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8470	David Ricardo	1821 \| office = Member of Parliament <br />for Portarlington \| term_start = 20 February 1819 \| term_end = 11 September 1823 \| predecessor = Richard Sharp \| successor = James Farquhar \| birth_date \| birth_place = London, England \| death_date \| death_place = Gatcombe Park, Gloucestershire, England \| nationality = British \| party = Whig \| children = Including David the Younger \| profession = \| module Ibn Khaldun Smith \| contributions = Ricardian equivalence, labour theory of value, comparative advantage, law of diminishing returns, Ricardian socialism, Economic rent}} }} David Ricardo (18 April 1772 – 11 September 1823) was a British political economist, politician, and member of Parliament. He is recognized as one of the most influential classical economists, alongside figures such as Thomas Malthus, Adam Smith and James Mill. Ricardo was born in London as the third surviving child of a successful stockbroker and his wife. He came from a Sephardic Jewish family of Portuguese origin. At 21, he eloped with a Quaker and converted to Unitarianism, causing estrangement from his family. He made his fortune financing government borrowing and later retired to an estate in Gloucestershire. Ricardo served as High Sheriff of Gloucestershire and bought a seat in Parliament as an earnest reformer. He was friends with prominent figures like James Mill, Jeremy Bentham, and Thomas Malthus, engaging in debates over various topics. Ricardo was also a member of The Geological Society, and his youngest sister was an author. As MP for Portarlington, Ricardo advocated for liberal political movements and reforms, including free trade, parliamentary reform, and criminal law reform. He believed free trade increased the well-being of people by making goods more affordable. Ricardo notably opposed the Corn Laws, which he saw as barriers to economic growth. His friend John Louis Mallett described Ricardo's conviction in his beliefs, though he expressed doubts about Ricardo's disregard for experience and practice. Ricardo died at 51 from an ear infection that led to septicaemia (sepsis). He left behind a considerable fortune and a lasting legacy, with his free trade views eventually becoming public policy in Britain. Ricardo wrote his first economics article at age 37, advocating for a reduction in the note-issuing of the Bank of England. He was also an abolitionist and believed in the autonomy of a central bank as the issuer of money. Ricardo worked on fixing issues in Adam Smith's labour theory of value, stating that the value of a commodity depends on the labour necessary for its production. He contributed to the development of theories of rent, wages, and profits, defining rent as the difference between the produce obtained by employing equal quantities of capital and labour. Ricardo's Theory of Profit posited that as real wages increase, real profits decrease due to the revenue split between profits and wages. Ricardian theory of international trade challenges the mercantilist concept of accumulating gold or silver by promoting industry specialization and free trade. Ricardo introduced the concept of "comparative advantage", suggesting that nations should concentrate resources only in industries where they have the greatest efficiency of production relative to their own alternative uses of resources. He argued that international trade is always beneficial, even if one country is more competitive in every area than its trading counterpart. Ricardo opposed protectionism for national economies and was concerned about the short-term impact of technological change on labour. Personal life Born in London, England, Ricardo was the third surviving of the 17 children of successful stockbroker Abraham Israel Ricardo (1733?–1812) and Abigail (1753–1801), daughter of Abraham Delvalle (also "del Valle"), of a respectable Sephardic Jewish family that had been settled in England for three generations as "small but prosperous" tobacco and snuff merchants, and had obtained British citizenship. Abigail's sister, Rebecca, was wife of the engraver Wilson Lowry, and mother of the engraver Joseph Wilson Lowry and the geologist, mineralogist, and author Delvalle Lowry. The Ricardo family were Sephardic Jews of Portuguese origin who had recently relocated from the Dutch Republic. This religious difference resulted in estrangement from his family, and he was led to adopt a position of independence. His father disowned him and his mother apparently never spoke to him again. Following this estrangement he went into business for himself with the support of Lubbocks and Forster, an eminent banking house. He made the bulk of his fortune by profitably financing Government borrowing. A popular story states that he made his fortune as a result of speculation on the outcome of the Battle of Waterloo: in Ricardo's obituary, published on 14 September 1823,The Sunday Times reported that during the battle Ricardo "netted upwards of a million sterling", a huge sum at the time, and this was later popularised by the economist Paul Samuelson. In reality, Ricardo was already very rich, and in June 1815, sold his latest government stock before the result of the battle was known in London, missing half of the rise. He subsequently purchased Gatcombe Park, an estate in Gloucestershire, and retired to the country. He was appointed High Sheriff of Gloucestershire for 1818–19. In August 1818 he bought Lord Portarlington's seat in Parliament for £4,000, as part of the terms of a loan of £25,000. His record in Parliament was that of an earnest reformer. He held the seat until his death five years later. Ricardo was a close friend of James Mill. Other notable friends included Jeremy Bentham and Thomas Malthus, with whom Ricardo had a considerable debate (in correspondence) over such things as the role of landowners in a society. He also was a member of Malthus' Political Economy Club, and a member of the King of Clubs. He was one of the original members of The Geological Society. He grew his wealth dealing in securities during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars. As the Napoleonic Wars waged on, Ricardo developed a disdain for the Corn Laws imposed by the British to encourage exports. Notably, government intervention in the grain trade can be traced as far back as the 1400s; and thereafter trade was controlled, regulated, and taxed. Meanwhile, England developed a capitalist economy involving workers and landlords generating and consuming incomes and capital accumulations that depended entirely on capitalists’ profits, and these key economic elements were under perpetual pressure during the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Political reform was needed as agricultural output was struggling to keep pace with population growth. The Corn Laws imposed barriers to imports that increased subsistence/consumption costs and triggered demand for higher wages. Higher wages reduced profits for agricultural producers, and had the immediate effects of reducing capital investments and slowing the growth of a nation's economy. Rising rents, attributed by Ricardo to the Corn Laws, came at the expense of the economic profits of nations. For David Ricardo, free trade was ever the answer; he envisioned Britain as importing agriculture products in exchange for exporting manufactured goods. Eventually, after his death, the interventionist laws were repealed, and his free trade views became public policy in Britain. Of David Ricardo, his friend John Louis Mallett commented: " … he meets you upon every subject that he has studied with a mind made up, and opinions in the nature of mathematical truths. He spoke of parliamentary reform and ballot as a man who would bring such things about, and destroy the existing system tomorrow, if it were in his power, and without the slightest doubt on the result … It is this very quality of the man’s mind, his entire disregard of experience and practice, which makes me doubtful of his opinions on political economy." Death and legacy Ten years after retiring and four years after entering Parliament, Ricardo died at 51 from an infection of the middle ear that spread into his brain and induced septicaemia. He and his wife Priscilla had eight children together including Osman Ricardo (1795–1881, MP for Worcester 1847–1865), David Ricardo (1803–1864, MP for Stroud 1832–1833) and Mortimer Ricardo, who served as an officer in the Life Guards and was a deputy lieutenant for Oxfordshire. Ricardo is buried in an ornate grave in the churchyard of Saint Nicholas in Hardenhuish, now a suburb of Chippenham, Wiltshire. At the time of his death, his assets were estimated at £675,000–£775,000. He was also an abolitionist, speaking at a meeting of the Court of the East India Company in March 1823, where he said he regarded slavery as a stain on the character of the nation. Banking Adam Smith argued that free commercial banking, such as the banking system in Scotland which had no central bank when Wealth of Nations was written in 1776, was favourable to economic growth. Writing just a few decades later, Ricardo argued for a central bank, a cause that was taken up by his students, including John Stuart Mill, who was known to favour the laissez-faire policies in every place but banking. Ricardo wrote the Plan for the Establishment of a National Bank (published posthumously in 1824), which argued for the autonomy of the central bank as the issuer of money. Ricardo proposed that a ratio of gold and Treasury bills, and a fixed claim (asset) against the government, would secure the central bank's liquidity: <blockquote>The public, or the Government on behalf of the public, is indebted to the Bank in a sum of money larger than the whole amount of Bank notes in circulation; for the Government not only owes the Bank fifteen million, its original capital, which is lent at 3 per cent. interest, but also many more millions which are advanced on Exchequer bills, on half-pay and pension annuities, and on other securities. It is evident, therefore, that if the Government itself were to be the sole issuer of paper money instead of borrowing it of the Bank, the only difference would be with respect to the interest: the Bank would no longer receive interest and the Government would no longer pay it; but all other classes in the community would be exactly in the same position in which they now stand.</blockquote> Ricardo was a man of many trades, economically and financially speaking. Ricardo was able to recognize and identify the problem presented through banking within regulations and debauched standards of approval at certain times. Ricardo knew that banks in rural areas as well as the Bank of England had increased note lending and overall lending in 1810. Through this, Ricardo proved subsequent changes in price level through the market was also affected and thus new regulations needed to be made available. Furthermore, Ricardo was able to understand and distinguish the socioeconomic makeup that created and established parameters around different classes within the economy. Ricardo advocated for the productive powers of labour to be held in high concern as the most influential of devices that played a role in the progression of the American Economy along with others. In addition, Ricardo made notable advancements in the concept build involving reactions in the open market when considering banking altercations, stock investments, or other considerable impacting events. Ricardo wanted to establish a firm ground between the bank and the control over monetary policy because there was power within the banking system that Ricardo believed needed to be considered carefully. In 1816, Ricardo said “In the present state of the law, they have the power, without any control whatever, of increasing or reducing the circulation in any degree they may think proper: a power which should neither be entrusted to the State itself, nor to anybody in it; as there can be no security for the uniformity in the value of the currency, when its augmentation or diminution depends solely on the will of the issuers.” Ricardo felt the circulation of money and the decision behind how much is available at any time should not be entrusted to either the State, or any individual. Ricardo argued for the most even distribution possible with the highest control readily available. Value theory David Ricardo worked to fix the issues he felt were most concerning with Adam Smith’s Labour Theory of Value. Both men worked with the assumption that land, labour, and capital were the three basic factors of production. However, Smith narrowed in on labour as the determinant of value. Ricardo believes that with production having three factors it is impossible for only one of them to determine value on its own. Ricardo illustrates his point by adapting Smith's deer-beaver analogy to show that even when labour is the only factor of production the hardship and tools of the labour will drive a wedge in the relative value of the good. Due to his criticisms of the Labour Theory of Value George Stigler called his theory a "93% labor theory of value". Ricardo's most famous work is his Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (1817). He advanced a labour theory of value: <blockquote>The value of a commodity, or the quantity of any other commodity for which it will exchange, depends on the relative quantity of labour which is necessary for its production, and not on the greater or less compensation which is paid for that labour.</blockquote> Ricardo's note to Section VI: <blockquote>Mr. Malthus appears to think that it is a part of my doctrine, that the cost and value of a thing be the same;—it is, if he means by cost, "cost of production" including profit.</blockquote> Rent Ricardo contributed to the development of theories of rent, wages, and profits. He defined rent as "the difference between the produce obtained by the employment of two equal quantities of capital and labour." Ricardo believed that the process of economic development, which increased land use and eventually led to the cultivation of poorer land, principally benefited landowners. According to Ricardo, such premium over "real social value" that is reaped due to ownership constitutes value to an individual but is at best a paper monetary return to "society". The portion of such purely individual benefit that accrues to scarce resources Ricardo labels "rent". In particular, Ricardo postulates that rent is a result of increased populations which results in assets growing scarce and in some cases diminished returns of which were once abundant. Ricardo breaks down this premise by first supposing there are three fields of land - No. 1, 2, 3, - to yield corn, with an equal employment of capital and labour. Initially land No.1 is cultivated and is very productive as measured through the abundant surplus. Over time this abundant surplus becomes diminished as the result of an increase in population, which subsequently creates an increased demand for food. The less desired land, No.2, must now be cultivated and eventually so must land No.3 and so on and so forth. For Ricardo each new cultivated results in diminished surplus as the quality of land fails to yield the equal of that before it. In light of such diminishing surplus landowners see opportunities to charge rent as a means to compensate for the loss of returns on output. In studying rents, for example, Ricardo experiments numerically to determine the relative share of profit accruing to land owner, capital holder and laborers through what Morgan calls 'numerical model farming'. In his numerical and verbal accounts Ricardo tests different improvements in capital, technology or labour to increase the yield of a farm, paralleling actual experiments run by his contemporaries such as "Turnip" Townshend. that is in those industries in which it has the greatest efficiency of production relative to its own alternative uses of resources, rather than industries where it holds a competitive edge compared to rival nations. Ricardo suggested that national industries which were, in fact, mildly profitable and marginally internationally competitive should be jettisoned in favour of the industries that made the best use of limited resources—the assumption being that subsequent economic growth due to better resource use would more than offset any short-run economic dislocation which would result from closing mildly profitable and marginally competitive national industries. Ricardo attempted to prove theoretically that international trade is always beneficial. Paul Samuelson called the numbers used in Ricardo's example dealing with trade between England and Portugal the "four magic numbers". "In spite of the fact that the Portuguese could produce both cloth and wine with less amount of labour, Ricardo suggested that both countries would benefit from trade with each other". As for recent extensions of Ricardian models, see Ricardian trade theory extensions. Comparative advantage Ricardo's theory of international trade was reformulated by John Stuart Mill in 1844. The term "comparative advantage" was introduced by J. S. Mill and his contemporaries. John Stuart Mill started a neoclassical turn of international trade theory, i.e. his formulation