Kasai, without serious resistance and, according to de Witte, "in the next two days it temporarily put an end to the secession of Kasai." At this point, the Library of Congress Country Study for the Congo says, that on 5 September 1960: "Kasavubu also appointed Mobutu as head of the ANC. Joseph Ileo was chosen as the new prime minister and began trying to form a new government. Lumumba and his cabinet responded by accusing Kasa-Vubu of high treason and voted to dismiss him. Parliament refused to confirm the dismissal of either Lumumba or Kasavubu and sought to bring about a reconciliation between them. After a week's deadlock, Mobutu announced on 14 September that he was assuming power until 31 December 1960, in order to "neutralize" both Kasavubu and Lumumba." Mobutu formed the College of Commissioners-General, a technocratic government of university graduates. In early January 1961, ANC units loyal to Lumumba invaded northern Katanga to support a revolt of Baluba tribesmen against Tshombe's secessionist regime. On 23 January 1961, Kasa-Vubu promoted Mobutu to major-general; De Witte argues that this was a political move, "aimed to strengthen the army, the president's sole support, and Mobutu's position within the army." United Nations Security Council Resolution 161 of 21 February 1961, called for the withdrawal of Belgian officers from command positions in the ANC, and the training of new Congolese officers with UN help. ONUC made a number of attempts to retrain the ANC from August 1960 to June 1963, often been set back by political changes. By March 1963 however, after the visit of Colonel Michael Greene of the United States Army, and the resulting "Greene Plan", the pattern of bilaterally agreed military assistance to various Congolese military components, instead of a single unified effort, was already taking shape. In early 1964, a new crisis broke out as Congolese rebels calling themselves "Simba" (Swahili for "Lion") rebelled against the government. They were led by Pierre Mulele, Gaston Soumialot and Christophe Gbenye who were former members of Gizenga's Parti Solidaire Africain (PSA). The rebellion affected Kivu and Eastern (Orientale) provinces. By August they had captured Stanleyville and set up a rebel government there. As the rebel movement spread, discipline became more difficult to maintain, and acts of violence and terror increased. Thousands of Congolese were executed, including government officials, political leaders of opposition parties, provincial and local police, school teachers, and others believed to have been Westernised. Many of the executions were carried out with extreme cruelty, in front of a monument to Lumumba in Stanleyville. Tshombe decided to use foreign mercenaries as well as the ANC to suppress the rebellion. Mike Hoare was employed to create the English-speaking 5 Commando at Kamina, with the assistance of a Belgian officer, Colonel Frederic Vanderwalle, while 6 Commando (Congo) was French-speaking and originally under the command of a Belgian Army colonel, Lamouline. By August 1964, the mercenaries, with the assistance of other ANC troops, were making headway against the Simba rebellion. Fearing defeat, the rebels started taking hostages of the local white population in areas under their control. These hostages were rescued in Belgian airdrops (Operations Dragon Rouge and Dragon Noir) over Stanleyville and Paulis airlifted by U.S. aircraft. The operation coincided with the arrival of mercenary units (seemingly including the hurriedly formed 5th Mechanised Brigade) at Stanleyville which was quickly captured. It took until the end of the year to completely put down the remaining areas of rebellion during "Operation South". After five years of turbulence, in 1965 Mobutu used his position as ANC Chief of Staff to seize power in the 1965 Democratic Republic of the Congo coup d'état. Although Mobutu succeeded in taking power, his position was soon threatened by the Stanleyville mutinies, also known as the Mercenaries' Mutinies, which were eventually suppressed. As a general rule, since that time, the armed forces have not intervened in politics as a body, rather being tossed and turned as ambitious men have shaken the country. In reality, the larger problem has been the misuse and sometimes abuse of the military and police by political and ethnic leaders. On 16 May 1968 a parachute brigade of two regiments (each of three battalions) was formed which eventually was to grow in size to a full division.Zaire (1971–1997)The country was renamed Zaire in 1971 and the army was consequently designated the (FAZ). In 1971 the army's force consisted of the 1st Groupement at Kananga, with one guard battalion, two infantry battalions, and a gendarmerie battalion attached, and the 2nd Groupement (Kinshasa), the 3rd Groupement (Kisangani), the 4th Groupement (Lubumbashi), the 5th Groupement (Bukavu), the 6th Groupement (Mbandaka), and the 7th Groupement (Boma). Each was about the size of a brigade, and commanded by aging generals who have had no military training, and often not much positive experience, since they were NCOs in the Belgian Force Publique.' By the late 1970s the number of groupements reached nine, one per administrative region. The parachute division (Division des Troupes Aéroportées Renforcées de Choc, DITRAC) operated semi-independently from the rest of the army. In July 1972 a number of the aging generals commanding the groupements were retired. Général d'armée Louis Bobozo, and Generaux de Corps d'Armée Nyamaseko Mata Bokongo, Nzoigba Yeu Ngoli, Muke Massaku, Ingila Grima, Itambo Kambala Wa Mukina, Tshinyama Mpemba, and General de Division Yossa Yi Ayira, the last having been commander of the Kamina base, were all retired on 25 July 1972. Taking over as military commander-in-chief, now titled Captain General, was newly promoted General de Division Bumba Moaso, former commander of the parachute division. A large number of countries supported the FAZ in the early 1970s. Three hundred Belgian personnel were serving as staff officers and advisors throughout the Ministry of Defence, Italians were supporting the Air Force, Americans were assisting with transport and communications, Israelis with airborne forces training, and there were British advisors with the engineers. In 1972 the state-sponsored political organisation, the Mouvement Populaire de la Révolution (MPR), resolved at a party congress to form activist cells in each military unit. The decision caused consternation among the officer corps, as the army had been apolitical (and even anti-political) since before independence. On 11 June 1975 several military officers were arrested in what became known as the coup monté et manqué. Amongst those arrested were Générals Daniel Katsuva wa Katsuvira, Land Forces Chief of Staff, Utshudi Wembolenga, Commandant of the 2nd Military Region at Kalemie; Fallu Sumbu, Military Attaché of Zaïre in Washington, Colonel Mudiayi wa Mudiayi, the military attaché of Zaïre in Paris, the military attache in Brussels, a paracommando battalion commander, and several others. The regime alleged these officers and others (including Mobutu's secrétaire particulier) had plotted the assassination of Mobutu, high treason, and disclosure of military secrets, among other offences. The alleged coup was investigated by a revolutionary commission headed by Boyenge Mosambay Singa, at that time head of the Gendarmerie. Writing in 1988, Michael Schatzberg said the full details of the coup had yet to emerge. Meitho, writing many years later, says the officers were accused of trying to raise Mobutu's secrétaire particulier, Colonel Omba Pene Djunga, from Kasai, to power. In late 1975, Mobutu, in a bid to install a pro-Kinshasa government in Angola and thwart the Marxist Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA)'s drive for power, deployed FAZ armoured cars, paratroopers, and three infantry battalions to Angola in support of the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA). On 10 November 1975, an anti-Communist force made up of 1,500 FNLA fighters, 100 Portuguese Angolan soldiers, and two FAZ battalions passed near the city of Quifangondo, only north of Luanda, at dawn on 10 November. The force, supported by South African aircraft and three 140 mm artillery pieces, marched in a single line along the Bengo River to face an 800-strong Cuban force across the river. Thus the Battle of Quifangondo began. The Cubans and MPLA fighters bombarded the FNLA with mortar and 122 mm rockets, destroying most of the FNLA's armoured cars and six Jeeps carrying antitank rockets in the first hour of fighting. Mobutu's support for the FNLA policy backfired when the MPLA won in Angola. The MPLA, then, acting ostensibly at least as the Front for Congolese National Liberation, occupied Zaire's southeastern Katanga Province, then known as Shaba, in March 1977, facing little resistance from the FAZ. This invasion is sometimes known as Shaba I. Mobutu had to request assistance, which was provided by Morocco in the form of regular troops who routed the MPLA and their Cuban advisors out of Katanga. Also important were Egyptian pilots who flew Zaire's Mirage 5 combat aircraft. The humiliation of this episode led to civil unrest in Zaire in early 1978, which the FAZ had to put down. The poor performance of Zaire's military during Shaba I gave evidence of chronic weaknesses. One problem was that some of the Zairian soldiers in the area had not received pay for extended periods. Senior officers often kept the money intended for the soldiers, typifying a generally disreputable and inept senior leadership in the FAZ. As a result, many soldiers simply deserted rather than fight. Others stayed with their units but were ineffective. During the months following the Shaba invasion, Mobutu sought solutions to the military problems that had contributed to the army's dismal performance. He implemented sweeping reforms of the command structure, including wholesale firings of high-ranking officers. He merged the military general staff with his own presidential staff and appointed himself chief of staff again, in addition to the positions of minister of defence and supreme commander that he already held. He also redeployed his forces throughout the country instead of keeping them close to Kinshasa, as had previously been the case. The Kamanyola Division, at the time considered the army's best formation, and considered the president's own, was assigned permanently to Shaba. In addition to these changes, the army's strength was reduced by 25 percent. Also, Zaire's allies provided a large influx of military equipment, and Belgian, French, and American advisers assisted in rebuilding and retraining the force. Despite these improvements, a second invasion by the former Katangan gendarmerie, known as Shaba II in May–June 1978, was only dispersed with the despatch of the French 2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment and a battalion of the Belgian Paracommando Regiment. Kamanyola Division units collapsed almost immediately. French units fought the Battle of Kolwezi to recapture the town from the FLNC. The U.S. provided logistical assistance. In July 1975, according to the IISS Military Balance, the FAZ included 14 infantry battalions, seven "Guard" battalions, and seven other infantry battalions variously designated as "parachute" (or possibly "commando"; probably the units of the parachute brigade originally formed in 1968). There were also an armoured car regiment and a mechanised infantry battalion. Organisationally, the army was made up of the parachute division and the seven groupements. In addition to these units, a tank battalion was reported to have formed by 1979. In January 1979 General de Division Mosambaye Singa Boyenge was named as both military region commander and Region Commissioner for Shaba. In 1984, a militarised police force, the Civil Guard, was formed. It was eventually commanded by Général d'armée Kpama Baramoto Kata. Thomas Turner wrote in the mid-1990s that "[m]ajor acts of violence, such as the killings that followed the "Kasongo uprising" in Bandundu Region in 1978, the killings of diamond miners in Kasai-Oriental Region in 1979, and, more recently, the massacre of students in Lubumbashi in 1990, continued to intimidate the population." {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Ground Forces Order of Battle, 1988 ! Formation !! Location !! Size !! Notes \|- ! Special Presidential Division \| Kinshasa \|\| 5,200 \|\| Five battalions, 'appears combat ready' \|- ! Kamanyola Division \| Shaba \|\| 4,100 \|\| 14th Bde only combat ready formation \|- ! \| Kinshasa/Kamina \|\| 3,800 \|\|See State Dept 1978KINSHA06951 (1978). 'High state of combat readiness' \|- ! 32nd Parachute Brigade \| Kinshasa \|\|1,000 \|\|Still forming, to be deployed to Kitona. Separate 2008 French source says the brigade was never fully established. \|- ! 1st Armoured Brigade \| Mbanza-Ngungu \|\|1,300 \|\|Only 30 of apx 100 tanks operational \|- ! 41st Commando Brigade \| Kisangani \|\|1,200 \|\|Three battalions deployed along Eastern borders \|- ! 13th Infantry Brigade \| Kalemie \|\|1,500 \|\|'One of the most neglected units in the Zairean ground forces.' \|- ! 21st Infantry Brigade \| Around Lubumbashi \|\|1,700 \|\|See State Dept 1979LUBUMB01982 (1979). 'Modest combat capability' \|- ! 22nd Light Infantry Brigade \| Kamina base \|\|2,500 \|\|'Role undefined' \|} The authors of the Library of Congress Country Study on Zaire commented in 1992–93 that: <blockquote>"The maintenance status of equipment in the inventory has traditionally varied, depending on a unit's priority and the presence or absence of foreign advisers and technicians. A considerable portion of military equipment is not operational, primarily as a result of shortages of spare parts, poor maintenance, and theft. For example, the tanks of the 1st Armoured Brigade often have a nonoperational rate approaching 70 to 80 percent. After a visit by a Chinese technical team in 1985, most of the tanks operated, but such an improved status generally has not lasted long beyond the departure of the visiting team. Several factors complicate maintenance in Zairian units. Maintenance personnel often lack the training necessary to maintain modern military equipment. Moreover, the wide variety of military equipment and the staggering array of spare parts necessary to maintain it not only clog the logistic network but also are expensive. The most important factor that negatively affects maintenance is the low and irregular pay that soldiers receive, resulting in the theft and sale of spare parts and even basic equipment to supplement their meager salaries. When not stealing spare parts and equipment, maintenance personnel often spend the better part of their duty day looking for other ways to profit. American maintenance teams working in Zaire found that providing a free lunch to the work force was a good, sometimes the only, technique to motivate personnel to work at least half of the duty day. The army's logistics corps [was tasked].. to provide logistic support and conduct direct, indirect, and depot-level maintenance for the FAZ. But because of Zaire's lack of emphasis on maintenance and logistics, a lack of funding, and inadequate training, the corps is understaffed, underequipped, and generally unable to accomplish its mission. It is organised into three battalions assigned to Mbandaka, Kisangani, and Kamina, but only the battalion at Kamina is adequately staffed; the others are little more than skeleton" units.</blockquote> The poor state of discipline of the Congolese forces became apparent again in 1990. Foreign military assistance to Zaire ceased following the end of the Cold War and Mobutu deliberately allowed the military's condition to deteriorate so that it did not threaten his hold on power. Protesting low wages and lack of pay, paratroopers began looting Kinshasa in September 1991 and were only stopped after intervention by French ('Operation Baumier') and Belgian ('Operation Blue Beam') forces. In 1993, according to the Library of Congress Country Studies, the 25,000-member FAZ ground forces consisted of one infantry division (with three infantry brigades); one airborne brigade (with three parachute battalions and one support battalion); one special forces (commando/counterinsurgency) brigade; the Special Presidential Division; one independent armoured brigade; and two independent infantry brigades (each with three infantry battalions, one support battalion). These units were deployed throughout the country, with the main concentrations in Shaba Region (approximately half the force). The Kamanyola Division, consisting of three infantry brigades operated generally in western Shaba Region; the 21st Infantry Brigade was located in Lubumbashi; the 13th Infantry Brigade was deployed throughout eastern Shaba; and at least one battalion of the 31st Airborne Brigade stayed at Kamina. The other main concentration of forces was in and around Kinshasa: the 31st Airborne Brigade was deployed at N'djili Airport on the outskirts of the capital; the Special Presidential Division (DSP) resided adjacent to the presidential compound; and the 1st Armoured Brigade was at Mbanza-Ngungu (in Bas-Congo, approximately southwest of Kinshasa). Finally the 41st Commando Brigade was at Kisangani. This superficially impressive list of units overstates the actual capability of the armed forces at the time. Apart from privileged formations such as the Presidential Division and the 31st Airborne Brigade, most units were poorly trained, divided and so badly paid that they regularly resorted to looting. What operational abilities the armed forces had were gradually destroyed by politicisation of the forces, tribalisation, and division of the forces, included purges of suspectedly disloyal groups, intended to allow Mobutu to divide and rule. All this occurred against the background of increasing deterioration of state structures under the kleptocratic Mobutu regime.Mobutu's overthrow and afterMuch of the origins of the recent conflict in what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo stems from the turmoil following the Rwandan genocide of 1994, which then led to the Great Lakes refugee crisis. Within the largest refugee camps, beginning in Goma in Nord-Kivu, were Rwandan Hutu fighters, who were eventually organised into the Rassemblement Démocratique pour le Rwanda, who launched repeated attacks into Rwanda. Rwanda eventually backed Laurent-Désiré Kabila and his quickly-organised Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (AFDL) in invading Zaire, aiming to stop the attacks on Rwanda in the process of toppling Mobutu's government. When the militias rebelled, backed by Rwanda, the FAZ, weakened as is noted above, proved incapable of mastering the situation and preventing the overthrow of Mobutu in 1997. The Battle of Kinsangani took place in March 1997 during this war. The AFDL rebels, created by the Rwandan Patriotic Front, took the city defended by the Zairian Armed Forces (FAZ), loyal to President Mobutu. Before the battle itself, the air force, Serbian mercenaries and Rwandan Hutu militiamen were not enough to make up for the FAZ's lack of fighting spirit. After the war, elements of the Mobutu-loyal FAZ managed to retreat into northern Congo, and from there into Sudan while attempting to escape the AFDL. Allying themselves with the Sudanese government which was fighting its own civil war at the time, these FAZ troops were destroyed by the Sudan People's Liberation Army during Operation Thunderbolt near Yei in March 1997. When Kabila took power in 1997, the country was renamed the Democratic Republic of the Congo and so the name of the national army changed once again, to the Forces armées congolaises (FAC). Tanzania sent six hundred military advisors to train Kabila's new army in May 1997. Gérard Prunier wrote that the instructors were still at the Kitona base when the Second Congo War broke out, and had to be quickly returned to Tanzania. Prunier said "South African aircraft carried out the evacuation after a personal conversation between President Mkapa and not-yet-president Thabo Mbeki." Command over the armed forces in the first few months of Kabila's rule was vague. Prunier added that "there was no minister of defence, no known chief of staff, and no ranks; all officers were Cuban-style 'commanders' called 'Ignace', 'Bosco', Jonathan', or 'James', who occupied connecting suites at the Intercontinental Hotel and had presidential list cell-phone numbers. None spoke French or Lingala, but all spoke Kinyarwanda, Swahili, and, quite often, English." On being asked by Belgian journalist Colette Braeckman what was the actual army command structure apart from himself, Kabila answered 'We are not going to expose ourselves and risk being destroyed by showing ourselves openly...We are careful so that the true masters of the army are not known. It is strategic. Please, let us drop the matter.' Kabila's new Forces armées congolaises were riven with internal tensions. The new FAC had Banyamulenge fighters from South Kivu, kadogo child soldiers from various eastern tribes, such as Thierry Nindaga, Safari Rwekoze, etc... [the mostly] Lunda Katangese Tigers of the former FNLC, and former FAZ personnel. Mixing these disparate and formerly warring elements together led to mutiny. On 23 February 1998, a mostly Banyamulenge unit mutiniued at Bukavu after its officers tried to disperse the soldiers into different units spread all around the Congo. By mid-1998, formations on the outbreak of the Second Congo War included the Tanzanian-supported 50th Brigade, headquartered at Camp Kokolo in Kinshasa, and the 10th Brigade – one of the best and largest units in the army – stationed in Goma, as well as the 12th Brigade in Bukavu. The declaration of the 10th Brigade's commander, former DSP officer Jean-Pierre Ondekane, on 2 August 1998 that he no longer recognised Kabila as the state's president was one of the factors in the beginning of the Second Congo War. According to ''Jane's, the FAC performed poorly throughout the Second Congo War and "demonstrated little skill or recognisable military doctrine". At the outbreak of the war in 1998 the Army was ineffective and the DRC Government was forced to rely on assistance from Angola, Chad, Namibia and Zimbabwe. As well as providing expeditionary forces, these countries unsuccessfully attempted to retrain the DRC Army. North Korea and Tanzania also provided assistance with training. During the first year of the war the Allied forces defeated the Rwandan force which had landed in Bas-Congo and the rebel forces south-west of Kinshasa and eventually halted the rebel and Rwandan offensive in the east of the DRC. These successes contributed to the Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement which was signed in July 1999. Following the Lusaka Agreement, in mid-August 1999 President Kabila issued a decree dividing the country into eight military regions. The first military region, Congolese state television reported, would consist of the two Kivu provinces, Orientale Province would form the second region, and Maniema and Kasai-Oriental provinces the third. Katanga and Équateur would fall under the fourth and fifth regions, respectively, while Kasai-Occidental and Bandundu would form the sixth region. Kinshasa and Bas-Congo would form the seventh and eighth regions, respectively. In November 1999 the Government attempted to form a 20,000-strong paramilitary force designated the People's Defence Forces. This force was intended to support the FAC and national police but never became effective.1999–presentThe Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement was not successful in ending the war, and fighting resumed in September 1999. The FAC's performance continued to be poor and both the major offensives the Government launched in 2000 ended in costly defeats. President Kabila's mismanagement was an important factor behind the FAC's poor performance, with soldiers frequently going unpaid and unfed while the Government purchased advanced weaponry which could not be operated or maintained. The defeats in 2000 are believed to have been the cause of President Kabila's assassination in January 2001. It stipulated that the armed forces chief of staff, and the chiefs of the army, air force, and navy were not to come from the same warring faction. The new "national, restructured and integrated" army would be made up from Kabila's government forces (the FAC), the RCD, and the MLC. Also stipulated in VII(b) was that the RCD-N, RCD-ML, and the Mai-Mai would become part of the new armed forces. An intermediate mechanism for physical identification of the soldiers, and their origin, date of enrolment, and unit was also called for (VII(c)). It also provided for the creation of a Conseil Superieur de la Defense (Superior Defence Council) which would declare states of siege or war and give advice on security sector reform, disarmament/demobilization, and national defence policy. A decision on which factions were to name chiefs of staff and military regional commanders was announced on 19 August 2003 as the first move in military reform, superimposed on top of the various groups of fighters, government and former rebels. Negotiations had been ongoing since June 2003. Kabila was able to name the armed forces chief of staff, Lieutenant General Liwanga Mata, who previously served as navy chief of staff under Laurent Kabila. Kabila was able to name the air force commander (John Numbi), the RCD-Goma received the Land Force commander's position (Sylvain Buki) and the MLC the navy (Dieudonne Amuli Bahigwa). Three military regional commanders were nominated by the former Kinshasa government, two commanders each by the RCD-Goma and the MLC, and one region commander each by the RCD-K/ML and RCD-N. However these appointments were announced for Kabila's Forces armées congolaises (FAC), not the later FARDC. However, troop deployment on the ground did not change substantially until the year afterward. in 2010]] On 24 January 2004, a decree created the ''Structure Militaire d'Intégration (SMI, Military Integration Structure). Together with the SMI, CONADER also was designated to manage the combined tronc commun'' DDR element and military reform programme. The first post-Sun City military law appears to have been passed on 12 November 2004, which formally created the new national Forces Armées de la République Démocratique du Congo (FARDC). Included in this law was article 45, which recognised the incorporation of a number of armed groups into the FARDC, including the former government army Forces Armées Congolaises (FAC), ex-FAZ personnel also known as former President Mobutu's 'les tigres', the RCD-Goma, RCD-ML, RCD-N, MLC, the Mai-Mai, as well as other government-determined military and paramilitary groups. Turner writes that the two most prominent opponents of military integration (brassage) were Colonel Jules Mutebutsi, a Munyamulenge from South Kivu, and Laurent Nkunda, a Rwandaphone Tutsi who Turner says was allegedly from Rutshuru in North Kivu. In May–June 2004 Mutebusi led a revolt against his superiors from Kinshasa in South Kivu. Nkunda began his long series of revolts against central authority by helping Mutebusi in May–June 2004. In November 2004 a Rwandan government force entered North Kivu to attack the FDLR, and, it seems, reinforced and resupplied RCD-Goma (ANC) at the same time. Mutebutsi and Nkunda were seemingly supported by both the Rwandan government, the FARDC regional commander, General Obed Rwisbasira, and the RCD-Goma governor of North Kivu, Eugene Serufuli. Neither government figure did anything to prevent Nkunda's march south to Bukavu with his military force. In mid-December, civilians at Kanyabayonga, Buramba, and Nyabiondo in North Kivu were killed, tortured, and raped, seemingly deliberately targeted on ethic grounds (the victims came almost exclusively from the Hunde and Nande ethnic groups). Kabila despatched 10,000 government troops to the east in response, launching an operation 11 December that was called "Operation Bima". Its only major success was the capture of Walikale from RCD-Goma (ANC) troops. There was another major personnel reshuffle on 12 June 2007. FARDC chief General Kisempia Sungilanga Lombe was replaced with General Dieudonne Kayembe Mbandankulu. General Gabriel Amisi Kumba retained his post as Land Forces commander. John Numbi, a trusted member of Kabila's inner circle, was shifted from air force commander to Police Inspector General. U.S. diplomats reported that the former Naval Forces Commander Maj. General Amuli Bahigua (ex-MLC) became the FARDC's Chief of Operations; former FARDC Intelligence Chief General Didier Etumba (ex-FAC) was promoted to vice admiral and appointed Commander of Naval Forces; Maj. General Rigobert Massamba (ex-FAC), a former commander of the Kitona air base, was appointed as Air Forces Commander; and Brig. General Jean-Claude Kifwa, commander of the Republican Guard, was appointed as a regional military commander. Due to significant delays in the DDR and integration process, of the eighteen brigades, only seventeen have been declared operational, over two and a half years after the initial target date. Responding to the situation, the Congolese Minister of Defence presented a new defence reform master plan to the international community in February 2008. Essentially the three force tiers all had their readiness dates pushed back: the first, territorial forces, to 2008–12, the mobile force to 2008–10, and the main defence force to 2015. Much of the east of the country remains insecure, however. In the far northeast this is due primarily to the Ituri conflict. In the area around Lake Kivu, primarily in North Kivu, fighting continues among the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda and between the government FARDC and Laurent Nkunda's troops, with all groups greatly exacerbating the issues of internal refugees in the area of Goma, the consequent food shortages, and loss of infrastructure from the years of conflict. In 2009, several United Nations officials stated that the army is a major problem, largely due to corruption that results in food and pay meant for soldiers being diverted and a military structure top-heavy with colonels, many of whom are former warlords. In a 2009 report itemizing FARDC abuses, Human Rights Watch urged the UN to stop supporting government offensives against eastern rebels until the abuses ceased. Caty Clement wrote in 2009: <blockquote>"One of the most notable [FARDC corruption] schemes was known as 'Opération Retour' (Operation Return). Senior officers ordered the soldiers' pay to be sent from Kinshasa to the commanders in the field, who took their cut and returned the remainder to their commander in Kinshasa instead of paying the soldiers. To ensure that foot soldiers would be paid their due, in late 2005, EUSEC suggested separating the chain of command from the chain of payment. The former remained within Congolese hands, while the EU mission delivered salaries directly to the newly 'integrated' brigades. Although efficient in the short term, this solution raises the question of sustainability and ownership in the long term. Once soldiers' pay could no longer be siphoned off via 'Opération Retour', however, two other budgetary lines, the 'fonds de ménage' and logistical support to the brigades, were soon diverted."</blockquote> In 2010, thirty FARDC officers were given scholarships to study in Russian military academies. This is part of a greater effort by Russia to help improve the FARDC. A new military attaché and other advisers from Russia visited the DRC. On 22 November 2012, Gabriel Amisi Kumba was suspended from his position in the Forces Terrestres by president Joseph Kabila due to an inquiry into his alleged role in the sale of arms to various rebel groups in the eastern part of the country, which may have implicated the rebel group M23. In December 2012 it was reported that members of Army units in the north east of the country are often not paid due to corruption, and these units rarely made against villages by the Lord's Resistance Army. The FARDC deployed 850 soldiers and 150 PNC police officers as part of an international force in the Central African Republic, which the DRC borders to the north. The country had been in a state of civil war since 2012, when the president was ousted by rebel groups. The DRC was urged by French president François Hollande to keep its troops in CAR. In July 2014, the Congolese army carried out a joint operation with UN troops in the Masisi and Walikale territories of the North Kivu province. In the process, they liberated over 20 villages and a mine from the control of two rebel groups, the Mai Mai Cheka and the Alliance for the Sovereign and Patriotic Congo. The UN published a report in October 2017 announcing that the FARDC no longer employed child soldiers but was still listed under militaries that committed sexual violations against children. Troops operating with MONUSCO in North Kivu were attacked by likely rebels from the Allied Democratic Forces on 8 December 2017. After a protracted firefight the troops suffered 5 dead along with 14 dead among the UN force. On 10 July 2024, a military court in North Kivu sentenced 25 soldiers to death for charges including theft, fleeing the enemy, and violating orders after a one-day trial. These soldiers were accused of abandoning their posts during fights against the Rwanda-backed M23 rebels. Additionally, one soldier received a 10-year prison sentence for robbery, while four civilian wives and another soldier were acquitted. Structure , former Chief of Staff of the FARDC, in December 2006.]] The President Félix Tshisekedi is the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. The Minister of Defence, formally Ministers of Defence and Veterans (Ancien Combattants) is Crispin Atama Tabe, who succeeded former minister Aimé Ngoy Mukena. The Colonel Tshatshi Military Camp in the Kinshasa suburb of Ngaliema hosts the defence department and the Chiefs of Staff central command headquarters of the FARDC. Jane's data from 2002 appears inaccurate; there is at least one ammunition plant in Katanga. Below the Chief of Staff, the current organisation of the FARDC is not fully clear. There is known to be a Military Intelligence branch – Service du Renseignement militaire (SRM), the former DEMIAP. The FARDC is known to be broken up into the Land Forces (Forces Terrestres''), Navy and Air Force. The Land Forces are distributed around ten military regions, up from the previous eight, following the ten provinces of the country. There is also a training command, the Groupement des Écoles Supérieurs Militaires (GESM) or Group of Higher Military Schools, which, in January 2010, was under the command of Major General Marcellin Lukama. The Navy and Air Forces are composed of various groupments (see below). There is also a central logistics base. The United Nations Mine Action Service supervised the construction of a new ammunition depot on the outskirts of Kisangani and handed it over to the MOD in October 2013. It should be made clear also that Joseph Kabila does not trust the military; the Republican Guard is the only component he trusts. Major General John Numbi, former Air Force chief, now inspector general of police, ran a parallel chain of command in the east to direct the 2009 Eastern Congo offensive, Operation Umoja Wetu; the regular chain of command was by-passed. Previously Numbi negotiated the agreement to carry out the mixage process with Laurent Nkunda. Commenting on a proposed vote of no confidence in the Minister of Defence in September 2012, Baoudin Amba Wetshi of lecongolais.cd described Ntolo as a "scapegoat". Wetshi said that all key military and security questions were handled in total secrecy by the President and other civil and military personalities trusted by him, such as John Numbi, Gabriel Amisi Kumba ('Tango Four'), Delphin Kahimbi, and others such as Kalev Mutond and Pierre Lumbi Okongo. Arms and Inter-forces Services Signals * Engineering * Health Service * Physical Education and Sports * Military Chaplains * Military Justice * Administration * Logistics * Intelligence and Security * Military Band * Veterinary and Agricultural Service * Military Police * Civic, Patriotic Education and Social Actions * Communication and Information General Secretariat for Defence and Veterans Affairs The General Secretariat for Defence: is headed by a General Officer (Secretary General for Defence). He oversees the following departments: * Human Resources Department * Directorate of Studies, Planning and Military Cooperation * Budget and Finance Department * Directorate of Penitentiary Administration * Directorate of General Services * IT Department Military Justice Military Justice is an independent institution under the judiciary, responsible for upholding the law and strengthening order and discipline within the Armed Forces. General Inspectorate The General Inspectorate includes the following people: * Inspector General * Two Assistant Inspectors General * College of Inspectors * College of Advisers * Administrative Secretariat * Administrative, logistics and services unit Armed Forces Chiefs of Staff The available information on armed forces' Chiefs of Staff is incomplete and sometimes contradictory. In addition to armed forces chiefs of staff, in 1966 Lieutenant Colonel Ferdinand Malila was listed as Army Chief of Staff. Command structure in January 2005 Virtually all officers have now changed positions, but this list gives an outline of the structure in January 2005. Despite the planned subdivision of the country into more numerous provinces, the actual splitting of the former provinces has not taken place. FARDC chief of staff: Major General Sungilanga Kisempia (PPRD) FARDC land forces chief of staff: General Sylvain Buki (RCD-G). Major General Gabriel Amisi Kumba appears to have been appointed to the position in August 2006, and retained this position during the personnel reshuffle of 12 June 2007. In November 2012 he was succeeded by François Olenga. FARDC navy chief of staff: General Major Dieudonne Amuli Bahigwa (MLC) (Commander of the Kimia II operation in 2009) FARDC air force chief of staff: Brigadier General Jean Bitanihirwa Kamara (MLC). Military training at the ''Ecole de formation d'officiers'' (EFO), Kananga, and other courses while in the FAZ. Brigade commander in the MLC, then named in August 2003 "chef d'etat-major en second" of the FARDC air force. 1st Military Region/Bandundu: Brigadier General Moustapha Mukiza (MLC) 2nd Military Region/Bas-Congo: Unknown. General Jean Mankoma 2009. 3rd Military Region/Equateur: Brigadier-General Mulubi Bin Muhemedi (PPRD) 4th Military Region/Kasai-Occidental: Brigadier-General Sindani Kasereka (RCD-K/ML) 5th Military Region/Kasai Oriental: General Rwabisira Obeid (RCD) 6th Military Region/Katanga: Brigadier-General Nzambe Alengbia (MLC) – 62nd, 63rd, and 67th Brigades in Katanga have committed numerous acts of sexual violence against women. 7th Military Region/Maniema: Brigadier-General Widi Mbulu Divioka (RCD-N) 8th Military Region/North Kivu: General Gabriel Amisi Kumba (RCD). General Amisi, a.k.a. "Tango Fort" now appears to be Chief of Staff of the Land Forces. Brig. Gen. Vainqueur Mayala was Commander 8th MR in September 2008 9th Military Region/Province Orientale: Major-General Bulenda Padiri (Mayi–Mayi) 10th Military Region/South Kivu: Major Mbuja Mabe (PPRD). General Pacifique Masunzu, in 2010. Region included 112th Brigade on Minembwe plateuxes. This grouping was "an almost exclusively Banyamulenge brigade under the direct command of the 10th Military Region, [which] consider[ed] General Masunzu as its leader." Updates to command structure in 2014 In September 2014, President Kabila reshuffled the command structure and in addition to military regions created three new 'defence zones' which would be subordinated directly to the general staff. The defence zones essentially created a new layer between the general staff and the provincial commanders. The military regions themselves were reorganised and do not correspond with the ones that existed prior to the reshuffle. New commanders of branches were also appointed: A Congolese military analyst based in Brussels, Jean-Jacques Wondo, provided an outline of the updated command structure of the FARDC following the shake up of the high command: Chief of General Staff: Army Gen. Didier Etumba Deputy chief of staff for operations and intelligence: Lt. Gen. Bayiba Dieudonné Amuli Deputy chief of staff for administration and logistics: Maj. Gen. Celestin Mbala Munsense Chief of operations: Maj. Gen. Prosper Nabiola Chief of intelligence: Brig. Gen. Tage Tage Chief of administration: Constantin Claude Ilunga Kabangu Chief of logistics: Brig. Gen. Lutuna Charles Shabani Land Forces Chief of Staff: Gen. Dieudonné Banze Land Forces deputy chief of staff for operations and intelligence: Maj. Gen. Kiama Vainqueur Mayala Land Forces deputy chief of staff for administration and logistics: Maj. Gen. Muyumb Obed Wibatira Navy Chief of Staff: Vice Adm. Rombault Mbuayama Navy deputy chief of staff for operations and intelligence: Rear Adm. Jean-Marie Valentin Linguma Mata Linguma (Vice Adm. from 2018) Chief of the General Staff: Lt. Gen. Celestin Mbala Munsense (Army Gen. from 2019) Deputy Chief of Staff for operations and intelligence: Lt. Gen. Gabriel Amisi Kumba Deputy Chief of Staff for administration and logistics: Maj. Gen. Jean-Pierre Bongwangela Chief of operations: Maj. Gen. Daniel Kashale Chief of intelligence: Maj. Gen. Delphin Kahimbi Kasabwe Chief of administration: Maj. Gen. Jean-Luc Yav Chief of logistics: Brig. Gen. Kalala Kilumba Land forces Circa 2008–09, the land forces were made up of about 14 integrated brigades of fighters from all the former warring factions who went through a brassage integration process (see next paragraph) and a limited number of non-integrated brigades that remain solely made up of single factions (the Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD)'s Armée national congolaise, the ex-government former Congolese Armed Forces (FAC), the ex-RCD KML, the ex-Movement for the Liberation of Congo, the armed groups of the Ituri conflict (the Mouvement des Révolutionnaires Congolais (MRC), Forces de Résistance Patriotique d'Ituri (FRPI), and the Front Nationaliste Intégrationniste (FNI)), and the Mai-Mai). It appears that about the same time that Presidential Decree 03/042 of 18 December 2003 established the National Commission for Demobilisation and Reinsertion (CONADER), "..all ex-combatants were officially declared as FARDC soldiers and the then FARDC brigades [were to] rest deployed until the order to leave for brassage" [the military integration process]. in 2015]] The reform plan adopted in 2005 envisaged the formation of eighteen integrated brigades through the military integration process as its first of three stages. The process consisted firstly of regroupment, where fighters are disarmed. Then they were sent to orientation centres, run by CONADER, where fighters took the choice of either returning to civilian society or remaining in the armed forces. Combatants who chose demobilisation received an initial cash payment of US$110. Those who chose to stay within the FARDC were then transferred to one of six integration centres for a 45-day training course, which aimed to build integrated formations out of factional fighters previously heavily divided along ethnic, political and regional lines. The centres were spread out around the country at Kitona, Kamina, Kisangani, Rumangabo and Nyaleke (within the Virunga National Park) in Nord-Kivu, and Luberizi (on the border with Burundi) in South Kivu. The process suffered severe difficulties due to construction delays, administration errors, and the amount of travel former combatants have to do, as the three stages' centres are widely separated. There were three sequential buildup stages in the 2005 plan. Following the first 18 integrated brigades, the second goal was the formation of a ready reaction force of two to three brigades, and finally, by 2010, when MONUC was hoped to have withdrawn, the creation of a Main Defence Force of three divisions. In February 2008, then Defence Minister Chikez Diemu described the reform plan at the time as: <blockquote>"The short term, 2008–2010, will see the setting in place of a Rapid Reaction Force; the medium term, 2008–2015, with a Covering Force; and finally the long term, 2015–2020, with a Principal Defence Force." Diemu added that the reform plan rests on a programme of synergy based on the four pillars of dissuasion, production, reconstruction and excellence. "The Rapid Reaction Force is expected to focus on dissuasion, through a Rapid Reaction Force of 12 battalions, capable of aiding MONUC to secure the east of the country and to realise constitutional missions." </blockquote> Amid the other difficulties in building new armed forces for the DRC, in early 2007 the integration and training process was distorted as the DRC government under Kabila attempted to use it to gain more control over the dissident general Laurent Nkunda. A hastily negotiated verbal agreement in Rwanda saw three government FAC brigades integrated with Nkunda's former ANC 81st and 83rd Brigades in what was called mixage. Mixage brought multiple factions into composite brigades, but without the 45-day retraining provided by brassage, and it seems that actually, the process was limited to exchanging battalions between the FAC and Nkunda brigades in North Kivu, without further integration. Due to Nkunda's troops having greater cohesion, Nkunda effectively gained control of all five brigades, which was not the intention of the DRC central government. However, after Nkunda used the mixage brigades to fight the FDLR, strains arose between the FARDC and Nkunda-loyalist troops within the brigades and they fell apart in the last days of August 2007. The International Crisis Group says that "by 30 August [2007] Nkunda's troops had left the mixed brigades and controlled a large part of the Masisi and Rutshuru territories" (of North Kivu). Both formally integrated brigades and the non-integrated units continue to conduct arbitrary arrests, rapes, robbery, and other crimes and these human rights violations are "regularly" committed by both officers and members of the rank and file. Members of the Army also often strike deals to gain access to resources with the militias they are meant to be fighting. The various brigades and other formations and units number at least 100,000 troops. The status of these brigades has been described as "pretty chaotic." A 2007 disarmament and repatriation study said "army units that have not yet gone through the process of brassage are usually much smaller than what they ought to be. Some non-integrated brigades have only 500 men (and are thus nothing more than a small battalion) whereas some battalions may not even have the size of a normal company (over 100 men)." A number of outside donor countries are also carrying out separate training programmes for various parts of the Forces Terrestres (Land Forces). The People's Republic of China has trained Congolese troops at Kamina in Katanga from at least 2004 to 2009, and the Belgian government is training at least one "rapid reaction" battalion. When Kabila visited U.S. President George W. Bush in Washington D.C., he also asked the U.S. Government to train a battalion, and as a result, a private contractor, Protection Strategies Incorporated, started training a FARDC battalion at Camp Base, Kisangani, in February 2010. The company was supervised by United States Special Operations Command Africa. Three years later, the battalion broke and ran in the face of M23, raping women and young girls, looting, and carrying out arbitrary executions. The various international training programmes are not well integrated. Equipment Attempting to list the equipment available to the DRC's land forces is difficult; most figures are unreliable estimates based on known items delivered in the past. The figures below are from the IISS Military Balance 2014. Much of the Army's equipment is non-operational due to insufficient maintenance—in 2002 only 20 percent of the Army's armoured vehicles were estimated as being serviceable. Main Battle Tanks: 12–17 x Type 59 (dropped from 30 listed in 2007), 32 x T-55, 100 x T 72. Thirty T-55s and 100 T-72 were listed in 2007, thus little new information has reached the IISS in the intervening seven years. In 2022 the IISS listed the 12-17 Type 59s, marking them as often unserviceable; the 32 T-55s; 100 T-72s, but marking them as T-72AVs, and, in addition, 25 T-64BV-1s (page 465). Light tanks: 10 PT-76; 30 Type 62 (serviceability in doubt). "40+" Type 62s were listed by the Military Balance'' in 2007. In 2022 the IISS listed 10 PT-76s and 30 Type 62s (page 465). Reconnaissance vehicles: Up to 17 Panhard AML-60, 14 AML-90 armoured cars, 19 EE-9 Cascavel; 2 RAM-V-2. In 2022 the IISS listed "up to 52" reconnaissance vehicles, including the "up to 17" AML-60s; and unchanged numbers of AML-90s, the EE-9s, and the two RAM-V-2s (page 465). Infantry Fighting Vehicles: 20 BMP-1 (number reported unchanged since 2007). The same figure of BMP-1s was listed in 2022 (page 465). Armoured Personnel Carriers: IISS reports tracked vehicles include 3 BTR-50, 6 MT-LB, wheeled vehicles including 30-70 BTR-60; 58 Panhard M3 (serviceability in doubt), 7 TH 390 Fahd. Same unchanged figures were listed in 2022 (page 465) Artillery: 16 2S1 Gvozdika and 2S3 Akatsiya self-propelled; 119 towed field guns, including 77 122 mm howitzers D-30/M-1938/Type-60 and some 130 mm Type 59; 57 MRL, including 24 Type 81; 528+ mortars, 81 mm, 82 mm, 107 mm, 120 mm. In addition to these 2014 figures, in March 2010, it was reported that the DRC's land forces had ordered US$80 million worth of military equipment from Ukraine which included 20 T-72 main battle tanks, 100 trucks and various small arms. Tanks have been used in the Kivus in the 2005–09 period. In February 2014, Ukraine revealed that it had achieved the first export order for the T-64 tank to the DRC Land Forces for 50 T-64BV-1s. In June 2015 it was reported that Georgia had sold 12 of its Didgori-2 to the DRC for $4 million. The vehicles were specifically designed for reconnaissance and special operations. Two of the vehicles are a recently developed conversion to serve for medical field evacuation. The United Nations confirmed in 2011, both from sources in the Congolese military and from officials of the Commission nationale de contrôle des armes légères et de petit calibre et de réduction de la violence armée, that the ammunition plant called Afridex in Likasi, Katanga Province, manufactures ammunition for small arms and light weapons. Apart from Article 140 of the Law on the Army and Defence, no legal stipulation on the DRC's Armed Forces makes provision for the GR as a distinct unit within the national army. In February 2005 President Joseph Kabila passed a decree which appointed the GR's commanding officer and "repealed any previous provisions contrary" to that decree. The GR, more than 10,000 strong (the ICG said 10,000 to 15,000 in January 2007), has better working conditions and is paid regularly, but still commits rapes and robberies in the vicinity of its bases. In an effort to extend his personal control across the country, Joseph Kabila has deployed the GR at key airports, ostensibly in preparation for an impending presidential visit. there were Guards deployed in the central prison of Kinshasa, N'djili Airport, Bukavu, Kisangani, Kindu, Lubumbashi, Matadi, and Moanda, where they appear to answer to no local commander and have caused trouble with MONUC troops there. It was reorganised on the basis of eight fighting regiments, the 14th Security and Honor Regiment, an artillery regiment, and a command brigade/regiment from that time.Other forces active in the countryThere are currently large numbers of United Nations troops stationed in the DRC. The United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO) on 31 March 2017 had a strength of over 18,316 peacekeepers (including 16,215 military personnel) and is tasked with assisting Congolese authorities to maintain security. The UN and foreign military aid missions, the most prominent being EUSEC RD Congo, are attempting to assist the Congolese in rebuilding the armed forces, with major efforts being made in trying to assure regular payment of salaries to armed forces personnel and also in military justice. Retired Canadian Lieutenant General Marc Caron also served for a time as Security Sector Reform advisor to the head of MONUC. Groups of anti-Rwandan government rebels like the FDLR, and other foreign fighters remain inside the DRC. The other groups are smaller: the Ugandan Lord's Resistance Army, the Ugandan rebel group the Allied Democratic Forces in the remote area of Mt Rwenzori, and the Burundian Parti pour la Libération du Peuple Hutu—Forces Nationales de Liberation (PALIPEHUTU-FNL). Finally there is a government paramilitary force, created in 1997 under President Laurent Kabila. The National Service is tasked with providing the army with food and with training the youth in a range of reconstruction and developmental activities. There is not much further information available, and no internet-accessible source details the relationship of the National Service to other armed forces bodies; it is not listed in the constitution. President Kabila, in one of the few comments available, says National Service will provide a gainful activity for street children. Obligatory civil service administered through the armed forces was also proposed under the Mobutu regime during the "radicalisation" programme of December 1974 – January 1975; the FAZ was opposed to the measure and the plan "took several months to die."Air Force helicopter in 2011]] All military aircraft in the DRC are operated by the Air Force. In 2007, Jane's World Air Forces stated that the Air Force had an estimated strength of 1,800 personnel and is organised into two Air Groups. These Groups command five wings and nine squadrons, of which not all are operational. 1 Air Group is located at Kinshasa and consists of Liaison Wing, Training Wing and Logistical Wing and has a strength of five squadrons. 2 Tactical Air Group is located at Kaminia and consists of Pursuit and Attack Wing and Tactical Transport Wing and has a strength of four squadrons. Foreign private military companies have reportedly been contracted to provide the DRC's aerial reconnaissance capability using small propeller aircraft fitted with sophisticated equipment. Jane's states that National Air Force of Angola fighter aircraft would be made available to defend Kinshasa if it came under attack. Like the other services, the Congolese Air Force is not capable of carrying out its responsibilities. Few of the Air Force's aircraft are currently flyable or capable of being restored to service and it is unclear whether the Air Force is capable of maintaining even unsophisticated aircraft. Moreover, Jane's stated that the Air Force's Ecole de Pilotage is 'in near total disarray'.Navy in 2012]] Before the downfall of Mobutu, a small navy operated on the Congo River. One of its installations was at the village of N'dangi near the presidential residence in Gbadolite. The port at N'dangi was the base for several patrol boats, helicopters and the presidential yacht. The 2002 edition of ''Jane's Sentinel described the Navy as being "in a state of near total disarray" and stated that it did not conduct any training or have operating procedures. The Navy shares the same discipline problems as the other services. It was initially placed under command of the MLC when the transition began, so the current situation is uncertain. The 2007 edition of Jane's Fighting Ships states that the Navy is organised into four commands, based at Matadi, near the coast; the capital Kinshasa, further up the Congo river; Kalemie, on Lake Tanganyika; and Goma, on Lake Kivu. The International Institute for Strategic Studies, in its 2007 edition of the Military Balance, confirms the bases listed in Jane's and adds a fifth base at Boma, a coastal city near Matadi. Various sources also refer to numbered Naval Regions. Operations of the 1st Naval Region have been reported in Kalemie, the 4th near the northern city of Mbandaka, and the 5th at Goma. As of 2012, the Navy on paper consisted of about 6,700 personnel and up to 23 patrol craft. The IISS repeated the same 6,700 figure in 2018 (p457) and the 2020 edition carried the same number, unchanged. In reality, The IISS lists the Navy only consists of around 1,000 personnel and a total of eight patrol craft, of which only one is operational, a Shanghai II Type 062 class gunboat designated "102". There are five other 062s as well as two Swiftships which are not currently operational, though some may be restored to service in the future. According to Jane's, the Navy also operates barges and small craft armed with machine guns.NotesReferencesBibliography Boshoff, Henri, The DDR Process in the DRC: A Never-ending Story, Institute for Security Studies, Pretoria, 2 July 2007 * Canadian Government Immigration Review Board, [https://web.archive.org/web/20051126035518/http://www.irb-cisr.gc.ca/fr/recherche/publications/index_f.htm?cid=0 Issue Paper: Zaire: The Balance of Power in the Regions], April 1997 * Cooper, Tom, & Pit Weinert, , Air Combat Information Group, 2 September 2003. Retrieved August 2007 * \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2Fl2lvKa_GEC\|titleThe Assassination of Lumumba\|last1De Witte\|first1Ludo\|last2Wright\|first2Ann\|publisherVerso Books\|year2002\|isbn1-85984-410-3\|author-linkLudo De Witte\|access-date12 December 2019\|archive-date11 January 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230111164936/https://books.google.com/books?id2Fl2lvKa_GEC\|url-status=live}} * * \| last Gérard-Libois\| first Jules\|author-linkJules Gérard-Libois\| title Katanga Secession\| publisher University of Wisconsin Press\| date = 1966}} * * Human Rights Watch, [https://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/congo/Congoweb-02.htm Democratic Republic of Congo Casualties of War: Civilians, Rule of Law, and Democratic Freedoms] , Vol. 11, No. 1 (A), February 1999 * Institute for Security Studies, [https://web.archive.org/web/20070926225131/http://www.iss.co.za/Af/profiles/DRCongo/SecInfo.html Democratic Republic of Congo Security Information (updated: 12 January 2005)] * International Crisis Group, [https://web.archive.org/web/20070711040904/http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?l1&id3946 Security Sector Reform in the Congo], Africa Report N°104, 13 February 2006 * Jane's Sentinel Security Assessment—Central Africa''. Issue 11–2002. * * * La Prosperite, [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927213516/http://www.laprosperiteonline.net/commentaires.php?id=1490 Fardc et Police Nationale: la liste complète d'Officiers nommés], 18 June 2007 * * Omasombo, Jean, RDC: Biography des acteurs de troiseme republique, Royal Museum of Central Africa, 2009, 152–153. * * * * * * * * * * Further reading * Baaz, Maria E. and Stern, Maria (2013), [http://afs.sagepub.com/content/39/4/711.abstract "Fearless Fighters and Submissive Wives: Negotiating Identity among Women Soldiers in the Congo (DRC)"], Armed Forces & Society, 39, no. 4. * Charlier, Thierry, "Défilé militaire à Kinshasa", in Raids magazine, no. 294, November 2010, pp. 46–47 () * Emizet, K. M. F., "Explaining the rise and fall of military regimes: civil-military relations in the Congo," Armed Forces and Society, Winter 2000 * Human Rights Watch, [https://www.hrw.org/node/84369 'Soldiers who rape, commanders who condone: Sexual violence and military reform in the Democratic Republic of the Congo,'] 16 July 2009 * Lefever, Ernest W. Spear and Scepter: Army, Police, and Politics in Tropical Africa, Brookings Institution, Washington, D.C. * Lemarchand, René,The Dynamics of Violence in Central Africa, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009, pp. 226–228. Concise general description of the FAZ in the 1990s. * Lemarchand, René, "Forecasting the Future of the Military in Former Belgian Africa," in Catherine M. Kelleher, ed., Political Military Systems: A Comparative Analysis (Sage Publications, Inc., Beverly Hills, California: 1974), pp. 87–104 * Malan, Mark, 'U.S. Civil-Military Imbalance for Global Engagement,' Refugees International, 2008 * McDonald, Gordon C. et al., Area Handbook for the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Congo Kinshasa), Washington. Supt. of Docs., U.S. Government Print. Off. 1971. DA Pam 550–67. * Meitho, Kisukula Abeli, '', L'Harmattan, Paris/Montreal, 2001, * Meitho, Kisukula Abeli "Les armées du Congo-Zaire, un frein au developpement" * Mockler, Anthony, The New Mercenaries, Corgi Books, 1985, – covers mercenary units titularly part of the Armée National Congolaise in the 1960s Stephen Rookes, "Ripe for Rebellion: Political and Military Insurgency in the Congo, 1946-1964," Africa@War #51, Helion & Co., c2021. * Spittaels, Steven and Hilgert, Filip, [https://web.archive.org/web/20090824121315/http://www.ipisresearch.be/download.php?id=203 Mapping Conflict Motives in the Eastern DRC], IPIS, Antwerp, 4 March 2008 * Tshiyembe, Mwayila, ',' Editions L'Harmattan, 2005 * Turner, John W. A Continent Ablaze: The Insurgency Wars in Africa 1960 to the Present, Arms and Armour Press, London, 1998, , further details of FAZ operations in the 1980s and onwards can be found in pages 221–225. * External links * [http://desc-wondo.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/Loi-Organique-sur-les-FARDC.pdf Loi Organique FARDC 2013]	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo	2025-04-05T18:28:21.888318
8032	Geography of Denmark	<!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE --> \| km area = 43094 \| percent land = 98 \| km coastline = 8750 \| borders = Total land borders:<br />68 km \| highest point = Møllehøj<br />171 m \| lowest point = Lammefjord <br />-7 m \| longest river = Gudenå <br />149 km \| largest lake = Arresø <br />40.72 km<sup>2</sup> \| exclusive economic zone (excludes the Faroe Islands and Greenland)}} Denmark is a Nordic country located in Northern Europe. It consists of the Jutland Peninsula and several islands in the Baltic Sea, referred to as the Danish Archipelago. Denmark is located southwest of Sweden and due south of Norway and is bordered by the German state (and former possession) Schleswig-Holstein to the south, with a 68-kilometre (42-mile) long land border. Denmark borders both the Baltic and North seas along its tidal shoreline. Denmark's general coastline is much shorter, at , as it would not include most of the 1,419 offshore islands (each defined as exceeding in area) and the Limfjorden, which separates Denmark's second largest island, North Jutlandic Island, in size, from the rest of Jutland. No location in Denmark is further from the coast than . The land area of Denmark is estimated to be . However, it cannot be stated exactly since the ocean constantly erodes and adds material to the coastline, and there are human land reclamation projects. On the southwest coast of Jutland, the tide is between , and the tideline moves outward and inward on a stretch. A recent global remote sensing analysis suggested that there were of tidal flats in Denmark, making it the 42nd ranked country in terms of tidal flat extent. Denmark has an Exclusive Economic Zone of . When including the Faroe Islands and Greenland, the EEZ is the 15th largest in the world with . A circle enclosing the same total area as Denmark would have a diameter of 234 km (146 miles). Denmark has 443 named islands (1,419 islands above ), of which 72 are inhabited (, Statistics Denmark). The largest islands are Zealand (Sjælland) and Funen (Fyn). The island of Bornholm is located east of the rest of the country, in the Baltic Sea. Many of the larger islands are connected by bridges; the Øresund Bridge connects Zealand with Sweden; the Great Belt Bridge connects Funen with Zealand; and the Little Belt Bridge connects Jutland with Funen. Ferries or small aircraft connect to the smaller islands. Main cities are the capital Copenhagen on Zealand; Århus, Aalborg and Esbjerg in Jutland; and Odense on Funen. Denmark experiences a temperate climate, with mild, windy winters and cool summers. The local terrain is generally flat with a few gently rolling plains. The territory of Denmark includes the island of Bornholm in the Baltic Sea and the rest of metropolitan Denmark, but excludes the Faroe Islands and Greenland. Its position gives Denmark complete control of the Danish straits (Skagerrak and Kattegat) linking the Baltic and North Seas. The country's natural resources include petroleum, natural gas, fish, salt, limestone, chalk, stone, gravel, and sand. Environment . Here Greater Copenhagen in the capital region.]] and sandy coasts.]] is a common tree throughout Denmark's sparse woodlands.]] Climate <gallery> File:Climate chart of Copenhagen.svg\|Climate chart of Copenhagen. File:Koppen-Geiger Map DNK present.svg\|Climate of Denmark according to the Köppen climate classification. </gallery> \|Jan rain days=18 \|Feb rain days=15 \|Mar rain days=13 \|Apr rain days=11 \|May rain days=13 \|Jun rain days=13 \|Jul rain days=14 \|Aug rain days=16 \|Sep rain days=14 \|Oct rain days=17 \|Nov rain days=20 \|Dec rain days=17 \|Jan sun=47 \|Feb sun=71 \|Mar sun=146 \|Apr sun=198 \|May sun=235 \|Jun sun=239 \|Jul sun=232 \|Aug sun=196 \|Sep sun=162 \|Oct sun=111 \|Nov sun=58 \|Dec sun=45 \|year sun=1739 \|source 1[http://www.dmi.dk/vejr/arkiver/normaler-og-ekstremer/klimanormaler-dk/vejrnormal// Danmarks Meteorologiske Institut]<!--\|dateJan 2015] --> }} Land use :Arable land: 55.99% Permanent crops: 0.14% Other: 42.87% (2012) Irrigated land: (2007) Total renewable water resources: (2011) , Hjortø and Skarø seen from above. There are about 409 named Danish islands and around 70 of them are inhabited.]] Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural): <br>total: (58%/5%/36%) <br> per capita: (2009) Land reclamation In 2019, the government proposed building 9 new artificial islands, named project Holmene, which would create of reclaimed land, to be built from 2022 to 2040. In June 2021, lawmakers approved the construction of a island, named Lynetteholm, in the Copenhagen Harbor. A spokesperson for the Climate Movement in Denmark ([https://www.klimabevaegelsen.dk/ Klimabevægelsen i Danmark]) said the organization would sue the government over environmental concerns. Agriculture Denmark has plenty of rain, flat landscape, and moderate climate. With 55.99% of its land considered as arable, Denmark has model characteristics for agriculture. 61% of the country's total area is cultivated Farms in Denmark are remarkably large, averaging per farm. Additionally, homesteads exceeding make up more than 20% in Denmark. Many of these large farms harvest fruits and vegetables, the leading exports from Denmark are meat, fur, and dairy products. then to 61% one year later in reference to "Facts and Figures - Danish Agriculture and Food" Copenhagen remains the largest city in Denmark with a population of 1.2 million people and a metro population of 1.99 million. Copenhagen became Denmark's capital in 1443 and now currently sits with a population density of . About a quarter of Danes live in the capital Copenhagen.See also Danish Realm ISO 3166-2:DK List of islands of Denmark NUTS statistical regions of Denmark UN/LOCODE:DK Notes Footnotes References External links * [http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11259/ Map of Denmark from the Atlas “Theatrum orbis terrarum”] by Abraham Ortelius. It's the first printed map of Denmark.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Denmark	2025-04-05T18:28:21.909948
8033	Demographics of Denmark	* Arabs * Turks * Poles * Kurds * Other groups }} \|official = Danish, Faroese and Greenlandic \|spoken Languages of Denmark \|age_0–14_years16.42%\|age_65_years19.91%\|growth1.0085% (2022 est.)\|birth9.85 births/1,000 population\|death10.02 deaths/1,000 population\|net_migration2.73 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.)\|sr_at_birth1.07 male(s)/female\|sr_65_years_over0.7 male(s)/female\|total_mf_ratio0.99 male(s)/female (2022 est.)\|infant_mortality3.04 deaths/1,000 live births\|life81.66 years\|life_male79.74 years\|life_female83.71 years\|fertility1.495 children born/woman (2023)}} Demographic features of the population of Denmark proper, part of the Danish Realm, include ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations, and other aspects. Population Since 1980, the number of people of Danish descent, defined as having at least one parent who was born in Denmark and has Danish citizenship, has remained constant at around 5 million in Denmark, and nearly all the population growth from 5.1 up to the 2018 total of 5.8 million was due to immigration. Population numbers in 2100 will be slightly lower than in 2024. {\| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" ! width"50" \|Year ! width="150" \|Population<!--Don't insert stuff like "per 1 January" here. That date only applies to recent figures certainly not for the older ones--> \|- valign="top" \| 1769 \|\| 797,584 \|- \| 1787 \|\| 841,806 \|- \| 1801 \|\| 929,001 \|- \| 1834 \|\| 1,230,964 \|- \| 1840 \|\| 1,289,075 \|- \| 1845 \|\| 1,356,877 \|- \| 1850 \|\| 1,414,648 \|- \| 1855 \|\| 1,507,222 \|- \| 1860 \|\| 1,608,362 \|- \| 1870 \|\| 1,784,741 \|- \| 1880 \|\| 1,969,039 \|- \| 1890 \|\| 2,172,380 \|- \| 1901 \|\| 2,449,540 \|- \| 1906 \|\| 2,588,919 \|- \| 1911 \|\| 2,757,076 \|- \| 1916 \|\| 2,921,362 \|- \| 1921 \|\| 3,267,831 \|- \| 1925 \|\| 3,434,555 \|- \| 1930 \|\| 3,550,656 \|- \| 1935 \|\| 3,706,349 \|- \| 1940 \|\| 3,844,312 \|- \| 1945 \|\| 4,045,232 \|- \| 1950 \|\| 4,281,275 \|- \| 1955 \|\| 4,448,401 \|- \| 1960 \|\| 4,585,256 \|- \| 1965 \|\| 4,767,597 \|- \| 1970 \|\| 4,937,579 \|- \| 1971 \|\| 4,950,598 \|- \| 1972 \|\| 4,975,653 \|- \| 1973 \|\| 5,007,538 \|- \| 1974 \|\| 5,036,184 \|- \| 1975 \|\| 5,054,410 \|} Fertility The natural growth of the population (births minus deaths) was negative in 2022, that is, minus 1005 people. The previous last year there was a negative natural increase in the population was in 1988. During 2022, 58,430 children were born, 5,043 fewer than in 2021. In 2022, 59,435 people died, there were 2,283, or 4.0% more than in 2021. The total population in the age group 80 and over grew by 12,844 people, or 4.4%., from 2022 to 2023. During 2022, the Danish population grew by 59,234 people, so the population on January 1, 2023, consisted of 5,932,654 people. It was a population increase of 1.0 percent, which is higher than in 2021, when the population increase was 0.6 percent. It is the first time in history that immigrant women from non-Western countries now have fewer children on average than women of Danish roots in Denmark. On average, immigrant women have 1.76 children, the descendants have an average of 1.75 children, while women of Danish roots have 1.78 children. This is because Ukrainians, who are categorized as non-Western, have come to Denmark in large numbers. In the same year, immigrant women from Syria had the highest TFR, they gave birth to an average of 3.7 children. They are followed by women from Somalia and Pakistan, 2020 figures show. {\| class"wikitable " style"text-align:right" \|- ! Year !! 1850!!1851!!1852!!1853!!1854!!1855!!1856!!1857!!1858!!1859!!1860 Life expectancy Sources: Our World In Data and the United Nations. 