was inherited by Alfred Marshall and others, and has both contributed to the resurrection of the anti-Ricardian concept of law of supply and demand, and induced the arrival of neoclassical theory of value. New interpretation Ricardo's four magic numbers have long been interpreted as comparison of two ratios of labour (or other input in fixed supply) coefficients. This interpretation is now considered as overly simplistic by modern economists. The point was rediscovered by Roy J. Ruffin in 2002 and re-examined and explained in detail in Andrea Maneschi in 2004. The more flexible approach is now known as the new interpretation, despite having been previously mentioned by Piero Sraffa in 1930 and by Kenzo Yukizawa in 1974. The new interpretation affords a totally new reading of Ricardo's Principles of Political Economy and Taxation with regards to trade theory, although it does not change the mathematics of optimal resource allocation. Protectionism Like Adam Smith, Ricardo was an opponent of protectionism for national economies, especially for agriculture. He believed that the British "Corn Laws"—imposing tariffs on agricultural products—ensured that less-productive domestic land would be cultivated and rents would be driven up . Thus, profits would be directed toward landlords and away from the emerging industrial capitalists. Ricardo believed landlords tended to squander their wealth on luxuries, rather than invest. He believed the Corn Laws were leading to the stagnation of the British economy. In 1846, his nephew John Lewis Ricardo, MP for Stoke-upon-Trent, advocated free trade and the repeal of the Corn Laws. Modern empirical analysis of the Corn Laws yields mixed results. Parliament repealed the Corn Laws in 1846. Technological change Ricardo was concerned about the impact of technological change on labour in the short-term. In 1821, he wrote that he had become "convinced that the substitution of machinery for human labour, is often very injurious to the interests of the class of labourers", and that "the opinion entertained by the labouring class, that the employment of machinery is frequently detrimental to their interests, is not founded on prejudice and error, but is conformable to the correct principles of political economy." Criticism of the Ricardian theory of trade Ricardo himself was the first to recognize that comparative advantage is a domain-specific theory, meaning that it applies only when certain conditions are met. Ricardo noted that the theory applies only in situations where capital is immobile. Regarding his famous example, he wrote: <blockquote>it would undoubtedly be advantageous to the capitalists [and consumers] of England... [that] the wine and cloth should both be made in Portugal [and that] the capital and labour of England employed in making cloth should be removed to Portugal for that purpose. </blockquote> Ricardo recognized that applying his theory in situations where capital was mobile would result in offshoring, and thereby economic decline and job loss. To correct for this, he argued that (i) "most men of property [will be] satisfied with a low rate of profits in their own country, rather than seek[ing] a more advantageous employment for their wealth in foreign nations", and (ii) capital was functionally immobile. Critics also argue that Ricardo's theory of comparative advantage is flawed in that it assumes production is continuous and absolute. In the real world, events outside the realm of human control (e.g. natural disasters) can disrupt production. In this case, specialisation could cripple a country that depends on imports from foreign, naturally disrupted countries. For example, if an industrially based country trades its manufactured goods with an agrarian country in exchange for agricultural products, a natural disaster in the agricultural country (e.g. drought) may cause the industrially based country to starve. As Joan Robinson pointed out, following the opening of free trade with England, Portugal endured centuries of economic underdevelopment: "the imposition of free trade on Portugal killed off a promising textile industry and left her with a slow-growing export market for wine, while for England, exports of cotton cloth led to accumulation, mechanisation and the whole spiralling growth of the industrial revolution". Robinson argued that Ricardo's example required that economies be in static equilibrium positions with full employment and that there could not be a trade deficit or a trade surplus. These conditions, she wrote, were not relevant to the real world. She also argued that Ricardo's math did not take into account that some countries may be at different levels of development and that this raised the prospect of 'unequal exchange' which might hamper a country's development, as we saw in the case of Portugal. The development economist Ha-Joon Chang challenges the argument that free trade benefits every country: <blockquote><div> Ricardo’s theory is absolutely right—within its narrow confines. His theory correctly says that, accepting their current levels of technology as given, it is better for countries to specialize in things that they are relatively better at. One cannot argue with that. His theory fails when a country wants to acquire more advanced technologies—that is, when it wants to develop its economy. It takes time and experience to absorb new technologies, so technologically backward producers need a period of protection from international competition during this period of learning. Such protection is costly, because the country is giving up the chance to import better and cheaper products. However, it is a price that has to be paid if it wants to develop advanced industries. Ricardo’s theory is, thus seen, for those who accept the status quo but not for those who want to change it. </div></blockquote> Ricardian equivalence Another idea associated with Ricardo is Ricardian equivalence, an argument suggesting that in some circumstances a government's choice of how to pay for its spending (i.e., whether to use tax revenue or issue debt and run a deficit) might have no effect on the economy. This is due to the fact the public saves its excess money to pay for expected future tax increases that will be used to pay off the debt. Ricardo notes that the proposition is theoretically implied in the presence of intertemporal optimisation by rational taxpayers: but that since taxpayers do not act so rationally, the proposition fails to be true in practice. Thus, while the proposition bears his name, he does not seem to have believed it. Economist Robert Barro is responsible for its modern prominence. Influence and intellectual legacy David Ricardo's ideas had a tremendous influence on later developments in economics. US economists rank Ricardo as the second most influential economic thinker, behind Adam Smith, prior to the twentieth century. Ricardian socialists Despite his laissez-faire capitalist views, Ricardo's writings fascinated a number of early socialists in the 1820s, who thought his value theory had radical implications. They argued that, in view of labour theory of value, labour produces the entire product, and the profits capitalists get are a result of exploitations of workers. These include Thomas Hodgskin, William Thompson, John Francis Bray, and Percy Ravenstone. Georgists Georgists believe that rent, in the sense that Ricardo used, belongs to the community as a whole. Henry George was greatly influenced by Ricardo, and often cited him, including in his most famous work, Progress and Poverty from 1879. In the preface to the fourth edition he wrote: "What I have done in this book, if I have correctly solved the great problem I have sought to investigate, is, to unite the truth perceived by the school of Smith and Ricardo to the truth perceived by the school of Proudhon and Lasalle; to show that laissez faire (in its full true meaning) opens the way to a realization of the noble dreams of socialism; to identify social law with moral law, and to disprove ideas which in the minds of many cloud grand and elevating perceptions." Neo-Ricardians After the rise of the 'neoclassical' school, Ricardo's influence declined temporarily. It was Piero Sraffa, the editor of the Collected Works of David Ricardo and the author of seminal Production of Commodities by Means of Commodities, who resurrected Ricardo as the originator of another strand of economic thought, which was effaced with the arrival of the neoclassical school. The new interpretation of Ricardo and Sraffa's criticism against the marginal theory of value gave rise to a new school, now named neo-Ricardian or Sraffian school. Major contributors to this school include Luigi Pasinetti (1930–2023), Pierangelo Garegnani (1930–2011), Ian Steedman (1941–), Geoffrey Harcourt (1931–2021), Heinz Kurz (1946–), Neri Salvadori (1951–), Pier Paolo Saviotti (–) among others. See also Neo-Ricardianism. The Neo-Ricardian school is sometimes seen to be a component of Post-Keynesian economics. Neo-Ricardian trade theory Inspired by Piero Sraffa, a new strand of trade theory emerged and was named neo-Ricardian trade theory. The main contributors include Ian Steedman and Stanley Metcalfe. They have criticised neoclassical international trade theory, namely the Heckscher–Ohlin model on the basis that the notion of capital as primary factor has no method of measuring it before the determination of profit rate (thus trapped in a logical vicious circle). This was a second round of the Cambridge capital controversy, this time in the field of international trade. Depoortère and Ravix judge that neo-Ricardian contribution failed without giving effective impact on neoclassical trade theory, because it could not offer "a genuine alternative approach from a classical point of view."Evolutionary growth theorySeveral distinctive groups have sprung out of the neo-Ricardian school. One is the evolutionary growth theory, developed notably by Luigi Pasinetti, J.S. Metcalfe, Pier Paolo Saviotti, and Koen Frenken and others. Pasinetti argued that the demand for any commodity came to stagnate and frequently decline, demand saturation occurs. Introduction of new commodities (goods and services) is necessary to avoid economic stagnation. Contemporary theories Ricardo's idea was even expanded to the case of continuum of goods by Dornbusch, Fischer, and Samuelson This formulation is employed for example by Matsuyama and others. Ricardian trade theory ordinarily assumes that the labour is the unique input. This is a deficiency as intermediate goods occupies now a great part of international trade. The situation changed after the appearance of Yoshinori Shiozawa's work of 2007. He has succeeded to incorporate traded input goods in his model. His theory became more useful by the discovery of new definition of regular international values (a couple of wage rates for countries and prices for products), because it is not defined as the normal vector at a facet of world production possibility set, which is the set where all countries enjoy full employment. The new definition is given in Shiozawa and Fujimoto (2018) and in Shiozawa (2020). Bardhan and Jafee found that intermediate inputs occupy 37 to 38% in the imports to the US for the years from 1992 to 1997, whereas the percentage of intrafirm trade grew from 43% in 1992 to 52% in 1997. Unequal exchange Chris Edward includes Emmanuel's unequal exchange theory among variations of neo-Ricardian trade theory. Arghiri Emmanuel argued that the Third World is poor because of the international exploitation<!-- not clear what kind of exploitation is being described here? is he talking about slave conditions in Sudan? or the entering into of exchange at wages lower than those of particular other countries/cities? or what? --> of labour.<!-- with no url and no page number, it is difficult to verify this source --> The unequal exchange theory of trade has been influential to the (new) dependency theory.Publications Ricardo's publications included: * [https://archive.org/details/highpriceofbulli10rica/page/n5/mode/2up The High Price of Bullion, a Proof of the Depreciation of Bank Notes] (1810), which advocated the adoption of a metallic currency. * Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock (1815), which argued that repealing the Corn Laws would distribute more wealth to the productive members of society. * On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (1817), an analysis that concluded that land rent grows as population increases. It also clearly laid out the theory of comparative advantage, which argued that all nations could benefit from free trade, even if a nation was less efficient at producing all kinds of goods than its trading partners. * His works and writings were collected in (11 volumes) See also * Critique of political economy References Citations Sources * * Samuel Hollander (1979). The Economics of David Ricardo. University of Toronto Press. * G. de Vivo (1987). "Ricardo, David", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 4, pp. 183–198. * * Éric Pichet, [https://web.archive.org/web/20071012163459/http://www.lesiecle.fr/economiste_david_riccarddo.html ''David RICARDO, le premier théoricien de l'économie], Les éditions du siècle, 2004. Further reading * * External links * * * * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070315092648/http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/ricardo.htm Biography] at New School University * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060502201750/http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/stead.ricardo Biography] at EH.net (Encyclopedia of Economic History) * [http://www.economics.soton.ac.uk/staff/aldrich/ricardoindex.htm Ricardo on Value: the Three Chapter Ones]. A presentation tracing the changes in the Principles''' (University of Southampton). Category:1772 births Category:1823 deaths Category:Ricardo family Category:19th-century British economists Category:19th-century English writers Category:British classical liberal economists Category:British liberal politicians Category:British people of Portuguese-Jewish descent Category:Burials in Wiltshire Category:Converts to Nontrinitarianism from Judaism Category:Converts to Unitarianism from Judaism Category:English economists Category:English financial businesspeople Category:English investors Category:English Sephardi Jews Category:English people of Portuguese-Jewish descent Category:English stockbrokers Category:English stock traders Category:English Unitarians Category:High sheriffs of Gloucestershire Category:International economists Category:Jewish British politicians Category:Jewish British scientists Category:Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Portarlington Category:Trade economists Category:UK MPs 1818–1820 Category:UK MPs 1820–1826 Category:Utilitarians	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Ricardo	2025-04-05T18:28:37.929466