1775–1950 {\| class="wikitable" !Years !1775 !1835 !1836 !1837 !1838 !1839 !1840 !1841 !1842 !1843 !1844 !1845 !1846 !1847 !1848 !1849 !1850 \|- \|Life expectancy in Denmark \|33.0 \|38.4 \|40.0 \|41.5 \|43.1 \|41.9 \|41.1 \|42.6 \|42.5 \|43.9 \|44.0 \|43.4 \|40.4 \|40.4 \|40.8 \|39.5 \|43.5 \|} in Denmark since 1775]] {\| class="wikitable" !Years !1851 !1852 !1853 !1854 !1855 !1856 !1857 !1858 !1859 !1860 !Life expectancy in<br />Years !Period !Life expectancy in<br />Years \|- \|1950–1955 \|71.1 \|1985–1990 \|74.8 \|- \|1955–1960 \|72.1 \|1990–1995 \|75.2 \|- \|1960–1965 \|72.4 \|1995–2000 \|76.1 \|- \|1965–1970 \|72.9 \|2000–2005 \|77.3 \|- \|1970–1975 \|73.6 \|2005–2010 \|78.6 \|- \|1975–1980 \|74.2 \|2010–2015 \|80.2 \|- \|1980–1985 \|74.4 \| \| \|} Age structure :0-14 years: 16.57% (male 493,829 /female 468,548) :15-24 years: 12.67% (male 377,094 /female 358,807) :25-54 years: 39.03% (male 1,147,196 /female 1,119,967) :55-64 years: 12.33% (male 356,860 /female 359,264) :65 years and over: 19.42% (male 518,200 /female 609,737) (2018 est.) ; Median age : : total: 41.9 years. Country comparison to the world: 35th : male: 40.8 years : female: 42.9 years (2018 est.) Ethnic and origin groups Non-indigenous ethnic minorities include: * Afghans * Inuit (Greenlandic) from the territory of Greenland * Turks * Arabs (i.e. Palestinians, followed by Moroccans, Syrians, Lebanese, Yemenis, Egyptians, Iraqis and Jordanians) * Vietnamese * Thai * Jews * Chinese * Pakistanis * Iranians (including Kurds and Lurs) * Somalis * Eritreans * Sudanese * Indians * Chileans (the most numerous of Latin American nationalities) * Bosniaks * Poles * Albanians * Bangladeshis * Roma * Filipinos Historic minorities Ethnic minorities in Denmark include a handful of groups: * Approximately 15,000 people in Denmark belong to a German minority traditionally referred to as tysksindet meaning "German-minded" in Danish, and as Nordschleswiger in German. This minority of Germans hold Danish citizenship and self-identify as Germans. Many of them speak German or Low German as their home language. There are also several thousand German citizens and other ethnic Germans residing in Denmark with no historical connection to this group. From 1864 until 15 June 1920 this group mainly lived in what would become Germany in 1871. * An estimated 23,000 people in Denmark proper are ethnic Faroese, while 19,000 Greenlanders reside permanently in Denmark. Many of these use the Faroese and Greenlandic languages, respectively, as their first language. All residents of the Kingdom (viz. Denmark proper, the Faroe Islands and Greenland) hold Danish citizenship, unless they inherit or otherwise receive a foreign citizenship. * The Danish Jews number around 6,000 in 2020 according to the organisation Jewish Community in Denmark, around 1,700 being card-carrying members of the organisation. * There are close to 10,000 Roma in Denmark. Modern minorities In the modern minorities, Statistics Denmark counts first-generation immigrants, second-generation (Descendants in Danish statistics classification) and third-generation (Children of descendants in Danish classification). Children of descendants can be either of "Danish origin" (if both of their parents were born in Denmark with Danish citizenship) and of "foreign origin" (if one of their parents is a second-generation immigrant and another first-generation). Therefore, this table included all people of the respective background, people who are classified as of "foreign background" and third-generation immigrants, who classified as of "Danish origin". Statistics Denmark denotes an immigrant's group based on their country of birth, it does this usually off of the immigrant or descendents parents, if only one such parent is known, then the group is determined by that or if no parents are known then it is assumed if the person is an immigrant that their country of origin is their country of birth. of Denmark's population of over 5,840,045 was of Danish descent. ! Population (2008) ! Population (2021) ! Population (2023) ! Population (2024) ! Population (2025) \|- \| 1. \| \| 59,960 \| 75,072 \| 77,845 \| 79,373 \| 80,937 \|- \| 2. \| \| 21,118 \| 49,369 \| 55,122 \| 57,070 \| 57,215 \|- \| 3. \| \| 5,105 \| 15,595 \| 42,482 \| 44,825 \| 49,854 \|- \| 4. \| \| 3,367 \| 44,326 \| 45,000 \| 45,641 \| 46,634 \|- \| 5. \| \| 3,681 \| 34,997 \| 44,221 \| 46,036 \| 46,132 \|- \| 6. \| \| 28,412 \| 35,141 \| 39,528 \| 41,516 \| 43,410 \|- \| 7. \| \| 28,417 \| 34,217 \| 35,101 \| 35,476 \| 35,975 \|- \| 8. \| \| 21,217 \| 31,175 \| 32,246 \| 33,050 \| 34,181 \|- \| 9. \| \| 23,343 \| 30,435 \| 31,700 \| 32,269 \| 33,014 \|- \| 10. \| \| 14,773 \| 22,408 \| 24,364 \| 26,276 \| 28,491 \|- \| 11. \| \| 21,861 \| 23,449 \| 23,625 \| 23,659 \| 23,732 \|- \| 12. \| \| 5,666 \| 15,595 \| 19,296 \| 21,268 \| 22,815 \|- \| 13. \| \| 11,880 \| 19,957 \| 21,380 \| 21,784 \| 22,172 \|- \| 14. \| \| 16,561 \| 21,338 \| 21,486 \| 21,653 \| 21,849 \|- \| 15. \| \| 12,593 \| 17,651 \| 18,190 \| 18,442 \| 18,605 \|- \| 16. \| \| 14,789 \| 17,095 \| 17,726 \| 17,999 \| 18,303 \|- \| 17. \| \| 13,459 \| 16,307 \| 16,906 \| 17,448 \| 18,272 \|- \| 18. \| \| 15,747 \| 17,481 \| 17,691 \| 17,735 \| 17,786 \|- \| 19. \| \| 8,574 \| 14,841 \| 15,836 \| 16,549 \| 17,443 \|- \| 20. \| \| 3,646 \| 15,231 \| 16,439 \| 16,357 \| 16,192 \|- \| 21. \| former \| 18,151 \| 15,903 \| 15,356 \| 15,016 \| 14,257 \|- \| 22. \| \| 9,808 \| 13,170 \| 13,708 \| 13,937 \| 14,138 \|- \| 23. \| \| 8,280 \| 13,166 \| 13,693 \| 14,029 \| 14,122 \|- \| 24. \| \| 1,194 \| - \| 13,503 \| 13,840 \| 14,007 \|- \| 25. \| \| 10,494 \| – \| 12,692 \| 12,996 \| 13,734 \|- \| 26. \| \| 7,199 \| – \| 12,760 \| 13,098 \| 13,577 \|- \| 27. \| \| 3,994 \| – \| 11,684 \| 12,313 \| 13,135 \|- \| 28. \| \| 7,151 \| – \| 10,786 \| 11,293 \| 11,797 \|- \| 29. \| \| 4,389 \| – \| 9,517 \| 9,946 \| 10,323 \|- \| 30. \| \| 8,421 \| – \| 9,513 \| 9,765 \| 10,082 \|} {\| class="wikitable" ! rowspan="3" \|Population groups ! colspan="10" \|Year \|- ! colspan"2" \|1981 ! colspan"2" \|1991 {\| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align: right;" \|- ! ! width="50pt" \|Average population (January 1) ! width="70pt" \|Live births ! width="70pt" \|Deaths ! width="70pt" \|Nat. change ! width="40pt" \|Crude birth rate (per 1000) ! width="40pt" \|Crude death rate (per 1000) ! width="40pt" \|Nat. change (per 1000) ! width="40pt" \|Crude migration change (per 1000) ! width"40pt" \|Total fertility rate \|- \| 1900 \| align="right" \| 2,432,000 \| align="right" \| 72,129 \| align="right" \| 40,891 \| align="right" \| 31,238 \| style="color:blue;" \| 29.7 \| style="color:red;" \| 16.8 \| align="right" \| 12.8 \| style="color: red"\|-6.6 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 4.16 \|- \| 1901 \| align"right" \| 2,447,000 \| align="right" \| 73,219 \| align="right" \| 38,786 \| align="right" \| 34,425 \| align="right" \| 29.7 \| align="right" \| 15.7 \| align="right" \| 14.0 \| -1.7 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 4.14 \|- \| 1902 \| align="right" \| 2,477,000 \| align="right" \| 72,839 \| align="right" \| 36,424 \| align="right" \| 36,391 \| align="right" \| 29.2 \| align="right" \| 14.6 \| align="right" \| 14.6 \| -2.9 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 4.05 \|- \| 1903 \| align="right" \| 2,506,000 \| align="right" \| 72,351 \| align="right" \| 36,956 \| align="right" \| 35,403 \| align="right" \| 28.7 \| align="right" \| 14.6 \| align="right" \| 14.0 \| -3.6 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 3.96 \|- \| 1904 \| align="right" \| 2,532,000 \| align="right" \| 73,692 \| align="right" \| 35,903 \| align="right" \| 37,788 \| align="right" \| 28.9 \| align="right" \| 14.1 \| align="right" \| 14.8 \| -3.7 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 3.97 \|- \| 1905 \| align="right" \| 2,560,000 \| align="right" \| 73,082 \| align="right" \| 38,598 \| align="right" \| 34,484 \| align="right" \| 28.4 \| align="right" \| 15.0 \| align="right" \| 13.4 \| -2.1 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 3.87 \|- \| 1906 \| align="right" \| 2,589,000 \| align="right" \| 74,217 \| align="right" \| 35,231 \| align="right" \| 38,986 \| align="right" \| 28.5 \| align="right" \| 13.5 \| 15 \| -2.6 \| style="color: blue" \| 3.87 \|- \| 1907 \| align="right" \| 2,621,000 \| align="right" \| 74,324 \| align="right" \| 37,275 \| align="right" \| 37,049 \| align="right" \| 28.2 \| align="right" \| 14.1 \| align="right" \| 14.1 \| -2.3 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 3.81 \|- \| 1908 \| align="right" \| 2,652,000 \| align="right" \| 76,233 \| align="right" \| 39,072 \| align="right" \| 37,161 \| align="right" \| 28.6 \| align="right" \| 14.6 \| align="right" \| 13.9 \| -0.7 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 3.83 \|- \| 1909 \| align="right" \| 2,687,000 \| align="right" \| 76,301 \| align="right" \| 35,837 \| align="right" \| 40,464 \| align="right" \| 28.2 \| align="right" \| 13.3 \| align="right" \| 15.0 \| -2.0 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 3.78 \|- \| 1910 \| align="right" \| 2,722,000 \| align="right" \| 75,299 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 35,184 \| align="right" \| 40,013 \| align="right" \| 27.5 \| align="right" \| 12.9 \| align="right" \| 14.6 \| -1.7 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 3.67 \|- \| 1911 \| align="right" \| 2,757,000 \| align="right" \| 73,933 \| align="right" \| 37,236 \| align="right" \| 36,697 \| align="right" \| 26.7 \| align="right" \| 13.4 \| align="right" \| 13.2 \| -2.0 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 3.60 \|- \| 1912 \| align="right" \| 2,788,000 \| align="right" \| 74,659 \| align="right" \| 36,486 \| align="right" \| 38,173 \| align="right" \| 26.6 \| align="right" \| 13.0 \| align="right" \| 13.6 \| -2.1 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 3.58 \|- \| 1913 \| align="right" \| 2,820,000 \| align="right" \| 72,475 \| align="right" \| 35,364 \| align="right" \| 37,111 \| align="right" \| 25.6 \| align="right" \| 12.5 \| align="right" \| 13.1 \| -2.1 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 3.43 \|- \| 1914 \| align="right" \| 2,851,000 \| align="right" \| 73,294 \| align="right" \| 35,921 \| align="right" \| 37,373 \| align="right" \| 25.6 \| align="right" \| 12.5 \| align="right" \| 13.0 \| -0.7 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 3.42 \|- \| 1915 \| align="right" \| 2,886,000 \| align="right" \| 70,192 \| align="right" \| 37,174 \| align="right" \| 33,018 \| align="right" \| 24.2 \| align="right" \| 12.8 \| align="right" \| 11.4 \| 0.7 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 3.23 \|- \| 1916 \| align="right" \| 2,921,000 \| align="right" \| 71,559 \| align="right" \| 39,265 \| align="right" \| 32,294 \| align="right" \| 24.4 \| align="right" \| 13.4 \| align="right" \| 11.0 \| 1.7 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 3.23 \|- \| 1917 \| align="right" \| 2,958,000 \| align="right" \| 70,306 \| align="right" \| 39,224 \| align="right" \| 31,082 \| align="right" \| 23.7 \| align="right" \| 13.2 \| align="right" \| 10.5 \| 0.7 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 3.11 \|- \| 1918 \| align="right" \| 2,991,000 \| align="right" \| 72,505 \| align="right" \| 39,038 \| align="right" \| 33,467 \| align="right" \| 24.1 \| align="right" \| 13.0 \| align="right" \| 11.1 \| 0.9 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 3.16 \|- \| 1919 \| align="right" \| 3,027,000 \| align="right" \| 68,722 \| align="right" \| 39,590 \| align="right" \| 29,132 \| align="right" \| 22.6 \| align="right" \| 13.0 \| align="right" \| 9.6 \| 1.6 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.96 \|- \| 1920 \| align="right" \| 3,061,000 \| align="right" \| 78,230 \| align="right" \| 39,841 \| align="right" \| 38,389 \| align="right" \| 25.4 \| align="right" \| 12.9 \| align="right" \| 12.5 \| style="color: blue"\|54.1 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 3.29 \|- \| 1921 \| align="right" \| 3,265,000 \| align="right" \| 78,815 \| align="right" \| 36,215 \| align="right" \| 42,600 \| align="right" \| 24.0 \| align="right" \| 11.0 \| align="right" \| 13.0 \| -0.4 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 3.11 \|- \| 1922 \| align="right" \| 3,306,000 \| align="right" \| 73,899 \| align="right" \| 39,452 \| align="right" \| 34,435 \| align="right" \| 22.3 \| align="right" \| 11.9 \| align="right" \| 10.4 \| -0.1 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.87 \|- \| 1923 \| align="right" \| 3,340,000 \| align="right" \| 74,827 \| align="right" \| 37,903 \| align="right" \| 36,924 \| align="right" \| 22.3 \| align="right" \| 11.3 \| align="right" \| 11.0 \| -1.1 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.85 \|- \| 1924 \| align="right" \| 3,373,000 \| align="right" \| 73,836 \| align="right" \| 38,091 \| align="right" \| 35,778 \| align="right" \| 21.8 \| align="right" \| 11.2 \| align="right" \| 10.6 \| -0.8 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.78 \|- \| 1925 \| align="right" \| 3,406,000 \| align="right" \| 71,897 \| align="right" \| 37,083 \| align="right" \| 34,814 \| align="right" \| 21.0 \| align="right" \| 10.8 \| align="right" \| 10.2 \| -0.5 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.66 \|- \| 1926 \| align="right" \| 3,439,000 \| align="right" \| 70,734 \| align="right" \| 38,093 \| align="right" \| 32,641 \| align="right" \| 20.5 \| align="right" \| 11.0 \| align="right" \| 9.5 \| -1.4 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.58 \|- \| 1927 \| align="right" \| 3,467,000 \| align="right" \| 68,024 \| align="right" \| 40,190 \| align="right" \| 27,834 \| align="right" \| 19.6 \| align="right" \| 11.6 \| align="right" \| 8.0 \| -2.2 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.44 \|- \| 1928 \| align="right" \| 3,487,000 \| align="right" \| 68,516 \| align="right" \| 38,484 \| align="right" \| 30,032 \| align="right" \| 19.6 \| align="right" \| 11.0 \| align="right" \| 8.6 \| -1.7 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.43 \|- \| 1929 \| align="right" \| 3,511,000 \| align="right" \| 65,297 \| align="right" \| 39,486 \| align="right" \| 25,913 \| align="right" \| 18.6 \| align="right" \| 11.2 \| align="right" \| 7.4 \| -1.7 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.30 \|- \| 1930 \| align="right" \| 3,531,000 \| align="right" \| 66,303 \| align="right" \| 38,174 \| align="right" \| 28,129 \| align="right" \| 18.7 \| align="right" \| 10.8 \| align="right" \| 7.9 \| -0.5 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.29 \|- \| 1931 \| align="right" \| 3,557,000 \| align="right" \| 64,266 \| align="right" \| 40,578 \| align="right" \| 23,688 \| align="right" \| 18.0 \| align="right" \| 11.4 \| align="right" \| 6.6 \| 2.7 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.20 \|- \| 1932 \| align="right" \| 3,590,000 \| align="right" \| 64,650 \| align="right" \| 39,701 \| align="right" \| 24,949 \| align="right" \| 17.9 \| align="right" \| 11.0 \| align="right" \| 6.9 \| 1.5 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.17 \|- \| 1933 \| align="right" \| 3,620,000 \| align="right" \| 62,780 \| align="right" \| 38,287 \| align="right" \| 24,493 \| align="right" \| 17.3 \| align="right" \| 10.5 \| align="right" \| 6.7 \| 1.9 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.10 \|- \| 1934 \| align="right" \| 3,651,000 \| align="right" \| 65,116 \| align="right" \| 38,050 \| align="right" \| 27,066 \| align="right" \| 17.8 \| align="right" \| 10.4 \| align="right" \| 7.4 \| 1.4 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.15 \|- \| 1935 \| align="right" \| 3,683,000 \| align="right" \| 65,223 \| align="right" \| 40,816 \| align="right" \| 24,407 \| align="right" \| 17.7 \| align="right" \| 11.0 \| align="right" \| 6.6 \| 1.0 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.12 \|- \| 1936 \| align="right" \| 3,711,000 \| align="right" \| 66,418 \| align="right" \| 40,919 \| align="right" \| 25,499 \| align="right" \| 17.8 \| align="right" \| 11.0 \| align="right" \| 6.9 \| 0.4 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.14 \|- \| 1937 \| align="right" \| 3,738,000 \| align="right" \| 67,440 \| align="right" \| 40,442 \| align="right" \| 26,998 \| align="right" \| 18.0 \| align="right" \| 10.8 \| align="right" \| 7.2 \| 0 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.16 \|- \| 1938 \| align="right" \| 3,765,000 \| align="right" \| 68,463 \| align="right" \| 39,058 \| align="right" \| 29,407 \| align="right" \| 18.1 \| align="right" \| 10.3 \| align="right" \| 7.8 \| -0.1 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.18 \|- \| 1939 \| align="right" \| 3,794,000 \| align="right" \| 67,914 \| align="right" \| 38,535 \| align="right" \| 29,379 \| align="right" \| 17.8 \| align="right" \| 10.1 \| align="right" \| 7.7 \| 0.7 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.16 \|- \| 1940 \| align="right" \| 3,826,000 \| align="right" \| 70,121 \| align="right" \| 39,730 \| align="right" \| 30,391 \| align="right" \| 18.3 \| align="right" \| 10.4 \| align="right" \| 7.9 \| -1.9 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.22 \|- \| 1941 \| align="right" \| 3,849,000 \| align="right" \| 71,306 \| align="right" \| 39,756 \| align="right" \| 31,550 \| align="right" \| 18.5 \| align="right" \| 10.3 \| align="right" \| 8.2 \| 0.4 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.24 \|- \| 1942 \| align="right" \| 3,882,000 \| align="right" \| 79,545 \| align="right" \| 37,527 \| align="right" \| 42,018 \| align="right" \| 20.4 \| align="right" \| 9.6 \| align="right" \| 10.8 \| 0.5 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.50 \|- \| 1943 \| align="right" \| 3,926,000 \| align="right" \| 84,319 \| align="right" \| 37,982 \| align="right" \| 46,337 \| align="right" \| 21.4 \| align="right" \| 9.6 \| align="right" \| 11.7 \| 0.3 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.65 \|- \| 1944 \| align="right" \| 3,973,000 \| align="right" \| 90,641 \| align="right" \| 41,087 \| align="right" \| 49,554 \| align="right" \| 22.7 \| align="right" \| 10.3 \| align="right" \| 12.4 \| 0.2 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.84 \|- \| 1945 \| align="right" \| 4,023,000 \| align="right" \| 95,062 \| align="right" \| 42,298 \| align="right" \| 52,764 \| align="right" \| 23.5 \| align="right" \| 10.5 \| align="right" \| 13.0 \| -0.1 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.98 \|- \| 1946 \| align="right" \| 4,075,000 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 96,111 \| align="right" \| 42,013 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 54,098 \| align="right" \| 23.4 \| align="right" \| 10.2 \| align="right" \| 13.2 \| -1.2 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 3.02 \|- \| 1947 \| align="right" \| 4,124,000 \| align="right" \| 91,714 \| align="right" \| 40,043 \| align="right" \| 51,671 \| align="right" \| 22.1 \| align="right" \| 9.7 \| align="right" \| 12.5 \| -1.8 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.90 \|- \| 1948 \| align="right" \| 4,168,000 \| align="right" \| 84,938 \| align="right" \| 35,981 \| align="right" \| 48,957 \| align="right" \| 20.3 \| style="color:blue;" \| 8.6 \| align="right" \| 11.7 \| -1.4 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.71 \|- \| 1949 \| align="right" \| 4,211,000 \| align="right" \| 79,919 \| align="right" \| 37,793 \| align="right" \| 42,126 \| align="right" \| 18.9 \| align="right" \| 8.9 \| align="right" \| 10.0 \| -0.3 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.58 \|- \| 1950 \| align="right" \| 4,252,000 \| align="right" \| 79,558 \| align="right" \| 39,300 \| align="right" \| 40,258 \| align="right" \| 18.6 \| align="right" \| 9.2 \| align="right" \| 9.4 \| -1.6 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.57 \|- \| 1951 \| align="right" \| 4,285,000 \| align="right" \| 76,559 \| align="right" \| 37,960 \| align="right" \| 38,599 \| align="right" \| 17.8 \| align="right" \| 8.8 \| align="right" \| 9.0 \| -2.0 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.50 \|- \| 1952 \| align="right" \| 4,315,000 \| align="right" \| 76,943 \| align="right" \| 39,173 \| align="right" \| 37,770 \| align="right" \| 17.8 \| align="right" \| 9.0 \| align="right" \| 8.7 \| -0.8 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.53 \|- \| 1953 \| align="right" \| 4,349,000 \| align="right" \| 78,261 \| align="right" \| 39,350 \| align="right" \| 38,911 \| align="right" \| 17.9 \| align="right" \| 9.0 \| align="right" \| 8.9 \| 0.3 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.60 \|- \| 1954 \| align="right" \| 4,389,000 \| align="right" \| 76,365 \| align="right" \| 39,885 \| align="right" \| 36,480 \| align="right" \| 17.3 \| align="right" \| 9.1 \| align="right" \| 8.3 \| -0.3 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.55 \|- \| 1955 \| align="right" \| 4,424,000 \| align="right" \| 76,845 \| align="right" \| 38,789 \| align="right" \| 38,056 \| align="right" \| 17.3 \| align="right" \| 8.7 \| align="right" \| 8.6 \| -1.8 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.58 \|- \| 1956 \| align="right" \| 4,454,000 \| align="right" \| 76,725 \| align="right" \| 39,588 \| align="right" \| 37,137 \| align="right" \| 17.2 \| align="right" \| 8.9 \| align="right" \| 8.3 \| -2.7 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.61 \|- \| 1957 \| align="right" \| 4,479,000 \| align="right" \| 75,264 \| align="right" \| 41,730 \| align="right" \| 33,534 \| align="right" \| 16.8 \| align="right" \| 9.3 \| align="right" \| 7.5 \| -2.6 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.57 \|- \| 1958 \| align="right" \| 4,501,000 \| align="right" \| 74,681 \| align="right" \| 41,560 \| align="right" \| 33,121 \| align="right" \| 16.5 \| align="right" \| 9.2 \| align="right" \| 7.3 \| -0.4 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.55 \|- \| 1959 \| align="right" \| 4,532,000 \| align="right" \| 73,928 \| align="right" \| 42,159 \| align="right" \| 31,769 \| align="right" \| 16.3 \| align="right" \| 9.3 \| align="right" \| 7.0 \| 0.5 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.52 \|- \| 1960 \| align="right" \| 4,566,000 \| align="right" \| 76,077 \| align="right" \| 43,681 \| align="right" \| 32,396 \| align="right" \| 16.6 \| align="right" \| 9.5 \| align="right" \| 7.1 \| -1.0 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.57 \|- \| 1961 \| align="right" \| 4,594,000 \| align="right" \| 76,439 \| align="right" \| 43,310 \| align="right" \| 33,129 \| align="right" \| 16.6 \| align="right" \| 9.4 \| align="right" \| 7.2 \| 0.6 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.55 \|- \| 1962 \| align="right" \| 4,630,000 \| align="right" \| 77,808 \| align="right" \| 45,334 \| align="right" \| 32,474 \| align="right" \| 16.7 \| align="right" \| 9.8 \| align="right" \| 7.0 \| 0.8 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.58 \|- \| 1963 \| align="right" \| 4,666,000 \| align="right" \| 82,413 \| align="right" \| 45,773 \| align="right" \| 36,640 \| align="right" \| 17.6 \| align="right" \| 9.8 \| align="right" \| 7.8 \| 0.1 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.64 \|- \| 1964 \| align="right" \| 4,703,000 \| align="right" \| 83,356 \| align="right" \| 46,811 \| align="right" \| 36,545 \| align="right" \| 17.7 \| align="right" \| 9.9 \| align="right" \| 7.7 \| 0.4 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.60 \|- \| 1965 \| align="right" \| 4,741,000 \| align="right" \| 85,796 \| align="right" \| 47,884 \| align="right" \| 37,912 \| align="right" \| 18.0 \| align="right" \| 10.1 \| align="right" \| 8.0 \| -0.4 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.61 \|- \| 1966 \| align="right" \| 4,777,000 \| align="right" \| 88,332 \| align="right" \| 49,344 \| align="right" \| 38,988 \| align="right" \| 18.4 \| align="right" \| 10.3 \| align="right" \| 8.1 \| 0.5 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.62 \|- \| 1967 \| align="right" \| 4,818,000 \| align="right" \| 81,410 \| align="right" \| 47,836 \| align="right" \| 33,574 \| align="right" \| 16.8 \| align="right" \| 9.9 \| align="right" \| 6.9 \| 0.4 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.35 \|- \| 1968 \| align="right" \| 4,853,000 \| align="right" \| 74,543 \| align="right" \| 47,290 \| align="right" \| 27,253 \| align="right" \| 15.3 \| align="right" \| 9.7 \| align="right" \| 5.6 \| -0.7 \| style"color: blue" align"right" \| 2.12 \|- \| 1969 \| align="right" \| 4,877,000 \| align="right" \| 71,298 \| align="right" \| 47,943 \| align="right" \| 23,355 \| align="right" \| 14.6 \| align="right" \| 9.8 \| align="right" \| 4.8 \| 1.4 \| align="right" \| 2.00 \|- \| 1970 \| align="right" \| 4,907,000 \| align="right" \| 70,802 \| align="right" \| 48,233 \| align="right" \| 22,569 \| align="right" \| 14.3 \| align="right" \| 9.7 \| align="right" \| 4.6 \| 4.4 \| align="right" \| 1.95 \|- \| 1971 \| align="right" \| 4,951,000 \| align="right" \| 75,359 \| align="right" \| 48,858 \| align="right" \| 26,501 \| align="right" \| 15.2 \| align="right" \| 9.8 \| align="right" \| 5.3 \| -0.3 \| align="right" \| 2.04 \|- \| 1972 \| align="right" \| 4,976,000 \| align="right" \| 75,505 \| align="right" \| 50,445 \| align="right" \| 25,060 \| align="right" \| 15.1 \| align="right" \| 10.1 \| align="right" \| 5.0 \| 1.4 \| align="right" \| 2.03 \|- \| 1973 \| align="right" \| 5,008,000 \| align="right" \| 71,895 \| align="right" \| 50,526 \| align="right" \| 21,369 \| align="right" \| 14.3 \| align="right" \| 10.1 \| align="right" \| 4.3 \| 1.3 \| align="right" \| 1.9170 \|- \| 1974 \| align="right" \| 5,036,000 \| align="right" \| 71,327 \| align="right" \| 51,637 \| align="right" \| 19,690 \| align="right" \| 14.1 \| align="right" \| 10.2 \| align="right" \| 3.9 \| -0.3 \| align="right" \| 1.8968 \|- \| 1975 \| align="right" \| 5,054,000 \| align="right" \| 72,071 \| align="right" \| 50,895 \| align="right" \| 21,176 \| align="right" \| 14.2 \| align="right" \| 10.1 \| align="right" \| 4.1 \| -1.9 \| align="right" \| 1.9188 \|- \| 1976 \| align="right" \| 5,065,000 \| align="right" \| 65,267 \| align="right" \| 54,001 \| align="right" \| 11,266 \| align="right" \| 12.9 \| align="right" \| 10.6 \| align="right" \| 2.2 \| 0.4 \| align="right" \| 1.7472 \|- \| 1977 \| align="right" \| 5,078,000 \| align="right" \| 61,878 \| align="right" \| 50,485 \| align="right" \| 11,393 \| align="right" \| 12.2 \| align="right" \| 9.9 \| align="right" \| 2.2 \| 1.5 \| align="right" \| 1.6598 \|- \| 1978 \| align="right" \| 5,097,000 \| align="right" \| 62,036 \| align="right" \| 52,864 \| align="right" \| 9,172 \| align="right" \| 12.2 \| align="right" \| 10.4 \| align="right" \| 1.8 \| 1.1 \| align="right" \| 1.6685 \|- \| 1979 \| align="right" \| 5,112,000 \| align="right" \| 59,464 \| align="right" \| 54,654 \| align="right" \| 4,810 \| align="right" \| 11.6 \| align="right" \| 10.7 \| align="right" \| 0.9 \| 1.1 \| align="right" \| 1.6016 \|- \| 1980 \| align="right" \| 5,122,000 \| align="right" \| 57,293 \| align="right" \| 55,939 \| align="right" \| 1,354 \| align="right" \| 11.2 \| align="right" \| 10.9 \| align="right" \| 0.3 \| 0.1 \| align="right" \| 1.5464 \|- \| 1981 \| align="right" \| 5,124,000 \| align="right" \| 53,089 \| align="right" \| 56,359 \| style"color: red" align"right" \| -3,270 \| align="right" \| 10.4 \| align="right" \| 11.0 \| style"color: red" align"right" \| -0.6 \| -0.4 \| align="right" \| 1.4371 \|- \| 1982 \| align="right" \| 5,119,000 \| align="right" \| 52,658 \| align="right" \| 55,368 \| style"color: red" align"right" \| -2,710 \| align="right" \| 10.3 \| align="right" \| 10.8 \| style"color: red" align"right" \| -0.5 \| -0.1 \| align="right" \| 1.4273 \|- \| 1983 \| align="right" \| 5,116,000 \| style"color: red" align"right" \| 50,822 \| align="right" \| 57,156 \| style"color: red" align"right" \| -6,334 \|9.9 \| align="right" \| 11.2 \| style"color: red" align"right" \| -1.2 \| 0.4 \| style"color: red" align"right" \| 1.3774 \|- \| 1984 \| align="right" \| 5,112,000 \| align="right" \| 51,800 \| align="right" \| 57,109 \| style"color: red" align"right" \| -5,309 \| align="right" \| 10.1 \| align="right" \| 11.2 \| style"color: red" align"right" \| -1.0 \| 0.8 \| align="right" \| 1.4001 \|- \| 1985 \| align="right" \| 5,111,000 \| align="right" \| 53,749 \| align="right" \| 58,378 \| style"color: red" align"right" \| -4,629 \| align="right" \| 10.5 \| align="right" \| 11.4 \| style"color: red" align"right" \| -0.9 \| 1.9 \| align="right" \| 1.4472 \|- \| 1986 \| align="right" \| 5,116,000 \| align="right" \| 55,312 \| align="right" \| 58,100 \| style"color: red" align"right" \| -2,788 \| align="right" \| 10.8 \| align="right" \| 11.3 \| style"color: red" align"right" \| -0.5 \| 2.3 \| align="right" \| 1.4819 \|- \| 1987 \| align="right" \| 5,125,000 \| align="right" \| 56,221 \| align="right" \| 58,136 \| style"color: red" align"right" \| -1,915 \| align="right" \| 11.0 \| align="right" \| 11.3 \| style"color: red" align"right" \| -0.4 \| 1.2 \| align="right" \| 1.4977 \|- \| 1988 \| align="right" \| 5,129,000 \| align="right" \| 58,844 \| align="right" \| 58,984 \| style"color: red" align"right" \| -127 \| align="right" \| 11.5 \| align="right" \| 11.5 \| style"color: red" align"right" \| -0.0 \| 0 \| align="right" \| 1.5618 \|- \| 1989 \| align="right" \| 5,129,000 \| align="right" \| 61,351 \| align="right" \| 59,397 \| align="right" \| 2,047 \| align="right" \| 12.0 \| align="right" \| 11.6 \| align="right" \| 0.4 \| 0.8 \| align="right" \| 1.6212 \|- \| 1990 \| align="right" \| 5,135,000 \| align="right" \| 63,433 \| align="right" \| 60,926 \| align="right" \| 2,545 \| align="right" \| 12.3 \| align="right" \| 11.9 \| align="right" \| 0.5 \| 1.6 \| align="right" \| 1.6696 \|- \| 1991 \| align="right" \| 5,146,000 \| align="right" \| 64,358 \| align="right" \| 59,581 \| align="right" \| 4,777 \| align="right" \| 12.5 \| align="right" \| 11.6 \| align="right" \| 0.9 \| 2.2 \| align="right" \| 1.6844 \|- \| 1992 \| align="right" \| 5,162,000 \| align="right" \| 67,726 \| align="right" \| 60,821 \| align="right" \| 6,905 \| align="right" \| 13.1 \| align="right" \| 11.8 \| align="right" \| 1.3 \| 2.4 \| align="right" \| 1.7648 \|- \| 1993 \| align="right" \| 5,181,000 \| align="right" \| 67,369 \| align="right" \| 62,809 \| align="right" \| 4,560 \| align="right" \| 13.0 \| align="right" \| 12.1 \| align="right" \| 0.9 \| 2.2 \| align="right" \| 1.7512 \|- \| 1994 \| align="right" \| 5,197,000 \| align="right" \| 69,666 \| align="right" \| 61,099 \| align="right" \| 8,567 \| align="right" \| 13.4 \| align="right" \| 11.7 \| align="right" \| 1.6 \| 2.1 \| align="right" \| 1.8091 \|- \| 1995 \| align="right" \| 5,216,000 \| align="right" \| 69,771 \| style"color:red" align"right" \| 63,127 \| align="right" \| 6,644 \| align="right" \| 13.3 \| align="right" \| 12.1 \| align="right" \| 1.3 \| 5.4 \| align="right" \| 1.8097 \|- \| 1996 \| align="right" \| 5,251,000 \| align="right" \| 67,638 \| align="right" \| 61,043 \| align="right" \| 6,595 \| align="right" \| 12.9 \| align="right" \| 11.6 \| align="right" \| 1.3 \| 3.3 \| align="right" \| 1.7535 \|- \| 1997 \| align="right" \| 5,275,000 \| align="right" \| 67,648 \| align="right" \| 59,898 \| align="right" \| 7,750 \| align="right" \| 12.8 \| align="right" \| 11.3 \| align="right" \| 1.5 \| 2.3 \| align="right" \| 1.7562 \|- \| 1998 \| align="right" \| 5,295,000 \| align="right" \| 66,174 \| align="right" \| 58,453 \| align="right" \| 7,721 \| align="right" \| 12.5 \| align="right" \| 11.0 \| align="right" \| 1.5 \| 1.9 \| align="right" \| 1.7252 \|- \| 1999 \| align="right" \| 5,313,000 \| align="right" \| 66,220 \| align="right" \| 59,179 \| align="right" \| 7,041 \| align="right" \| 12.4 \| align="right" \| 11.1 \| align="right" \| 1.3 \| 1.9 \| align="right" \| 1.7383 \|- \| 2000 \| align="right" \| 5,330,000 \| align="right" \| 67,084 \| align="right" \| 57,998 \| align="right" \| 9,086 \| align="right" \| 12.6 \| align="right" \| 10.9 \| align="right" \| 1.7 \| 1.9 \| align="right" \| 1.7742 \|- \| 2001 \| align="right" \| 5,349,000 \| align="right" \| 65,458 \| align="right" \| 58,355 \| align="right" \| 7,103 \| align="right" \| 12.2 \| align="right" \| 10.9 \| align="right" \| 1.3 \| 2.3 \| align="right" \| 1.7450 \|- \| 2002 \| align="right" \| 5,368,000 \| align="right" \| 64,075 \| align="right" \| 58,610 \| align="right" \| 5,465 \| align="right" \| 11.9 \| align="right" \| 10.9 \| align="right" \| 1.0 \| 2.0 \| align="right" \| 1.7249 \|- \| 2003 \| align="right" \| 5,384,000 \| align="right" \| 64,599 \| align="right" \| 57,574 \| align="right" \| 7,025 \| align="right" \| 12.0 \| align="right" \| 10.7 \| align="right" \| 1.3 \| 1.3 \| align="right" \| 1.7599 \|- \| 2004 \| align="right" \| 5,398,000 \| align="right" \| 64,609 \| align="right" \| 55,086 \| align="right" \| 9,523 \| align="right" \| 12.0 \| align="right" \| 10.2 \| align="right" \| 1.8 \| 0.6 \| align="right" \| 1.7852 \|- \| 2005 \| align="right" \| 5,411,000 \| align="right" \| 64,282 \| align="right" \| 54,962 \| align="right" \| 9,320 \| align="right" \| 11.9 \| align="right" \| 10.1 \| align="right" \| 1.7 \| 1.3 \| align="right" \| 1.8021 \|- \| 2006 \| align="right" \| 5,427,000 \| align="right" \| 64,984 \| align="right" \| 55,477 \| align="right" \| 9,507 \| align="right" \| 12.0 \| align="right" \| 10.2 \| align="right" \| 1.7 \| 2.2 \| align="right" \| 1.8476 \|- \| 2007 \| align="right" \| 5,448,000 \| align="right" \| 64,082 \| align="right" \| 55,604 \| align="right" \| 8,478 \| align="right" \| 11.7 \| align="right" \| 10.2 \| align="right" \| 1.6 \| 3.5 \| align="right" \| 1.8435 \|- \| 2008 \| align="right" \| 5,476,000 \| align="right" \| 65,038 \| align="right" \| 54,591 \| align="right" \| 10,447 \| align="right" \| 11.8 \| align="right" \| 9.9 \| align="right" \| 1.9 \| 4.5 \| align="right" \| 1.8888 \|- \| 2009 \| align="right" \| 5,511,000 \| align="right" \| 62,818 \| align="right" \| 54,872 \| align="right" \| 7,946 \| align="right" \| 11.4 \| align="right" \| 9.9 \| align="right" \| 1.4 \| 3.0 \| align="right" \| 1.8396 \|- \| 2010 \| 5,535,000 \|63,411\|\|54,368\|\|9,043 \|11.4\|\|9.8\|\|1.6 \| 3.1 \| 1.8712 \|- \| 2011 \| 5,561,000 \|58,998\|\|52,516\|\|6,482 \|10.6\|\|9.4\|\|1.2 \| 2.4 \| 1.7524 \|- \| 2012 \| 5,581,000 \|57,916\|\|52,325\|\|5,591 \|10.4\|\|9.4\|\|1.0 \| 2.9 \| 1.7292 \|- \| 2013 \| 5,603,000 \|55,844\|\|52,428\|\|3,416 \|9.9\|\|9.3\|\|0.6 \| 3.7 \| 1.6687 \|- \| 2014 \| 5,627,000 \|56,870\|\|51,340\|\|5,530 \|10.1\|\|9.1\|\|1.0 \| 4.9 \| 1.6912 \|- \| 2015 \| 5,660,000 \|58,205\|\|52,555\|\|5,650 \|10.2\|\|9.2\|\|1.0 \| 7.3 \|1.7136 \|- \| 2016 \| 5,707,000 \|61,614\|\|52,824\|\|8,790 \|10.7\|\|9.2\|\|1.5 \| 5.9 \|1.7854 \|- \| 2017 \| 5,749,000 \|61,272\|\|53,261\|\|8,011 \|10.6\|\|9.2\|\|1.4 \| 4.2 \|1.7519 \|- \| 2018 \| 5,781,000 \|61,476\|\|55,232\|\|6,244 \|10.6\|\|9.5\|\|1.1 \| 3.2 \|1.7297 \|- \| 2019 \| 5,806,000 \|61,167\|\|53,958\|\|7,209 \|10.5\|\|9.3\|\|1.2 \| 1.7 \|1.6994 \|- \| 2020 \|\| 5,822,763 \|60,937\|\|54,645\|\|6,292 \|10.4\|\|9.4\|\| 1.0 \| 2.0 \|1.6747 \|- \| 2021 \|\| 5,840,045 \|63,473\|\|57,152\|\|6,321 \|10.8\|\|9.7\|\|1.1 \| 4.6 \|1.7241 \|- \| 2022 \| 5,873,420 \|58,430 \|59,435 \|style="color: red"\|-1,005 \|9.948 \|10.119 \|style="color:red"\|-0.171 \| 10.3 \|1.5529 \|- \| 2023 \| 5,932,654 \|57,469 \|58,384 \|style="color: red"\|-915 \|9.686 \|9.841 \|style="color:red"\|-0.155 \| 5.0 \|1.4959 \|- \|2024 \| 5,961,249 \| 57,079 \| 57,071 \| 8 \| style="color:red;"\|9.575 \| 9.574 \| 0.0013 \| 5.3 \| 1.4656 \|- \|2025 \|style="color:blue"\|5,992,734 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|} In 2022, 45,922 (78.6%) babies were born to mothers of Danish origin, 10,039 (17.2%) to immigrant mothers and 2,469 (4.2%) to mothers who are descendants of immigrants. Current vital statistics {\| class"wikitable" style="text-align:center;" \|+ \|- ! Period ! Live births ! Deaths ! Natural increase \|- \| January – September 2023 \| 43,646 \| 42,865 \| +781 \|- \| January – September 2024 \| 43,110 \| 42,357 \| +753 \|- \| Difference \| -536 (-1.23%) \| -508 (-1.19%) \| -28 \|} Structure of the population {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! width="80pt"\|Age Group ! width="80pt"\|Male ! width="80pt"\|Female ! width="80pt"\|Total ! width="80pt"\|% \|- \| align="right" \| Total \| align="right" \| 2 910 605 \| align="right" \| 2 939 584 \| align="right" \| 5 850 189 \| align="right" \| 100 \|- \| align="right" \| 0–4 \| align="right" \| 159 616 \| align="right" \| 151 094 \| align="right" \| 310 710 \| align="right" \| 5.31 \|- \| align="right" \| 5–9 \| align="right" \| 153 902 \| align="right" \| 145 996 \| align="right" \| 299 898 \| align="right" \| 5.13 \|- \| align="right" \| 10–14 \| align="right" \| 172 489 \| align="right" \| 163 504 \| align="right" \| 335 993 \| align="right" \| 5.74 \|- \| align="right" \| 15–19 \| align="right" \| 174 065 \| align="right" \| 166 351 \| align="right" \| 340 416 \| align="right" \| 5.82 \|- \| align="right" \| 20–24 \| align="right" \| 190 440 \| align="right" \| 182 547 \| align="right" \| 372 987 \| align="right" \| 6.38 \|- \| align="right" \| 25–29 \| align="right" \| 205 462 \| align="right" \| 196 996 \| align="right" \| 402 458 \| align="right" \| 6.88 \|- \| align="right" \| 30–34 \| align="right" \| 190 728 \| align="right" \| 182 907 \| align="right" \| 373 635 \| align="right" \| 6.39 \|- \| align="right" \| 35–39 \| align="right" \| 167 754 \| align="right" \| 163 263 \| align="right" \| 331 017 \| align="right" \| 5.66 \|- \| align="right" \| 40–44 \| align="right" \| 174 967 \| align="right" \| 173 743 \| align="right" \| 348 710 \| align="right" \| 5.96 \|- \| align="right" \| 45–49 \| align="right" \| 196 490 \| align="right" \| 197 259 \| align="right" \| 393 749 \| align="right" \| 6.73 \|- \| align="right" \| 50–54 \| align="right" \| 199 625 \| align="right" \| 197 330 \| align="right" \| 396 955 \| align="right" \| 6.79 \|- \| align="right" \| 55–59 \| align="right" \| 203 904 \| align="right" \| 202 673 \| align="right" \| 406 577 \| align="right" \| 6.95 \|- \| align="right" \| 60–64 \| align="right" \| 173 413 \| align="right" \| 176 026 \| align="right" \| 349 439 \| align="right" \| 5.97 \|- \| align="right" \| 65–69 \| align="right" \| 156 575 \| align="right" \| 163 852 \| align="right" \| 320 427 \| align="right" \| 5.48 \|- \| align="right" \| 70–74 \| align="right" \| 149 499 \| align="right" \| 162 406 \| align="right" \| 311 905 \| align="right" \| 5.33 \|- \| align="right" \| 75–79 \| align="right" \| 125 586 \| align="right" \| 142 076 \| align="right" \| 267 662 \| align="right" \| 4.58 \|- \| align="right" \| 80–84 \| align="right" \| 69 552 \| align="right" \| 88 329 \| align="right" \| 157 881 \| align="right" \| 2.70 \|- \| align="right" \| 85–89 \| align="right" \| 33 148 \| align="right" \| 50 931 \| align="right" \| 84 079 \| align="right" \| 1.44 \|- \| align="right" \| 90–94 \| align="right" \| 11 095 \| align="right" \| 23 783 \| align="right" \| 34 878 \| align="right" \| 0.60 \|- \| align="right" \| 95–99 \| align="right" \| 2 113 \| align="right" \| 7 469 \| align="right" \| 9 582 \| align="right" \| 0.16 \|- \| align="right" \| 100+ \| align="right" \| 182 \| align="right" \| 1 049 \| align="right" \| 1 231 \| align="right" \| 0.02 \|- ! width="50"\|Age group ! width="80pt"\|Male ! width="80"\|Female ! width="80"\|Total ! width="50"\|Percent \|- \| align="right" \| 0–14 \| align="right" \| 486 007 \| align="right" \| 460 594 \| align="right" \| 946 601 \| align="right" \| 16.18 \|- \| align="right" \| 15–64 \| align="right" \| 1 876 848 \| align="right" \| 1 839 095 \| align="right" \| 3 715 943 \| align="right" \| 63.52 \|- \| align="right" \| 65+ \| align="right" \| 547 750 \| align="right" \| 639 895 \| align="right" \| 1 187 645 \| align="right" \| 20.30 \|- \|} Immigration Denmark Net Migration {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|+ Denmark Migration Data \|- ! Year !! Immigration Denmark !! Emigration Denmark !! Net Denmark migration !! Immigration Foreign !! Emigration Foreign !! Net Foreign migration !! Total Net migration \|- \| 1984 \|\| 15,742 \|\| 16,890 \|\| -1,148 \|\| 13,293 \|\| 8,163 \|\| 5,130 \|\| 3,982 \|- \| 1985 \|\| 16,013 \|\| 17,662 \|\| -1,649 \|\| 20,201 \|\| 9,053 \|\| 11,148 \|\| 9,499 \|- \| 1986 \|\| 16,389 \|\| 18,666 \|\| -2,277 \|\| 22,543 \|\| 9,262 \|\| 13,281 \|\| 11,004 \|- \| 1987 \|\| 16,239 \|\| 19,981 \|\| -3,742 \|\| 20,057 \|\| 10,142 \|\| 9,915 \|\| 6,173 \|- \| 1988 \|\| 16,605 \|\| 23,893 \|\| -7,288 \|\| 18,446 \|\| 10,651 \|\| 7,795 \|\| 507 \|- \| 1989 \|\| 19,180 \|\| 25,447 \|\| -6,267 \|\| 19,211 \|\| 9,502 \|\| 9,709 \|\| 3,442 \|- \| 1990 \|\| 21,000 \|\| 23,528 \|\| -3,528 \|\| 19,715 \|\| 8,855 \|\| 10,860 \|\| 7,332 \|- \| 1991 \|\| 21,445 \|\| 22,167 \|\| -722 \|\| 22,122 \|\| 10,462 \|\| 11,660 \|\| 10,938 \|- \| 1992 \|\| 21,893 \|\| 22,557 \|\| -664 \|\| 21,484 \|\| 9,358 \|\| 12,126 \|\| 11,462 \|- \| 1993 \|\| 22,921 \|\| 22,350 \|\| 571 \|\| 20,479 \|\| 9,994 \|\| 10,485 \|\| 11,056 \|- \| 1994 \|\| 23,984 \|\| 23,819 \|\| 165 \|\| 20,977 \|\| 10,891 \|\| 10,086 \|\| 10,251 \|- \| 1995 \|\| 24,042 \|\| 23,521 \|\| 521 \|\| 39,145 \|\| 11,109 \|\| 28,036 \|\| 28,557 \|- \| 1996 \|\| 22,918 \|\| 24,355 \|\| -1,437 \|\| 31,527 \|\| 12,957 \|\| 18,570 \|\| 17,133 \|- \| 1997 \|\| 22,694 \|\| 24,336 \|\| -1,642 \|\| 27,411 \|\| 14,057 \|\| 13,354 \|\| 11,712 \|- \| 1998 \|\| 22,542 \|\| 24,693 \|\| -2,151 \|\| 28,830 \|\| 15,647 \|\| 13,183 \|\| 11,032 \|- \| 1999 \|\| 22,353 \|\| 25,098 \|\| -2,745 \|\| 27,883 \|\| 16,242 \|\| 11,641 \|\| 8,896 \|- \| 2000 \|\| 22,105 \|\| 26,887 \|\| -4,782 \|\| 30,810 \|\| 16,530 \|\| 14,280 \|\| 9,498 \|- \| 2001 \|\| 22,330 \|\| 26,688 \|\| -4,358 \|\| 33,654 \|\| 17,292 \|\| 16,362 \|\| 12,004 \|- \| 2002 \|\| 22,181 \|\| 25,731 \|\| -3,550 \|\| 30,597 \|\| 17,750 \|\| 12,847 \|\| 9,297 \|- \| 2003 \|\| 22,062 \|\| 25,272 \|\| -3,210 \|\| 27,692 \|\| 18,194 \|\| 9,498 \|\| 6,288 \|- \| 2004 \|\| 21,990 \|\| 25,936 \|\| -3,946 \|\| 27,870 \|\| 19,081 \|\| 8,789 \|\| 4,843 \|- \| 2005 \|\| 22,469 \|\| 26,249 \|\| -3,780 \|\| 29,989 \|\| 19,620 \|\| 10,369 \|\| 6,589 \|- \| 2006 \|\| 22,469 \|\| 26,339 \|\| -3,870 \|\| 34,281 \|\| 20,447 \|\| 13,834 \|\| 9,964 \|- \| 2007 \|\| 22,067 \|\| 24,150 \|\| -2,083 \|\| 42,702 \|\| 18,558 \|\| 24,144 \|\| 22,061 \|- \| 2008 \|\| 22,781 \|\| 23,437 \|\| -656 \|\| 50,981 \|\| 24,734 \|\| 26,247 \|\| 25,591 \|- \| 2009 \|\| 22,411 \|\| 21,528 \|\| 883 \|\| 46,032 \|\| 30,460 \|\| 15,572 \|\| 16,455 \|- \| 2010 \|\| 21,530 \|\| 21,871 \|\| -341 \|\| 47,670 \|\| 30,226 \|\| 17,444 \|\| 17,103 \|- \| 2011 \|\| 21,264 \|\| 22,864 \|\| -1,600 \|\| 48,858 \|\| 32,918 \|\| 15,940 \|\| 14,340 \|- \| 2012 \|\| 21,879 \|\| 22,348 \|\| -469 \|\| 50,633 \|\| 32,559 \|\| 18,074 \|\| 17,605 \|- \| 2013 \|\| 22,223 \|\| 22,343 \|\| -120 \|\| 56,995 \|\| 34,073 \|\| 22,922 \|\| 22,802 \|- \| 2014 \|\| 22,016 \|\| 21,690 \|\| 326 \|\| 65,547 \|\| 37,536 \|\| 28,011 \|\| 28,337 \|- \| 2015 \|\| 22,549 \|\| 21,831 \|\| 718 \|\| 76,323 \|\| 34,509 \|\| 41,814 \|\| 42,532 \|- \| 2016 \|\| 22,186 \|\| 21,544 \|\| 642 \|\| 72,179 \|\| 39,534 \|\| 32,645 \|\| 33,287 \|- \| 2017 \|\| 21,937 \|\| 21,006 \|\| 931 \|\| 67,445 \|\| 43,745 \|\| 23,700 \|\| 24,631 \|- \| 2018 \|\| 21,902 \|\| 20,909 \|\| 993 \|\| 65,427 \|\| 47,736 \|\| 17,691 \|\| 18,684 \|- \| 2019 \|\| 21,275 \|\| 20,127 \|\| 1,148 \|\| 62,643 \|\| 54,470 \|\| 8,173 \|\| 9,321 \|- \| 2020 \|\| 21,696 \|\| 15,871 \|\| 5,825 \|\| 48,644 \|\| 43,549 \|\| 5,095 \|\| 10,920 \|- \| 2021 \|\| 18,356 \|\| 16,267 \|\| 2,089 \|\| 57,922 \|\| 33,536 \|\| 24,386 \|\| 26,475 \|- \| 2022 \|\| 18,141 \|\| 18,859 \|\| -718 \|\| 103,042 \|\| 44,068 \|\| 58,974 \|\| 58,256 \|- \| 2023 \|\| 18,783 \|\| 17,632 \|\| 1,151 \|\| 79,561 \|\| 50,540 \|\| 29,021 \|\| 30,172 \|- \| 2024 \|\| 18,508 \|\| 16,887 \|\| 1,621 \|\| 83,216 \|\| 52,580 \|\| 30,636 \|\| 32,257 \|- \|} Urban areas outlined with red line.]] .]] .]] The urban area of Copenhagen consists of the contiguously built-up area of the capital of Denmark. The Copenhagen metropolitan area consists of 34 municipalities. The East Jutland metropolitan area includes 19 municipalities. Religion <!--Add any additional information to the main article--> The Church of Denmark () is state-supported and, according to statistics from January 2022, accounts for the religious affiliation of 73.2% of the population. Denmark has had religious freedom guaranteed since 1849 by the Constitution, and numerous other religions are officially recognised, including several Christian denominations, Muslim, Jewish, Buddhist, Hindu and other congregations as well as Forn Siðr, a revival of Scandinavian pagan tradition. Islam is the second largest religion in Denmark. In 2020, an estimated 4.4% of the Danish population were Muslims. For historical reasons, there is a formal distinction between 'approved' () and 'recognised' () congregations of faith.<ref name="FoR" /> The latter include 11 traditional denominations, such as Roman Catholics, the Reformed Church, the Mosaic Congregation, Methodists and Baptists, some of whose privileges in the country date hundreds of years back. These have the additional rights of having priests appointed by royal resolution and to christen/name children with legal effect. ;Religions Evangelical Lutheran (official) 74.8%, Muslim 5.3%, other (denominations of less than 1% each, include Roman Catholic, Jehovah's Witness, Serbian Orthodox Christian, Jewish, Baptist, and Buddhist) 19.9% (2017 est.) Employment and income } ; ;Unemployment, youth ages 15–24 :total: 12% (2016 est.) Country comparison to the world: 109th :male: 13.1% (2016 est.) :female: 10.9% (2016 est.) Taxation and benefits Although the level of taxation in Denmark is among the highest in the world, the labor market participation rate is still high compared with other Western countries. Municipal income tax makes up the largest part of taxation in Denmark, with central government income tax topping it up. These income taxes are higher than in other OECD countries. These direct taxes make up two thirds of the taxation on private households with indirect taxes of the central government, and municipalities (property tax), making up one third, i.e. with motor vehicles (passenger cars, motorcycles, commercial vehicles) sold from VAT registered dealerships – because of the registration fee – being among the most expensive in the world, with prices in Norway at the same level, and the most expensive in Singapore. Also VAT in Denmark is not reduced from the current 25%. The 25% are paid on all goods and services where VAT is applied. Indirect taxes are about average compared with other European OECD countries. Payroll taxes (Danish sociale afgifter) are much lower than in other OECD countries. The tax structure ensures a broad tax base across the whole population. However, revenue from corporate taxes is lower compared with other European countries. Municipalities and the central government (regions are not allowed to levy any taxes, as they are financed by central government, and municipal block grants) redistribute a large amount of their tax income in transfer payments to municipalities with a low tax base and/or few tax payers. It is normal for children to be in nurseries, which requires a partial payment of the costs or is free of charge for low income households, and in kindergartens owned and operated, or financed, by the public sector. Child benefit is paid to parents for each child. The service to old age pensioners, and handicapped is extensive. Denmark ranks high in the Corruption Perceptions Index, although the index is criticized for being limited in scope. Homelessness See also * Demographics of the Faroe Islands * Demographics of Greenland * Religion in Denmark * List of urban areas in the Nordic countries Notes References External links * [http://dgmweb.net/genealogy/DNA/DK/DanishDemesDNA.shtml Danish Demes Regional DNA Project] * [http://www.dst.dk National statistics] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070209004727/http://www.km.dk/trossamfundliste.html Ministry of Ecclesiastical Affairs – List of recognised denominations (in Danish)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070306051700/http://www.religion.dk/artikel%3Aaid%3D38045 Statistic info on recognised denominations (in Danish; Muslim congregations not listed)] * [http://extranet.dst.dk/pyramide/pyramide.htm Interactive population pyramid 1980-2070] or [https://www.dst.dk/da/Statistik/emner/borgere/befolkning/befolkningsfremskrivning Befolkningsfremskrivning] or google (etc.) "dst.dk pyramide", then click with your mouse on top (1st) search result. Population pyramid: women (right), men (left), click with mouse on year wanted, or, on blue rectangle, hold mouse down, slide rectangle to the top, then click on "LÅS" ("LOCK"). Silhouet of year 2070 appears. Do that with any year. Then click on circle with triangle in on lower right hand side of population pyramid. English version:click on upper right hand corner: "ENGLISH". * [https://www.ined.fr/en/everything_about_population/graphs-maps/population_graphs/ Institut National D'Études Démographiques Population pyramids until 2100]	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Denmark	2025-04-05T18:28:22.085599
8035	Economy of Denmark	$431.23 billion (nominal, 2025) * $514.05 billion (PPP, 2025) }} \| per capita = $71,978 (nominal, 2025) (1st) \| sectors = \| gini 28.6 (2024) \| hdi = (2022) (5th) 0.898 IHDI (2022) 79.8% employment rate (2023)}} \| occupations = \| average gross salary = DKK 45,482 / €6,107 monthly (2021) \| average net salary = DKK 30,971 / €4,159 monthly (2021) \| industries = wind turbines, pharmaceuticals, medical equipment, shipbuilding and refurbishment, iron, steel, nonferrous metals, chemicals, food processing, machinery and transportation equipment, textiles and clothing, electronics, Lego, construction, furniture and other wood products \| exports $234.2 billion (2021)}} \| imports $208.1 billion (2021 est.) DKK 770.832 billion (2019) AAA (Domestic) AAA (Foreign) AAA (T&C Assessment) Scope: AAA Outlook: Stable}} \| aid = \| cianame \| spelling }} Denmark is a modern high-income and highly developed mixed economy, dominated by the service sector with 80% of all jobs; about 11% of employees work in manufacturing and 2% in agriculture. The nominal Gross National Income per capita was the ninth-highest in the world at $68,827 in 2023. Correcting for purchasing power, per capita income was Int$57,781 or 10th-highest globally. Denmark has the 38th largest national economy in the world measured by nominal gross domestic product (GDP), and the 52nd largest in the world measured by purchasing power parity (PPP). Among OECD nations, Denmark has a highly efficient and strong social security system; social expenditure stood at roughly 26.2% of GDP. Denmark has a very long tradition of adhering to a fixed exchange-rate system and still does so today. It is unique among OECD countries to do so while maintaining an independent currency: the Danish Krone, which is pegged to the Euro. Though eligible to join the EU's Economic and Monetary Union (EMU), Danish voters in a referendum in 2000 rejected exchanging the krone for the euro. Whereas Denmark's neighbours like Norway, Sweden, Poland and the United Kingdom generally follow inflation targeting in their monetary policy, the priority of Denmark's central bank is to maintain exchange rate stability. Consequently, the central bank has no role in a domestic stabilization policy. In an international context, a relatively large proportion of the population is part of the labour force, in particular because the female participation rate is very high. 78.8% of all 15-to-64-year-olds were active on the labour market in 2017, the sixth-highest number among all OECD countries. With a 4.8% unemployment rate, unemployment is relatively low in comparison to other European countries, where the average unemployment rate is 6.7%. The labour market is traditionally characterized by a high degree of union membership rates and collective agreement coverage. Denmark invests heavily in active labor market policies and the concept of flexicurity has been important historically. Denmark is an example of the Nordic model, characterized by an internationally high tax level, and a correspondingly high level of government-provided services (e.g. health care, child care and education services). There are also income transfers to various groups, such as retirees, disabled people, the unemployed, and students. Altogether, the amount of revenue from taxes paid in 2017 amounted to 46.1% of GDP. The Danish fiscal policy is generally considered healthy. The net government debt is very close to zero, amounting to 1.3% of GDP in 2017. The Danish fiscal policy is characterized by a long-term outlook, taking into account likely future fiscal demands. During the 2000s, a challenge was perceived to government expenditures in future decades. It was ultimately a challenge to fiscal sustainability from demographic development, in particular higher longevity. Responding to this, age eligibility rules for receiving public age-related transfers were changed. Since 2012, calculations of future fiscal challenges, from both the government and independent analysts, have generally perceived Danish fiscal policy to be sustainable. In recent years, it was considered overly sustainable. History Denmark's long-term economic development has largely followed the same pattern as other Northwestern European countries. In most of recorded history Denmark has been an agricultural country with most of the population living on a subsistence level. Since the 19th century, Denmark has gone through an intense technological and institutional development. The material standard of living has experienced formerly unknown rates of growth, and the country has been industrialized and later turned into a modern service society. Almost all of the land area of Denmark is arable. Unlike most of its neighbours, Denmark has not had extractable deposits of minerals or fossil fuels, except for the deposits of oil and natural gas in the North Sea, which started playing an economic role only during the 1980s. On the other hand, Denmark has had a logistic advantage through its long coastal line and the fact that no point on Danish land is more than 50 kilometers from the sea – an important fact for the whole period before the industrial revolution when sea transport was cheaper than land transport. Consequently, foreign trade has always been very important for the economic development of Denmark. from the time of Valdemar I of Denmark.]] Already during the Stone Age there was some foreign trade, and even though trade has made up only a very modest share of total Danish value added until the 19th century, it has been decisive for economic development, both in terms of procuring vital import goods (like metals) and because new knowledge and technological skills have often come to Denmark as a byproduct of goods exchange with other countries. The emerging trade implied specialization which created demand for means of payments, and the earliest known Danish coins date from the time of Svend Tveskæg around 995. was the foremost representative of mercantilist thought in Denmark.]] Improvements in shipping technology allowed traders to sail around Jutland and into the Baltic Sea directly, and Danish warships collected the Sound Toll from these mainly Dutch merchants, in exchange for protection. Nordic rulers before the mid-seventeenth century welcomed the Dutch merchants for their efficient shipping services and inflow of investments which boosted industrial development. According to economic historian Angus Maddison, Denmark was the sixth-most prosperous country in the world around 1600. The population size relative to arable agricultural land was small so that the farmers were relatively affluent, and Denmark was geographically close to the most dynamic and economically leading European areas since the 16th century: the Netherlands, the northern parts of Germany, and Britain. Still, 80 to 85% of the population lived in small villages on a subsistence level. leading to the establishment of monopolies like Asiatisk Kompagni, development of physical and financial infrastructure like the first Danish bank Kurantbanken in 1736 and the first "kreditforening" (a kind of building society) in 1797, and the acquisition of some minor Danish colonies like Tranquebar. At the end of the 18th century major agricultural reforms took place that entailed decisive structural changes. However, the Napoleonic Wars caused Copenhagen to lose its status as an international centre of finance and trade. Politically, mercantilism was gradually replaced by liberal thoughts among the ruling elite. Following a monetary reform after the Napoleonic wars, the present Danish central bank Danmarks Nationalbank was founded in 1818. There exists national accounting data for Denmark from 1820 onwards thanks to the pioneering work of Danish economic historian Svend Aage Hansen. They find that there has been a substantial and permanent, though fluctuating, economic growth all the time since 1820. The period 1822–94 saw on average an annual growth in factor incomes of 2% (0.9% per capita) From around 1830 the agricultural sector experienced a major boom lasting several decades, producing and exporting grains, not least to Britain after 1846 when British grain import duties were abolished. When grain production became less profitable in the second half of the century, the Danish farmers made an impressive and uniquely successful change from vegetarian to animal production leading to a new boom period. During the 20th century agriculture slowly dwindled in importance relative to industry, has played an important role in Danish economic policy debates for the last decades.]] During the 1970s Denmark was plunged into a crisis, initiated by the 1973 oil crisis leading to the hitherto unknown phenomenon stagflation. For the next decades the Danish economy struggled with several major so-called "balance problems": High unemployment, current account deficits, inflation, and government debt. From the 1980s economic policies have increasingly been oriented towards a long-term perspective, and gradually a series of structural reforms have solved these problems. In 1994 active labour market policies were introduced that via a series of labour market reforms have helped reducing structural unemployment considerably. A series of tax reforms from 1987 onwards, reducing tax deductions on interest payments, and the increasing importance of compulsory labour market-based funded pensions from the 1990s have increased private savings rates considerably, consequently transforming secular current account deficits to secular surpluses. The announcement of a consistent and hence more credible fixed exchange rate in 1982 has helped reducing the inflation rate. In the first decade of the 21st century new economic policy issues have emerged. A growing awareness that future demographic changes, in particular increasing longevity, could threaten fiscal sustainability, implying very large fiscal deficits in future decades, led to major political agreements in 2006 and 2011, both increasing the future eligibility age of receiving public age-related pensions. Mainly because of these changes, from 2012 onwards the Danish fiscal sustainability problem is generally considered to be solved. Instead, issues like decreasing productivity growth rates and increasing inequality in income distribution and consumption possibilities are prevalent in the public debate. The global Great Recession during the late 2000s, the accompanying Euro area debt crisis and their repercussions marked the Danish economy for several years. Until 2017, unemployment rates have generally been considered to be above their structural level, implying a relatively stagnating economy from a business-cycle point of view. From 2017/18 this is no longer considered to be the case, and attention has been redirected to the need of avoiding a potential overheating situation. In 2022 the popularity of Novo Nordisk's Ozempic and Wegovy for weight loss began greatly affecting the Danish economy. The pharmaceutical industry contributed two thirds of growth that year, and 1.7 points of the 1.9% year-over-year growth in the first quarter of 2023. Novo Nordisk's market capitalization—Europe's second-largest, after LVMH—exceeded the size of the entire national economy, and it is the largest payer of corporate taxes to the Danish state. Economists discussed whether the government needed to publish data including and excluding the company; as the enormous economic growth did not similarly increase employment, data including Novo Nordisk is misleading regarding the Danish business cycle. Some worried that the nation might become overdependent on the company, similar to what happened to the economy of Finland with Nokia, or that Novo Nordisk's success might cause Dutch disease. Income, wealth and income distribution Average per capita income is high in an international context. According to the World Bank, gross national income per capita was the tenth-highest in the world at $55,220 in 2017. Correcting for purchasing power, income was Int$52,390 or 16th-highest among the 187 countries. During the last three decades household saving rates in Denmark have increased considerably. This is to a large extent caused by two major institutional changes: A series of tax reforms from 1987 to 2009 considerably reduced the effective subsidization of private debt implicit in the rules for tax deductions of household interest payments. Secondly, compulsory funded pension schemes became normal for most employees from the 1990s. The pension wealth consequently is a very important both for the life-cycle of a typical individual Danish household and for the national economy. A large part of the pension wealth is invested abroad, thus giving rise to a fair amount of foreign capital income. In 2015, average household assets were more than 600% of their disposable income, among OECD countries second only to the Netherlands. At the same time, average household gross debt was almost 300% of disposable income, which is also at the highest level in OECD. Household balance sheets are consequently very large in Denmark compared to most other countries. Danmarks Nationalbank, the Danish central bank, has attributed this to a well-developed financial system. Income inequality Income inequality has traditionally been low in Denmark. According to OECD figures, in 2000 Denmark had the lowest Gini coefficient of all countries. However, inequality has increased during the last decades. According to data from Statistics Denmark, the Gini coefficient for disposable income has increased from 22.1 in 1987 to 29.3 in 2017. The Danish Economic Council found in an analysis from 2016 that the increasing inequality in Denmark is due to several components: Pre-tax labour income is more unequally distributed today than before, capital income, which is generally less equally distributed than labour income, has increased as share of total income, and economic policy is less redistributive today, both because public income transfers play a smaller role today and because the tax system has become less progressive. In international comparisons, Denmark has a relatively equal income distribution. According to the CIA World Factbook, Denmark had the twentieth-lowest Gini coefficient (29.0) of 158 countries in 2016. According to data from Eurostat, Denmark was the EU country with the seventh-lowest Gini coefficient in 2017. Slovakia, Slovenia, Czechia, Finland, Belgium and the Netherlands had a lower Gini coefficient for disposable income than Denmark.Labour market and employmentThe Danish labour market is characterized by a high degree of union membership rates and collective agreement coverage dating back from Septemberforliget (The September Settlement) in 1899 when the Danish Confederation of Trade Unions and the Confederation of Danish Employers recognized each other's right to organise and negotiate. The labour market is also traditionally characterized by a high degree of flexicurity, i.e. a combination of labour market flexibility and economic security for workers. The degree of flexibility is in part maintained through active labour market policies. Denmark first introduced active labour market policies (ALMPs) in the 1990s after an economic recession that resulted in high unemployment rates. Its labour market policies are decided through tripartite cooperation between employers, employees and the government. Denmark has one of the highest expenditures on ALMPs and in 2005, spent about 1.7% of its GDP on labour market policies. This was the highest amongst the OECD countries. Similarly, in 2010 Denmark was ranked number one amongst Nordic countries for expenditure on ALMPs. Denmark's active labour market policies particularly focus on tackling youth unemployment. They have had a "youth initiative" or the Danish Youth Unemployment Programme in place since 1996. This includes mandatory activation for those unemployed under the age of 30. While unemployment benefits are provided, the policies are designed to motivate job-seeking. For example, unemployment benefits decrease by 50% after 6 months. This is combined with education, skill development and work training programs. For instance, the Building Bridge to Education program was started in 2014 to provide mentors and skill development classes to youth that are at risk of unemployment. Such active labour market policies have been successful for Denmark in the short-term and the long-term. For example, 80% of participants in the Building Bridge for Education program felt that "the initiative has helped them to move towards completing an education". According to Eurostat, the unemployment rate was 5.7% in 2017. This places unemployment in Denmark somewhat below the EU average, which was 7.6%. 10 EU member countries had a lower unemployment rate than Denmark in 2017. Altogether, total employment in 2017 amounted to 2,919,000 people according to Statistics Denmark. The share of employees leaving jobs every year (for a new job, retirement or unemployment) in the private sector is around 30% – a level also observed in the U.K. and U.S.- but much higher than in continental Europe, where the corresponding figure is around 10%, and in Sweden. This attrition can be very costly, with new and old employees requiring half a year to return to old productivity levels, but with attrition bringing the number of people that have to be fired down. Foreign trade As a small open economy, Denmark is very dependent on its foreign trade. In 2017, the value of total exports of goods and services made up 55% of GDP, whereas the value of total imports amounted to 47% of GDP. Trade in goods made up slightly more than 60% of both exports and imports, and trade in services the remaining close to 40%. Machinery, chemicals and related products like medicine and agricultural products were the largest groups of export goods in 2017. Service exports were dominated by freight sea transport services from the Danish merchant navy. Most of Denmark's most important trading partners are neighbouring countries. The five main importers of Danish goods and services in 2017 were Germany, Sweden, United Kingdom, United States and Norway. The five countries from which Denmark imported most goods and services in 2017 were Germany, Sweden, the Netherlands, China and United Kingdom. After having almost consistently an external balance of payments current account deficit since the beginning of the 1960s, Denmark has maintained a surplus on its BOP current account for every year since 1990, with the single exception of 1998. In 2017, the current account surplus amounted to approximately 8% of GDP. Consequently, Denmark has changed from a net debtor to a net creditor country. By 1 July 2018, the net foreign wealth or net international investment position of Denmark was equal to 64.6% of GDP, Denmark thus having the largest net foreign wealth relative to GDP of any EU country. As the annual current account is equal to the value of domestic saving minus total domestic investment, the change from a structural deficit to a structural surplus is due to changes in these two national account components. In particular, the Danish national saving rate in financial assets increased by 11 per cent of GDP from 1980 to 2015. Two main reasons for this large change in domestic saving behaviour were the growing importance of large-scale compulsory pension schemes and several Danish fiscal policy reforms during the period which considerably decreased tax deductions of household interest expense, thus reducing the tax subsidy to private debt. Currency and monetary policy , the central bank of Denmark, built by the Danish architect Arne Jacobsen.]] The Danish currency is the Danish krone, subdivided into 100 øre. The krone and øre were introduced in 1875, replacing the former rigsdaler and skilling. Denmark has a very long tradition of maintaining a fixed exchange-rate system, dating back to the period of the gold standard during the time of the Scandinavian Monetary Union from 1873 to 1914. After the breakdown of the international Bretton Woods system in 1971, Denmark devalued the krone repeatedly during the 1970s and the start of the 1980s, effectively maintaining a policy of "fixed, but adjustable" exchange rates. Rising inflation led to Denmark declaring a more consistent fixed exchange-rate policy in 1982. At first, the krone was pegged to the European Currency Unit or ECU, from 1987 to the Deutsche Mark, and from 1999 to the euro. Although eligible, Denmark chose not to join the European Monetary Union when it was founded. In 2000, the Danish government advocated Danish EMU membership and called a referendum to settle the issue. With a turn-out of 87.6%, 53% of the voters rejected Danish membership. Occasionally, the question of calling another referendum on the issue has been discussed, but since the Financial crisis of 2007–2008 opinion polls have shown a clear majority against Denmark joining the EMU, and the question is not high on the political agenda presently. Maintenance of the fixed exchange rate is the responsibility of Danmarks Nationalbank, the Danish central bank. As a consequence of the exchange rate policy, the bank must always adjust its interest rates to ensure a stable exchange rate and consequently cannot at the same time conduct monetary policy to stabilize e.g. domestic inflation or unemployment rates. This makes the conduct of stabilization policy fundamentally different from the situation in Denmark's neighbouring countries like Norway, Sweden, Poland and the United Kingdom, in which the central banks have a central stabilizing role. Denmark is presently the only OECD member country maintaining an independent currency with a fixed exchange rate. Consequently, the Danish krone is the only currency in the European Exchange Rate Mechanism II (ERM II), before Bulgaria and Croatia joined in 2020 (the latter uses the euro since 2023) In the first months of 2015, Denmark experienced the largest pressure against the fixed exchange rate for many years because of very large capital inflows, causing a tendency for the Danish krone to appreciate. Inflation in Denmark as measured by the official consumer price index of Statistics Denmark was 1.1% in 2017.GovernmentOverall organizationSince a local-government reform in 2007, the general government organization in Denmark is carried out on three administrative levels: central government, regions, and municipalities. Regions administer mainly health care services, whereas municipalities administer primary education and social services. Municipalities in principle independently levy income and property taxes, but the scope for total municipal taxation and expenditure is closely regulated by annual negotiations between the municipalities and the Finance Minister of Denmark. At the central government level, the Ministry of Finance carries out the coordinating role of conducting economic policy. In 2012, the Danish parliament passed a Budget Law (effective from January 2014) which governs the over-all fiscal framework, stating among other things that the structural deficit must never exceed 0.5% of GDP, and that Danish fiscal policy is required to be sustainable, i.e. have a non-negative fiscal sustainability indicator. The Budget Law also assigned the role of independent fiscal institution (IFI, informally known as "fiscal watchdog") to the already-existing independent advisory body of the Danish Economic Councils. The government sector having a fair amount of financial assets as well as liabilities, government gross debt amounted to 36.1% of GDP at the same date. The gross EMU-debt as percentage of GDP was the sixth-lowest among all 28 EU member countries, only Estonia, Luxembourg, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic and Romania having a lower gross debt. Denmark had a government budget surplus of 1.1% of GDP in 2017. This implies that under the assumptions employed in the projections, fiscal policy could be permanently loosened (via more generous public expenditures and/or lower taxes) by c. 1% of GDP while still maintaining a stable government debt-to-GDP ratio in the long run. Taxation The tax level as well as the government expenditure level in Denmark ranks among the highest in the world, which is traditionally ascribed to the Nordic model of which Denmark is an example, including the welfare state principles which historically evolved during the 20th century. In 2022, the official Danish tax level amounted to 42.2% of GDP. The all-record highest Danish tax level was 49.8% of GDP, The OECD average was 34%. The tax structure of Denmark (the relative weight of different taxes) also differs from the OECD average, as the Danish tax system in 2015 was characterized by substantially higher revenues from taxes on personal income, whereas on the other hand, no revenues at all derive from social security contributions. A lower proportion of revenues in Denmark derive from taxes on corporate income and gains and property taxes than in OECD generally, whereas the proportion deriving from payroll taxes, VAT, and other taxes on goods and services correspond to the OECD average. Professor of Economics at Princeton University Henrik Kleven has suggested that three distinct policies in Denmark and its Scandinavian neighbours imply that the high tax rates cause only relatively small distortions to the economy: widespread use of third-party information reporting for tax collection purposes (ensuring a low level of tax evasion) * broad tax bases (ensuring a low level of tax avoidance) * a strong subsidization of goods that are complementary to working (ensuring a high level of labour force participation). in 2023, Denmark considered methods to increase taxes on energy dealers.Government ExpendituresParallel to the high tax level, government expenditures make up a large part of GDP, and the government sector carries out many different tasks. By September 2018, 831,000 people worked in the general government sector, corresponding to 29.9% of all employees. In 2017, total government expenditure amounted to 50.9% of GDP. Government consumption took up precisely 25% of GDP (e.g. education and health care expenditure), and government investment (infrastructure etc.) expenditure another 3.4% of GDP. Personal income transfers (for e.g. elderly or unemployed people) amounted to 16.8% of GDP. Not every Danish citizen or employee qualifies for a membership of an unemployment fund, and membership benefits will be terminated after 2 years of unemployment. A person that is not a member of an A-kasse cannot receive unemployment benefits. Unemployment funds do not pay benefits to sick members, who will be transferred to a municipal social support system instead. Denmark has a countrywide, but municipally administered social support system against poverty, securing that qualified citizens have a minimum living income. All Danish citizens above 18 years of age can apply for some financial support if they cannot support themselves or their family. Approval is not automatic, and the extent of this system has generally been diminished since the 1980s. Sick people can receive some financial support throughout the extent of their illness. Their ability to work will be re-evaluated by the municipality after 5 months of illness. The welfare system related to the labor market has experienced several reforms and financial cuts since the late 1990s due to political agendas for increasing the labor supply. Several reforms of the rights of the unemployed have followed up, partially inspired by the Danish Economic Council. Halving the time unemployment benefits can be received from four to two years, and making it twice as hard to regain this right, was implemented in 2010 for example. Disabled people can apply for permanent social pensions. The extent of the support depends on the ability to work, and people below 40 can not receive social pension unless they are deemed incapable of any kind of work. Industries Agriculture )]] Agriculture was once the most important industry in Denmark. Nowadays, it is of minor economic importance. In 2016, 62,000 people, or 2.5% of all employed people worked in agriculture and horticulture. Another 2,000 people worked in fishing. As value added per person is relatively low, the share of national value added is somewhat lower. Total gross value added in agriculture, forestry and fishing amounted to 1.6% of total output in Denmark (in 2017). 63% of the land area of Denmark is used for agricultural production – the highest share in the world according to a report from University of Copenhagen in 2017. The Danish agricultural industry is historically characterized by freehold and family ownership, but due to structural development farms have become fewer and larger. In 2020 the number of farms was approximately 33,000, of which approximately 10,000 were owned by full-time farmers. Animal production The tendency toward fewer and larger farms has been accompanied by an increase in animal production, using fewer resources per produced unit. The number of dairy farmers has reduced to about 3,800 with an average herd size of 150 cows. The milk quota is 1,142 tonnes. More than half of the cows live in new loose-housing systems. Export of dairy products accounts for more than 20 percent of the total Danish agricultural export. The total number of cattle in 2011 was approximately 1.5 million. Of these, 565,000 were dairy cows and 99,000 were suckler cows. The yearly number of slaughtering of beef cattle is around 550,000. For more than 100 years the production of pigs and pig meat was a major source of income in Denmark. Approximately 90 percent of the production is exported. This accounts for almost half of all agricultural exports and for around 5 percent of Denmark's total exports. About 4,200 farmers produce 28 million pigs annually. Of these, 20.9 million are slaughtered in Denmark. Fur animal production on an industrial scale started in the 1930s in Denmark. Prior to a government-mandated culling during the COVID-19 pandemic, Denmark was the world's largest producer of mink furs, with 1,400 mink farmers fostering 17.2 million mink and producing around 14 million furs of the highest quality every year (see mink industry in Denmark). Approximately 98 percent of the skins sold at Kopenhagen Fur Auction were exported. Fur ranked as Danish agriculture's third largest export article, at more than DKK 7 billion annually. The number of farms peaked in the late 1980s at more than 5,000 farms, but the number has declined steadily since, as individual farms grew in size. Mink thrive in, but are not a native to Denmark, and it is considered an invasive species. American Mink are now widespread in Denmark and continues to cause problems for the native wildlife, in particular waterfowl. Denmark also has a small production of fox, chinchilla and rabbit furs. Denmark has the highest retail consumption share for organic products in the world. In 2017, the share was at 13.3%, accounting for a total of DKK 12.1 billion. Natural resource extraction Denmark has large proven reserves of oil and natural gas in the North Sea with Esbjerg being the main city for the oil and gas industry. Production has decreased in recent years, though. Whereas in 2006 output (measured as gross value added or GVA) in mining and quarrying industries made up more than 4% of Denmark's total GVA, in 2023 it amounted to 1.1%. The sector is very capital-intensive, so the share of employment is much lower: About 1,000 persons worked in the oil and gas extraction sector in 2022, and another 1,000 persons in extraction of gravel and stone, or in total less than 0.1% of total employment in Denmark. Engineering and high-tech Denmark houses a number of significant engineering and high-technology firms, within the sectors of industrial equipment, aerospace, robotics, pharmaceutical and electronics. Electronics and industrial equipment Danfoss, headquartered in Nordborg, designs and manufactures industrial electronics, heating and cooling equipment, as well as drivetrains and power solutions. Denmark is also a large exporter of pumps, with the company Grundfos holding 50% of the market share, manufacturing circulation pumps. Manufacturing In 2017, the total output (gross value added) in the manufacturing industry amounted to 14.4% of total output in Denmark. Service industry In 2017, the total output (gross value added) in the service industry amounted to 75.2% of total output in Denmark, The railway tracks are maintained by Banedanmark. Copenhagen has a small Metro system, the Copenhagen Metro and the greater Copenhagen area has an extensive electrified suburban railway network, the S-train. Private vehicles are increasingly used as a means of transport. New cars are taxed by means of a registration tax (85% to 150%) and VAT (25%). The motorway network now covers 1,300 km. Denmark is in a strong position in terms of integrating fluctuating and unpredictable energy sources such as wind power in the grid. It is this knowledge that Denmark now aims to exploit in the transport sector by focusing on intelligent battery systems (V2G) and plug-in vehicles. Energy Denmark has changed its energy consumption from 99% fossil fuels (92% oil (all imported) and 7% coal) and 1% biofuels in 1972 to 73% fossil fuels (37% oil (all domestic), 18% coal, 18% natural gas (all domestic)), and 27% renewables (largely biofuels) in 2015. The goal is a full independence of fossil fuels by 2050. This drastic change was initially inspired largely by the discovery of Danish oil and gas reserves in the North Sea in 1972 and the 1973 oil crisis. The course took a giant leap forward in 1984, when the Danish North Sea oil and gas fields, developed by native industry in close cooperation with the state, started major productions. In 1997, Denmark became self-sufficient with energy, and the overall emission from the energy sector began to fall by 1996. Wind energy contribution to the total energy consumption has risen from 1% in 1997 to 5% in 2015. Since 2000, Denmark has increased gross domestic product (GDP) and at the same time decreased energy consumption. Since 1972, the overall energy consumption has dropped by 6%, even though the GDP has doubled in the same period. Denmark has had relatively high energy taxation to encourage careful use of energy since the oil crises in the 1970s, and Danish industry has adapted to this and gained a competitive edge. The so-called "green taxes" have been broadly criticised partly for being higher than in other countries, but also for being more of a tool for gathering government revenue than a method of promoting "greener" behaviour. {\| class="wikitable" \|+ ' 2015 overall energy taxes, in billions DKK' ! \|\| Oil \|\| Gasoline \|\| Natural gas \|\| Coal \|\| Electricity \|- \| Excise&VAT \|\| 9.3 \|\| 7.3 \|\| 3.3 \|\| 2.5 \|\| 11.7 \|} <!--expand with production/consumption values in DKK or €--> Denmark has low electricity costs (including costs for cleaner energy) in EU, but general taxes (11.7 billion DKK in 2015) , Denmark has no environment tax on electricity. Denmark is a long-time leader in wind energy and a prominent exporter of Vestas and Siemens wind turbines, and in 2019 Denmark's exports of wind-turbine technology and services amounted to 8.9 billion. It has integrated fluctuating and less predictable energy sources such as wind power into the grid. Wind produced the equivalent of 43% of Denmark's total electricity consumption in 2017. The share of total energy production is smaller: In 2015, wind accounted for 5% of total Danish energy production. For both countries, fishing industry is a major economic activity. Neither Greenland nor the Faroe Islands are members of the European Union. Greenland left the European Economic Community in 1986, and the Faroe Islands declined membership in 1973, when Denmark joined. Data The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2023. Inflation under 2% is in green. {\| class"wikitable sortable sticky-header" style"text-align:center;" !Year !GDP<br /><small>(in bn. US$ PPP)</small> !GDP per capita<br /><small >(in US$ PPP)</small> !GDP<br /> (in bn. US$ <br />nominal) !GDP growth<br /><small>(real)</small> !Inflation rate<br /><small>(in Percent)</small> !Unemployment <br /><small>(in Percent)</small> !Government debt<br /><small>(in % of GDP)</small> \|- \|1980 \|60.8 \|11,870 \|71.1 \|−0.5% \|11.3% \|5.3% \|n/a \|- \|1981 \|66.1 \|12,903 \|61.9 \|−0.7% \|11.7% \|7.1% \|n/a \|- \|1982 \|72.8 \|14,217 \|60.4 \|3.7% \|10.1% \|7.6% \|n/a \|- \|1983 \|77.6 \|15,165 \|60.6 \|2.6% \|6.8% \|8.4% \|n/a \|- \|1984 \|83.7 \|16,382 \|59.1 \|4.2% \|6.3% \|7.9% \|n/a \|- \|1985 \|89.9 \|17,580 \|62.7 \|4.0% \|4.7% \|6.6% \|n/a \|- \|1986 \|96.2 \|18,794 \|88.1 \|4.9% \|3.7% \|5.0% \|n/a \|- \|1987 \|98.8 \|19,276 \|109.4 \|0.3% \|4.0% \|5.0% \|n/a \|- \|1988 \|102.3 \|19,936 \|115.6 \|0.0% \|4.5% \|5.7% \|n/a \|- \|1989 \|107.0 \|20,849 \|112.4 \|0.6% \|4.8% \|6.8% \|n/a \|- \|1990 \|112.6 \|21,924 \|138.2 \|1.5% \|2.6% \|7.2% \|n/a \|- \|1991 \|118.0 \|22,932 \|139.2 \|1.4% \|2.4% \|7.9% \|n/a \|- \|1992 \|123.1 \|23,842 \|152.9 \|2.0% \|2.1% \|8.6% \|66.8 \|- \|1993 \|126.0 \|24,322 \|143.2 \|0.0% \|1.2% \|9.5% \|78.6% \|- \|1994 \|135.6 \|26,084 \|156.2 \|5.3% \|2.0% \|7.7% \|75.2% \|- \|1995 \|142.6 \|27,338 \|185.0 \|3.0% \|2.0% \|6.8% \|71.4% \|- \|1996 \|149.4 \|28,454 \|187.6 \|2.9% \|2.2% \|6.3% \|68.3% \|- \|1997 \|156.9 \|29,752 \|173.5 \|3.3% \|2.2% \|5.2% \|64.3% \|- \|1998 \|162.2 \|30,638 \|177.0 \|2.2% \|1.8% \|4.9% \|60.3% \|- \|1999 \|169.4 \|31,873 \|178.0 \|2.9% \|2.5% \|5.1% \|56.8% \|- \|2000 \|179.7 \|33,713 \|164.2 \|3.7% \|2.9% \|4.3% \|52.4% \|- \|2001 \|185.3 \|34,631 \|164.8 \|0.8% \|2.4% \|4.5% \|48.5% \|- \|2002 \|189.0 \|35,209 \|178.6 \|0.5% \|2.4% \|4.6% \|49.1% \|- \|2003 \|193.5 \|35,942 \|218.1 \|0.4% \|2.1% \|5.4% \|46.2% \|- \|2004 \|204.0 \|37,792 \|251.4 \|2.7% \|1.1% \|5.5% \|44.2% \|- \|2005 \|215.3 \|39,789 \|264.5 \|2.3% \|1.8% \|4.8% \|37.4% \|- \|2006 \|230.6 \|42,495 \|282.9 \|3.9% \|1.9% \|3.9% \|31.5% \|- \|2007 \|239.0 \|43,881 \|319.4 \|0.9% \|1.7% \|3.8% \|27.3% \|- \|2008 \|242.3 \|44,261 \|353.4 \|−0.5% \|3.4% \|3.5% \|33.3% \|- \|2009 \|232.0 \|42,085 \|321.2 \|−4.9% \|1.3% \|6.0% \|40.2% \|- \|2010 \|239.1 \|43,204 \|322.0 \|1.9% \|2.3% \|7.5% \|42.6% \|- \|2011 \|247.4 \|44,483 \|344.0 \|1.3% \|1.1% \|7.6% \|46.1% \|- \|2012 \|250.5 \|44,893 \|327.1 \|0.2% \|2.4% \|7.5% \|44.9% \|- \|2013 \|262.4 \|46,829 \|343.6 \|0.9% \|0.8% \|7.0% \|44.0% \|- \|2014 \|270.3 \|48,040 \|353.0 \|1.6% \|0.6% \|6.5% \|43.9% \|- \|2015 \|278.8 \|49,265 \|302.7 \|1.6% \|0.5% \|6.2% \|39.6% \|- \|2016 \|297.7 \|52,160 \|313.1 \|2.0% \|0.3% \|6.2% \|37.8% \|- \|2017 \|320.1 \|55,673 \|332.1 \|2.8% \|1.1% \|5.8% \|35.9% \|- \|2018 \|334.3 \|57,821 \|334.2 \|2.0% \|0.7% \|5.2% \|34.0% \|- \|2019 \|345.3 \|59,480 \|346.5 \|1.5% \|0.7% \|5.0% \|33.7% \|- \|2020 \|341.4 \|58,628 \|354.8 \|−2.4% \|0.3% \|5.6% \|42.3% \|- \|2021 \|381.1 \|65,261 \|405.7 \|6.8% \|1.9% \|5.1% \|36.9% \|- \|2022 \|419.0 \|71,332 \|401.1 \|2.7% \|8.5% \|4.5% \|29.7% \|- \|2023 \|441.8 \|74,958 \|420.8 \|1.7% \|4.1% \|5.0% \|30.1% \|} Major companies Denmark has fostered and is home to many multi-national companies. Many of the largest are interdisciplinary with business – and sometimes research activities – in several fields. The most notable companies include: ;Agribusiness * Arla Foods (dairy) * Dansk Landbrugs Grovvareselskab (DLG) (agricultural coop (Danish a.m.b.a.). Main focus is agricultural supply and trade) * Danish Crown (meat products) ;Banking * Danske Bank (commercial banking and mortgage lending) * Nordea * Nykredit * Jyske Bank * Saxo Bank * Sydbank ;Clothing and attire * ECCO (shoe and leather accessories manufacturer and retailer) * Bestseller ;Construction * FLSmidth (global supplier of equipment and services to the cement and minerals industries) * Rockwool (mineral wool producer with production in 28 countries) * Velux (windows and skylights production, owned by Villum Foundation) * Rambøll * COWI ;Energy technology * Vestas (wind turbines) * Siemens Wind Power (wind turbines) * Danfoss (climate and energy) * Grundfos (the world's largest pump manufacturer) * NKT Cables Group A/S (Power cables and subsea umbilicals, owner of subsidiary Nilfisk-Advance) * Ørsted (company) (Formerly known as DONG energy) ;Electronics * Linak * Bang and Olufsen (hi-fi equipment) * Ortofon * Danfoss ;Food and drink * Carlsberg (brewing company) * Daloon A/S (frozen food production in Denmark and England, mostly known for spring rolls) * Chr. Hansen (food ingredients and enzymes) * Danisco (enzymes, biotechnology and pharmaceutical supplier) ;Medical equipment * Widex * William Demant ;Pharmaceutical and biotechnology Many of the largest food producers are also engaged in biotechnology and research. Notable companies dedicated to the pharmaceutical and biotechnology sector, includes: * H. Lundbeck * Novo Nordisk * LEO Pharma * Coloplast * Dansac (owner Hollister Inc) * Novozymes * Pharma Nord * Pharmacosmos * ALK-Abelló * Genmab * RosePharma * Santaris Pharma A/S * Veloxis Pharmaceuticals * Zealand Pharma ;Retail * Salling Group (retail business) * Coop Danmark, (part of the multi-sector Coop amba, formerly known as FDB until 2013) ;Transport * DSV * A. P. Moller-Maersk Group (Maersk – conglomerate: shipping) * DFDS Seaways * USTC (conglomerate: shipping, trading) ;Miscellaneous * ISS (facility services) * Danish Christmas Tree Growers Association representing Christmas tree production in Denmark * The Lego Group, as of 2014 the world's largest toy manufacturer by sales (in the first half of 2015, it made $2.1 billion in sales) * Terma A/S, aerospace and defense Cooperatives Denmark has a long tradition for cooperative production and trade on a large scale. The most notable cooperative societies today includes the agricultural coop of Dansk Landbrugs Grovvareselskab (DLG), dairy producer Arla Foods and the retail cooperative Coop Danmark. Coop Danmark started out as "Fællesforeningen for Danmarks Brugsforeninger" (FDB) in 1896 and now has around 1.4 million members in Denmark as of 2017. It is part of the larger multi-sector cooperative Coop amba which has 1.7 million members in that same year. The cooperative structure also extends to both the housing and banking sector. Arbejdernes Landsbank, founded in 1919, is the largest bank cooperative and it is currently the 6th largest bank in the country as of 2018. The municipality of Copenhagen alone holds a total of 153 housing cooperatives and "Arbejdernes Andelsboligforening Århus" (AAB Århus) is the largest individual housing cooperative in Denmark, with 23,000 homes in Aarhus. Statistics In 2022, the sector with the highest number of companies registered in Denmark is Finance, Insurance, and Real Estate with 204,853 companies followed by Services and Retail Trade with 204,050 and 30,563 companies respectively. See also * List of Danish companies * Tourism in Denmark References Further reading * Lampe, Markus, and Paul Sharp. A Land of Milk and Butter: How Elites Created the Modern Danish Dairy Industry (U of Chicago Press, 2018) [https://eh.net/?s=danish+dairy online review] * Boberg-Fazlic, Nina; Jensen, Peter Sandholt; Lampe, Markus; Sharp, Paul; Skovsgaard, Christian Volmar (2023). "'[https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10887-023-09226-8 Getting to Denmark': the role of agricultural elites for development]". Journal of Economic Growth. 28 (4): 525–569. * Kærgård, Niels (2023). "[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03468755.2023.2268084 The Danish Economy, 1973–2009: From National Welfare State to International Market Economy]". Scandinavian Journal of History External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090221171443/http://www.denmark.net/denmark-guide/economy-denmark.html Economy of Denmark] * [http://www.danmarksstatistik.dk/HomeUK.aspx Statistics Denmark] * [http://www.nationalbanken.dk/en Danmarks Nationalbank – central bank of Denmark] * [http://www.oecd.org/denmark/ OECD's Denmark country Web site] and [http://www.oecd.org/eco/surveys/denmark/ OECD Economic Survey of Denmark] * [https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3167.htm Bureau of Public Affairs, U.S. Department of State, country overview for Denmark] * [http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/DNK/Year/2012/Summary World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Denmark] * [http://www.da.dk/default.asp Dansk Arbejdsgiverforening Confederation of Danish Employers] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080317021622/http://www.lo.dk/Englishversion/Introduction.aspx Landsorganisationen i Danmark The Danish Confederation of Trade Unions] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071228065033/http://www.akf.dk/english/ Anvendt Kommunal Forskning Danish Institute of Governmental Research] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071112032757/http://www.sfi.dk/sw7013.asp The Danish National Centre for Social Research] * [http://www.dors.dk/sw403.asp De økonomiske Råds sekretariat Danish Economic Councils] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071007024224/http://www.aeraadet.dk/regado.jsp?typepage&id56 Economic Council of the Labour Movement] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080220070253/http://www.cepos.dk/cms/index.php?id=114 CEPOS Think Tank for a liberal economy and limited Government etc.] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080612121235/http://www.casa-analyse.dk/352/2839 Center for Alternativ Samfundsanalyse Centre for Alternative Social Analysis] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071220233349/http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/henriksen.denmark Economic History Services Encyclopedia: Denmark] * [https://archive.today/20130213015621/http://www.top1000.dk/virksomheder Danish Top 1000 Companies] * [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/denmark/ The World Factbook: Economy:Denmark] Denmark Denmark Denmark	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Denmark	2025-04-05T18:28:22.160669
8037	Transport in Denmark	<!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE --> connecting the islands of Zealand and Funen across the Great Belt was opened in 1997]] Transport in Denmark is developed and modern. The motorway network covers 1,111 km while the railway network totals 2,667 km of operational track. The Great Belt Fixed Link (opened in 1997) connecting the islands of Zealand and Funen and the New Little Belt Bridge (opened in 1970) connecting Funen and Jutland greatly improved the traffic flow across the country on both motorways and rail. The two largest airports of Copenhagen and Billund provide a variety of domestic and international connections, while ferries provide services to the Faroe Islands, Greenland, Iceland, Germany, Sweden, and Norway, as well as domestic routes servicing most Danish islands. Air In 2011, a total of appr. 28 million passengers used Danish airports. Copenhagen Airport is the largest airport in Scandinavia, handling approximately 29m passengers per year (2016). It is located at Kastrup, 8 km south-east of central Copenhagen. It is connected by train to Copenhagen Central Station and beyond as well as to Malmö and other towns in Sweden. For the west of the country, the major airport is Billund (3m passengers in 2016) although both Aalborg (1.4m passengers in 2011) and Aarhus (591.000 passengers in 2011) have smaller airports with regular connections to Copenhagen. List of airports Denmark's main airports are: * Copenhagen Airport (CPH), Scandinavia's busiest passenger airport located at Kastrup to the south-east of Copenhagen city and handling over 29 million passengers a year. * Billund Airport (BLL), in central Jutland, one of Denmark's busiest cargo centres as well as a popular charter airline destination and an airport for regular flights serving 3 million passengers a year, mainly from the western part of the country. * Aalborg Airport (AAL), located 5 km northwest of Aalborg, is Denmark's third busiest airport serving around 1,4 million passengers a year in connections with 25 European destinations and one of Europes busiest domestic lines to Copenhagen. * Aarhus Airport (AAR), located 39 km northeast of Århus, serves some 540,000 passengers a year. Other airports include: * Karup Airport (KRP) near Viborg in the west of Jutland, mainly serving Copenhagen with some 200,000 passengers a year. * Bornholm Airport (RNN) 5 km from the centre of Rønne in the southwest of the island of Bornholm, with several regular flights to Copenhagen a day. * Esbjerg Airport (EBJ), a small airport in the west of Jutland with regular flights to Aberdeen and Stavanger (although primarily serving North Sea Oilrigs). * Sønderborg Airport (SGD), in the very south of Jutland with connections to Copenhagen. * Roskilde Airport (RKE), 7 km southeast of Roskilde and some 38 km southwest of Copenhagen, serves mainly airtaxi and private business traffic. Sea Being an island state with a long coastline and always close to the sea, maritime transport has always been important in Denmark. From the primitive dugouts of the Stone Age to the complex designs of the Viking ships in the Viking Age, often built to exactly facilitate large scale cargo and passenger transportation. Denmark also engaged in the large scale cargo freights and slave transports of the European colonization endeavours in the Middle Ages and operated several smaller colonies of its own across the globe by the means of seafaring. Today Denmark's ports handle some 48 million passengers and 109 million tonnes of cargo per year.Passenger traffic ]] Passenger traffic is made up partly of ferry crossings within Denmark, partly of international ferry crossings and partly of cruise ship passengers. Some short ferry routes are being electrified and several more may be eligible, as in Norway. \| label2 Rødbyhavn \| coordinates2 \| position2 = left \| label3 Frederikshavn \| coordinates3 \| position3 = top \| label4 }} \| coordinates4 \|position4=left \| label5 Esbjerg \| coordinates5 \| position5 = bottom \| label6 Gedser \| coordinates6 \| label7 Aarhus \| coordinates7 \|position7=left \| label8 Rønne \| coordinates8 \| label9 Ebeltoft \| coordinates9 \|position9 = top \| label10Copenhagen \| coordinates10 \| caption = Map of Denmark showing the locations of the major ports }} Among the most important ports for passenger traffic (thousands of passengers per year in 2007) are: * Helsingør 10,967 * Rødbyhavn 7,058 * Frederikshavn 2,894 * Sjællands Odde 2,233 * Esbjerg 1,827 * Gedser 1,612 * Aarhus 1,583 * Rønne 1,522 * Ebeltoft 962 * Copenhagen 872 In 2007, 288 cruise ships visited Copenhagen, rising to 376 in 2011 before returning to around 300 the following years. Around 800,000 cruise passengers and 200,000 crew visit Copenhagen each year. Cargo traffic Among the most important ports for cargo traffic (millions of tonnes per year in 2007) are: * Fredericia 15,327 * Aarhus 12,189 * Copenhagen 7,379 * Helsingør 4,480 * Esbjerg 4,476 * Kalundborg 3,714 * Frederikshavn 3,200 * Aalborg Portland 2,999 * Aalborg 2,749 * Odense 2,616 Waterways Waterways have historically and traditionally been crucial to local transportation in Denmark proper. Especially the Gudenå river-system in central Jutland, has played an important role. The waterways were navigated by wooden barges and later on steamboats. A few historical steamboats are still in operation, like the SS Hjejlen from 1861 at Silkeborg. There is a 160 km natural canal through the shallow Limfjorden in northern Jutland, linking the North Sea to the Kattegat. Many waterways has formerly been redirected and led through manmade canals in the 1900s, but mainly for agricultural purposes and not to facilitate transportation on any major scale. Several cities have manmade canals used for transportation and traffic purposes. Of special mention are the canals of Copenhagen and the Odense Canal, ferrying large numbers of both tourists and local citizens. Merchant marine Denmark has a large merchant fleet relative to its size. In 2018, the fleet surpassed 20 million gt as the government sought to repatriate Danish-owned tonnage registered abroad, with measures including removal of the registration fee. Denmark has created its own international register, called the Danish International Ship register (DIS), open to commercial vessels only. DIS ships do not have to meet Danish manning regulations. Railways .]] The largest railway operator in Denmark is Danske Statsbaner (DSB) — Danish State Railways. Arriva operates some routes in Jutland, and several other smaller operators provide local services. The total length of operational track is 3,476 km standard gauge, with 1,756 km electrified. The railway system is connected to Sweden by bridge in Copenhagen and ferry in Helsingør and Frederikshavn, by land to Germany in Padborg and ferry in Rødby and to Norway by ferry in Hirtshals. Roads The road network in 2017 totalled 74,558 km of paved road. In comparison, Denmark's coastline is . As a unique feature, Denmark has a VIN-system for bicycles which is mandatory by law. Often bicycling and bicycle culture in Denmark is compared to the Netherlands as a bicycle-nation. <gallery> Bikecultureincopenhagen.jpg\|Bicycle rush hour in Copenhagen. Cycle counter.jpg\|Heavily trafficked roads in the inner cities, often have cycle lanes. Frederiksgade (Aarhus).JPG\|A bike road in central Aarhus. Egådalen.jpg\|A cross country bikeway route. </gallery> Pipelines Figures in 2015:<ref name=":0" /> ; Crude oil: 330 km ; Petroleum products: 578 km (2007) ; Natural gas: 1536 km See also * Denmark * Road traffic in Denmark * Overseas constituencies Transport in the Faroe Islands Transport in Greenland References Further reading * External links [http://www.rejseplanen.dk/bin/query.exe/en? Public transportation Route Planner] [http://www.krak.dk/ Online Map, Address lookup] [http://www.cph.dk/CPH/UK/ Copenhagen Airports] [http://www.dsb.dk S-train and Danish train schedules] [http://copenhagenize.com Copenhagenize - Copenhagen Bike Culture Blog] [http://www.m.dk Metro information] [http://dk.trackmap.net/bigmap All railway tracks] [http://www.vejpark.kk.dk/byenstrafik/cyklernesby/uk/index.htm City of Copenhagen: City of Cyclists] *[http://www.lkw-walter.co.uk/english/transport_denmark.htm Truck transport Denmark]	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_in_Denmark	2025-04-05T18:28:22.171725
8038	Danish Defence	\| image \| alt \| caption = Coat of arms \| image2 = Flag of Denmark (state).svg \| alt2 \| caption2 War flag and Ensign of Denmark \| motto = <br />() \| founded \| current_form = Defence Agreement 2018–23 \| disbanded \| branches Royal Danish Army<br /> Royal Danish Navy<br /> Royal Danish Air Force<br /> Home Guard \| headquarters = Holmen Naval Base, Copenhagen, Denmark \| website = <!-- Leadership -->\| commander-in-chief = Frederik X \| commander-in-chief_title Monarch \| chief minister = Mette Frederiksen \| chief minister_title = Prime Minister \| minister Troels Lund Poulsen \| minister_title = \| commander = General \| commander_title = Chief of Defence <!-- Manpower -->\| age = 18 for voluntary service \| conscription = Yes, for men. \| manpower_data = 2023 \| manpower_age = 18–49 \| available = 2,605,137 \| fit = 2,107,794 \| fit_f \| reaching 76,970 \| reaching_f \| active 21,000 military & 4,638 civilian (2024) \| ranked \| reserve 12,000 + 51,000 volunteers in the Home Guard \| deployed 800 (2024) <!-- Financial -->\| amount DKK 68,67 billion (2024)<br />(€9.2 billion) \| percent_GDP 2.37% (2024) Since the creation of a standing military in 1510, the armed forces have seen action in many wars, most involving Sweden, but also involving the world's great powers, including the Thirty Years' War, the Great Northern War, and the Napoleonic Wars. Today, the armed forces consists of: the Royal Danish Army, Denmark's principal land warfare branch; the Royal Danish Navy, a blue-water navy with a fleet of 20 commissioned ships; and the Royal Danish Air Force, an air force with an operational fleet consisting of both fixed-wing and rotary aircraft. The Defence also includes the Home Guard. Under the Danish Defence Law the Minister of Defence serves as the commander of Danish Defence (through the Chief of Defence and the Defence Command) and the Danish Home Guard (through the Home Guard Command). De facto the Danish Cabinet is the commanding authority of the Defence, though it cannot mobilize the armed forces, for purposes that are not strictly defence oriented, without the consent of parliament.HistoryOrigins on the warship Trefoldigheden during the Battle of Colberger Heide in 1644]] The modern Danish military can be traced back to 1510, with the creation of the permanent Royal Danish Navy. During this time, the Danish Kingdom held considerable territories, including Schleswig-Holstein, Norway, and colonies in Africa and the Americas. It was however only after the lessons of joint operations in World War II, the branches were reorganized and collected under the newly created Danish Defence. During the Cold War, Denmark began to rebuild its military and to prepare for possible attacks by the Soviet Union and its Warsaw Pact allies. During this time Denmark participated in a number of UN peacekeeping missions including UNEF and UNFICYP. Following the end of the Cold War, Denmark began a more active foreign policy, deciding to participate in international operations. This began with the participation in the Bosnian War, where the Royal Danish Army served as part of the United Nations Protection Force and were in two skirmishes. This was the first time the Danish Army was a part of a combat operation since World War 2. On April 29, 1994, the Royal Danish Army, while on an operation to relieve an observation post as part of the United Nations Protection Force, the Jutland Dragoon Regiment came under artillery fire from the town of Kalesija. The United Nations Protection Force quickly returned fire and eliminated the artillery positions. On October 24, 1994, the Royal Danish Army, while on an operation to reinforce an observation post in the town of Gradačac, were fired upon by a T-55 Bosnian Serb tank. One of the three Danish Leopard 1 tanks experienced slight damage, but all returned fired and put the T-55 tank out of action. With the September 11 attacks, Denmark joined US forces in the War on terror, participating in both the War in Afghanistan and the Iraq War. In Afghanistan, 37 soldiers have been killed in various hostile engagements or as a result of friendly fire, and 6 have been killed in non-combat related incidents, bringing the number of Danish fatalities to 43, being the highest loss per capita within the coalition forces. Denmark has since participated in Operation Ocean Shield, the 2011 military intervention in Libya and the American-led intervention in the Syrian Civil War. U.S. President Donald Trump announced in January 2025 that he wanted to "buy" Greenland and express claims to the area belonging to Denmark. Danish politicians decided to significantly increase the military presence in Greenland and invest almost two billion euros to increase security in the strategically important Arctic region. The Ministry of Defense is planning three new ships for the Danish Arctic Navy (MPV80-class vessels), two additional long-range drones and satellites for better surveillance. Purpose and task The purpose of the Danish Defence is to prevent conflicts and war, preserve the sovereignty of Denmark, secure the continuing existence and integrity of the independent Kingdom of Denmark and further a peaceful development in the world with respect to human rights. This is defined in Law no. 122 of 27 February 2001 which took effect 1 March 2001. Its primary tasks are: NATO participation in accordance with the strategy of the alliance, detect and repel any sovereignty violation of Danish territory (including Greenland and the Faroe Islands), defence cooperation with non-NATO members, especially Central and East European countries, international missions in the area of conflict prevention, crisis-control, humanitarian, peacemaking, peacekeeping, participation in Total Defence in cooperation with civilian resources and finally maintenance of a sizable force to execute these tasks at all times. Total defence Total Defence () is "the use of all resources in order to maintain an organized and functional society, and to protect the population and values of society". This is achieved by combining the military, Home Guard, Danish Emergency Management Agency and elements of the police. The concept of total defence was created following World War II, where it was clear that the defence of the country could not only rely on the military, but there also need to be other measures to ensure a continuation of society.Defence budgetSince 1988, Danish defence budgets and security policy have been set by multi-year white paper agreements supported by a wide parliamentary majority including government and opposition parties. However, public opposition to increases in defence spending—during periods of economic constraints require reduced spending for social welfare — has created differences among the political parties regarding a broadly acceptable level of new defence expenditure. The Defence agreement ("Defence Agreement 2018–23") was signed 28 January 2018, and calls for an increase in spending, cyber security and capabilities to act in international operations and international stabilization efforts. The reaction speed is increased, with an entire brigade on standby readiness; the military retains the capability to continually deploy 2,000 soldiers in international service or 5,000 over a short time span. The standard mandatory conscription is expanded to include 500 more, with some of these having a longer service time, with more focus on national challenges.Expenditures In 2006 the Danish military budget was the fifth largest single portion of the Danish Government's total budget, significantly less than that of the Ministry of Social Affairs (≈110 billion DKK), Ministry of Employment (≈67 billion DKK), Ministry of the Interior and Health (≈66 billion DKK) and Ministry of Education (≈30 billion DKK) and only slightly larger than that of the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (≈14 billion DKK). This list lists the complete expenditures for the Danish Ministry of Defence. The Danish Defence Force, counting all branches and all departments, itself has an income equal to about 1–5% of its expenditures, depending on the year. They are not deducted in this listing. Approximately 95% of the budget goes directly to running the Danish military including the Home guard. Depending on year, 50–53% accounts for payment to personnel, roughly 14–21% on acquiring new material, 2–8% for larger ships, building projects or infrastructure and about 24–27% on other items, including purchasing of goods, renting, maintenance, services and taxes. The remaining 5% is special expenditures to NATO, branch shared expenditures, special services and civil structures, here in including running the Danish Maritime Safety Administration, Danish Emergency Management Agency and the Administration of Conscientious Objectors ([http://militaernaegter.dk Militærnægteradministrationen] ). Because Denmark has a small and highly specialized military industry, the vast majority of Danish Defence's equipment is imported from NATO and the Nordic countries.Yearly dataThere are significant differences between the Danish method and the NATO method of calculating defense budgets (among others due to what can be included), with the former resulting a considerably lower numbers than the latter. {\| border"1" cellpadding"2" align="center" ! rowspan="2" \| ! colspan="1" \|1940s ! colspan="10"\|1950s ! colspan="10"\|1960s ! colspan="10"\|1970s ! colspan="10"\|1980s \|- !49 \|\|50 \|\|51 \|\|52 \|\|53 \|\|54 \|\|55 \|\|56 \|\|57 \|\|58 \|\|59 \|\|60 \|\|61 \|\|62 \|\|63 \|\|64 \|\|65 \|\|66 \|\|67 \|\|68 \|\|69 \|\|70 \|\|71 \|\|72 \|\|73 \|\|74 \|\|75 \|\|76 \|\|77 \|\|78 \|\|79 \|\|80 \|\|81 \|\|82 \|\|83 \|\|84 \|\|85 \|\|86 \|\|87 \|\|88 \|\|89 \|- \| align="center" \|Total Budget (Billions) Kr. \|0.36 \|\|0.36 \|\|0.48 \|\|0.68 \|\|0.89 \|\|0.89 \|\|0.92 \|\|0.94 \|\|1.01 \|\|0.99 \|\|0.99 \|\|1.11 \|\|1.18 \|\|1.55 \|\|1.65 \|\|1.76 \|\|1.97 \|\|2.08 \|\|2.25 \|\|2.60 \|\|2.64 \|\|2.97 \|\|3.20 \|\|3.39 \|\|3.52 \|\|4.46 \|\|5.36 \|\|5.71 \|\|6.38 \|\|7.29 \|\|8.05 \|\|9.12 \|\|10.30 \|\|11.67 \|\|12.57 \|\|13.05 \|\|13.34 \|\|13.33 \|\|14.65 \|\|15.62 \|\|15.96 \|- \| align="center" \|Percentage of GNP \|2.0 \|\|1.7 \|\|2.1 \|\|2.7 \|\|3.4 \|\|3.2 \|\|3.2 \|\|3.0 \|\|3.1 \|\|2.9 \|\|2.6 \|\|2.7 \|\|1.6 \|\|3.0 \|\|3.0 \|\|2.8 \|\|2.8 \|\|2.6 \|\|2.6 \|\|2.7 \|\|2.4 \|\|2.4 \|\|2.4 \|\|2.2 \|\|2.0 \|\|2.2 \|\|2.4 \|\|2.2 \|\|2.2 \|\|2.3 \|\|2.3 \|\|2.4 \|\|2.4 \|\|2.4 \|\|2.4 \|\|2.2 \|\|2.1 \|\|1.9 \|\|2.0 \|\|2.1 \|\|2.0 \|- \| align="center" \|Defence Spending % Change \| \|\|-0.3 \|\|+0.4 \|\|+0.6 \|\|+0.7 \|\|-0.2 \|\|0.0 \|\|-0.2 \|\|+0.1 \|\|-0.2 \|\|-0.3 \|\|+0.1 \|\|-0.9 \|\|+1.4 \|\|0.0 \|\|-0.2 \|\|0.0 \|\|-0.2 \|\|0.0 \|\|+0.1 \|\|-0.3 \|\|0.0 \|\|0.0 \|\|-0.2 \|\|-0.2 \|\|+0.2 \|\|+0.2 \|\|-0.2 \|\|0.0 \|\|+0.1 \|\|0.0 \|\|+0.1 \|\|0.0 \|\|0.0 \|\|0.0\|\|-0.2 \|\|-0.1 \|\|-0.2 \|\|+0.1 \|\|+0.1 \|\|-0.1 \|} Danish Defence expenditures (1990–) {\| border"1" cellpadding"2" align="center" ! rowspan="2" \| ! colspan="10" \|1990s ! colspan="10" \|2000s ! colspan="10" \|2010s ! colspan="4" \|2020s \|- !90 \|\|91 \|\|92 \|\|93\|\|94 \|\|95 \|\|96 \|\|97 \|\|98 \|\|99 \|\|00 \|\|01 \|\|02 \|\|03 \|\|04 \|\|05 \|\|06 \|\|07 \|\|08 \|\|09 \|\|10 \|\|11 \|\|12 \|\|13 \|\|14 \|\|15 \|\|16 \|\|17 \|\|18 \|\|19 \|\|20 \|\|21 \|\|22 \|\|23 \|- \| align="center" \|Total Budget (Billions) Kr. \|16.4 \|\|17.09 \|\|17.13 \|\|17.39 \|\|17.29 \|\|17.47 \|\|17.90 \|\|18.52 \|\|19.07 \|\|19.43 \|\|19.34 \|\|21.02 \|\|21.27 \|\|21.08 \|\|21.44 \|\|20.80 \|\|23.17 \|\|22.73 \|\|24.41 \|\|23.25 \|\|25.33 \|\|24.26 \|\|25.62 \|\|23.72 \|\|25.02 \|\|22.633 \|\|24.190 \|\|25.165 \|\|20.938 \|\|23.516 \|\|25.325 \|\|26.383 \|\| 27.1\|\|27.1 \|- \| align="center" \|Percentage of GNP \|2.0 \|\|2.0 \|\|1.9 \|\|1.9 \|\|1.8 \|\|1.7 \|\|1.7 \|\|1.6 \|\|1.6 \|\|1.6 \|\|1.5 \|\|1.6 \|\|1.5 \|\|1.5 \|\|1.5 \|\|1.3 \|\|1.4 \|\|1.3 \|\|1.4 \|\|1.4 \|\|1.4 \|\|1.4 \|\|1.4 \|\|1.3 \|\|1.3 \|\|1.1 \|\|1.16 \|\|1.17 \|\| 0.93\|\| 1.01\|\| 1.14\|\| 1.07\|\| 1.06\|\|1.05 \|- \| align="center" \|Defence Spending % Change \|0.0 \|\|0.0 \|\|-0.1 \|\|0.0 \|\|-0.1 \|\|-0.1 \|\|0.0 \|\|-0.1 \|\|0.0. \|\|0.0 \|\|-0.1 \|\|+0.1 \|\|-0.1 \|\|0.0. \|\|0.0 \|\|-0.2 \|\|+0.1 \|\|-0.1 \|\|+0.1 \|\|0.0 \|\|0.0 \|\|0.0 \|\|0.0 \|\|-0.1 \|\|0.0 \|\|-0.2 \|\|+0.06 \|\|+0.01 \|\| -0.24\|\| +0.08\|\| +0.13\|\| -0.07\|\| -0.01\|\|-0.01 \|} Branches Royal Danish Army main battle tank]] The Danish Royal Army () consists of 2 brigades, organised into 3 regiments, and a number of support centres, all commanded through the Army Staff. The army is a mixture of Mechanized infantry and Armoured cavalry with limited capabilities in Armoured warfare. The army also provides protection for the Danish royal family, in the form of the Royal Guard Company and the Guard Hussar Regiment Mounted Squadron. Royal Danish Navy , a ]] The Royal Danish Navy () consists of frigates, patrol vessels, mine-countermeasure vessels, and other miscellaneous vessels, many of which are issued with the modular mission payload system StanFlex. The navy's chief responsibility is maritime defence and maintaining the sovereignty of Danish, Greenlandic and Faroese territorial waters. A submarine service existed within the Royal Danish Navy for 95 years. Royal Danish Air Force ]] The Royal Danish Air Force () consists of both fixed-wing and rotary aircraft. Danish Home Guard The Home Guard is voluntary service responsible for defence of the country, but has since 2008 also supported the army, in Afghanistan and Kosovo. Structure Danish Defence * Defence Command * Army Command Royal Danish Army * Naval Command ** Royal Danish Navy * Air Command ** Royal Danish Air Force * Special Operations Command (SOKOM) * Joint Arctic Command * Plans and Capability Staff * Joint Operations Staff Royal Danish Defence College * Royal Danish Military Academy Army NCO School * Royal Danish Naval Academy ** Naval NCO School * Royal Danish Air Force Academy ** Air Force NCO School * Royal Danish Defence Language Academy Defence Medical Command Defence Maintenance Service Special forces SOCOM * Jægerkorpset: Ground-based infiltration unit. Frømandskorpset: Amphibious attack and infiltration unit. Slædepatruljen Sirius: Arctic dog sled unit patrolling the eastern border of Greenland. Operations Current deployment of Danish forces, per 10-03-2016: NATO * A Challenger CL-604 MMA for maritime patrol in the Baltic Sea as part of NATO Allied Maritime Command. * 35 soldiers in Kosovo participating in NATO's Kosovo Force, guarding the French Camp Marechal De Lattre de Tassigny. * 97 people in Afghanistan as part of Resolute Support Mission. * HDMS Absalon patrolling the Aegean Sea for human trafficking (September 2016).UN * 20 people in Bamako and Gao, as part of MINUSMA. * 13 people in Juba, as part of UNMISS. * 11 people in Israel, as part of UNTSO. * 2 people in South Korea, as part of UNCMAC. National Missions * 12 men on the Sirius Patrol of Eastern Greenland. * A Challenger CL-604 MMA to fly patrol over Greenland. * Rota between HDMS Lauge Koch, HDMS Knud Rasmussen, HDMS Triton and HDMS Thetis to enact sovereignty patrol in the seas of Greenland and Faroe Islands. * A Challenger CL-604 MMA to do maritime environmental monitoring missions in the North Sea. Coalitions * 149 people at Al Asad Airbase in Iraq to train the local military as part of Operation Inherent Resolve. * 8 people operating radars as part of the radar element in Operation Inherent Resolve. * 20 people in UAE as part of the operator element in Operation Inherent Resolve. * Unknown number of Danish special forces in Senegal to train the local special forces as part of Flintlock 2016. Personnel Women in the military Women in the military can be traced back to 1946, with the creation of Lottekorpset. This corps allowed women to serve, however, without entering with the normal armed forces, and they were not allowed to carry weapons. In 1962, women were allowed in the military. Currently 1,122 or 7.3% of all personnel in the armed forces are women. Women do not have to serve conscription in Denmark, since 1998, it is however possible to serve under conscription-like circumstances; 17% of those serving conscription or conscription-like are women. Between 1991 and 31 December 2017, 1,965 women have been deployed to different international missions. Of those 3 women have lost their lives. In 1998, Police Constable Gitte Larsen was killed in Hebron on the West Bank. In 2003, Overkonstabel Susanne Lauritzen was killed in a traffic accident in Kosovo. In 2010, the first woman was killed in a combat situation, when Konstabel Sophia Bruun was killed by an IED in Afghanistan. In 2005, Line Bonde became the first female fighter pilot in Denmark. In 2016, Lone Træholt became the first female general. She was the only female general in the Danish armed forces until the army promoted Jette Albinus to the rank of brigadier general on 11 September 2017. In May 2018, the Royal Life Guards was forced to lower the height requirements for women, as the Danish Institute of Human Rights decided it was discrimination.Conscription standing guard at Rosenborg Castle]] Technically all Danish 18-year-old males are conscripts (37,897 in 2010, of whom 53% were considered suitable for duty). Due to the large number of volunteers, 96-99% of the number required in the past three years, the number of men actually called up is relatively low (4,200 in 2012). There were additionally 567 female volunteers in 2010, who pass training on "conscript-like" conditions. Conscripts to Danish Defence (army, navy and air force) generally serve four months, except: * Conscripts of the Guard Hussar Regiment Mounted Squadron serve 12 months. * Conscripts with Cyber-conscription, who serve 10 months. * Conscripts aboard the Royal Yacht Dannebrog serve nine months. * Conscripts in the Danish Emergency Management Agency serve nine months. * Conscripts in the Royal Life Guards serve eight months. There has been a right of conscientious objection since 1917. See also * Danish Defence Media Agency * Military history of Denmark * Military in Greenland * NATO * Scandinavian defence union References * https://web.archive.org/web/20130619021047/http://www2.forsvaret.dk/omos/Publikationer/Documents/Fakta%20om%20Forsvaret_DK.pdf * External links * * * [http://www.forsvarsgalleriet.dk/ Official Picture Database] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20101215115202/http://www.norden.org/en/publications/publications/2009-764 One for all, all for one? New Nordic Defence Partnership?] — Publication from the Nordic Council of Ministers (Free download) * [http://brage.bibsys.no/xmlui/bitstream/handle/11250/99267/1/DSS0110.pdf Norwegian and Danish defence policy: A comparative study of the post-Cold War era] — a historical and comparative study published by the Norwegian Institute for Defence Studies (Free download) Category:Military of the Faroe Islands Category:Military of Greenland	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_Defence	2025-04-05T18:28:22.203364
8039	Foreign relations of Denmark	<!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE --> and Prime Minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen hold a joint press conference outside Marienborg, July 2005.]] and Danish Prime Minister Lars Løkke Rasmussen hold a joint press conference, April 2010.]] The foreign policy of Denmark is based on its identity as a sovereign state in Europe, the Arctic and the North Atlantic. As such its primary foreign policy focus is on its relations with other nations as a sovereign state compromising the three constituent countries: Denmark, Greenland and the Faroe Islands. Denmark has long had good relations with other nations. It has been involved in coordinating Western assistance to the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania). The country is a strong supporter of international peacekeeping. Danish forces were heavily engaged in the former Yugoslavia in the UN Protection Force (UNPROFOR), with IFOR, and now SFOR. Denmark also strongly supported American operations in Afghanistan and has contributed both monetarily and materially to the ISAF. These initiatives are a part of the "active foreign policy" of Denmark. Instead of the traditional adaptative foreign policy of The unity of the Realm, Kingdom of Denmark is today pursuing an active foreign policy, where human rights, democracy and other crucial values are to be defended actively. In recent years, Greenland and the Faroe Islands have been guaranteed a say in foreign policy issues, such as fishing, whaling and geopolitical concerns. Following World War II, Denmark ended its two-hundred-year-long policy of neutrality. Denmark has been a member of NATO since its founding in 1949, and membership in NATO remains highly popular. There were several serious confrontations between the U.S. and Denmark on security policy in the so-called "footnote era" (1982–88), when an alternative parliamentary majority forced the government to adopt specific national positions on nuclear and arms control issues. The alternative majority in these issues was because the Social liberal Party (Radikale Venstre) supported the governing majority in economic policy issues, but was against certain NATO policies and voted with the left in these issues. The conservative led Centre-right government accepted this variety of "minority parliamentarism", that is, without making it a question of the government's parliamentary survival. In December 1992, the rest of the EC agreed to exempt Denmark from certain aspects of the European Union, including a common security and defense policy, a common currency, EU citizenship, and certain aspects of legal cooperation. The Amsterdam Treaty was approved in the referendum of 28 May 1998. In the autumn of 2000, Danish citizens rejected membership of the Euro currency group in a referendum. The Lisbon treaty was ratified by the Danish parliament alone. It was not considered a surrendering of national sovereignty, which would have implied the holding of a referendum according to article 20 of the constitution. History In 1807 Denmark was neutral but Britain bombarded Copenhagen and seized the Danish Navy, Denmark became an ally of Napoleon. After Napoleon was profoundly defeated in Russia in 1812, the Allies repeatedly offered King Frederick VI a proposal to change sides and break with Napoleon. The king refused. Therefore, at the peace of Kiel in 1814, Denmark was forced to cede Norway to Sweden. Denmark thus became one of the chief losers of the Napoleonic Wars. Danish historiography portrayed King Frederick VI as stubborn and incompetent, and motivated by a blind loyalty to Napoleon. A more recent Danish historiographical approach emphasizes the Danish state was multi-territorial, and included the semi – separate Kingdom of Norway. It was dependent for food on grain imports controlled by Napoleon, and worried about Swedish ambitions. From the king's perspective, these factors called for an alliance with Napoleon. Furthermore, the king expected the war would end in a negotiated international conference, with Napoleon playing a powerful role that included saving Norway for Denmark. 1900–1945 The Danish government responded to the First World War by declaring neutrality 1914–1918. It maintained that status until 1945 and accordingly adjusted trade; humanitarianism; diplomacy; and attitudes. The war thus reshaped economic relations and shifting domestic power balances. 1990– Since the end of the Cold War, Denmark has become more supportive of U.S. foreign policy. Denmark supported the U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003 and contributed assets to the invasion. Denmark also participated in the Afghanistan War. Settled international disputes Hans Island. An island located between Greenland and Canadian Arctic islands. Unresolved boundary disputed between Canada and Denmark (The state of Denmark is responsible for Greenland's foreign relations). This dispute flared up again in July 2005 following the visit of a Canadian minister to the disputed island. On 14 June 2022 both countries agreed to split the disputed island in half. In accordance with the Greenland home rule treaty, Denmark handles certain foreign affairs, such as border disputes, on behalf of the entire Danish Realm. Diplomatic relations List of countries which Denmark maintains diplomatic relations with: {\| class="wikitable sortable" ! colspan="3" \| \|- !# !Country !Date \|- \|1 \| \| \|- \|2 \| \| \|- \|3 \| \| \|- \|4 \| \| \|- \|5 \| \| \|- \|6 \| \| \|- \|7 \| \| \|- \|8 \| \| \|- \|9 \| \| \|- \|10 \| \| \|- \|11 \| \| \|- \|12 \| \| \|- \|13 \| \| \|- \|14 \| \| \|- \|15 \| \| \|- \|16 \| \| \|- \|17 \| \| \|- \|18 \| \| \|- \|19 \| \| \|- \|20 \| \| \|- \|21 \| \| \|- \|22 \| \| \|- \|23 \| \| \|- \|24 \| \| \|- \|25 \| \| \|- \|26 \| \| \|- \|27 \| \| \|- \|28 \| \| \|- \|29 \| \| \|- \|30 \| \| \|- \|31 \| \| \|- \|32 \| \| \|- \|34 \| \| \|- \|35 \| \| \|- \|36 \| \| \|- \|37 \| \| \|- \|38 \| \| \|- \|39 \| \| \|- \|40 \| \| \|- \|41 \| \| \|- \|42 \| \| \|- \|43 \| \| \|- \|44 \| \| \|- \|45 \| \| \|- \|46 \| \| \|- \|47 \| \| \|- \|48 \| \| \|- \|50 \| \| \|- \|51 \| \| \|- \|52 \| \| \|- \|53 \| \| \|- \|54 \| \| \|- \|55 \| \| \|- \|56 \| \| \|- \|57 \| \| \|- \|58 \| \| \|- \|59 \| \| \|- \|60 \| \| \|- \|62 \| \| \|- \|63 \| \| \|- \|64 \| \| \|- \|65 \| \| \|- \|66 \| \| \|- \|67 \| \| \|- \|69 \| \| \|- \|70 \| \| \|- \|71 \| \| \|- \|72 \| \| \|- \|73 \| \| \|- \|74 \| \| \|- \|75 \| \| \|- \|76 \| \| \|- \|77 \| \| \|- \|78 \| \| \|- \|79 \| \| \|- \|81 \| \| \|- \|82 \| \| \|- \|83 \| \| \|- \|84 \| \| \|- \|85 \| \| \|- \|86 \| \| \|- \|87 \| \| \|- \|88 \| \| \|- \|89 \| \| \|- \|90 \| \| \|- \|91 \| \| \|- \|92 \| \| \|- \|93 \| \| \|- \|94 \| \| \|- \|95 \| \| \|- \|96 \| \| \|- \|97 \| \| \|- \|98 \| \| \|- \|99 \| \| \|- \|100 \| \| \|- \|101 \| \| \|- \|102 \| \| \|- \|103 \| \| \|- \|104 \| \| \|- \|105 \| \| \|- \|106 \| \| \|- \|107 \| \| \|- \|108 \| \| \|- \|109 \| \| \|- \|110 \| \| \|- \|111 \| \| \|- \|112 \| \| \|- \|113 \| \| \|- \|114 \| \| \|- \|115 \| \| \|- \|116 \| \| \|- \|117 \| \| \|- \|118 \| \| \|- \|119 \| \| \|- \|120 \| \| \|- \|121 \| \| \|- \|122 \| \| \|- \|123 \| \| \|- \|124 \| \| \|- \|125 \| \| \|- \|126 \| \| \|- \|127 \| \| \|- \|128 \| \| \|- \|129 \| \| \|- \|130 \| \| \|- \|131 \| \| \|- \|132 \| \| \|- \|133 \| \| \|- \|134 \| \| \|- \|— \| \| \|- \|135 \| \| \|- \|136 \| \| \|- \|137 \| \| \|- \|138 \| \| \|- \|139 \| \| \|- \|140 \| \| \|- \|141 \| \| \|- \|142 \| \| \|- \|143 \| \| \|- \|144 \| \| \|- \|145 \| \| \|- \|146 \| \| \|- \|147 \| \| \|- \|148 \| \| \|- \|149 \| \| \|- \|150 \| \| \|- \|151 \| \| \|- \|152 \| \| \|- \|153 \| \| \|- \|154 \| \| \|- \|155 \| \| \|- \|156 \| \| \|- \|157 \| \| \|- \|158 \| \| \|- \|159 \| \| \|- \|160 \| \| \|- \|161 \| \| \|- \|162 \| \| \|- \|163 \| \| \|- \|164 \| \| \|- \|166 \| \| \|- \|166 \| \| \|- \|167 \| \| \|- \|168 \| \| \|- \|169 \| \| \|- \|170 \| \| \|- \|171 \| \| \|- \|172 \| \| \|- \|173 \| \| \|- \|174 \| \| \|- \|175 \| \| \|- \|— \| \| \|- \|176 \| \| \|- \|177 \| \| \|- \|178 \| \| \|- \|179 \| \| \|- \|180 \| \| \|- \|181 \| \| \|- \|182 \| \| \|- \|183 \| \| \|- \|184 \| \| \|- \|185 \| \| \|- \|186 \| \| \|} Bilateral relations Europe {\| class"wikitable sortable" border"1" style="width:100%; margin:auto;" ! width="15%" \| Country ! width="12%" \| Formal relations began !Notes \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Denmark has an embassy in Tirana. * Both countries are full members of NATO. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Denmark is represented in Andorra, through its embassy in Madrid. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Denmark is represented in Armenia, through its embassy in Kyiv. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| \|\|See Austria–Denmark relations Austria has an embassy in Copenhagen. Denmark has an embassy in Vienna. * Both countries are full members of the European Union. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Denmark is represented in Azerbaijan, through its embassy in Turkey. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Denmark is represented through its embassy in Moscow. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Denmark has an embassy in Brussels. Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Denmark is represented in Bosnia and Herzegovina through its embassy in Belgrade. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Denmark has an embassy in Sofia. * Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Denmark has an embassy in Zagreb. Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Denmark has an embassy in Nicosia. Both countries are full members of the European Union. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Denmark has an embassy in Prague. Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Denmark has an embassy in Tallinn. Estonia has an embassy in Copenhagen. * * Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Denmark has an embassy in Helsinki. * Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| France has an embassy in Copenhagen. * Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Georgia has an embassy in Copenhagen. Denmark is an EU member and Georgia is an EU candidate. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Germany has an embassy in Copenhagen. Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Greece has an embassy in Copenhagen. Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| \|-- valign="top" \|\|\|\|\|See Denmark–Hungary relations Denmark has an embassy in Budapest. Hungary has an embassy in Copenhagen. * Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Iceland has an embassy in Copenhagen. Both countries are full members of NATO. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Ireland has an embassy in Copenhagen. Both countries became members of the European Union on 1 January 1973. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| and a consulate general in Milan. Italy has an embassy in Copenhagen. Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Denmark is represented in Kosovo, through its embassy in Vienna. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Latvia has an embassy in Copenhagen. * Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Liechtenstein is represented in Denmark through its embassy in Switzerland. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Lithuania has an embassy in Copenhagen. * Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Luxembourg has an embassy in Copenhagen. Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Malta has an embassy in Copenhagen. Moldova is represented in Denmark through its embassy in Berlin. * Denmark is an EU member and Moldova is an EU candidate. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\|<br> \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Montenegro is represented in Denmark through a non-resident ambassador based in Podgorica. The Netherlands has an embassy in Copenhagen. * Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| North Macedonia has an embassy in Copenhagen. Both countries are full members of NATO. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Norway has an embassy in Copenhagen. Both countries are full members of NATO. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Poland has an embassy in Copenhagen. Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Denmark has an embassy in Lisbon. Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Romania has an embassy in Copenhagen. Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Denmark has an embassy in Moscow, \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| San Marino is represented in Denmark through a non-resident ambassador based in City of San Marino. Serbia has an embassy in Copenhagen. Denmark is an EU member and Serbia is an EU candidate. There are around 12,000 people of Serbian descent living in Denmark. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Slovakia has an embassy in Copenhagen. * Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Slovenia has an embassy in Copenhagen. Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Spain has an embassy in Copenhagen. Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| * Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\|\|\|See Denmark–Switzerland relations Denmark has an embassy in Bern. Switzerland has an embassy in Copenhagen. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Ukraine has an embassy in Copenhagen. Denmark is an EU member and Ukraine is an EU candidate. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| The United Kingdom is accredited to Denmark through its an embassy in Copenhagen. Both countries share common membership of the Council of Europe, European Court of Human Rights, the International Criminal Court, Joint Expeditionary Force, NATO, OECD, OSCE, and the World Trade Organization. Bilaterally the two countries have a Double Taxation Agreement. The two countries have a sovereignty dispute over the Rockall Bank. \|} Americas {\| class"wikitable sortable" border"1" style="width:100%; margin:auto;" ! width="15%" \| Country ! width="12%" \| Formal relations began !Notes \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Denmark has a consulate in Saint John. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| \|See Argentina–Denmark relations Argentina has an embassy in Copenhagen. Denmark closed its embassy in Buenos Aires in July 2022. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Denmark is represented in Bahamas, through its embassy in Mexico, Denmark has a consulate in Nassau. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Denmark is represented in Barbados, through its embassy in Mexico City. Barbados is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Brussels. \| Denmark is represented in Belize, through its embassy in Nicaragua. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| * Denmark is accredited to Bolivia from its embassy in Bogotá, Colombia. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\|\|\|See Brazil–Denmark relations Brazil has an embassy in Copenhagen. Denmark has an embassy in Brasília. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\|\|\|See Canada–Denmark relations Canada has an embassy in Copenhagen. Denmark has an embassy in Ottawa. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Denmark has an embassy in Santiago. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| \|See Colombia–Denmark relations Colombia is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Cuba has an embassy in Copenhagen. Denmark have a consulate general in Havana. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Denmark is represented in Dominica, through its embassy in Mexico. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Denmark is represented in the Dominican Republic, through its embassy in Mexico. Dominican Republic is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Denmark has a consulate in San Salvador. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Denmark is represented in Grenada, through its embassy in Mexico. Grenada is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Brussels. \| Denmark is represented in Guyana, through its embassy in Brasília. Guyana is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Brussels. Haiti is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Berlin. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Denmark is represented in Jamaica, through its embassy in Mexico. Jamaica is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in London.\|\|See Denmark–Mexico relations Mexico has an embassy in Copenhagen. Denmark has an embassy in Mexico City. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Nicaragua has an embassy in Copenhagen. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Denmark have a consulate general in Ciudad de Panamá, and in Colón. Denmark also has an honorary consulate in Asunción. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| \|-- valign="top" \|\|\|None \| Denmark is represented in St. Kitts and Nevis, through its embassy in Washington D.C. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Denmark is represented in St. Lucia, through its embassy in Mexico. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Denmark is represented in St. Vincent and the Grenadines, through its embassy in Mexico. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Denmark is represented in Suriname, through its embassy in Brasília. Denmark have a consulate in Paramaribo. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Denmark is represented in Trinidad and Tobago, through its embassy in Mexico. Denmark have a consulate general in Port of Spain. \|\|See Denmark–United States relations Denmark recognized the United States in 1792. Denmark has an embassy in Washington D.C. and consulates-general in Chicago, Houston, New York City and Palo Alto. United States has an embassy in Copenhagen and a consulate in Nuuk, Greenland. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Denmark is accredited to Uruguay from its embassy in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Uruguay is accredited to Denmark from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.\|\|See Denmark–Venezuela relations * Venezuela is accredited to Denmark from its embassy in Oslo, Norway. * Denmark is accredited to Venezuela from its embassy in Brasília, Brazil. \|} Middle East {\| class"wikitable sortable" border"1" style="width:100%; margin:auto;" ! width="15%" \| Country ! width="12%" \| Formal relations began !Notes \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Denmark is represented in Bahrain, through its embassy in Riyadh. Denmark also has a Royal Consular Agency in Manama. Egypt has an embassy in Copenhagen.\|\|See Denmark–Iran relations Denmark has an embassy in Tehran. Iran has an embassy in Copenhagen. * \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Iraq has an embassy in Copenhagen. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| \|\|See Denmark–Israel relations Denmark has an embassy in Tel Aviv. Israel has an embassy in Copenhagen. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Denmark is represented in Jordan, through its embassy in Damascus. Jordan is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Berlin. Kuwait is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm. \| Denmark has an embassy in Beirut. Lebanon is represented in Denmark through its embassy in Stockholm. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Denmark is represented in Oman, through its embassy in Riyadh. Oman is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Berlin. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\|None\|\|See Denmark–Palestine relations Denmark has a representative office in Ramallah. Palestine has a mission in Copenhagen. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| Qatar is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in the Hague. Saudi Arabia has an embassy in Copenhagen. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\|\|\|See Denmark–Syria relations Denmark has an embassy in Damascus. Syria is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm. \|\|See Denmark–Turkey relations Denmark has an embassy in Ankara and a consulate general in Istanbul. Turkey has an embassy in Copenhagen. * Both countries are full members of NATO. * Denmark is an EU member and Turkey is an EU candidate. Denmark opposes Turkey's accession negotiations to the EU, although negotiations have now been suspended. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| and a consulate general in Dubai. The United Arab Emirates is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm. Yemen is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Berlin.\|\|See Afghanistan–Denmark relations Denmark has an embassy in Kabul. Afghanistan is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Oslo.\|\|See Bangladesh–Denmark relations Denmark has an embassy in Dhaka. Bangladesh is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm. \|\|See Bhutan–Denmark relations Denmark has a representative office in Thimphu. Bhutan is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Brussels. Brunei is represented in Denmark through a non-resident ambassador based in Bandar Seri Begawan.\|\|See Cambodia–Denmark relations Denmark is represented in Cambodia, through its embassy in Bangkok, Thailand. Cambodia is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in London. \|\|See People's Republic of China–Denmark relations Denmark has an embassy in Beijing. China has an embassy in Copenhagen. \|--valign="top" \|\|\|12 February 2003 East Timor is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Brussels. \|--valign="top" \|\|\|\|\|See Denmark–India relations Denmark has an embassy in New Delhi. India has an embassy in Copenhagen. \|--valign="top" \|\|\| Indonesia has an embassy in Copenhagen. \|--valign="top" \|\|\| \|\|See Denmark–Japan relations Denmark has an embassy in Tokyo. Japan has an embassy in Copenhagen. \|--valign="top" \|\|\| \|\| See Denmark–Kazakhstan relations Denmark is represented in Kazakhstan, through its embassy in Moscow. Kazakhstan is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Berlin. \| Denmark is represented in Kyrgyzstan, through its embassy in Moscow. \|--valign="top" \|\|\| \| Denmark is represented in Laos, through its embassy in Hanoi. Laos is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm. \|--valign="top" \|\|\|\|\|See Denmark–Malaysia relations Denmark has an embassy in Kuala Lumpur. Malaysia is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm. \| Denmark is represented in Maldives, through its embassy in New Delhi. Maldives is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in London. \| Denmark has a consulate general in Ulaanbaatar. Mongolia is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm.\|\|See Burma–Denmark relations Denmark is represented in Burma, through its embassy in Bangkok. Burma is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in London. \|\|See Denmark–Nepal relations Denmark has an embassy in Kathmandu. Nepal has an embassy in Copenhagen. \|--valign="top" \|\|\| \|\|See Denmark–North Korea relations Denmark is represented in North Korea, through its embassy in Beijing. North Korea is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm.\|\|See Denmark–Pakistan relations Denmark has an embassy in Islamabad. Pakistan has an embassy in Copenhagen. Roughly 20,000 Pakistanis live and work in Denmark, making them the country's fifth-largest non-Western community. Six Pakistani immigrants/descendants of immigrants have seats on local parliaments and councils, the second-highest number of any immigrant group. \|--valign="top" \|\|\|\|\|See Denmark–Philippines relations Denmark has an embassy in Manila. The Republic of the Philippines has an embassy in Copenhagen. \|--valign="top" \|\|\| \| Denmark has an embassy in Singapore City. Singapore is represented in Denmark, through a non-resident ambassador based in Singapore. \|\|See Denmark–South Korea relations Both nations are having an agreement of work and holiday program thus citizens of both countries can live, work, study and travel for up to a year and there are no quotas for Danish and South Koreans working and traveling in the each other. Royal Danish embassy in Seoul. South Korean embassy in Copenhagen. \|--valign="top" \|\|\| \|\|See Denmark–Sri Lanka relations Denmark has a consulate general in Colombo. Sri Lanka is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm. \| Denmark is represented in Tajikistan, through its embassy in Moscow. \|--valign="top" \| \|None \|See Denmark–Taiwan relations Denmark has a trade council in Taipei. Taiwan has a Representative Office in Copenhagen. \|--valign="top" \|\|\| \|\|See Denmark–Thailand relations Denmark has an embassy in Bangkok. Thailand has an embassy in Copenhagen. \|--valign="top" \|\|\| \| Denmark is represented in Turkmenistan, through its embassy in Moscow. \|--valign="top" \|\|\| \| Uzbekistan is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Moscow. Denmark is represented in Uzbekistan, through its embassy in Moscow. \|--valign="top" \|\|\|\|\|See Denmark–Vietnam relations Denmark has an embassy in Hanoi. Vietnam has an embassy in Copenhagen. \|} Africa {\| class"wikitable sortable" border"1" style="width:100%; margin:auto;" !width="20%"\| Country !width="10%"\| Formal relations began !Notes \|--valign="top" \|\|\| Algeria has an embassy in Copenhagen. \|--valign="top" \|\|\| \| Denmark is represented in Angola, through its embassy in Lusaka. Angola is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm.\|\|See Benin–Denmark relations Benin has an embassy in Copenhagen. Denmark has an embassy in Cotonou. \|--valign="top" \|\|\| Botswana is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm.\|\|See Burkina Faso–Denmark relations Denmark has an embassy in Ouagadougou. Burkina Faso has an embassy in Copenhagen. \|--valign="top" \|\|\| \| Denmark is represented in Burundi, through its embassy in Kampala. Burundi is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Berlin. Cameroon is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in London. \| Denmark is represented in Cape Verde, through its embassy in Lisbon. \|--valign="top" \|\|\| \| Denmark is represented in the Central African Republic, through its embassy in Ouagadougou. The Central African Republic is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Brussels. \|--valign="top" \|\|\| \| Denmark is represented in Comoros, through its embassy in Dar es Salaam. \|--valign="top" \|\|\| \|--valign="top" \|\|\| \|--valign="top" \|\|\| \| Denmark have a consulate in Djibouti City. \|--valign="top" \|\|\| \| Denmark is represented in Equatorial Guinea, through its embassy in Pretoria. \|--valign="top" \|\|\|\|\|See Denmark–Eritrea relations Eritrea was a Danish programme country from 1993 to 1996, and again from 1999 to 2001. In 1996, Denmark assisted 112 million DKK to the agriculture sector, and 80 million DKK to the education sector. Relations between Eritrea and Denmark have been bad, since Denmark decided to suspend development cooperation with Eritrea in January 2002, and completely closed its embassy in Eritrea in June 2002. Denmark is represented in Eritrea through its embassy in Nairobi. \|-- valign="top" \|\|\| \|--valign="top" \|\|\| \|\|See Denmark–Ethiopia relations Denmark has an embassy in Addis Ababa. Ethiopia is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in London. \| Denmark have a consulate in Libreville. Gabon is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in London. \| Denmark is represented in Gambia, through its embassy in Bamako. Gambia is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in London. Ghana has an embassy in Copenhagen. \|--valign="top" \|\|\| Guinea is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Berlin. \| Denmark is represented in Guinea Bissau, through its embassy in Lisbon. Guinea-Bissau is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Brussels. Denmark have a consulate general in Abidjan. \|--valign="top" \|\|\| Kenya is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm. \| Denmark have a consulate in Maseru. \|--valign="top" \|\|\|<br> \| Denmark is represented in Liberia, through its embassy in Accra. Liberia is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Berlin.\|\|See Denmark–Libya relations Libya closed its embassy in Copenhagen, as a protest against the Jyllandsposten cartoons controversy, in 2006. \|--valign="top" \|\|\| \| Denmark is represented in Madagascar, through its embassy in Pretoria. Denmark have a consulate in Antananarivo. \| Denmark is represented in Malawi, through its embassy in Maputo. Malawi is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in London. \|--valign="top" \|\|\| From 2006 to 2011, Denmark assisted Mali with 800 million DKK for poverty reduction. \|--valign="top" \|\|\| \| Denmark is represented in Mauritania, through its embassy in Rabat. Mauritania is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Brussels. \| Denmark have a consulate in Port Louis. \|--valign="top" \|\|\| Morocco has an embassy in Copenhagen. \|--valign="top" \|\|\|\|\|See Denmark–Mozambique relations \|--valign="top" \|\|\| \| Denmark is represented in Namibia, through its embassy in Pretoria. Namibia is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm. \|--valign="top" \|\|\| \| Denmark is represented in Niger, through its embassy in Ouagadougou. \|--valign="top" \|\|\|\|\|See Foreign relations of Nigeria \|--valign="top" \|\|\| Rwanda is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm. \|--valign="top" \|\|\| None \|\| Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic has a representative office in Copenhagen. \|--valign="top" \|\|\| \| Denmark is represented in São Tomé and Príncipe, through its embassy in Lisbon. São Tomé and Príncipe is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Brussels. \|--valign="top" \|\|\| \| Denmark has a consulate in Victoria, Seychelles. \|--valign="top" \|\|\| \| Denmark has a consulate in Freetown. \|--valign="top" \|\|\|\|\|See Denmark–Somalia relations Denmark has a consulate general in Mogadishu. \|--valign="top" \|\|\|\|\|See Denmark–South Africa relations Denmark has an embassy in Pretoria. \|--valign="top" \|\|\| \|\| \|--valign="top" \|\|\| Sudan is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Oslo, Norway. \|--valign="top" \|\|\| \|\|See Foreign relations of Tunisia \|--valign="top" \|\|\| \|--valign="top" \|\|\| \|--valign="top" \|\|\| \| Denmark is represented in Cook Islands, through its embassy in Canberra. \|--valign="top" \|\|\| Fiji is represented in Denmark, through its high commission in London. Denmark has an honorary consulate and a consulate In 1971, an abolition of visas agreement was signed between Denmark and Fiji. In October 1974, Denmark and Fiji signed an avoidance of double taxation agreement. In November 2003, the Danish ambassador to Fiji Geert Aagaard Andersen said that Denmark supports the European Union's decision to resume development cooperation with Fiji and that Denmark is pleased with the reestablishing democracy progress in Fiji. Trade between Denmark and Fiji showed a potential increase he said. For the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference meeting in Copenhagen, the Fijian Prime Minister Frank Bainimarama stressed that: In July 2011, Danish export to Fiji amounted approximately 1 million DKK while Fijian export were about 100.000 DKK. }} \|--valign="top" \|\|\| \| Denmark is represented in Kiribati, through its embassy in Singapore. \| Denmark is represented in Nauru, through its embassy in Canberra. \|--valign="top" \|\|\| Papua New Guinea is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Brussels. \| Denmark is represented in Samoa, through its embassy in Canberra. \|--valign="top" \|\|\|None \| Denmark is represented in the Solomon Islands, through its embassy in Singapore. \|--valign="top" \|\|\| \|--valign="top" \|\|\|None \| Denmark is represented in Tuvalu, through its embassy in Canberra. \|--valign="top" \|\|\| \|} See also ; Politics of Denmark History of Denmark Denmark–Soviet Union relations Politics of Denmark Politics of the Faroe Islands Politics of Greenland Denmark and the European Union *Danish European Union opt-outs referendum Scandinavian defense union List of diplomatic missions of Denmark List of diplomatic missions in Denmark Visa requirements for Danish citizens Foreign relations of Greenland List of ambassadors of Denmark References Notes Further reading Andreasen, Uffe. "Reflections on public diplomacy after the Danish cartoon crises: From crisis management to normal public diplomacy work." Hague Journal of Diplomacy 3.2 (2008): 201–207. * Due-Nielsen, Carsten, and Nikolaj Petersen. "Denmark's foreign policy since 1967: An introduction." in Adaptation and Activism (Copenhagen: DJØF Publishing, 1995): 11–54. * [https://static-curis.ku.dk/portal/files/183210404/Ph.d._afhandling_2017_Frederichsen.pdf Frederichsen, Kim. Soviet Cultural Diplomacy Towards Denmark During the Cold War, 1945–1991 (PhD. Diss. University of Copenhagen, Faculty of Humanities, Department of Cross-Cultural and Regional Studies, 2017)]. * [https://pure.diis.dk/ws/files/916094/Yearbook_2017_web.pdf#page=77 Henriksen, Anders, and Jon Rahbek-Clemmensen. "The Greenland card: Prospects for and barriers to Danish Arctic diplomacy in Washington." Danish foreign policy yearbook 1 (2017): 75–98.] * Jakobsen, Peter Viggo, Jens Ringsmose, and Håkon Lunde Saxi. "Prestige-seeking small states: Danish and Norwegian military contributions to US-led operations." European journal of international security 3.2 (2018): 256–277. * [https://scholar.archive.org/work/666ldb6ffjhizacxgny5x2mq2a/access/wayback/http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/14794012.2015.1022370 Jakobsen, Peter Viggo, and Jens Ringsmose. "Size and reputation—why the USA has valued its ‘special relationships’ with Denmark and the UK differently since 9/11." Journal of Transatlantic Studies 13.2 (2015): 135-153. ] * Kaarbo, Juliet, and Cristian Cantir. "Role conflict in recent wars: Danish and Dutch debates over Iraq and Afghanistan." Cooperation and Conflict 48.4 (2013): 465–483. * Kronvall. Olof. "[https://oxfordre.com/americanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.001.0001/acrefore-9780199329175-e-748 US–Scandinavian Relations Since 1940]." in the Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics. (Oxford University Press, 2020). * [https://www.peterlang.com/view/title/58158 Lidegaard, Bo. Defiant Diplomacy: Henrik Kauffmann, Denmark, and the United States in World War II and the Cold War, 1939–1958. Peter Lang, 2003.] . * [https://fhs.brage.unit.no/fhs-xmlui/bitstream/handle/11250/99457/FS0287.pdf Petersen, Nikolaj. "Denmark and NATO 1948-1987." (1987). ] * * Rahbek-Clemmensen, Jon. ""An Arctic Great Power"? Recent Developments in Danish Arctic Policy." Arctic Yearbook 5 (2016): 387–399. * * Tonra, Ben. The Europeanisation of national foreign policy: Dutch, Danish and Irish foreign policy in the European Union (Routledge, 2018) [https://books.google.com/books?idxsVKDwAAQBAJ&dqdutch+diplomacy&pg=PT7 online]. * [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1057/s42738-019-00020-2 Wivel, Anders, and Matthew Crandall. "Punching above their weight, but why? Explaining Denmark and Estonia in the transatlantic relationship." Journal of transatlantic studies 17.3 (2019): 392-419. ] * Pre-1940* * * Feldbæk, Ole. "Eighteenth‐century Danish neutrality: Its diplomacy, economics and law." Scandinavian Journal of History 8.1–4 (1983): 3–21. * Feldbæk, Ole. "Denmark and the Treaty of Kiel 1814." Scandinavian Journal of History 15.3–4 (1990): 259–268. * Feldbæk, Ole. "Denmark in the Napoleonic Wars: A Foreign Policy Survey." Scandinavian Journal of History 26.2 (2001): 89–101 * [http://www5.kb.dk/export/sites/kb_dk/en/nb/komponentgalleri/nb/713787158x1x.pdf Feldbæk, Ole. "Denmark and the Baltic 1720–1864." In Quest of Trade and Security. the Baltic in Power Politics 1500–1990. Vol 1. 1500–1890 (Probus Förlag, 1995) pp. 257–95.] * [https://books.google.com/books?idxb0l7EWOi3UC&dqdenmark+diplomacy&pg=PA5 Fogdall, Soren Jacob Marius Peterson. Danish-American Diplomacy, 1776–1920 (1922) ]. * * Gram-Skjoldager, Karen. "Denmark during the First World War: Neutral policy, economy and culture." Journal of Modern European History 17.2 (2019): 234–250. * Jónsson, Már. "Denmark-Norway as a potential world power in the early seventeenth century." Itinerario 33.2 (2009): 17–27. * * Murdoch, Steve. Britain, Denmark-Norway and the House of Stuart, 1603–1660: A Diplomatic and Military Analysis (Tuckwell Press, 2000). * Naum, Magdalena, and Jonas M. Nordin. "Introduction: Situating Scandinavian Colonialism." in Scandinavian Colonialism and the Rise of Modernity (Springer, 2013) pp. 3–16. External links *	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Denmark	2025-04-05T18:28:25.605261