8471	Delphinus	Delfínus, genitive \| symbolism = dolphin \| RA to \| dec to The second story tells of the Greek poet Arion of Lesbos (7th century BC), who was saved by a dolphin. He was a court musician at the palace of Periander, ruler of Corinth. Arion had amassed a fortune during his travels to Sicily and Italy. On his way home from Tarentum his wealth caused the crew of his ship to conspire against him. Threatened with death, Arion asked to be granted a last wish which the crew granted: he wanted to sing a dirge. This he did, and while doing so, flung himself into the sea. There, he was rescued by a dolphin which had been charmed by Arion's music. The dolphin carried Arion to the coast of Greece and left.In non-Western astronomy In Chinese astronomy, the stars of Delphinus are located within the Black Tortoise of the North (北方玄武, Běi Fāng Xuán Wǔ). In Polynesia, two cultures recognized Delphinus as a constellation. In Pukapuka, it was called Te Toloa and in the Tuamotus, it was called Te Uru-o-tiki. In Hindu astrology, the Delphinus corresponds to the Nakshatra, or lunar mansion, of Dhanishta. Characteristics Delphinus is bordered by Vulpecula to the north, Sagitta to the northwest, Aquila to the west and southwest, Aquarius to the southeast, Equuleus to the east and Pegasus to the east. The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the IAU in 1922, is "Del". The official constellation boundaries, as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of 14 segments. In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between and . 241 light-years from Earth. It is a spectroscopic binary. It is officially named Sualocin. The star has an absolute magnitude of -0.4. Beta Delphini is officially called Rotanev. The gap between its close binary stars is visible from large amateur telescopes. To the unaided eye, it appears to be a white star of magnitude 3.6. Delta Delphini is a type A-type star of magnitude 4.43. It is a spectroscopic binary, and both stars are Delta Scuti variables. Epsilon Delphini, Deneb Dulfim (lit. "tail [of the] Dolphin"), or Aldulfin, is a star of stellar class B6 III. Its magnitude is variable at around 4.03. Zeta Delphini, an A3Va , Delphinus, Sagitta, and the summer Milky Way as seen in Dark-sky preserve Westhavelland]] Rho Aquilae at magnitude 4.94 Due to its proper motion it has been in the (round-figure parameter) bounds of the constellation since 1992. It is an A-type main sequence star with a lower metallicity than the Sun. HR Delphini was a nova that brightened to magnitude 3.5 in December 1967. It took an unusually long time for the nova to reach peak brightness which indicate that it barely satisfied the conditions for a thermonuclear runaway. Another nova by the name V339 Delphini was detected in 2013; it peaked at magnitude 4.3 and was the first nova observed to produce lithium. Musica, also known by its Flamsteed designation 18 Delphini, is one of the five stars with known planets located in Delphinus. It has a spectral type of G6 III. Arion, the planet, is a very dense and massive planet with a mass at least 10.3 times greater than Jupiter. Arion was part of the first NameExoWorlds contest where the public got the opportunity to suggest names for exoplanets and their host stars. Exoplanets In 2024 the planet TOI-6883 b was discovered in the constellation Delphinus. It has a 16.249 day orbital period around its host star, a radius 1.08 times Jupiter's, and a mass 4.34 times Jupiter's. It has an orbital period of 7.8458 days, a radius of 0.7 times Jupiter's, and a third of Jupiter's mass. The Neptunian-size planet was discovered from an abnormality from data retrieved from TOI-6883 c. Deep-sky objects Its rich Milky Way star field means many modestly deep-sky objects. NGC 6891 is a planetary nebula of magnitude 10.5; another is NGC 6905 or the Blue Flash Nebula. The Blue Flash Nebula shows broad emission lines. The central star in NGC 6905 has a spectral of WO2, meaning it is rich in oxygen. NGC 6934 is a globular cluster of magnitude 9.75. It is about 52,000 light-years away from the Solar System. It is in the Shapley-Sawyer Concentration Class VIII and is thought to share a common origin with another globular cluster in Boötes. It has an intermediate metallicity for a globular cluster, but as of 2018 it has been poorly studied. At a distance of about 137,000 light-years,<ref nameapj670_1_363 /> the globular cluster NGC 7006 is at the outer reaches of the galaxy. It is also fairly dim at magnitude 11.5 and is in Class I.<ref nameShapleySawyer />See also* Delphinus (Chinese astronomy)NotesCitationsReferences * * Princeton University Press, Princeton. . <!-- Source of values for stars: www.alcyone.de; mainly from catalogues BSC/HR --> <!-- Source of values for "nebulae": mainly RNGC --> University of Wisconsin, [http://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Delphinus.html "Delphinus"] External links [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/delphinus/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Delphinus] * [http://astrojan.nhely.hu/delphin.htm The clickable Delphinus] * [http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/delphinus.html Star Tales – Delphinus] * [https://iconographic.warburg.sas.ac.uk/category/vpc-taxonomy-017054 Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (medieval and early modern images of Delphinus)] Category:Constellations Category:Northern constellations Category:Constellations listed by Ptolemy Category:Legendary mammals Category:Articles containing video clips	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delphinus	2025-04-05T18:28:37.951180
8472	Disk storage	Disk storage (also sometimes called drive storage) is a data storage mechanism based on a rotating disk. The recording employs various electronic, magnetic, optical, or mechanical changes to the disk's surface layer. A disk drive is a device implementing such a storage mechanism. Notable types are hard disk drives (HDD), containing one or more non-removable rigid platters; the floppy disk drive (FDD) and its removable floppy disk; and various optical disc drives (ODD) and associated optical disc media. (The spelling disk and disc are used interchangeably except where trademarks preclude one usage, e.g., the Compact Disc logo. The choice of a particular form is frequently historical, as in IBM's usage of the disk form beginning in 1956 with the "IBM 350 disk storage unit".) thumb\|Six hard disk drives thumb\|Three floppy disk drives thumb\|A CD-ROM (optical) disc drive Background Audio information was originally recorded by analog methods (see Sound recording and reproduction). Similarly the first video disc used an analog recording method. In the music industry, analog recording has been mostly replaced by digital optical technology where the data is recorded in a digital format with optical information. The first commercial digital disk storage device was the IBM 350 which shipped in 1956 as a part of the IBM 305 RAMAC computing system. The random-access, low-density storage of disks was developed to complement the already used sequential-access, high-density storage provided by tape drives using magnetic tape. Vigorous innovation in disk storage technology, coupled with less vigorous innovation in tape storage, has reduced the difference in acquisition cost per terabyte between disk storage and tape storage; however, the total cost of ownership of data on disk including power and management remains larger than that of tape. Disk storage is now used in both computer storage and consumer electronic storage, e.g., audio CDs and video discs (VCD, DVD and Blu-ray). Data on modern disks is stored in fixed length blocks, usually called sectors and varying in length from a few hundred to many thousands of bytes. Gross disk drive capacity is simply the number of disk surfaces times the number of blocks/surface times the number of bytes/block. In certain legacy IBM CKD drives the data was stored on magnetic disks with variable length blocks, called records; record length could vary on and between disks. Capacity decreased as record length decreased due to the necessary gaps between blocks. Access methods Image:Samsung_HD753LJ_01-Top.jpg\| Image:Samsung_HD753LJ_02-Bottom.jpg\| Image:Samsung_HD753LJ_03-Opened.jpg\| Image:Hard_disk_platters_and_head.jpg\| Image:Samsung_HD753LJ_05-Head.jpg\| Image:Hard_disk_head.jpg\| Too HDD specific, putting better images in intro--> Digital disk drives are block storage devices. Each disk is divided into logical blocks (collection of sectors). Blocks are addressed using their logical block addresses (LBA). Read from or write to disk happens at the granularity of blocks. Originally the disk capacity was quite low and has been improved in one of several ways. Improvements in mechanical design and manufacture allowed smaller and more precise heads, meaning that more tracks could be stored on each of the disks. Advancements in data compression methods permitted more information to be stored in each of the individual sectors. The drive stores data onto cylinders, heads, and sectors. The sector unit is the smallest size of data to be stored in a hard disk drive, and each file will have many sector units assigned to it. The smallest entity in a CD is called a frame, which consists of 33 bytes and contains six complete 16-bit stereo samples (two bytes × two channels × six samples = 24 bytes). The other nine bytes consist of eight CIRC error-correction bytes and one subcode byte used for control and display. The information is sent from the computer processor to the BIOS into a chip controlling the data transfer. This is then sent out to the hard drive via a multi-wire connector. Once the data is received onto the circuit board of the drive, they are translated and compressed into a format that the individual drive can use to store onto the disk itself. The data is then passed to a chip on the circuit board that controls the access to the drive. The drive is divided into sectors of data stored onto one of the sides of one of the internal disks. An HDD with two disks internally will typically store data on all four surfaces. The hardware on the drive tells the actuator arm where it is to go for the relevant track, and the compressed information is then sent down to the head, which changes the physical properties, optically or magnetically, for example, of each byte on the drive, thus storing the information. A file is not stored in a linear manner; rather, it is held in the best way for quickest retrieval. Rotation speed and track layout thumb\|300px\|Comparison of several forms of disk storage showing tracks (not-to-scale); green denotes start and red denotes end.* Some CD-R(W) and DVD-R(W)/DVD+R(W) recorders operate in ZCLV, CAA or CAV modes. Mechanically there are two different motions occurring inside the drive. One is the rotation of the disks inside the device. The other is the side-to-side motion of the head across the disk as it moves between tracks. There are two types of disk rotation methods: constant linear velocity (used mainly in optical storage) varies the rotational speed of the optical disc depending upon the position of the head, and constant angular velocity (used in HDDs, standard FDDs, a few optical disc systems, and vinyl audio records) spins the media at one constant speed regardless of where the head is positioned. Track positioning also follows two different methods across disk storage devices. Storage devices focused on holding computer data, e.g., HDDs, FDDs, and Iomega zip drives, use concentric tracks to store data. During a sequential read or write operation, after the drive accesses all the sectors in a track, it repositions the head(s) to the next track. This will cause a momentary delay in the flow of data between the device and the computer. In contrast, optical audio and video discs use a single spiral track that starts at the innermost point on the disc and flows continuously to the outer edge. When reading or writing data, there is no need to stop the flow of data to switch tracks. This is similar to vinyl records, except vinyl records started at the outer edge and spiraled in toward the center. Interfaces The disk drive interface is the mechanism/protocol of communication between the rest of the system and the disk drive itself. Storage devices intended for desktop and mobile computers typically use ATA (PATA) and SATA interfaces. Enterprise systems and high-end storage devices will typically use SCSI, SAS, and FC interfaces in addition to some use of SATA. Basic terminology Disk Generally refers to magnetic media and devices. Disc Required by trademarks for certain optical media and devices. Platter An individual recording disk. A hard disk drive contains a set of platters. Developments in optical technology have led to multiple recording layers on DVDs. Spindle the spinning axle on which the platters are mounted. Rotation Platters rotate; two techniques are common: Constant angular velocity (CAV) keeps the disk spinning at a fixed rate, measured in revolutions per minute (RPM). This means the heads cover more distance per unit of time on the outer tracks than on the inner tracks. This method is typical with computer hard drives. Constant linear velocity (CLV) keeps the distance covered by the heads per unit time fixed. Thus the disk has to slow down as the arm moves to the outer tracks. This method is typical for CD drives. Track The circle of recorded data on a single recording surface of a platter. Sector A segment of a track Low level formatting Establishing the tracks and sectors. Head The device that reads and writes the information—magnetic or optical—on the disk surface. Arm The mechanical assembly that supports the head as it moves in and out. Seek time Time needed to move the head to a new position (specific track). Rotational latency Average time, once the arm is on the right track, before a head is over a desired sector. Data transfer rate The rate at which user data bits are transferred from or to the medium. Technically, this would more accurately be entitled the "gross" data transfer rate. See also Disk array Disk drive performance characteristics Disk read-and-write head Magnetic storage RAID USB flash drive References Category:Computer storage devices Category:Rotating disc computer storage media	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_storage	2025-04-05T18:28:37.962094
8474	Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington	\| image = Sir Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington.jpg \| caption = Portrait, \| office = Prime Minister of the United Kingdom \| term_start = 17 November 1834 \| term_end = 9 December 1834 \| monarch = William IV \| predecessor = The Viscount Melbourne \| successor = Robert Peel \| term_start1 = 22 January 1828 \| term_end1 = 16 November 1830 \| monarch1 = \| predecessor1 = The Viscount Goderich \| successor1 = The Earl Grey \| office4 = Leader of the House of Lords \| term_start4 = 3 September 1841 \| term_end4 = 27 June 1846 \| primeminister4 = Robert Peel \| predecessor4 = The Viscount Melbourne \| successor4 = The Marquess of Lansdowne \| term_start5 = 14 November 1834 \| term_end5 = 18 April 1835 \| primeminister5 = Robert Peel \| predecessor5 = The Viscount Melbourne \| successor5 = The Viscount Melbourne \| primeminister6 = Himself \| term_start6 = 22 January 1828 \| term_end6 = 22 November 1830 \| predecessor6 = The Viscount Goderich \| successor6 = The Earl Grey \| office2 = Commander-in-Chief of the British Army \| term_start3 = 22 January 1827 \| term_end3 = 22 January 1828 \| monarch3 = George IV \| predecessor3 = The Duke of York and Albany \| successor3 = The Viscount Hill \| term_start2 = 15 August 1842 \| term_end2 = 14 September 1852 \| monarch2 = Victoria \| predecessor2 = The Viscount Hill \| successor2 = The Viscount Hardinge \| office8 = Additional positions \| 1namedata8 = (see Offices and distinctions) \| birth_name = Arthur Wesley \| birth_date \| birth_place = Dublin, Kingdom of Ireland \| death_date \| death_place = Walmer, Kent, England \| restingplace = St Paul's Cathedral \| nationality = British \| party = \| father = Garret Wesley, 1st Earl of Mornington \| mother = Anne Hill-Trevor \| spouse \| children = \| signature = Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington Signature.svg \| nickname = }} <!--Military service-->\| allegiance = \| branch = British Army \| serviceyears = 1787–1852 \| rank = Field marshal \| battles = * French Revolutionary Wars ** Flanders Campaign * Fourth Anglo-Mysore War * Cotiote War * Second Anglo-Maratha War * Napoleonic Wars Hanover Expedition Copenhagen Expedition Peninsular War Hundred Days \| awards \| Knight of the Order of the Garter \| Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath \| Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Guelphic Order \| Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Sword \| Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece \| Knight Grand Cross of the Military William Order }} }} \| zoom = 1 \| float = right \| nolabels = 1 \| width = 250 \| height = 120 \| title = Selected battles \| caption = \| shapeD = n-circle \| shape-outlineD = white \| shape-colorD = navy \| label-colorD = navy \| label-sizeD = 12 \| label-posD = left \| label-offset-xD = 0 \| label-offset-yD = 0 \| label1 = Seringapatam \| mark-coord1 = \| mark-title1 = years old}} \| mark-description1 = Srirangapatna \| shape-color1 = olive \| label-color1 = olive \| label2 = Assaye \| mark-coord2 = \| mark-title2 = years old}} \| mark-description2 = Assaye \| shape-color2 = olive \| label-color2 = olive \| label3 = Køge \| mark-coord3 = \| mark-title3 = years old}} \| mark-description3 = Køge \| label-pos3 = right \| label-offset-y3 = -1 \| label4 = Torres Vedras \| mark-coord4 = \| mark-title4 = years old}} \| mark-description4 = Torres Vedras \| label-pos4 = right \| label-offset-y4 = 3 \| label5 = Vitoria \| mark-coord5 = \| mark-title5 = years old}} \| mark-description5 = Vitoria-Gasteiz \| label-pos5 = right \| label-offset-y5 = -4 \| label6 = Waterloo \| mark-coord6 = \| mark-title6 = years old}} \| mark-description6 = Waterloo, Belgium \| label-color6 = maroon \| shape-color6 = maroon \| label-pos6 = right }} Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington (; 1 May 1769 – 14 September 1852), was an Anglo-Irish army officer and statesman who was one of the leading military and political figures in Britain during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, twice serving as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. He is among the commanders who ended the Anglo-Mysore wars when Tipu Sultan was killed in the fourth war in 1799 and among those who ended the Napoleonic Wars in a victory when the Seventh Coalition defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. Wellesley was born into a Protestant Ascendancy family in Ireland. He was commissioned as an ensign in the British Army in 1787, serving in Ireland as aide-de-camp to two successive lords lieutenant of Ireland. He was also elected as a member of Parliament in the Irish House of Commons. Rising to the rank of colonel by 1796, Wellesley saw service in the Low Countries and India, where he fought in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War at the Siege of Seringapatam. He was appointed governor of Seringapatam and Mysore in 1799 and, as a newly appointed major-general, won a decisive victory over the Maratha Confederacy at the Battle of Assaye in 1803. Rising to prominence as a general officer during the Peninsular War, Wellesley was promoted to the rank of field marshal after leading British-led forces to victory against the French at