8041	History of Djibouti	Djibouti is a country in the Horn of Africa bordered by Somalia to the east, Eritrea to west and the Red Sea to the north, Ethiopia to the west and south, and the Gulf of Aden to the east. In antiquity, the territory was part of the Land of Punt. Djibouti gained its independence on June 27, 1977. The Djibouti area, along with other localities in the Horn region, was later the seat of the medieval Adal and Ifat Sultanates. In the late 19th century, the colony of French Somaliland was established following treaties signed by the ruling Somali and Afar Sultans with the French. It was subsequently renamed to the French Territory of the Afars and the Issas in 1967. A decade later, the Djiboutian people voted for independence, officially marking the establishment of the Republic of Djibouti. Prehistory thumb\|Rock art at Balho The Bab-el-Mandeb region has often been considered a primary crossing point for early hominins following a southern coastal route from East Africa to South Arabia and Southeast Asia. Djibouti area has been inhabited since the Neolithic. According to linguists, the first Afroasiatic-speaking populations arrived in the region during this period from the family's proposed urheimat ("original homeland") in the Nile Valley, or the Near East. Other scholars propose that the Afroasiatic family developed in situ in the Horn, with its speakers subsequently dispersing from there. The cut stones 3 million years old, collected in the area of Lake Abbe. In the Gobaad plain (between Dikhil and Lake Abbe), the remains of an Palaeoloxodon recki elephant were also discovered, visibly butchered using basalt tools found nearby. These remains would date from 1.4 million years BC. Subsequently identified other sites of these cuts, probably the work of Homo ergaster. An Acheulean site (from 800,000 to 400,000 years BC), where stone was cut, was excavated in the 1990s, in Gombourta, between Damerdjog and Loyada, 15 km south of Djibouti. Finally, in Gobaad, a Homo erectus jaw was found, dating from 100,000 BC. AD On Devil's Island, tools dating back 6,000 years have been found, which were no doubt used to open shells. In the area at the bottom of Goubet (Dankalélo, not far from Devil's Island), circular stone structures and fragments of painted pottery have also been discovered. Previous investigators have also reported a fragmentary maxilla, attributed to an older form of Homo sapiens and dated to ~250 Ka, from the valley of the Dagadlé Wadi. thumb\|upright\|Geometric design pottery found in Asa Koma. Pottery predating the mid-2nd millennium has been found at Asa Koma, an inland lake area on the Gobaad Plain. The site's ware is characterized by punctate and incision geometric designs, which bear a similarity to the Sabir culture phase 1 ceramics from Ma'layba in Southern Arabia. Long-horned humpless cattle bones have likewise been discovered at Asa Koma, suggesting that domesticated cattle were present by around 3,500 years ago. Rock art of what appear to be antelopes and a giraffe are also found at Dorra and Balho. Handoga, dated to the fourth millennium BP, has in turn yielded obsidian microliths and plain ceramics used by early nomadic pastoralists with domesticated cattle. The site of Wakrita is a small Neolithic establishment located on a wadi in the tectonic depression of Gobaad in Djibouti in the Horn of Africa. The 2005 excavations yielded abundant ceramics that enabled us to define one Neolithic cultural facies of this region, which was also identified at the nearby site of Asa Koma. The faunal remains confirm the importance of fishing in Neolithic settlements close to Lake Abbé, but also the importance of bovine husbandry and, for the first time in this area, evidence for caprine herding practices. Radiocarbon dating places this occupation at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC, similar in range to Asa Koma. These two sites represent the oldest evidence of herding in the region, and they provide a better understanding of the development of Neolithic societies in this region. Up to 4000 years BC. AD, the region benefited from a climate very different from the one it knows today and probably close to the Mediterranean climate. The water resources were numerous: lakes in the Gobaad, lakes Assal and Abbé larger and resembling real bodies of water. The humans therefore lived by gathering, fishing and hunting. The region was populated by a very rich fauna: felines, buffaloes, elephants, rhinos, etc., as evidenced, for example, by the bestiary of cave paintings at Balho. In the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC. A few nomads settled around the lakes and practiced fishing and cattle breeding. The burial of an 18-year-old woman, dating from this period, as well as the bones of hunted animals, bone tools and small jewels have been unearthed. About 1500 BC. AD, the climate is already changing, water is scarce. Engravings show dromedaries (animal of arid zones), some of which are ridden by armed warriors. Sedentary peoples return to Nomadic life. A stone tumuli (of various shapes), sheltering graves and dating from this period, have been unearthed all over the territory. Antiquity thumb\|right\|Egyptian marines from Queen Hatshepsut's Year 9 expedition to the Land of Punt, as depicted on her temple at Deir el-Bahri. Together with Somaliland, Eritrea and the Red Sea coast of Sudan, Djibouti is considered the most likely location of the land known to the ancient Egyptians as Punt (or "Ta Netjeru", meaning "God's Land"). The old territory's first mention dates to the 25th century BC. The Puntites were a nation of people that had close relations with Ancient Egypt during the times of Pharaoh Sahure of the fifth dynasty and Queen Hatshepsut of the eighteenth dynasty. They "traded not only in their own produce of incense, ebony and short-horned cattle, but also in goods from other neighbouring regions, including gold, ivory and animal skins." According to the temple reliefs at Deir el-Bahari, the Land of Punt at the time of Hatshepsut was ruled by King Parahu and Queen Ati. Macrobians The Macrobians (Μακροβίοι) were a legendary people and kingdom positioned in the Horn of Africa mentioned by Herodotus. Later authors (such as Pliny on the authority of Ctesias' Indika) place them in India instead. It is one of the legendary peoples postulated at the extremity of the known world (from the perspective of the Greeks), in this case in the extreme south, contrasting with the Hyperboreans in the extreme east. Their name is due to their legendary longevity; an average person supposedly living to the age of 120. They were said to be the "tallest and handsomest of all men". Historical accounts of the Macrobians also have much in common with the pastoral Somali figures who are similarly known to be tall, handsome warriors, that sustained themselves with a diet mainly composed of meat and milk. In addition, Somalis have a rich maritime culture that dates back centuries. This perspective that places the Macrobians in Somali territory was suggested by the German historian Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren in the 1800s, and later affirmed by Indian scholar, Mamta Agarwal, who wrote "these people were none other than the inhabitants of Somalia, opposite the Red Sea." According to Herodotus' account, the Persian Emperor Cambyses II upon his conquest of Egypt (525 BC) sent ambassadors to Macrobia, bringing luxury gifts for the Macrobian king to entice his submission. The Macrobian ruler, who was elected based at least in part on stature, replied instead with a challenge for his Persian counterpart in the form of an unstrung bow: if the Persians could manage to string it, they would have the right to invade his country; but until then, they should thank the gods that the Macrobians never decided to invade their empire. Kingdom of Aksum The rule of the Aksumite Kingdom may have at times extended to areas that are now within Djibouti, though the nature and extent of its control are not clear. Ifat Sultanate The Ifat Sultanate was a medieval kingdom in the Horn of Africa. Founded in 1285 by the Walashma dynasty, it was centered in Zeila. Ifat established bases in Djibouti and Somaliland, and from there expanded southward to the Ahmar Mountains. Its Sultan Umar Walashma (or his son Ali, according to another source) is recorded as having conquered the Sultanate of Shewa in 1285. Taddesse Tamrat explains Sultan Umar's military expedition as an effort to consolidate the Muslim territories in the Horn, in much the same way as Emperor Yekuno Amlak was attempting to unite the Christian territories in the highlands during the same period. These two states inevitably came into conflict over Shewa and territories further south. A lengthy war ensued, but the Muslim sultanates of the time were not strongly unified. Ifat was finally defeated by Emperor Amda Seyon I of Ethiopia in 1332, and withdrew from Shewa. Adal Sultanate Islam was introduced to the area early on from the Arabian peninsula, shortly after the hijra. Zeila's two-mihrab Masjid al-Qiblatayn dates to the 7th century, and is the oldest mosque in the city. In the late 9th century, Al-Yaqubi wrote that Muslims were living along the northern Horn seaboard. He also mentioned that the Adal kingdom had its capital in Zeila, a port city in the northwestern Awdal region abutting Djibouti. This suggests that the Adal Sultanate with Zeila as its headquarters dates back to at least the 9th or 10th century. According to I.M. Lewis, the polity was governed by local dynasties consisting of Somalized Arabs or Arabized Somalis, who also ruled over the similarly established Sultanate of Mogadishu in the Benadir region to the south. Adal's history from this founding period forth would be characterized by a succession of battles with neighbouring Abyssinia. Additionally, archaeological excavations at Tiya have yielded tombs. As of 1997, 118 stelae were reported in the area. Egypt Eyalet Governor Abou Baker ordered the Egyptian garrison at Sagallo to retire to Zeila. The cruiser Seignelay reached Sagallo shortly after the Egyptians had departed. French troops occupied the fort despite protests from the British Agent in Aden, Major Frederick Mercer Hunter, who dispatched troops to safeguard British and Egyptian interests in Zeila and prevent further extension of French influence in that direction. On 14 April 1884 the Commander of the patrol sloop L’Inferent reported on the Egyptian occupation in the Gulf of Tadjoura. The Commander of the patrol sloop Le Vaudreuil reported that the Egyptians were occupying the interior between Obock and Tadjoura. Emperor Johannes IV of Ethiopia signed an accord with the United Kingdom to cease fighting the Egyptians and to allow the evacuation of Egyptian forces from Ethiopia and the Somali Coast ports. The Egyptian garrison was withdrawn from Tadjoura. Léonce Lagarde deployed a patrol sloop to Tadjoura the following night. French Somaliland thumb\|right\|240px\|French Somaliland in 1922 The boundaries of the present-day Djibouti nation state were established during the Scramble for Africa. It was Rochet d'Hericourt's exploration into Shoa (1839–42) that marked the beginning of French interest in the Djiboutian coast of the Red Sea. Further exploration by Henri Lambert, French Consular Agent at Aden, and Captain Fleuriot de Langle led to a treaty of friendship and assistance between France and the sultans of Raheita, Tadjoura, and Gobaad, from whom the French purchased the anchorage of Obock in 1862. Growing French interest in the area took place against a backdrop of British activity in Egypt and the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. Between 1883 and 1887, France signed various treaties with the then ruling Somali and Afar Sultans, which allowed it to expand the protectorate to include the Gulf of Tadjoura. Léonce Lagarde was subsequently installed as the protectorate's governor. In 1894, he established a permanent French administration in the city of Djibouti and named the region Côte française des Somalis (French Somaliland), a name which continued until 1967. The territory's border with Ethiopia, marked out in 1897 by France and Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia, was later reaffirmed by agreements with Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia in 1945 and 1954. In 1889, a Russian by the name of Nikolay Ivanovitch Achinov (b. 1856), arrived with settlers, infantry and an Orthodox priest to Sagallo on the Gulf of Tadjoura. The French considered the presence of the Russians as a violation of their territorial rights and dispatched two gunboats. The Russians were bombarded and after some loss of life, surrendered. The colonists were deported to Odessa and the dream of Russian expansion in East Africa came to an end in less than one year. thumb\|300px\|right\|Place Menelik, Djibouti, c1905. The administrative capital was moved from Obock in 1896. The city of Djibouti, which had a harbor with good access that attracted trade caravans crossing East Africa, became the new administrative capital. The Franco-Ethiopian railway, linking Djibouti to the heart of Ethiopia, began in 1897 and reached Addis Ababa in June 1917, increasing the volume of trade passing through the port. World War II After the Italian invasion and occupation of Ethiopia in the mid-1930s, constant border skirmishes occurred between French forces in French Somaliland and Italian forces in Italian East Africa. In June 1940, during the early stages of World War II, France fell and the colony was then ruled by the pro-Axis Vichy (French) government while the Italians occupied some areas of the French Somaliland. Indeed, the Italians did undertake some offensive actions beginning on 18 June 1940, occupying nearly one third of French Somaliland in a few days. thumb\|right\|350px\|Territories of French Somalia occupied by Italian colonial troops (limited by green line) From Harrar Governorate, troops under General Guglielmo Nasi attacked the fort of Ali-Sabieh in the south and Dadda'to in the north. There were also skirmishes in the area of Dagguirou and around the lakes Abbe and Ally. Near Ali-Sabieh, there was some skirmishing over the Djibouti–Addis Ababa railway. In the first week of war, the Italian Navy sent the submarines Torricelli and Perla to patrol French territorial waters in the Gulf of Tadjoura in front of the ports of Djibouti, Tadjoura and Obock. By the end of June the Italians had also occupied the border fortifications of Magdoul, Daimoli, Balambolta, Birt Eyla, Asmailo, Tewo, Abba, Alailou, Madda and Rahale. Later, British and Commonwealth forces fought the neighboring Italians during the East African Campaign. In 1941, the Italians were defeated and the Vichy forces in French Somaliland were isolated. The Vichy French administration continued to hold out in the colony for over a year after the Italian collapse. In response, the British blockaded the port of Djibouti City but it could not prevent local French from providing information on the passing ship convoys. In 1942, about 4,000 British troops occupied the city. A local battalion from French Somaliland participated in the Liberation of Paris in 1944. Referendums In 1958, on the eve of neighboring Somalia's independence in 1960, a referendum was held in Djibouti to decide whether to be an independent country or to remain with France. The referendum turned out in favour of a continued association with France, partly due to a combined yes vote by the sizable Afar ethnic group and resident Europeans. There were also reports of widespread vote rigging, with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the referendum reached the polls. The majority of those who voted no were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia as had been proposed by Mahmoud Harbi, Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi died in a plane crash two years later under mysterious circumstances. In 1960, with the fall of the ruling Dini administration, Ali Aref Bourhan, a Harbist politician, assumed the seat of Vice President of the Government Council of French Somaliland, representing the UNI party. He would hold that position until 1966. That same year, France rejected the United Nations' recommendation that it should grant French Somaliland independence. In August, an official visit to the territory by then French President, General Charles de Gaulle, was also met with demonstrations and rioting. In response to the protests, de Gaulle ordered another referendum. with some 10,000 Somalis deported under the pretext that they did not have valid identity cards. According to official figures, although the territory was at the time inhabited by 58,240 Somali and 48,270 Afar, only 14,689 Somali were allowed to register to vote versus 22,004 Afar. Somali representatives also charged that the French had simultaneously imported thousands of Afar nomads from neighboring Ethiopia to further tip the odds in their favor, but the French authorities denied this, suggesting that Afars already greatly outnumbered Somalis on the voting lists. French Territory of the Afars and Issas In 1967, shortly after the second referendum was held, the former Côte française des Somalis (French Somaliland) was renamed to Territoire français des Afars et des Issas. This was both in acknowledgement of the large Afar constituency and to downplay the significance of the Somali composition (the Issa being a Somali sub-clan). With a steadily enlarging Somali population, the likelihood of a third referendum appearing successful had grown even more dim. The prohibitive cost of maintaining the colony and the fact that after 1975, France found itself to be the last remaining colonial power in Africa was another factor that compelled observers to doubt that the French would attempt to hold on to the territory. In 1976, the French garrison, centered on the 13th Demi-Brigade of the Foreign Legion (13 DBLE), had to be reinforced to contain Somali irredentist aspirations, revolting against the French-engineered Afar domination of the emerging government. In 1976, members of the Front de Libération de la Côte des Somalis which sought Djibouti's independence from France, also clashed with the Gendarmerie Nationale Intervention Group over a bus hijacking en route to Loyada. The FLCS was recognized as a national liberation movement by the Organization of African Unity (OAU), which participated in its financing. The FLCS evolved its demands between the request of integration in a possible "Greater Somalia" influenced by the Somali government or the simple independence of the territory. In 1975 the African People's League for the Independence (LPAI) and FLCS met in Kampala, Uganda with several meeting later they finally opted for independence path, causing tensions with Somalia. thumb\|right\|Ahmed Dini Ahmed proclaiming the Djibouti Declaration of Independence on 27 June 1977. A third independence referendum was held in the French Territory of the Afars and the Issas on 8 May 1977. The previous referendums were held in 1958 and 1967, A landslide 98.8% of the electorate supported disengagement from France, officially marking Djibouti's independence. After independence the new government signed an agreement calling for a strong French garrison, though the 13 DBLE was envisaged to be withdrawn. In the presidential election held 8 April 2005, Ismail Omar Guelleh was re-elected to a second 6-year term at the head of a multi-party coalition that included the FRUD and other major parties. A loose coalition of opposition parties again boycotted the election. Currently, political power is shared by a Somali president and an Afar prime minister, with an Afar career diplomat as Foreign Minister and other cabinet posts roughly divided. However, Issas are predominate in the government, civil service, and the ruling party. That, together with a shortage of non-government employment, has bred resentment and continued political competition between the Issa Somalis and the Afars. In March 2006, Djibouti held its first regional elections and began implementing a decentralization plan. The broad pro-government coalition, including FRUD candidates, again ran unopposed when the government refused to meet opposition preconditions for participation. In the 2008 elections, the opposition Union for a Presidential Majority (UMP) party boycotted the election, leaving all 65 seats to the ruling RPP. Voter turnout figures were disputed. Guelleh was re-elected in the 2011 presidential election. Due to its strategic location at the mouth of the Bab el Mandeb gateway to the Red Sea and the Suez Canal, Djibouti also hosts various foreign military bases. Camp Lemonnier is a United States Naval Expeditionary Base, situated at Djibouti-Ambouli International Airport and home to the Combined Joint Task Force - Horn of Africa (CJTF-HOA) of the U.S. Africa Command (USAFRICOM). In 2011, Japan also opened a local naval base staffed by 180 personnel to assist in marine defense. This initiative is expected to generate $30 million in revenue for the Djiboutian government. In April 2021, Ismael Guelleh, the second President of Djibouti since independence from France in 1977, was re-elected for his fifth term. See also Colonial heads of Djibouti (French Somaliland) French Territory of the Afars and the Issas (FTAI) French Somaliland Heads of government of Djibouti History of Africa List of presidents of Djibouti Politics of Djibouti Djibouti City history and timeline Footnotes References Citations Bibliography External links Background Note: Djibouti History of Djbouti by documents Category:History of East Africa by country	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Djibouti	2025-04-05T18:28:25.644038
8042	Geography of Djibouti	<!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE --> <br>* : <br />* : <br />* : <br>* : (maritime boundary, Bab el Mandeb) \| terrain = Mostly mountainous and volcanic \| natural resources \| natural hazards \| highest point Mousa Ali<br /> \| lowest point Lac Assal<br /> \| longest river \| largest lake Lake Abbe }} Djibouti is a country in the Horn of Africa. It is bordered by Eritrea in the north, Ethiopia in the west and south, and Somalia in the southeast. To the east is its coastline on the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. Rainfall is sparse, and most of the territory has a semi-arid to arid environment. Lake Assal is a saline lake which lies below sea level, making it the lowest point on land in Africa and the third-lowest point on Earth after the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea. Djibouti has the fifth smallest population in Africa. Djibouti's major settlements include the capital Djibouti City, the port towns of Tadjoura and Obock, and the southern cities of Ali Sabieh and Dikhil. It is the forty-six country by area in Africa and 147st largest country in the world by land area, covering a total of , of which is land and is water. Location Djibouti shares of border with Eritrea, with Ethiopia, and with Somalia (total ). It has a strategic location on the Horn of Africa and the Bab el Mandeb, along a route through the Red Sea and Suez Canal. Djibouti's coastline serves as a commercial gateway between the Arabian Peninsula and the Horn region's interior. The country is also the terminus of rail traffic into Ethiopia. Physiographic regions Djibouti can be divided into three physiographic regions #The Northern Mountains #Grand Bara #The Southern Mountains Mountains A great arc of mountains, consisting of the Mousa Ali, Goda Mountains, and Arrei Mountains surrounds Djibouti. Djibouti has eight mountain ranges with peaks of over . * The Mousa Ali range is considered the country's highest mountain range, with the tallest peak on the border with Ethiopia and Eritrea. It has an elevation of 2,063 m.Regions The area of the regions of Djibouti is set out in the table below. {\|class="wikitable" \|- ! Rank ! Name ! Area \|- \| 1 \| Dikhil Region \| 7,200 km<sup>2</sup> \|- \| 2 \| Tadjourah Region \| 7,100 km<sup>2</sup> \|- \| 3 \| Obock Region \| 4,700 km<sup>2</sup> \|- \| 4 \| Ali Sabieh Region \| 2,200 km<sup>2</sup> \|- \| 5 \| Arta Region \| 1,800 km<sup>2</sup> \|- \|- \| 6 \| Djibouti Region \| 200 km<sup>2</sup> \|- \|} Climate There is not much seasonal variation in Djibouti's climate. Hot conditions prevail year-round along with winter rainfall. Mean daily maximum temperatures range from , except at high elevations. In Djibouti City, for instance, afternoon highs in April typically range from in April. Nationally, mean daily minima generally vary between sites from about . The greatest range in climate occurs in eastern Djibouti, where temperatures sometimes surpass in July on the littoral plains and fall below freezing point during December in the highlands. In this region, relative humidity ranges from about 40% in the mid-afternoon to 85% at night, changing somewhat according to the season. Djibouti has 988,000 people living there. Djibouti has either a hot semi-arid climate (BSh) or a hot desert climate (BWh), although temperatures are much moderated at the high elevations. On the coastal seaboard, annual rainfall is less than ; in the highlands, it is about . Although the coastal regions are hot and humid throughout the year, the hinterland is typically hot and dry. The climate conditions are highly variable within the country and vary locally by altitude. Summers are very humid along the coast but dry in the highlands. Heat waves are frequent. Annual precipitation amounts vary greatly from one year to another. In general, rain falls more frequently and extensively in the mountains. Sudden and brutal storms are also known to occur. Wadis turn for a few hours into raging torrents tearing everything in their path, and their course is regularized. Rainwater serves as an additional water supply for livestock and plants alongside seasonal watercourses. The highlands have temperate climate throughout the year. The climate of most lowland zones is arid and semiarid. The climate of the interior shows notable differences from the coastline. Especially in the mornings, the temperature is pleasant: it is so in Arta, Randa and Day (where temperatures of 10 degrees Celsius have been recorded). Climate charts of different locations in Djibouti }} Graphically the seasons can be represented this way: {\| class"wikitable" width"60%" style="text-align:center" \|- !scope"row"\|Month!!scope"col"\|Dec!!scope"col"\|Jan!!scope"col"\|Feb!!scope"col"\|Mar!!scope"col"\|Apr!!scope"col"\|May!!scope"col"\|Jun!!scope"col"\|Jul!!scope"col"\|Aug!!scope"col"\|Sep!!scope"col"\|Oct!!scope="col"\|Nov \|- !scope="row"\|Season \|colspan5 bgcolororange\|Winter\|Jilaal\|\| colspan"4" bgcolor"red" \|Summer/Hagaa\|\| colspan"3" bgcolor"orange" \|Winter\|Jilaal \|- !scope="row"\|Temperature \|colspan4 bgcoloraqua\|Cool\|\| colspan"6" bgcolor"red" \|Very Hot\|\| colspan"2" bgcoloraqua \|Cool \|} Selected elevations of notable locations as seen from Ali Sabieh.]] .]] {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Location ! Region ! Elevation<br>(feet) ! Elevation<br>(metres) \|- \| Mousa Ali \| Tadjourah \| 6,631 ft \| 2,028 m \|- \| Goda Mountains \| Tadjourah \| 5,840 ft \| 1,780 m \|- \| Garbi \| Tadjourah \| 5,512 ft \| 1,680 m \|- \| Yaguer \| Dikhil \| 4,524 ft \| 1,379 m \|- \| Mabla Mountains \| Obock \| 4,511 ft \| 1,375 m \|- \| Arrei Mountains \| Ali Sabieh \| 4,268 ft \| 1,301 m \|- \| Dagouein Mountain \| Ali Sabieh \| 3,688 ft \| 1,124 m \|- \| Hemed \| Arta \| 3,619 ft \| 1,103 m \|- \| Boura Mountains \| Ali Sabieh \| 3,291 ft \| 1,003 m \|- \| Arta Mountains \| Arta \| 2,477 ft \| 755 m \|- \| Lake Assal \| Tadjourah \| – 509 ft \| – 155 m \|} Lake Assal is the lowest point in Africa. Resources and land use .]] Land use: arable land: 0.1% <br>permanent pasture: 73.3% <br>forest: 0.2% <br>other: 26.4% (2011) Irrigated land: (2012)Water in DjiboutiWater is becoming a scarce resource in Djibouti due to climate change, which leads to different rainfall patterns as well as to inefficient methods of distribution within the country. Most of Djibouti's rainfall is in the four months, but over the last 25 years, the Djibouti's Ministry of Environment estimates that rainfall has decreased overall between 5 and 20 percent. It is predicted that in future years, there will be higher temperatures, lower rainfall, and longer droughts, leading to even less access to water. Moreover, seawater intrusion or fossil saltwater contamination of the limited freshwater aquifers due to groundwater overexploitation affect those who live close to the coastline. In recent years, population growth has increased rapidly with the addition of many refugees.Natural resourcesUnlike much of the Horn of Africa and Middle East which is rich in lucrative crude oil, Djibouti has limited natural resources. These include potential geothermal power, gold, clay, granite, limestone, marble, salt, diatomite, gypsum, pumice, petroleum.Environment Natural hazards include earthquakes, drought, and occasional cyclonic disturbances from the Indian Ocean, which bring heavy rains, and flash floods. Natural resources include geothermal energy. Inadequate supplies of potable water, limited arable land and desertification are current issues. Djibouti is a party to international agreements on biodiversity, climate change, desertification, endangered species, Law of the Sea, ozone layer protection, ship pollution, and wetlands. Coastline Djibouti has a coastline which measures about . Much of the coastline is accessible and quite varied in geography and habitats.Inlets Gulf of Tadjoura Ghoubbet-el-Kharab Maritime claims * Territorial sea: * Contiguous zone: * Exclusive economic zone: Human geography The population of Djibouti in 2015 was 846,000. For statistical purposes, the country has three areas; Djibouti City (population 529,000), Ali Sabieh (population 55,000), and Dikhil (population 54,000). Djibouti's population is diverse demographically; 60% Somali, 35% Afar, and 3% Arabs. In terms of religion, 94% Muslim, 6% Christian. Extreme points This is a list of the extreme points of Djibouti, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location. * Northernmost point – Ras Doumera, Obock Region * Northernmost point (mainland) – the point at which the border with Eritrea enters the Red Sea, Obock Region * Easternmost point – unnamed section of the Red Sea coast north of Ras Bir, Obock Region * Southernmost point – unnamed location on the border with Ethiopia west of the town of As Ela, Dikhil Region * Westernmost point – unnamed location on the border with Ethiopia immediately east of the Ethiopian town of Afambo, Dikhil Region References Category:Afrotropical realm sv:Djibouti#Geografi tr:Cibuti#Coğrafya	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Djibouti	2025-04-05T18:28:25.674530
8043	Demographics of Djibouti	<!-- "none" is a legitimate description when the title is already adequate; see WP:SDNONE --> <!-- Per convention, please leave the page layout as is, with the main info on the country's ethnic groups at the top, and the statistical summary data below it. --> Demographic features of Djibouti include population density, ethnicity, education level, health, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects. Population Djibouti is a multiethnic country. As of 2018, it has a population of around 884,017 inhabitants. Djibouti's population grew rapidly during the latter half of the 20th century, increasing from about 69,589 in 1955 to around 869,099 by 2015. {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align: right;" \|- ! ! width="80pt"\|Total population ! width="80pt"\|Population aged 0–14 (%) ! width="80pt"\|Population aged 15–64 (%) ! width="80pt"\|Population aged 65+ (%) \|- \| 1950 \| 62 000\|\|46.8\|\|51.2\|\|2.0 \|- \| 1955 \| 70 000\|\|46.0\|\|52.0\|\|2.0 \|- \| 1960 \| 85 000\|\|45.4\|\|52.5\|\|2.0 \|- \| 1965 \| 117 000\|\|44.9\|\|53.0\|\|2.0 \|- \| 1970 \| 162 000\|\|45.8\|\|52.2\|\|2.1 \|- \| 1975 \| 224 000\|\|45.9\|\|52.0\|\|2.1 \|- \| 1980 \| 340 000\|\|45.3\|\|52.5\|\|2.2 \|- \| 1985 \| 403 000\|\|44.6\|\|53.1\|\|2.3 \|- \| 1990 \| 562 000\|\|44.2\|\|53.4\|\|2.4 \|- \| 1995 \| 627 000\|\|43.4\|\|54.1\|\|2.5 \|- \| 2000 \| 732 000\|\|41.3\|\|55.9\|\|2.7 \|- \| 2005 \| 808 000\|\|38.5\|\|58.5\|\|3.0 \|- \| 2010 \| 889 000\|\|35.8\|\|60.9\|\|3.3 \|} {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! width="80pt"\|Age Group ! width="80pt"\|Male ! width="80pt"\|Female ! width="80pt"\|Total ! width="80pt"\|% \|- \| align="right" \| Total \| align="right" \| 440 066 \| align="right" \| 378 093 \| align="right" \| 818 159 \| align="right" \| 100 \|- \| align="right" \| 0–4 \| align="right" \| 49 863 \| align="right" \| 41 269 \| align="right" \| 91 132 \| align="right" \| 11.14 \|- \| align="right" \| 5–9 \| align="right" \| 56 117 \| align="right" \| 41 269 \| align="right" \| 101 271 \| align="right" \| 12.38 \|- \| align="right" \| 10–14 \| align="right" \| 48 135 \| align="right" \| 37 337 \| align="right" \| 85 472 \| align="right" \| 10.45 \|- \| align="right" \| 15–19 \| align="right" \| 46 351 \| align="right" \| 39 283 \| align="right" \| 85 634 \| align="right" \| 10.47 \|- \| align="right" \| 20–24 \| align="right" \| 43 786 \| align="right" \| 40 272 \| align="right" \| 84 058 \| align="right" \| 10.27 \|- \| align="right" \| 25–29 \| align="right" \| 40 222 \| align="right" \| 41 995 \| align="right" \| 82 217 \| align="right" \| 10.05 \|- \| align="right" \| 30–34 \| align="right" \| 35 558 \| align="right" \| 33 997 \| align="right" \| 69 555 \| align="right" \| 8.50 \|- \| align="right" \| 35–39 \| align="right" \| 29 563 \| align="right" \| 26 512 \| align="right" \| 56 074 \| align="right" \| 6.85 \|- \| align="right" \| 40–44 \| align="right" \| 25 247 \| align="right" \| 19 734 \| align="right" \| 44 981 \| align="right" \| 5.50 \|- \| align="right" \| 45–49 \| align="right" \| 19 470 \| align="right" \| 15 456 \| align="right" \| 34 926 \| align="right" \| 4.27 \|- \| align="right" \| 50–54 \| align="right" \| 16 363 \| align="right" \| 12 479 \| align="right" \| 28 841 \| align="right" \| 3.53 \|- \| align="right" \| 55–59 \| align="right" \| 10 325 \| align="right" \| 7 860 \| align="right" \| 18 185 \| align="right" \| 2.22 \|- \| align="right" \| 60–64 \| align="right" \| 8 495 \| align="right" \| 6 677 \| align="right" \| 15 172 \| align="right" \| 1.85 \|- \| align="right" \| 65+ \| align="right" \| 10 572 \| align="right" \| 10 069 \| align="right" \| 20 641 \| align="right" \| 2.52 \|- ! width="50"\|Age group ! width="80pt"\|Male ! width="80"\|Female ! width="80"\|Total ! width="50"\|Percent \|- \| align="right" \| 0–14 \| align="right" \| 154 115 \| align="right" \| 119 875 \| align="right" \| 273 990 \| align="right" \| 33.49 \|- \| align="right" \| 15–64 \| align="right" \| 275 379 \| align="right" \| 248 149 \| align="right" \| 523 528 \| align="right" \| 63.99 \|- \| align="right" \| 65+ \| align="right" \| 10 572 \| align="right" \| 10 069 \| align="right" \| 20 641 \| align="right" \| 2.52 \|- \|} {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! width="80pt"\|Age Group ! width="80pt"\|Male ! width="80pt"\|Female ! width="80pt"\|Total ! width="80pt"\|% \|- \| align="right" \| Total \| align="right" \| 527 817 \| align="right" \| 473 636 \| align="right" \| 1 001 452 \| align="right" \| 100 \|- \| align="right" \| 0–4 \| align="right" \| 50 744 \| align="right" \| 49 747 \| align="right" \| 100 491 \| align="right" \| 10.03 \|- \| align="right" \| 5–9 \| align="right" \| 54 487 \| align="right" \| 53 200 \| align="right" \| 107 687 \| align="right" \| 10.75 \|- \| align="right" \| 10–14 \| align="right" \| 52 811 \| align="right" \| 45 854 \| align="right" \| 98 665 \| align="right" \| 9.85 \|- \| align="right" \| 15–19 \| align="right" \| 50 167 \| align="right" \| 40 507 \| align="right" \| 90 674 \| align="right" \| 9.05 \|- \| align="right" \| 20–24 \| align="right" \| 48 044 \| align="right" \| 40 029 \| align="right" \| 88 072 \| align="right" \| 8.79 \|- \| align="right" \| 25–29 \| align="right" \| 45 209 \| align="right" \| 38 999 \| align="right" \| 84 208 \| align="right" \| 8.41 \|- \| align="right" \| 30–34 \| align="right" \| 42 445 \| align="right" \| 38 723 \| align="right" \| 81 168 \| align="right" \| 8.11 \|- \| align="right" \| 35–39 \| align="right" \| 39 077 \| align="right" \| 36 798 \| align="right" \| 75 874 \| align="right" \| 7.58 \|- \| align="right" \| 40–44 \| align="right" \| 34 761 \| align="right" \| 32 809 \| align="right" \| 67 570 \| align="right" \| 6.75 \|- \| align="right" \| 45–49 \| align="right" \| 29 881 \| align="right" \| 28 056 \| align="right" \| 57 936 \| align="right" \| 5.79 \|- \| align="right" \| 50–54 \| align="right" \| 24 442 \| align="right" \| 21 937 \| align="right" \| 46 379 \| align="right" \| 4.63 \|- \| align="right" \| 55–59 \| align="right" \| 19 309 \| align="right" \| 16 508 \| align="right" \| 35 817 \| align="right" \| 3.58 \|- \| align="right" \| 60–64 \| align="right" \| 14 340 \| align="right" \| 11 888 \| align="right" \| 26 229 \| align="right" \| 2.62 \|- \| align="right" \| 65–69 \| align="right" \| 9 975 \| align="right" \| 8 077 \| align="right" \| 18 053 \| align="right" \| 1.80 \|- \| align="right" \| 70–74 \| align="right" \| 6 260 \| align="right" \| 5 158 \| align="right" \| 11 418 \| align="right" \| 1.14 \|- \| align="right" \| 75–79 \| align="right" \| 3 444 \| align="right" \| 2 953 \| align="right" \| 6 397 \| align="right" \| 0.64 \|- \| align="right" \| 80+ \| align="right" \| 2 421 \| align="right" \| 2 393 \| align="right" \| 4 814 \| align="right" \| 0.48 \|- ! width="50"\|Age group ! width="80pt"\|Male ! width="80"\|Female ! width="80"\|Total ! width="50"\|Percent \|- \| align="right" \| 0–14 \| align="right" \| 158 042 \| align="right" \| 148 801 \| align="right" \| 306 843 \| align="right" \| 30.64 \|- \| align="right" \| 15–64 \| align="right" \| 347 675 \| align="right" \| 306 254 \| align="right" \| 653 929 \| align="right" \| 65.30 \|- \| align="right" \| 65+ \| align="right" \| 22 100 \| align="right" \| 18 581 \| align="right" \| 40 681 \| align="right" \| 4.06 \|- \|} Projections The following are UN medium variant projections; numbers are in thousands: \|- \|1950–1955 \|41.04 \|- \|1955–1960 \| 42.95 \|- \|1960–1965 \| 45.18 \|- \|1965–1970 \| 47.35 \|- \|1970–1975 \| 50.90 \|- \|1975–1980 \| 52.55 \|- \|1980–1985 \| 54.67 \|- \|1985–1990 \| 56.12 \|- \|1990–1995 \| 57.02 \|- \|1995–2000 \| 57.02 \|- \|2000–2005 \| 57.29 \|- \|2005–2010 \| 59.05 \|- \|2010–2015 \| 61.62 \|} Ethnic groups The two largest ethnic groups native to Djibouti are the Somalis (60%) and the Afar (35%). The Somali clan component is mainly composed of the Issa followed by the Gadabuursi and the Isaaq. The remaining 5% of Djibouti's population primarily consists of Yemeni Arabs, Ethiopians and Europeans (French and Italians). In addition, as of 2021, 4,000 American troops, 1,350 French troops, 600 Japanese troops, 400 Chinese troops, and an unknown number of German troops are stationed at various bases throughout Djibouti. Approximately 76% of local residents are urban dwellers; the remainder are pastoralists. Languages Djibouti is a multilingual nation. Arabic is of religious importance. In formal settings, it consists of Modern Standard Arabic. Colloquially, about 59,000 local residents speak the Ta'izzi-Adeni Arabic dialect, also known as Djibouti Arabic. French serves as a statutory national language. It was inherited from the colonial period, and is the primary language of instruction. Around 17,000 Djiboutians speak it as a first language. Immigrant languages include Omani Arabic (38,900 speakers), Amharic (1,400 speakers), Greek (1,000 speakers) and Hindi (600 speakers).<ref name"ethnologue.com"/>ReligionSunni Muslim 94% (nearly all Djiboutians), other 6% (mainly foreign-born residents - Shia Muslim, Christian, Hindu, Jewish, Baha'i, and atheist) References External links Djibouti	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Djibouti	2025-04-05T18:28:25.710370
8044	Politics of Djibouti	Politics of Djibouti takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the executive power is exercised by the President and the Government. Legislative power is vested in both the Government and the National Assembly. The party system and legislature are dominated by the socialist People's Rally for Progress. In April 2010, a new constitutional amendment was approved. The President serves as both the head of state and head of government, and is directly elected for single six-year term. Government is headed by the President, who appoints the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers on the proposal of the latter. There is also a 65-member chamber of deputies, where representatives are popularly elected for terms of five years. Administratively, the country is divided into five regions and one city, with eleven additional sub-prefecture subdivisions. Djibouti is also part of various international organisations, including the United Nations and Arab League. History In 1958, on the eve of neighboring Somalia's independence in 1960, a referendum was held in Djibouti to decide whether to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum turned out in favour of a continued association with France, partly due to a combined "yes" vote by the sizeable Afar ethnic group and resident Europeans. There was also widespread vote rigging, with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the referendum reached the polls. The majority of those who had voted "no" were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia as had been proposed by Mahmoud Harbi, Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later. However, the referendum was again marred by reports of vote rigging on the part of the French authorities. Shortly after the referendum was held, the former Côte française des Somalis (French Somaliland) was renamed to Territoire français des Afars et des Issas. In 1977, a third referendum took place. A landslide 98.8% of the electorate supported disengagement from France, officially marking Djibouti's independence. Hassan Gouled Aptidon, a Somali politician who had campaigned for a "yes" vote in the referendum of 1958, eventually wound up as the nation's first president (1977–1999). He received 74% of the vote, the other 26% going to opposition candidate Moussa Ahmed Idriss, of the Unified Djiboutian Opposition (ODU). For the first time since independence, no group boycotted the election. Moussa Ahmed Idriss and the ODU later challenged the results based on election "irregularities" and the assertion that "foreigners" had voted in various sub-prefectures of the capital; however, international and locally based observers considered the election to be generally fair, and cited only minor technical difficulties. Guelleh took the oath of office as the second President of the Republic of Djibouti on May 8, 1999, with the support of an alliance between the RPP and the government-recognised section of the Afar-led FRUD. thumb\|left\|upright\|Dileita Mohamed Dileita, former Prime Minister of Djibouti, vice-president of the People's Rally for Progress (RPP), and President of the Union for a Presidential Majority (UMP). Currently, political power is shared by a Somali Issa president and an Afar prime minister, with cabinet posts roughly divided. However, it is the Issas who dominate the government, civil service, and the ruling party, a situation that has bred resentment and political competition between the Somali Issas and the Afars. The government is dominated by the Somali Issa Mamasen, who enjoy the support of the Somali clans, especially the Isaaq (the clan of the current president's wife) and the Gadabuursi Dir (who are the second most prominent Somali clan in Djibouti politics). In early November 1991, civil war erupted in Djibouti between the government and a predominantly Afar rebel group, the Front for the Restoration of Unity and Democracy (FRUD). The FRUD signed a peace accord with the government in December 1994, ending the conflict. Two FRUD members were subsequently made cabinet members, and in the presidential elections of 1999 the FRUD campaigned in support of the RPP. In February 2000, another branch of FRUD signed a peace accord with the government. On 12 May 2001, President Ismail Omar Guelleh presided over the signing of what is termed the final peace accord officially ending the decade-long civil war between the government and the armed faction of the FRUD. The treaty successfully completed the peace process begun on 7 February 2000 in Paris, with Ahmed Dini Ahmed representing the FRUD. On 8 April 2005, President Guelleh was sworn in for his second six-year term after a one-man election. He took 100% of the votes in a 78.9% turnout. Although opposition groups boycotted the ballot over changes to the constitution permitting Guelleh to run again for office, On 31 March 2013, Guelleh replaced long-serving Prime Minister Dilleita Mohamed Dilleita with former president of the Union for a Presidential Majority (UMP) Abdoulkader Kamil Mohamed. In April 2021, Ismael Guelleh, the second President of Djibouti since independence from France in 1977, was re-elected for his fifth term. Head of state and government \|President \|Ismail Omar Guelleh \|RPP \|8 May 1999 \|- \|Prime Minister \|Abdoulkader Kamil Mohamed \|RPP \|1 April 2013 \|} The President is directly elected by popular vote for a five-year term. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President, and the Council of Ministers is solely responsible to the President, as specified in Articles 21 and 23 of the Constitution of Djibouti. Political parties and elections Presidential elections Parliamentary elections Administrative divisions thumb\|The National Assembly building in Djibouti City. Djibouti is sectioned into five administrative regions and one city: Ali Sabieh Region, Arta Region, Dikhil Region, Djibouti Region, Obock Region and Tadjourah Region. The country is further sub-divided into eleven sub-prefectures. International organization participation ACCT, ACP, AfDB, AFESD, AL, AMF, ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IGAD, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, ITUC, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WMO, WToO, WTrO Notes pt:Djibouti#Política	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Djibouti	2025-04-05T18:28:25.729673
8045	Economy of Djibouti	$4.36 billion (nominal, 2024) * $6.619 billion (PPP, 2022)}} \|per capita = $3.666 (nominal, 2022) (171st) N/A IHDI (2021)}} \|labor = 294,600 (2012 est.) \|occupations = \|unemployment = 40% (2017 est.) \|edbr 112th (medium, 2020) \|industries = Dairy, Fishing, Salt, Construction, Mining \|exports = $155.5 million (2017 est.) \|export-goods = Reexports, Hides and skins, Coffee, Scrap metal \|export-partners = 38.8%(2019est.) 17.1%(2020est.) * 8.9%(2021est.) * 4.9% (2022est.) * 4.6%(2023est.) (2017 est.)}} \|imports = $1.172 billion (2017 est.) \|import-goods = Machinery and Equipment, Foodstuffs, Beverages, Chemicals, Petroleum products, Consumer Goods \|import-partners = Pr ’42%(2019est.) 14%(2020est.) * 4%(2021est.) * 6%(2022est.) * 3%(2023est.)}} \|gross external debt \|FDI \|debt = 85% (2017 est.) \|revenue = $615 million \|expenses = $860 million \|aid = \|credit \|reserves \|cianame \|spelling = }} The economy of Djibouti is derived in large part from its strategic location on the Red Sea. Djibouti is mostly barren, with little development in the agricultural and industrial sectors. The country has a harsh climate, a largely unskilled labour force, and limited natural resources. The country's most important economic asset is its strategic location, connecting the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. As such, Djibouti's economy is commanded by the services sector, providing services as both a transit port for the region and as an international transshipment and refueling centre. From 1991 to 1994, Djibouti experienced a civil war which had devastating effects on the economy. Since then, the country has benefited from political stability. In recent years, Djibouti has seen significant improvement in macroeconomic stability, with its annual gross domestic product improving at an average of over 3 percent since 2003. This comes after a decade of negative or low growth and is attributed to fiscal adjustment aimed at improving public financing, reforms in port management and foreign investment. Despite the recent modest and stable growth, Djibouti is faced with many economic challenges, particularly job creation and poverty reduction. With an average annual population growth rate of 2.5 percent, the economy cannot significantly benefit national income per capita growth. Unemployment is extremely high, with some estimates placing it at almost 60 percent, and is a major contributor to widespread poverty. In recent years, the country's dependence on Chinese investment and debt has also come under scrutiny. According to a 2020 report by the World bank, Djibouti was 112th among 190 economies when it comes to the ease of doing business.Economic performance thumb\|250px\|right\| Bus down the central market in Djibouti City. After experiencing armed conflict and economic hardship during the 1990s, Djibouti has experienced stable economic growth in recent years as a result of relative political stability and achievements in macroeconomic adjustment efforts. Fiscal adjustment measures included downsizing the civil service, implementing a pension reform that placed the system on a much stronger financial footing, and strengthening public expenditure institutions. From 2003 to 2005, annual real GDP growth averaged 3.1 percent in the mid-2000s, driven by good performance in the services sector, strong consumption and reached a value as high as 7.8 percent in 2019. In the 21st century, Inflation has been kept low through fixed pegging of the Djibouti franc to the US dollar, but experienced a sharp spike in the late 2000s, when it reached values three times higher than the average of the last 20 years. Despite experiencing economic growth, the country continues to struggle with high unemployment. Official numbers put the unemployment rate at just over 10 percent, but international estimates consider it to be closer to 60 percent. Furthermore, reliance on diesel-generated electricity and the need to import basic necessities like food and water leave average consumers vulnerable to global price shocks. Low tax revenue and high spending on public infrastructure has seen Djibouti struggle with its budget deficit. Additionally, the country's public debt has increased sharply—from 50.2 percent of GDP in 2015 to an expected 72.9 percent in 2020. Balance of payments Djibouti's merchandise trade balance has shown a large deficit. This is due to the country's enormous need for imports and narrow base of exports. Although Djibouti runs a substantial surplus in its services balance, the surplus has been smaller than the deficit in the merchandise trade balance. As a result, Djibouti's has developed a high level of trade deficit, reaching a peak of 130 billion Djibouti francs in 2019. Regional situation Positioned on a primary shipping lane between the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea, Djibouti holds considerable strategic value in the international trade and shipping industries. The facilities of the Port of Djibouti are important to sea transportation companies for fuel bunkering and refuelling. Its transport facilities are used by several landlocked African countries for the re-export of their goods. Djibouti earns transit taxes and harbour fees from this trade, these form the bulk of government revenue. Threats of pirates patrolling the Gulf of Aden, off the coast of Somalia, with the intentions of capturing large cargo ships, oil, and chemical tankers has created the need for larger nations such as the United States, France, and Japan to embed logistics bases or military camps from which they can defend their freight from piracy. The port of Djibouti functions as a small French naval facility, and the United States has also stationed hundreds of troops in Camp Lemonnier, Djibouti, its only African base, in an effort to counter terrorism in the region. Since 2010 China has become an important trading and military partner for Djibouti, including it in its African Road and Belt Initiative through the construction of infrastructure projects like a railway link to Ethiopia and the Doraleh port. In 2017, it also began operating a large naval base near de Doraleh port, which serves as China's first ever overseas military base. In 2009, China overtook the United States in becoming Djibouti's largest trading partner. Between 57 percent and 70 percent of Djibouti's debt is made up of Chinese loans. Chinese influence in Djibouti, particularly through its military base and financial debt, has been criticized in recent years as being more beneficial to the stability of the current political regime than for the country as a whole. Macro-economic trend The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2017. {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;" \|- style="font-weight:bold;" ! Year ! GDP (in bil. US$ PPP) ! GDP per capita (in US$ PPP) !GDP (in bil. US$ nominal) ! GDP growth<br />(real) ! Inflation<br />(in Percent) ! Governmentdebt<br />(Pct. of GDP) \|- \| style="font-weight:bold;" \| 2000 \| 1.73 \| 3,354 \|0.8 \| 0.7% \| 1.2% \| – \|- \| style="font-weight:bold;" \| 2005 \| 2.22 \| 3,357 \|1.0 \| 3.1% \| 3.3% \| – \|- \| style="font-weight:bold;" \| 2010 \| 3.02 \| 3,604 \|1.5 \| 4.1% \| 2.5% \| 27% \|- \| style="font-weight:bold;" \| 2015 \| 4.20 \| 4,275 \|2.4 \| 7.7% \| -0.8% \| 38% \|- \| style="font-weight:bold;" \| 2016 \| 4.39 \| 4,446 \|2.6 \| 6.9% \| 2.7% \| 43% \|- \| style="font-weight:bold;" \| 2017 \| 4.64 \| 4,545 \|2.8 \| 5.1% \| 0.5% \| 46% \|- \| style="font-weight:bold;" \| 2018 \| 5.15 \| 4,796 \|2.9 \| 8.5% \| 0.1% \| 46% \|- \| style="font-weight:bold;" \| 2019 \| 5.64 \| 5,016 \|3.1 \| 7.5% \| 3.3% \| 38% \|- \| style="font-weight:bold;" \| 2020 \| 5.65 \| 4,830 \|3.2 \| 1% \| 2.9% \| 41% \|- \| style="font-weight:bold;" \| 2021 \| 6.04 \| 4,934 \|3.4 \| 5% \| 2.4% \| 40% \|} Impact of COVID-19 Despite not being hit as hard as other countries by the COVID-19 pandemic, Djibouti's economy suffered the effects of the global slowdown in trade and diminished traffic through the Doraleh port. Real GDP growth slumped to 1.4 percent in 2020 from 7.8 percent in 2019. The pandemic also contributed to a sharp deceleration in investment, which increased by just 10.3 percent of GDP in 2020, compared to a 26.3 percent growth in 2019, as well as in the value added by the services sector, which saw a modest 2 percent increase in 2020, after growing by 8.2 percent in 2019. An unemployment rate of 60 percent continues to be a major problem. Inflation is not a concern, however, because of the fixed tie of the franc to the US dollar. Per capita consumption dropped an estimated 35 percent over the last seven years because of recession, civil war, and a high population growth rate. Faced with a multitude of economic difficulties, the government has fallen in arrears on long-term external debt and has been struggling to meet the stipulations of foreign aid donors. The Djiboutian franc is pegged to the US dollars since 1949 through the use of a currency board. The effectiveness of this longstanding and unique institution on the African continent has not been challenged since then. According to a financial risk assessment from 2018, the country has been suffering from increasing corruption and a decline in international governance and transparency indices, growing debt and over-reliance on Ethiopia and China for trade and FDI, respectively. Openness to foreign investment Officially, the government of Djibouti welcomes all foreign direct investment. Djibouti's assets include a strategic geographic location, an open trade regime, a stable currency, substantial tax breaks and other incentives. Potential areas of investment include Djibouti's port and the telecommunications sectors. President Ismail Omar Guellehh first elected in 1999, has named privatization, economic reform, and increased foreign investment as top priorities for his government. The president pledged to seek the help of the international private sector to develop the country's infrastructure. Djibouti has no major laws that would discourage incoming foreign investment. In principle there is no screening of investment or other discriminatory mechanisms. However, a number of hurdles to foreign investment in the country exist. For example, certain sectors, most notably public utilities, are state owned and some parts are not currently open to investors. Furthermore, there are concerns about the rule of law, the independence of courts, and how this affects the protection of investments in the country. A Freedom House report, for example, mentions the case of Dubai-based port operator DP World which has been embroiled in a legal battle with Djibouti since 2012, "when Djibouti sold part of its concession in the Doraleh Container Terminal to a Chinese state-owned competitor of DP World, the original concession partner." In 2018, Djibouti seized DP World's port assets, but ruling the nationalization illegal, the London Court of International Arbitration in 2019 ordered Djibouti to restore the rights and benefits of the concession to DP World. The country subsequently rejected the ruling and asked the Djibouti high court to unilaterally nullify the LCIA decision. A Santander report concluded that despite its strategic importance, FDI into Djibouti is hampered by "mediocre governance, corruption, the lack of a sound judicial framework, an unstable regional geopolitical situation, a poorly diversified economy with little resilience to outside shocks, and a fragile ecosystem prone to environmental crisis." As in most African nations, access to licenses and approvals is complicated not so much by law as by administrative procedures. In Djibouti, the administrative process has been characterized as a form of 'circular dependency.' For example, the finance ministry will issue a license only if an investor possesses an approved investor visa, while the interior ministry will only issue an investor visa to a licensed business. The Djiboutian government is increasingly realizing the importance of establishing a one-stop shop to facilitate the investment process.SectorsTrade branch in Djibouti City]] Principal exports from the region transiting Djibouti are coffee, salt, hides, dried beans, cereals, other agricultural products, chalk, and wax. Djibouti itself has few exports, and the majority of its imports come from France. Most imports are consumed in Djibouti and the remainder goes to Ethiopia and Somalia. Djibouti's unfavorable balance of trade is offset partially by invisible earnings such as transit taxes and harbor dues. In 1999, U.S. exports to Djibouti totalled $26.7 million while U.S. imports from Djibouti were less than $1 million. The City of Djibouti has the only paved airport in the republic. Tourism In 2013, 63,000 foreign tourists visited Djibouti, Djibouti City is the principal tourist destination for visitors, revenues from tourism fell just US$43 million in 2013.See also * Ministry of Economy and Finance (Djibouti) * Djibouti and the World Bank * IMF Relations with Djibouti * List of companies based in Djibouti * United Nations Economic Commission for Africa References External links [http://www.trademap.org/open_access/Index.aspx?proceedtrue&reporter262 Djibouti latest trade data on ITC Trade Map] Richard Labelle, [http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/33/034.html "Djibouti ICT strategy and action plan"], 28 May 2003 * African Development Bank, [http://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Project-and-Operations/ADB-BD-WP-2007-127-EN-DJIBOUTI-CSP-2007-2010.PDF "Djibouti: Results-based country strategy paper, 2007-2010"], October 2007 * [http://nikolaynenovsky.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/07-AMAN-NENOVSKY-MAHAMOUD-DEF.pdf Le système informel de transferts de fonds et le mécanisme automatique du Currency Board : complémentarité ou antagonisme ? Le cas des transferts des hawalas à Djibouti] <!--Categories--> Djibouti Category:Economy of the Arab League Djibouti	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Djibouti	2025-04-05T18:28:25.745357
8047	Transport in Djibouti	<!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE --> Transport in Djibouti is facilitated through a relatively young system of roads, railways and ports. Air transport aircraft at the Djibouti–Ambouli International Airport (2016).]] Airlines The national flag carrier is Air Djibouti. In total, there are other airlines, all operating out of Djibouti–Ambouli International Airport: * Jubba Airways Airports The aviation industry is regulated by the Civil Aviation Authority of Djibouti, a statutory board of the Djibouti government under the Ministry of Infrastructure & Transport. {\| style"width:100%; margin:auto;" cellpadding"1" <caption>Airport and airbase technical data<br /></caption> ! style"background:#efefef;" \| Airport!! style"background:#efefef;" \|ICAO!! style"background:#efefef;" \|IATA!! style"background:#efefef;" \|Usage!! style"background:#efefef;" \|Runway!! style"background:#efefef;" \|Length<br />(ft)!! style"background:#efefef;" \|Length<br />(m)!! style"background:#efefef;" \|Remarks \|- \| Djibouti–Ambouli International Airport\|\|HDAM\|\|JIB\|\|Civilian/Military\|\|Paved\|\|10335\|\|3150\|\| \|- \| Chabelley Airport\|\|HDCH\|\|none\|\|Military\|\|Paved\|\|8530\|\|2600\|\| \|} Maritime transport n cargo ship docked at the Port of Djibouti.]] Ports and harbours The Port of Djibouti, run by the Djibouti Ports & Free Zones Authority and Port of Doraleh, is a key transhipment hub for the East African region.ReferencesBibliography Michelon 745 Africa North East, Arabia 2007 GeoCenter Africa North East 1999 *Maplanida.com	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_in_Djibouti	2025-04-05T18:28:25.749816
8048	Djibouti Armed Forces	<br><br> \| image = The Emblem of the Djiboutian Armed Force.svg \| alt \| caption Emblem of the Djiboutian Armed Force \| image2 = The official logo of the Djiboutian Armed Forces.png \| alt2 \| caption2 Official Badge of the Djiboutian Armed Forces \| motto = <br />(Victory or Death) \| founded = \| current_form \| disbanded \| branches = Djiboutian Army<br>Djiboutian Air Force<br>Djiboutian Navy<br>Djiboutian Gendarmerie<br>Republican Guard<br>Djiboutian Coast Guard \| headquarters \| flying_hours \| website = <!----> <!-- Leadership --> \| commander-in-chief = Ismaïl Omar Guelleh \| commander-in-chief_title = Commander-in-Chief \| chief minister = Abdoulkader Kamil Mohamed \| chief minister_title = Prime Minister \| minister Hassan Omar Mohamed \| minister_title = Minister of Defence \| commander = General Zakaria Chiek Imbrahim \| commander_title = Chief of the General Staff <!-- Manpower --> \| age = 18–49 years old \| conscription \| manpower_data 2010 est. \| manpower_age = 18–49 \| available = 391,797 \| available_f \| fit 268,730 \| fit_f \| reaching \| reaching_f \| active 20,470 <small>(2018 est.)</small> \| ranked \| reserve 12,220 <small>(2018 est.)</small> \| deployed Somalia – 3,500<br>Central African Republic – 195 Gendarmerie <br> Democratic Republic of the Congo - 25 Police <!-- Financial --> \| amount = $195 million (2021 est.) \| percent_GDP = 3.5% (2019 est.) <!-- Industrial --> \| domestic_suppliers \| foreign_suppliers United States<br>France<br>Italy<br>Turkey \| imports \| exports <!-- Related articles --> \| history = Military history of Djibouti: Djiboutian Civil War<br>Djiboutian–Eritrean border conflict<br/>United Nations–African Union Mission in Darfur<br>African Union Mission to Somalia<br>African Union Transition Mission in Somalia \| ranks = Military ranks of Djibouti }} The Djibouti Armed Forces (DJAF; , , ) are the military forces of Djibouti. They consist of the Djiboutian National Army and its sub-branches the Djiboutian Air Force and Djiboutian Navy. As of 2018, the Djibouti Armed Forces consists of 20,470 (2018 est.) ground troops, which are divided into several regiments and battalions garrisoned in various areas throughout the country. The Djibouti Armed Forces are an important player in the Bab-el-Mandeb and Red Sea. In 2015 General Zakaria Chiek Imbrahim was ''chief d'etat-major general (chief of staff) of the Forces Armees Djiboutiennes. He assumed command in November 2013. Djibouti has always been a very active member in the African Union and the Arab League. History Lieutenant General Salem bin Hamad bin Mohammed bin Aqeel Al Nabit]] Historically, Somali society accorded prestige to the warrior (waranle) and rewarded military prowess. Except for men of religion (wadaad''), who were few in number, all Somali males were considered potential warriors. Djibouti's many Sultanates each maintained regular troops. In the early Middle Ages, the conquest of Shewa by the Ifat Sultanate ignited a rivalry for supremacy with the Solomonic Dynasty. Many similar battles were fought between the succeeding Sultanate of Adal and the Solomonids, with both sides achieving victory and suffering defeat. During the protracted Ethiopian-Adal War (1529–1559), Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi defeated several Ethiopian Emperors and embarked on a conquest referred to as the Futuh Al-Habash ("Conquest of Abyssinia"), which brought three-quarters of Christian Abyssinia under the power of the Muslim Adal Sultanate. Al-Ghazi's forces and their Ottoman allies came close to extinguishing the ancient Ethiopian kingdom, but the Abyssinians managed to secure the assistance of Cristóvão da Gama's Portuguese troops and maintain their domain's autonomy. However, both polities in the process exhausted their resources and manpower, which resulted in the contraction of both powers and changed regional dynamics for centuries to come. First World War The 1st Battalion of Somali Skirmishers, formed in 1915 from recruits from the French Somali Coast, was a unit belonging to the French Colonial Army. They distinguished himself during the First World War, notably during the resumption of Fort Douaumont, Battle of Verdun in October 1916 alongside the Régiment d'infanterie-chars de marine and the Second Battle of the Aisne in October 1917. In May and June 1918, they took part in the Third Battle Of The Aisne and in July in the Second Battle of the Marne. In August and September 1918, the Somali battalion fought on the Oise front and in October 1918 he obtained his second citation to the order of the army as well as the right to wear a Fourragère in the colors of the ribbon of the Croix de guerre 1914–1918. Between 1915 and 1918, over 2,088 Djiboutians served as combat in the First World War. Their losses are estimated at 517 killed and 1,000 to 1,200 injured. Second World War 1942]] During the Italian invasion and occupation of Ethiopia in the mid-1930s and during the early stages of World War II, constant border skirmishes occurred between the forces in French Somaliland and the forces in Italian East Africa. After the fall of France in 1940, French Somaliland declared loyalty to Vichy France. The colony remained loyal to Vichy France during the East African Campaign but stayed out of that conflict. British forces in Ethiopia begin dropping leaflets calling on the French Somaliland to rally to Free France. The newspaper Djibouti Libre published in Dire Dawa is also air dropped into the Vichy controlled colony and a 15-minute newscast is broadcast over the radio. In 1942: Vichy recalls Governor Pierre Nouailhetas after his superiors decide that he is in too close contact with the British. Nouailhetas delegates his authority to the military commander General Truffert. Two battalions, accompanied by civilians, leave Djibouti to join the British forces in British Somaliland. General Truffert is forced to resign and cede power to his adjutant General Dupont after a great majority of Djibouti's military and civil administrators threaten to leave for British held Somaliland. This lasted until December 1942. By that time, the Italians had been defeated and the French colony was isolated by a British blockade. Free French and Allied forces recaptured the colony's capital of Djibouti at the end of 1942. A local battalion of Somali skirmishers to participate in the battles for the liberation of France, it participated in particular in the fighting at Pointe de Grave in April 1945. On April 22, 1945, General de Gaulle awarded the Somali battalion a citation to the army and decorated the battalion's pennant in Soulac-sur-Mer. The Somali battalion was dissolved on June 25, 1946. Ogaden War The Ogaden War (13 July 1977 – 15 March 1978) was a conflict fought between the Ethiopian government and Somali government. The Djibouti government supported Somalia with military intelligence. In a notable illustration of the nature of Cold War alliances, the Soviet Union switched from supplying aid to Somalia to supporting Ethiopia, which had previously been backed by the United States. This in turn prompted the U.S. to later start supporting Somalia. The war ended when Somali forces retreated back across the border and a truce was declared. Ethiopian Civil War In the 27 May to June 13, 1991, the Djiboutian Armed Forces and FFDJ participated in Operation Godoria. The President of the Djiboutian Republic, Hassan Gouled Aptidon described this as a "invasion". At the end of May 1991, the collapse of the Ethiopian regime the Assab loyalist division. Crossed the border at dawn, cornered on the northern border of Djibouti, Assab's division, 9,000 strong, crossed the Djiboutian-Ethiopian border with arms and luggage and headed towards Obock. Simultaneously, another division crossed the Western border and moved towards Dikhil. This violation of the borders by a regular foreign army falls strictly within the framework of the protocols passed between France and Djibouti. This is why, on May 26 at 10:30 p.m., Operation Godoria is launched, all Djiboutian and French forces, land, air and sea stationed in Djibouti participate in it. Djiboutian Army, prohibit Ethiopian troops from surging towards the south. Djiboutian and French troops deployed, facing the firmness of their interlocutors, the Ethiopian officers yielded to the demands and agreed to continue the disarmament already begun. The 5th Overseas Interarms Regiment took charge of a detachment of 4,300 military refugees, accompanied by a few families and embarked in 120 vehicles of all types heading towards the southern border. The initial aim is to clean up a border area of 150 km2, collect, remove supplies, inventory and hand over abandoned weapons to the Djiboutian authorities. The "Lynx Mike" detachment identifies thousands of individual and collective weapons, includes the T 55, ZU-23-2, BTR and BRDM, finally destroys the 50 tons of unpackaged ammunition of all calibers. From May 30 to June 13, there will be a total of 12,500 weapons from the AK47 to the T64, including LRMs, 122 howitzers and more than 200 tons of ammunition from the 200 kg bomb to the cartridge factory, via rockets LRM which will have been moved, sorted, stored, even for some of them neutralized or destroyed. Djibouti deployed troops to Somalia to fight Al-Shabaab forces and Al-Qaeda operatives, with the hopes of dismantling both groups to support the transitional governmental structures, implement a national security plan, train the Somali security forces, and to assist in creating a secure environment for the delivery of humanitarian aid. Djibouti's responsibilities include providing security in Hiran and Galguduud regions. As of 2013, the Djibouti Armed Forces (DJAF) are composed of three branches: the Djibouti National Army, which consists of the Coastal Navy, the Djiboutian Air Force (Force Aerienne Djiboutienne, FAD), and the National Gendarmerie (GN). The Army is by far the largest, followed by the Air Force and Navy. The Commander-in-Chief of the DJAF is the President of Djibouti and the Minister of Defence oversees the DJAF on a day-to-day basis. Component forces and their organization Refer to decree No 2003-0166/PR/MDN on organization of Djibouti Armed Forces. The armed forces consist of: * The General Staff of the Armed Forces. * A Defense Staff. * An infantry force: one rapid action regiment, two paratrooper battalions, one combined arms regiment at Obock, one combined arms regiment at Tadjourah, one combined arms regiment in Dikhil, one combined arms battalion in Ali-Sabieh and one reinforced company in Damerjog. * Specific forces and fire support: one armored regiment, one artillery regiment and one group of combat engineer. * The Navy * The Air Force * The Schools Command. * The Headquarters Regiment. * The Central Material Directorate. * The Health Service. Djiboutian Army The Djiboutian National Army (DNA) is the largest branch of the Djibouti Armed Forces. Just prior to independence in 1977, the French Territory of the Afars and the Issas established a national army to defend the Djiboutian's borders. The 6 June 1977 has since been marked as Armed Forces Day. After independence, the Front de Libération de la Côte des Somalis troops merged to form the 2,500 strong Djiboutian National Army. Djibouti maintains a modest military force of approximately 20,470 troops; the army is made of 18,600 troops (IISS 2018). The latter are divided into several regiments and battalions garrisoned in various areas throughout the country. The Army has four military districts (the Tadjourah, Dikhil, Ali-Sabieh and Obock districts). Clashes with the Military of Eritrea, in 2008, demonstrated the superior nature of the Djiboutian forces’ training and skills, but also highlighted the fact that the small military would be unable to counter the larger, if less well-equipped forces of its neighbours. The army has concentrated on mobility in its equipment purchases, suitable for patrol duties and counterattacks but ill-suited for armoured warfare. The 2008 border clashes at least temporarily swelled the ranks of the Djiboutian army, with retired personnel being recalled, but the military's size and capabilities are much reduced since the 1990s. The army to address more effectively its major defense disadvantage: lack of strategic depth. Thus in the early 2000s it looked outward for a model of army organization that would best advance defensive capabilities by restructuring forces into smaller, more mobile units instead of traditional divisions. The official tasks of the armed forces include strengthening the country against external attack, and maintaining border security. Djiboutian troops continue to monitor its borders with Eritrea, in the case of an attack. The Djiboutian Army is one of the small professional advanced armies in East Africa. \| label1 = <small>Ali Sabieh Infantry Regiment </small> \| pos = right \| bg = white \| mark = Red pog.svg \| lat_deg 11 \| lat_min 09 \| lon_deg 42 \| lon_min 43 \| label2 = <small>Dikhil Infantry Regiment </small> \| pos2 = left \| bg2 = white \| mark2 = Red pog.svg \| lat2_deg 11 \| lat2_min 06 \| lon2_deg 42 \| lon2_min 22 \| label3 = <small>Obock Infantry Regiment </small> \| pos3 = left \| bg3 = white \| mark3 = Red pog.svg \| lat3_deg 11 \| lat3_min 58 \| lon3_deg 43 \| lon3_min 17 \| label4 = <small>Tadjoura Infantry Regiment </small> \| pos4 = left \| bg4 = white \| mark4 = Red pog.svg \| lat4_deg 11 \| lat4_min 47 \| lon4_deg 42 \| lon4_min 53 \| label5 = <small>Djibouti City Rapid Reaction Regiment </small> \| pos5 = right \| bg5 = white \| mark5 = Red pog.svg \| lat5_deg 11 \| lat5_min 35 \| lon5_deg 43 \| lon5_min 08 \| label6 = <small>One Demining Company</small> \| pos6 = left \| bg6 = white \| mark6 = Red pog.svg \| lat6_deg 11 \| lat6_min 31 \| lon6_deg 42 \| lon6_min 06 }} Its maneuver units are: One armoured regiment (comprising a reconnaissance squadron, three armoured squadrons and an anti-smuggling squadron) It is a branch of the Djiboutian Armed Forces placed under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior—with additional duties to the Ministry of Defense. Its area of responsibility includes smaller towns, rural and suburban areas.Djiboutian Navy The Djiboutian Navy (DN) is the naval service branch of the Djibouti Armed Forces. The force was launched two years after Djibouti gained its independence in 1977. It is responsible for securing Djibouti's territorial waters and seaboard as well as supporting army operations. The primary objective of the navy is to safeguard the nation's maritime borders, act to deter or defeat any threats or aggression against the territory, people or maritime interests of Djibouti, both in war and peace. Through joint exercises and humanitarian missions, including disaster relief, the Djiboutian Navy promotes bilateral relations between nations. It has a fleet of gunboats, fast missile boats and support, training, which can be deployed to defend the territorial waters and coastline of Djibouti as well as protect tankers passing through the Bab-el-Mandeb strait. The acquisition of the several boats from the US in 2006 considerably increased the navy's ability to patrol over longer distances and to remain at sea for several days at a time. Cooperation with the US and Yemeni navies is also increasing in an effort to protect and maintain the safety and security of the Sea Lanes of Communication (SLOC). The Navy is upgrading itself with the following technological developments. for a celebration on 17 January 2018]] Djiboutian Coast Guard The Djiboutian Coast Guard (DCG) ( GCD), is the coast guard of Djibouti is a division of the Djiboutian Navy responsible for protecting the interests of the Republic of Djibouti at sea. Formed in 2011, the coast guard is tasked with such as illegal fishing and exploitation of natural resources, search and rescue (SAR), protection of ecology, fishing, marine pollution, ballast waters, combat against terrorism, trafficking of people, narcotics, and similar. Like many other coast guards, it is a paramilitary organization that can support the Djiboutian Navy in wartime, but resides under separate civilian control in times of peace. The Coast Guard monitor vessels sailing in the Djiboutian territorial waters. The Djiboutian Coast Guard intercepted refugee and migrant boats travelling across the Bab-el-Mandeb.Djiboutian Air Force .]] The Djiboutian Air Force (DAF) (French: Force Aérienne du Djibouti (FADD)) was established as part of the Djibouti Armed Forces after the country obtained its independence on June 27, 1977. Its first aircraft included three Nord N.2501 Noratlas transport aircraft and an Alouette II helicopter presented to it by the French. In 1982, the Djibouti Air Force was augmented by two Aerospatiale AS.355F Ecureuil 2 helicopters and a Cessna U206G Stationair, this was followed in 1985 by a Cessna 402C Utiliner. In 1985, the Alouette II was withdrawn from use and put on display at Ambouli Air Base at Djibouti's airport. In 1987, the three N.2501 Noratlas were also retired and subsequently returned to France. New equipment came, in 1991, in the form of a Cessna 208 Caravan, followed by Russian types in the early nineties. These included four Mil Mi 2, six Mil Mi 8 and two Mil Mi 17 helicopters and a single Antonov An 28 light transport aircraft. Pilot training for the 360 men of the DAF, if necessary, is conducted in France with continued on type flight training at home. The DAF has no units of its own and forms in whole a part of the Army, its sole base is Ambouli. Doctrine raids between 1991 and 1993.]] The main doctrine consists of the following principles: Djibouti cannot afford to lose a war * A small standing army with good capabilities. * Desire to avoid war by political means. Personnel The size and structure of the Djibouti Armed Forces is continually evolving. {\| class"wikitable" style"margin:auto; width:100%;" \|+ Historical personnel of the Djibouti Armed Forces \|- valign="top" ! style"width:50px; text-align:center;" rowspan"2"\| ! style"text-align:center;" colspan"10"\| <br><small>Republic of Djibouti</small> \|- valign="top" !1977 !1979 !1982 !1985 !1989 !1992 !1998 !2000 !2007 !2015 \|- style="text-align:center;" \|\|Regular \|\|2,800 \|\|4,000 \|\|6,800 \|\|8,000 \|\|9,000 \|\|20,000 \|\|13,000 \|\|12,900 \|\|10,500 \|\|16,000 \|- \| style="border-bottom:1px solid black; text-align:center;"\|Army Reserve \| style="text-align:center; border-bottom:1px solid black; text-align:right; background:gray;"\| \| style="text-align:center; border-bottom:1px solid black; text-align:right; background:gray;"\|1,000 \| style="text-align:center; border-bottom:1px solid black; text-align:right; background:gray;"\|1,500 \| style="text-align:center; border-bottom:1px solid black; text-align:right; background:gray;"\|2,200 \| style="text-align:center; border-bottom:1px solid black; text-align:right; background:gray;"\|4,000 \| style="text-align:center; border-bottom:1px solid black; text-align:right; background:gray;"\|500 \| style="text-align:center; border-bottom:1px solid black; text-align:right; background:gray;"\|4,500 \| style="text-align:center; border-bottom:1px solid black; text-align:right; background:gray;"\|6,000 \| style="text-align:center; border-bottom:1px solid black; text-align:right; background:gray;"\|8,000 \| style="text-align:center; border-bottom:1px solid black; text-align:right; background:gray;"\|9,500 \|- style="text-align:center;" \| style="border-top:1px solid black; "\|Total \| style="border-top:1px solid black; "\|2,800 \| style="border-top:1px solid black; "\|5,000 \| style="border-top:1px solid black; "\|8,200 \| style="border-top:1px solid black; "\|10,200 \| style="border-top:1px solid black; "\|13,000 \| style="border-top:1px solid black; "\|20,500 \| style="border-top:1px solid black; "\|17,500 \| style="border-top:1px solid black; "\|18,900 \| style="border-top:1px solid black; "\|18,500 \| style="border-top:1px solid black; "\|25,500 \|} As of 2018, Djibouti Armed Forces were reported to have 18,000–20,000 active personnel, 10,500–11,000 reserve personnel. {\| width"70%" style"border:0px solid #8888aa; background-color:white; padding:5px; font-size:100%; margin:1em auto;" \|- bgcolor="#dadada" \|Component\|\|in service\|\|Reserve \|- \|\|\|18,600 \|\|11,000 \|- \|\|\|370 \|\|220 \|- \|\|\|1,500 \|\|1,000 \|- style="background:gray; color:White" \|Totals\|\|20,470\|\|12,220 \|} UN peacekeeping forces Djibouti first UN Peacekeeping mission was in 1994, when it deployed uniformed personnel to the UN Mission in Haiti (UNMIH) and the UN Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR). Djibouti UN peacekeeping mission in the Darfur, Sudan in 2010, withdrew their personnel from Sudan on the 30 June 2021. Djibouti has committed to strengthening international action through the African Union to achieve collective security and uphold the goals enshrined in the Purposes and Principles of the UN Charter and the Constitutive Act of the African Union. Deployed in 3 countries in Somalia, Democratic Republic of the Congo and Central African Republic. , Somalia.]] The table below shows the current deployment of Djiboutian Forces in UN Peacekeeping missions. {\| class"wikitable" width"98%" \|- bgcolor=#FFE4C4 ! width="25%" \| Name of Operation ! colspan2; width"20%" \| Location ! width="20%" \| Conflict ! width="40%" \| Contribution \|- bgcolor=#FFE4C4 \|United Nations Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUC) \| \|Democratic Republic of Congo \|Second Congo War \|35 Troops. \|- bgcolor=#FFE4C4 \|United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in the Central African Republic (MINUSCA) \| \|Central African Republic \|Central African Republic Civil War \|195 Troops. \|- bgcolor=#FFE4C4 \|} Foreign military within Djibouti soldiers.]] France France's 5e RIAOM are currently stationed in Djibouti. Italy The Italian Base Militare Nazionale di Supporto (National Support Military Base) is capable to host 300 troops and some UAVs. The Italian Military Support Base in Djibouti, established in 2013, monitors commercial traffic, addresses piracy, and supports counter-terrorism and military operations in the Horn of Africa, Gulf of Aden, and Indian Ocean. United States There is also Combined Joint Task Force - Horn of Africa, a U.S. force of more than 3,500, currently deployed in the country at Camp Lemonnier. Japan The Japan Self-Defense Force Base Djibouti was established in 2011. China The Chinese naval support base in Djibouti began construction in 2016 and was officially opened in 2017.References Category:Government of Djibouti Armed Forces Category:Anti-piracy	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djibouti_Armed_Forces	2025-04-05T18:28:25.770811
8051	History of Dominica	<!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE --> The first written records in the history of Dominica began in November 1493, when Christopher Columbus spotted the island. Prior to European contact, Dominica was inhabited by the Arawak. Dominica was a French colony from 1715 until the end of the Seven Years' War in 1763, and then became a British colony from 1763 to 1978. It became an independent nation in 1978. Pre-colonial The Arawak were guided to Dominica, and other islands of the Caribbean, by the South Equatorial Current from the waters of the Orinoco River. These descendants of the early Taínos were overthrown by the Kalinago tribe of the Caribs. The Caribs, who settled here in the 14th century, called the island Wai‘tu kubuli, which means "Tall is her body." Early European contacts Christopher Columbus named the island after the day of the week on which he spotted it - a Sunday ('Dominica' in Latin) - which fell on 3 November 1493 on his second voyage. Daunted by fierce resistance from the Caribs and discouraged by the absence of gold, the Spanish did not settle the island. Many of the remaining Carib people live in Dominica's Carib Territory, a district on Dominica's east coast. In 1632, the French Compagnie des Îles de l'Amérique claimed Dominica along with all the other 'Petite Antilles' but no settlement was attempted. Between 1642 and 1650 a French missionary Raymond Breton became the first regular European visitor to the island. In 1660 the French and English agreed that both Dominica and St. Vincent should not be settled, but instead left to the Caribs as neutral territory. Dominica was officially neutral for the next century, but the attraction of its resources remained; rival expeditions of English and French foresters were harvesting timber by the start of the 18th century. French colony: 1715–1763 Spain had little to no success in colonizing Dominica and in 1690, the French established their first permanent settlements in Dominica. French woodcutters from Martinique and Guadeloupe begin to set up timber camps to supply the French islands with wood and gradually become permanent settlers. They brought the first enslaved people from West Africa to Dominica. In 1715, a revolt of "poor white" smallholders in the north of Martinique, known as La Gaoulé, caused an exodus of them to southern Dominica. They set up smallholdings. Meanwhile, French families and others from Guadeloupe settled in the north. In 1727, the first French commander, M. Le Grand, took charge of the island with a basic French government; Dominica formally became a colony of France, and the island was divided into districts or "quarters". Already installed in Martinique and Guadeloupe and cultivating sugar cane, the French gradually developed plantations in Dominica for coffee. They imported African slaves to fill the labor demands replacing the indigenous Caribs. In 1761, during the Seven Years' War a British expedition against Dominica led by Lord Rollo was successful and the island was conquered along with several other Caribbean islands. After France was defeated by Britain in the Seven Years' War, it ceded the island to the British under the Treaty of Paris (1763). In 1778, during the American Revolutionary War, the French mounted a successful invasion with the active cooperation of the population. The 1783 Treaty of Paris, which ended the war, returned the island to Britain. French invasions in 1795 and 1805 ended in failure.]] As part of the 1763 Treaty of Paris that ended the Seven Years' War, the island became a British possession. In 1778, during the American War of Independence, the French mounted a successful invasion with the active cooperation of the population, which was largely French. The 1783 Treaty of Paris, which ended the war, returned the island to Britain. French invasions in 1795 and 1805 ended in failure. The 22 February 1805 invasion burned much of Roseau to the ground. In 1763, the British established a legislative assembly, representing only the white population. In 1831, reflecting a liberalization of official British racial attitudes, the Brown Privilege Bill conferred political and social rights on free nonwhites. Three Blacks were elected to the legislative assembly the following year. The abolition of slavery in 1834 enabled Dominica by 1838 to become the only British Caribbean colony to have a Black-controlled legislature in the 19th century. Most Black legislators were small holders or merchants who held economic and social views diametrically opposed to the interests of the small, wealthy English planter class. Reacting to a perceived threat, the planters lobbied for more direct British rule. In 1865, after much agitation and tension, the colonial office replaced the elective assembly with one composed of one-half elected members and one-half appointed. The elected legislators were outmaneuvered on numerous occasions by planters allied with colonial administrators. In 1871, Dominica became part of the Leeward Island Federation. The power of the Black population progressively eroded. Crown Colony government was re-established in 1896. Following World War I, an upsurge of political consciousness throughout the Caribbean led to the formation of the representative government association. Marshaling public frustration with the lack of a voice in the governing of Dominica, this group won one-third of the popularly elected seats of the legislative assembly in 1924 and one-half in 1936. Shortly thereafter, Dominica was transferred from the Leeward Island Administration and was governed as part of the Windwards until 1958, when it joined the short-lived West Indies Federation. In 1961, a Dominica Labor Party government led by Edward Oliver LeBlanc was elected. After the federation dissolved, Dominica became an associated state of the United Kingdom on February 27, 1967, and formally took responsibility for its internal affairs. LeBlanc retired in 1974 and was replaced by Patrick John who became the islands' first Prime Minister. Independence: 1978 to present day On November 3, 1978, the Commonwealth of Dominica was granted independence by the United Kingdom. In August 1979, Hurricane David, packing winds of , struck the island with devastating force. Forty-two people were killed and 75% of the islanders' homes were destroyed or severely damaged. Independence did little to solve problems stemming from centuries of economic underdevelopment, and in mid-1979, political discontent led to the formation of an interim government, led by Oliver Seraphin. It was replaced after the 1980 elections by a government led by the Dominica Freedom Party under Prime Minister Eugenia Charles, the Caribbean's first female prime minister. Within a year of her inauguration she survived two unsuccessful coups and in October 1983, as chairperson of the Organisation of East Caribbean States, endorsed the US Invasion of Grenada. Chronic economic problems were compounded by the severe impact of hurricanes in 1979 and in 1980. By the end of the 1980s, the economy had made a healthy recovery, which weakened in the 1990s due to a decrease in banana prices. In 1995 the government was defeated in elections by the United Workers Party of Edison James. James became prime minister, serving until the February 2000 elections, when the Dominica United Workers Party (DUWP) was defeated by the Dominica Labour Party (DLP), led by Rosie Douglas. He was a former socialist activist, and many feared that his approach to politics might be impractical. However, these were somewhat quieted when he formed a coalition with the more conservative Dominica Freedom Party. Douglas died suddenly after only eight months in office, on October 1, 2000, and was replaced by Pierre Charles, also of the DLP. In 2003, Nicholas Liverpool was elected and sworn in as president, succeeding Vernon Shaw. On January 6, 2004, Prime Minister Pierre Charles, who had been suffering from heart problems since 2003, died. He became the second consecutive prime minister of Dominica to die in office of a heart attack. The foreign minister, Osborne Riviere immediately became prime minister, but the education minister, Roosevelt Skerrit succeeded him as prime minister and became the new leader of the Dominica Labour Party. Elections were held on May 5, 2005, with the ruling coalition maintaining power. In 2017, Hurricane Maria struck Dominica and was the most powerful and devastating hurricane ever recorded in Dominica. President Charles Angelo Savarin was re-elected in 2018. In the 2019 general elections The Dominica Labour Party (DLP) was given another overwhelming mandate – for a record fifth consecutive five-year term. The party's charismatic but often maligned leader, Roosevelt Skerrit, will serve a new five-year term as the Prime Minister of Dominica. See also British colonization of the Americas French colonization of the Americas History of the Americas History of the British West Indies History of North America History of the Caribbean List of prime ministers of Dominica Politics of Dominica Spanish colonization of the Americas References Rouse, Irving. The Taínos : Rise and Decline of the People Who Greeted Columbus. New Haven & London: Yale University Press c1992. * Honeychurch, Lennox The Dominica Story: A History of the Island (1995) External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061205035430/http://skyviews.com/dominica/history.html History of Dominica] by Lennox Honeychurch * [http://histclo.com/country/la/car/dom/hist/dh-sla.html Dominican slavery]	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Dominica	2025-04-05T18:28:25.784435