the Battle of Vitoria in 1813. Following Napoleon's first exile in 1814, he served as the British ambassador to France and was made Duke of Wellington. During the Hundred Days campaign in 1815, Wellington commanded another British-led army which, together with the Prussian Army under Field Marshal Gebhard von Blücher, defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. Wellington's battle record is exemplary; he ultimately participated in some 60 battles during the course of his military career, and although not undefeated, he "never lost" a major engagement. Wellington is famous for his adaptive defensive style of warfare, resulting in several victories against numerically superior forces while minimising his own losses. He is regarded as one of the greatest commanders in the modern era, and many of his tactics and battle plans are still studied in military academies around the world. After the end of his active military career, Wellington returned to politics. He was twice British prime minister as a member of the Tory party from 1828 to 1830 and for a little less than a month in 1834. Wellington oversaw the passage of the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829, while he opposed the Reform Act 1832. He continued to be one of the leading figures in the House of Lords until his retirement and remained Commander-in-Chief of the Forces until his death. Early life Family Wellesley was born into an aristocratic Anglo-Irish family, belonging to the Protestant Ascendancy, beginning life as The Hon. Arthur Wesley. Wellesley was born the son of Anne, Countess of Mornington, and Garret Wesley, 1st Earl of Mornington. His father was himself the son of Richard Wesley, 1st Baron Mornington, and had a short career in politics representing the constituency of Trim in the Irish House of Commons before succeeding his father as Baron Mornington in 1758. Garret Mornington was also an accomplished composer, and in recognition of his musical and philanthropic achievements was elevated to the rank of Earl of Mornington in 1760. Wellesley's mother was the eldest daughter of Arthur Hill-Trevor, 1st Viscount Dungannon, after whom Wellesley was named. Through Elizabeth of Rhuddlan, Wellesley was a descendant of Edward I. Wellesley was the sixth of nine children born to the Earl and Countess of Mornington. His siblings included Richard, Viscount Wellesley, later 1st Marquess Wellesley, 2nd Earl of Mornington, and Baron Maryborough. Birth date and place The exact date and location of Wellesley's birth is not known, but biographers mostly follow the same contemporary newspaper evidence, which states that he was born on 1 May 1769, the day before he was baptised in St. Peter's Church on Aungier Street in Dublin. However, Ernest Lloyd states "registry of St. Peter's Church, Dublin, shows that he was christened there on 30 April 1769". Wellesley may have been born at his parents' townhouse, Mornington House at 6 Merrion Street (the address later became known as 24 Upper Merrion Street), His family's home at Dangan Castle, Dangan near Summerhill, County Meath has also been purported to have been his birthplace. In his obituary, published in The Times in 1852, it was reported that Dangan was unanimously believed to have been the place of his birth, though suggested it was unlikely, but not impossible, that the family had travelled to Dublin for his baptism. A pillar was erected in his honour near Dangan in 1817. The place of his birth has been much disputed following his death, with Sir J.B. Burke writing the following in 1873: <blockquote>"Isn't it remarkable that until recently all the old memoirs of the Duke of Wellington seemed to infer that County Meath was the place of birth. Nowadays the theory that he was born in Dublin is generally accepted but by no means proved".</blockquote> Other places that have been put forward as the location of his birth include a coach between Meath and Dublin, the Dublin packet boat and the Wellesley townhouse in Trim, County Meath. Childhood , Dangan Castle in County Meath, Ireland (engraving, 1842).]] Wellesley spent most of his childhood at his family's two homes, the first a large house in Dublin, Mornington House, and the second Dangan Castle, north of Summerhill in County Meath. In 1781, Arthur's father died and his eldest brother Richard inherited his father's earldom. He went to the diocesan school in Trim when at Dangan, Mr Whyte's Academy when in Dublin, and Brown's School in Chelsea when in London. He then enrolled at Eton College, where he studied from 1781 to 1784. His loneliness there caused him to hate it, and makes it highly unlikely that he actually said "The Battle of Waterloo was won on the playing fields of Eton", a quotation which is often attributed to him. Moreover, Eton had no playing fields at the time. In 1785, a lack of success at Eton, combined with a shortage of family funds due to his father's death, forced the young Wellesley and his mother to move to Brussels. Until his early twenties, Arthur showed little sign of distinction and his mother grew increasingly concerned at his idleness, stating, "I don't know what I shall do with my awkward son Arthur." In 1786, Arthur enrolled in the French Royal Academy of Equitation in Angers, where he progressed significantly, becoming a good horseman and learning French, which later proved very useful. Upon returning to England later the same year, he astonished his mother with his improvement. Early military career Ireland (pictured) as aide-de-camp to two successive Lords Lieutenant of Ireland]] Despite his new promise, Wellesley had yet to find a job and his family was still short of money, so upon the advice of his mother, his brother Richard asked his friend the Duke of Rutland (then Lord Lieutenant of Ireland) to consider Arthur for a commission in the Army. Soon afterward, on 7 March 1787, he was gazetted ensign in the 73rd Regiment of Foot. In October, with the assistance of his brother, he was assigned as aide-de-camp, on ten shillings a day (twice his pay as an ensign), to the new Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Lord Buckingham. He was also transferred to the new 76th Regiment forming in Ireland and on Christmas Day, 1787, was promoted lieutenant. During his time in Dublin his duties were mainly social; attending balls, entertaining guests and providing advice to Buckingham. While in Ireland, he overextended himself in borrowing due to his occasional gambling, but in his defence stated that "I have often known what it was to be in want of money, but I have never got helplessly into debt". On 23 January 1788, he transferred into the 41st Regiment of Foot, then again on 25 June 1789 he transferred to the 12th (Prince of Wales's) Regiment of (Light) Dragoons and, according to military historian Richard Holmes, he also reluctantly entered politics. Shortly before the general election of 1789, he went to the rotten borough of Trim to speak against the granting of the title "Freeman" of Dublin to the parliamentary leader of the Irish Patriot Party, Henry Grattan. Succeeding, he was later nominated and duly elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) for Trim in the Irish House of Commons. Because of the limited suffrage at the time, he sat in a parliament where at least two-thirds of the members owed their election to the landowners of fewer than a hundred boroughs. Wellesley continued to serve at Dublin Castle, voting with the government in the Irish parliament over the next two years. He became a captain on 30 January 1791, and was transferred to the 58th Regiment of Foot. On 31 October, he transferred to the 18th Light Dragoons and it was during this period that he grew increasingly attracted to Kitty Pakenham, the daughter of Edward Pakenham, 2nd Baron Longford. She was described as being full of 'gaiety and charm'. In 1793, he proposed, but was turned down by her brother Thomas, 2nd Earl of Longford, who considered Wellesley to be a young man, in debt, with very poor prospects. An aspiring amateur musician, Wellesley, devastated by the rejection, burnt his violins in anger, and resolved to pursue a military career in earnest. He became a major by purchase in the 33rd Regiment in 1793. A few months later, in September, his brother lent him more money and with it he purchased a lieutenant-colonelcy in the 33rd. Netherlands Flanders Campaign}} . Portrait by John Hoppner.]] In 1793, the Duke of York was sent to Flanders in command of the British contingent of an allied force destined for the invasion of France. In June 1794, Wellesley with the 33rd regiment set sail from Cork bound for Ostend as part of an expedition bringing reinforcements for the army in Flanders. They arrived too late to participate, and joined the Duke of York as he was pulling back towards the Netherlands. On 15 September 1794, at the Battle of Boxtel, east of Breda, Wellesley, in temporary command of his brigade, had his first experience of battle. During General Abercromby's withdrawal in the face of superior French forces, the 33rd held off enemy cavalry, allowing neighbouring units to retreat safely. During the extremely harsh winter that followed, Wellesley and his regiment formed part of an allied force holding the defence line along the Waal River. The 33rd, along with the rest of the army, suffered heavy losses from attrition and illness. Wellesley's health was also affected by the damp environment. Though the campaign was to end disastrously, with the British army driven out of the United Provinces into the German states, Wellesley became more aware of battle tactics, including the use of lines of infantry against advancing columns, and the merits of supporting sea-power. He understood that the failure of the campaign was due in part to the faults of the leaders and the poor organisation at headquarters. He remarked later of his time in the Netherlands that "At least I learned what not to do, and that is always a valuable lesson". Returning to England in March 1795, he was reinstated as a member of parliament for Trim. He hoped to be given the position of secretary of war in the new Irish government but the new lord-lieutenant, Lord Camden, was only able to offer him the post of Surveyor-General of the Ordnance. Declining the post, he returned to his regiment, now at Southampton preparing to set sail for the West Indies. After seven weeks at sea, a storm forced the fleet back to Poole. The 33rd was given time to recuperate and a few months later, Whitehall decided to send the regiment to India. Wellesley was promoted full colonel by seniority on 3 May 1796 and a few weeks later set sail for Calcutta with his regiment.IndiaArriving in Calcutta in February 1797 he spent 5 months there, before being sent in August to a brief expedition to the Philippines, where he established a list of new hygiene precautions for his men to deal with the unfamiliar climate. Returning in November to India, he learnt that his elder brother Richard, now known as Lord Mornington, had been appointed as the new Governor-General of India. In 1798, he changed the spelling of his surname to "Wellesley"; up to this time he was still known as Wesley, which his eldest brother considered the ancient and proper spelling. Fourth Anglo-Mysore War , 1804.]] As part of the campaign to extend the rule of the British East India Company, the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War broke out in 1798 against the Sultan of Mysore, Tipu Sultan. Arthur's brother Richard ordered that an armed force be sent to capture Seringapatam and defeat Tipu. During the war, rockets were used on several occasions. Wellesley was almost defeated by Tipu's Diwan, Purnaiah, at the Battle of Sultanpet Tope. Quoting Forrest, <blockquote>At this point (near the village of Sultanpet, Figure 5) there was a large tope, or grove, which gave shelter to Tipu's rocketmen and had obviously to be cleaned out before the siege could be pressed closer to Srirangapattana island. The commander chosen for this operation was Col. Wellesley, but advancing towards the tope after dark on the 5th April 1799, he was set upon with rockets and musket-fires, lost his way and, as Beatson politely puts it, had to "postpone the attack" until a more favourable opportunity should offer.</blockquote> The following day, Wellesley launched a fresh attack with a larger force, and took the whole position without any killed in action. On 22 April 1799, twelve days before the main battle, rocketeers maneuvered to the rear of the British encampment, then 'threw a great number of rockets at the same instant' to signal the beginning of an assault by 6,000 Indian infantry and a corps of Frenchmen, all ordered by Mir Golam Hussain and Mohomed Hulleen Mir Miran. The rockets had a range of about 1,000 yards. Some burst in the air like shells. Others, called ground rockets, would rise again on striking the ground and bound along in a serpentine motion until their force was spent. According to one British observer, a young English officer named Bayly: "So pestered were we with the rocket boys that there was no moving without danger from the destructive missiles ...". He continued: <blockquote>The rockets and musketry from 20,000 of the enemy were incessant. No hail could be thicker. Every illumination of blue lights was accompanied by a shower of rockets, some of which entered the head of the column, passing through to the rear, causing death, wounds, and dreadful lacerations from the long bamboos of twenty or thirty feet, which are invariably attached to them.</blockquote> Under the command of General Harris, some 24,000 troops were dispatched to Madras (to join an equal force being sent from Bombay in the west). Arthur and the 33rd sailed to join them in August. After extensive and careful logistic preparation (which would become one of Wellesley's main attributes) the 33rd left with the main force in December and travelled across of jungle from Madras to Mysore. On account of his brother, during the journey, Wellesley was given an additional command, that of chief advisor to the Nizam of Hyderabad's army (sent to accompany the British force). This position was to cause friction among many of the senior officers (some of whom were senior to Wellesley). Much of this friction was put to rest after the Battle of Mallavelly, some from Seringapatam, in which Harris' army attacked a large part of the sultan's army. During the battle, Wellesley led his men, in a line of battle of two ranks, against the enemy to a gentle ridge and gave the order to fire. After an extensive repetition of volleys, followed by a bayonet charge, the 33rd, in conjunction with the rest of Harris's force, forced Tipu's infantry to retreat. Seringapatam Immediately after their arrival at Seringapatam on 5 April 1799, the Battle of Seringapatam began and Wellesley was ordered to lead a night attack on the village of Sultanpettah, adjacent to the fortress to clear the way for the artillery. Because of a variety of factors including the Mysorean army's strong defensive preparations and the darkness the attack failed with 25 casualties due to confusion among the British. Wellesley suffered a minor injury to his knee from a spent musket-ball. Although they re-attacked successfully the next day, after time to scout ahead the enemy's positions, the affair affected Wellesley. He resolved "never to attack an enemy who is preparing and strongly posted, and whose posts have not been reconnoitred by daylight". Lewin Bentham Bowring gives this alternative account: <blockquote>One of these groves, called the Sultanpet Tope, was intersected by deep ditches, watered from a channel running in an easterly direction about a mile from the fort. General Baird was directed to scour this grove and dislodge the enemy, but on his advancing with this object on the night of the 5th, he found the tope unoccupied. The next day, however, the Mysore troops again took possession of the ground, and as it was absolutely necessary to expel them, two columns were detached at sunset for the purpose. The first of these, under Colonel Shawe, got possession of a ruined village, which it successfully held. The second column, under Colonel Wellesley, on advancing into the tope, was at once attacked in the darkness of night by a tremendous fire of musketry and rockets. The men, floundering about amidst the trees and the water-courses, at last broke, and fell back in disorder, some being killed and a few taken prisoners. In the confusion Colonel Wellesley was himself struck on the knee by a spent ball, and narrowly escaped falling into the hands of the enemy.</blockquote> A few weeks later, after extensive artillery bombardment, a breach was opened in the main walls of the fortress of Seringapatam. An attack led by Major-General Baird secured the fortress. Wellesley secured the rear of the advance, posting guards at the breach and then stationed his regiment at the main palace. After hearing news of the death of the Tipu Sultan, Wellesley was the first at the scene to confirm his death, checking his pulse. Over the coming day, Wellesley grew increasingly concerned over the lack of discipline among his men, who drank and pillaged the fortress and city. To restore order, several soldiers were flogged and four hanged. After battle and the resulting end of the war, the main force under General Harris left Seringapatam and Wellesley, aged 30, stayed behind to command the area as the new Governor of Seringapatam and Mysore. While in India, Wellesley was ill for a considerable time, first with severe diarrhoea from the water and then with fever, followed by a serious skin infection caused by trichophyton. Wellesley was in charge of raising an Anglo-Indian expeditionary force in Trincomali in early 1801 for the capture of Batavia and Mauritius from the French. However, on the eve of its departure, orders arrived from England that it was to be sent to Egypt to co-operate with Sir Ralph Abercromby in the expulsion of the French from Egypt. Wellesley had been appointed second in command to Baird, but owing to ill health did not accompany the expedition on 9 April 1801. This was fortunate for Wellesley, since the vessel on which he was to have sailed sank in the Red Sea. He was promoted to brigadier-general on 17 July 1801. He took residence within the Sultan's summer palace and reformed the tax and justice systems in his province to maintain order and prevent bribery.Dhoondiah Waugh insurgencyIn 1800, whilst serving as Governor of Mysore, Wellesley was tasked with putting down an insurgency led by Dhoondiah Waugh, formerly a Patan trooper for Tipu Sultan. Having escaped after the fall of Seringapatam he became a powerful brigand, raiding villages along the Maratha–Mysore border region. Despite initial setbacks, the East India Company having pursued and destroyed his forces once already, forcing him into retreat in August 1799, he raised a sizeable force composed of disbanded Mysore soldiers, captured small outposts and forts in Mysore, and was receiving the support of several Maratha killedars opposed to British occupation. This drew the attention of the British administration, who were beginning to recognise him as more than just a bandit, as his raids, expansion and threats to destabilise British authority suddenly increased in 1800. The death of Tipu Sultan had created a power vacuum and Waugh was seeking to fill it. Given independent command of a combined East India Company and British Army force, Wellesley ventured north to confront Waugh in June 1800, with an army of 8,000 infantry and cavalry, having learnt that Waugh's forces numbered over 50,000, although the majority (around 30,000) were irregular light cavalry and unlikely to pose a serious threat to British infantry and artillery. Throughout June–August 1800, Wellesley advanced through Waugh's territory, his troops escalading forts in turn and capturing each one with "trifling loss". The forts generally offered little resistance due to their poor construction and design. Wellesley did not have sufficient troops to garrison each fort and had to clear the surrounding area of insurgents before advancing to the next fort. On 31 July, he had "taken and destroyed Dhoondiah's baggage and six guns, and driven into the Malpoorba (where they were drowned) about five thousand people". Dhoondiah continued to retreat, but his forces were rapidly deserting, he had no infantry and due to the monsoon weather flooding river crossings he could no longer outpace the British advance. On 10 September, at the Battle of Conaghul, Wellesley personally led a charge of 1,400 British dragoons and Indian cavalry, in single line with no reserve, against Dhoondiah and his remaining 5,000 cavalry. Dhoondiah was killed during the clash; his body was discovered and taken to the British camp tied to a cannon. With this victory, Wellesley's campaign was concluded, and British authority had been restored. Wellesley then paid for the future upkeep of Dhoondiah's orphaned son. Second Anglo-Maratha War In September 1802, Wellesley learnt that he had been promoted to the rank of major-general. He had been gazetted on 29 April 1802, but the news took several months to reach him by sea. He remained at Mysore until November when he was sent to command an army in the Second Anglo-Maratha War. When he determined that a long defensive war would ruin his army, Wellesley decided to act boldly to defeat the numerically larger force of the Maratha Empire. With the logistic assembly of his army complete (24,000 men in total) he gave the order to break camp and attack the nearest Maratha fort on 8 August 1803. The fort surrendered on 12 August after an infantry attack had exploited an artillery-made breach in the wall. With the fort now in British control Wellesley was able to extend control southwards to the river Godavari.Assaye, Argaum and Gawilghur(engraving after William Heath). Wellesley later remarked that it was his greatest victory.]] Splitting his army into two forces to pursue and locate the main Marathas army (the second force, commanded by Colonel Stevenson was far smaller), Wellesley was preparing to rejoin his forces on 24 September. His intelligence, however, reported the location of the Marathas' main army, between two rivers near Assaye. If he waited for the arrival of his second force, the Marathas would be able to mount a retreat, so Wellesley decided to launch an attack immediately. On 23 September, Wellesley led his forces over a ford in the river Kaitna and the Battle of Assaye commenced. After crossing the ford the infantry was reorganised into several lines and advanced against the Maratha infantry. Wellesley ordered his cavalry to exploit the flank of the Maratha army just near the village. During the battle Wellesley himself came under fire; two of his horses were shot from under him and he had to mount a third. At a crucial moment, Wellesley regrouped his forces and ordered Colonel Maxwell (later killed in the attack) to attack the eastern end of the Maratha position while Wellesley himself directed a renewed infantry attack against the centre. An officer in the attack wrote of the importance of Wellesley's personal leadership: "The General was in the thick of the action the whole time ... I never saw a man so cool and collected as he was ... though I can assure you, till our troops got the order to advance the fate of the day seemed doubtful ..." With some 6,000 Marathas killed or wounded, the enemy was routed, though Wellesley's force was in no condition to pursue. British casualties were heavy: the British losses amounted to 428 killed, 1,138 wounded and 18 missing (the British casualty figures were taken from Wellesley's own despatch). Wellesley was troubled by the loss of men and remarked that he hoped "I should not like to see again such loss as I sustained on 23 September, even if attended by such gain". Years later, however, he remarked that Assaye and not Waterloo was the best battle he ever fought. Despite the damage done to the Maratha army, the battle did not end the war. A few months later in November, Wellesley attacked a larger force near Argaum, leading his army to victory again, with an astonishing 5,000 enemy dead at the cost of only 361 British casualties. A further successful attack at the fortress at Gawilghur, combined with the victory of General Lake at Delhi, forced the Maratha to sign a peace settlement at Anjangaon (not concluded until a year later) called the Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon. Military historian Richard Holmes remarked that Wellesley's experiences in India had an important influence on his personality and military tactics, teaching him much about military matters that would prove vital to his success in the Peninsular War. These included a strong sense of discipline through drill and order, the use of diplomacy to gain allies, and the vital necessity of a secure supply line. He also established high regard for the acquisition of intelligence through scouts and spies. His personal tastes also developed, including dressing himself in white trousers, a dark tunic, with Hessian boots and black cocked hat (that later became synonymous as his style). Leaving India Azim-ud-Daula, 1805]] Wellesley had grown tired of his time in India, remarking "I have served as long in India as any man ought who can serve anywhere else". In June 1804 he applied for permission to return home and as a reward for his service in India he was made a Knight of the Bath in September. While in India, Wellesley had amassed a fortune of £42,000 (considerable at the time, equivalent to £}} in ), consisting mainly of prize money from his campaign. When his brother's term as Governor-General of India ended in March 1805, the brothers returned together to England on . Wellesley, coincidentally, stopped on his voyage at the island of Saint Helena and stayed in the same building in which Napoleon I would live during his later exile.Return to Britain Meeting Nelson In September 1805, Major-General Wellesley was newly returned from his campaigns in India and was not yet particularly well known to the public. He reported to the office of the Secretary of State for War and the Colonies to request a new assignment. In the waiting room, he met Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson, already a known figure after his victories at the Nile and Copenhagen, who was briefly in England after months pursuing the French Toulon fleet to the West Indies and back. Some 30 years later, Wellington recalled a conversation that Nelson began with him which Wellesley found "almost all on his side in a style so vain and silly as to surprise and almost disgust me". Nelson left the room to inquire who the young general was and, on his return, switched to a very different tone, discussing the war, the state of the colonies, and the geopolitical situation as between equals. On this second discussion, Wellington recalled, "I don't know that I ever had a conversation that interested me more". This was the only time that the two men met; Nelson was killed at his victory at Trafalgar seven weeks later. Wellesley then served in the abortive Anglo-Russian expedition to north Germany in 1805, taking a brigade to Elbe. He then took a period of extended leave from the army and was elected as a Tory member of the British parliament for Rye in January 1806. A year later, he was elected MP for Newport on the Isle of Wight, and was then appointed to serve as Chief Secretary for Ireland under the Duke of Richmond. At the same time, he was made a privy counsellor. While in Ireland, he gave a verbal promise that the remaining Penal Laws would be enforced with great moderation, perhaps an indication of his later willingness to support Catholic emancipation. Wellesley was described as having been "handsome, very brown, quite bald and a hooked nose". War against Denmark-Norway Wellesley was in Ireland in May 1807 when he heard of the British expedition to Denmark-Norway. He decided to go, while maintaining his political appointments, and was appointed to command an infantry brigade in the Second Battle of Copenhagen, which took place in August. He fought at Køge, during which the men under his command took 1,500 prisoners, with Wellesley later present during the surrender. By 30 September, he had returned to England and was raised to the rank of lieutenant general on 25 April 1808. In June 1808 he accepted the command of an expedition of 9,000 men. Preparing to sail for an attack on the Spanish colonies in South America (to assist the Latin American patriot Francisco de Miranda) his force was instead ordered to sail for Portugal, to take part in the Peninsular Campaign and rendezvous with 5,000 troops from Gibraltar.Peninsular War 1808–1809 Ready for battle, Wellesley left Cork on 12 July 1808 to participate in the war against French forces in the Iberian Peninsula, with his skills as a commander tested and developed.According to the historian Robin Neillands: }} Wellington's Redcoats who fought in the Napoleonic Wars, 1812–1815, here showing the standard line 8th Company]] Wellesley defeated the French at the Battle of Roliça and the Battle of Vimeiro in 1808 but was superseded in command immediately after the latter battle. General Dalrymple then signed the controversial Convention of Sintra, which stipulated that the Royal Navy transport the French army out of Lisbon with all their loot, and insisted on the association of the only available government minister, Wellesley. Dalrymple and Wellesley were recalled to Britain to face a Court of Enquiry. Wellesley had agreed to sign the preliminary armistice, but had not signed the convention, and was cleared. Simultaneously, Napoleon entered Spain with his veteran troops to put down the revolt; the new commander of the British forces in the Peninsula, Sir John Moore, died during the Battle of Corunna in January 1809. Although overall the land war with France was not going well from a British perspective, the Peninsula was the one theatre where they, with the Portuguese, had provided strong resistance against France and her allies. This contrasted with the disastrous Walcheren expedition, which was typical of the mismanaged British operations of the time. Wellesley submitted a memorandum to Lord Castlereagh on the defence of Portugal. He stressed its mountainous frontiers and advocated Lisbon as the main base because the Royal Navy could help to defend it. Castlereagh and the cabinet approved the memo and appointed him head of all British forces in Portugal. Wellesley arrived in Lisbon on 22 April 1809 on board HMS Surveillante, after narrowly escaping shipwreck. Reinforced, he took to the offensive. In the Second Battle of Porto he crossed the Douro river in a daylight coup de main, and routed Marshal Soult's French troops in Porto. With Portugal secured, Wellesley advanced into Spain to unite with General Cuesta's forces. The combined allied force prepared for an assault on Marshal Victor's I Corps at Talavera, 23 July. Cuesta, however, was reluctant to agree, and was only persuaded to advance on the following day. The delay allowed the French to withdraw, but Cuesta sent his army headlong after Victor, and found himself faced by almost the entire French army in New Castile—Victor had been reinforced by the Toledo and Madrid garrisons. The Spanish retreated precipitously, necessitating the advance of two British divisions to cover their retreat. The next day, 27 July, at the Battle of Talavera the French advanced in three columns and were repulsed several times throughout the day by Wellesley, but at a heavy cost to the British force. In the aftermath Marshal Soult's army was discovered to be advancing south, threatening to cut Wellesley off from Portugal. Wellesley moved east on 3 August to block it, leaving 1,500 wounded in the care of the Spanish, intending to confront Soult before finding out that the French were in fact 30,000 strong. The British commander sent the Light Brigade on a dash to hold the bridge over the Tagus at Almaraz. With communications and supply from Lisbon secured for now, Wellesley considered joining with Cuesta again but found out that his Spanish ally had abandoned the British wounded to the French and was thoroughly uncooperative, promising and then refusing to supply the British forces, aggravating Wellesley and causing considerable friction between the British and their Spanish allies. The lack of supplies, coupled with the threat of French reinforcement (including the possible inclusion of Napoleon himself) in the spring, led to the British deciding to retreat into Portugal. Following his victory at Talavera, Wellesley was elevated to the Peerage of the United Kingdom on 26 August 1809 as Viscount Wellington of Talavera and of Wellington, in the County of Somerset, with the subsidiary title of Baron Douro of Wellesley. 