8052	Geography of Dominica	<!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE --> \| archipelago = Windward Islands \| total_islands \| major_islands \| area_km2 = 751 \| length_km = 47 \| width_km = 29 \| coastline_km = 148 \| highest_mount = Morne Diablotins \| elevation_m = 1447 \| country = \| country_admin_divisions_title \| country_admin_divisions \| country_admin_divisions_title_1 \| country_admin_divisions_1 \| country_admin_divisions_title_2 \| country_admin_divisions_2 \| country_largest_city = Roseau \| country_largest_city_population = 14,847 \| population = 71,727 \| population_as_of = 2003 \| density_km2 = 95.51 \| ethnic_groups = Black 90%, Mulatto, 8 % Carib-Amerindian 2% \| additional_info = }} Dominica is an island in the Caribbean Sea, located about halfway between the French islands of Guadeloupe (to the north) and Martinique (to the south). Its coordinates are 15 25 N, 61 20 W. It is known as "The Nature Island of the Caribbean" due to its spectacular, lush, and varied flora and fauna, which is protected by an extensive natural park system. It is the fourth largest island in the Eastern Caribbean with a population of people mainly of African descent. The lowest point in the country is at sea level along the coast, and the highest is Morne Diablotins (). The extreme southwestern coast of the island includes a large collapsed submarine caldera. Portions of the exposed rim of this caldera form the southwestern tip of the island at Scotts Head. Natural resources include farming, hydropower and timber. Geographically, Dominica is distinctive in many ways. with characteristically warm temperatures and heavy rainfall. On August 17, 2007, Hurricane Dean, a Category 1 at the time, hit the island. A mother and her seven-year-old son died when a landslide caused by the heavy rains fell onto their house. In another incident two people were injured when a tree fell on their house. Prime Minister Roosevelt Skerrit estimated that 100 to 125 homes were damaged, and that the agriculture sector was extensively damaged, in particular the banana crop. Before that were David and Frederic in August 1979 and Allen in August 1980. \|source 2 BBC Weather \|date=August 2010 }} Bays Bays are as follows from the northern tip of the island in a clockwise direction: Agoucha Bay, Sandwich Bay, Grand Baptiste Bay, Petit Baptiste Bay, La Taille Bay, Rough Bay, Marigot Bay, Walker's Rest Bay, Sophia Bay, Londonderry Bay, Mango Hole Bay, Middle Bay, Panto Hole Bay, Petite Soufriere Bay, Soufriere Bay, Woodbridge Bay, Prince Rupert Bay, Douglas Bay. Geology Dominica was the last island to be formed in the Caribbean. The island was created by volcanic action about 26 million years ago. It lies upon two opposing tectonic plates. This explains why an island a bit bigger than Martha's Vineyard has mountains approaching . Geologically, Dominica is part of the rugged Lesser Antilles volcanic arc. Dominica's rugged surface is marked by its volcanic past. Rock formations are mainly volcanic andesite and rhyolite, with fallen boulders and sharp-edged protrusions peppering slope bases. At the base of each waterfall are natural pools. The sisserou parrot is Dominica's national bird and is indigenous to its mountain forests. The Caribbean Sea offshore of the island of Dominica is home to many cetaceans. Most notably a small group of sperm whales live in this area year round. These are shy animals, but there is a good chance of seeing them if you go out on a calm day. Other cetaceans commonly seen in the area include pilot whale, Fraser's dolphin, pantropical spotted dolphin and bottlenose dolphin. Less commonly seen animals include Cuvier's beaked whale, false killer whale, pygmy sperm whale, dwarf sperm whale, Risso's dolphin, common dolphin, humpback whale and Bryde's whale. This makes Dominica a destination for tourists interested in whale-watching. Statistics Map references: Central America and the Caribbean Area: <br/>total: 751 km<sup>2</sup> <br/>land: 751 km<sup>2</sup> Coastline: 148 km Maritime claims: <br/>territorial sea: <br/>contiguous zone: <br/>exclusive economic zone: Land use: <br/>arable land: 8% <br/>permanent crops: 24% <br/>other: 68% (2012 est.) Irrigated land: NA km<sup>2</sup> Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural): <br/>total: 0.02 km<sup>3</sup>/a <br/>per capita: 244.1 m<sup>3</sup>/a (2004) Natural hazards: Flash floods are a constant threat; destructive hurricanes can be expected during the late summer months Environment - international agreements: <br/> Party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Whaling Extreme points <!-- * Northernmost point – Carib Point, Saint Andrew Parish *** See Talk --> * Southernmost point – Coast southeast of Scotts Head, Saint Mark Parish * Westernmost point – Pointe Ronde, Saint John Parish * Easternmost point – Pointe à Peine, Saint David Parish * Highest point – Morne Diablotins: 1,447 m * Lowest point – Caribbean Sea: 0 m Footnotes References * * * * Attribution: *	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Dominica	2025-04-05T18:28:25.797767
8053	Demographics of Dominica	<!-- "none" is a legitimate description when the title is already adequate; see WP:SDNONE --> This is a demography of the population of Dominica including population density, ethnicity, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. \| }} Population size and structure According to the preliminary 2011 census results Dominica has a population of 71,293. \|titlestyle = background:#EEBC35; }} {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! width="80pt"\|Age Group ! width="80pt"\|Male ! width="80pt"\|Female ! width="80pt"\|Total ! width="80pt"\|% \|- \| align="right" \| Total \| align="right" \| 36 638 \| align="right" \| 34 942 \| align="right" \| 71 180 \| align="right" \| 100 \|- \| align="right" \| 0–4 \| align="right" \| 3 250 \| align="right" \| 3 067 \| align="right" \| 6 317 \| align="right" \| 8.87 \|- \| align="right" \| 5–9 \| align="right" \| 3 951 \| align="right" \| 3 603 \| align="right" \| 7 554 \| align="right" \| 10.61 \|- \| align="right" \| 10–14 \| align="right" \| 3 558 \| align="right" \| 3 547 \| align="right" \| 7 105 \| align="right" \| 9.98 \|- \| align="right" \| 15–19 \| align="right" \| 3 452 \| align="right" \| 3 366 \| align="right" \| 6 818 \| align="right" \| 9.58 \|- \| align="right" \| 20–24 \| align="right" \| 2 438 \| align="right" \| 2 140 \| align="right" \| 4 578 \| align="right" \| 6.43 \|- \| align="right" \| 25–29 \| align="right" \| 2 601 \| align="right" \| 2 520 \| align="right" \| 5 121 \| align="right" \| 7.19 \|- \| align="right" \| 30–34 \| align="right" \| 2 886 \| align="right" \| 2 777 \| align="right" \| 5 663 \| align="right" \| 7.96 \|- \| align="right" \| 35–39 \| align="right" \| 2 841 \| align="right" \| 2 455 \| align="right" \| 5 296 \| align="right" \| 7.44 \|- \| align="right" \| 40–44 \| align="right" \| 2 417 \| align="right" \| 2 059 \| align="right" \| 4 476 \| align="right" \| 6.29 \|- \| align="right" \| 45–49 \| align="right" \| 1 947 \| align="right" \| 1 614 \| align="right" \| 3 561 \| align="right" \| 5.00 \|- \| align="right" \| 50–54 \| align="right" \| 1 467 \| align="right" \| 1 353 \| align="right" \| 2 820 \| align="right" \| 3.96 \|- \| align="right" \| 55–59 \| align="right" \| 1 209 \| align="right" \| 1 182 \| align="right" \| 2 391 \| align="right" \| 3.36 \|- \| align="right" \| 60–64 \| align="right" \| 1 022 \| align="right" \| 1 233 \| align="right" \| 2 255 \| align="right" \| 3.17 \|- \| align="right" \| 65–69 \| align="right" \| 1 091 \| align="right" \| 1 233 \| align="right" \| 2 324 \| align="right" \| 3.26 \|- \| align="right" \| 70–74 \| align="right" \| 871 \| align="right" \| 973 \| align="right" \| 1 844 \| align="right" \| 2.59 \|- \| align="right" \| 75–79 \| align="right" \| 596 \| align="right" \| 736 \| align="right" \| 1 332 \| align="right" \| 1.87 \|- \| align="right" \| 80–84 \| align="right" \| 354 \| align="right" \| 547 \| align="right" \| 901 \| align="right" \| 1.27 \|- \| align="right" \| 85+ \| align="right" \| 288 \| align="right" \| 537 \| align="right" \| 825 \| align="right" \| 1.16 \|- ! width="50"\|Age group ! width="80pt"\|Male ! width="80"\|Female ! width="80"\|Total ! width="50"\|Percent \|- \| align="right" \| 0–14 \| align="right" \| 10 759 \| align="right" \| 10 217 \| align="right" \| 20 976 \| align="right" \| 29.47 \|- \| align="right" \| 15–64 \| align="right" \| 22 279 \| align="right" \| 20 699 \| align="right" \| 42 978 \| align="right" \| 60.38 \|- \| align="right" \| 65+ \| align="right" \| 3 200 \| align="right" \| 4 026 \| align="right" \| 7 226 \| align="right" \| 10.15 \|- \|} According to the 2001 census, 91.2% percent of the population of Dominica is considered Christian, 1.6% has a non-Christian religion and 6.1% has no religion or did not state a religion (1.1%). The Evangelicals constitute the largest Protestant group, with 6.7% of the population. Seventh-day Adventists are the second largest group (6.1%). The next largest group are Pentecostals (5.6% of the population), followed by Baptists (4.1%). Other Christians include Methodists (3.7%), Church of God (1.2%), Jehovah's Witnesses (1.2%), Anglicanism (0.6%) and Brethren Christian (0.3%). During the past decades the number of Roman Catholics and Anglicans has decreased, while the number of other Protestants has increased, especially Evangelicals, Seventh-day Adventists, Pentecostals (5.6% of the population) and Baptists).<ref name="2001 census"/> The number of non-Christians is small. These religious groups include the Rastafarian Movement (1.3% of the population), Hinduism (0.1%) and Muslims (0.2%). References Category:Society of Dominica	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Dominica	2025-04-05T18:28:25.864397
8054	Politics of Dominica	The politics of Dominica takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister of Dominica is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the House of Assembly. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Executive branch \|President \|Sylvanie Burton \|Labour Party \|2 October 2023 \|- \|Prime Minister \|Roosevelt Skerritt \|Labour Party \|8 January 2004 \|} thumb\|Government House, Dominica A president and prime minister make up the executive branch. Nominated by the prime minister in consultation with the leader of the opposition party, the president is elected for a five-year term by the parliament. The president appoints as prime minister the person who command the majority of elected representatives in the parliament and also appoints, on the prime minister's recommendation, members of the parliament as cabinet ministers. The prime minister and cabinet are responsible to the parliament and can be removed on a no-confidence vote. Legislative branch thumb\|House of Assembly of Dominica The House of Assembly has 32 members. Twenty-one members are elected for a five-year term in single-seat constituencies. Nine members are senators appointed by the President; five on the advice of the Prime Minister and four on the advice of the leader of the opposition. The Speaker is elected by the elected members after an election. There is also one ex officio member, the clerk of the house. The head of state – the president – is elected by the House of Assembly. The regional representatives decide whether senators are to be elected or appointed. If appointed, five are chosen by the president with the advice of the prime minister and four with the advice of the opposition leader. If elected, it is by vote of the regional representatives. Elections for representatives and senators must be held at least every five years, although the prime minister can call elections at any time. Dominica has a two-party system, which means that there are two dominant political parties, with extreme difficulty for anybody to achieve electoral success under the banner of any other party. Dominica was once a three-party system, but in the past few years the Dominica Labour Party and the greatly diminished Dominica Freedom Party have built a coalition. Political parties and elections Judicial branch Dominica's legal system is based on English common law. There are three magistrate's courts and a High Court of Justice. Appeals can be made to the Eastern Caribbean Court of Appeal and, ultimately, to the Caribbean Court of Justice. The Court of Appeal of the Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court is headquartered in Saint Lucia, but at least one of its 16 High Court judges must reside in Dominica and preside over the High Court of Justice. Dominica's current High Court judges are The Hon. Brian Cottle and The Hon. M. E. Birnie Stephenson-Brooks. Administrative divisions Councils elected by universal suffrage govern most towns. Supported largely by property taxation, the councils are responsible for the regulation of markets and sanitation and the maintenance of secondary roads and other municipal amenities. The island also is divided into 10 parishes, whose governance is unrelated to the town governments: Saint Andrew, Saint David, Saint George, Saint John, Saint Joseph, Saint Luke, Saint Mark, Saint Patrick, Saint Paul, and Saint Peter. International organization participation ACP ALBA Caricom CDB CELAC Commonwealth of Nations ECLAC FAO G-77 IBRD ICC ICRM IDA IFAD IFC IFRCS ILO IMF IMO Interpol IOC ITU ITUC NAM (observer) OAS OIF OECS OPANAL OPCW UN UNCTAD UNESCO UNIDO UPU WHO WIPO WMO WTO References Further reading Matthias Catón: "Dominica" in: Elections in the Americas. A Data Handbook, vol. 1, edited by Dieter Nohlen. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005: pp. 223–237	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Dominica	2025-04-05T18:28:25.870409
8056	Telecommunications in Dominica	Telecommunications in Dominica comprises telephone, radio, television and internet services. The primary regulatory authority is the National Telecommunication Regulatory Commission which regulates all related industries to comply with The Telecommunications Act 8 of 2000. Telephony Calls from Dominica to the US, Canada, and other NANP Caribbean nations, are dialed as 1 + NANP area code + 7-digit number. Calls from Dominica to non-NANP countries are dialed as 011 + country code + phone number with local area code. Telephone system Domestic: fully automatic network International: microwave radio relay and SHF radiotelephone links to Martinique and Guadeloupe; VHF and UHF radiotelephone links to Saint Lucia Number formatting Telephone code: 767 Number Format: nxx-xxxx Country Code: +1767 International Call Prefix: 011 (outside NANP) Mobile cellular service providers Digicel FLOW Internet Internet Service Providers (ISPs) Cable & Wireless Dominica Ltd (DSL) Digicel Play (Cable & FTTP) Marpin Telecoms (Cable) Internet code .dm Radio Dominica's radio stations include the government-owned DBS Radio, as well as privately owned competitors Kairi FM and Q95; a religious service called Voice of Life also operates there. DBS was founded in 1971 as Radio Dominica (supplanting material provided by Grenada's Windward Islands Broadcasting Service, WIBS), while Voice of Life was established in 1974 by two North American missionaries and began transmissions in 1976. The experiment ceased after Hurricane David devastated the country in 1979; at the time, transmission was served from the Morne Bruce locality. In lieu of a national television broadcast service, By 2017, it was acquired by the local division of Flow, whose name it was rebranded under. As of the early 2020s, Flow mainly carried North American and British programming, and broadcast a weekday-morning programme entitled Good Morning Dominica. Dominica had 11,000 television sets in 2007. References External links Dominica, E.C. Tel Dominica, SubmarineCableMap.com Dominica * Dominica	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Dominica	2025-04-05T18:28:25.878023
8058	Dominica Defense Force	250px \| thumb \| The Dominica Coast Guard Patrol Boat Lugay in 2016. The Dominica Defense Forces (DDF) was the military of the Commonwealth of Dominica. There has been no standing army in Dominica since 1981, following the disbandment of the defence forces after two violent coup attempts against Dame Eugenia Charles. Defense is the responsibility of the Regional Security System (RSS). History By the 1960s, the police were the only security force in the country. As a result, a Volunteer Defence Force was established in 1974. In November 1975, a full-time Defence Force was established by an act of the House of Assembly to replace the Volunteer Defence Force, headed by Patrick John as Minister of Security. In March 1981, Charles announced the discovery of a coup d'état attempt known as Operation Red Dog, which involved Major Frederick Newton, the head of the Defence Force. A month later, parliament disbanded the Defence Force. Modern defense The civil Commonwealth of Dominica Police Force includes a Special Service Unit and Coast Guard. In the event of war or other emergency, if proclaimed by the authorities, the Police Force shall be a military force which may be employed for State defence (Police Act, Chapter 14:01). References Category:Government of Dominica Dominica Dominica	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominica_Defense_Force	2025-04-05T18:28:25.880884
8059	Foreign relations of Dominica	<!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE --> Like its Eastern Caribbean neighbours, the main priority of Dominica's foreign relations is economic development. The country maintains missions in Washington, New York, London, and Brussels and is represented jointly with other Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) members in Canada. Dominica is also a member of the Caribbean Development Bank (CDB), Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, and the Commonwealth of Nations. It became a member of the United Nations and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 1978 and of the World Bank and Organization of American States (OAS) in 1979. As a member of CARICOM, in July 1994 Dominica strongly backed efforts by the United States to implement United Nations Security Council Resolution 940, designed to facilitate the departure of Haiti's de facto authorities from power. The country agreed to contribute personnel to the multinational force, which restored the democratically elected government of Haiti in October 1994. In May 1997, Prime Minister James joined 14 other Caribbean leaders, and President Clinton, during the first-ever U.S.-regional summit in Bridgetown, Barbados. The summit strengthened the basis for regional cooperation on justice and counternarcotics issues, finance and development, and trade. Dominica previously maintained official relations with the Republic of China (commonly known as "Taiwan") instead of the People's Republic of China, but on 23 March 2004, a joint communique was signed in Beijing, paving the way for diplomatic recognition of the People's Republic. Beijing responded to Dominica's severing relations with the Republic of China by giving them a $12 million aid package, which includes $6 million in budget support for the year 2004 and $1 million annually for six years. In June 2020, Dominica was one of 53 countries backing the Hong Kong national security law at the United Nations. Dominica is also a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the US-military (as covered under Article 98). International disputes Dominica claims Venezuelan waters around controlled Isla Aves (Known in Dominica as Bird Rock) located roughly 90 km. west of Dominica. Diplomatic relations List of countries which Dominica maintains diplomatic relations with {\| class="wikitable sortable" ! colspan="3" \| \|- ! # !! Country!! Date \|- \|1 \|\|\|\|Unknown \|- \|2 \|\|\|\|Unknown \|- \|3 \|\|\|\|Unknown \|- \|4 \|\|\|\|Unknown \|- \|5 \|\|\|\|Unknown \|- \|6 \|\|\|\| \|- \|7\|\|\|\| \|- \|8\|\|\|\| \|- \| 9\|\| \|\| \|- \|10 \|\|\|\| \|- \| 11\|\|\|\| \|- \|12 \|\|\| \|- \| 13\|\|\|\| \|- \|14\|\|\|\| \|- \| 15\|\|\|\| \|- \| 16\|\|\|\| \|- \| 17\|\|\|\| \|- \|18 \|\|\|\| \|- \|19 \|\|\|\| \|- \| 20\|\|\|\| \|- \| 21\|\|\|\| \|- \| 22\|\|\|\| \|- \| 23\|\|\|\| \|- \|24 \|\|\|\| \|- \| 25\|\|\|\| \|- \| 26\|\|\|\| \|- \|— \|\|\|\| \|- \|27 \| \| \|- \| 28\|\|\|\| \|- \|29 \|\|\|\| \|- \|30 \|\|\|\| \|- \|31 \|\|\|\| \|- \|32 \|\|\|\| \|- \|33 \|\|\|\| \|- \|34 \|\| \|\| \|- \|35 \| \| \|- \|36 \|\| \|\| \|- \|37 \|\| \|\| \|- \|38 \|\| \|\| \|- \|39 \|\| \|\| \|- \|40 \|\| \|\| \|- \|41 \|\| \|\| \|- \| 43\|\| \|\| \|- \|44 \|\| \|\| \|- \|46 \|\| \|\| \|- \|47 \|\| \|\| \|- \|49 \|\| \|\| \|- \|53 \|\| \|\| \|- \|56 \|\| \|\| \|- \| 58\|\| \|\| \|- \|60 \|\| \|\| \|- \| 62\|\| \|\| \|- \|63 \| \| \|- \| 67\|\| \|\| \|- \|69 \|\| \|\| \|- \|71 \|\| \|\| \|- \|75 \|\| \|\| \|- \|80 \|\| \|\| \|- \|81 \|\| \|\| \|- \| 88\|\| \|\| \|- \|90 \| \| \|- \|95 \|\| \|\| \|- \|96 \|\| \|\| \|- \| 97\|\| \|\| \|- \|98 \|\| \|\| \|- \|100 \|\| \|\| \|- \| 103\|\| \|\| \|- \|108\|\| \|\| \|- \| 109\|\| \|\| \|- \| 111 \|\| \|\| \|- \| 112 \|\| \|\| \|- \| 115\|\| \|\| \|- \| 117\|\| \|\| \|- \|119 \|\| \|\| \|- \| 121\|\| \|\| \|- \|122 \|\| \|\| \|- \| 123\|\| \|\| \|- \|126 \| \| \|- \|129 \| \| \|- \|134 \| \| \|- \|135 \| \| \|- \|136 \| \| \|- \|138 \| \| \|- \|141 \| \| \|- \|143 \|\|\|\|6 February 2024 \|- \|146 \| \| \|- \|148 \| \| \|} Bilateral relations {\| class"wikitable" style"width:100%; margin:auto;" \|- ! style="width:4%;"\| Country ! style="width:1%;"\| Formal relations began ! style="width:20%;"\| Notes \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Australia is represented in Dominica through its High Commission in Trinidad and Tobago. \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Since 2016, Austria is represented in Dominica by its embassy in Havana, Cuba. Dominica does not have any representation in Austria. \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Azerbaijan and Dominica have established diplomatic relations in 2011. Prime Minister Roosevelt Skerrit made an official visit to Azerbaijan later this year. \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Both countries have established diplomatic relations on 21 September 1981. Both countries are full members of both Commonwealth of Nations and Association of Caribbean States. \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Bulgaria is represented in Dominica through its embassy in Cuba. \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1978. Bilateral relations are described as "close and friendly." Canada is represented in Dominica, through its High Commission in Barbados. \| Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 December 1980. Colombia is represented in Dominica through its embassy in Kingston, Jamaica. \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Both countries have diplomatic relations. Both countries waived visa for diplomatic passports holders. \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Diplomatic relations were established on 31 March 2004, when Dominica suspended ties with the Republic of China (Taiwan). \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| In December 2005, during the second CARICOM/CUBA summit held in Barbados, heads of CARICOM and Cuba agreed to deepen their ties in the areas of socio-economic and political cooperation in addition to medical care assistance. Since the meeting, Cuba has opened four additional embassies in the Caribbean Community including Dominica. \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Both countries are members of the Commonwealth of Nations. A Joint Communiqué on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations between the Republic of Cyprus and the Commonwealth of Dominica was signed on 13 June 2001 in New York \| Finland recognised Dominica on 23 February 1979. Diplomatic relations were established on 19 August 2009. \| France is represented in Dominica, through its embassy in Saint Lucia. Dominica and France have signed many bilateral agreements. \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Both countries have diplomatic relations since 1980. Political and economic relations are friendly but fairly low-key. \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Diplomatic relations were established on 15 November 2005. Greece is represented in Dominica via parallel accreditation of its embassy in Caracas. Dominica has appointed an ambassador accredited to Greece, based in Roseau, Dominica. Guyana has a High Commission in Roseau. \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Both countries established diplomatic relations on 4 June 2014 during the General Assembly of the Organization of American States in Asunción. \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Hungary is represented in Dominica by its embassy in Havana, Cuba. \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Both countries established diplomatic relations in 2004. Iceland is represented in Dominica through its embassy in New York, United States. Both countries have an agreement on cooperation on geothermal energy. \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Ireland is represented in Dominica through its embassy in Havana, Cuba. \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \|See Dominica–India relations Dominica and India established diplomatic relation in 1981. Both countries are members of the Commonwealth of Nations. \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Indonesia is represented in Dominica through its embassy in Caracas, Venezuela \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1979. Israel is represented in Dominica through its embassy in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. Both countries have an agreement on visa abolition. \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Italy is represented in Dominica by its embassy in Caracas, Venezuela. \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Diplomatic relations were established in December 1978. \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Since November 1978, the bilateral relations have been cordial and fruitful. \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Malaysia is represented in Dominica by its embassy in Caracas, Venezuela. Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations. \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Both countries are members of the Commonwealth of Nations. Diplomatic relations were established on 11 February 2005 in New York. \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Dominica is represented in Monaco through it embassy in Paris, France. \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Dominica is represented in the Netherlands by its embassy in London, United Kingdom. The Netherlands are represented in Dominica by their embassy in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago. \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| New Zealand is represented in Dominica by its High Commission in Bridgetown, Barbados. Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations. \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Dominica and Norway established diplomatic relation on 26 March 2001. Both countries have signed an Agreement concerning the exchange of information relating to tax matters which came into force on 1 January 2012 \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Dominica and Russia have established diplomatic relations on 19 May 1995. In April 2018, Dominica has appointed a resident ambassador to the Russia. \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations, of the Organization of American States and of the Caribbean Community. \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Slovakia is represented in Dominica through its embassy in Havana. \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Dominica is represented in Slovenia through its embassy in London. \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Both countries are members of the Commonwealth of Nations. Diplomatic relations were established on 29 April 1998. \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Both countries are full members of the Organization of American States and of the Caribbean Community. \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| Diplomatic and economic relations between Switzerland and Dominica are of minor importance.\|\| * The Embassy of Turkey in Santo Domingo is accredited to Dominica. * Trade volume between the two countries was US$1.6 million in 2019. They also signed a visa waver agreement. \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| On 3 November 1978, Dominica received independence from the United Kingdom as a republic in the Commonwealth of Nations. \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \|See Dominica–United States relations The United States and Dominica have friendly relations. United States supports the Dominican government's efforts to expand its economic base and to provide a higher standard of living for its citizens. U.S. assistance is primarily channeled through multilateral agencies such as the World Bank and the Caribbean Development Bank, as well as through the U.S. Agency for International Development office in Bridgetown, Barbados. \|- valign="top" \|\|\| \| President of Venezuela Hugo Chávez visited Dominica in 2007. Dominica has once claimed the Venezuelan island Isla Aves, but the claim was stopped as Prime Minister Roosevelt Skerrit has declared that Isla Aves belongs to Venezuela. \|} Dominica and the Commonwealth of Nations The Commonwealth of Dominica has been a member of the Commonwealth of Nations since 1978, when it became an independent from the United Kingdom as a republic in the Commonwealth of Nations. Dominica's highest court of appeal is the Caribbean Court of Justice, in effect from 6 March 2015. Previously, the nation's ultimate court of appeal was the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London. See also West Indies Associated States Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States List of diplomatic missions in Dominica List of diplomatic missions of Dominica Dominica–France Maritime Delimitation Agreement References External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080916034612/http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1102.html The United States Department of State] - The Commonwealth of Dominica Category:Government of Dominica Category:Dominica and the Commonwealth of Nations	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Dominica	2025-04-05T18:28:26.264073
8060	Dominican Republic	\| image_flag = Flag of the Dominican Republic.svg \| image_coat = Coat of arms of the Dominican Republic.svg \| national_motto <br />"God, Homeland, Freedom"<!-- \| religion = 74.6% Christianity 52.5% Catholicism 21.0% Protestantism 1.1% other Christian \| 22.0% no religion \| 1.4% other \| 2.0% unspecified }} \| religion_ref \| religion_year = 2020 \| demonym Dominican<br />Quisqueyan (colloquial) \| government_type Unitary presidential republic \| established_event3 = Second Republic \| established_date3 1865–1916 \| established_event4 = Third Republic \| established_date4 1924–1965 \| established_event5 = Fourth Republic \| established_date5 1966–present \| area_km2 = 48,671 \| area_rank = 128th \| area_sq_mi = <!--Do not remove per WP:MOSNUM--> \| percent_water 0.7 \| population_estimate_year = 2025 \| population_estimate_rank = 88th \| population_density_km2 = 220 \| population_density_sq_mi = 501.5 <!--Do not remove per WP:MOSNUM--> \| population_density_rank = 65th \| GDP_PPP $334.292 billion \| GDP_PPP_year = 2025 \| GDP_PPP_rank = 64th \| GDP_PPP_per_capita $30,710 \| Gini_rank \| HDI 0.766 \| HDI_year = 2022 <!--Please use the year in which the HDI data refers to and not the publication year--> \| HDI_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady--> \| HDI_ref \| HDI_rank = 82nd \| currency Dominican peso \| currency_code = DOP \| time_zone = Atlantic Standard Time \| utc_offset = -04:00 \| utc_offset_DST \| time_zone_DST (Not Observed) \| drives_on = Right \| calling_code = +1-809, +1-829, +1-849 \| cctld .do In the Antilles, the country is the second-largest nation by area after Cuba at and second-largest by population after Haiti with approximately 11.4 million people in 2024, of whom 3.6 million reside in the metropolitan area of Santo Domingo, the capital city. Over the last 25 years, the Dominican Republic has had the fastest-growing economy in the Western Hemisphere – with an average real GDP growth rate of 5.3% between 1992 and 2018. Recent growth has been driven by construction, manufacturing, tourism, and mining. The country is the site of the third largest (in terms of production) gold mine in the world, the Pueblo Viejo mine. The gold production of the country is 31 metric tonnes in 2015. The Dominican Republic is the most visited destination in the Caribbean. A geographically diverse nation, the Dominican Republic is home to both the Caribbean's tallest mountain peak, Pico Duarte, and the Caribbean's largest lake and lowest point, Lake Enriquillo. The island has an average temperature of and great climatic and biological diversity. The country is also the site of the first cathedral, palace, monastery, and fortress built in the Americas, located in Santo Domingo's Colonial Zone, a World Heritage Site.EtymologyThe name Dominican originates from Saint Dominic, the patron saint of astronomers, and founder of the Dominican Order. The Dominican Order established what is now known as the Universidad Autónoma de Santo Domingo, the first university in the New World. For most of its history, up until independence, the colony was known simply as and continued to be commonly known as such in English until the early 20th century. The residents were called "Dominicans" (), the adjectival form of "Domingo", and as such, the revolutionaries named their newly independent country the "Dominican Republic" (). In the national anthem of the Dominican Republic (), the poetic term "Quisqueyans" () is used instead of "Dominicans". The word "Quisqueya" derives from the Ciguayo language, and means "mother of the lands". It is often used in songs as another name for the country. The name of the country in English is often shortened to "the D.R." (), but this is rare in Spanish. History Pre-Columbian era The islands of the Caribbean were first settled around 6,000 years ago by hunter-gatherer peoples originating from Central America or northern South America. The Arawakan-speaking ancestors of the Taíno moved into the Caribbean from South America during the 1st millennium BC, reaching Hispaniola by around 600 AD. These Arawakan peoples engaged in farming, fishing, hunting and gathering, to 2 million. By 1492, the island was divided into five Taíno chiefdoms. The Taíno name for the entire island was either Ayiti or Quisqueya.European colonizationChristopher Columbus arrived on the island on December 5, 1492, during the first of his four voyages to the Americas. He claimed the land for Spain and named it La Española, due to its diverse climate and terrain, which reminded him of the Spanish landscape. In 1496, Bartholomew Columbus, Christopher's brother, built the city of Santo Domingo, Western Europe's first permanent settlement in the "New World". The Spaniards created a plantation economy. Initially, after friendly relationships, the Taínos resisted the conquest, led by female Chief Anacaona of Xaragua and her ex-husband Chief Caonabo of Maguana, as well as Chiefs Guacanagaríx, Guamá, Hatuey, and Enriquillo. The latter's successes gained his people an autonomous enclave on the island. Within a few years after 1492, the population of Taínos had declined drastically due to smallpox, measles, and other diseases that arrived with the Europeans. African slaves were imported to replace the dwindling Taínos. The last record of pure Taínos in the country was from 1864. Still, Taíno biological heritage survived due to intermixing. Census records from 1514 reveal that 40% of Spanish men in Santo Domingo were married to Taíno women, and some present-day Dominicans have Taíno ancestry. In 1795, Spain ceded Santo Domingo to France by the Treaty of Basel as a result of its defeat in the War of the Pyrenees. Saint-Domingue achieved independence as Haiti from France on January 1, 1804. In 1809, the French were expelled from the island and Santo Domingo returned to Spanish rule.Ephemeral independence and Haitian occupation After a dozen years of discontent and failed independence plots by various opposing groups, including a failed 1812 revolt led by freedmen, Santo Domingo's former Lieutenant-Governor (top administrator), José Núñez de Cáceres, declared the colony's independence from the Spanish crown as Spanish Haiti, on November 30, 1821. This period is also known as the Ephemeral independence. The newly independent republic ended two months later, when it was occupied and annexed by Haiti, then under the leadership of Jean-Pierre Boyer. For twenty-two years, Haiti controlled Santo Domingo, which it called ''Partie de l'Est, treating it as a colonial territory. The unpaid Haitian army sustained itself by taking resources from the Dominican people and land without compensation. First Republic (1844–1861) (up to 1849)]] In 1838, Juan Pablo Duarte founded a secret society called La Trinitaria, which sought the complete independence of Santo Domingo without any foreign intervention. Also Francisco del Rosario Sánchez and Ramon Matias Mella, despite not being among the founding members of La Trinitaria, were decisive in the fight for independence. Duarte, Mella, and Sánchez are considered the Founding Fathers of the Dominican Republic. On February 27, 1844, the members of La Trinitaria'' declared independence from Haiti. They were backed by Pedro Santana, a wealthy cattle rancher, who became general of the army of the nascent republic. The decades that followed were filled with tyranny, factionalism, economic difficulties, rapid changes of government, and exile for political opponents. Archrivals Santana and Buenaventura Báez held power most of the time, both ruling arbitrarily. They promoted competing plans to annex the new nation to a major power. The Dominican Republic's first constitution was adopted on November 6, 1844, and its population in 1845 was approximately 230,000 people (100,000 whites; 40,000 blacks; and 90,000 mulattoes). In March 1844, Haiti invaded but the Dominicans put up stiff opposition and inflicted heavy casualties on the Haitians. By April 15, Dominican forces had defeated the Haitian forces on both land and sea. In early July 1844, Duarte was urged by his followers to take the title of President of the Republic. Duarte agreed, but only if free elections were arranged. However, Santana's forces took Santo Domingo on July 12, and they declared Santana ruler of the Dominican Republic. Santana then put Mella, Duarte, and Sánchez in jail. On February 27, 1845, Santana executed María Trinidad Sánchez, heroine of La Trinitaria, and others for conspiracy. After defeating a third Haitian invasion in April 1849 at the Battle of Las Carreras, Santana marched on Santo Domingo and deposed president Manuel Jimenes (who had ousted Santana as president) in a coup d'état. At his behest, Congress elected Buenaventura Báez as president, but Báez was unwilling to serve as Santana's puppet. In November–December 1849, Dominican seamen raided the Haitian coasts, plundered seaside villages, as far as Dame Marie, and butchered crews of captured enemy ships. A fourth and final invasion by Haiti in November 1855 was defeated by Dominican forces by January 27, 1856, resulting in thousands of Haitian casualties. Again Santana and Báez plotted against each other for political dominance, with Báez winning the first encounter and expelling Santana in 1857, and Santana winning the second and expelling Báez in 1859. Restoration republic In 1861, after imprisoning, exiling, and executing many of his opponents and due to political and economic reasons, Santana asked Queen Isabella II of Spain to retake control of the Dominican Republic. Spain, which had not come to terms with the loss of its mainland American colonies 40 years earlier, made the country a colony again. The island was occupied by 30,000 Spanish troops bolstered by battalions of Cuban and Puerto Rican volunteers and 12,000 Dominicans who aligned themselves with the Spanish forces. The Haitian rebel Sylvain Salnave, fearful of the reestablishment of Spain as colonial power, gave refuge and logistics to revolutionaries seeking to reestablish the independent nation. The ensuing civil war, known as the War of Restoration, killed more than 50,000. in Puerto Plata was destroyed during the war in 1863 and rebuilt starting in 1870]] The war began on August 16, 1863. The Spanish garrison of Santiago was forced to retreat to Puerto Plata by mid-September. The Dominicans bombarded the port of Puerto Plata and destroyed much of the town. In the south, Spanish forces were successful in driving the rebels out of several towns and into Haiti. However, the capture of Azua proved to be a costly endeavor, with two months of fighting and a significant loss of lives for the Spanish. Spanish forces from Cuba attacked and captured Monte Cristi on the north coast, but sustained heavy casualties. By 1865, the Dominican forces had confined the Spanish troops to Santo Domingo, and the Spaniards were afraid to venture outside the capital. After nearly two years of fighting, Spain abandoned the island in July 1865. One military historian estimates Spanish casualties at 10,888 killed or wounded in action and thousands dead from yellow fever, while the Dominican forces fighting for Spain suffered 10,000 casualties. Another military historian estimates that Spain lost 18,000 dead, a figure that does not include the Dominicans, Cubans, and Puerto Ricans fighting alongside them. The Dominicans fighting for independence against Spain suffered more than 4,000 dead. Political strife again prevailed in the following years; warlords ruled, military revolts were extremely common, and the nation amassed debt. It was now Báez's turn to act on his plan of annexing the country to the United States, where two successive presidents were supportive. U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant desired a naval base at Samaná and also a place for resettling newly freed African Americans. The treaty was defeated in the United States Senate in 1870. Báez was toppled in 1874, returned, and was toppled for good in 1878. Relative peace came to the country in the 1880s, which saw the coming to power of General Ulises Heureaux. "Lilís", as the new president was nicknamed, put the nation deep into debt while using much of the proceeds for his personal use and to maintain his police state. In 1899, he was assassinated. However, the relative calm over which he presided allowed improvement in the Dominican economy. The sugar industry was modernized, and the country attracted foreign workers and immigrants. Lebanese, Syrians, Turks, and Palestinians began to arrive in the country during the latter part of the 19th century. During the U.S. occupation of 1916–24, peasants from the countryside, called Gavilleros, would not only kill U.S. Marines, but would also attack and kill Arab vendors traveling through the countryside.20th century (1900–1930) taking office in 1903]] From 1902 on, short-lived governments were again the norm, with their power usurped by caudillos in parts of the country. Furthermore, the national government was bankrupt and, unable to pay its debts to European creditors, faced the threat of military intervention by France, Germany, and Italy. United States President Theodore Roosevelt sought to prevent European intervention, largely to protect the routes to the future Panama Canal. He made a small military intervention to ward off European powers, to proclaim his famous Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, and also to obtain his 1905 Dominican agreement for U.S. administration of Dominican customs, which was the chief source of income for the Dominican government. A 1906 agreement provided for the arrangement to last 50 years. The United States agreed to use part of the customs proceeds to reduce the immense foreign debt of the Dominican Republic and assumed responsibility for said debt. Wilson thus ordered the U.S. occupation of the Dominican Republic. landing on Dominican soil in 1916]] was captured on June 1, 1916, by 133 U.S. Marines after a battle against 500 Dominican rebels, resulting in several U.S. casualties.]] waving over Ozama Fortress during the U.S. occupation of the Dominican Republic, ]] U.S. Marines landed on May 16, 1916, and seized the capital and other ports, while General Arias fell back to his inland Santiago stronghold. A significant weaponry disparity between the U.S. Marines and Arias's forces led to the latter's defeat. The clashes with the U.S. Marines marked the first time the Dominicans had ever encountered a machine gun. A peace delegation from Santiago surrendered the city on July 5, coinciding with General Arias' surrender to the Dominican governor. The military government established by the U.S. under the Navy and Marine Corps on November 29, led by Vice Admiral Harry Shepard Knapp, was widely repudiated by the Dominicans, but organized resistance ceased. The occupation regime kept most Dominican laws and institutions and largely pacified the general population. The occupying government also revived the Dominican economy, reduced the nation's debt, built a road network that at last interconnected all regions of the country, and created a professional National Guard to replace the warring partisan units. The system of forced labour used by the Marines in Haiti was largely absent in the Dominican Republic. The U.S. government's rule ended in October 1922, and elections were held in March 1924. This was accompanied most noticeably by absolute repression and the copious use of murder, torture, and terrorist methods against the opposition. Several Dominicans were assassinated in New York City after taking part in anti-Trujillo activities. In October 1937, Dominican troops murdered 10,000 to 15,000 Haitian men, women, and children—mostly with machetes—along the Haitian-Dominican border under the orders of Trujillo. The U.S. finally broke with Trujillo in 1960, after Trujillo's agents attempted to assassinate the Venezuelan president Rómulo Betancourt with a car bomb, as he was a fierce critic of Trujillo. During Betancourt's earlier exile in Cuba, Trujillo's agents attempted to inject poison into him on a Havana street in broad daylight. After its representatives confirmed Trujillo's complicity in the nearly successful assassination attempt, the Organization of American States (OAS), for the first time in its history, decreed sanctions against a member state. The United States severed diplomatic relations with the Dominican Republic on August 26, 1960, and in January 1961 suspended the export of trucks, parts, crude oil, gasoline and other petroleum products. U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower also took advantage of OAS sanctions to drastically cut purchases of Dominican sugar, the country's major export. This action ultimately cost the Dominican Republic almost $22,000,000 in lost revenues at a time when its economy was in a rapid decline. Trujillo had become expendable, and dissidents inside the Dominican Republic argued that assassination was the only certain way to remove him. On May 31, 1961, Venezuela arrested several individuals plotting to overthrow the government, armed with weapons traced to the Dominican Republic. On May 30, 1961, Trujillo was shot and killed by Dominican dissidents. Balaguer remained in power as president for 12 years. His tenure was a period of repression of human rights and civil liberties. His rule was criticized for a growing disparity between rich and poor. It was, however, praised for an ambitious infrastructure program, which included construction of large housing projects, sports complexes, theaters, museums, aqueducts, roads, highways, and the massive Columbus Lighthouse, completed in 1992 during a later tenure. In 1978, Balaguer was succeeded to the presidency by opposition candidate Antonio Guzmán Fernández, of the Dominican Revolutionary Party (PRD). Hurricane David hit the Dominican Republic in August 1979, which left upwards of 2,000 people dead and 200,000 homeless. The hurricane caused over $1 billion in damage. Another PRD win in 1982 followed, under Salvador Jorge Blanco. Balaguer regained the presidency in 1986 and was re-elected in 1990 and 1994, in the latter defeating PRD candidate José Francisco Peña Gómez, a former mayor of Santo Domingo.<!--some info needs to be added about Balaguer's performance 1986-96--> The 1994 elections were flawed, bringing international pressure, to which Balaguer responded by scheduling another presidential contest in 1996. Balaguer was not a candidate. The PSRC candidate was his Vice President Jacinto Peynado Garrigosa. 1996–present In 1996, with the support of Joaquín Balaguer and the Social Christian Reform Party in a coalition called the Patriotic Front, Leonel Fernández achieved the first-ever win for the Dominican Liberation Party (PLD), which Bosch had founded in 1973 after leaving the PRD. Fernández oversaw a fast-growing economy: growth averaged 7.7% per year, unemployment fell, and exchange and inflation rates were stable. He was succeeded by the opposition candidate Luis Abinader in the 2020 election (weeks after protests erupted in the country against Medina's government), marking the end to 16 years in power of the centre-left Dominican Liberation Party (PLD). In May 2024, President Luis Abinader won a second term in the elections. His tough policies towards migration from neighbouring Haiti was popular among voters. Geography The Dominican Republic comprises the eastern five-eighths of Hispaniola, the second-largest island in the Greater Antilles, with the Atlantic Ocean to the north and the Caribbean Sea to the south. It shares the island roughly at a 2:1 ratio with Haiti, the north-to-south (though somewhat irregular) border between the two countries being .Climate <!----> The Dominican Republic has a tropical rainforest climate in the coastal and lowland areas. Some areas, such as most of the Cibao region, have a tropical savanna climate. Lake Enriquillo, located in the Dominican Republic's southwest, is home to the largest population of American crocodiles. Government and politics in Santo Domingo]] The Dominican Republic is a representative democracy or democratic republic, ]] The three major parties are the conservative Social Christian Reformist Party (), in power 1966–78 and 1986–96; and the social democratic Dominican Revolutionary Party (), in power in 1963, 1978–86, and 2000–04; and the Dominican Liberation Party (), in power 1996–2000 and 2004–2020. In 2020, protests erupted against the PLD's rule. The presidential candidate for the opposition Modern Revolutionary Party (PRM), Luis Abinader, won the election, defeating the PLD.Administrative divisions The Dominican Republic is divided into 31 provinces. Santo Domingo, the capital, is designated Distrito Nacional (National District). The provinces are divided into municipalities (municipios; singular municipio). They are the second-level political and administrative subdivisions of the country. The president appoints the governors of the 31 provinces. Mayors and municipal councils administer the 124 municipal districts and the National District (Santo Domingo). They are elected at the same time as congressional representatives. The Distrito Nacional was created in 1936. Prior to this, the Distrito National was the old Santo Domingo Province, in existence since the country's independence in 1844. It is not to be confused with the new Santo Domingo Province split off from it in 2001. While it is similar to a province in many ways, the Distrito Nacional differs in its lack of an administrative governor and consisting only of one municipality, Santo Domingo, the city council (ayuntamiento) and mayor (síndico) which are in charge of its administration. {\| \|- valign="top" \|<!--First column:--> {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! \|\| Province \|\| Capital city \|- \| \|\|Azua \|\| Azua de Compostela \|- \| \|\|Baoruco \|\| Neiba \|- \| \|\|Barahona \|\| Santa Cruz de Barahona \|- \| \|\|Dajabón \|\| Dajabón \|- \| \|\|Distrito Nacional \|\| Santo Domingo \|- \| \|\|Duarte \|\| San Francisco de Macorís \|- \|\|\|Elías Piña \|\| Comendador \|- \|\|\|El Seibo \|\| Santa Cruz de El Seibo \|- \|\|\|Espaillat\|\| Moca \|- \|\|\|Hato Mayor \|\| Hato Mayor del Rey \|- \| \|\|Hermanas Mirabal \|\| Salcedo \|- \| \|\|Independencia \|\| Jimaní \|- \| \|\|La Altagracia \|\| Salvaleón de Higüey \|- \| \|\|La Romana \|\| La Romana \|- \| \|\|La Vega \|\| Concepción de La Vega \|- \| \|\|María Trinidad Sánchez \|\| Nagua \|} \|<!--Second column:--> {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! \|\| Province \|\| Capital city \|- \| \|\|Monseñor Nouel \|\| Bonao \|- \| \|\|Monte Cristi\|\| San Fernando de Monte Cristi \|- \| \|\|Monte Plata \|\| Monte Plata \|- \| \|\|Pedernales \|\| Pedernales \|- \| \|\|Peravia \|\| Baní \|- \| \|\|Puerto Plata \|\| San Felipe de Puerto Plata \|- \| \|\|Samaná \|\| Samaná \|- \| \|\|San Cristóbal \|\| San Cristóbal \|- \| \|\|San José de Ocoa \|\| San José de Ocoa \|- \| \|\|San Juan \|\| San Juan de la Maguana \|- \| \|\|San Pedro de Macorís \|\| San Pedro de Macorís \|- \| \|\|Sánchez Ramírez \|\| Cotuí \|- \| \|\|Santiago \|\| Santiago de los Caballeros \|- \| \|\|Santiago Rodríguez \|\| San Ignacio de Sabaneta \|- \| \|\|Santo Domingo \|\| Santo Domingo Este \|- \| \|\|Valverde \|\| Santa Cruz de Mao \|} \|} Foreign relations The Dominican Republic has a close relationship with the United States, and has close cultural ties with the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, and other states and jurisdictions of the United States. The Dominican Republic's relationship with neighbouring Haiti is strained over mass Haitian migration to the Dominican Republic, with citizens of the Dominican Republic blaming the Haitians for increased crime and other social problems. The Dominican Republic is a regular member of the . The Dominican Republic has a free trade agreement with the United States, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua via the Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement and an economic partnership agreement with the European Union and the Caribbean Community via the Caribbean Forum. Dominican Republic is the 97th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024 Global Peace Index. Military The Armed Forces of the Dominican Republic are the military forces of the Dominican Republic. They consist of approximately 56,000 active duty personnel. The President of the Dominican Republic is the commander in chief of the Armed Forces of the Dominican Republic and the Ministry of Defense is the chief managing body of the armed forces. The Army, with 28,750 active duty personnel, Economy <!--The Dominican Republic is the largest economy in the Caribbean and Central American region. It is an upper middle-income developing country, with a 2020 GDP per capita of US$20,625, in PPP terms. Over the last 25 years, the Dominican Republic has had the fastest-growing economy in the Americas – with an average real GDP growth rate of 5.53% between 1992 and 2018. The country is the site of the second largest gold mine in the world, the Pueblo Viejo mine. The Dominican Republic has a stock market, Bolsa de Valores de la República Dominicana (BVRD). and advanced telecommunication system and transportation infrastructure. International migration affects the Dominican Republic greatly, as it receives and sends large flows of migrants. Mass illegal Haitian immigration and the integration of Dominicans of Haitian descent are major issues. contributes to development, sending billions of dollars to Dominican families in remittances. Remittances in Dominican Republic increased to US$4571.30 million in 2014 from US$3333 million in 2013 (according to data reported by the Inter-American Development Bank). Economic growth takes place in spite of a chronic energy shortage, which causes frequent blackouts and very high prices. Despite a widening merchandise trade deficit, tourism earnings and remittances have helped build foreign exchange reserves. Following economic turmoil in the late 1980s and 1990, during which the gross domestic product (GDP) fell by up to 5% and consumer price inflation reached an unprecedented 100%, the Dominican Republic entered a period of growth and declining inflation until 2002, after which the economy entered a recession. were convicted. According to the 2005 Annual Report of the United Nations Subcommittee on Human Development in the Dominican Republic, the country is ranked No. 71 in the world for resource availability, No. 79 for human development, and No. 14 in the world for resource mismanagement. These statistics emphasize national government corruption, foreign economic interference in the country, and the rift between the rich and poor. The Dominican Republic has a noted problem of child labor in its coffee, rice, sugarcane, and tomato industries. The labor injustices in the sugarcane industry extend to forced labor according to the U.S. Department of Labor. Three large groups own 75% of the land: the State Sugar Council (Consejo Estatal del Azúcar, CEA), Grupo Vicini, and Central Romana Corporation. According to the 2016 Global Slavery Index, an estimated 104,800 people are enslaved in the modern day Dominican Republic, or 1.00% of the population.Currency The Dominican peso (abbreviated $ or RD$; ISO 4217 code is "DOP") is the national currency, with the United States dollar, the Euro, the Canadian dollar and the Swiss franc also accepted at most tourist sites. The exchange rate to the U.S. dollar, liberalized by 1985, stood at 2.70 pesos per dollar in August 1986, Tourism ]] <!--The Dominican Republic is the most visited destination in the Caribbean. The year-round golf courses are major attractions. With both lines opened, ridership increased to 61,270,054 passengers in 2014.Communications The Dominican Republic has a well developed telecommunications infrastructure, with extensive mobile phone and landline services. Cable Internet and DSL are available in most parts of the country, and many Internet service providers offer 3G wireless internet service. Projects to extend Wi-Fi hot spots have been made in Santo Domingo. The telecommunications regulator in the country is INDOTEL (Instituto Dominicano de Telecomunicaciones). The largest telecommunications company is Claro – part of Carlos Slim's América Móvil – which provides wireless, landline, broadband, and IPTV services. In June 2009 there were more than 8 million phone line subscribers (land and cell users) in the D.R., representing 81% of the country's population and a fivefold increase since the year 2000, when there were 1.6 million. The communications sector generates about 3.0% of the GDP. In November 2009, the Dominican Republic became the first Latin American country to pledge to include a "gender perspective" in every information and communications technology (ICT) initiative and policy developed by the government. This is part of the regional eLAC2010 plan. The tool the Dominicans have chosen to design and evaluate all the public policies is the APC Gender Evaluation Methodology (GEM). Electricity Electric power service has been unreliable since the Trujillo era, and as much as 75% of the equipment is that old. The country's antiquated power grid causes transmission losses that account for a large share of billed electricity from generators. The privatization of the sector started under a previous administration of Leonel Fernández. The recent investment in a 345 kilovolt "Santo Domingo–Santiago Electrical Highway" Concentrated efforts were announced to increase efficiency of delivery to places where the collection rate reached 70%. In 2010, 31.2% of the population was under 15 years of age, with 6% of the population over 65 years of age. There were an estimated 102.3 males for every 100 females in 2020. The population density in 2007 was 192 per km<sup>2</sup> (498 per sq mi), and 63% of the population lived in urban areas. The southern coastal plains and the Cibao Valley are the most densely populated areas of the country. The capital city Santo Domingo had a population of 2,907,100 in 2010. Other important cities are Santiago de los Caballeros ( 745,293), La Romana (pop. 214,109), San Pedro de Macorís (pop. 185,255), Higüey (153,174), San Francisco de Macorís (pop. 132,725), Puerto Plata (pop. 118,282), and La Vega (pop. 104,536). Per the United Nations, the urban population growth rate for 2000–2005 was 2.3%. Population centres \| list_by_pop = List of cities in the Dominican Republic \| kind = cities \| div_name = Province \| div_link = Provinces of the Dominican RepublicProvince \|city_1 = Santo DomingoSanto Domingo \|div_1 = Distrito NacionalDistrito Nacional \|pop_1 = 4,274,651 \|img_1 = SantoDomingoedit.JPG \|city_2 = Santiago de los CaballerosSantiago \|div_2 = Santiago Province (Dominican Republic)Santiago \|pop_2 = 771,748 \|img_2 = Santiago-edit.jpg \|city_3 = La Vega, Dominican RepublicLa Vega \|div_3 = La Vega ProvinceLa Vega \|pop_3 = 282,055 \|img_3 = La Vega Dominican Republic 3.jpg \|city_4 = La Romana, Dominican RepublicLa Romana \|div_4 = La Romana ProvinceLa Romana \|pop_4 = 270,686 \|img_4 = Casa de Campo Marina, La Romana 22000, Dominican Republic - panoramio (4).jpg \|city_5 = Higüey Higüey \|div_5 = La Altagracia ProvinceLa Altagracia \|pop_5 = 266,091 \|city_6 = San Francisco de Macorís \|div_6 = Duarte ProvinceDuarte \|pop_6 = 217,523 \|city_7 = San Pedro de Macorís \|div_7 = San Pedro de Macorís ProvinceSan Pedro de Macorís \|pop_7 = 202,716 \|city_8 = Puerto Plata (city)Puerto Plata \|div_8 = Puerto Plata ProvincePuerto Plata \|pop_8 = 162,093 \|city_9 = Baní, Dominican RepublicBaní \|div_9 = Peravia Province \|pop_9 = 158,019 \|city_10 = Punta Cana Punta Cana \|div_10 = La Altagracia ProvinceLa Altagracia \|pop_10 = 148,993 }} Notes Ethnic groups ]] In a 2022 population survey, 71.7% self-identified as Mixed (Indio 34.2%, Moreno 26.1%, Mestizo 7.7%, Mulatto 3.8%), 18.7% as White, 7.4% as Black, and 0.3% as "Other". According to recent genealogical DNA studies of the Dominican population, the genetic makeup is predominantly European and Sub-Saharan African, with a lesser degree of Indigenous ancestry. The average Dominican DNA of the founder population is estimated to be 73% European, 10% Native, and 17% African. After the Haitian and Afro-Caribbean migrations the overall percentage changed to 57% European, 8% Native and 35% African. Due to mixed race Dominicans (and most Dominicans in general) being a mix of mainly European and African, with lesser amounts of Indigenous ancestry, they could be described as "Mulatto" or "Tri-racial". Dominican Republic have several informal terms to loosely describe a person's degree of racial admixture, Mestizo means any type of mixed ancestry unlike in other Latin American countries it describes specifically a European/native mix, Indio describes mixed race people whose skin color is between white and black. The majority of the Dominican population is tri-racial, with nearly all mixed race individuals having Taíno Native American ancestry along with European (mainly Spanish) and African ancestry. European ancestry in the mixed population typically ranges between 50% and 60% on average, while African ancestry ranges between 30% and 40%, and the Native ancestry usually ranges between 5% and 10%. European and Native ancestry tends to be strongest in cities and towns of the north-central Cibao region, and generally in the mountainous interior of the country. African ancestry is strongest in coastal areas, the southeast plain, and the border regions. Dominican Republic's citizenship is given by right of blood (Jus sanguinis), not right of soil, meaning being born in Dominican Republic does not guarantee citizenship if parents are illegal immigrants. One would either have to be born in Dominican Republic to parents who are legal citizens or apply for citizenship; citizenship is granted quite easily to people born abroad if they can prove Dominican ancestry. This means that being a Dominican citizen and being an ethnic Dominican is not always interchangeable, as the former implies citizenship that one can receive moving from any country in the world to Dominican Republic, while the latter implies a people tied by ancestry and culture. Ethnic Dominicans are people who are not only born in Dominican Republic (and have legal status) or born abroad with ancestral roots in the country, but more importantly have family roots in the country going back several generations and descend from a mix of varying degrees of Spanish, Taino, and African, the three principal foundational roots of Dominican Republic. Nearly all Dominicans are mixed race, with 75% being "visibly" and "evenly" mixed, and the remaining 25% being predominantly of African or European blood but still with notable admixture. According to a 2017 estimate from the Dominican government, Dominican Republic had a population of 10,189,895, of which 847,979 were immigrants or descendants of recent immigrants and 9,341,916 were ethnic Dominicans. Most Dominicans embrace all sides of their mixed race heritage, but often identify with their nationality first and foremost. Many Dominicans born in the United States now reside in the Dominican Republic, estimated at around 250,000, creating a kind of expatriate community, whom have growing influence and play a significant role in the economic growth in Dominican Republic. Haitians make up the largest ethnic immigrant group in the country, a large majority of them are illegal, in a distant second place are the Venezuelans. Other groups in the country include the descendants of West Asians—mostly Lebanese, Syrians and Palestinians. A smaller, yet significant presence of East Asians (primarily ethnic Chinese and Japanese) can also be found throughout the population. Dominicans are also composed of Sephardic Jews that were exiled from Spain and the Mediterranean area in 1492 and 1497, coupled with other migrations dating to the 1700s and during the Second World War contribute to Dominican ancestry. Languages The population of the Dominican Republic is mostly Spanish-speaking, with the only people who do not speak Spanish fluently being some immigrants. The local variant of Spanish is called Dominican Spanish, which closely resembles other Spanish vernaculars in the Caribbean and has similarities to Canarian Spanish. In addition, it has influences from African languages and borrowed words from indigenous Caribbean languages particular to the island of Hispaniola. Schools are based on a Spanish educational model; English and French are mandatory foreign languages in both private and public schools, although the quality of foreign languages teaching is poor. Haitian Creole is the largest minority language in the Dominican Republic and is spoken by Haitian immigrants and their descendants. There is a community of a few thousand people whose ancestors spoke Samaná English in the Samaná Peninsula. They are the descendants of formerly enslaved African Americans who arrived in the nineteenth century, but only a few elders speak the language today. Tourism, American pop culture, the influence of Dominican Americans, and the country's economic ties with the United States motivate other Dominicans to learn English. The Dominican Republic is ranked 2nd in Latin America and 23rd in the World on English proficiency as a second language. {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|+Mother tongue of the Dominican population, 1950 Census \|- ! Language !! Total % !! Urban % !! Rural % \|- style="text-align:center;" \|\| \| \|Spanish\|\| style"text-align:center;" \| 98.00 \|\| style"text-align:center;" \| 97.82 \|\| style="text-align:center;" \| 98.06 \|- \|French\|\| style"text-align:center;" \| 1.19 \|\| style"text-align:center;" \| 0.39\|\| style="text-align:center;" \| 1.44 \|- \|English\|\| style"text-align:center;" \| 0.57 \|\| style"text-align:center;" \| 0.96\|\| style="text-align:center;" \| 0.45 \|- \|Arabic\|\| style"text-align:center;" \| 0.09 \|\| style"text-align:center;" \| 0.35\|\| style="text-align:center;" \| 0.01 \|- \|Italian\|\| style"text-align:center;" \| 0.03 \|\| style"text-align:center;" \| 0.10\|\| style="text-align:center;" \| 0.006 \|- \| Other language \|\| style"text-align:center;" \| 0.12 \|\| style"text-align:center;" \| 0.35\|\| style="text-align:center;" \| 0.04 \|} Religion , Santo Domingo, is the oldest cathedral in the Americas, built between 1514 and 1541.]] 95.0% Christians <br /> 2.6% No religion <br /> 2.2% Other religions Christianity is the most widely professed religion in the Dominican Republic. Three percent of the 10.63 million Dominican Republic population are Seventh-day Adventists. Recent immigration as well as proselytizing efforts have brought in other religious groups, with the following shares of the population: Spiritist: 2.2%, Buddhist: 0.1%, Baháʼí: 0.1%, Islam: 0.02%, Judaism: 0.01%. The Catholic Church began to lose its strong dominance in the late 19th century. This was due to a lack of funding, priests, and support programs. During the same time, Protestant Evangelicalism began to gain wider support "with their emphasis on personal responsibility and family rejuvenation, economic entrepreneurship, and biblical fundamentalism". The Dominican Republic has two Catholic patroness saints: Nuestra Señora de la Altagracia (Our Lady Of High Grace) and Nuestra Señora de las Mercedes (Our Lady Of Mercy). The Dominican Republic has historically granted extensive religious freedom. According to the United States Department of State, "The constitution specifies that there is no state church and provides for freedom of religion and belief. A concordat with the Vatican designates Catholicism as the official religion and extends special privileges to the Catholic Church not granted to other religious groups. These include the legal recognition of church law, use of public funds to underwrite some church expenses, and complete exoneration from customs duties." In the 1950s restrictions were placed upon churches by the government of Trujillo. Letters of protest were sent against the mass arrests of government adversaries. Trujillo began a campaign against the Catholic Church and planned to arrest priests and bishops who preached against the government. This campaign ended before it was put into place, with his assassination. During World War II a group of Jews escaping Nazi Germany fled to the Dominican Republic and founded the city of Sosúa. It has remained the center of the Jewish population since.Immigration in the 20th and 21st centuries in the Constanza neighbourhood.]] In the 20th century, many Arabs (from Lebanon, Syria, and Palestine), Japanese, and, to a lesser degree, Koreans settled in the country as agricultural laborers and merchants. The Chinese companies found business in telecom, mining, and railroads. The Arab community is rising at an increasing rate and is estimated at 80,000. ethnic Chinese and Japanese, can also be found. In addition, there are descendants of immigrants who came from other Caribbean islands, including St. Kitts and Nevis, Antigua, St. Vincent, Montserrat, Tortola, St. Croix, St. Thomas, and Guadeloupe. They are known locally as Cocolos. They worked on sugarcane plantations and docks and settled mainly in the cities of San Pedro de Macorís and Puerto Plata. Puerto Rican, and to a lesser extent, Cuban immigrants fled to the Dominican Republic from the mid-1800s until about 1940 due to a poor economy and social unrest in their respective home countries. Many Puerto Rican immigrants settled in Higüey, among other cities, and quickly assimilated due to similar culture. Before and during World War II, 800 Jewish refugees moved to the Dominican Republic. Numerous immigrants have come from other Caribbean countries, as the country has offered economic opportunities. There are many Haitians and Venezuelans living in the Dominican Republic, there are the largest immigrant groups in the country currently, and large numbers of both groups are present in the country illegally. Many Europeans and Americans (non-Puerto Rican) are also retiring in the country. About 300,000 U.S. citizens reside in Dominican Republic, of which 250,000 are Dominican Americans whom have returned to the country, and 50,000 are Americans of non-Dominican ancestry from the mainland United States and the U.S. territory of Puerto Rico. The 2010 Census registered 311,969 Haitians; 24,457 Americans; 6,691 Spaniards; 5,763 Puerto Ricans; and 5,132 Venezuelans. In 2012, the Dominican government made a survey of immigrants in the country and found that there were: 329,281 Haitian-born; 25,814 U.S.-born (excluding Puerto Rican-born); 7,062 Spanish-born; 6,083 Puerto Rican-born; 5,417 Venezuelan-born; 3,841 Cuban-born; 3,795 Italian-born; 3,606 Colombian-born; 2,043 French-born; 1,661 German-born; 1,484 Chinese-born; among others. In the second half of 2017, a second survey of foreign population was conducted in the Dominican Republic. The total population in the Dominican Republic was estimated at 10,189,895, of which 9,341,916 were Dominicans with no foreign background. According to the survey, the majority of the people with foreign background were of Haitian origin (751,080 out of 847,979, or 88.6%), breaking down as follows: 497,825 were Haitians born in Haiti, 171,859 Haitians born in the Dominican Republic and 81,590 Dominicans with a Haitian parent. Other main sources of foreign-born population were Venezuela (25,872), the United States (10,016), Spain (7,592), Italy (3,713), China (3,069), Colombia (2,642), Puerto Rico (2,356), and Cuba (2,024). Haitian immigration between Haiti (left) and the Dominican Republic (right), highlighting the deforestation on the Haitian side]] ]] , the Dominican Republic]] Human Rights Watch estimated that 70,000 documented Haitian immigrants and 1,930,000 undocumented immigrants were living in Dominican Republic. The first of three late-20th century emigration waves began in 1961 after the assassination of dictator Trujillo, From 1966 to 1978, the exodus continued, fueled by high unemployment and political repression. Communities established by the first wave of immigrants to the U.S. created a network that assisted subsequent arrivals. In the early 1980s, underemployment, inflation, and the rise in value of the dollar all contributed to a third wave of emigration from the Dominican Republic. Today, emigration from the Dominican Republic remains high. There was also a growing Dominican immigration to Puerto Rico, with nearly 70,000 Dominicans living there . Although that number is slowly decreasing and immigration trends have reversed because of Puerto Rico's economic crisis . There is a significant Dominican population in Spain. Education Primary education is regulated by the Ministry of Education, with education being a right of all citizens and youth in the Dominican Republic. Preschool education is organized in different cycles and serves the 2–4 age group and the 4–6 age group. Preschool education is not mandatory except for the last year. Basic education is compulsory and serves the population of the 6–14 age group. Secondary education is not compulsory, although it is the duty of the state to offer it for free. It caters to the 14–18 age group and is organized in a common core of four years and three modes of two years of study that are offered in three different options: general or academic, vocational (industrial, agricultural, and services), and artistic. The higher education system consists of institutes and universities. The institutes offer courses of a higher technical level. The universities offer technical careers, undergraduate and graduate; these are regulated by the Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology. The Dominican Republic was ranked 97th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024, down from 87th in 2019. Health In 2020, the Dominican Republic had an estimated birth rate of 18.5 per 1000 and a death rate of 6.3 per 1000.Crime In 2012, the Dominican Republic had a murder rate of 22.1 per 100,000 population. The Dominican Republic has become a trans-shipment point for Colombian drugs destined for Europe as well as the United States and Canada. The Dominican Republic responded with increased efforts to seize drug shipments, arrest and extradite those involved, and combat money-laundering. The often-light treatment of violent criminals has been a continuous source of local controversy. In April 2010, five teenagers, aged 15 to 17, shot and killed two taxi drivers and killed another five by forcing them to drink drain-cleaning acid. On September 24, 2010, the teens were sentenced to prison terms of three to five years, despite the protests of the taxi drivers' families. Culture Due to cultural syncretism, the culture and customs of the Dominican people have a European cultural basis, influenced by both African and native Taíno elements, although endogenous elements have emerged within Dominican culture; Spanish institutions in the colonial era were able to predominate in the Dominican culture's making-of as a relative success in the acculturation and cultural assimilation of African slaves slightly diminished African cultural influence in comparison to other Caribbean countries. <!