1810–1812 In 1810, a newly enlarged French army under Marshal André Masséna invaded Portugal. British opinion was negative and there were suggestions to evacuate Portugal. Instead, Lord Wellington first slowed the French at Buçaco; he then prevented them from taking the Lisbon Peninsula by the construction of massive earthworks, known as the Lines of Torres Vedras, which had been assembled in complete secrecy with their flanks guarded by the Royal Navy. The baffled and starving French invasion forces retreated after six months. Wellington's pursuit was hindered by a series of reverses inflicted by Marshal Ney in a much-lauded rear guard campaign. In 1811, Masséna returned toward Portugal to relieve Almeida; Wellington narrowly checked the French at the Battle of Fuentes de Oñoro. Simultaneously, his subordinate, Viscount Beresford, fought Soult's 'Army of the South' to a bloody stalemate at the Battle of Albuera in May. Wellington was promoted to full general on 31 July for his services. The French abandoned Almeida, avoiding British pursuit, but retained the twin Spanish fortresses of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, the 'Keys' guarding the roads through the mountain passes into Portugal. (engraving after William Heath)]] In 1812, Wellington finally captured Ciudad Rodrigo via a rapid movement as the French went into winter quarters, storming it before they could react. He then moved south quickly, besieged the fortress of Badajoz for a month and captured it during the night on 6 April 1812. On viewing the aftermath of the Storming of Badajoz, Wellington lost his composure and cried at the sight of the British dead in the breaches. His army now was a veteran British force reinforced by units of the retrained Portuguese army. Campaigning in Spain, he was made Earl of Wellington in the county of Somerset on 22 February 1812. He routed the French at the Battle of Salamanca, taking advantage of a minor French mispositioning. The victory liberated the Spanish capital of Madrid. He was later made Marquess of Wellington, in the said county on 18 August 1812. Wellington attempted to take the vital fortress of Burgos, which linked Madrid to France. He failed, due in part to a lack of siege guns, forcing him into a headlong retreat with the loss of over 2,000 casualties. The French abandoned Andalusia, and combined the troops of Soult and Marmont. Thus combined, the French outnumbered the British, putting the British forces in a precarious position. Wellington withdrew his army and, joined by the smaller corps under the command of Rowland Hill, which had been moved to Madrid, began to retreat to Portugal. Marshal Soult declined to attack. by Francisco Goya, 1812–14]] 1813–1814 In 1813, Wellington led a new offensive, this time against the French line of communications. He struck through the hills north of Burgos, the Tras os Montes, and switched his supply line from Portugal to Santander on Spain's north coast; this led to the French abandoning Madrid and Burgos. Continuing to outflank the French lines, Wellington caught up with and routed the army of King Joseph Bonaparte in the Battle of Vitoria, for which he was promoted to field marshal on 21 June. He personally led a column against the French centre, while other columns commanded by Sir Thomas Graham, Rowland Hill and the Earl of Dalhousie looped around the French right and left (this battle became the subject of Beethoven's orchestral piece, the ''Wellington's Victory'' (Opus 91). The British troops broke ranks to loot the abandoned French wagons instead of pursuing the beaten foe. When troops failed to return to their units and began harassing the locals, an enraged Wellington wrote in a now famous despatch to Earl Bathurst, "We have in the service the scum of the earth as common soldiers". Although later, when his temper had cooled, he extended his comment to praise the men under his command saying that though many of the men were, "the scum of the earth; it is really wonderful that we should have made them to the fine fellows they are". After taking the small fortresses of Pamplona, Wellington invested San Sebastián but was frustrated by the obstinate French garrison, losing 693 dead and 316 captured in a failed assault and suspending the siege at the end of July. Soult's relief attempt was blocked by the Spanish Army of Galicia at San Marcial, allowing the Allies to consolidate their position and tighten the ring around the city, which fell in September after a second spirited defence. Wellington then forced Soult's demoralised and battered army into a fighting retreat into France, punctuated by battles at the Pyrenees, Bidassoa and Nivelle. Wellington invaded southern France, winning at the Nive and Orthez. Wellington's final battle against his rival Soult occurred at Toulouse, where the Allied divisions were badly mauled storming the French redoubts, losing some 4,600 men. Despite this momentary victory, news arrived of Napoleon's defeat and abdication and Soult, seeing no reason to continue the fighting, agreed on a ceasefire with Wellington, allowing Soult to evacuate the city. Hailed as the conquering hero by the British, on 3 May 1814 Wellington was made Duke of Wellington, in the county of Somerset, together with the subsidiary title of Marquess Douro, in said County. He received some recognition during his lifetime (the title of "Duque de Ciudad Rodrigo" and "Grandee of Spain") and the Spanish King Ferdinand VII allowed him to keep part of the works of art from the Royal Collection which he had recovered from the French. His equestrian portrait features prominently in the Monument to the Battle of Vitoria, in present-day Vitoria-Gasteiz. , Talleyrand and other European diplomats at the Congress of Vienna, 1815 (engraving after Jean-Baptiste Isabey)]] His popularity in Britain was due to his image and his appearance as well as to his military triumphs. His victory fitted well with the passion and intensity of the Romantic movement, with its emphasis on individuality. His personal style influenced the fashions in Britain at the time: his tall, lean figure and his plumed black hat and grand yet classic uniform and white trousers became very popular. In late 1814, the Prime Minister wanted him to take command in Canada with the assignment of winning the War of 1812 against the United States. Wellesley replied that he would go to America, but he believed that he was needed more in Europe. He stated: }} He was appointed Ambassador to France, then took Lord Castlereagh's place as first plenipotentiary to the Congress of Vienna. On 2 January 1815, the title of his Knighthood of the Bath was converted to Knight Grand Cross upon the expansion of that order.Hundred DaysFacing Napoleon after Thomas Phillips]] On 26 February 1815, Napoleon escaped from Elba and returned to France. He regained control of the country by May and faced a renewed alliance against him. Wellington left Vienna for what became known as the Waterloo Campaign. He arrived in the Netherlands to take command of the British-German army and their allied Dutch, all stationed alongside the Prussian forces of Generalfeldmarschall Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher. Napoleon's strategy was to isolate the Allied and Prussian armies and annihilate each one separately before the Austrians and Russians arrived. In doing so the vast superiority in numbers of the Coalition would be greatly diminished. He would then seek the possibility of peace with Austria and Russia. The French invaded the Netherlands, with Napoleon defeating the Prussians at Ligny, and Marshal Ney engaging indecisively with Wellington at the Battle of Quatre Bras. The Prussians retreated 18 miles north to Wavre whilst Wellington's Anglo-Allied army withdrew 15 miles north to a site he had noted the previous year as favourable for a battle: the north ridge of a shallow valley on the Brussels road, just south of the small town of Waterloo. On 17 June there was torrential rain, which severely hampered movement. and had a considerable effect the next day, 18 June, when the Battle of Waterloo was fought. This was the first time Wellington had encountered Napoleon; he commanded an Anglo-Dutch-German army that consisted of approximately 73,000 troops, 26,000 of whom were British. Approximately 30 percent of that 26,000 were Irish.Battle of Waterloo ]] The Battle of Waterloo was fought on Sunday 18 June 1815, near Waterloo (at that time in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, now in Belgium). It commenced with a diversionary attack on Hougoumont by a division of French soldiers. After a barrage of 80 cannons, the first French infantry attack was launched by Comte D'Erlon's I Corps. D'Erlon's troops advanced through the Allied centre, resulting in Allied troops in front of the ridge retreating in disorder through the main position. D'Erlon's corps stormed the most fortified Allied position, La Haye Sainte, but failed to take it. An Allied division under Thomas Picton met the remainder of D'Erlon's corps head to head, engaging them in an infantry duel in which Picton was killed. During this struggle Lord Uxbridge launched two of his cavalry brigades at the enemy, catching the French infantry off guard, driving them to the bottom of the slope, and capturing two French Imperial Eagles. The charge, however, over-reached itself, and the British cavalry, crushed by fresh French horsemen sent at them by Napoleon, were driven back, suffering tremendous losses. Shortly before 16:00, Marshal Ney noted an apparent withdrawal from Wellington's centre. He mistook the movement of casualties to the rear for the beginnings of a retreat, and sought to exploit it. Ney at this time had few infantry reserves left, as most of the infantry had been committed either to the futile Hougoumont attack or to the defence of the French right. Ney, therefore, tried to break Wellington's centre with a cavalry charge alone. At about 16:30, the first Prussian corps arrived. Commanded by Freiherr von Bülow, IV Corps arrived as the French cavalry attack was in full spate. Bülow sent the 15th Brigade to link up with Wellington's left flank in the Frichermont–La Haie area while the brigade's horse artillery battery and additional brigade artillery deployed to its left in support. Napoleon sent Lobau's corps to intercept the rest of Bülow's IV Corps proceeding to Plancenoit. The 15th Brigade sent Lobau's corps into retreat to the Plancenoit area. Von Hiller's 16th Brigade also pushed forward with six battalions against Plancenoit. Napoleon had dispatched all eight battalions of the Young Guard to reinforce Lobau, who was now seriously pressed by the enemy. Napoleon's Young Guard counter-attacked and, after very hard fighting, secured Plancenoit, but were themselves counter-attacked and driven out. Napoleon then resorted to sending two battalions of the Middle and Old Guard into Plancenoit and after ferocious fighting they recaptured the village. The French cavalry attacked the British infantry squares many times, each at a heavy cost to the French but with few British casualties. Ney himself was displaced from his horse four times. Eventually, it became obvious, even to Ney, that cavalry alone were achieving little. Belatedly, he organised a combined-arms attack, using Bachelu's division and Tissot's regiment of Foy's division from Reille's II Corps plus those French cavalry that remained in a fit state to fight. This assault was directed along much the same route as the previous heavy cavalry attacks. ]] Meanwhile, at approximately the same time as Ney's combined-arms assault on the centre-right of Wellington's line, Napoleon ordered Ney to capture La Haye Sainte at whatever the cost. Ney accomplished this with what was left of D'Erlon's corps soon after 18:00. Ney then moved horse artillery up towards Wellington's centre and began to attack the infantry squares at short-range with canister. This all but destroyed the 27th (Inniskilling) Regiment, and the 30th and 73rd Regiments suffered such heavy losses that they had to combine to form a viable square. Wellington's centre was now on the verge of collapse and wide open to an attack from the French. Luckily for Wellington, Pirch I's and Zieten's corps of the Prussian Army were now at hand. Zieten's corps permitted the two fresh cavalry brigades of Vivian and Vandeleur on Wellington's extreme left to be moved and posted behind the depleted centre. Pirch I Corps then proceeded to support Bülow and together they regained possession of Plancenoit, and once more the Charleroi road was swept by Prussian round shot. The value of this reinforcement is held in high regard. The French army now fiercely attacked the Coalition all along the line with the culminating point being reached when Napoleon sent forward the Imperial Guard at 19:30. The attack of the Imperial Guards was mounted by five battalions of the Middle Guard, and not by the Grenadiers or Chasseurs of the Old Guard. Marching through a hail of canister and skirmisher fire and severely outnumbered, the 3,000 or so Middle Guardsmen advanced to the west of La Haye Sainte and proceeded to separate into three distinct attack forces. One, consisting of two battalions of Grenadiers, defeated the Coalition's first line and marched on. Chassé's relatively fresh Dutch division was sent against them, and Allied artillery fired into the victorious Grenadiers' flank. This still could not stop the Guard's advance, so Chassé ordered his first brigade to charge the outnumbered French, who faltered and broke. Further to the west, 1,500 British Foot Guards under Maitland were lying down to protect themselves from the French artillery. As two battalions of Chasseurs approached, the second prong of the Imperial Guard's attack, Maitland's guardsmen rose and devastated them with point-blank volleys. The Chasseurs deployed to counter-attack but began to waver. A bayonet charge by the Foot Guards then broke them. The third prong, a fresh Chasseur battalion, now came up in support. The British guardsmen retreated with these Chasseurs in pursuit, but the latter were halted as the 52nd Light Infantry wheeled in line onto their flank and poured a devastating fire into them and then charged. Under this onslaught, they too broke. The last of the Guard retreated headlong. Mass panic ensued through the French lines as the news spread: "La Garde recule. Sauve qui peut!" ("The Guard is retreating. Every man for himself!"). Wellington then stood up in Copenhagen's stirrups, and waved his hat in the air to signal an advance of the Allied line just as the Prussians were overrunning the French positions to the east. What remained of the French army then abandoned the field in disorder. Wellington and Blücher met at the inn of La Belle Alliance, on the north–south road which bisected the battlefield, and it was agreed that the Prussians should pursue the retreating French army back to France. The Treaty of Paris was signed on 20 November 1815. After the victory, the Duke supported proposals that a medal be awarded to all British soldiers who participated in the Waterloo campaign, and on 28 June 1815, he wrote to the Duke of York suggesting:<blockquote> ... the expediency of giving to the non-commissioned officers and soldiers engaged in the Battle of Waterloo a medal. I am convinced it would have the best effect in the army, and if the battle should settle our concerns, they will well deserve it.</blockquote>The Waterloo Medal was duly authorised and distributed to all ranks in 1816.ControversyMuch historical discussion has been made about Napoleon's decision to send 33,000 troops under Marshal Grouchy to intercept the Prussians, but—having defeated Blücher at Ligny on 16 June and forced the Allies to retreat in divergent directions—Napoleon may have been strategically astute in a judgement that he would have been unable to beat the combined Allied forces on one battlefield. Wellington's comparable strategic gamble was to leave 17,000 troops and artillery, mostly Dutch, away at Hal, north-west of Mont-Saint-Jean, in case of a French advance up the Mons-Hal-Brussels road. '' by Jan Willem Pieneman, 1824.]] The campaign led to numerous other controversies. Issues concerning Wellington's troop dispositions prior to Napoleon's invasion of the Netherlands, whether Wellington misled or betrayed Blücher by promising, then failing, to come directly to Blücher's aid at Ligny, and credit for the victory between Wellington and the Prussians. These and other such issues concerning Blücher's, Wellington's, and Napoleon's decisions during the campaign were the subject of a strategic-level study by the Prussian political-military theorist Carl von Clausewitz, Feldzug von 1815: Strategische Uebersicht des Feldzugs von 1815, (English title: The Campaign of 1815: Strategic Overview of the Campaign.) for details..}} This study was Clausewitz's last such work and is widely considered to be the best example of Clausewitz's mature theories concerning such analyses. It attracted the attention of Wellington's staff, who prompted the Duke to write a published essay on the campaign (other than his immediate, official after-action report, "The Waterloo Dispatch".) This was published as the 1842 "Memorandum on the Battle of Waterloo". While Wellington disputed Clausewitz on several points, Clausewitz largely absolved Wellington of accusations levelled against him. This exchange with Clausewitz was quite famous in Britain in the 19th century, particularly in Charles Cornwallis Chesney's work the Waterloo Lectures, but was largely ignored in the 20th century due to hostilities between Britain and Germany. Army of occupation in Paris Under the terms of the Treaty of Paris, Wellington was appointed commander of the multi-national army of occupation based in Paris. The army consisted of troops from the United Kingdom, Austria, Russia and Prussia, along with contributions from five smaller European states. Although the various contingents were administered by their own commanders, they were all subordinated to Wellington, who was also responsible for liaison with the French administration. The role of the army was to prevent a resurgence of French aggression and to allow the restored King Louis XVIII to consolidate his control over the country. The army of occupation was never required to intervene militarily and was dissolved in 1818, after which Wellington returned to Britain. It was his last active military command.Prime Minister<span class"anchor" id"First premiership"></span><!-- linked from redirects First premiership of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, First premiership of the Duke of Wellington, First prime ministership of the Duke of Wellington --> First term , 1830–31]] Wellington entered politics again when he was appointed Master-General of the Ordnance in the Tory government of Lord Liverpool on 26 December 1818. He also became Governor of Plymouth on 9 October 1819. He was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the British Army on 22 January 1827 and Constable of the Tower of London on 5 February 1827. Along with Robert Peel, Wellington became an increasingly influential member of the Tory party, and in January 1828 he resigned as Commander-in-Chief and became prime minister. with the additional ceremonial title, Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports. Catholic emancipation Ireland presented his first major challenge. In July 1828, William Vesey Fitzgerald, President of the Board of Trade, was defeated in a County Clare by-election by the champion of Catholic Emancipation, Daniel O'Connell. The electoral upset dramatised the issue of the Oath of Supremacy – the sacramental test that effectively barred Roman Catholics from Parliament (denying O'Connell his seat) and from higher offices of the judiciary and state. However, in the willingness of Ireland's enfranchised forty-shilling freeholders to defy their landlords and vote for emancipation candidates, Wellington recognised a "vast demonstration of populist political organisation, and clerical power" more challenging than a separatist conspiracy. With Peel, who had served as Chief Secretary for Ireland, Wellington was persuaded of the need for a new Oath of Allegiance unexceptional to Catholics. In the face of stiff opposition from the King and in the Lords, he forced the issue by threatening to resign, which would have cleared the way for a new Whig majority with designs not only for emancipation but also for parliamentary reform. The King and his brother, the Duke of Cumberland, did seek to put together a ministry united against Catholic emancipation. But recognising that such a government could not command a majority in the Commons, they soon abandoned the attempt. For Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 (passed with Whig support) O'Connell accorded Wellington little credit. The Duke was no Irish patriot: "To be sure he was born in Ireland", the "Emancipator" famously remarked, "but to be born in a stable does not make a man a horse". This quip was widely reported and frequently attributed, mistakenly, to Wellington himself. Wellington's government did exact a significant price for emancipation.The Relief Act was accompanied by a restriction of the Irish franchise. The property threshold for the county vote was raised five-fold to the British ten-pound standard, disenfranchising O'Connell's Forty Shilling Freeholders, and with them the greater part of the Irish electorate. Duel with Winchilsea The Earl of Winchilsea accused the Duke of "an insidious design for the infringement of our liberties and the introduction of Popery into every department of the State". Wellington responded by immediately challenging Winchilsea to a duel. On 21 March 1829, Wellington and Winchilsea met on Battersea fields. When the time came to fire, the Duke took aim and Winchilsea kept his arm down. The Duke fired wide to the right. Accounts differ as to whether he missed on purpose, an act known in duelling as a delope. Wellington claimed he did. However, he was noted for his poor aim and reports more sympathetic to Winchilsea claimed he had aimed to kill. Winchilsea discharged his pistol into the air, a plan he and his second had almost certainly decided upon before the duel. Honour was saved and Winchilsea wrote Wellington an apology. The nickname "Iron Duke" originated from this period, when he experienced a high degree of personal and political unpopularity. Its repeated use in ''Freeman's Journal'' throughout June 1830 appears to bear reference to his resolute political will, with taints of disapproval from its Irish editors. During this time, Wellington was greeted by a hostile reaction from the crowds at the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. Resignation and aftermath Wellington's government fell in 1830. In the summer and autumn of that year, a wave of riots swept the country. The Whigs had been out of power for most years since the 1770s, and saw political reform in response to the unrest as the key to their return. Wellington stuck to the Tory policy of no reform and no expansion of suffrage, and as a result, lost a vote of no confidence on 15 November 1830. The Whigs introduced a Reform Bill while Wellington and the Tories worked to prevent its passage. The Whigs could not get the bill past its second reading in the British House of Commons, and the attempt failed. An election followed in direct response and the Whigs were returned with a landslide majority. A second Reform Bill was introduced and passed in the House of Commons but was defeated in the Tory-controlled House of Lords. Another wave of near-insurrection swept the country. Wellington's residence at Apsley House was targeted by a mob of demonstrators on 27 April 1831 and again on 12 October, leaving his windows smashed. Iron shutters were installed in June 1832 to prevent further damage by crowds angry over rejection of the Reform Bill, which he strongly opposed. The Whig Government fell in 1832 and Wellington was unable to form a Tory Government partly because of a run on the Bank of England. This left King William IV no choice but to restore Earl Grey to the premiership. Eventually, the bill passed the House of Lords after the king threatened to fill that House with newly created Whig peers if it were not. Wellington was never reconciled to the change; when Parliament first met after the first election under the widened franchise, Wellington is reported to have said "I never saw so many shocking bad hats in my life". Wellington opposed the Jewish Civil Disabilities Repeal Bill, and he stated in Parliament on 1 August 1833 that England "is a Christian country and a Christian legislature, and that the effect of this measure would be to remove that peculiar character." The bill was defeated by 104 votes to 54.Government<!-- linked from redirects Second premiership of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, Second premiership of the Duke of Wellington, Second prime ministership of the Duke of Wellington --> ]] Wellington was gradually superseded as leader of the Tories by Robert Peel, while the party evolved into the Conservatives. When the Tories were returned to power in 1834, Wellington declined to become prime minister because he thought membership in the House of Commons had become essential. The king reluctantly approved Peel, who was in Italy. Hence, Wellington acted as interim leader for three weeks in November and December 1834, taking the responsibilities of prime minister and most of the other ministries. In Peel's first cabinet (1834–1835), Wellington became foreign secretary, while in the second (1841–1846) he was a minister without portfolio and Leader of the House of Lords. Wellington was also re-appointed Commander-in-Chief of the British Army on 15 August 1842 following the resignation of Lord Hill. Wellington served as the leader of the Conservative party in the House of Lords from 1828 to 1846. Some historians have belittled him as a befuddled reactionary, but a consensus in the late 20th century depicts him as a shrewd operator who hid his cleverness behind the façade of a poorly informed old soldier. Wellington worked to transform the Lords from unstinting support of the Crown to an active player in political manoeuvering, with a commitment to the landed aristocracy. He used his London residence as a venue for intimate dinners and private consultations, together with extensive correspondence that kept him in close touch with party leaders in the Commons, and the main persona in the Lords. He gave public rhetorical support to Ultra-Tory anti-reform positions, but then deftly changed positions toward the party's centre, especially when Peel needed support from the upper house. Wellington's success was based on the 44 elected representative peers from Scotland and Ireland, whose elections he controlled. Later life Family by Antoine Claudet depicting an elderly Wellington (1844)]] Wellesley was married by his brother Gerald, a clergyman, to Kitty Pakenham in St George's Church, Dublin, on 10 April 1806. They had two children: Arthur was born in 1807 and Charles was born in 1808. The marriage proved unsatisfactory and the two spent years apart, while Wellesley was campaigning and afterwards. Kitty grew depressed, and Wellesley pursued other sexual and romantic partners. The couple largely lived apart, with Kitty spending most of her time at their country home, Stratfield Saye House, and Wellesley at their London home, Apsley House. Kitty's brother Edward Pakenham served under Wellesley throughout the Peninsular War, and Wellesley's regard for him helped to smooth his relations with Kitty, until Pakenham's death at the Battle of New Orleans in 1815.RetirementWellington retired from political life in 1846, although he remained Commander-in-Chief, and returned briefly to the public eye in 1848 when he helped organise a military force to protect London during the year of European revolution. The Conservative Party had split over the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846, with Wellington and most of the former Cabinet still supporting Peel, but most of the MPs led by Lord Derby supporting a protectionist stance. Early in 1852 Wellington, by then very deaf, gave Derby's first government its nickname by shouting "Who? Who?" as the list of inexperienced Cabinet ministers was read out in the House of Lords. He became Chief Ranger and Keeper of Hyde Park and St James's Park on 31 August 1850. He remained colonel of the 33rd Regiment of Foot from 1 February 1806 and colonel of the Grenadier Guards from 22 January 1827. Kitty died of cancer in 1831; despite their generally unhappy relations, which had led to an effective separation, Wellington was said to have been greatly saddened by her death, his one comfort being that after "half a lifetime together, they had come to understand each other at the end". He had found consolation for his unhappy marriage in his warm friendship with the diarist Harriet Arbuthnot, wife of his colleague Charles Arbuthnot. Harriet's death in the cholera epidemic of 1834 was almost as great a blow to Wellington as it was to her husband. The two widowers spent their last years together at Apsley House. From 1834 until his death in 1852, Wellington served as Chancellor of the University of Oxford.Death and funeral and Apsley House]] , London]] in Woodhouse Moor, Leeds.]] Wellington died at Walmer Castle in Kent, his residence as Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports and reputedly his favourite home, on 14 September 1852. He was found to be unwell on that morning and was helped from his campaign bed, which he had used throughout his military career, and seated in his chair where he died. His death was recorded as being due to the after-effects of a stroke culminating in a series of seizures. He was aged 83. Although in life he hated travelling by rail, having witnessed the death of William Huskisson, one of the first railway accident casualties, his body was taken by train to London, where he was given a state funeral – one of a small number of British subjects to be so honoured (other examples include Lord Nelson and Sir Winston Churchill). The funeral took place on 18 November 1852.}} Before the funeral, the Duke's body lay in state at the Royal Hospital Chelsea. Members of the royal family, including Queen Victoria, Prince Albert, the Prince of Wales, and the Princess Royal, visited to pay their respects. When viewing opened to the public, crowds thronged to visit and several people were killed in the crush. Queen Victoria wrote: "He was the pride and the bon génie, as it were, of this country! He was the GREATEST man this country ever produced, and the most devoted and loyal subject, and the staunchest supporter the Crown ever had." He was buried in St Paul's Cathedral, and during his funeral, there was little space to stand due to the number of attendees. A bronze memorial was sculpted by Alfred Stevens, and features two intricate supports: "Truth tearing the tongue out of the mouth of False-hood", and "Valour trampling Cowardice underfoot". Stevens did not live to see it placed in its home under one of the arches of the cathedral. Wellington's casket was decorated with banners which were made for his funeral procession. Originally, there was one from Prussia, which was removed during World War I and never reinstated. In the procession, the "Great Banner" was carried by General Sir James Charles Chatterton of the 4th Dragoon Guards on the orders of Queen Victoria. Most of the book A Biographical Sketch of the Military and Political Career of the Late Duke of Wellington by Weymouth newspaper proprietor Joseph Drew is a detailed contemporary account of his death, lying in state and funeral. After his death, Irish and English newspapers disputed whether Wellington had been born an Irishman or an Englishman. In 2002, he was number 15 in the BBC's poll of the 100 Greatest Britons. Owing to its links with Wellington, as the former commanding officer and colonel of the regiment, the title "33rd (The Duke of Wellington's) Regiment" was granted to the 33rd Regiment of Foot, on 18 June 1853 (the 38th anniversary of the Battle of Waterloo) by Queen Victoria. Wellington's battle record is exemplary; he participated in some 60 battles during the course of his military career. Personality Wellington always rose early; he "couldn't bear to lie awake in bed", even if the army was not on the march. Even when he returned to civilian life after 1815, he slept in a camp bed, reflecting his lack of regard for creature comforts. General Miguel de Álava complained that Wellington said so often that the army would march "at daybreak" and dine on "cold meat" that he began to dread those two phrases. While on campaign, he seldom ate anything between breakfast and dinner. During the retreat to Portugal in 1811, he subsisted on "cold meat and bread", to the despair of his staff who dined with him. He was, however, renowned for the quality of the wine that he drank and served, often drinking a bottle with his dinner (not a great quantity by the standards of his day). Álava was a witness to an incident just before the Battle of Salamanca. Wellington was eating a chicken leg while observing the manoeuvres of the French army through a spyglass. He spotted an overextension in the French left flank, and realised that he could launch a successful attack there. He exclaimed "By God, that will do!" and threw the drumstick in the air. After the Battle of Toulouse, Colonel Frederick Ponsonby brought him the news of Napoleon's abdication, and Wellington broke into an impromptu flamenco dance, spinning around on his heels and clicking his fingers. , of the 'Valour and Cowardice' motif used in the memorial to Wellington at St. Paul's Cathedral]] Military historian Charles Dalton recorded that, after a hard-fought battle in Spain, a young officer made the comment, "I am going to dine with Wellington tonight", which was overheard by the Duke as he rode by. "Give me at least the prefix of Mr. before my name," Wellington said. "My Lord," replied the officer, "we do not speak of Mr. Caesar or Mr. Alexander, so why should I speak of Mr. Wellington?" While known for his stern countenance and iron-handed discipline, Wellington was by no means unfeeling. While he is said to have disapproved of soldiers cheering as "too nearly an expression of opinion", Wellington nevertheless cared for his men: he refused to pursue the French after the battles of Porto and Salamanca, foreseeing an inevitable cost to his army in chasing a diminished enemy through rough terrain. The only time that he ever showed grief in public was after the storming of Badajoz: he cried at the sight of the British dead in the breaches. In this context, his famous despatch after the Battle of Vitoria, calling them the "scum of the earth", can be seen to be fuelled as much by disappointment at their breaking ranks as by anger. He shed tears after Waterloo on the presentation of the list of British fallen by John Hume. Later with his family, unwilling to be congratulated for his victory, he broke down in tears, his fighting spirit diminished by the high cost of the battle and great personal loss. Wellington's soldier servant, a gruff German called Beckerman, and his long-serving valet, James Kendall, who served him for 25 years and was with him when he died, were both devoted to him. (A story that he never spoke to his servants and preferred instead to write his orders on a notepad on his dressing table in fact probably refers to his son, the 2nd Duke. It was recorded by the 3rd Duke's niece, Viva Seton Montgomerie (1879–1959), as being an anecdote she heard from an old retainer, Charles Holman, who was said greatly to resemble Napoleon.) Following an incident when, as Master-General of the Ordnance, he had been close to a large explosion, Wellington began to experience deafness and other ear-related problems. In 1822, a botched operation on his left ear led to permanent deafness on that side and some contemporaries suggested that he never fully recovered his health. Wellington came to enjoy the company of a variety of intellectual and attractive women and had many amorous liaisons, particularly after the Battle of Waterloo and his subsequent ambassadorial position in Paris. In the days following Waterloo he had an affair with the notorious