--Music and sport are of great importance in the Dominican culture, with Merengue and Bachata as the national dance and music, and baseball as the favorite sport. The designs carry over into the villas and buildings throughout the country. It can also be observed on buildings that contain stucco exteriors, arched doors and windows, and red tiled roofs. The indigenous peoples of the Dominican Republic have also had a significant influence on the architecture of the country. The Taíno people relied heavily on the mahogany and guano (dried palm tree leaf) to put together crafts, artwork, furniture, and houses. Utilizing mud, thatched roofs, and mahogany trees, they gave buildings and the furniture inside a natural look, blending in with the island's surroundings. Lately, with the rise in tourism and increasing popularity as a Caribbean vacation destination, architects in the Dominican Republic have now begun to incorporate cutting-edge designs that emphasize luxury. In many ways an architectural playground, villas and hotels implement new styles, while offering new takes on the old. This new style is characterized by simplified, angular corners and large windows that blend outdoor and indoor spaces. Visual arts Dominican art is perhaps most commonly associated with the bright, vibrant colors and images that are sold in every tourist gift shop across the country. However, the country has a long history of fine art that goes back to the middle of the 1800s when the country became independent and the beginnings of a national art scene emerged. Historically, the painting of this time were centered around images connected to national independence, historical scenes, portraits but also landscapes and images of still life. Styles of painting ranged between neoclassicism and romanticism. Between 1920 and 1940 the art scene was influenced by styles of realism and impressionism. Dominican artists were focused on breaking from previous, academic styles in order to develop more independent and individual styles. Literature The Dominican politician, rector and author Andrés López de Medrano (1780 – May 6, 1856) became the first enlightened philosopher of the Dominican Republic and supported Dominican independence. Medrano is best known for writing one of the most important philosophical works of the 19th century, a treaty or guide entitled Logic, Elements of Modern Philosophy (1814), which became the first book of Dominican philosophy and the first book printed in the Dominican Republic.), Aida Cartagena Portalatin, Emilio Rodríguez Demorizi (the most important Dominican historian, with more than 1000 written works), Manuel del Cabral (main Dominican poet featured in black poetry), Hector Inchustegui Cabral (considered one of the most prominent voices of the Caribbean social poetry of the twentieth century), Miguel Alfonseca (poet belonging to Generation 60), Rene del Risco (acclaimed poet who was a participant in the June 14 Movement), Mateo Morrison, among many more prolific authors, put the island in one of the most important in Literature in the twentieth century. New Dominican writers have not yet achieved the renown of their 20th-century counterparts. However, writers such as Frank Báez (won the 2006 Santo Domingo Book Fair First Prize) and Junot Díaz (2008 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction for his novel The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao) lead Dominican literature in the 21st century. Music and dance , sung by Juan Luis Guerra (left), and bachata, sung by Romeo Santos (right), are two very popular music genres native to the Dominican Republic.]] Musically, the Dominican Republic is known for the world popular musical style and genre called merengue, Salsa music has had a great deal of popularity in the country. During the late 1960s Dominican musicians like Johnny Pacheco, creator of the Fania All Stars, played a significant role in the development and popularization of the genre. Dominican rock and Reggaeton are also popular. Many, if not the majority, of its performers are based in Santo Domingo and Santiago. Fashion The country boasts one of the ten most important design schools in the region, La Escuela de Diseño de Altos de Chavón, which is making the country a key player in the world of fashion and design. Noted fashion designer Oscar de la Renta was born in the Dominican Republic in 1932, and became a US citizen in 1971. By 1963, he had designs bearing his own label. After establishing himself in the US, de la Renta opened boutiques across the country.<!-- Which country—US or DR? --> His work blends French and Spaniard fashion with American styles. Although he settled in New York, de la Renta also marketed his work in Latin America, where it became very popular, and remained active in his native Dominican Republic, where his charitable activities and personal achievements earned him the Juan Pablo Duarte Order of Merit and the Order of Cristóbal Colón. One breakfast dish consists of eggs and mangú (mashed, boiled plantain). Heartier versions of mangú are accompanied by deep-fried meat (Dominican salami, typically), cheese, or both. Lunch, generally the largest and most important meal of the day, usually consists of rice, meat, beans, and salad. "La Bandera" (literally "The Flag") is the most popular lunch dish; it consists of meat and red beans on white rice. Sancocho is a stew often made with seven varieties of meat. Meals tend to favor meats and starches over dairy products and vegetables. Many dishes are made with sofrito, which is a mix of local herbs used as a wet rub for meats and sautéed to bring out all of a dish's flavors. Throughout the south-central coast, bulgur, or whole wheat, is a main ingredient in quipes or tipili (bulgur salad). Other favorite Dominican foods include chicharrón, yuca, casabe, pastelitos (empanadas), batata, ñame, pasteles en hoja, chimichurris, and tostones. Some treats Dominicans enjoy are arroz con leche (or arroz con dulce), bizcocho dominicano (), habichuelas con dulce, flan, frío frío (snow cones), dulce de leche, and caña (sugarcane). The beverages Dominicans enjoy are Morir Soñando, rum, beer, Mama Juana, batidas (smoothie), jugos naturales (freshly squeezed fruit juices), mabí, coffee, and chaca (also called maiz caqueao/casqueado, maiz con dulce and maiz con leche), the last item being found only in the southern provinces of the country such as San Juan. National symbols Some of the Dominican Republic's important symbols are the flag, the coat of arms, and the national anthem, titled Himno Nacional. The flag has a large white cross that divides it into four quarters. Two quarters are red and two are blue. Red represents the blood shed by the liberators. Blue expresses God's protection over the nation. The white cross symbolizes the struggle of the liberators to bequeath future generations a free nation. An alternative interpretation is that blue represents the ideals of progress and liberty, whereas white symbolizes peace and unity among Dominicans. In the center of the cross is the Dominican coat of arms, in the same colors as the national flag. The coat of arms pictures a red, white, and blue flag-draped shield with a Bible, a gold cross, and arrows; the shield is surrounded by an olive branch (on the left) and a palm branch (on the right). The Bible traditionally represents the truth and the light. The gold cross symbolizes the redemption from slavery, and the arrows symbolize the noble soldiers and their proud military. A blue ribbon above the shield reads, "Dios, Patria, Libertad" (meaning "God, Fatherland, Liberty"). A red ribbon under the shield reads, "República Dominicana" (meaning "Dominican Republic"). Out of all the flags in the world, the depiction of a Bible is unique to the Dominican flag. The national flower is the endemic Bayahibe rose (Leuenbergeria quisqueyana) and the national tree is the West Indian mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni). The national bird is the cigua palmera or palmchat (Dulus dominicus), another endemic species. The Dominican Republic celebrates Dia de la Altagracia on January 21 in honor of its patroness, Duarte's Day on January 26 in honor of one of its founding fathers, Independence Day on February 27, Restoration Day on August 16, Virgen de las Mercedes on September 24, and Constitution Day on November 6. Sports player Albert Pujols]] Baseball is by far the most popular sport in the Dominican Republic. Other notable baseball players born in the Dominican Republic are José Bautista, Robinson Canó, Rico Carty, Bartolo Colón, Nelson Cruz, Edwin Encarnación, Cristian Javier, Ubaldo Jiménez, Francisco Liriano, Plácido Polanco, Albert Pujols, Hanley Ramírez, Manny Ramírez, José Reyes, Alfonso Soriano, Sammy Sosa, Juan Soto, Fernando Tatís Jr., Miguel Tejada, Framber Valdez, and Elly De La Cruz. Felipe Alou has also enjoyed success as a manager and Omar Minaya as a general manager. In 2013, the Dominican team went undefeated en route to winning the World Baseball Classic. In boxing, the country has produced scores of world-class fighters and several world champions, such as Carlos Cruz, his brother Leo, Juan Guzman, and Joan Guzman. Basketball also enjoys a relatively high level of popularity. Tito Horford, his son Al, Felipe Lopez, and Francisco Garcia are among the Dominican-born players currently or formerly in the National Basketball Association (NBA). Olympic gold medalist and world champion hurdler Félix Sánchez hails from the Dominican Republic, as do former NFL defensive end Luis Castillo and 2020 World and European Cyclo-cross champion Ceylin del Carmen Alvarado. Other important sports are volleyball, introduced in 1916 by U.S. Marines and controlled by the Dominican Volleyball Federation, taekwondo, in which Gabriel Mercedes won an Olympic silver medal in 2008, and judo. See also Index of Dominican Republic-related articles * Outline of the Dominican Republic * List of islands of the Dominican Republic Notes References Bibliography * * * * * Further reading Goff, Frederick Richmond, Michael Locker, and North American Congress on Latin America. 1967. The Violence of Domination : U.S. Power and the Dominican Republic. New York: North American Congress on Latin America. Wiarda, Howard J., and Michael J. Kryzanek. The Dominican Republic: a Caribbean Crucible, in series, Nations of Contemporary Latin America, and also Westview Profiles. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1982. pbk. * Jared Diamond, Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed, Penguin Books, 2005 and 2011 (). See chapter 11 entitled "One Island, Two People, Two Histories: The Dominican Republic and Haiti". External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20121001085820/http://www.presidencia.gob.do/ Presidency of the Dominican Republic] (archived 1 October 2012) * [http://www.dominicanrepublic.com/ Official country website] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080705060056/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/dominicanrepublic.htm Dominican Republic] at UCB Libraries GovPubs (archived 5 July 2008) * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/1216926.stm Dominican Republic profile] from the BBC News * [http://www.godominicanrepublic.com/ Official website of the Ministry of Tourism of the Dominican Republic] * [http://www.dominicanrepublic.com/ Official Commercial Website Ministry of Tourism of the Dominican Republic] * [https://iddi.org/ Official Website of the IDDI, Instituto Dominicano de Desarrollo Integral] * [https://socialjusticebooks.org/store/dominican-republic/ Caribbean Connections: Dominican Republic] – teaching guide for middle and high school students Category:1844 establishments in North America Category:Christian states Category:Countries in North America Category:Countries in the Caribbean Category:Former French colonies Category:Former Spanish colonies Category:Former colonies in North America Category:New Spain Category:Greater Antilles Category:Island countries Category:Member states of the United Nations Category:Republics Category:Small Island Developing States Category:Spanish West Indies Category:1490s establishments in the Spanish West Indies Category:1821 establishments in the Dominican Republic Category:1822 establishments in Haiti Category:1844 disestablishments in Haiti Category:1860s establishments in the Spanish West Indies Category:1861 establishments in the Spanish Empire Category:1865 disestablishments in the Spanish West Indies Category:Spanish-speaking countries and territories Category:Spanish colonization of the Americas Category:States and territories established in 1844	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominican_Republic	2025-04-05T18:28:26.394662
8062	Deutsches Institut für Normung	thumb\|alt=DIN headquarters is a modern 7-story office building with their logo on the front\|Head office of the German Institute for Standardization in Berlin-Tiergarten (DIN; in English, the German Institute for Standardisation) is a German non-profit organization and acting as national organization for standardization. DIN is the German ISO member body. DIN is headquartered in Berlin. There are around thirty thousand DIN Standards, covering nearly every field of technology. History Founded in 1917 as the (NADI, "Standardisation Committee of German Industry"), the NADI was renamed (DNA, "German Standardisation Committee") in 1926 to reflect that the organization now dealt with standardization issues in many fields; viz., not just for industrial products. In 1975 it was renamed again to , or 'DIN' and is recognised by the German government as the official national-standards body, representing German interests at the international and European levels. The acronym, 'DIN' is often incorrectly expanded as ("German Industry Standard"). This is largely due to the historic origin of the DIN as "NADI". The NADI indeed published their standards as (). For example, the first published standard was '' (about tapered pins) in 1918. Many people still mistakenly associate DIN with the old naming convention. One of the earliest, and probably the best known, is DIN 476 — the standard that introduced the A-series paper sizes in 1922 — adopted in 1975 as International Standard ISO 216. Common examples in modern technology include DIN and mini-DIN connectors for electronics, and the DIN rail. DIN SPEC 3105, published in 2020, is "the first German standard to be published under an open license (CC-BY-SA 4.0) [...] to implement an open standardisation process". DIN organisation DIN is a nonprofit organization by German law. The nonprofit owns DIN Solutions GmbH, which produces the DIN contents and DIN Media (formerly Beuth Verlag), which sells the DIN-standard manuals. DIN is shareholder of DIN Bauportal GmbH and DQS Holding GmbH. DIN standard designation The designation of a DIN standard shows its origin (# denotes a number): DIN # is used for German standards with primarily domestic significance or designed as a first step toward international status. E DIN # is a draft standard and DIN V # is a preliminary standard. DIN EN # is used for the German edition of European standards. DIN ISO # is used for the German edition of ISO standards. DIN EN ISO # is used if the standard has also been adopted as a European standard., Some of the DIN standards date back to the time of Nazi Germany. For example, standard DIN 5009, which describes the German Phonetic spelling code, is based on the postal spelling table, that was heavily edited by the Nazis. Until 1934 it specified "D" for David, "S" for Samuel, "Z" for Zacharias and "N" for Nathan. However, this went against the Nazis' ethnic-racial ideology and they decided to revise the letter board. The postal spelling table was partially revised in 1950 and formed the basis for the first version of the standard in 1983. The standard was revised again in 2022, using city names instead of person names. 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8063	History of the Dominican Republic	<!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE --> .]] The recorded history of the Dominican Republic began in 1492 when Christopher Columbus, working for the Crown of Castile, arrived at a large island in the western Atlantic Ocean, later known as the Caribbean. The native Taíno people, an Arawakan people, had inhabited the island during the pre-Columbian era, dividing it into five chiefdoms. They referred to the eastern part of the island as Quisqueya, meaning 'mother of all lands.' Columbus claimed the island for Castile, naming it ('the Spanish Island'), which was later Latinized to Hispaniola. Following 25 years of Spanish occupation, the Taíno population in the Spanish-controlled regions of the island drastically decreased due to the Taíno genocide. With fewer than 50,000 survivors, those remaining intermixed with Spaniards, Africans, and others, leading to the formation of the present-day tripartite Dominican population. The area that would become the Dominican Republic remained the Captaincy General of Santo Domingo until 1821, except during the Era de Francia, when it was a French colony from 1795 to 1815. It briefly became an independent state in 1821, known as the Republic of Spanish Haiti, until it was annexed and merged by Haiti into Republic of Haiti from 1822 to 1844. In 1844, the Dominican Republic declared its independence, establishing the First Dominican Republic. The republic maintained its independence except for a brief annexation by Spain from 1861 to 1865, after which the Second Dominican Republic was established. The country later experienced its first occupation by the United States from 1916 to 1924, followed by the establishment of the Third Dominican Republic. During the 19th century, the Dominican Republic frequently engaged in conflicts involving the French, Haitians, Spanish, and internal factions. This period was characterized by a society heavily influenced by caudillos, who exercised control over the nation as a personalised dictatorship. Between 1844 and 1914, the Dominican Republic underwent numerous leadership transitions, with 53 individuals assuming the presidency, although only three completed their terms. The country also saw the adoption of 19 constitutions, with many leaders obtaining power through military force. During this period, three presidents were assassinated: José Antonio Salcedo in 1864, Ulises Heureaux in 1899, and Ramón Cáceres in 1911. In 1930, the Dominican Republic came under the rule of Rafael Trujillo, a dictator who maintained control until his assassination in 1961. Following Trujillo's regime, Juan Bosch was democratically elected president in 1962 but was removed from office in a military coup d'état in 1963. The Dominican Civil War in 1965 lead to a U.S.-led intervention prompted by an uprising to restore Bosch to power and allegations of communist support for the coup. In 1966, Joaquín Balaguer, a caudillo, defeated Bosch in the presidential election and remained in power for 30 years. Due to U.S. pressure in response to flawed elections, Balaguer was compelled to shorten his term in 1996. Subsequent to this period, the Dominican Republic has conducted regular competitive elections, with opposition candidates successfully assuming the presidency, showing a transition towards more stable democracy. Pre-European history The islands of the Caribbean were first settled around 6,000 years ago by hunter-gatherer peoples originating from Central America or northern South America. The Arawakan-speaking ancestors of the Taíno moved into the Caribbean from South America during the 1st millennium BC, reaching Hispaniola by around 600 AD. These Arawakan peoples engaged in farming, fishing, hunting and gathering, and the widespread production of ceramic goods. 100,000, 300,000, Estimating how many people lived on the island in pre-Columbian times is challenging, as no accurate records exist. At the time of Columbus' arrival in 1492, the island's territory consisted of five Taíno chiefdoms: Marién, Maguá, Maguana, Jaragua, and Higüey. These were ruled respectively by caciques Guacanagarix, Guarionex, Caonabo, Bohechío, and Cayacoa. The Taíno name for the entire island was either Ayiti (land of high mountains) or Quisqueya (mother of all lands). Spanish colony (1492–1795) Arrival of the Spanish Christopher Columbus reached the island of Hispañola on his first voyage, in December 1492. Guacanagarí, the chief who hosted Columbus and his men, treated them kindly and provided them with everything they desired. However, the Taínos' egalitarian social system clashed with the Europeans' feudalist system, which had more rigid class structures. The Europeans believed the Taínos to be either weak or misleading, and they began to treat the tribes with violence. Columbus successfully tempered this trend, and he and his men departed from Quisqueya, the Taínos' name for the island, on good terms. (1494)]] After the sinking of the Santa María, Columbus established a small fort to support his claim to the island. The fort was called La Navidad because the shipwrecking and the founding of the fort occurred on Christmas Day. While Columbus was away, the garrison manning the fort was wracked by divisions that evolved into conflict. The more rapacious men began to terrorize the Taíno, the Ciguayo, and the Macorix peoples, which included attempts to take their women. Guacanagarix tried to reach an accommodation with the Spaniards; however, the Spaniards and some of his own people viewed him as weak. The Spaniards treated him with contempt, including the kidnapping of some of his wives. Fed up, the powerful Cacique Caonabo of the Maguana Chiefdom attacked the Europeans and destroyed La Navidad. Guacanagarix was dismayed by these events but did not try hard to aid the Europeans, probably hoping that the troublesome outsiders would never return. In 1493, Columbus came back to the island on his second voyage and founded the first Spanish colony in the New World, the city of La Isabela. Isabela nearly failed because of hunger and disease. In 1496, Santo Domingo was built and became the new capital, and remains the oldest continuously inhabited European city in the Americas. and her subjects]] An estimated 400,000 Tainos living on the island were soon enslaved to work in gold mines. By 1508, their numbers had decreased to around 60,000 because of forced labor, hunger, disease, and the Taíno genocide. By 1535, only a few dozen were still alive. During this period, the colony's Spanish leadership changed several times. When Columbus departed on another exploration, Francisco de Bobadilla became governor. Settlers' allegations of mismanagement by Columbus helped create a tumultuous political situation. In 1502, Nicolás de Ovando replaced de Bobadilla as governor, with an ambitious plan to expand Spanish influence in the region. It was he who dealt most brutally with the Taíno people. The Taino population declined by up to 95% in the century after the Spanish arrival, from a pre contact population of tens of thousands to 8,000,000. Many authors have described the treatment of the Taino in Hispaniola under the Spanish Empire as genocide. One rebel, however, successfully fought back. Enriquillo led a group who fled to the mountains and attacked the Spanish repeatedly for fourteen years. The Spanish ultimately offered him a peace treaty and gave Enriquillo and his followers their own town in 1534. Sixteenth century denounced the abuses against the indigenous people]] In 1501, the Spanish monarchs, Ferdinand I and Isabella, first granted permission to the colonists of the Caribbean to import African slaves, who began arriving to the island in 1503. In 1510, the first sizable shipment, consisting of 250 Black Ladinos, arrived in Hispaniola from Spain. Eight years later African-born slaves arrived in the West Indies. The Colony of Santo Domingo was organized as the Royal Audiencia of Santo Domingo in 1511. Sugar cane was introduced to Hispaniola from the Canary Islands, and the first sugar mill in the New World was established in 1516, on Hispaniola. The need for a labor force to meet the growing demands of sugar cane cultivation led to an exponential increase in the importation of slaves over the following two decades. The sugar mill owners soon formed a new colonial elite and convinced the Spanish king to allow them to elect the members of the Real Audiencia from their ranks. Poorer colonists subsisted by hunting the herds of wild cattle that roamed throughout the island and selling their hides. The first major slave revolt in the Americas occurred in Santo Domingo on December 25, 1521, when enslaved Muslims of the Wolof nation led an uprising in the sugar plantation of admiral Don Diego Colon, son of Christopher Columbus. Many of these insurgents managed to escape to the mountains where they formed independent maroon communities, but the Admiral had a lot of the captured rebels hanged. While sugar cane dramatically increased Spain's earnings on the island, large numbers of the newly imported slaves fled into the nearly impassable mountain ranges in the island's interior, joining the growing communities of cimarrónes—literally, 'wild animals'. By the 1530s, cimarrón bands had become so numerous that in rural areas the Spaniards could only safely travel outside their plantations in large armed groups. When Archdeacon Alonso de Castro toured Hispaniola in 1542, he estimated the maroon population at 2,000–3,000 persons, living mainly on the Cape of San Nicolas, in the Ciguayos, on the Samana peninsular, and on the Cape of Iguey. Latter that decade, there were also rebellions of enslaved people, led by Diego de Guzman, Diego de Campo, and Captain Lemba. ]] ]] Beginning in the 1520s, the Caribbean Sea was raided by increasingly numerous French pirates. In 1541, Spain authorized the construction of Santo Domingo's fortified wall, and in 1560 decided to restrict sea travel to enormous, well-armed convoys. In another move, which would destroy Hispaniola's sugar industry, in 1561 Havana, more strategically located in relation to the Gulf Stream, was selected as the designated stopping point for the merchant flotas, which had a royal monopoly on commerce with the Americas. In 1564, the island's main inland cities Santiago de los Caballeros and Concepción de la Vega were destroyed by an earthquake. In the 1560s, English privateers joined the French in regularly raiding Spanish shipping in the Americas. With the conquest of the American mainland, Hispaniola quickly declined. Most Spanish colonists left for the silver-mines of Mexico and Peru, while new immigrants from Spain bypassed the island. Agriculture dwindled, new imports of slaves ceased, and white colonists, free blacks, and slaves alike lived in poverty, weakening the racial hierarchy and aiding intermixing, resulting in a population of predominantly mixed Spaniard, African, and Taíno descent. Except for the city of Santo Domingo, which managed to maintain some legal exports, Dominican ports were forced to rely on contraband trade, which, along with livestock, became the sole source of livelihood for the island dwellers. In 1586, the privateer Francis Drake of England captured the city of Santo Domingo, collecting a ransom for its return to Spanish rule. In 1592, Christopher Newport of England attacked the town of Azua on the bay of Ocoa, which was taken and plundered. In 1595, the Spanish, frustrated by the twenty-year rebellion of their Dutch subjects, closed their home ports to rebel shipping from the Netherlands cutting them off from the critical salt supplies necessary for their herring industry. The Dutch responded by sourcing new salt supplies from Spanish America where colonists were more than happy to trade. So large numbers of Dutch traders and buccaneers joined their English and French counterparts on the Spanish Main. Seventeenth century of Santo Domingo, c. 1665]] In 1605, Spain was infuriated that Spanish settlements on the northern and western coasts of the island were carrying out large scale and illegal trade with the Dutch, who were at that time fighting a war of independence against Spain in Europe, and the English, a very recent enemy state, and so decided to forcibly resettle the colony's inhabitants closer to the city of Santo Domingo. This action, known as the Devastaciones de Osorio, proved disastrous; more than half of the resettled colonists died of starvation or disease, over 100,000 cattle were abandoned, and many slaves escaped. Five of the existing thirteen settlements on the island were brutally razed by Spanish troops – many of the inhabitants fought, escaped to the jungle, or fled to the safety of passing Dutch ships. The settlements of La Yaguana, and Bayaja, on the west and north coasts respectively of modern-day Haiti were burned, as were the settlements of Monte Cristi and Puerto Plata on the north coast and San Juan de la Maguana in the southwestern area of the modern-day Dominican Republic. French and English buccaneers took advantage of Spain's retreat into a corner of Hispaniola to settle the island of Tortuga, off the northwest coast of Hispaniola, in 1629. France established direct control in 1640, reorganizing it into an official colony and expanding to the north coast of Hispaniola itself, whose western end Spain ceded to France in 1697 under the Treaty of Ryswick. In 1655, Oliver Cromwell of England dispatched a fleet, commanded by Admiral Sir William Penn, to capture Santo Domingo. After meeting heavy resistance, the English retreated. Despite the fact that the English were defeated in their attempt to capture the island, they nevertheless captured the nearby Spanish colony of Jamaica, and other foreign strongholds subsequently began to be established throughout the West Indies. Madrid sought to contest such encroachments on its own imperial control by using Santo Domingo as a forward military base, but Spanish power was by now too depleted to recapture lost colonies. The city itself was furthermore subjected to a smallpox epidemic, cacao blight, and hurricane in 1666; another storm two years later; a second epidemic in 1669; a third hurricane in September 1672; plus an earthquake in May 1673 that killed twenty-four residents.Eighteenth centuryThe House of Bourbon replaced the House of Habsburg in Spain in 1700 and introduced economic reforms that gradually began to revive trade in Santo Domingo. The crown progressively relaxed the rigid controls and restrictions on commerce between Spain and the colonies and among the colonies. The last flotas sailed in 1737; the monopoly port system was abolished shortly thereafter. By the middle of the century, the population was bolstered by emigration from the Canary Islands, resettling the northern part of the colony and planting tobacco in the Cibao Valley, and importation of slaves was renewed. The population of Santo Domingo grew from about 6,000 in 1737 to approximately 125,000 in 1790. Of this number, about 40,000 were white landowners, about 25,000 were mulatto freedmen, and some 60,000 were slaves. However, it remained poor and neglected, particularly in contrast with its western, French neighbor Saint-Domingue, which became the wealthiest colony in the New World and had half a million inhabitants. As restrictions on colonial trade were relaxed, the colonial elites of St. Domingue offered the principal market for Santo Domingo's exports of beef, hides, mahogany, and tobacco. With the outbreak of the Haitian Revolution in 1791, the rich urban families linked to the colonial bureaucracy fled the island, while most of the rural hateros (cattle ranchers) remained, even though they lost their principal market. Spain saw in the unrest an opportunity to seize all, or part, of the western third of the island in an alliance of convenience with the rebellious slaves. But after the slaves and French reconciled, the Spanish suffered a setback, and in 1795, France gained control of the whole island under the Treaty of Basel. French occupation (1795–1809) In 1801, Toussaint Louverture arrived in Santo Domingo, proclaiming the abolition of slavery on behalf of the French Republic. Shortly afterwards, Napoleon dispatched an army which subdued the whole island and ruled it for a few months. Mulattoes and blacks again rose up against these French in October 1802 and finally defeated them in November 1803. On 1 January 1804, the victors declared Saint-Domingue to be the independent republic of Haiti, the Taíno name for the entire island. Even after their defeat by the Haitians, a small French garrison remained in Santo Domingo. Slavery was reestablished and many of the émigré Spanish colonists returned. In 1805, after crowning himself Emperor, Jean-Jacques Dessalines invaded, reaching Santo Domingo before retreating in the face of a French naval squadron. In their retreat through the Cibao, the Haitians sacked the towns of Santiago and Moca, slaughtering most of their residents. The French held on to the eastern part of the island until dealt a serious blow by the Dominican General Juan Sánchez Ramírez at the Battle of Palo Hincado on November 7, 1808. With help from the British Navy, Ramírez laid siege to the city of Santo Domingo. The French in the besieged city finally capitulated on July 9, 1809, initiating a twelve-year period of Spanish rule, known in Dominican history as España Boba ('the Foolish Spain'). Spanish colony (1809–1821) The population of the new Spanish colony stood at approximately 104,000. Of this number, about 30,000 were slaves, working predominantly on cattle ranches, and the rest a mixture of Spanish, taino and black. The European Spaniards were few, and consisted principally of Catalans and Canary Islanders. During this period in time, the Spanish crown wielded little to no influence in the colony of Santo Domingo. Some wealthy cattle ranchers had become leaders, and sought to bring control and order in the southeast of the colony where the "law of machete" ruled the land. On December 1, 1821, the former Captain general in charge of the colony, José Núñez de Cáceres, influenced by all the Revolutions that were going on around him, finally decided to overthrow the Spanish government and proclaimed the independence of "Spanish Haiti". The white and mulatto slave owners on the eastern part of the island—recognizing their vulnerability both to Spanish and to Haitian attack and also seeking to maintain their slaves as property—attempted to annex themselves to Gran Colombia. While this request was in transit, Jean-Pierre Boyer, the ruler of Haiti, invaded Santo Domingo on February 9, 1822, with a 10,000-strong army. Having no capacity to resist, Núñez de Cáceres surrendered the capital. Haitian occupation (1822–1844) The twenty-two-year Haitian occupation that followed is recalled by Dominicans as a period of brutal military rule, though the reality is more complex. It led to large-scale land expropriations and failed efforts to force production of export crops, impose military services, restrict the use of the Spanish language, and eliminate traditional customs such as cockfighting. It reinforced Dominicans' perceptions of themselves as different from Haitians in "language, race, religion and domestic customs". Yet, this was also a period that definitively ended slavery as an institution in the eastern part of the island. Haiti's constitution forbade whites from owning land, and the major landowning families were forcibly deprived of their properties. Most emigrated to the Spanish colonies of Cuba and Puerto Rico, or to independent Gran Colombia, usually with the encouragement of Haitian officials, who acquired their lands. The Haitians, who associated the Catholic Church with the French slave-masters who had exploited them before independence, confiscated all church property, deported all foreign clergy, and severed the ties of the remaining clergy to the Vatican. Santo Domingo's university, the oldest in the Western Hemisphere, lacking students, teachers, and resources, closed down. In order to receive diplomatic recognition from France and end the threat of a French invasion, Haiti was forced to pay an indemnity of 150 million francs to the former French colonists, which was subsequently lowered to 60 million francs, and Haiti imposed heavy taxes on the eastern part of the island. Since Haiti was unable to adequately provision its army, the occupying forces largely survived by commandeering or confiscating food and supplies at gunpoint. Attempts to redistribute land conflicted with the system of communal land tenure (terrenos comuneros), which had arisen with the ranching economy, and newly emancipated slaves resented being forced to grow cash crops under Boyer's Code Rural. In rural areas, the Haitian administration was usually too inefficient to enforce its own laws. It was in the city of Santo Domingo that the effects of the occupation were most acutely felt, and it was there that the movement for independence originated. Independence: First Republic (1844–1861) On July 16, 1838, Juan Pablo Duarte together with Pedro Alejandrino Pina, Juan Isidro Pérez, Felipe Alfau, Benito González, Félix María Ruiz, Juan Nepumoceno Ravelo and Jacinto de la Concha founded a secret society called La Trinitaria to win independence from Haiti. A short time later, they were joined by Ramón Matías Mella, and Francisco del Rosario Sánchez. In 1843, they allied with a Haitian movement in overthrowing Boyer. Because they had revealed themselves as revolutionaries working for Dominican independence, the new Haitian president, Charles Rivière-Hérard, exiled or imprisoned the leading Trinitarios (Trinitarians). At the same time, Buenaventura Báez, an Azua mahogany exporter and deputy in the Haitian National Assembly, was negotiating with the French Consul-General for the establishment of a French protectorate. In an uprising timed to preempt Báez, on February 27, 1844, the Trinitarios declared independence from Haiti, expelling all Haitians and confiscating their property. The Trinitarios were backed by Pedro Santana, a wealthy cattle-rancher from El Seibo who commanded a private army of peons who worked on his estates. War of Independence Dominican Republic \|combatant2= Republic of Haiti <br/> Empire of Haiti \|commander1= Pedro Santana * Antonio Duvergé * Buenaventura Báez * Juan B. Cambiaso * Manuel Mota * José Mª. Cabral * José Mª. Imbert * J. J. Puello * Pedro E. Pelletier * Juan Alejandro Acosta * Juan Pablo Duarte * Ramón Matías Mella * Francisco del Rosario Sánchez}} \|commander2= Charles Rivière-Hérard * Jean-Louis Pierrot * Faustin I * Antoine Pierrot}} \|strength1= 15,000 \|strength2= 40,000 \|casualties1\|casualties2 \|casualties3Haiti is estimated to have lost more than twice as many troops as the Dominican Republic \|notes\| campaignbox }} On March 10, 1844, Rivière-Hérard sent three columns totaling 30,000 troops into the Dominican Republic, but the Dominicans defeated the Haitian army by March 30. On April 15, three Dominican schooners defeated a Haitian brigantine and two Haitian schooners off the coast of Azua. By late 1854, the Hispaniolan nations were at war again. In November, two Dominican ships captured a Haitian warship and bombarded two Haitian ports. In November 1855, a force of 30,000 Haitian troops invaded the Dominican Republic along three routes: one from the north, one through the center, and one from the south. The Dominican frontier forces retreated in good order and the Dominican navy prevented the Haitians from receiving supplies by sea. It featured a presidential form of government with many liberal tendencies, but it was marred by Article 210, imposed by Santana on the constitutional assembly by force, giving him the privileges of a dictatorship until the war of independence was over. These privileges not only served him to win the war but also allowed him to persecute, execute and drive into exile his political opponents, among which Duarte was the most important. Santana imprisoned and ultimately exiled Duarte to Germany. Santana made the first martyr of the republic when he had María Trinidad Sánchez executed for refusing to name "conspirators" against him. Santana used the ever-present threat of Haitian invasion as a justification for consolidating dictatorial powers. For the Dominican elite—mostly landowners, merchants and priests—the threat of re-annexation by more populous Haiti was sufficient to seek protection from a foreign power. Offering the deepwater harbor of Samaná bay as bait, over the next two decades, negotiations were made with Britain, France, the United States and Spain to declare a protectorate over the country. Without adequate roads, the regions of the Dominican Republic developed in isolation from one another. In the south, the economy was dominated by cattle-ranching (particularly in the southeastern savannah) and cutting mahogany and other hardwoods for export. This region retained a semi-feudal character, with little commercial agriculture, the hacienda as the dominant social unit, and the majority of the population living at a subsistence level. In the Cibao Valley, the nation's richest farmland, peasants supplemented their subsistence crops by growing tobacco for export, mainly to Germany. Tobacco required less land than cattle ranching and was mainly grown by smallholders, who relied on itinerant traders to transport their crops to Puerto Plata and Monte Cristi. Santana antagonized the Cibao farmers, enriching himself and his supporters at their expense by resorting to multiple peso printings that allowed him to buy their crops for a fraction of their value. In 1848, Santana was forced to resign and was succeeded by his vice-president, Manuel Jimenes. After returning to lead Dominican forces against a new Haitian invasion in 1849, Santana marched on Santo Domingo, deposing Jimenes. At his behest, Congress elected Buenaventura Báez as president. In 1853, Santana was elected president for his second term, forcing Báez into exile. After repulsing the last Haitian invasion, Santana negotiated a treaty leasing a portion of Samaná Peninsula to a U.S. company; popular opposition forced him to abdicate, enabling Báez to return and seize power. With the treasury depleted, Báez printed eighteen million uninsured pesos, purchasing the 1857 tobacco crop with this currency and exporting it for hard cash at immense profit to himself and his followers. The Cibanian tobacco planters, who were ruined when inflation ensued, revolted and formed a new government headed by José Desiderio Valverde and headquartered in Santiago de los Caballeros. In July 1857, General Juan Luis Franco Bidó besieged Santo Domingo. The Cibao-based government declared an amnesty to exiles and Santana returned and managed to replace Franco Bidó in September 1857. After a year of civil war, Santana captured Santo Domingo in June 1858, overthrew both Báez and Valverde and installed himself as president.Spanish colony (1861–1865) Pedro Santana inherited a bankrupt government on the brink of collapse and initiated negotiations with Queen Isabella II of Spain to have the eastern two-thirds of the island reconverted into a Spanish overseas territory. The U.S. Civil War rendered the United States incapable of enforcing the Monroe Doctrine. In March 1861, Santana officially restored the Dominican Republic to Spain. This move was widely rejected and there were several failed uprisings against Spanish rule. On July 4, 1861, former President Francisco del Rosario Sánchez was captured and executed by Santana after leading a failed invasion of Santo Domingo from Haiti. Santana, who had been given the title of Marquess of Las Carreras by Queen Isabella II, thought he could perpetrate a fraud on the Spaniards similar to those he had carried out in the Cibao. When negotiations concluded and Spain agreed on an amortization rate for Dominican pesos, Santana printed 33 million more, so Spain would be forced to provide far more money to him and his associates, to whom he distributed the pesos as gifts. Under the annexation terms, General Santana retained military command of the new Spanish province, answering only to Spain's regional commander in Puerto Rico, but it soon became obvious that Spanish authorities planned to deprive him of his power. His associates were removed from military positions, the 33 million pesos he printed were refused for amortization, and he was ultimately deposed in July 1862 and replaced with Felipe Ribero y Lemoine. By 1863, uprisings had spread throughout the colony, leading to the outbreak of guerrilla warfare. In February, the Spanish authorities declared a state of siege in the territory. In April, the Spanish Army defeated the Dominican forces led by General Lucas de Peña at Cibao. War of Restoration ) \|place=Dominican Republic \|territory\|result Dominican victory \|combatant1= Dominican Republic \|combatant2= Spanish Empire \|commander1= José Antonio Salcedo * Gregorio Luperón * Santiago Rodríguez * José María Cabral}} \|commander2= Pedro Santana # * José de la Gándara * Primo de Rivera}} \|strength115,000–17,000 \|strength2\|22 warships Santana returned and led an army mostly composed of mercenaries against the rebels at Cibao. On October 4, 1863, both the Spaniards and Dominicans pillaged the town. A fight ensued, with 600 Spaniards ultimately driving the Dominicans out of the town, aided by the fort's cannons. Ultimately, the rebels retreated into Haiti, executing 35 Spanish prisoners during their withdrawal. The Captain-General of Santo Domingo, José de la Gándara, adopted a strategy of occupying the northern ports to isolate the dissident Dominican government in Santiago from outside support. However, he overlooked his forces' lack of supplies and poor equipment, as many rifles and cannons were obsolete, and several warships were unseaworthy. Next, La Gándara attempted to subdue the rebels between Monte Cristi and Santiago, but the Dominicans resorted to hit-and-run tactics and intercepted many supplies intended for La Gándara. The only victory in the campaign was the capture of Monte Cristi, achieved at the cost of heavy casualties, including the wounding of Field Marshal Primo de Rivera. Confined to the major towns, the Spanish Army was unable to defeat the guerillas or contain the insurrection, and suffered heavy losses due to yellow fever; by the end of the occupation, over 12,000 Spanish troops had died from the disease. Spanish colonial authorities encouraged Queen Isabella II to abandon the island, seeing the occupation as a nonsensical waste of troops and money. However, the rebels were in a state of political disarray and proved unable to present a cohesive set of demands. In October 1864, the first president of the provisional government, Pepillo Salcedo (allied with Báez), was assassinated. He had been deposed by General Gaspar Polanco in September 1864, who, in turn, was deposed by General Antonio Pimentel three months later after a failed attack on the Spanish at Monte Cristi. The rebels formalized their provisional rule by holding a national convention in February 1865, which enacted a new constitution, but the new government exerted little authority over the various regional guerrilla caudillos, who were largely independent of one another. Unable to extract concessions from the disorganized rebels, when the American Civil War ended, in March 1865, Queen Isabella annulled the annexation and independence was restored, with the last Spanish troops departing by July. Restoration: Second Republic (1865–1916) By the time the Spanish departed, most of the main towns lay in ruins and the island was divided among several dozen caudillos. José María Cabral controlled most of Barahona and the southwest with the support of Báez's mahogany-exporting partners, while cattle rancher Cesáreo Guillermo assembled a coalition of former Santanista generals in the southeast, and Gregorio Luperón controlled the north coast. From the Spanish withdrawal to 1879, there were twenty-one changes of government and at least fifty military uprisings. In the course of these conflicts, two parties emerged. The Partido Rojo (Literally "Red Party") represented the southern cattle ranching latifundia and mahogany-exporting interests, as well as the artisans and laborers of Santo Domingo, and was dominated by Báez, who continued to seek annexation by a foreign power. The Partido Azul (literally "Blue Party"), led by Luperón, represented the tobacco farmers and merchants of the Cibao and Puerto Plata and was nationalist and liberal in orientation. During these wars, the small and corrupt national army was far outnumbered by militias organized and maintained by local caudillos who set themselves up as provincial governors. These militias were filled out by poor farmers or landless plantation workers impressed into service who usually took up banditry when not fighting in revolution. Within a month of the nationalist victory, Cabral, whose troops were the first to enter Santo Domingo, ousted Pimentel, but a few weeks later General Guillermo led a rebellion in support of Báez, forcing Cabral to resign and allowing Báez to retake the presidency in October. Báez was overthrown by the Cibao farmers under Luperón, leader of the Partido Azul, the following spring, but Luperón's allies turned on each other and Cabral reinstalled himself as president in a coup in 1867. After bringing several Azules ("Blues") into his cabinet the Rojos ("Reds") revolted, returning Báez to power. In 1869, Báez negotiated a treaty of annexation with the United States. Supported by U.S. Secretary of State William Seward, who hoped to establish a Navy base at Samaná, in 1871 the treaty was defeated in the United States Senate through the efforts of abolitionist Senator Charles Sumner. In 1874, the Rojo governor of Puerto Plata, Ignacio Maria González Santín, staged a coup in support of an Azul rebellion but was deposed by the Azules two years later. In February 1876, Ulises Espaillat, backed by Luperón, was named president, but ten months later troops loyal to Báez returned him to power. One year later, a new rebellion allowed González to seize power, only to be deposed by Cesáreo Guillermo in September 1878, who was in turn deposed by Luperón in December 1879. Ruling the country from his hometown of Puerto Plata, enjoying an economic boom due to increased tobacco exports to Germany, Luperón enacted a new constitution setting a two-year presidential term limit and providing for direct elections, suspended the semi-formal system of bribes and initiated construction on the nation's first railroad, linking the town of La Vega with the port of Sánchez on Samaná Bay. The Ten Years' War in Cuba brought Cuban sugar planters to the country in search of new lands and security from the insurrection that freed their slaves and destroyed their property. Most settled in the southeastern coastal plain, and, with assistance from Luperón's government, built the nation's first mechanized sugar mills. They were later joined by Italians, Germans, Puerto Ricans and Americans in forming the nucleus of the Dominican sugar bourgeoisie, marrying into prominent families to solidify their social position. Disruptions in global production caused by the Ten Years' War, the American Civil War and the Franco-Prussian War allowed the Dominican Republic to become a major sugar exporter. Over the following two decades, sugar surpassed tobacco as the leading export, with the former fishing hamlets of San Pedro de Macorís and La Romana transformed into thriving ports. To meet their need for better transportation, over 300 miles of private rail-lines were built by and serving the sugar plantations by 1897. An 1884 slump in prices led to a wage freeze, and a subsequent labor shortage was filled by migrant workers from the Leeward Islands—the Virgin Islands, St. Kitts and Nevis, Anguilla, and Antigua (referred to by Dominicans as cocolos). These English-speaking blacks were often victims of racism, but many remained in the country, finding work as stevedores and in railroad construction and sugar refineries. Ulises Heureaux and U.S. protectorate ]] Allying with the emerging sugar interests, the dictatorship of General Ulises Heureaux, who was popularly known as Lilís, brought unprecedented stability to the island through an iron-fisted rule that lasted almost two decades. The son of a Haitian father and a mother from St. Thomas, Virgin Islands, Lilís was distinguished by his blackness from most Dominican political leaders, with the exception of Luperón. He served as President 1882–1883, 1887, and 1889–1899, wielding power through a series of puppet presidents when not occupying the office. Incorporating both Rojos and Azules into his government, he developed an extensive network of spies and informants to crush potential opposition. His government undertook a number of major infrastructure projects, including the electrification of Santo Domingo, the beginning of telephone and telegraph service, the construction of a bridge over the Ozama River, and the completion of a single-track railroad linking Santiago and Puerto Plata, financed by the Amsterdam-based Westendorp Co. Lilís's dictatorship was dependent upon heavy borrowing from European and American banks to enrich himself, stabilize the existing debt, strengthen the bribe system, pay for the army, finance infrastructural development and help set up sugar mills. However, sugar prices underwent a steep decline in the last two decades of the 19th century. When the Westendorp Co. went bankrupt in 1893, he was forced to mortgage the nation's customs fees, the main source of government revenues, to a New York financial firm called the San Domingo Improvement Co. (SDIC), which took over its railroad contracts and the claims of its European bondholders in exchange for two loans, one of $1.2 million and the other of £2 million. As the growing public debt made it impossible to maintain his political machine, Heureaux relied on secret loans from the SDIC, sugar planters and local merchants. In 1897, with his government virtually bankrupt, Lilís printed five million uninsured pesos, known as papeletas de Lilís, ruining most Dominican merchants and inspiring a conspiracy that ended in his death. In 1899, when Lilís was assassinated by the Cibao tobacco merchants whom he had been begging for a loan, the national debt was over $35 million, fifteen times the annual budget. taking office in 1903.]] The six years after Lilís's death witnessed four revolutions and five different presidents. The Cibao politicians who had conspired against Heureaux—Juan Isidro Jimenes, the nation's wealthiest tobacco planter, and General Horacio Vásquez—after being named president and vice-president, quickly fell out over the division of spoils among their supporters, the Jimenistas and Horacistas. Troops loyal to Vásquez overthrew Jimenes in 1903, but Vásquez was deposed by Jimenista General Alejandro Woss y Gil, who seized power for himself. The Jimenistas toppled his government, but their leader, Carlos Morales, refused to return power to Jimenes, allying with the Horacistas, and he soon faced a new revolt by his betrayed Jimenista allies. During the revolt, American warships bombarded insurgents in Santo Domingo after they insulted the United States flag and killed a U.S. Navy sailor. With the nation on the brink of defaulting, France, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands sent warships to Santo Domingo to press the claims of their nationals. In order to preempt military intervention, United States president Theodore Roosevelt introduced the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, declaring that the United States would assume responsibility for ensuring that the nations of Latin America met their financial obligations. In January 1905, under this corollary, the United States assumed administration of the Dominican Republic's customs. Under the terms of this agreement, a Receiver-General, appointed by the U.S. president, kept 55% of total revenues to pay off foreign claimants, while remitting 45% to the Dominican government. After two years, the nation's external debt was reduced from $40 million to $17 million. In 1907, this agreement was converted into a treaty, transferring control over customs receivership to the U.S. Bureau of Insular Affairs and providing a loan of $20 million from a New York bank as payment for outstanding claims, making the United States the Dominican Republic's only foreign creditor. In 1905, the Dominican Peso was replaced by the U.S. Dollar. In 1906, Morales resigned, and Horacista vice-president Ramón Cáceres became president. After suppressing a rebellion in the northwest by Jimenista General Desiderio Arias, his government brought political stability and renewed economic growth, aided by new American investment in the sugar industry. However, his assassination in 1911, for which Morales and Arias were at least indirectly responsible, once again plunged the republic into chaos. For two months, executive power was held by a civilian junta dominated by the chief of the army, General Alfredo Victoria. The surplus of more than 4 million pesos left by Cáceres was quickly spent to suppress a series of insurrections. He forced Congress to elect his uncle, Eladio Victoria, as president, but the latter was soon replaced by the neutral Archbishop Adolfo Nouel. After four months, Nouel resigned and was succeeded by Horacista Congressman José Bordas Valdez, who aligned with Arias and the Jimenistas to maintain power. In 1913, Vásquez returned from exile in Puerto Rico to lead a new rebellion. In June 1914, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson issued an ultimatum for the two sides to end hostilities and agree on a new president, or have the United States impose one. After the provisional presidency of Ramón Báez, Jimenes was elected in October, and soon faced new demands, including the appointment of an American director of public works and financial advisor and the creation of a new military force commanded by U.S. officers. The Dominican Congress rejected these demands and began impeachment proceedings against Jimenes. The United States occupied Haiti in July 1915, with the implicit threat that the Dominican Republic might be next. Jimenes's Minister of War Desiderio Arias staged a coup d'état in April 1916, providing a pretext for the United States to occupy the Dominican Republic. United States occupation (1916–24) Conventional campaign ) \|place=Dominican Republic \|result=Establishment of a military government under the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps \|combatant1= Dominican rebels \|combatant2= \|commander1= Desiderio Arias * Juan Pérez}} \|commander2= William B. Caperton * Harry Knapp * Joseph Henry Pendleton * Ernest Calvin Williams * Holland Smith}} \|strength1=1,000 militia \|strength2=1,800 marines \|casualties1950 killed or wounded \|casualties2144 marines killed and 50 wounded The American military government implemented many of the institutional reforms carried out in the United States during the Progressive Era, including reorganization of the tax system, accounting and administration, expansion of primary education, the creation of a nationwide police force to unify the country, and the construction of a national system of roads, including a highway linking Santiago to Santo Domingo. The military government, unable to win the backing of any prominent Dominican political leaders, imposed strict censorship laws and imprisoned critics of the occupation. In 1920, U.S. authorities enacted a Land Registration Act, which broke up the terrenos comuneros and dispossessed thousands of peasants who lacked formal titles to the lands they occupied, while legalizing false titles held by the sugar companies. In the southeast, dispossessed peasants formed armed bands, called gavilleros, engaging in guerrilla warfare for years in Hato Mayor and El Seibo. At any given time, the Marines faced eight to twelve such bands each composed of several hundred followers. The guerrillas benefited from a superior knowledge of the terrain and the support of the local population, and the Marines relied on superior firepower. However, rivalries between various gavilleros often led them to fight against one another, and even cooperate with occupation authorities. In addition, cultural schisms between the campesinos (i.e. rural people, or peasants) and city dwellers prevented the guerrillas from cooperating with the urban middle-class nationalist movement. In what was referred to as la danza de los millones, with the destruction of European sugar-beet farms during World War I, sugar prices rose to their highest level in history, from $5.50 in 1914 to $22.50 per pound in 1920. Dominican sugar exports increased from 122,642 tons in 1916 to 158,803 tons in 1920, earning a record $45.3 million. However, European beet sugar production quickly recovered, which, coupled with the growth of global sugar cane production, glutted the world market, causing prices to plummet to only $2.00 by the end of 1921. This crisis drove many of the local sugar planters into bankruptcy, allowing large U.S. conglomerates to dominate the sugar industry. By 1926, only twenty-one major estates remained, occupying an estimated . Of these, twelve U.S.-owned companies owned more than 81% of this total area. While the foreign planters who had built the sugar industry integrated into Dominican society, these corporations expatriated their profits to the United States. As prices declined, sugar estates increasingly relied on Haitian laborers. This was facilitated by the military government's introduction of regulated contract labor, the growth of sugar production in the southwest, near the Haitian border, and a series of strikes by cocolo cane cutters organized by the Universal Negro Improvement Association. Withdrawal (Santiago de los Caballeros)]] In the 1920 United States presidential election Republican candidate Warren Harding criticized the occupation and promised eventual U.S. withdrawal. While Jimenes and Vásquez sought concessions from the United States, the collapse of sugar prices discredited the military government and gave rise to a new nationalist political organization, the Dominican National Union, led by Dr. Henríquez from exile in Santiago de Cuba, Cuba, which demanded unconditional withdrawal. They formed alliances with frustrated nationalists in Puerto Rico and Cuba, as well as critics of the occupation in the United States itself, most notably The Nation and the Haiti-San Domingo Independence Society. In May 1922, a Dominican lawyer, Francisco Peynado, went to Washington, D.C. and negotiated what became known as the Hughes–Peynado Plan. It stipulated the immediate establishment of a provisional government pending elections, approval of all laws enacted by the U.S. military government, and the continuation of the 1907 treaty until all the Dominican Republic's foreign debts had been settled. On October 1, Juan Bautista Vicini, the son of a wealthy Italian immigrant sugar planter, was named provisional president, and the process of U.S. withdrawal began. U.S. forces withdrew on September 18, 1924. The principal legacy of the occupation was the creation of a National Police Force, used by the Marines to help fight against the various guerrillas, and later the main vehicle for the rise of Rafael Trujillo. Hundreds of Dominicans and 144 U.S. Marines were killed during the occupation. (Forty U.S. sailors died separately when a hurricane wrecked their armored cruiser on Santo Domingo's rocky shore.) {\| class"wikitable" style"margin: auto;" \|+ Marine personnel strength in the Dominican Republic, 1916–24 \|- ! Month !! Year !! Personnel \|- \| May \|\| 1916 \|\| 632 \|- \| November \|\| 1916 \|\| 2,219 \|- \| May \|\| 1917 \|\| 1,683 \|- \| June \|\| 1918 \|\| 1,635 \|- \| October \|\| 1918 \|\| 1,964 \|- \| February \|\| 1919 \|\| 3,007 \|- \| December \|\| 1919 \|\| 1,970 \|- \| March \|\| 1920 \|\| 1,838 \|- \| November \|\| 1920 \|\| 2,267 \|- \| July \|\| 1921 \|\| 2,323 \|- \| October \|\| 1921 \|\| 2,811 \|- \| January \|\| 1922 \|\| 2,576 \|- \| November \|\| 1922 \|\| 2,189 \|- \| February \|\| 1923 \|\| 2,305 \|- \| May \|\| 1923 \|\| 1,946 \|- \| March \|\| 1924 \|\| 2,076 \|- \| July \|\| 1924 \|\| 890 \|- \| September \|\| 1924 \|\| 133 \|- \| October \|\| 1924 \|\| 0 \|} The rise and fall of Trujillo: Third Republic (1924–65) Horacio Vásquez 1924–1930 The occupation ended in 1924, with a democratically elected government under president Vásquez. The Vásquez administration brought great social and economic prosperity to the country and respected political and civil rights. Rising export commodity prices and government borrowing allowed the funding of public works projects and the expansion and modernization of Santo Domingo. Though considered to be a relatively principled man, Vásquez had risen amid many years of political infighting. In a move directed against his chief opponent Federico Velasquez, in 1927 Vásquez agreed to have his term extended from four to six years. The change was approved by the Dominican Congress, but was of debatable legality; "its enactment effectively invalidated the constitution of 1924 that Vásquez had previously sworn to uphold." Trujillo treated his political party, El Partido Dominicano (The Dominican Party), as a rubber-stamp for his decisions. The true source of his power was the Guardia Nacional—larger, better armed, and more centrally controlled than any military force in the nation's history. By disbanding the regional militias, the Marines eliminated the main source of potential opposition, giving the Guard "a virtual monopoly on power". By 1940, Dominican military spending was 21% of the national budget. At the same time, he developed an elaborate system of espionage agencies. By the late 1950s, there were at least seven categories of intelligence agencies, spying on each other as well as the public. All citizens were required to carry identification cards and good-conduct passes from the secret police. ]] Obsessed with adulation, Trujillo promoted an extravagant cult of personality. When a hurricane struck Santo Domingo in 1930, killing 8,000 people, he rebuilt the city and renamed it Ciudad Trujillo: "Trujillo City"; he also renamed the country's and the Caribbean's highest mountain, Pico Duarte (Duarte Peak), Pico Trujillo. Over 1,800 statues of Trujillo were built, and all public works projects were required to have a plaque with the inscription "Era of Trujillo, Benefactor of the Fatherland". As sugar estates turned to Haiti for seasonal migrant labor, increasing numbers settled in the Dominican Republic permanently. The census of 1920, conducted by the U.S. occupation government, gave a total of 28,258 Haitians living in the country; by 1935 there were 52,657. In October 1937, Trujillo ordered the massacre of an estimated 17,000 to 35,000 Haitian men, women, and children living in the border region of the Dominican Republic. Over the course of five days, Dominican troops killed Haitians with guns, machetes, clubs, and knives. The massacre was the result of a new policy which Trujillo called the 'Dominicanisation of the frontier'. Place names along the border were changed from Creole and French to Spanish, the practice of Voodoo was outlawed, quotas were imposed on the percentage of foreign workers that companies could hire, and a law was passed preventing Haitian workers from remaining after the sugar harvest. Although Trujillo sought to emulate Generalissimo Francisco Franco, he welcomed Spanish Republican refugees following the Spanish Civil War. During the Holocaust in the Second World War, the Dominican Republic took in many Jews fleeing Hitler who had been refused entry by other countries. The Jews settled in Sosua. These decisions arose from a policy of blanquismo, closely connected with anti-Haitian xenophobia, which sought to add more light-skinned individuals to the Dominican population by promoting immigration from Europe. As part of the Good Neighbor policy, in 1940, the U.S. State Department signed a treaty with Trujillo relinquishing control over the nation's customs. When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, Trujillo followed the United States in declaring war on the Axis powers, although the Dominican Republic did not have any participation in the war. Nazi submarines operating in the Caribbean torpedoed and sank two Dominican merchant vessels that Trujillo had named after himself—the steamers San Rafael and Presidente Trujillo, killing twenty-six Dominican sailors. Nazi submarines also destroyed four Dominican schooners. After the war, Trujillo sought military aid from the United States but was denied. Trujillo decided to establish his own arms factory. This move allowed the Dominican Republic to become self-sufficient in producing firearms. In the 1950s, Trujillo's air force had 156 aircraft, including fighters, B-17 bombers, and B-26 Marauder bombers. He exploited nationalist sentiment to purchase most of the nation's sugar plantations and refineries from U.S. corporations; operated monopolies on salt, rice, milk, cement, tobacco, coffee, and insurance; owned two large banks, several hotels, port facilities, an airline and shipping line; deducted 10% of all public employees' salaries (ostensibly for his party); and received a portion of prostitution revenues. World War II brought increased demand for Dominican exports, and the 1940s and early 1950s witnessed economic growth and considerable expansion of the national infrastructure. During this period, the capital city was transformed from merely an administrative center to the national center of shipping and industry, although "it was hardly coincidental that new roads often led to Trujillo's plantations and factories, and new harbors benefited Trujillo's shipping and export enterprises." Mismanagement and corruption resulted in major economic problems. By the end of the 1950s, the economy was deteriorating because of a combination of overspending on a festival to celebrate the 25th anniversary of the regime, overspending to purchase privately owned sugar mills and electricity plants, and a decision to make a major investment in state sugar production that proved economically unsuccessful. On June 14, 1959, Dominican exiles, sponsored by the Cuban government, launched an invasion of the Dominican Republic from Cuba, landing by plane at Constanza, where they were quickly defeated by the Anti-Communist Foreign Legion of the Caribbean. A week later, another group of invaders in two yachts were intercepted on the north coast, where Trujillo's planes killed most of the invaders. A few survivors managed to swim to the shore and escape into the forest, but the military employed napalm to get them out. Of a count of 224 invaders, 217 were killed and seven captured. The leaders of the invasion were taken aboard a Dominican Air Force plane and then pushed out in mid-air, falling to their deaths. The invasion force consisted of Dominicans, Cubans, Venezuelans, Spaniards, Guatemalans, and Americans. In October 1960, Trujillo supported 1,000 Cuban insurgents in the Escambray Rebellion, but they were defeated by the Cuban government. In 1957, Trujillo created S.I.M. (Military Intelligence Service), a secret police and death squad, headed by Johnny Abbes García, who briefly operated in Cuba, Mexico, Guatemala, New York, Costa Rica, and Venezuela. On June 24, 1960, as Venezuelan president Rómulo Betancourt was en route to preside over a military parade in Caracas, S.I.M. agents detonated nearly 30 kg of explosives packed into two suitcases within a parked car nearby; Betancourt was injured, and Colonel Ramón Armas Perez, the chauffeur, and a bystander were killed. Investigation revealed that the ammonium nitrate bomb had been assembled in Ciudad Trujillo and that the operation was orchestrated by Abbes. Among the victims was General René Román Fernández, secretary of the armed forces and an in-law of Trujillo, who was tortured in the electric chair before being executed with a submachine gun. In September 1963, Bosch was overthrown by a right-wing military coup led by Colonel Elías Wessin and was replaced by a three-man military junta. Bosch went into exile to Puerto Rico. Afterwards, a supposedly civilian triumvirate established a de facto dictatorship. Dominican Civil War and second United States occupation 1965–66 )<br />April 28, 1965 – September 21, 1966 (United States occupation)<br />() \|place=Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic \|result=Loyalist victory * Election of Joaquín Balaguer into Presidency \|combatant1= Loyalists \|combatant2= Constitutionalists \|combatant3= (pro-government state intervener) \|commander1= Elías Wessin y Wessin<br/> Pedro Bartolomé Benoit<br/> Antonio Imbert Barrera \|commander2= Francisco Caamaño \|commander3= Bruce Palmer \|strength14,000 soldiers \|strength22,700 rebel soldiers and 5,000 armed civilians \|strength320,463 \|units1= Military Training Center (CEFA)<br/> Dominican Air Force \|units2= Francisco del Rosario Sánchez Battalion<br>Juan Pablo Duarte Battalion<br>6½ Artillery \|units3= 3rd Battalion, 6th Marines<br> 4th Marine Expeditionary Brigade<br/> 82nd Airborne Division<br> 7th Special Forces Group \|casualties1500 soldiers and 325 policemen killed \|casualties2600 dead \|casualties347 dead and 172 wounded }} On April 16, 1965, growing dissatisfaction generated another military rebellion on April 24, 1965, that demanded Bosch's restoration. The insurgents, reformist officers and civilian combatants loyal to Bosch commanded by Colonel Francisco Caamaño, and who called themselves the Constitutionalists, staged a coup, seizing the national palace. Immediately, conservative military forces, led by Wessin and calling themselves Loyalists, struck back, strafing the rebel-held national palace with four World War II–vintage P-51 Mustangs, losing one to ground machine-gun fire. on America's doorstep, ordered U.S. forces to restore order. In what was initially known as Operation Power Pack, 27,677 U.S. troops were ultimately ordered to the Dominican Republic. Denied a military victory, the Constitutionalist rebels quickly had a Constitutionalist congress elect Caamaño president of the country. U.S. officials countered by backing General Antonio Imbert. On May 7, Imbert was sworn in as president of the Government of National Reconstruction. The next step in the stabilization process, as envisioned by Washington and the OAS, was to arrange an agreement between President Caamaño and President Imbert to form a provisional government committed to early elections. However, Caamaño refused to meet with Imbert until several of the Loyalist officers, including Wessin y Wessin, were made to leave the country. The American forces attempted to jam Radio Santo Domingo, which the Constitutionalist rebels were using to broadcast messages inciting nationwide rebellion. Despite jamming operations and attacks on relay sites, the rebel broadcasts persisted. However, Balaguer was also considered to be a major reformer who was instrumental in the liberalization of the Dominican government., 1966, in solidarity with the Dominican Republic Constitutionalists against the US. Slogans are visible e.g. "U.S. imperialism out of the Dominican Republic! Out of Latin America! Out of Vietnam! Out of our territory, Taiwan!]] Balaguer led the Dominican Republic through a thorough economic restructuring, based on opening the country to foreign investment while protecting state-owned industries and certain private interests. This distorted, dependent development model produced uneven results. For most of Balaguer's first nine years in office the country experienced high growth rates (e.g., an average GDP growth rate of 9.4% between 1970 and 1975), to the extent that people talked about the "Dominican miracle". Foreign, mostly U.S. investment, as well as foreign aid, flowed into the country. Sugar, then the country's main export product, enjoyed good prices in the international market, and tourism grew tremendously. As part of Balaguer's land reform policies, land was dished out to peasants among the country's rural population. In the May 1978 election, Balaguer was defeated in his bid for a fourth successive term by Antonio Guzmán Fernández of the PRD. Balaguer then ordered troops to storm the election centre and destroy ballot boxes, declaring himself the victor. U.S. President Jimmy Carter refused to recognize Balaguer's claim, and, faced with the loss of foreign aid, Balaguer stepped down. Guzmán / Blanco interregnum 1978–1986 Guzmán's inauguration on August 16 marked the country's first peaceful transfer of power from one freely elected president to another. Hurricane David hit the Dominican Republic in August 1979, which caused over $1 billion in damage. By the late 1970s, economic expansion slowed considerably as sugar prices declined and oil prices rose. Rising inflation and unemployment diminished support for the government and helped trigger a wave of mass emigration from the Dominican Republic to New York, coming on the heels of the similar migration of Puerto Ricans in the preceding decades. Guzmán committed suicide on July 5, 1982, a month before he would have left office. He was confronted with evidence of his daughter Sonia Guzmán's husband's corruption using her father's position for monetary gain. Guzmán was known as a serious man who never stole money. After being confronted with this, he entered his bathroom and shot himself. Elections were again held in 1982. Salvador Jorge Blanco of the Dominican Revolutionary Party defeated Bosch and a resurgent Balaguer. Balaguer's third Presidency 1986–1996 Balaguer completed his return to power in 1986 when he won the Presidency again and remained in office for the next ten years. Elections in 1990 were marked by violence and suspected electoral fraud. The 1994 election too saw widespread pre-election violence, often aimed at intimidating members of the opposition. Balaguer won in 1994 but most observers felt the election had been stolen. Under pressure from the United States, Balaguer agreed to hold new elections in 1996. He himself would not run. Fernández: First administration 1996–2000 In 1996, U.S.-raised Leonel Fernández Reyna of Bosch's Partido de la Liberación Dominicana (Dominican Liberation Party) secured more than 51% of the vote, through an alliance with Balaguer. The first item on the president's agenda was the partial sale of some state-owned enterprises. Fernández was praised for ending decades of isolationism and improving ties with other Caribbean countries, but he was criticized for not fighting corruption or alleviating the poverty that affected 60% of the population. Mejía's administration 2000–2004 In May 2000 the center-left Hipólito Mejía of the PRD was elected president amid popular discontent over power outages in the recently privatized electric industry. His presidency saw major inflation and instability of the peso in 2003 because of the bankruptcy of three major commercial banks in the country due to the bad policies of the principal managers. During his remaining time as president, he took action to save most savers of the closed banks, avoiding a major crisis. The relatively stable currency fell from about 16 Dominican pesos to 1 United States dollar to about 60 DOP to US$1 and was in the 40s to the dollar when he left office in August 2004. In the May 2004 presidential elections, he was defeated by former president Leonel Fernández. Fernández: Second administration 2004–2012 Fernández instituted austerity measures to deflate the peso and rescue the country from its economic crisis, and in the first half of 2006, the economy grew 11.7%. The peso is currently (2019) at the exchange rate of c. 52 DOP to US$1. Over the last three decades, remittances (remesas) from Dominicans living abroad, mainly in the United States, have become increasingly important to the economy. From 1990 to 2000, the Dominican population of the U.S. doubled in size, from 520,121 in 1990 to 1,041,910, two-thirds of whom were born in the Dominican Republic itself. More than half of all Dominican Americans live in New York City, with the largest concentration in the neighborhood of Washington Heights in northern Manhattan. Over the past decade, the Dominican Republic has become the largest source of immigration to New York City, and today the metropolitan area of New York has a larger Dominican population than any city except Santo Domingo. Dominican communities have also developed in New Jersey (particularly Paterson), Miami, Boston, Philadelphia, Providence, Rhode Island, and Lawrence, Massachusetts. In addition, tens of thousands of Dominicans and their descendants live in Puerto Rico. Many Dominicans arrive in Puerto Rico illegally by sea across the Mona Passage, some staying and some moving on to the mainland U.S. (See Dominican immigration to Puerto Rico.) Dominicans living abroad sent an estimated $3 billion in remittances to relatives at home, in 2006. In 1997, a new law took effect, allowing Dominicans living abroad to retain their citizenship and vote in presidential elections. President Fernández, who grew up in New York, was the principal beneficiary of this law. The Dominican Republic was involved in the US-led coalition in Iraq, as part of the Spain-led Latin-American Plus Ultra Brigade. But in 2004, the nation pulled its 300 or so troops out of Iraq.Danilo Medina's administration 2012–2020Danilo Medina began his tenure with a series of controversial tax reforms so as to deal with the government's troublesome fiscal situation encountered by the new administration. In 2012, he had won presidency as the candidate of ruling Dominican Liberation Party (PLD). In 2016, President Medina won re-election, defeating the main opposition candidate businessman Luis Abinader, with a wide margin. Luis Abinader 2020–present In 2020 Luis Abinader, the presidential candidate for the opposition Modern Revolutionary Party (PRM) won the election and he became the new president, ending the 16-year rule of PLD since 2004. In May 2024, President Luis Abinader won a second term in elections. Especially his tough attitude towards migration from neighbouring Haiti was popular among voters. See also Conchoprimo History of Haiti History of Latin America History of North America History of the Americas History of the Caribbean List of presidents of the Dominican Republic Politics of the Dominican Republic Spanish colonization of the Americas Timeline of Santo Domingo (city) Notes ReferencesBibliography* * * * * Further reading * Betances, Emelio. State and society in the Dominican Republic (Routledge, 2018). * Derby, Robin. ''The Dictator's Seduction: Politics and the Popular Imagination in the Era of Trujillo. Durham: Duke University Press 2008. * Padilla Angulo, Fernando J. Volunteers of the Empire. War, Identity, and Spanish Imperialism, 1855-1898 (Bloomsbury Academic, 2023). * Pons, Frank Moya. The Dominican Republic: a national history (Markus Wiener Publishers, 2010). * Tillman, Ellen D. Dollar Diplomacy by Force: Nation-Building and Resistance in the Dominican Republic (UNC Press Books, 2016). * Turits, Richard Lee. Foundations of Despotism: Peasants, the Trujillo Regime, and Modernity in Dominican History. Stanford: Stanford University Press 2003. * Wiarda, Howard J., and Michael J. Kryzanek. The Dominican Republic: A Caribbean Crucible. (Routledge, 2019). * "The Dominican Republic," History Today (Nov 1965) 15#11 pp 770–779, diplomatic history 1482–1965. External links [https://web.archive.org/web/20131022045504/http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11320/ Map of the Dominican Republic] from 1910 Betances, Emelio. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20170118051838/http://cupola.gettysburg.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article1027&contextsocfac The Dominican Grassroots Movement and the Organized Left, 1978–1986]". Science & Society 79.3 (July 2015), 388–413. *"[https://vistas.ace.fordham.edu/themes/political-surveying/ The Political Force of Images]", Vistas: Visual Culture in Spanish America'', 1520–1820. Category:History of the Caribbean Category:Spanish West Indies	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Dominican_Republic	2025-04-05T18:28:26.478247
8064	Geography of the Dominican Republic	}} The Dominican Republic (Spanish: República Dominicana) is a country in the West Indies that occupies the eastern five-eighths of Hispaniola. It has an area of 48,670 km<sup>2</sup>, including offshore islands. The land border shared with Haiti, which occupies the western three-eighths of the island, is 376 km long. The maximum length, east to west, is 390 km from Punta de Agua to Las Lajas, on the border with Haiti. The maximum width, north to south, is 265 km from Cape Isabela to Cape Beata. The capital, Santo Domingo, is located on the south coast. The Dominican Republic's shores are washed by the Atlantic Ocean to the north and the Caribbean Sea to the south. The Mona Passage, a channel about 130 km wide, separates the country (and Hispaniola) from Puerto Rico. Physical features The Dominican Republic is a country with many mountains, and the highest peaks of the West Indies are found here. The chains of mountains show a direction northwest–southeast, except in the Southern peninsula (in Haiti) where they have a direction west–east. The mountains are separated by valleys with the same general direction. From north to south, the mountain ranges and valleys are: * Cordillera Septentrional (in English, "Northern Range"). It runs parallel to the north coast, with extensions to the northwest, the Tortuga Island, and to the southeast, the Samaná Peninsula (with its Sierra de Samaná). Its highest mountain is Diego de Ocampo, close to Santiago, with 1,249 m. There are several small plains between this range and the Atlantic Ocean. Rivers are short and most of them flow to the north. * The Cibao Valley (Dominican Republic) is the largest and the most important valley of the country. This long valley stretches from North Haiti, where is called Plaine du Nord, to Samaná Bay. It can be divided in two sections: the northwestern part is the Yaque del Norte Valley (or Línea Noroeste) and the eastern Yuna Valley (or Vega Real, English: Royal Valley). The Vega Real is the most fertile area in the country, with a high population density. * The Cordillera Central (also called Sierra del Cibao) is the island's most rugged and imposing feature and is known in Haiti as the Massif du Nord ("Northern Massif"). The highest mountains of the West Indies are in this range: Pico Duarte, 3,098 m, and others above 3,000 m. Near the center of the island, this range turns southward and is called Sierra de Ocoa, finishing near the city of Azua de Compostela, on the Caribbean coast. Another branch, Cordillera Oriental or Sierra del Seibo, is separated from the main chain by a karstic region (Los Haitises) and with a west–east direction; it is located south of Samaná Bay. * The San Juan Valley and Plain of Azua are big valleys south of the Cordillera Central with altitude from 0 to 600 m. * The Sierra de Neiba, with Mount Neiba the highest mountain with 2,279 m. An extension to the southeast of Sierra de Neiba is the Sierra Martín García (Loma Busú, 1,350 m). * The Hoya de Enriquillo or Neiba Valley is a remarkable valley, with a west–east direction, of low altitude (on average 50 m with some points below sea level) and with a great salt lake: the Enriquillo Lake. * The Sierra de Bahoruco, called Massif de la Selle in Haiti. This southern group of mountains have a geology very different from the rest of the island. * Llano Costero del Caribe (in English, "Caribbean Coastal Plain") is in the southeast of the island (and of the Dominican Republic). It is a large savanna east of Santo Domingo. Climate of the Dominican Republic]] The Dominican Republic is a tropical, maritime nation. Owing to its diverse mountainous topography, the country's climate shows considerable variation for its size, and has the most diverse climate zones of all the Caribbean islands, including subtropical highland climates (Cwb), oceanic climates (Cfb) and hot semi-arid climates (BSh) along the usual tropical savanna (Aw), monsoon (Am), and rainforest (Af) climates typical of a Caribbean nation. Conditions are ameliorated in many areas by elevation and by the northeast trade winds, which blow steadily from the Atlantic all year long. The annual mean temperature is ; regional mean temperatures range from in the heart of the Cordillera Central (Constanza) to as high as in arid regions. Temperatures rarely rise above , and freezing temperatures only occur in winter in the highest mountains. The average temperature in Santo Domingo in January is , and in July. The rain season for the northern coast is from November to January. For the rest of the country, the rain season is from May to November. The average annual rainfall is , with extremes of or more in the mountainous northeast (the windward side of the island) and in the southwestern valleys. The western valleys, along the Haitian border, remain relatively dry, with less than of annual precipitation, due to the rain shadow effect caused by the central and northern mountain ranges. The northwestern and southeastern extremes of the country are also arid. The Dominican Republic is occasionally damaged by tropical storms and hurricanes, which originate in the mid-Atlantic and southeastern Caribbean from June until November (mainly from August to October) each year. <gallery mode"packed" heights"124px"> File:Cabo Cabrón, (Rincón Beach) Samaná, DR.JPG\|Tropical rainforest climate in Samana. File:Constanza, valle nuevo, clima invierno..jpg\|Frosted alpine forest in Constanza. File:Jaragua National Park (Road2).JPG\|Semi-arid climate in Pedernales. File:Dunas de Baní 1.jpg\|Desert sand dunes of Bani. </gallery> Islands There are several smaller islands and cays that are part of Dominican territory. The largest islands are: #Saona, close to the southeastern coast of Hispaniola, in the Caribbean Sea. It has an area of 117 km<sup>2</sup>. or Adamanay. Columbus named this island as Savona, after the Italian city of the same name, but the use during years has eliminated the letter v. #Beata, also on the southern coast. It has an area of 27 km<sup>2</sup>. # Yaque del Norte. At 296 km, it is the longest river in the Dominican Republic. Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows to the Atlantic Ocean. Its watershed has an area of 7,044 km<sup>2</sup>. # Yuna. It is 185 km long. Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows to the east into Samaná Bay. Its watershed has an area of 5,498 km<sup>2</sup>. # Yaque del Sur. It is 183 km long and its sources are in the Cordillera Central. It flows to the south into the Caribbean Sea. Its watershed has an area of 4,972 km<sup>2</sup>. # Ozama. It is 148 km long. Its sources are in Sierra de Yamasá (a branch of the Cordillera Central). It flows into the Caribbean Sea. Its watershed has an area of 2,685 km<sup>2</sup>. # Camú. It is 137 km long. Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows into the Yuna River. Its watershed has 2,655 km<sup>2</sup>. # Nizao. It is 133 km long. Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows to the south into the Caribbean Sea. Its watershed has an area of 974 km<sup>2</sup>. # San Juan. It is 121 km long. Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows to the south into the Yaque del Sur River. Its watershed has an area of 2,005 km<sup>2</sup>. # Mao. It is 105 km long. Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows to the north into the Yaque del Norte River. Its watershed has an area of 864 km<sup>2</sup>. The Artibonite River is the longest river of the island, but only 68 km flows through the Dominican Republic. The largest lake of Hispaniola, and of the Caribbean, is Lake Enriquillo. It is located in the Hoya de Enriquillo with an area of 265 km<sup>2</sup>. There are three small islands within the lake. It is around 40 meters below sea level, and is a hypersaline lake, with a higher concentration of salt than seawater. Other lakes are Rincón (fresh water, area of 28.2 km<sup>2</sup>), Oviedo (brackish water, area of 28 km<sup>2</sup>), Redonda, and Limón. Statistics ; Location: : Caribbean, it occupies five-eighths of the island of Hispaniola, between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, east of Haiti ; Geographic coordinates: : ; Area: :* Total: 48,670 km² :* Land: 48,320 km² :* Water: 350 km² ; Land boundaries: :* Total: 376 km :* Border countries: Haiti ; Coastline: : 1,288 km ; Maritime claims: :* Territorial sea: :* Contiguous zone: :* Exclusive economic zone: with :* Continental shelf: or to the edge of the continental margin ; Climate: : Tropical maritime; little seasonal temperature variation; seasonal variation in rainfall ; Rivers: : Significant rivers include the Jimani River, Río Yaque del Norte, Río Jamao del Norte, Río Isabela and the Ozama River ; Terrain: : Rugged highlands and mountains with fertile valleys interspersed ; Geographical extremes :* Northernmost point – Cabo Isabela :* Southernmost point – Alto Velo Island, Jaragua National Park :* Southernmost point (mainland) – south of Oviedo, Pedernales in Jaragua National Park :* Westernmost point – Las Lajas, border with Haiti, Independencia Province :* Easternmost point – Punta de Agua, La Altagracia Province ; Elevation extremes :* Lowest point – Lago Enriquillo: -46 m :* Highest point – Pico Duarte: 3,098 m ; Natural resources: : Nickel, bauxite, gold, silver ; Land use: :* Arable land: 16.56% :* Permanent crops: 10.35% :* Other: 73.10% (2012 est.) ; Irrigated land: : 3,241 km² (2018) ; Total renewable water resources: : 21 km<sup>3</sup> (2011) ; Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural): :* total: 5.47 km<sup>3</sup>/yr (26%/1%/72%) :* per capita: 574.2 m<sup>3</sup>/yr (2005) ; Natural hazards: : Lies in the middle of the hurricane belt and subject to severe storms from June to October; occasional flooding; periodic droughts ; Environment - current issues: : Water shortages; soil eroding into the sea damages coral reefs; deforestation; damage caused by Hurricane Georges ; Environment - international agreements: :* Party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands :* Signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea ; Geography - note: : Shares island of Hispaniola with Haiti (eastern five-eighths is the Dominican Republic, western three-eighths is Haiti)<ref name"Dardik"/><ref name"Current Affairs"/> References <references />	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_the_Dominican_Republic	2025-04-05T18:28:26.492753
8065	Demographics of the Dominican Republic	* Mixed (71.72%) Indio (34.20%) Moreno (25.97%) Mestizo (7.72%) Mulatto (3.83%) }} \| minor_ethnic = * White (18.70%) * Black (7.45%) * East Asian (0.33%) * Other (1.80%) }} }} This is a demography of the population of the Dominican Republic including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Population size and structure The area was first included in world trade in 1492 when Christopher Columbus docked on the island of Hispaniola. When Spain occupied the country in 1496, the population consisted of Arawak (Taíno Indians). When Spain returned in 1496, they founded the current capital, Santo Domingo, as the first European city in America. The country came under Spanish rule. France took over the part of Hispaniola that is today Haiti. During the colony era, The Dominican Republic acted as a sugar supplier to Spain and France. Many whites moved to the country during this period. In 1496, Santo Domingo was built and became the new capital, and remains the oldest continuously inhabited European city in the Americas. Today, two other large groups have joined, while the indigenous population has mostly disappeared. 45% of Dominicans consider themselves to have some significant Indigenous/Endemic ancestry, 18% are white, 7.8% are fully or predominantly black and 74% are mixed (Mestizo/Mulatto/"Indio"/Trigueño). About 9.2% of the Dominican population claims a European immigrant background, according to the 2021 Fondo de Población de las Naciones Unidas survey. During the many years that have passed since the great immigration, the races have been mixed and it can be difficult to distinguish. In terms of race, they are all similar to the other Caribbean islands. The Spaniards brought Christianity to the Dominican Republic, and today about 50% of the population reports as being Catholic. One clear remnant of the Spanish colonial era on the population is the official and widespread use of the Spanish language. According to the total population was in , compared to 2,380,000 in 1950. The proportion of the population aged below 15 in 2010 was 31.2%, 62.8% were aged between 15 and 65 years of age, while 6% were aged 65 years or older. {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align: right;" \|- ! rowspan=2\| ! rowspan2 width"70pt"\|Total population<br /> (1000) ! colspan=3\| Proportion \|- ! width="70pt"\|aged 0–14 ! width="70pt"\|aged 15–64 ! width="70pt"\|aged 65+ \|- \| 1950 \|2 380 \| \| \| \|- \| 1955 \|2 796 \| \| \| \|- \| 1960 \|3 312 \| \| \| \|- \| 1965 \|3 900 \| \| \| \|- \| 1970 \|4 524 \| \| \| \|- \| 1975 \|5 169 \| \| \| \|- \| 1980 \|5 826 \| \| \| \|- \| 1985 \|6 524 \| \| \| \|- \| 1990 \|7 245 \| \| \| \|- \| 1995 \|7 978 \| \| \| \|- \| 2000 \|8 663 \| \| \| \|- \| 2005 \|9 343 \| \| \| \|- \| 2010 \|10 017 \| \| \| \|- \| 2015 \|10 528 \| \| \| \|- \| 2020 \|11 107 \| \| \| \|} Structure of the population {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! width="80pt"\|Age Group ! width="80pt"\|Male ! width="80pt"\|Female ! width="80pt"\|Total ! width="80pt"\|% \|- \| align="right" \| Total \| align="right" \| 5 082 876 \| align="right" \| 5 086 296 \| align="right" \| 10 169 172 \| align="right" \| 100 \|- \| align="right" \| 0–4 \| align="right" \| 492 808 \| align="right" \| 472 820 \| align="right" \| 965 628 \| align="right" \| 9.49 \|- \| align="right" \| 5–9 \| align="right" \| 492 702 \| align="right" \| 474 348 \| align="right" \| 967 050 \| align="right" \| 9.50 \|- \| align="right" \| 10–14 \| align="right" \| 492 107 \| align="right" \| 477 445 \| align="right" \| 969 552 \| align="right" \| 9.53 \|- \| align="right" \| 15–19 \| align="right" \| 480 035 \| align="right" \| 471 501 \| align="right" \| 951 536 \| align="right" \| 9.51 \|- \| align="right" \| 20–24 \| align="right" \| 455 440 \| align="right" \| 453 444 \| align="right" \| 930 505 \| align="right" \| 9.15 \|- \| align="right" \| 25–29 \| align="right" \| 420 715 \| align="right" \| 423 382 \| align="right" \| 844 907 \| align="right" \| 8.30 \|- \| align="right" \| 30–34 \| align="right" \| 377 850 \| align="right" \| 385 180 \| align="right" \| 763 030 \| align="right" \| 7.50 \|- \| align="right" \| 35–39 \| align="right" \| 339 877 \| align="right" \| 348 143 \| align="right" \| 688 020 \| align="right" \| 6.76 \|- \| align="right" \| 40–44 \| align="right" \| 306 907 \| align="right" \| 313 858 \| align="right" \| 616 955 \| align="right" \| 6.07 \|- \| align="right" \| 45–49 \| align="right" \| 275 488 \| align="right" \| 282 105 \| align="right" \| 557 593 \| align="right" \| 5.48 \|- \| align="right" \| 50–54 \| align="right" \| 245 299 \| align="right" \| 249 766 \| align="right" \| 495 065 \| align="right" \| 4.87 \|- \| align="right" \| 55–59 \| align="right" \| 206 257 \| align="right" \| 210 188 \| align="right" \| 416 445 \| align="right" \| 4.10 \|- \| align="right" \| 60–64 \| align="right" \| 162 912 \| align="right" \| 168 103 \| align="right" \| 331 015 \| align="right" \| 3.25 \|- \| align="right" \| 65–69 \| align="right" \| 121 894 \| align="right" \| 126 929 \| align="right" \| 248 523 \| align="right" \| 2.44 \|- \| align="right" \| 70–74 \| align="right" \| 86 739 \| align="right" \| 90 761 \| align="right" \| 177 500 \| align="right" \| 1.74 \|- \| align="right" \| 75–79 \| align="right" \| 61 133 \| align="right" \| 65 274 \| align="right" \| 126 407 \| align="right" \| 1.24 \|- \| align="right" \| 80+ \| align="right" \| 65 523 \| align="right" \| 73 349 \| align="right" \| 138 872 \| align="right" \| 1.36 \|- ! width="50"\|Age group ! width="80pt"\|Male ! width="80"\|Female ! width="80"\|Total ! width="50"\|Percent \|- \| align="right" \| 0–14 \| align="right" \| 1 595 851 \| align="right" \| 1 538 432 \| align="right" \| 3 134 283 \| align="right" \| 30.56 \|- \| align="right" \| 15–64 \| align="right" \| 3 213 973 \| align="right" \| 3 268 108 \| align="right" \| 6 482 081 \| align="right" \| 63.19 \|- \| align="right" \| 65+ \| align="right" \| 306 501 \| align="right" \| 334 859 \| align="right" \| 641 360 \| align="right" \| 6.25 \|- \|} {{Hidden begin \|titlePopulation Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.VII.2021) (Data refer to national projections.): {\| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align: right;" \|- ! width="70"\|Year ! width="70"\|Population ! width="70"\|Live births ! width="70"\|Deaths ! width="70"\|Natural increase ! width="70"\|Crude birth rate ! width="70"\|Crude death rate ! width="70"\|Rate of natural increase ! width="70"\|Crude migration rate ! width="70"\|TFR \|- \| align="right" \| 2001 \| align="right" \| 8,512,996 \| align="right" \| 194,705 \| align="right" \| 28,771 \| style="color:blue;"\| 165,934 \| align="right" \| 22.8 \| align="right" \| 3.4 \| align="right" \| 19.5 \| \| align"right" \| <span style"color:#0000FF">2.571</span> \|- \| align="right" \| 2002 \| align="right" \| 8,627,509 \| align="right" \| 191,409 \| style="color:blue;"\| 26,739 \| align="right" \| 164,670 \| align="right" \| 22.1 \| align="right" \| 3.1 \| align="right" \| 19.0 \| -5.7 \| align"right" \| <span style"color:#0000FF">2.494</span> \|- \| align="right" \| 2003 \| align="right" \| 8,745,084 \| align="right" \| 177,859 \| align="right" \| 30,005 \| align="right" \| 147,854 \| align="right" \| 20.3 \| align="right" \| 3.4 \| align="right" \| 16.9 \| -3.5 \| align"right" \| <span style"color:#0000FF">2.272</span> \|- \| align="right" \| 2004 \| align="right" \| 8,857,648 \| align="right" \| 168,734 \| align="right" \| 34,716 \| align="right" \| 134,018 \| align="right" \| 19.0 \| align="right" \| 3.9 \| align="right" \| 15.1 \| -2.4 \| align"right" \| <span style"color:#0000FF">2.142</span> \|- \| align="right" \| 2005 \| align="right" \| 8,968,144 \| align="right" \| 166,150 \| align="right" \| 34,586 \| align="right" \| 131,564 \| align="right" \| 18.5 \| align="right" \| 3.8 \| align="right" \| 14.6 \| -2.3 \| align="right" \| 2.086 \|- \| align="right" \| 2006 \| align="right" \| 9,071,458 \| align="right" \| 158,137 \| align="right" \| 32,596 \| align="right" \| 125,541 \| align="right" \| 17.4 \| align="right" \| 3.6 \| align="right" \| 13.8 \| -2.4 \| align="right" \| 1.974 \|- \| align="right" \| 2007 \| align="right" \| 9,174,058 \| align="right" \| 157,033 \| align="right" \| 34,158 \| align="right" \| 122,875 \| align="right" \| 17.1 \| align="right" \| 3.7 \| align="right" \| 13.4 \| -2.2 \| align="right" \| 1.941 \|- \| align="right" \| 2008 \| align="right" \| 9,279,602 \| align="right" \| 164,373 \| align="right" \| 34,252 \| align="right" \| 130,121 \| align="right" \| 17.6 \| align="right" \| 3.7 \| align="right" \| 14.0 \| -2.6 \| align="right" \| 2.025 \|- \| align="right" \| 2009 \| align="right" \| 9,380,152 \| align="right" \| 168,495 \| align="right" \| 34,105 \| align="right" \| 134,390 \| align="right" \| 17.9 \| align="right" \| 3.6 \| align="right" \| 14.2 \| -3.5 \| align="right" \| 2.055 \|- \| align="right" \| 2010 \| align="right" \| 9,478,612 \| align="right" \| 170,414 \| align="right" \| 36,869 \| align="right" \| 133,545 \| align="right" \| 17.9 \| align="right" \| 3.9 \| align="right" \| 14.0 \| -3.6 \| align="right" \| 2.054 \|- \| align="right" \| 2011 \| align="right" \| 9,580,139 \| align="right" \| 177,135 \| align="right" \| 36,485 \| align="right" \| 140,650 \| align="right" \| 18.4 \| align="right" \| 3.8 \| align="right" \| 14.6 \| -4.0 \| align"right" \| <span style"color:#0000FF">2.116</span> \|- \| align="right" \| 2012 \| align="right" \| 9,680,963 \| align="right" \| 170,568 \| align="right" \| 36,753 \| align="right" \| 133,815 \| align="right" \| 17.5 \| align="right" \| 3.8 \| align="right" \| 13.8 \| -3.4 \| align="right" \| 2.028 \|- \| align="right" \| 2013 \| align="right" \| 9,784,680 \| align="right" \| 172,136 \| align="right" \| 36,767 \| align="right" \| 135,369 \| align="right" \| 17.5 \| align="right" \| 3.7 \| align="right" \| 13.8 \| -3.2 \| align="right" \| 2.036 \|- \| align="right" \| 2014 \| align="right" \| 9,883,486 \| align="right" \| 175,897 \| align="right" \| 41,467 \| align="right" \| 134,430 \| align="right" \| 17.7 \| align="right" \| 4.2 \| align="right" \| 13.5 \| -3.5 \| align="right" \| 2.065 \|- \| align="right" \| 2015 \| align="right" \| 9,980,243 \| align="right" \| 171,422 \| align="right" \| 42,017 \| align="right" \| 129,405 \| align="right" \| 17.1 \| align="right" \| 4.2 \| align="right" \| 12.9 \| -3.2 \| align="right" \| 1.998 \|- \| align="right" \| 2016 \| align="right" \| 10,075,045 \| align="right" \| 162,607 \| align="right" \| 44,366 \| align="right" \| 118,241 \| align="right" \| 16.1 \| align="right" \| 4.4 \| align="right" \| 11.7 \| -2.3 \| align="right" \| 1.883 \|- \| align="right" \| 2017 \| align="right" \| 10,169,172 \| align="right" \| 171,538 \| align="right" \| 43,482 \| align="right" \| 128,056 \| align="right" \| 16.8 \| align="right" \| 4.3 \| align="right" \| 12.5 \| -3.2 \| align="right" \| 1.982 \|- \| align="right" \| 2018 \| align="right" \| 10,266,149 \| align="right" \| 177,854 \| align="right" \| 42,838 \| align="right" \| 135,016 \| align="right" \| 17.2 \| align="right" \| 4.2 \| align="right" \| 13.0 \| -3.6 \| align="right" \| 2.057 \|- \| align="right" \| 2019 \| align="right" \| 10,358,320 \| align="right" \| 181,139 \| align="right" \| 44,925 \| align="right" \| 136,214 \| align="right" \| 17.3 \| align="right" \| 4.3 \| align="right" \| 13.0 \| -4.1 \| align="right" \| 2.089 \|- \| align="right" \| 2020 \| align="right" \| 10,448,499 \| align="right" \| 162,212 \| align="right" \| 47,264 \| 114,948 \| align="right" \| 15.3 \| align="right" \| 4.5 \| 10.8 \| -2.2 \| align="right" \| 1.878 \|- \| align="right" \| 2021 \| align="right" \| 10,535,535 \| align="right" \| 170,520 \| style="color:red;"\| 50,702 \| align="right" \| 119,818 \| align="right" \| 15.9 \| style="color:red" \| 4.8 \| align="right" \| 11.2 \| -2.9 \| align="right" \| 1.972 \|- \| align="right" \| 2022 \| align="right" \| 10,621,938 \| align="right" \| 170,069 \| align="right" \| 46,028 \| align="right" \| 124,041 \| align="right" \| 16.0 \| align="right" \| 4.2 \| align="right" \| 11.8 \| -3.7 \| align="right" \| 1.964 \|- \| 2023 \| 10,711,155 \| 156,024 \| 43,338 \| 112,686 \| 14.6 \| 4.1 \| 10.5 \| -2.2 \| align"right" \| <span style"color:red">1.802</span> \|- \| 2024 \| \| style"color:red" \| 142,174 \| 43,913 \| style="color:red" \| 98,261 \| style="color:red" \| 13.2 \| 4.1 \| style="color:red" \| 9.1 \| \| align="right" \| \|- \|} Demographic and Health Surveys Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR): {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! rowspan=2\| Year ! colspan=2\| Total ! colspan=2\| Urban ! colspan=2\| Rural \|- ! CBR !! TFR ! CBR !! TFR ! CBR !! TFR \|- \| 1965–69 \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 7,1 \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| \|- \| 1970–74 \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 5,8 \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| \|- \| 1975–79 \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 4,7 \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| \|- \| 1980–82 \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 4,31 \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| \|- \| 1983–85 \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 3,69 \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| \|- \| 1986 \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 3,8 (2,8) \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 3,2 (2,5) \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 5,1 (3,5) \|- \| 1991 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 30,1 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 3,3 (2,6) \| style="text-align:right;"\| 29,7 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 2,8 (2,3) \| style="text-align:right;"\| 30,5 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 4,4 (3,1) \|- \| 1996 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 27,7 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 3,2 (2,5) \| style="text-align:right;"\| 24,4 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 2,8 (2,2) \| style="text-align:right;"\| 29,8 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 4,0 (3,0) \|- \| 1999 \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 2,9 (2,3) \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 2,7 (2,1) \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 3,4 (2,7) \|- \| 2002 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 25,2 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 3,0 (2,3) \| style="text-align:right;"\| 25,3 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 2,8 (2,3) \| style="text-align:right;"\| 24,9 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 3,3 (2,5) \|- \| 2007 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 20,4 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 2,4 (1,9) \| style="text-align:right;"\| 20,0 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 2,3 (1,8) \| style="text-align:right;"\| 21,4 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 2,8 (2,1) \|- \| 2013 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 20,9 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 2,5 (2,0) \| style="text-align:right;"\| 21,2 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 2,4 (1,9) \| style="text-align:right;"\| 20,3 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 2,6 (2,1) \|- \|} Ethnic groups Dominicans of full or predominant European descent: 17.8%, Mixed (Mestizo, Mulatto, "Indio", Triracial) descent: 74.4%, Afro descent: 7.8% :note: respondents self-identified their race; the term "indio" in the Dominican Republic is not associated with people of indigenous ancestry but people of mixed ancestry or skin color between light and dark Religion Roman Catholic 51.3%, Evangelical 13%, Protestant 7.9%, Adventist 1.4%, other 1.8%, atheist 0.2%, none 22.4%, unspecified 2% (2018 est.) Languages Spanish (official) See also Health in the Dominican Republic Youth in the Dominican Republic :Census information: 1920 Santo Domingo Census 1950 Dominican Republic Census 1960 Dominican Republic Census 1970 Dominican Republic Census 2010 Dominican Republic Census References	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Dominican_Republic	2025-04-05T18:28:26.551232
8067	Economy of the Dominican Republic	\| gdp = $135.545 billion (nominal, 2025) * $334.292 billion (PPP, 2025)}} \| per capita = $12,452 (nominal, 2025) <br /> 23.9% (2021 est) \| gini 38.5 (2021) \| hdi = 0.766 (2022) (82nd) * 0.627 IHDI (77th) (2022) \| labor = 5.278 million (2022 est.) \| occupations = agriculture: 14.6%; industry: 22.3%; services: 63.1% (2005) \| unemployment = 7.1% (2022 est.) \| industries = ferronickel and gold mining, textiles, cement, tobacco, and sugar production, tourism \| exports = $11 billion (2019 est.) \| export-goods = ferronickel, sugar, gold, silver, coffee, cocoa, tobacco, meats, consumer goods \| export-partners 50.8% <br /> 11.8% <br /> 10% <br /> 7.5% <br /> 6.2% <br /> (2017 est.) \| imports = $20 billion (2019 est.) \| import-goods = foodstuffs, petroleum, cotton and fabrics, chemicals and pharmaceuticals \| import-partners 44.7% <br /> 14.2% <br /> 8.3% <br /> 6.5% <br /> 4.7% (2017 est.) \| FDI = $42 billion (31 December 2019 est.) \| gross external debt = $29.69 billion (31 December 2017 est.) \| debt = 37.7% of GDP (2017 est.) \| revenue = $14.10 billion (2021 est.) \| expenses = $16.60 billion (2021 est.) \| aid \| credit BB− (Domestic)<br />BB− (Foreign)<br />BB (T&C Assessment)<br />(Standard & Poor's) \| reserves = $14.5 billion (March 2022 est.) \| cianame = dominican-republic \| spelling = US }} The economy of the Dominican Republic is the seventh largest in Latin America, and is the largest in the Caribbean and Central American region. The Dominican Republic is an upper-middle income developing country with important sectors including mining, tourism, manufacturing (medical devices, electrical equipment, pharmaceuticals, and chemicals), energy, real estate, infrastructure, telecommunications and agriculture. The Dominican Republic is on track to achieve its goal of becoming a high-income country by 2030, and is expected to grow 79% in this decade. The country is the site of the single largest gold mine in Latin America, the Pueblo Viejo mine. Although the service sector is currently the leading employer of Dominicans (due principally to growth in tourism and free-trade zones), agriculture remains an important sector in terms of the domestic market and is in second place (behind mining) in terms of export earnings. Tourism accounts for more than $7.4 billion in annual earnings in 2019. Free-trade zone earnings and tourism are the fastest-growing export sectors. A leading growth engine in the Free-trade zone sector is the production of medical equipment for export having a value-added per employee of , total revenue of billion, and a growth rate of 7.7% in 2019. The medical instrument export sector represents one of the highest-value added sectors of the country's economy, a true growth engine for the country's emerging market. Remittances are an important sector of the economy, contributing billion in 2020. Most of these funds are used to cover household expenses, such as housing, food, clothing, health care and education. Secondarily, remittances have financed businesses and productive activities. Thirdly, this combined effect has induced investment by the private sector and helps fund the public sector through its value-added tax. The combined import market including the free-trade-zones amounts to a market of $20 billion a year in 2019. The combined export sector had revenues totaling $11 billion in 2019. An important indicator is the average commercial loan interest rate, which directs short-term investment and stimulates long-term investment in the economy. It is currently 8.30%, as of June 2021. The Dominican Republic's most important trading partner is the United States (over 40% of total commercial exchange; over $12 billion in trade). Other major trade partners are China (over $3 billion in trade), Switzerland (over $1 billion), Puerto Rico (over $800 million), Mexico (over $700 million), Haiti (over $700 million), Spain (over $700 million), the Netherlands (over $700 million), Canada (over $600 million), Brazil (over $500 million), and Germany (over $500 million), in that quantitative order. The country exports free-trade-zone manufactured products (medical devices, electrical equipment, pharmaceuticals, and chemicals), gold, nickel, agricultural products, liquor, cocoa beans, silver, and sauces and seasonings. It imports petroleum, industrial raw materials, capital goods, and foodstuffs. On 5 September 2005, the Congress of the Dominican Republic ratified a free trade agreement with the U.S. and five Central American countries, the Dominican Republic – Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA-DR). CAFTA-DR entered into force for the Dominican Republic on 1 March 2007. The total stock of U.S. foreign direct investment (FDI) in Dominican Republic as of 2019 was U.S. $42 billion, much of it directed to the energy, tourism, real estate, manufacturing, infrastructure and the telecommunications sectors. In 2019 the foreign direct investment stock amounted to $42 billion a significant growth in the last decade and a half. With almost 80% of the total land area suitable for crop production and about 17% of the labor force engaged in farming, agriculture remains the primary occupation, accounting for 11% of GDP in 2001. Value of agricultural output grew at an average annual rate of 7.1% during 1968–73, but since 1975 the sector has been hampered by droughts (1975, 1977, and 1979), hurricanes (in 1979 and 1980), and slumping world prices and quota allocations for sugar (since 1985). In 1999, agricultural production was 0.4% higher than during 1989–91. The fertile Cibao Valley is the main agricultural center. In 1998, arable land totaled ; with land under permanent crops at . After Cuba, the Dominican Republic is the second-largest Caribbean producer of sugarcane, the nation's most important crop. The State Sugar Council operates 12 sugar mills and accounts for about half of total production. Other large producers are the privately owned Vicini, with three mills, and Central Romana Corporation, whose mill is the largest in the country. Sugar is grown in the southeastern plains, around Barahona & on the North Coast Plain. In 1999, sugar production was 4.4 million tons, down from an average of 7.1 million tons during 1989–1991. Output of sugar has declined annually since 1982, and land is gradually being taken out of sugar production and switched to food crops. Production of raw sugar rose from 636,000 tons in 1990 to 813,000 tons in 1997 but fell to 374,000 tons in 1999. Part of the crop was destroyed by hurricanes in 1979 and 1980, and 1979–80 production was only 670,000 bags (40,200 tons). Although production was usually about 57,000–59,000 tons annually in the 1980s, the acreage harvested declined from in the early 1980s to in 1999, indicating a greater yield per acre. Coffee production in 1999 was estimated at 35,000 tons; exports of coffee in 2001 generated $11 million. Cocoa and tobacco are also grown for export. Dominican Republic is one of the top 10 major producer and exporter of cocoa in the world. Cocoa is also grown in the Cibao Valley around San Francisco de Macoris. Tobacco is also grown in the Cibao Valley, but around Santiago. In 1999, production of cocoa beans was 26,000 tons and of tobacco, 35,000 tons. Rice is grown around Monte Cristi & San Francisco de Macoris. Banana production in 1999 was 432,000 tons. Production of other crops in 1999 (in thousands of tons) included rice, 563; coconuts, 184; cassava, 127; tomatoes, 281; pulses, 69; dry beans, 26; eggplants, 7; and peanuts, 2. Livestock farming In 2001, Dominican livestock included 187,000 goats and 106,000 sheep. There were also about 2.1 million head of cattle, 60% for beef and 40% for dairy. The hog population was decimated by African swine fever in 1978, decreasing from 400,000 in 1978 to 20,000 in 1979; by 2001, however, it was 565,000. Poultry is the main meat source because it is cheaper than beef or pork. Poultry production relies on imports of feed grain from the United States. In 2001, 203,000 tons of poultry meat were produced, along with 71,000 tons of beef and 420,000 tons of milk. Fishing In 2017 the total marine production was 18,000 metric tons. Marlin, barracuda, kingfish, mackerel, tuna, sailfish, and tarpon are found in the Monte Cristi Bank and Samaná Bay, which also supports bonito, snapper, and American grouper.ForestryAbout 28.4% of the total land area consisted of forests and woodlands in 2000. Round wood production in 2000 totaled 562,000 cu m (19.8 million cu ft). Timber is cut for land clearing for the use of agriculture. There are important national parks protecting the natural resources and aquifers of the country.MiningIn 2019, the country was the 9th largest world producer of nickel. The country had almost zero production of gold until 2011, where it grew exponentially. In 2016 the country produced almost 38 tons. The country had almost zero production of silver until 2008, where it grew exponentially. In 2017 the country produced 147 tons. Ferronickel was the country's leading export commodity and third-leading industry. Nickel is mined at Bonao. In 2000, nickel production was 39,943 tons, ranking tenth in the world, a decrease from 49,152 in 1997. Currently the most important mineral export is gold. Production of gold in the Pueblo Viejo mine is the largest gold producing mine in Latin America, and fourth most productive mine in the world producing a total of 30,100 kg of gold in 2018. The extraction by a foreign company of gold at one of the largest mines in the Western Hemisphere has startled and concerned a part of the country who believe that the natural resource should be extracted by local companies and not foreign. Some groups began to protest against Barrick Gold in 2009 and 2010. In 2019 gold is one of the largest exports of the country totaling $1.6 billion and has helped to balance the commodity current account balance. Production of bauxite, traditionally the principal mining product, ceased in 1992. The Aluminum Co. of America (Alcoa) mined bauxite between 1959 and 1983, when it turned its concession over to the state. Production in 1991 dropped 92% from the previous year, as a presidential decree suspended mining operations at the largest mine, in response to increasing fears of deforestation, although reforestation of mined areas was in progress. Output averaged 1 million tons each year. The country was one of the few sources of amber in the Western Hemisphere. Salt Mountain, a 16 km block of almost solid salt west of Barahona, was the world's largest known salt deposit. There were also large deposits of gypsum near Salt Mountain, making the Dominican Republic one of three sources of gypsum in the Caribbean. The country also produced hydraulic cement, limestone, marble, and sand and gravel. Substantial lignite deposits were found in the early 1980s. Deposits of copper and platinum are also found in the country. Industry The industrial sector contributed an estimated 31.1% to the country's GDP in 2023, Tourism Since the mid-1980s the tourism sector has become one of the country's most important sources of foreign exchange, and more popular tourist destinations. The country is famous for its favorable location in the Caribbean, tropical climate, beaches, and the restored Spanish colonial architecture. Many foreign investors have and continue to be encouraged to invest here to build and expand resorts and airports around the coasts. During this same period, tourism displaced sugar as the main source of the country's earnings, and by 1997 it was generating more than half of the country's total foreign exchange. In 2019 it generated one-third of the total foreign exchange for the country. Tourism is the single biggest revenue earner, growing from humble beginnings in 1980 to more than $7.4 billion by 2019. Retail Retail activity in the Dominican Republic takes many forms, from U.S.-style supermarkets and shopping malls in Santo Domingo to rural markets and tiny family-run corner stores in villages. A small but affluent middle class can afford to shop at the former, while the lower-income rural community resorts to buying small amounts of daily essentials from general stores (these small stores often double as pubs). In an attempt to regulate the retail sector, the government has recently reformed taxation laws, so that small shops pay taxes on a regular monthly basis. Many transactions, however, go unrecorded. Energy The electricity sector has had big investments in the last decade 2010 to 2020 diversifying the sector away from petroleum which decreased from 50% of energy generation to 7%. The largest generation sources as of 2021 are coal, natural gas and renewables representing together 93% of electricity generation. This has transformed a strategic sector of the economy into a stable and lower cost sector. The rate of electricity loss improved from 38% in 2005 to 30% in 2019 showing improvement in the infrastructure. Low collection rates, illegal connections, infrastructure problems and poor governance are the sources of the high level of electricity loss in the system. The government plans to continue providing subsidies. Congress passed a law in 2007 that criminalizes the act of illegal electric connections. The state subsidizes the cost of electricity, funding the cost via indirect taxation instead of direct price increases for lower-income households, therefore it is a redistributive policy and partly funded by the country as a whole instead of the direct consumers of electricity. The profit from renewables, natural gas, and coal is positive and considered the current and future of the system, given that petroleum derivatives are considered more volatile and expensive in running costs. As of 2020 significant investments in the electricity sector have been realized with the construction of the Punta Catalina coal-fired plant. Significantly diversifying the electric sector's away from the traditional mix to one with lower cost. The growth of the renewables sector and the natural gas power sector has made significant strides in this respect in the last few years, and is expected to continue to grow with foreign and local investment in the sector. Employment Labor participation has improved over the last decade from 62.4% to 67.3%. Despite this growth, female labor participation rates lag more than 25 percentage points behind male labor participation rates, 52.7% and 77.9% respectively. This disparity highlights ongoing challenges in achieving gender equality in the workforce and indicates potential barriers that women face in accessing employment opportunities. Marginal real wage growth since the end of the 1990s suggests low quality jobs and low bargaining power of employees, which can further exacerbate economic inequality. Informal Employment In 2021, 45.5% of Dominicans lived in households where all workers were employed through informal jobs. {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center;" ! Year !! GDP<br /><small>(in Bil. US$ PPP)</small> !! GDP per capita<br /><small>(in US$ PPP)</small> !! GDP<br /><small>(in Bil. US$ nominal)</small> !! GDP per capita<br /><small>(in US$ nominal)</small> !! GDP growth<br /><small>(real)</small> !! Inflation rate<br /><small>(%)</small> !! Unemployment<br /><small>(%)</small> !! Government debt<br /><small>(in % of GDP)</small> \|- \| 1980 \|\| 13.7 \|\| 2,429.3 \|\| 8.7 \|\| 1,534.3 \|\| 8.0% \|\| 21.7% \|\| n/a \|\| n/a \|- \| 1981 \|\| 15.7 \|\| 2,710.8 \|\| 9.7 \|\| 1,677.4 \|\| 4.3% \|\| 7.5% \|\| n/a \|\| n/a \|- \| 1982 \|\| 16.9 \|\| 2,860.5 \|\| 9.1 \|\| 1,545.1 \|\| 1.7% \|\| 7.6% \|\| n/a \|\| n/a \|- \| 1983 \|\| 18.4 \|\| 3,038.1 \|\| 9.5 \|\| 1,562.1 \|\| 4.6% \|\| 5.6% \|\| n/a \|\| n/a \|- \| 1984 \|\| 19.3 \|\| 3,112.3 \|\| 14.9 \|\| 2,397.6 \|\| 1.3% \|\| 20.2% \|\| n/a \|\| n/a \|- \| 1985 \|\| 19.5 \|\| 3,068.1 \|\| 6.5 \|\| 1,022.6 \|\| -2.1% \|\| 45.3% \|\| n/a \|\| n/a \|- \| 1986 \|\| 20.6 \|\| 3,162.4 \|\| 7.9 \|\| 1,212.4 \|\| 3.5% \|\| 7.6% \|\| n/a \|\| n/a \|- \| 1987 \|\| 23.2 \|\| 3,482.7 \|\| 8.3 \|\| 1,245.3 \|\| 10.1% \|\| 13.6% \|\| n/a \|\| n/a \|- \| 1988 \|\| 24.6 \|\| 3,597.5 \|\| 7.6 \|\| 1,113.8 \|\| 2.2% \|\| 43.9% \|\| n/a \|\| n/a \|- \| 1989 \|\| 26.7 \|\| 3,818.6 \|\| 8.6 \|\| 1,230.7 \|\| 4.4% \|\| 40.7% \|\| n/a \|\| n/a \|- \| 1990 \|\| 26.1 \|\| 3,672.4 \|\| 8.0 \|\| 1,123.2 \|\| -5.5% \|\| 50.5% \|\| n/a \|\| n/a \|- \| 1991 \|\| 27.3 \|\| 3,766.8 \|\| 9.9 \|\| 1,365.2 \|\| 0.9% \|\| 47.1% \|\| 9.2% \|\| n/a \|- \| 1992 \|\| 31.0 \|\| 4,207.8 \|\| 11.6 \|\| 1,573.7 \|\| 11.2% \|\| 4.3% \|\| 9.5% \|\| n/a \|- \| 1993 \|\| 34.1 \|\| 4,541.0 \|\| 13.1 \|\| 1,741.7 \|\| 7.4% \|\| 5.3% \|\| 9.3% \|\| n/a \|- \| 1994 \|\| 35.7 \|\| 4,677.0 \|\| 14.6 \|\| 1,916.4 \|\| 2.6% \|\| 8.3% \|\| 7.4% \|\| n/a \|- \| 1995 \|\| 38.6 \|\| 4,962.8 \|\| 16.6 \|\| 2,141.1 \|\| 5.7% \|\| 12.5% \|\| 7.3% \|\| n/a \|- \| 1996 \|\| 41.6 \|\| 5,270.0 \|\| 18.2 \|\| 2,309.9 \|\| 6.0% \|\| 5.4% \|\| 7.5% \|\| n/a \|- \| 1997 \|\| 46.1 \|\| 5,745.7 \|\| 20.0 \|\| 2,495.0 \|\| 8.9% \|\| 8.3% \|\| 7.2% \|\| 13.8% \|- \| 1998 \|\| 49.7 \|\| 6,102.4 \|\| 21.7 \|\| 2,658.5 \|\| 6.7% \|\| 4.8% \|\| 7.4% \|\| 13.2% \|- \| 1999 \|\| 53.4 \|\| 6,457.7 \|\| 22.1 \|\| 2,674.8 \|\| 5.9% \|\| 6.5% \|\| 6.3% \|\| 16.0% \|- \| 2000 \|\| 57.2 \|\| 6,811.6 \|\| 24.3 \|\| 2,894.3 \|\| 4.7% \|\| 7.7% \|\| 8.1% \|\| 16.7% \|- \| 2001 \|\| 59.9 \|\| 7,039.8 \|\| 25.6 \|\| 3,007.4 \|\| 2.5% \|\| 8.9% \|\| 9.1% \|\| 20.4% \|- \| 2002 \|\| 63.6 \|\| 7,371.7 \|\| 27.2 \|\| 3,158.4 \|\| 4.5% \|\| 5.2% \|\| 8.5% \|\| 21.5% \|- \| 2003 \|\| 64.0 \|\| 7,316.3 \|\| 21.5 \|\| 2,460.6 \|\| -1.3% \|\| 27.5% \|\| 8.7% \|\| 48.2% \|- \| 2004 \|\| 67.4 \|\| 7,607.9 \|\| 22.5 \|\| 2,540.8 \|\| 2.6% \|\| 51.5% \|\| 7.9% \|\| 34.3% \|- \| 2005 \|\| 76.1 \|\| 8,480.4 \|\| 35.9 \|\| 4,008.4 \|\| 9.4% \|\| 4.2% \|\| 8.2% \|\| 38.3% \|- \| 2006 \|\| 85.6 \|\| 9,435.5 \|\| 38.0 \|\| 4,188.7 \|\| 9.2% \|\| 7.6% \|\| 7.1% \|\| 36.0% \|- \| 2007 \|\| 94.4 \|\| 10,292.7 \|\| 44.1 \|\| 4,803.5 \|\| 7.4% \|\| 6.1% \|\| 6.5% \|\| 32.9% \|- \| 2008 \|\| 99.3 \|\| 10,703.6 \|\| 48.2 \|\| 5,194.8 \|\| 3.2% \|\| 10.6% \|\| 6.0% \|\| 33.6% \|- \| 2009 \|\| 100.9 \|\| 10,757.5 \|\| 48.3 \|\| 5,151.2 \|\| 0.9% \|\| 1.4% \|\| 6.8% \|\| 36.7% \|- \| 2010 \|\| 110.6 \|\| 11,672.3 \|\| 53.9 \|\| 5,688.8 \|\| 8.3% \|\| 6.3% \|\| 6.5% \|\| 37.3% \|- \| 2011 \|\| 116.5 \|\| 12,157.9 \|\| 58.1 \|\| 6,063.4 \|\| 3.1% \|\| 8.5% \|\| 7.6% \|\| 39.1% \|- \| 2012 \|\| 118.2 \|\| 12,207.7 \|\| 60.7 \|\| 6,274.9 \|\| 2.7% \|\| 3.7% \|\| 8.4% \|\| 42.3% \|- \| 2013 \|\| 125.4 \|\| 12,818.4 \|\| 62.8 \|\| 6,413.9 \|\| 4.9% \|\| 4.8% \|\| 9.2% \|\| 46.7% \|- \| 2014 \|\| 137.0 \|\| 13,859.1 \|\| 67.3 \|\| 6,805.7 \|\| 7.1% \|\| 3.0% \|\| 8.5% \|\| 44.9% \|- \| 2015 \|\| 151.6 \|\| 15,186.0 \|\| 71.3 \|\| 7,139.5 \|\| 6.9% \|\| 0.8% \|\| 7.3% \|\| 44.7% \|- \| 2016 \|\| 167.5 \|\| 16,625.8 \|\| 75.8 \|\| 7,521.3 \|\| 6.7% \|\| 1.6% \|\| 7.1% \|\| 46.6% \|- \| 2017 \|\| 175.9 \|\| 17,301.4 \|\| 80.1 \|\| 7,874.9 \|\| 4.7% \|\| 3.3% \|\| 5.5% \|\| 48.9% \|- \| 2018 \|\| 192.7 \|\| 18,772.6 \|\| 85.6 \|\| 8,341.0 \|\| 7.0% \|\| 3.6% \|\| 5.7% \|\| 50.5% \|- \| 2019 \|\| 205.7 \|\| 19,854.6 \|\| 89.0 \|\| 8,595.2 \|\| 5.1% \|\| 1.8% \|\| 6.2% \|\| 53.6% \|- \| 2020 \|\| 194.4 \|\| 18,602.9 \|\| 78.9 \|\| 7,553.5 \|\| -6.7% \|\| 3.8% \|\| 5.8% \|\| 71.5% \|- \| 2021 \|\| 228.2 \|\| 21,655.0 \|\| 94.5 \|\| 8,962.3 \|\| 12.5% \|\| 8.2% \|\| 7.4% \|\| 63.2% \|- \| 2022 \|\| 256.2 \|\| 24,096.0 \|\| 113.9 \|\| 10,711.2\|\| 4.9% \|\| 8.8% \|\| 5.3%\|\| 59.5% \|- \| 2023 \|\| 271.9 \|\| 25,355.1 \|\| 120.0 \|\| 11,274.2\|\| 2.4% \|\| 4.8%\|\| 6.2% \|\| 60.9% \|- \| 2024 \|\| 293.4 \|\| 27,120.4 \|\| 127.4 \|\| 11,773.6 \|\| 5.1% \|\| 4.01%\|\| 6.0% \|\| 59.5% \|- \| 2025 \|\| 313.3 \|\| 28,715.5 \|\| 136.3 \|\| 12,491.6 \|\| 5.0% \|\| 4.0% \|\| 6.0% \|\| 58.7% \|- \| 2026 \|\| 335.3 \|\| 30,466.7 \|\| 145.9 \|\| 13,259.3 \|\| 5.0% \|\| 4.0% \|\| 6.0% \|\| 57.1% \|- \|2027 \|358.9 \|32,325.8 \|156.5 \|14,094.6 \|5.0% \|4.0% \|6.0% \|55.3% \|- \|2028 \|384.1 \|34,298.7 \|167.8 \|14,985.8 \|5.0% \|4.0% \|6.0% \|53.3% \|- \|2029 \|411.2 \|36,399.7 \|179.9 \|15,925.3 \|5.0% \|4.0% \|6.0% \|51.3% \|} Other statistics GDP: purchasing power parity – $293.365 billion (2024 est.) GDP – real growth rate: 5.4% (2024 est.) GDP – per capita: purchasing power parity – $27,120 (2024 est.) GDP – composition by sector: agriculture: 5.5% industry: 33.8% services: 60.8% (2017 est.) Inflation rate (consumer prices): 4.2% (2024 est.) Labor force: 5.278 million (2022 est.) Labor force – by occupation: agriculture: 14.4% industry: 20.8% services: 64.7% (2014 est.) Unemployment rate: 6.0% (2024 est.) Population below poverty line: 23.9% (2021 est.) Budget: revenues: $14.10 billion expenditures: $16.60 billion (2021 est.) Industries: tourism, sugar processing, ferronickel and gold mining, textiles, cement, tobacco, electrical components, medical devices Electricity – production: 15.53 billion kWh (2015) Electricity – consumption: 13.25 billion kWh (2015) Electricity – exports: 0 kWh (2005) Electricity – imports: 0 kWh (2005) Oil – production: (2014) Oil – consumption: (2012 est.) Oil – exports: (2017) Oil – imports: (2017) Oil – proved reserves: (1 January 2006 est.) Natural gas – production: 0 cu m (2005 est.) Natural gas – consumption: 1.108 million cu m (2015 est). Natural gas – exports: 0 cu m (2005 est.) Natural gas – imports: 1.108 million cu m (2015) Natural gas – proved reserves: 0 cu m (1 January 2006 est.) Agriculture – products: sugarcane, coffee, cotton, cocoa, tobacco, rice, beans, potatoes, corn, bananas; cattle, pigs, dairy products, beef, eggs Exports: $10.33 billion f.o.b. (2017 est.) Exports – commodities: ferro nickel, sugar, gold, silver, coffee, cocoa, tobacco, meats, consumer goods Exports – partners: United States 50.4%, United Kingdom 3.2%, Belgium 2.4% (2017) Imports: $19 billion f.o.b. (2017 est.) Imports – commodities: foodstuffs, petroleum, cotton and fabrics, chemicals and pharmaceuticals Imports – partners: United States 41.4%, China 13.9%, Mexico 4.5%, Brazil 4.3% (2017) Debt – external: $29.69 billion (31 December 2017 est.) Economic aid – recipient: $76.99 million (2005) Currency: Dominican peso (DOP) Exchange rates: Dominican pesos per US dollar – 33.113 (2007), 33.406 (2006), 30.409 (2005), 42.12 (2004), 30.831 (2003) Fiscal year: calendar year See also * List of companies of the Dominican Republic * List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP growth * List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP (nominal) * List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP (PPP) Notes Dominican Republic, the	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Dominican_Republic	2025-04-05T18:28:26.587934
8068	Telecommunications in the Dominican Republic	<!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE --> Telecommunications in the Dominican Republic include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet. Numerous television channels are available. Tricom, S.A, WIND Telecom, S.A., Viva (network operator), and Claro Codetel provide television services digitally, with channels from Latin America and elsewhere in the world. There are extensive mobile phone and land-line services. Internet access is available as Cable Internet, ADSL, WiMAX, EDGE, EV-DO and UMTS/HSDPA in most parts of the country. Projects to extend Wi-Fi (wireless internet) hot spots have been undertaken in Santo Domingo. Since 2015 the country has been actively extending its fiber optics network, to provide faster and more reliable internet to business and private users. The Instituto Dominicano De Telecomunicaciones (INDOTEL) regulates and supervises the development of the country's telecommunications market. Radio and television * Radio stations: AM 146, FM 233, shortwave 14 (2013). A combination of state-owned and privately owned radio stations with more than 300 radio stations operating (2007). * Radios: 1.44 million (1997). * Television stations: 46 (2012). A combination of state-owned and privately owned broadcast media; 1 state-owned and a number of private TV networks; networks operate repeaters to extend signals throughout country (2007). In the Dominican Republic there are 46 in VHF and UHF channels free-to-air channels. The programming on the free of charge channels consists mainly of locally produced entertainment shows, news, and comedy shows; and foreign sitcoms, soap operas, movies, cartoons, and sports programs. * Fixed lines: 1.14 million lines in use, 70th in the world (2022). * Fixed broadband: 446,420 subscriptions, 72nd in the world; 4.4% of the population, 108th in the world (2012). * Wireless broadband: 1.6 million subscriptions, 65th in the world; 15.4% of the population, 80th in the world (2012). * Internet hosts: 404,500 hosts, 55th in the world (2012). * Internet service providers (ISPs): 8: Claro (Fiber, ADSL and wireless), Tricom (Fiber, WiMAX, ADSL, and Cable), Aster (CABLE), VIVA (wireless), Orange (wireless), ONEMAX (Fiber GPON, Wireless PTP, Data Center), Wind Telecom (WiMAX) (2008).Broadband Internet accessThe Dominican Republic is considered one of the countries with the most advanced telecommunications infrastructures in Latin America, with over 8.9 million cell phones connected (on just about 10 million populants, with 3.5 million of them on extreme poverty conditions) and large companies like Codetel and Orange (FR) on the telecommunications market. Broadband Internet access is growing, with over 622,931 Internet accounts globally and 3,851,278 Internet users as of December 2010 according to INDOTEL (DR Telecommunications Institute). Broadband DSL represents about 56% of the total Internet subscribers. There is access to regular ADSL, G.SHDSL, and services only on metropolitan areas, costs are high and service is decent. Cable Internet is offered by a couple of cable companies at lower costs than ADSL but the service is very deficient and unreliable. WiFi is becoming more common. It is available in some universities. Most hotels also offer wi-fi internet. The implementation of the WiMAX and HSPA technology by some of the Cellphone service providers are resulting in the rapid investment by other providers in the market to match the new and faster platform of services. Mobile broadband users have seen their percentage grow from 14% in 2007 all the way to 39% in 2010, and will continue to grow as more and more users are opting for this type of technology in a country where Home Broadband speeds are more expensive and slower. Also the ongoing installation of a Fiber-Optic network structure in the National District and the City of Santiago (second largest in the country) will force other competitors into upgrading theirs to be able to compete in the markets they now lead. Pricing As of October 2018, not including taxes. Key: DOP: Dominican peso, USD: United States dollar. Exchange rate ( $50 DOP : US$1 ) ;Pricing – Home Internet Access (By ISP) The following table shows the speeds/prices* available and designed for home usage. {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Download Speeds !Claro República Dominicana !Altice Dominicana S.A. !WIND Telecom, S.A. !Viva (network operator) \|- \| 1 Mbit/s \| – \| – \| $790 DOP (US$15.80) \| – \|- \| 2 Mbit/s \|$750 DOP (US$15) \| – \| $990 DOP (US$19.80) \| – \|- \| 3 Mbit/s \|$895 DOP (US$17.90) \| $890 DOP (US$17.80) \| $1,290 DOP (US$25.80) \|$699 DOP (US$13.98) \|- \| 5 Mbit/s \|$1,045 DOP (US$20.90) \| $1,049 DOP (US$20.98) \| $1,490 DOP (US$29.80) \|$899 DOP (US$17.98) \|- \| 10 Mbit/s \|$1,345 DOP (US$26.90) \| – \| – \| – \|- \| 15 Mbit/s \| – \| $1,499 DOP (US$29.98) \| – \| – \|- \| 20 Mbit/s \|$1,595 DOP (US$34.67) \| – \| – \| – \|- \| 30 Mbit/s \| – \| $1,949 DOP (US$38.98) \| – \| – \|- \| 40 Mbit/s \|$1,945 DOP (US$38.90) \| – \| – \| – \|- \|100 Mbit/s \|$2,645 DOP (US$52.90) \|$2,799 DOP (US$55.98) \| – \| – \|} <nowiki></nowiki>Note: The pricing and speeds are subject to change since Altice, Claro and Wind have multi plans (Two or Three services combined), those plans have a discount on all services. Up to 25% discount for combined services. ;Pricing – Mobile Broadband (By ISP) Currently the mobile internet market is governed by three aspects: # The first is based on a contract where you are granted a certain amount of data (MB/GB) per month, after having consumed the data you can continue browsing at 512 kbit/s. # Second option is a monthly income (postpaid) for the acquisition of a speed package with "unlimited data" (is subject to fair use policies with unlimited browsing at 512 kbit/s after you surpass the monthly capacity). # Third group belongs to the prepaid modality, in this option the client determines the number of days or amount of data he needs to navigate. {\| class="wikitable" !Data Caps !Claro (Dominican Republic) !Altice Dominicana S.A. !WIND Telecom, S.A. \|- \|5MB \|$115 DOP (US$2.30) \| – \| – \|- \|50MB \|$175 DOP (US$3.50) \| – \| – \|- \|250MB \|$295 DOP (US$5.90) \| – \| – \|- \|2GB \|$395 DOP (US$7.90) \| – \| – \|- \|5GB \|$695 DOP (US$13.90) \|$790 DOP (US$15.80) \|$590 DOP (US$11.80) \|- \|10GB \|$995 DOP (US$19.90) \|$999 DOP (US$19.98) \| – \|- \|15GB \|$1,195 DOP (US$23.90) \|$1,199 DOP (US$23.98) \|$790 DOP (US$15.80) \|- \|20GB \|$1,495 DOP (US$29.89) \|$1,499 DOP (US$29.97) \| – \|- \|25GB \|$1,795 DOP (US$35.89) \|$1,799 DOP (US$35.97) \|$990 DOP (US$19.80) \|- \|40GB \| – \| – \|$1,490 DOP (US$29.79) \|- \|50GB \|$3,895 DOP (US$77.88) \|$3,590 DOP (US$71.79) \| – \|- \|60GB \| – \| – \|$1,690 DOP (US$33.79) \|} {\| class="wikitable" !Postpaid Speeds !Altice Dominicana S.A. !WIND Telecom, S.A. \|- \|1 Mbit/s \|$799 DOP (US$15.80) \|$790 DOP (US$15.80) \|- \|2 Mbit/s \| – \|$990 DOP (US$19.80) \|- \|3 Mbit/s \|$999 DOP (US$19.98) \|$1,290 DOP (US$25.79) \|- \|5 Mbit/s \|$1,499 DOP (US$29.97) \|$1,490 DOP (US$29.79) \|- \|10 Mbit/s \|$1,999 DOP (US$39.97) \| – \|} {\| class="wikitable" ! rowspan="2" \|Prepaid Navigation ! colspan="8" \|Days \|- !1 !2 !3 !4 !5 !7 !10 !30 \|- \|Viva (network operator) \|$45 DOP (US$0.90) \|$75 DOP (US$1.50) \| – \|$90 DOP (US$1.80) \| – \|$190 DOP (US$3.80) \| – \|$995 DOP (US$19.90) \|- \|WIND Telecom, S.A. \|$35 DOP (US$0.70) \| – \|$100 DOP (US$2) \| – \|$200 DOP (US$4) \| – \|$340 DOP (US$6.80) \| – \|} Internet censorship and surveillance There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without judicial oversight. The constitution provides for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights in practice. An independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system ensure freedom of speech and press. The independent media are active and express a wide variety of views without restriction. Individuals and groups are generally able to criticize the government publicly and privately without reprisal, although there have been incidents in which authorities intimidated journalists or other news professionals. Local journalists engage in self-censorship, particularly when coverage could adversely affect the economic or political interests of media owners. The government denies using unauthorized wiretapping or other surreptitious methods to interfere with the private lives of individuals and families, however, human rights groups and opposition politicians allege that such interference does occur.<ref nameUSDOS-CRHRP-2012/> See also Dominican Postal Institute * North American Regional Broadcasting Agreement References * * External links * [http://www.nic.do/ nic.do], Network Information Center for the .do domain. * [http://www.claro.com.do Claro] * [http://www.fiberxpress.com.do Compania De Servicios Inalambricos Dominicana] * [http://www.indotel.gov.do/component/option,com_docman/task,cat_view/gid,110/Itemid,757/ Indotel], Instituto Dominicano de las Telecomunicaciones. * [http://www.indotel.gov.do Indotel], Dominican Republic Communications Regulation Authority. * [http://www.onemax.com ONEMAX] * [http://www.orange.com.do Orange] * [http://www.sky.com.mx/centroamerica/ SKY] * [http://www.tricom.net Tricom] * [http://www.viva.com.do VIVA] * [http://www.wind.com.do Wind Telecom] * [https://www.telefonosdominicana.com Teléfono Dominicana] Dominican Republic Dominican Republic	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Dominican_Republic	2025-04-05T18:28:26.606555
8069	Transport in the Dominican Republic	Transport in the Dominican Republic utilizes a system of roads, airports, ports, harbours, and an urban railway. thumb\|right\|300px\|Dominican Republic transportation, Santo Domingo city metro pictured in 2008 Roadways Five main highways (DR-1, DR-2, DR-3, DR-4, DR-5) connect the Dominican Republic's biggest cities and tourist centers; they are in good condition. There are nearly of highways and roads, 9,872 being paved and (2002 est.) unpaved. Like any underdeveloped nation, the Dominican Republic suffers from a lack of good paved roads to connect smaller towns and less populated areas, though work on paving them proceeds. Major town roads are kept in good condition. Public transportation thumb\|Teleférico de Santo Domingo Mass transit The Santo Domingo Metro is the first mass transit system in the country, and the second among Caribbean & Central American nations. It is the most extensive metro system in the region by length and total number of stations. On February 27, 2008, the incumbent president Leonel Fernández test-rode the system for the first time, and thereafter free service was offered several times. Commercial service began on January 30, 2009. Several additional lines are currently planned. Santiago Light Rail is a planned light rail system, still at the development stage, in the Dominican Republic's second-largest city Santiago de los Caballeros. Construction was slated to begin in mid-2008 but is currently on hold, due to lack of approval and of central government funds. Buses thumb\|right\|Dominican Republic buses The Dominican Republic has a bus system that is rather reliable, and most of these public transportation vehicles are fairly comfortable. The fare is generally inexpensive, and there are bus terminals and stops in most of the island's major cities. Public Cars (Carros Públicos) The Public Cars (Carros Públicos–Conchos) are privately owned passenger cars that transit a specific route daily Passengers may request a stop anywhere along the route. Carros Públicos carry a significant portion of commuters in Santo Domingo and other major cities. The system is not very reliable and lacks oversight and regulation which leads to congestion and other issues. They may also be somewhat uncomfortable, since drivers try to fit as many people as possible inside the vehicles. Carros Públicos are often standard sedans, but can be packed with as many as six passengers. Railways thumb\|right\|300px\|Rail map as of 1925 Rail operations are provided by one state-owned operator and several private operators (mainly for sugar mills). There are no rail connections with neighboring Haiti. Central Romana Railroad was established in 1911 in the sugarcane fields. The total length of the line is , being the standard gauge. The Dominican Republic Government Railway (United Dominican Railways or Ferrocarriles Unidos Dominicanos) was a narrow gauge railway. There are operated by other sugarcane companies in various gauges: , , gauges (1995). Ports and harbors Major ports and harbours in the Dominican Republic: Ports thumb\|right\|Don diego terminal. The Port of Santo Domingo, with its location in the Caribbean, is well suited for flexible itinerary planning and has excellent support, road, and airport infrastructure within the Santo Domingo region, which facilitate access and transfers. The port is suitable for both turnaround and transit calls. Haina Occidental Port, located just 20 km west of Santo Domingo, is one of the most important ports in the Dominican Republic. About 70% of all cargo, excluding Caucedo and free zone exports/imports, is moved through this port. DP World's terminal Multimodal Caucedo Port maritime terminal and logistic center operates under the Free Zone Regime. Actually 85% of Free Zone exports to the United States is shipped from Caucedo terminal. Multimodal Caucedo port is also able to act as a trans-shipment hub to the Caribbean and Latin America for Asia specifically Japan as a door to the American market. Port of Puerto Plata is the main commercial port on the north coast of the Dominican Republic. Port of Boca Chica is located about 20 miles east of the capital city and five miles from the International airport Las Americas. Currently the port is almost exclusively used for containers and some lumber, newsprint and homogeneous cargoes. Port of San Pedro de Macoris is located on the Higuamo river. This port is mainly used to discharge bulk fertilizer. Cement clinker, coal, wheat, diesel and LPG. It is also used to export sugar and molasses produced by several sugar cane mills in the region. Central Romana Port, located in La Romana, belong to Central Romana Corporation which is a private company established in 1912 and has the largest sugar mill in the country. The following six local ports are a single pier with berth facility: Cayo Levantado Port or (Arroyo Barruk/Puerto Duarte) is located in the Samaná Bay. Manzanillo Port is located very close to the Haitian border. Port of Cabo Rojo is located in Cabo Rojo, southeast to the border. Port of Barahona is located in Barahona, in the bay of Neyba. Port of Azua in Azua, also called Puerto Viejo is located at Ocoa Bay. Palenque Port is located southwest of Santo Domingo. A local ferry service runs daily between the Samaná and Sabana del Mar ports. Merchant marine Total: 1 ship (1,000 GT or over) totaling 1,587 GT/ Ships by type: cargo 1 (1999 est.) Entering the ports Boaters and sailors who wish to dock in any of the Dominican Republic's ports must follow certain entry requirements: Upon approaching the port, ships must display a quarantine flag, which has the letter 'Q' on it, and wait for admittance into the port. The passengers of the vessel must pay a fee, get a tourist card, and show proper identification including a valid passport. Military officials must sometimes grant the passengers clearance to come ashore. For entering or leaving the Dominican Republic, the Dominican e-Ticket is required. It is an electronic system designed to streamline immigration procedures and enhance border security. Airports thumb\|right\|200px\|Boeing 737-800 at Cibao International Airport in Santiago de los Caballeros in 2006 In 2009, there were seven major and 31 minor airports in the Dominican Republic. The major ones were: Las Américas International Airport, Santo Domingo City, Santo Domingo Punta Cana International Airport, Punta Cana / Higüey Cibao International Airport, Santiago City, Santiago Gregorio Luperón International Airport, Puerto Plata La Romana International Airport, La Romana City, La Romana Samana El Catey International Airport, Sanchez, Samana María Montez International Airport, Barahona City, Barahona Airports - with paved runways Total: 10 (1999 est.) Over 3,047 m: 3 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4 914 to 1,523 m: 3 under 913 m: 2 Airports - with unpaved runways Total: 15 (1999 est.) 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 914 to 1,523 m: 4 under 914 m: 9 National airlines Dominicana de Aviación was the national airline of the Dominican Republic for more than 50 years. This title was passed on to various other companies after Dominicana stopped flying. After operations at Dominicana de Aviación ceased, PAWA Dominicana became the flag carrier of the country in 2015. However, the airline ceased operation in January 2018. Flights There are direct flights to and from the Dominican Republic from the United States, Cuba, Canada, Mexico, Venezuela, Colombia, Argentina, Brazil, Europe and the Caribbean. See also Dominican Republic Puerto Plata Airport References External links Dominican Republic - Ministry of Tourism, Official Site Santo Domingo Public Transportation Dominican Republic Information Pictures of transportation	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_in_the_Dominican_Republic	2025-04-05T18:28:26.618226
8070	Armed Forces of the Dominican Republic	\| image = Emblem of the Dominican Armed Forces.svg \| alt \| caption Emblem of the Dominican Armed Forces \| image2 = Bandera de las Fuerzas Armadas (Engalanada en los bordes).svg \| alt2 \| caption2 Banner of the Dominican Armed Forces \| motto \| founded \| current_form \| disbanded \| branches * Dominican Army * Dominican Navy * Dominican Air Force \| headquarters = Ministry of Defense Building <br/> Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic \| flying_hours \| website <!-- Leadership -->\| commander-in-chief = Luis Abinader \| commander-in-chief_title = Commander-in-chief \| chief minister \| chief minister_title \| minister = Carlos Antonio F. Onofre \| minister_title = Minister of Defence \| commander = Jorge Iván Camino Pérez \| commander_title <!-- Manpower -->\| age = 18-21 \| conscription = No \| manpower_data \| manpower_age \| available \| available_f \| fit = 1,405,000 \| fit_f \| reaching 86,500 \| reaching_f \| active 89,000 \| reserve 189,000 <br />([https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/military-spending-by-country ranked 80th]) \| percent_GDP 0.72% (2024) \| domestic_suppliers \| foreign_suppliers \|\|\|\|\|\|}} \| imports \| exports <!-- Related articles --> \| history = Dominican War of Independence<br />Dominican Restoration War<br />World War II<br />Dominican Civil War<br />2003 invasion of Iraq \| ranks = Military ranks of the Dominican Republic }} The Dominican Armed Forces, also referred as Armed Forces of the Dominican Republic (), are the military forces of the Dominican Republic. These are made up of three branches: the Army, the Navy and the Air Force. The president of the Republic is the commander in chief of the Dominican Armed Forces and the Ministry of Defense (Spanish: Ministerio de Defensa de la República Dominicana) is the chief managing body of the armed forces. As a Ministry, its origin comes from the Dominican Constitution of 1844, as the Secretary of State for War and Navy. Its ministerial headquarters is located in Santo Domingo, in the Plaza de la Bandera. The primary missions of the Armed Forces of the Dominican Republic are to defend the nation and protect the territorial integrity of the country. The Armed Forces of Dominican Republic are the strongest army in the Caribbean after Cuba. The Army, consists of six infantry brigades, an air cavalry squadron and a combat service support brigade. The Air Force operates two main bases, one in southern region near Santo Domingo and one in the northern region of the country, the air force operates approximately 75 aircraft including helicopters. The Navy maintains three ageing vessels which were donated from the United States, around 25 patrol crafts and interceptor boats and two helicopters. There is a counter-terrorist group formed by members of the three branches. This group is highly trained in counter-terrorism missions. The armed forces participate fully in counter-illegal drug trade efforts, for this task, there is a taskforce known as DEPROSER 24/7 (DEfender, PROteger y SERvir). They also are active in efforts to control contraband and illegal immigration from Haiti to the Dominican Republic and from the Dominican Republic to the United States (via illegal transportation of immigrants to Puerto Rico). History War of Independence in Santo Domingo circa 1850]] Haiti under their president Jean-Pierre Boyer had invaded and occupied Dominican Republic from 1822 to 1844. The military forces of the First Republic's army comprised about 4,000 soldiers organized into seven line infantry regiments, several loose battalions, 6 escudrones cavalry and 3 artillery brigades with 2/2 brigades; This army was supplemented with national civic guard militia composed of the provinces, the National Naval Armada, original name of the Navy today; It composed of 10 ships, seven owned and 3 taken in requición and armed by the government: the Cibao frigate with 20 cannons; the brigantine schooner San Jose, five guns; the schooner La Libertad, five guns; General schooner Santana 7 guns; the schooner La Merced, five guns; Separation schooner, 3 guns; the schooner February 27, five guns. The requisition taken: the schooner Maria Luisa, 3 guns; the schooner March 30, 3 guns; and the schooner Hope, 3 guns. 674 operated by a man. In addition to the aforementioned military corps expeditionary southern army recruited by Pedro and Ramon Santana in Hato Mayor and El Seibo, with a permit issued by the Central Governing Board with the rank of commander in chief of the army existed. These men were skilled in handling machete and spear. His deputy commander was Brigadier General Antonio Duvergé. The other expeditionary army was the Northern Borders created to defend these borders: its commander was Major General Francisco A. Salcedo. The Dominican forces would reach levels of organization and efficiency of considerable notoriety. As an example of this, it would suffice to highlight the fact of the achievement and preservation of National Independence, with the Dominican victory over repeated Haitian military invasions in the 12-year period that followed the proclamation of Independence; In addition, 55 percent of the National Budget was allocated to it. 20th century s got out of a Bell UH-1 Iroquois military helicopter in counter-terrorist and counter-illegal drug trade operations]] The events that led to the United States military intervention of 1916, brought about the disappearance of any vestige of military structure in the Dominican Republic, setting the intervening forces a military government headed by Captain William Knapp, who make an interim police force called "Constabulary "equivalent to an" armed police force as a military unit "and he had the task of maintaining internal order and enforce the implementing provisions of the US government. This body, purely police function disappears in 1917, leading to the creation of a National Guard. As a result of this historic event of our recent past, the country inherited a hierarchical and organizational akin to the US Marine Corps structure, which served as a platform to the transformations that later gave rise to the armed forces we know today, made up of three components, terrestrial one, one naval and one air. This land component, now called the National Army, inherited by both its organizational structure of the National Guard organized by the US occupation forces, which operated from April 7, 1917, until June 1921, when it becomes Dominican National Police by Executive Order No. 631 of Rear Admiral Thomas Snowden, who was at that time the military governor of Santo Domingo. After the US military occupation in 1924, Horacio Vásquez wins the presidential elections of that same year. Among his first decisions, decrees the change of the Dominican National Police in National Brigade, a situation that continues until 17 May 1928, when new turn changes the name of the Army by Law No. 928, but basically inheriting a structure Police, who obeyed schemes imposition of public order demanded by the country at that time and not those of an army in their typical roles. Due to its characteristics and missions, organizational structure that demanded presence throughout the country, which was realized with the creation of posts and detachments in different parts of the country and the establishment in some provinces of company size units, many of which still Army retains today. Over the years and already existing National Police created by decree No. 1523 of March 2, 1936, of President Trujillo, many of these units, posts and detachments became part of it, perfectly adapted to its structure, since These were essentially created to play a policing role. So great was the influence that had the National Guard in Dominican society and very particularly in the rural population, which even today are many Dominicans who often referred to the Armed Forces and unique way to the Army as " The Guard ". Meanwhile, the Navy has remained since its inception attached to the principles that gave rise, assuming only two name changes since its inception, but gradually evolving the transformation of what was a body created for military purposes, capable of landing and ships with weapons to face possible naval invasions, to be a component mainly responsible for enforcing the provisions on navigation, trade and fishing, as well as international treaties The Air Force, meanwhile, emerges as an independent component in 1948, under the chairmanship of Generalissimo Rafael L. Trujillo Molina, with characteristics of innovation and modernism, which gave mobility, versatility and depth to the Armed Forces and the complement in the following years would become: a military capacity to project military power in the Caribbean environment. The situation of this air component has changed significantly after reaching its climax in the 50s, when it was one of the best air force equipped in the region, which was due to the strategic guidelines of a long-lived military dictatorship It made efforts to stay in power and he saw in this component one of its mainstays against any invasion or subversion against the dictatorship. Components Army of the Dominican Republic The Dominican Army was founded in 1844. Its basic strength is concentrated in light infantry, which in general can be said to be well equipped with basic combat rifles and combat equipment for soldiers. The vehicles, both transport and armored, and the artillery and anti-tank pieces that it has in service, are partly in poor condition, obsolete or simply civilian vehicles adapted for military use. Nowadays, tanks and modern armor systems have been included. Navy of the Dominican Republic The Dominican Navy was founded in 1844 also with the National Independence with 15,000 troops after Haiti had occupied the eastern part of the island for twenty five years. It keeps around 34 ships in operation, mostly coast guards, patrol boats and small speedboats. It also operates dredges, tugboats and patrol boats of height. The Navy has a small air body composed helicopter utilities Bell OH-58 Kiowa. The Dominican Navy operates two main bases, one in the port of Santo Domingo in the Dominican capital called "Naval Base 27 de Febrero" and another in Bahía de las Calderas, in the province of Peravia, called "Las Calderas Naval Base" in the southern part from the country. It also has presence in the commercial ports of the country, comandancias of ports and is divided into three naval areas that in turn have posts and naval detachments. Air Force of the Dominican Republic The Dominican Air Force was founded in 1948 with 20,000 people. It has two main bases: the base area of San Isidro in the South-Central zone of the country near the capital city Santo Domingo; and the other operates jointly in the civil facilities belonging to the Gregorio Luperón International Airport, near the city of Puerto Plata in the North of the Republic. Until August 2009, the possibility of starting military operations from the María Montez airport, in the city of Barahona in the Southwest of the country and from the Punta Cana airport in the extreme east is under study. It keeps the following fixed-wing aircraft in operation: 8 Embraer EMB 314 Super Tucano, 3 CASA C-212 Aviocar transport; 6 T35B Pilot training; as well as around 25 helicopters such as Bell 206, Bell UH-1 Iroquois, Bell OH-58 Kiowa, Eurocopter Dauphin, OH-6 Cayuse and Sikorsky S-300. Specialized Security Corps The Specialized Security Corps are military security agencies dependent on the Ministry of Defense and they are made up of military and civilian personnel specialized in their different areas of function. Overall their duty is to support state institutions, defend national interests in peace and war, and as force multipliers of the Armed Forces as well as the National Police. Antiterrorism Command of the Dominican Armed Forces National Department of Investigations (DNI) Airport Security and Civil Aviation Special Forces (CESAC) Specialized Corps of Metro and Cable Car Railway Security (CESMET) Specialized Corps of Tourist Security (CESTUR) Specialized Corps of Fuel Control (CECCOM) Task Force Ciudad Tranquila (FT-CIUTRAN) Specialized Port Security Corps (CESEP) Presidential Security Corps (CUSEP) Specialized Border Security Corps (CESFRONT) National Special Corps of Environmental and Parks Protection (SENPA) Military and Police Commission of the Ministry of Public Works and Communications (COMIPOL-MOPC) Military training and formation The Higher Institute for Defense "General General Juan Pablo Duarte y Diez" (INSUDE) is the agency dependent on the Ministry of Defense of the Dominican Republic and rector of the graduate schools, academies, technical schools, specialized schools for military training and training that constitute the Education System of the Armed Forces, as stipulated in article 205 of Law 139-13 of the Armed Forces. INSUDE was created as the Specialized Institute for Higher Studies of the Armed Forces (IEESFA) by Decree 1110-03 of December 2, 2003 and designated with its current name by decree 38-09 of January 17, 2009. Military training for officers of the Armed Forces is carried out by institutions specialized in each component. The Batalla de las Carreras Military Academy aims to train future officers of the National Army. The academy grants a bachelor's degree in Military Sciences lasting 4 years and 3 months. The Naval Academy, whose purpose is to train officers of the Navy, grants a bachelor's degree in Naval Sciences with a duration of 4 years. The Aerial, whose function is to train Air Force officers, offers a bachelor's degree in Aeronautical Sciences in three independent modalities: Aviator Mention, Infantry Mention and Aeronautical Maintenance Mention, all three with a duration of 4 years. Table of ranks {\| class="wikitable" \|- !rowspan2; width"100"\|Level !rowspan2; width"150"\|Rank !style"color:#F1FA8A; background-color:#19512F;" width"100"\|Army ! style"color:yellow; background-color:black;" width"100" \|Navy !style"color:white; background-color:#1B0D9A;" width"100"\|Air Force \|- \| style="background-color:white;"\| \| style="background-color:white;"\| \| \|- \| rowspan=3\|General Officers or Admirals \| Lieutenant General or Admiral \| \| \| \|- \| Major General or<br />Vice Admiral \| \| \| \|- \| Brigadier General or<br />Rear Admiral \| \| \| \|- \| rowspan=3\|Senior Officers \| Colonel or<br />Captain \| \| \| \|- \| Lieutenant colonel or<br />Commander \| \| \| \|- \| Major or<br />Lieutenant Commander \| \| \| \|- \| rowspan=3\|Junior Officers \| Captain or<br />Ship Lieutenant \| \| \| \|- \| First Lieutenant or<br />Frigate Lieutenant \| \| \| \|- \| Second Lieutenant or<br />Corvette Lieutenant \| \| \| \|- \|Non-Commissioned Officers \|NCO \| \|— \|— \|- \| rowspan=1\|Cadet Officers \| Cadet or<br />Midshipman \| \| \| \|- \| rowspan=6\|'''NCO's and <br /> Troop \| Sergeant Major \| \| \| \|- \| First sergeant \| — \| — \| \|- \| Sergeant of Administration and Accounting \| \| — \| \|- \| Sergeant \|]] \| \| \|- \| Private First Class \| \| \| \|- \| Private or<br />Sailor''' \| \| \| \|} See also List of wars involving the Dominican Republic History of the Dominican Republic Dominican National Police References Category:Government of the Dominican Republic	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_the_Dominican_Republic	2025-04-05T18:28:26.651164
8071	Foreign relations of the Dominican Republic	The foreign relations of the Dominican Republic are the Dominican Republic's relations with other governments. The Dominican Republic has a close relationship with the United States and with the other states of the Inter-American system. It has accredited diplomatic missions in most Western Hemisphere countries and in principal European capitals. History The island nation of the Dominican Republic maintains very limited relations with most of the countries of Africa, Asia, the Middle East, and Eastern Europe. It concentrated its diplomatic activities in four critical arenas: the circum-Caribbean, countries in the Americas, the United States, and Western Europe (mainly West Germany, Spain, and France).124678910–11121315161819202122232425262728293031323334353637383940414243—4445464748495051525354555657585960616263646566676869707172737475767778798081828384858687888990919293949596979899100101102103104105106107108109110111112113114115116117118119120121122123124125126127128129–130131132133134135136137138139140141142143144145146147148149150151152153154155159160161162163164165166167168169170171172173174175176177178179180181182183 Bilateral relations Africa Country Formal Relations Began Notes30 December 1960, 10 October 1976 and 24 September 2007 Dominican Republic has an embassy in Cairo. Egypt is accredited to the Dominican Republic from its embassy in Havana, Cuba.15 December 1960 and 4 October 1976 Morocco has an embassy in Santo Domingo. Dominican Republic has an embassy in Rabat.9 May 2002 South Africa is accredited to the Dominican Republic from its high commission in Kingston, Jamaica. Dominican Republic has an embassy in Pretoria. Americas Country Formal Relations Began Notes1925 Argentina has an embassy in Santo Domingo. Dominican Republic has an embassy in Buenos Aires.21 April 1911 Brazil has an embassy in Santo Domingo. Dominican Republic has an embassy in Brasília and consulates-general in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo.22 April 1954See Canada-Dominican Republic relations Canada has an embassy in Santo Domingo. Dominican Republic has an embassy in Ottawa and two consulates-general in Montreal and Toronto.1922See Chile-Dominican Republic relations Chile has an embassy in Santo Domingo. Dominican Republic has an embassy in Santiago.5 April 1904, broken 26 June 1959, restored 16 April 1998See Cuba-Dominican Republic relations On 26 June 1959, Cuba broke diplomatic relations with the Dominican Republic, citing, among other things, the latter's protection of "Batista war criminals," the sacking of the Cuban Embassy in Ciudad Trujillo, the preparation of a "counter-revolutionary force of 25,000 men" aimed against Cuba, insults against Cuba by the government-controlled press and radio and, especially, attacks by the Dominican Air Force on its own defenseless civilian population and the "torture and assassination of prisoners". The Dominican Republic and Cuba recently established consular relations, and there is contact in fields such as commerce, culture, and sports. Cuba has an embassy in Santo Domingo. Dominican Republic has an embassy in Havana.19 October 1970Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 October 1970. Both countries are full members of the Organization of American States.26 July 1867See Dominican Republic–Haiti relations Dominican Republic has an embassy in Port-au-Prince and consulates-general in Anse-à-Pitres and Ouanaminthe and a consulate in Belladère. Haiti has an embassy in Santo Domingo and consulates-general in Dajabón, Higüey, Santa Cruz de Barhona and Santiago de los Caballeros.18 September 1946 Dominican Republic has an embassy in Tegucigalpa. Honduras has an embassy in Santo Domingo.4 December 1964 Dominican Republic has an embassy in Kingston. Jamaica has an embassy in Santo Domingo.11 July 1929See Dominican Republic–Mexico relations Diplomatic relations between the Dominican Republic and Mexico were established on 11 July 1929. Dominican Republic has an embassy in Mexico City. Mexico has an embassy in Santo Domingo. (territory of the United States)The Dominican Republic has very strong ties and relations with Puerto Rico, albeit not formal ones. Although a United States Commonwealth, Puerto Rico is the Dominican Republic's largest trading partner. While relations between the islands have had difficulties, mainly due to the huge exodus of illegal immigrants from the Dominican Republic due to the nation's history of economic woes, the islands still, with the assistance of the United States Coast Guard and the Dominican Navy have worked hard to reduce the number of Dominicans crossing the Mona Passage in recent years. Puerto Rico is home to an estimated 485,000 Dominicans, and the Dominican Republic maintains consulates in the cities of San Juan and Mayagüez.May 1968See Dominican Republic-Trinidad and Tobago relations Dominican Republic has an embassy in Port-of-Spain. Trinidad and Tobago is accredited to the Dominican Republic from its high commission in Kingston, Jamaica.26 March 1884, broken 26 August 1960 - 6 January 1962See Dominican Republic–United States relations The Dominican Republic's standing as the largest Caribbean economy, second-largest country in terms of population and land mass, with large bilateral trade with the United States, and its proximity to the United States and other smaller Caribbean nations make the Dominican Republic an important partner in hemispheric affairs. The Embassy estimates that 100,000 U.S. citizens live in the Dominican Republic; many are dual nationals. An important element of the relationship between the two countries is the fact that more than 1 million individuals of Dominican origin reside in the United States, most of them in the metropolitan Northeast and some in Florida. U.S. relations with the Dominican Republic are excellent. The Dominican Government has been supportive of many U.S. initiatives in the United Nations and related agencies. The two governments cooperate in the fight against the traffic in illegal substances. The Dominican Republic has worked closely with U.S. law enforcement officials on issues such as the extradition of fugitives and measures to hinder illegal migration. The United States supports efforts to improve Dominican competitiveness, to attract foreign private investment, to fight corruption, and to modernize the tax system. Bilateral trade is important to both countries. U.S. firms, mostly manufacturers of apparel, footwear, and light electronics, as well as U.S. energy companies, account for much of the foreign private investment in the Dominican Republic. Exports from the United States, including those from Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, to the Dominican Republic in 2005 totaled $5.3 billion, up 11% from the previous year. The Dominican Republic exported $4.5 billion to the United States in 2006, equaling some 75% of its export revenues. The Dominican Republic is the 47th-largest commercial partner of the U.S. The U.S. Embassy works closely with U.S. business firms and Dominican trade groups, both of which can take advantage of the new opportunities in this growing market. At the same time, the embassy is working with the Dominican Government to resolve a range of ongoing commercial and investment disputes. The Embassy counsels U.S. firms through its Country Commercial Guide and informally via meetings with business persons planning to invest or already investing in the Dominican Republic. This is a challenging business environment for U.S. firms, especially for medium to smaller sized businesses. The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) mission is focused on improving access of underserved populations to quality health care and combating HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis; promoting economic growth through policy reform, support for CAFTA-DR implementation, and technical assistance to small producers and tourism groups; environmental protection and policy reform initiatives; improved access to quality primary, public education and assistance to at-risk youth; a model rural electrification program; and improving participation in democratic processes, while strengthening the judiciary and combating corruption across all sectors. Dominican Republic has an embassy in Washington, D.C. and consulates-general in Boston, Chicago, Los Angeles, Miami, New Orleans, New York City, San Juan and Mayagüez. United States has an embassy in Santo Domingo.27 November 1925See Dominican Republic–Uruguay relations Dominican Republic has an embassy in Montevideo. Uruguay has an embassy in Santo Domingo.31 March 1936 and 12 January 1945-Joint CommuniqueThe Dominican Republic and Venezuela have kept a very close relationship throughout the early 2000s. Currently, Venezuela is the biggest seller of oil to the Dominican Republic. In 2003, Venezuela was selling to the Dominican Republic approximately 110,000 barrels of oil per day, making for more than 75% of the daily oil consumption in the country, including cars, factories, and electrical plants. Today, the Dominican Republic gets around 50,000 barrels of oil a day from Venezuela under the Petrocaribe agreement, which includes most of the Caribbean countries. Due to the Dominican economy, the country cannot afford all this oil through cash, so to pay Venezuela for the oil, the Dominican Government makes payments not only in cash, but also by exporting goods like black beans to Venezuela and other things like selling bonds. The Dominican Government has to export so many beans to Venezuela, Over 10,000 tons, that it had to start to import some beans from foreign countries to provide the population with beans. In January 2015, the Dominican Government raised almost 2 billion dollars to pay off part of the debt they owed to Venezuela. The Dominican Republic currently represents a 1.5 billion dollar year revenue to Venezuela just in the oil business itself, which is the reason why the Dominican Republic and Venezuela government have such a strong connection now that both countries are getting what they need from each other. Dominican Republic has an embassy in Caracas. Venezuela has an embassy in Santo Domingo. Asia Country Formal Relations Began Notes1 May 2018See China–Dominican Republic relations and Dominican Republic–Taiwan relations The Dominican Republic used to keep official relations with Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC). On 1 May 2018, the Dominican Republic's government announced that diplomatic relations with Taiwan is severed and diplomatic ties with People's Republic of China is established, and recognize Taiwan as an "inalienable part of Chinese territory". China has an embassy in Santo Domingo. Dominican Republic has an embassy in Beijing.4 May 1999See Dominican Republic–India relations India has an honorary consulate in Santo Domingo. Dominican Republic maintains an embassy in New Delhi.11 July 1955Israel had provided aid and technical assistance and maintained some commercial, cultural, and diplomatic ties; in return, the Israelis often counted on the Dominican Republic to support their positions in international fora. Israel has an embassy in Santo Domingo. Dominican Republic has an embassy in Tel Aviv.6 July 1946 Philippines is accredited to the Dominican Republic from its embassy in Mexico City, Mexico. Dominican Republic is accredited to the Philippines from its embassy in New Delhi, India.6 June 1962The establishment of diplomatic relations between the Republic of Korea and the Dominican Republic began on 6 June 1962. South Korea has an embassy in Santo Domingo. Dominican Republic has an embassy in Seoul. 28 November 1951See Dominican Republic–Turkey relations Turkey has an embassy in Santo Domingo. Trade volume between the two countries was US$132.7 million in 2019 (Dominican exports/imports: 14.1/118.6 million USD). Europe Country Formal Relations Began Notes10 April 1891 Belgium is accredited to the Dominican Republic from its embassy in Kingston, Jamaica. Dominican Republic has an embassy in Brussels and a consulate-general in Antwerp.22 September 1850 Dominican Republic has an embassy in Paris and consulates-general in Marseille and Pointe-à-Pitre. France has an embassy in Santo Domingo.30 January 1885See Dominican Republic–Germany relations Dominican Republic has an embassy in Berlin. Germany has an embassy in Santo Domingo.22 March 1854See Dominican Republic–Italy relations Dominican Republic has an embassy in Rome and consulates-general in Genoa and Milan. Italy has an embassy in Santo Domingo. There are around 300,000 people of Italian descent living in the Dominican Republic (see Italian Dominicans)1881 Dominican Republic has an embassy in Rome accredited to the Holy See. Holy See has an apostolic nunciature in Santo Domingo.30 November 1853 Dominican Republic has an embassy in The Hague and consulates-general in Amsterdam, Willemstad and Philipsburg, Sint Maarten. Netherlands has an embassy in Santo Domingo.21 July 1984 Dominican Republic is accredited to Romania from its embassy in Rome, Italy. Romania is accredited to the Dominican Republic from its embassy in Bogotá, Colombia, and has an honorary consulate in Santo Domingo.8 March 1945, broken 3 January 1955, restored 18 March 1991 Russia is accredited to the Dominican Republic from its embassy in Caracas, Venezuela. Dominican Republic has an embassy in Moscow.18 February 1855See Dominican Republic–Spain relations Dominican Republic has an embassy in Madrid, consulates-general in Barcelona and Santa Cruz de Tenerife and consulates in Seville and Valencia. Spain has an embassy in Santo Domingo.28 March 1927See Dominican Republic-Switzerland relations Dominican Republic has an embassy in Bern and a consulate-general in Zürich. Switzerland has an embassy in Santo Domingo.5 March 1850The United Kingdom was the first country to recognize the Dominican Republic. Dominican Republic has an embassy in London. United Kingdom has an embassy in Santo Domingo. Multilateral relations The Dominican Republic is a founding member of the United Nations and many of its specialized and related agencies, including the World Bank, International Labour Organization, International Atomic Energy Agency, and International Civil Aviation Organization. It also is a member of the OAS, World Trade Organization, World Health Organization, World Customs Organization the Inter-American Development Bank, Central American Integration System, and ACP Group. See also List of diplomatic missions in the Dominican Republic List of diplomatic missions of the Dominican Republic References External links Dominican Ministry of Foreign Affairs	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Dominican_Republic	2025-04-05T18:28:27.079232
8072	Disease	Maladies (film)}} }} , 1882, National Gallery of Denmark ]] A disease is a particular abnormal condition that adversely affects the structure or function of all or part of an organism and is not immediately due to any external injury. Diseases are often known to be medical conditions that are associated with specific signs and symptoms. A disease may be caused by external factors such as pathogens or by internal dysfunctions. For example, internal dysfunctions of the immune system can produce a variety of different diseases, including various forms of immunodeficiency, hypersensitivity, allergies, and autoimmune disorders. In humans, disease is often used more broadly to refer to any condition that causes pain, dysfunction, distress, social problems, or death to the person affected, or similar problems for those in contact with the person. In this broader sense, it sometimes includes injuries, disabilities, disorders, syndromes, infections, isolated symptoms, deviant behaviors, and atypical variations of structure and function, while in other contexts and for other purposes these may be considered distinguishable categories. Diseases can affect people not only physically but also mentally, as contracting and living with a disease can alter the affected person's perspective on life. Death due to disease is called death by natural causes. There are four main types of disease: infectious diseases, deficiency diseases, hereditary diseases (including both genetic and non-genetic hereditary diseases), and physiological diseases. Diseases can also be classified in other ways, such as communicable versus non-communicable diseases. The deadliest diseases in humans are coronary artery disease (blood flow obstruction), followed by cerebrovascular disease and lower respiratory infections. In developed countries, the diseases that cause the most sickness overall are neuropsychiatric conditions, such as depression and anxiety. The study of disease is called pathology, which includes the study of etiology, or cause. Terminology Concepts In many cases, terms such as disease, disorder, morbidity, sickness and illness are used interchangeably; however, there are situations when specific terms are considered preferable. <!-- This ";" and ":" formatting is called a "definition list". See Help:List#List basics for more information. Please do not change the formatting unless you know what you are doing. --> ;Disease :The term disease broadly refers to any condition that impairs the normal functioning of the body. For this reason, diseases are associated with the dysfunction of the body's normal homeostatic processes. Commonly, the term is used to refer specifically to infectious diseases, which are clinically evident diseases that result from the presence of pathogenic microbial agents, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, multicellular organisms, and aberrant proteins known as prions. An infection or colonization that does not and will not produce clinically evident impairment of normal functioning, such as the presence of the normal bacteria and yeasts in the gut, or of a passenger virus, is not considered a disease. By contrast, an infection that is asymptomatic during its incubation period, but expected to produce symptoms later, is usually considered a disease. Non-infectious diseases are all other diseases, including most forms of cancer, heart disease, and genetic disease. ;Acquired disease :An acquired disease is one that began at some point during one's lifetime, as opposed to disease that was already present at birth, which is congenital disease. Acquired sounds like it could mean "caught via contagion", but it simply means acquired sometime after birth. It also sounds like it could imply secondary disease, but acquired disease can be primary disease. ;Acute disease :An acute disease is one of a short-term nature (acute); the term sometimes also connotes a fulminant nature ;Chronic condition or chronic disease :A chronic disease is one that persists over time, often for at least six months, but may also include illnesses that are expected to last for the entirety of one's natural life. ;Congenital disorder or congenital disease : A congenital disorder is one that is present at birth. It is often a genetic disease or disorder and can be inherited. It can also be the result of a vertically transmitted infection from the mother, such as HIV/AIDS. ;Genetic disease :A genetic disorder or disease is caused by one or more genetic mutations. It is often inherited, but some mutations are random and de novo. ;Hereditary or inherited disease :A hereditary disease is a type of genetic disease caused by genetic mutations that are hereditary (and can run in families) ;Iatrogenic disease :An iatrogenic disease or condition is one that is caused by medical intervention, whether as a side effect of a treatment or as an inadvertent outcome. ;Idiopathic disease :An idiopathic disease has an unknown cause or source. As medical science has advanced, many diseases with entirely unknown causes have had some aspects of their sources explained and therefore shed their idiopathic status. For example, when germs were discovered, it became known that they were a cause of infection, but particular germs and diseases had not been linked. In another example, it is known that autoimmunity is the cause of some forms of diabetes mellitus type 1, even though the particular molecular pathways by which it works are not yet understood. It is also common to know certain factors are associated with certain diseases; however, association does not necessarily imply causality. For example, a third factor might be causing both the disease, and the associated phenomenon. ;Incurable disease :A disease that cannot be cured. Incurable diseases are not necessarily terminal diseases, and sometimes a disease's symptoms can be treated sufficiently for the disease to have little or no impact on quality of life. ;Primary disease :A primary disease is a disease that is due to a root cause of illness, as opposed to secondary disease, which is a sequela, or complication that is caused by the primary disease. For example, a common cold is a primary disease, where rhinitis is a possible secondary disease, or sequela. A doctor must determine what primary disease, a cold or bacterial infection, is causing a patient's secondary rhinitis when deciding whether or not to prescribe antibiotics. ;Secondary disease :A secondary disease is a disease that is a sequela or complication of a prior, causal disease, which is referred to as the primary disease or simply the underlying cause (root cause). For example, a bacterial infection can be primary, wherein a healthy person is exposed to bacteria and becomes infected, or it can be secondary to a primary cause, that predisposes the body to infection. For example, a primary viral infection that weakens the immune system could lead to a secondary bacterial infection. Similarly, a primary burn that creates an open wound could provide an entry point for bacteria, and lead to a secondary bacterial infection. ;Terminal disease :A terminal disease is one that is expected to have the inevitable result of death. Previously, AIDS was a terminal disease; it is now incurable, but can be managed indefinitely using medications. ;Illness :The terms illness and sickness are both generally used as synonyms for disease; however, the term illness is occasionally used to refer specifically to the patient's personal experience of their disease. In this model, it is possible for a person to have a disease without being ill (to have an objectively definable, but asymptomatic, medical condition, such as a subclinical infection, or to have a clinically apparent physical impairment but not feel sick or distressed by it), and to be ill without being diseased (such as when a person perceives a normal experience as a medical condition, or medicalizes a non-disease situation in their life – for example, a person who feels unwell as a result of embarrassment, and who interprets those feelings as sickness rather than normal emotions). Symptoms of illness are often not directly the result of infection, but a collection of evolved responses – sickness behavior by the body – that helps clear infection and promote recovery. Such aspects of illness can include lethargy, depression, loss of appetite, sleepiness, hyperalgesia, and inability to concentrate. ; :A disorder is a functional abnormality or disturbance that may or may not show specific signs and symptoms. Medical disorders can be categorized into mental disorders, physical disorders, genetic disorders, emotional and behavioral disorders, and functional disorders. The term disorder is often considered more value-neutral and less stigmatizing than the terms disease or illness, and therefore is preferred terminology in some circumstances. In mental health, the term mental disorder is used as a way of acknowledging the complex interaction of biological, social, and psychological factors in psychiatric conditions; however, the term disorder is also used in many other areas of medicine, primarily to identify physical disorders that are not caused by infectious organisms, such as metabolic disorders. ;Medical condition or health condition :A medical condition or health condition is a broad concept that includes all diseases, lesions, disorders, or nonpathologic condition that normally receives medical treatment, such as pregnancy or childbirth. While the term medical condition generally includes mental illnesses, in some contexts the term is used specifically to denote any illness, injury, or disease except for mental illnesses. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), the widely used psychiatric manual that defines all mental disorders, uses the term general medical condition to refer to all diseases, illnesses, and injuries except for mental disorders. This usage is also commonly seen in the psychiatric literature. Some health insurance policies also define a medical condition as any illness, injury, or disease except for psychiatric illnesses. :As it is more value-neutral than terms like disease, the term medical condition is sometimes preferred by people with health issues that they do not consider deleterious. However, by emphasizing the medical nature of the condition, this term is sometimes rejected, such as by proponents of the autism rights movement. :The term medical condition is also a synonym for medical state, in which case it describes an individual patient's current state from a medical standpoint. This usage appears in statements that describe a patient as being in critical condition, for example. ; :Morbidity () is a diseased state, disability, or poor health due to any cause. The term may refer to the existence of any form of disease, or to the degree that the health condition affects the patient. Among severely ill patients, the level of morbidity is often measured by ICU scoring systems. Comorbidity, or co-existing disease, is the simultaneous presence of two or more medical conditions, such as schizophrenia and substance abuse. :In epidemiology and actuarial science, the term morbidity (also morbidity rate or morbidity frequency) can refer to either the incidence rate, the prevalence of a disease or medical condition, or the percentage of people who experience a given condition within a given timeframe (e.g., 20% of people will get influenza in a year). This measure of sickness is contrasted with the mortality rate of a condition, which is the proportion of people dying during a given time interval. Morbidity rates are used in actuarial professions, such as health insurance, life insurance, and long-term care insurance, to determine the premiums charged to customers. Morbidity rates help insurers predict the likelihood that an insured will contract or develop any number of specified diseases. ; Pathosis or pathology :Pathosis (plural pathoses) is synonymous with disease. The word pathology also has this sense, in which it is commonly used by physicians in the medical literature, although some editors prefer to reserve pathology to its other senses. Sometimes a slight connotative shade causes preference for pathology or pathosis implying "some [as yet poorly analyzed] pathophysiologic process" rather than disease implying "a specific disease entity as defined by diagnostic criteria being already met". This is hard to quantify denotatively, but it explains why cognitive synonymy is not invariable. ;Syndrome :A syndrome is the association of several signs and symptoms, or other characteristics that often occur together, regardless of whether the cause is known. Some syndromes such as Down syndrome are known to have only one cause (an extra chromosome at birth). Others such as Parkinsonian syndrome are known to have multiple possible causes. Acute coronary syndrome, for example, is not a single disease itself but is rather the manifestation of any of several diseases including myocardial infarction secondary to coronary artery disease. In yet other syndromes, however, the cause is unknown. A familiar syndrome name often remains in use even after an underlying cause has been found or when there are a number of different possible primary causes. Examples of the first-mentioned type are that Turner syndrome and DiGeorge syndrome are still often called by the "syndrome" name despite that they can also be viewed as disease entities and not solely as sets of signs and symptoms. ;Predisease :Predisease is a subclinical or prodromal vanguard of a disease. Prediabetes and prehypertension are common examples. The nosology or epistemology of predisease is contentious, though, because there is seldom a bright line differentiating a legitimate concern for subclinical or premonitory status and the conflict of interest–driven over-medicalization (e.g., by pharmaceutical manufacturers) or de-medicalization (e.g., by medical and disability insurers). Identifying legitimate predisease can result in useful preventive measures, such as motivating the person to get a healthy amount of physical exercise, but labeling a healthy person with an unfounded notion of predisease can result in overtreatment, such as taking drugs that only help people with severe disease or paying for treatments with a poor benefit–cost ratio. :One review proposed three criteria for predisease: :* a high risk for progression to disease making one "far more likely to develop" it than others are- for example, a pre-cancer will almost certainly turn into cancer over time :* actionability for risk reduction – for example, removal of the precancerous tissue prevents it from turning into a potentially deadly cancer :* benefit that outweighs the harm of any interventions taken – removing the precancerous tissue prevents cancer, and thus prevents a potential death from cancer. Types by body system ;Mental :Mental illness is a broad, generic label for a category of illnesses that may include affective or emotional instability, behavioral dysregulation, cognitive dysfunction or impairment. Specific illnesses known as mental illnesses include major depression, generalized anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, to name a few. Mental illness can be of biological (e.g., anatomical, chemical, or genetic) or psychological (e.g., trauma or conflict) origin. It can impair the affected person's ability to work or study and can harm interpersonal relationship. ;Organic :An organic disease is one caused by a physical or physiological change to some tissue or organ of the body. The term sometimes excludes infections. It is commonly used in contrast with mental disorders. It includes emotional and behavioral disorders if they are due to changes to the physical structures or functioning of the body, such as after a stroke or a traumatic brain injury, but not if they are due to psychosocial issues. Stages In an infectious disease, the incubation period is the time between infection and the appearance of symptoms. The latency period is the time between infection and the ability of the disease to spread to another person, which may precede, follow, or be simultaneous with the appearance of symptoms. Some viruses also exhibit a dormant phase, called viral latency, in which the virus hides in the body in an inactive state. For example, varicella zoster virus causes chickenpox in the acute phase; after recovery from chickenpox, the virus may remain dormant in nerve cells for many years, and later cause herpes zoster (shingles). ;Acute disease :An acute disease is a short-lived disease, like the common cold. ;Chronic disease :A chronic disease is one that lasts for a long time, usually at least six months. During that time, it may be constantly present, or it may go into remission and periodically relapse. A chronic disease may be stable (does not get any worse) or it may be progressive (gets worse over time). Some chronic diseases can be permanently cured. Most chronic diseases can be beneficially treated, even if they cannot be permanently cured. ;Clinical disease :One that has clinical consequences; in other words, the stage of the disease that produces the characteristic signs and symptoms of that disease. AIDS is the clinical disease stage of HIV infection. ;Cure :A cure is the end of a medical condition or a treatment that is very likely to end it, while remission refers to the disappearance, possibly temporarily, of symptoms. Complete remission is the best possible outcome for incurable diseases. ;Flare-up :A flare-up can refer to either the recurrence of symptoms or an onset of more severe symptoms. ;Progressive disease :Progressive disease is a disease whose typical natural course is the worsening of the disease until death, serious debility, or organ failure occurs. Slowly progressive diseases are also chronic diseases; many are also degenerative diseases. The opposite of progressive disease is stable disease or static disease: a medical condition that exists, but does not get better or worse. ; :A refractory disease is a disease that resists treatment, especially an individual case that resists treatment more than is normal for the specific disease in question. ;Subclinical disease :Also called silent disease, silent stage, or asymptomatic disease. This is a stage in some diseases before the symptoms are first noted. ;Terminal phase :If a person will die soon from a disease, regardless of whether that disease typically causes death, then the stage between the earlier disease process and active dying is the terminal phase. ;Recovery :Recovery can refer to the repairing of physical processes (tissues, organs etc.) and the resumption of healthy functioning after damage causing processes have been cured. Extent ;Localized disease :A localized disease is one that affects only one part of the body, such as athlete's foot or an eye infection. ;Disseminated disease :A disseminated disease has spread to other parts; with cancer, this is usually called metastatic disease. ;Systemic disease :A systemic disease is a disease that affects the entire body, such as influenza or high blood pressure. Classification Diseases may be classified by cause, pathogenesis (mechanism by which the disease is caused), or by symptoms. Alternatively, diseases may be classified according to the organ system involved, though this is often complicated since many diseases affect more than one organ. A chief difficulty in nosology is that diseases often cannot be defined and classified clearly, especially when cause or pathogenesis are unknown. Thus diagnostic terms often only reflect a symptom or set of symptoms (syndrome). Classical classification of human disease derives from the observational correlation between pathological analysis and clinical syndromes. Today it is preferred to classify them by their cause if it is known. The most known and used classification of diseases is the World Health Organization's ICD. This is periodically updated. Currently, the last publication is the ICD-11. Causes Diseases can be caused by any number of factors and may be acquired or congenital. Microorganisms, genetics, the environment or a combination of these can contribute to a diseased state. Only some diseases such as influenza are contagious and commonly believed infectious. The microorganisms that cause these diseases are known as pathogens and include varieties of bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and fungi. Infectious diseases can be transmitted, e.g. by hand-to-mouth contact with infectious material on surfaces, by bites of insects or other carriers of the disease, and from contaminated water or food (often via fecal contamination), etc. Also, there are sexually transmitted diseases. In some cases, microorganisms that are not readily spread from person to person play a role, while other diseases can be prevented or ameliorated with appropriate nutrition or other lifestyle changes. Some diseases, such as most (but not all) forms of cancer, heart disease, and mental disorders, are non-infectious diseases. Many non-infectious diseases have a partly or completely genetic basis (see genetic disorder) and may thus be transmitted from one generation to another. Social determinants of health are the social conditions in which people live that determine their health. Illnesses are generally related to social, economic, political, and environmental circumstances. Social determinants of health have been recognized by several health organizations such as the Public Health Agency of Canada and the World Health Organization to greatly influence collective and personal well-being. The World Health Organization's Social Determinants Council also recognizes Social determinants of health in poverty. When the cause of a disease is poorly understood, societies tend to mythologize the disease or use it as a metaphor or symbol of whatever that culture considers evil. For example, until the bacterial cause of tuberculosis was discovered in 1882, experts variously ascribed the disease to heredity, a sedentary lifestyle, depressed mood, and overindulgence in sex, rich food, or alcohol, all of which were social ills at the time. When a disease is caused by a pathogenic organism (e.g., when malaria is caused by Plasmodium), one should not confuse the pathogen (the cause of the disease) with disease itself. For example, West Nile virus (the pathogen) causes West Nile fever (the disease). The misuse of basic definitions in epidemiology is frequent in scientific publications. Types of causes <!-- This special list formatting is designed for definitions like these. See Help:List before changing. --> ;Airborne: An airborne disease is any disease that is caused by pathogens and transmitted through the air. ;Foodborne: Foodborne illness or food poisoning is any illness resulting from the consumption of food contaminated with pathogenic bacteria, toxins, viruses, prions or parasites. ;Infectious: Infectious diseases, also known as transmissible diseases or communicable diseases, comprise clinically evident illness (i.e., characteristic medical signs or symptoms of disease) resulting from the infection, presence and growth of pathogenic biological agents in an individual host organism. Included in this category are contagious diseases – an infection, such as influenza or the common cold, that commonly spreads from one person to another – and communicable diseases – a disease that can spread from one person to another, but does not necessarily spread through everyday contact. ;Lifestyle: A lifestyle disease is any disease that appears to increase in frequency as countries become more industrialized and people live longer, especially if the risk factors include behavioral choices like a sedentary lifestyle or a diet high in unhealthful foods such as refined carbohydrates, trans fats, or alcoholic beverages. ;Non-communicable: A non-communicable disease is a medical condition or disease that is non-transmissible. Non-communicable diseases cannot be spread directly from one person to another. Heart disease and cancer are examples of non-communicable diseases in humans. Prevention Many diseases and disorders can be prevented through a variety of means. These include sanitation, proper nutrition, adequate exercise, vaccinations and other self-care and public health measures, . Treatments Medical therapies or treatments are efforts to cure or improve a disease or other health problems. In the medical field, therapy is synonymous with the word treatment. Among psychologists, the term may refer specifically to psychotherapy or "talk therapy". Common treatments include medications, surgery, medical devices, and self-care. Treatments may be provided by an organized health care system, or informally, by the patient or family members. Preventive healthcare is a way to avoid an injury, sickness, or disease in the first place. A treatment or cure is applied after a medical problem has already started. A treatment attempts to improve or remove a problem, but treatments may not produce permanent cures, especially in chronic diseases. Cures are a subset of treatments that reverse diseases completely or end medical problems permanently. Many diseases that cannot be completely cured are still treatable. Pain management (also called pain medicine) is that branch of medicine employing an interdisciplinary approach to the relief of pain and improvement in the quality of life of those living with pain. Treatment for medical emergencies must be provided promptly, often through an emergency department or, in less critical situations, through an urgent care facility. Epidemiology Epidemiology is the study of the factors that cause or encourage diseases. Some diseases are more common in certain geographic areas, among people with certain genetic or socioeconomic characteristics, or at different times of the year. Epidemiology is considered a cornerstone methodology of public health research and is highly regarded in evidence-based medicine for identifying risk factors for diseases. In the study of communicable and non-communicable diseases, the work of epidemiologists ranges from outbreak investigation to study design, data collection, and analysis including the development of statistical models to test hypotheses and the documentation of results for submission to peer-reviewed journals. Epidemiologists also study the interaction of diseases in a population, a condition known as a syndemic. Epidemiologists rely on a number of other scientific disciplines such as biology (to better understand disease processes), biostatistics (the current raw information available), Geographic Information Science (to store data and map disease patterns) and social science disciplines (to better understand proximate and distal risk factors). Epidemiology can help identify causes as well as guide prevention efforts. In studying diseases, epidemiology faces the challenge of defining them. Especially for poorly understood diseases, different groups might use significantly different definitions. Without an agreed-on definition, different researchers may report different numbers of cases and characteristics of the disease. Some morbidity databases are compiled with data supplied by states and territories health authorities, at national levels or larger scale (such as European Hospital Morbidity Database (HMDB)) which may contain hospital discharge data by detailed diagnosis, age and sex. The European HMDB data was submitted by European countries to the World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe. Burdens of disease Disease burden is the impact of a health problem in an area measured by financial cost, mortality, morbidity, or other indicators. There are several measures used to quantify the burden imposed by diseases on people. The years of potential life lost (YPLL) is a simple estimate of the number of years that a person's life was shortened due to a disease. For example, if a person dies at the age of 65 from a disease, and would probably have lived until age 80 without that disease, then that disease has caused a loss of 15 years of potential life. YPLL measurements do not account for how disabled a person is before dying, so the measurement treats a person who dies suddenly and a person who died at the same age after decades of illness as equivalent. In 2004, the World Health Organization calculated that 932 million years of potential life were lost to premature death. In the developed world, heart disease and stroke cause the most loss of life, but neuropsychiatric conditions like major depressive disorder cause the most years lost to being sick. {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|- ! Disease category ! scope"col" style"width:10%;" \| Percent of all YPLLs lost, worldwide It is now generally regarded as a disease.]] How a society responds to diseases is the subject of medical sociology. A condition may be considered a disease in some cultures or eras but not in others. For example, obesity was associated with prosperity and abundance, and this perception persists in many African regions, especially since the beginning of the HIV/AIDS. Epilepsy is considered a sign of spiritual gifts among the Hmong people. Sickness confers the social legitimization of certain benefits, such as illness benefits, work avoidance, and being looked after by others. The person who is sick takes on a social role called the sick role. A person who responds to a dreaded disease, such as cancer, in a culturally acceptable fashion may be publicly and privately honored with higher social status. In return for these benefits, the sick person is obligated to seek treatment and work to become well once more. As a comparison, consider pregnancy, which is not interpreted as a disease or sickness, even if the mother and baby may both benefit from medical care. Most religions grant exceptions from religious duties to people who are sick. For example, one whose life would be endangered by fasting on Yom Kippur or during the month of Ramadan is exempted from the requirement, or even forbidden from participating. People who are sick are also exempted from social duties. For example, ill health is the only socially acceptable reason for an American to refuse an invitation to the White House. The identification of a condition as a disease, rather than as simply a variation of human structure or function, can have significant social or economic implications. The controversial recognition of diseases such as repetitive stress injury (RSI) and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has had a number of positive and negative effects on the financial and other responsibilities of governments, corporations, and institutions towards individuals, as well as on the individuals themselves. The social implication of viewing aging as a disease could be profound, though this classification is not yet widespread. Lepers were people who were historically shunned because they had an infectious disease, and the term "leper" still evokes social stigma. Fear of disease can still be a widespread social phenomenon, though not all diseases evoke extreme social stigma. Social standing and economic status affect health. Diseases of poverty are diseases that are associated with poverty and low social status; diseases of affluence are diseases that are associated with high social and economic status. Which diseases are associated with which states vary according to time, place, and technology. Some diseases, such as diabetes mellitus, may be associated with both poverty (poor food choices) and affluence (long lifespans and sedentary lifestyles), through different mechanisms. The term lifestyle diseases describes diseases associated with longevity and that are more common among older people. For example, cancer is far more common in societies in which most members live until they reach the age of 80 than in societies in which most members die before they reach the age of 50. Language of disease An illness narrative is a way of organizing a medical experience into a coherent story that illustrates the sick individual's personal experience. People use metaphors to make sense of their experiences with disease. The metaphors move disease from an objective thing that exists to an affective experience. The most popular metaphors draw on military concepts: Disease is an enemy that must be feared, fought, battled, and routed. The patient or the healthcare provider is a warrior, rather than a passive victim or bystander. The agents of communicable diseases are invaders; non-communicable diseases constitute internal insurrection or civil war. Because the threat is urgent, perhaps a matter of life and death, unthinkably radical, even oppressive, measures are society's and the patient's moral duty as they courageously mobilize to struggle against destruction. The War on Cancer is an example of this metaphorical use of language. This language is empowering to some patients, but leaves others feeling like they are failures. Another class of metaphors describes the experience of illness as a journey: The person travels to or from a place of disease, and changes himself, discovers new information, or increases his experience along the way. He may travel "on the road to recovery" or make changes to "get on the right track" or choose "pathways". This language is more common among British healthcare professionals than the language of physical aggression. Authors in the 19th century commonly used tuberculosis as a symbol and a metaphor for transcendence. People with the disease were portrayed in literature as having risen above daily life to become ephemeral objects of spiritual or artistic achievement. In the 20th century, after its cause was better understood, the same disease became the emblem of poverty, squalor, and other social problems.<ref name"Diedrich" /> See also * Cryptogenic disease, a disease whose cause is currently unknown * Developmental disability, severe, lifelong disabilities attributable to mental or physical impairments * Environmental disease * Host–pathogen interaction * Lists of diseases * Mitochondrial disease * Philosophy of medicine * Plant pathology * Rare disease, a disease that affects very few people * Sociology of health and illness * Syndrome References <references /> External links * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00548m0 "Man and Disease"], BBC Radio 4 discussion with Anne Hardy, David Bradley & Chris Dye (In Our Time, 15 December 2002) * [http://ctdbase.org/ CTD] The Comparative Toxicogenomics Database is a scientific resource connecting chemicals, genes, and human diseases. * [https://siteman.wustl.edu/prevention/ydr/ Free online health-risk assessment] by Your Disease Risk at Washington University in St. Louis * [https://www.cdc.gov/health-topics.html#a Health Topics A–Z], fact sheets about many common diseases at the Centers for Disease Control * [https://medlineplus.gov/healthtopics.html Health Topics], MedlinePlus descriptions of most diseases, with access to current research articles. * [https://www.nlm.nih.gov/ NLM] Comprehensive database from the US National Library of Medicine * [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/omim/ OMIM] Comprehensive information on genes that cause disease at Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man * [https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241563710 Report: The global burden of disease] from the World Health Organization (WHO), 2004 * [https://www.merckmanuals.com/home The Merck Manual] containing detailed description of most diseases Category:Medical terminology	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease	2025-04-05T18:28:27.110936
8073	Dardanelles	}} \| image = Dardanelles map2.png \| caption = Close-up topographic map of the Dardanelles \| image_bathymetry \| caption_bathymetry \| depth \| max-depth \| inflow \| outflow \| catchment \| basin_countries Turkey \| length \| width \| min_width \| islands \| etymology \| location \| pushpin_map Turkey#Europe \| pushpin_label_position \| pushpin_map_alt \| pushpin_map_caption \| coordinates \| coor_pinpoint \| part_of Turkish Straits \| alt \| type Strait \| cities \| area \| oceans \| other_name Strait of Gallipoli }} (red), the Sea of Marmara, the Aegean Sea, and the Black Sea.]] The Dardanelles ( ; ; ), also known as the Strait of Gallipoli (after the Gallipoli peninsula) and in classical antiquity as the Hellespont ( ; ), is a narrow, natural strait and internationally significant waterway in northwestern Turkey that forms part of the continental boundary between Asia and Europe and separates Asian Turkey from European Turkey. Together with the Bosporus, the Dardanelles forms the Turkish Straits. One of the world's narrowest straits used for international navigation, the Dardanelles connects the Sea of Marmara with the Aegean and Mediterranean seas while also allowing passage to the Black Sea by extension via the Bosporus. The Dardanelles is long and wide. It has an average depth of with a maximum depth of at its narrowest point abreast the city of Çanakkale. The first fixed crossing across the Dardanelles opened in 2022 with the completion of the 1915 Çanakkale Bridge. Most of the northern shores of the strait along the Gallipoli peninsula () are sparsely settled, while the southern shores along the Troad peninsula () are inhabited by the city of Çanakkale's urban population of 110,000. Names The contemporary Turkish name , meaning ' Strait', is derived from the eponymous midsize city that adjoins the strait, itself meaning 'pottery fort'—from (, 'pottery') + (, 'fortress')—in reference to the area's famous pottery and ceramic wares, and the landmark Ottoman fortress of Sultaniye. The English name Dardanelles is an abbreviation of Strait of the Dardanelles. During Ottoman times there was a castle on each side of the strait. These castles together were called the Dardanelles, probably named after Dardanus, an ancient city on the Asian shore of the strait which in turn was said to take its name from Dardanus, the mythical son of Zeus and Electra. The name comes from the Dardani in the Balkans, according to Papazoglu. The ancient Greek name () means "Sea of Helle", and was the ancient name of the narrow strait. It was variously named in classical literature , , and . It was so called from Helle, the daughter of Athamas, who was drowned here in the mythology of the Golden Fleece. Geography As a maritime waterway, the Dardanelles connects various seas along the Eastern Mediterranean, the Balkans, the Near East, and Western Eurasia, and specifically connects the Aegean Sea to the Sea of Marmara. The Marmara further connects to the Black Sea via the Bosporus, while the Aegean further links to the Mediterranean. Thus, the Dardanelles allows maritime connections from the Black Sea all the way to the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean via Gibraltar, and the Indian Ocean through the Suez Canal, making it a crucial international waterway, in particular for the passage of goods coming in from Russia. The strait is located at approximately . Present morphology The strait is long, and wide, averaging deep with a maximum depth of at its narrowest point at Nara Burnu, abreast Çanakkale. There are two major currents through the strait: a surface current flows from the Black Sea towards the Aegean Sea, and a more saline undercurrent flows in the opposite direction. The Dardanelles is unique in many respects. The very narrow and winding shape of the strait is more akin to that of a river. It is considered one of the most hazardous, crowded, difficult and potentially dangerous waterways in the world. The currents produced by the tidal action in the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara are such that ships under sail must wait at anchorage for the right conditions before entering the Dardanelles. History As part of the only passage between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, the Dardanelles has always been of great importance from a commercial and military point of view, and remains strategically important today. It is a major sea access route for numerous countries, including Russia and Ukraine. Control over it has been an objective of a number of hostilities in modern history, notably the attack of the Allied Powers on the Dardanelles during the 1915 Battle of Gallipoli in the course of World War I. Ancient Dardanian, Persian, Roman, and Byzantine eras (pre-1454) Dardanian and Persian history ' alleged "punishment" of the Hellespont]] The ancient city of Troy was located near the western entrance of the strait, and the strait's Asiatic shore was the focus of the Trojan War. Troy was able to control the marine traffic entering this vital waterway. The Persian army of Xerxes I of Persia and later the Macedonian army of Alexander the Great crossed the Dardanelles in opposite directions to invade each other's lands, in 480 BC and 334 BC respectively. Herodotus says that, circa 482 BC, Xerxes I (the son of Darius) had two pontoon bridges built across the width of the Hellespont at Abydos, in order that his huge army could cross from Persia into Greece. This crossing was named by Aeschylus in his tragedy The Persians as the cause of divine intervention against Xerxes. According to Herodotus (vv.34), both bridges were destroyed by a storm and Xerxes had those responsible for building the bridges beheaded and the strait itself whipped. The Histories of Herodotus vii.33–37 and vii.54–58 give details of building and crossing of Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges. Xerxes is then said to have thrown fetters into the strait, given it three hundred lashes with multiple whips and branded it with red-hot irons as the soldiers shouted at the water. Herodotus commented that this was a "highly presumptuous way to address the Hellespont" but in no way atypical of Xerxes. (vii.35) Harpalus the engineer is said to have eventually helped the invading armies to cross by lashing the ships together with their bows facing the current and adding two additional anchors to each ship. From the perspective of ancient Greek mythology Helle, the daughter of Athamas, supposedly was drowned at the Dardanelles in the legend of the Golden Fleece. Likewise, the strait was the scene of the legend of Hero and Leander, wherein the lovesick Leander swam the strait nightly in order to tryst with his beloved, the priestess Hero, but was ultimately drowned in a storm. Byzantine history The Dardanelles were vital to the defence of Constantinople during the Byzantine period. Also, the Dardanelles was an important source of income for the ruler of the region. At the Istanbul Archaeological Museum a marble plate contains a law by the Byzantine Emperor Anastasius I (491–518 AD), that regulated fees for passage through the customs office of the Dardanelles. Translation: <blockquote>... Whoever dares to violate these regulations shall no longer be regarded as a friend, and he shall be punished. Besides, the administrator of the Dardanelles must have the right to receive 50 golden Litrons, so that these rules, which we make out of piety, shall never ever be violated... ... The distinguished governor and major of the capital, who already has both hands full of things to do, has turned to our lofty piety in order to reorganize the entry and exit of all ships through the Dardanelles... ... Starting from our day and also in the future, anybody who wants to pass through the Dardanelles must pay the following: <br /> – All wine merchants who bring wine to the capital (Constantinopolis), except Cilicians, have to pay the Dardanelles officials 6 follis and 2 sextarius of wine. <br /> – In the same manner, all merchants of olive-oil, vegetables and lard must pay the Dardanelles officials 6 follis. Cilician sea-merchants have to pay 3 follis and in addition to that, 1 keration (12 follis) to enter, and 2 keration to exit.<br /> – All wheat merchants have to pay the officials 3 follis per modius, and a further sum of 3 follis when leaving.</blockquote> Since the 14th century the Dardanelles have almost continuously been controlled by the Turks. Ottoman era (1354–1922) ]] The Dardanelles continued to constitute an important waterway during the period of the Ottoman Empire, which conquered Gallipoli in 1354. Ottoman control of the strait continued largely without interruption or challenges until the 19th century, when the Empire started its decline. Nineteenth century Gaining control of, or guaranteed access to, the strait became a key foreign-policy goal of the Russian Empire during the 19th century. During the Napoleonic Wars, Russia—supported by Great Britain in the Dardanelles Operation—blockaded the straits in 1807. In 1833, following the Ottoman Empire's defeat in the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829, Russia pressured the Ottomans to sign the Treaty of Hunkiar Iskelesi—which required the closing of the straits to warships of non-Black Sea powers at Russia's request. That would have effectively given Russia a free hand in the Black Sea. This treaty alarmed the Ottoman Empire, who were concerned that the consequences of potential Russian expansionism in the Black Sea and Mediterranean regions could conflict with their own possessions and economic interest in the region. At the London Straits Convention in July 1841, the United Kingdom, France, Austria, and Prussia pressured Russia to agree that only Turkish warships could traverse the Dardanelles in peacetime. The United Kingdom and France subsequently sent their fleets through the straits to defend the Danube front and to attack the Crimean Peninsula during the Crimean War of 1853–1856 – but they did so as allies of the Ottoman Empire. Following the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War, the Congress of Paris in 1856 formally reaffirmed the London Straits Convention. World War I ]] ]] In 1915 the Allies sent a substantial invasion force of British, Indian, Australian, New Zealand, French and Newfoundland troops to attempt to open up the straits. In the Gallipoli campaign, Turkish troops trapped the Allies on the coasts of the Gallipoli peninsula. The campaign damaged the career of Winston Churchill, then First Lord of the Admiralty (in office 1911–1915), who had eagerly promoted the (unsuccessful) use of Royal Navy sea power to force open the straits. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, subsequent founder of the Republic of Turkey, served as an Ottoman commander during the land campaign. The Turks mined the straits to prevent Allied ships from penetrating them but, in minor actions two submarines, one British and one Australian, did succeed in penetrating the minefields. The British submarine sank an obsolete Turkish pre-dreadnought battleship off the Golden Horn of Istanbul. Sir Ian Hamilton's Mediterranean Expeditionary Force failed in its attempt to capture the Gallipoli peninsula, and the British cabinet ordered its withdrawal in December 1915, after eight months' fighting. Total Allied deaths included 41,000 British and Irish, 15,000 French, 8,700 Australians, 2,700 New Zealanders, 1,370 Indians and 49 Newfoundlanders. Total Turkish deaths were around 60,000. Following the war, the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres demilitarized the strait and made it an international territory under the control of the League of Nations. The Ottoman Empire's non-ethnically Turkish territories were broken up and partitioned among the Allied Powers, and Turkish jurisdiction over the straits curbed. Turkish republican and modern eras (1923–present) After the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire following a lengthy campaign by Turks as part of the Turkish War of Independence against both the Allied Powers and the Ottoman court, the Republic of Turkey was created in 1923 by the Treaty of Lausanne, which established most of the modern sovereign territory of Turkey and restored the straits to Turkish territory, with the condition that Turkey keep them demilitarized and allow all foreign warships and commercial shipping to traverse the straits freely. As part of its national security strategy, Turkey eventually rejected the terms of the treaty, and subsequently remilitarized the straits area over the following decade. Following extensive diplomatic negotiations, the reversion was formalized under the Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Turkish Straits on 20 July 1936. That convention, which is still in force today, treats the straits as an international shipping lane while allowing Turkey to retain the right to restrict the naval traffic of non-Black Sea states. During World War II, through February 1945, when Turkey was neutral for most of the length of the conflict, the Dardanelles were closed to the ships of the belligerent nations. Turkey declared war on Germany in February 1945, but it did not employ any offensive forces during the war. In July 1946, the Soviet Union sent a note to Turkey proposing a new régime for the Dardanelles that would have excluded all nations except the Black Sea powers. The second proposal was that the straits should be put under joint Turkish-Soviet defence. This meant that Turkey, the Soviet Union, Bulgaria and Romania would be the only states having access to the Black Sea through the Dardanelles. The Turkish government however, under pressure from the United States, rejected these proposals. Turkey joined NATO in 1952, thus affording its straits even more strategic importance as a commercial and military waterway. In more recent years, the Turkish Straits have become particularly important for the oil industry. Russian oil, from ports such as Novorossyisk, is exported by tankers primarily to western Europe and the U.S. via the Bosporus and the Dardanelles straits. The Dardanelles were closed in late February 2022 to all foreign warships at the beginning of the Russian invasion of Ukraine in accordance with the Montreux Convention. Crossings on the Dardanelles strait, connecting Europe and Asia, is the longest suspension bridge in the world.]] Maritime The waters of the Dardanelles are traversed by numerous passenger and vehicular ferries daily, as well as recreational and fishing boats ranging from dinghies to yachts owned by both public and private entities. The strait also experiences significant amounts of commercial shipping traffic. Land The Çanakkale 1915 Bridge joins Lapseki, a district of Çanakkale, on the Asian side and Sütlüce, a village of the Gelibolu district, on the European side. It is part of planned expansions to the Turkish National Highway Network. Work on the bridge began in March 2017, and it was opened on March 18, 2022. Subsea 2 submarine cable systems transmitting electric power at 400 kV bridge the Dardanelles to feed west and east of Istanbul. They have their own landing stations in Lapseki and Sütlüce. The first, situated in the northeast quarter portion of the strait, was energised in April 2015 and provides 2 GW via 6 phases 400 kV AC 3.9 km far through the sea. The second, somewhat in the middle of the strait, was still under construction in June 2016 and will provide similar capabilities to the first line. Both subsea power lines cross 4 optical fibre data lines laid earlier along the strait. A published map shows communication lines leading from Istanbul into the Mediterranean, named MedNautilus and landing at Athens, Sicily and elsewhere. Image gallery <gallery> File:Byzantine Dardanelles Customs Law.JPG\|Marble plate with 6th century AD Byzantine law regulating payment of customs in the Dardanelles File:Dardanelles and Gulf of Saros by Piri Reis.jpg\|Historic map of the Dardanelles by Piri Reis File:Anzac Beach 1915.jpg\|The ANZACs at Gallipoli in 1915 File:Graphic map of the Dardanelles.JPG\|Map of the Dardanelles drawn by G. F. Morrell, 1915, showing the Gallipoli peninsula and the west coast of Turkey, as well as the location of front line troops and landings during the Gallipoli Campaign File:Dardanellen 1.JPG\|A view of the Dardanelles from Gallipoli peninsula File:Chanakkale Turkey.jpg\|A view of Çanakkale from the Dardanelles File:ChanakkaleFerry.jpg\|Ferry line across the Dardanelles in Çanakkale File:Havadan cnk.jpg\|Aerial view of the city of Çanakkale File:Dardanelles 2021.jpg\|Dardanelles in 2021 File:Narrowest section of the Strait of Çanakkale.jpg\|The narrowest section of the Dardanelles </gallery> See also * Action of 26 June 1656 * Battle of the Dardanelles (disambiguation) * Dardanelles Commission * List of maritime incidents in the Turkish Straits References External links * [http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/canakkale_turkey Pictures of the city of Çanakkale] * [http://www.fsmitha.com/h1/map13ga.html Map of Hellespont] * [https://www.livius.org/he-hg/hellespont/hellespont.html Livius.org: Hellespont] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110726082914/http://www.gallipoli.com.tr/if_stones_could_speak/18th_march_etching.htm Monuments and memorials of the Gallipoli campaign along the Dardanelles] * [http://merhav.nli.org.il/primo-explore/search?queryany,contains,dardanelles%20maps&tabdefault_tab&search_scopeLocal&sortbylso01&vidNLI&mfacetrtype,include,maps,1&mfacettlevel,include,online_resources,2&langen_US Old Maps of the Dardanelles], Eran Laor Cartographic collection, The National Library of Israel Category:Landforms of Çanakkale Province Category:Straits of the Mediterranean Sea Category:Trojans Category:World Heritage Tentative List for Turkey Category:Straits of Turkey Category:Turkish Straits Category:Important Bird Areas of Turkey	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dardanelles	2025-04-05T18:28:27.129576
8074	Daugava	\| image = Fluss-lv-Düna.png \| image_caption = The drainage basin of the Daugava \| pushpin_map \| pushpin_map_size \| pushpin_map_caption \| pushpin_map_alt \| mapframe = yes \| mapframe-zoom = 4 \| source1 = Valdai Hills \| source1_location = Penovsky District, Tver Oblast, Russia \| source1_coordinates \| source1_elevation \| mouth = Gulf of Riga \| mouth_location = Riga, Latvia \| mouth_coordinates \| mouth_elevation \| subdivision_type1 = Country \| subdivision_name1 = Belarus, Latvia, Russia \| subdivision_type2 = Cities \| subdivision_name2 = \| length_km = 1020 \| length_ref \| discharge1_avg \| basin_size_km2 = 87900 \| basin_size_ref }} also known as the Western Dvina; }} or the Väina River,; }} is a large river rising in the Valdai Hills of Russia that flows through Belarus and Latvia into the Gulf of Riga of the Baltic Sea. The Daugava rises close to the source of the Volga. It is in length, and in Russia. It is a westward-flowing river, tracing out a great south-bending curve as it passes through northern Belarus. Latvia's capital, Riga, bridges the river's estuary four times. Built on both riverbanks, the city centre is from the river's mouth and is a significant port. Etymology in Latvia]] According to Max Vasmer's Etymological Dictionary, the toponym Dvina cannot stem from a Uralic language; instead, it possibly comes from an Indo-European word which used to mean 'river' or 'stream'. The name Dvina strongly resembles Danuvius which is itself derived from the Proto-Indo-European dānu, meaning 'large river'. The Finno-Ugric names (Livonian), (Estonian), and (Finnish) all stem from Proto-Finnic väin, which roughly translates to 'a large, peacefully rolling river'. Geography The total catchment area of the river is , of which are in Belarus. In medieval times, the Daugava was part of the trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks, an important route for the transport of furs from the north and of Byzantine silver from the south. The Riga area, inhabited by the Finnic-speaking Livs, became a key location of settlement and defence of the mouth of the Daugava at least as early as the Middle Ages, as evidenced by the now destroyed fort at Torņakalns on the west bank of the Daugava in present-day Riga. From the end of the Livonian War great part of the Daugava formed the northeastern border of Duchy of Courland and Semigallia saparating it initially from the Kingdom of Livonia, later Swedish Livonia and Riga Governorate. After the incorporation later in the Russian Empire the river formed a border between governorates of Courland on the western bank and Livonia and Vitebsk on the eastern bank. From 1936 to 1939 Ķegums Hydroelectric Power Station was built on the Daugava river in Latvia. Pļaviņas Hydroelectric Power Station was put into operation in 1968 and Riga Hydroelectric Power Plant in 1974. Settlements ]] The following are some of the cities and towns built along the Daugava: Russia Belarus Latvia Environment The river began experiencing environmental deterioration in the Soviet era due to collective agriculture (producing considerable adverse water pollution runoff) and hydroelectric power projects. This is the river that the Vula river flows into. Water quality Upstream of the Latvian town of Jekabpils, the river's pH has a characteristic value of about 7.8 (slight alkaline). In this area, the concentration of ionic calcium is around 43 milligrams per liter, nitrate is about 0.82 milligrams per liter, ionic phosphate is 0.038 milligrams per liter, and oxygen saturation is 80%. The high nitrate and phosphate load of the Daugava has contributed to the extensive buildup of phytoplankton biomass in the Baltic Sea; the Oder and Vistula rivers also contribute to the high nutrient loading of the Baltic. In Belarus, water pollution of the Daugava is considered moderately severe, with the chief sources being treated wastewater, fish-farming, and agricultural chemical runoff (such as herbicides, pesticides, nitrates, and phosphates). Notes References Further reading * Francis W. Carter and David Turnock. 2002. Environmental problems of East Central Europe. 442 pages Google eBook External links * [https://www.flickr.com/photos/liveriga/galleries/72157626453522628/ Daugava River photos] at flickr Category:International rivers of Europe Category:Rivers of Belarus Category:Rivers of Latvia Category:Gulf of Riga Category:Rivers of Smolensk Oblast Category:Rivers of Tver Oblast Category:Rivers of Vitebsk region Category:Belarus–Latvia border	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daugava	2025-04-05T18:28:27.139750

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