Lady Caroline Lamb, sister of one of his severely wounded officers and favourites, Col Frederick Ponsonby. He corresponded for many years with Lady Georgiana Lennox, later Lady de Ros, 26 years his junior and daughter of the Duchess of Richmond (who held the famous ball on the eve of Waterloo) and, though there are hints, it has not been clearly determined if the relationship was ever sexual. The British press lampooned the amorous side of the national hero. In 1824, one liaison came back to haunt him, when Wellington received a letter from a publisher, John Joseph Stockdale, offering to refrain from issuing an edition of the rather racy memoirs of one of his mistresses, Harriette Wilson, in exchange for money. It is said that the Duke promptly returned the letter, after scrawling across it, "Publish and be damned". However, Hibbert notes in his biography that the letter can be found among the Duke's papers, with nothing written on it. It is certain that Wellington reply, and the tone of a further letter from the publisher, quoted by Longford, suggests that he had refused in the strongest language to submit to blackmail. He was also a remarkably practical man who spoke concisely. In 1851, it was discovered that there were a great many sparrows flying about in the Crystal Palace just before the Great Exhibition was to open. His advice to Queen Victoria was "Sparrowhawks, ma'am". Wellington has often been portrayed as a defensive general, even though many, perhaps most, of his battles were offensive (Argaum, Assaye, Oporto, Salamanca, Vitoria, Toulouse). However, for most of the Peninsular War, where he earned his fame, his army lacked the numbers for a strategically offensive posture.Titles and tributes 's equestrian statue of the Duke of Wellington]] Nicknames The nickname "Iron Duke" relates to Wellington's political, rather than to his military, career. Its use is often disparaging. It is possible the term became more commonly used after 1832 when Wellington had metal shutters installed at Apsley House to prevent rioters breaking the windows. The term may have been made increasingly popular by Punch cartoons published in 1844–45. In popular ballads of the day Wellington was called "Nosey" or "Old Nosey". More complimentary sobriquets, including "The Beau" and "Beau Douro", referenced his noted dress sense. Spanish troops called him "The Eagle", while Portuguese troops called him "Douro Douro" after his river crossing at Oporto in 1809. Napoleon dismissed his opponent as a "Sepoy General", a reference to Wellington's service in India. The name was used in the French newspaper as a means of propaganda. His allies were more enthusiastic; Tsar Alexander I of Russia calling him , the conqueror of the world's conqueror, the phrase "the world's conqueror" referring to Napoleon. Lord Tennyson uses a similar reference in his "Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington", referring to him as "the great World-victor's victor". Similar tags included "Europe's Liberator" and "Saviour of the Nations".<ref name"Wellington"/> See also * Military career of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington * Army Gold Medal * Cultural depictions of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington * Military General Service Medal * Seringapatam Medal * Cotiote War References Notes Citations Sources :Books * * * * * * }} * * * * * * * * * * }} * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * . * * :Online resources * }} * }} * }} * * * * * . * * }} * }} * }} * * }} * \|archive-date23 March 2009\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090323090135/http://www.kcl.ac.uk/depsta/iss/archives/wellington/duel10.htm\|url-statusdead}} * }} * * * }} * }} * }} * }} Journals and magazines * }} * * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * * }} * }} :Primary sources * * Further reading * * * This on-line text contains Clausewitz's 58-chapter study of the [http://www.clausewitz.com/readings/1815/five1-9.htm Campaign of 1815] and [http://www.clausewitz.com/readings/1815/six.htm Wellington's lengthy 1842 essay] written in response to Clausewitz, as well as supporting documents and essays by the editors. * * * * Goldsmith, Thomas. "The Duke of Wellington and British Foreign Policy 1814–1830." (PhD Diss. University of East Anglia, 2016). [https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/67722/1/2016GoldsmithTBOPhD.pdf online] * * * * Lambert, A. "Politics, administration and decision-making: Wellington and the navy, 1828–30" Wellington Studies IV, ed. C. M. Woolgar, (Southampton, 2008), pp. 185–243. * Longford, Elizabeth. Wellington: Pillar of State (1972), vol 2 of her biography; [https://archive.org/details/wellingtonpillar00long online] * * * External links * [https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transformingsociety/private-lives/yourcountry/collections/waterlooexhibition/duke-of-wellington/ Records and images from the UK Parliament Collections] * [http://british-history.co.uk/napoleonic/arthur-wellesley The life of Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington] * [http://www.dwr.org.uk/ Duke of Wellington's Regiment – West Riding] * [http://www.southampton.ac.uk/archives/cataloguedatabases/webguidemss61.page Papers of Arthur Wellesley, first Duke of Wellington (MS 61)] at the University of Southampton * * * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100715141954/http://www.number10.gov.uk/history-and-tour/prime-ministers-in-history/duke-of-wellington More about Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington on the Downing Street website] * * * * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00547jy "Napoleon and Wellington"], BBC Radio 4 discussion with Andrew Roberts, Mike Broer and Belinda Beaton (In Our Time, 25 October 2001) <br />1834}} <br />1834}} <br />17 November 1834 – 9 December 1834}} \|reasonNapoleonic Wars}} \|years1806–1813}} }} }} Category:1769 births Category:1852 deaths Category:19th-century Anglo-Irish people Category:19th-century prime ministers of the United Kingdom Wellesley Arthur Wellesley, Arthur Category:Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to France Category:British Army commanders of the Napoleonic Wars Category:British Army personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars Category:British Army personnel of the Peninsular War Category:British Secretaries of State for Foreign Affairs Category:Secretaries of State for the Home Department Category:Secretaries of State for War and the Colonies Category:British field marshals Category:British military personnel of the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War Category:British military personnel of the Second Anglo-Maratha War Category:Burials at St Paul's Cathedral Category:Chancellors of the University of Oxford Category:Chief secretaries for Ireland Category:Commissioners of the Treasury for Ireland Category:Constables of the Tower of London Category:Cotiote War Category:Diplomatic peers Category:British duellists Category:Duke of Wellington's Regiment officers Category:Dukes da Vitória Category:Dukes of Ciudad Rodrigo 101 Wellesley, Arthur 1 Category:Fellows of the Royal Society Category:Field marshals of Portugal Category:Field marshals of the Russian Empire Category:Grandees of Spain Category:Grenadier Guards officers Category:Irish Anglicans Wellesley, Arthur Category:Irish expatriates in England Category:Irish expatriates in France Category:Irish expatriates in India Category:Irish expatriates in Portugal Category:Irish expatriates in Spain Category:Irish expatriates in the Netherlands Category:Irish officers in the British Army Category:Leaders of the Conservative Party (UK) Category:Lord high constables of England Category:Lord-lieutenants of Hampshire Category:Lord-lieutenants of the Tower Hamlets Category:Lords Warden of the Cinque Ports Category:MPs for rotten boroughs Category:Members of Trinity House Wellesley, Arthur Wellesley, Arthur Wellesley, Arthur Category:Members of the Privy Council of Ireland Category:Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom Category:Peers of the United Kingdom created by George III Category:People associated with King's College London Category:People educated at Eton College Wellesley, Arthur Category:Princes of Waterloo Category:Regency era Category:Royal Horse Guards officers Category:Spanish captain generals Category:Tory prime ministers of the United Kingdom Wellesley, Arthur Wellesley, Arthur Category:UK MPs who were granted peerages Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington Category:Younger sons of earls <!-- Honours --> Category:Knights of the Garter Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath Category:Recipients of the Army Gold Cross Category:Recipients of the Waterloo Medal Category:Grand Crosses of the Military Order of Maria Theresa Category:Grand Crosses of the Military Order of Max Joseph Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Military Order of William Category:Recipients of the Order of St. Anna, 1st class Category:Recipients of the Order of St. George of the First Degree Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain Category:Grand Crosses of the Royal and Military Order of San Hermenegild Category:Laureate Cross of Saint Ferdinand Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Sword Category:Leaders of the House of Lords Category:Participants to the Congress of Vienna Category:People of the Battle of Waterloo	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Wellesley,_1st_Duke_of_Wellington	2025-04-05T18:28:38.063996
8476	Disk operating system	A disk operating system (DOS) is a computer operating system that resides on and can use a disk storage device, such as a floppy disk, hard disk drive, or optical disc. A disk operating system provides a file system for organizing, reading, and writing files on the storage disk, and a means for loading and running programs stored on that disk. Strictly speaking, this definition does not include any other functionality, so it does not apply to more complex OSes, such as Microsoft Windows, and is more appropriately used only for older generations of operating systems. Disk operating systems for mainframes, minicomputers, microprocessors, and home computers are usually loaded from the disks as part of the boot process. History Early computers predate disk drives, floppy disks, or modern flash storage. Early storage devices such as delay lines, core memories, punched cards, punched tape, magnetic tape, and magnetic drums were used instead. Early microcomputers and home computers used paper tape, audio cassette tape (such as Kansas City standard), or no permanent storage at all. Without permanent storage, program and data entry is done at front panel switches directly into memory or through a computer terminal or keyboard, sometimes controlled by a BASIC interpreter in ROM. When power is turned off, any information is lost. In the early 1960s, as disk drives became larger and more affordable, various mainframe and minicomputer vendors introduced disk operating systems and modified existing operating systems to use disks. Hard disks and floppy disk drives require software to manage rapid access to block storage of sequential and other data. For most microcomputers, a disk drive of any kind was an optional peripheral. Systems could be used with a tape drive or booted without a storage device at all. The disk operating system component of the operating system was only needed when a disk drive was used. By the time IBM announced the System/360 mainframes, the concept of a disk operating system was well established. Although IBM did offer Basic Programming Support (BPS/360) and TOS/360 for small systems, they were out of the mainstream and most customers used either DOS/360 or OS/360. Most home and personal computers of the late 1970s and 1980s used a disk operating system, most often with "DOS" in the name and simply referred to as "DOS" within their respective communities: CBM DOS for Commodore 8-bit systems, Atari DOS for the Atari 8-bit computers, TRS-DOS for the TRS-80, Apple DOS and ProDOS for the Apple II, and MS-DOS for IBM PC compatibles. CP/M is also a disk operating system, despite not having the "DOS" acronym in the name. A disk operating system is usually loaded from a disk, but there are exceptions, such as Commodore's disk drives for the Commodore 64 and VIC-20 which contain the DOS in ROM. AmigaDOS also mostly resides in ROM, as a part of a Kickstart firmware (a few select versions are also loaded from disk). OS extensions Commodore DOS is on 8-bit Commodore computers such as the Commodore 64. Unlike most other DOS systems, it is integrated into the disk drives, not loaded into the computer's own memory. Atari DOS is used by the Atari 8-bit computers. The Atari OS only offers low-level disk-access, so an extra layer called DOS can be booted from a floppy for higher level functions such as filesystems. < }} Disk operating systems	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_operating_system	2025-04-05T18:28:38.072399
8477	Dual	Dual or Duals may refer to: Paired/two things Dual (mathematics), a notion of paired concepts that mirror one another Dual (category theory), a formalization of mathematical duality see more cases in :Category:Duality theories Dual number, a number system used in automatic differentiation Dual (grammatical number), a grammatical category used in some languages Dual county, a Gaelic games county which competes in both Gaelic football and hurling Dual diagnosis, a psychiatric diagnosis of co-occurrence of substance abuse and a mental problem Dual fertilization, simultaneous application of a P-type and N-type fertilizer Dual impedance, electrical circuits that are the dual of each other Dual SIM cellphone supporting use of two SIMs Aerochute International Dual a two-seat Australian powered parachute design Acronyms and other uses Dual (brand), a manufacturer of Hifi equipment DUAL (cognitive architecture), an artificial intelligence design model DUAL algorithm, or diffusing update algorithm, used to update Internet protocol routing tables Dual language, alternative spelling of the Australian Aboriginal Dhuwal language DUAL table, a special one-row and one-column database table Dual-Ghia, US-brand of luxury-car of the late 1950s Media Dual (2008 film), a 2008 western drama film Dual (2022 film), a 2022 science fiction thriller film "Dual" (Heroes), an episode of Heroes Dual! Parallel Trouble Adventure, an anime series Dual (album), an album of traditional Scottish and Irish music recorded by Éamonn Doorley, Muireann Nic Amhlaoibh, Julie Fowlis and Ross Martin, released 2008 Dual (EP), a 2013 EP by Sampha Duals, an album by U2 The Duals, American duo See also Duality (disambiguation) Duel (disambiguation), a homonym Double (disambiguation) Duo (disambiguation) Pair (disambiguation) Twin (disambiguation)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual	2025-04-05T18:28:38.076637
8478	Doublespeak	Doublespeak is language that deliberately obscures, disguises, distorts, or reverses the meaning of words. Doublespeak may take the form of euphemisms (e.g., "downsizing" for layoffs and "servicing the target" for bombing), in which case it is primarily meant to make the truth sound more palatable. It may also refer to intentional ambiguity in language or to actual inversions of meaning. In such cases, doublespeak disguises the nature of the truth. Doublespeak is most closely associated with political language used by large entities such as corporations and governments. Origins and concepts The term doublespeak derives from two concepts in George Orwell's novel, Nineteen Eighty-Four, "doublethink" and "Newspeak", despite the term itself not being used in the novel. Another version of the term, doubletalk, also referring to intentionally ambiguous speech, did exist at the time Orwell wrote his book, but the usage of doublespeak, as well as of "doubletalk", in the sense of emphasizing ambiguity, clearly predates the publication of the novel. Parallels have also been drawn between doublespeak and Orwell's classic essay, Politics and the English Language, which discusses linguistic distortion for purposes related to politics. In the essay, he observes that political language often serves to distort and obscure reality. Orwell's description of political speech is extremely similar to the popular definition of the term, doublespeak: The writer Edward S. Herman cited what he saw as examples of doublespeak and doublethink in modern society. Herman describes in his book, Beyond Hypocrisy, the principal characteristics of doublespeak: Examples In politics Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky comment in their book Manufacturing Consent: the Political Economy of the Mass Media that Orwellian doublespeak is an important component of the manipulation of the English language in American media, through a process called dichotomization, a component of media propaganda involving "deeply embedded double standards in the reporting of news." For example, the use of state funds by the poor and financially needy is commonly referred to as "social welfare" or "handouts," which the "coddled" poor "take advantage of". These terms, however, are not as often applied to other beneficiaries of government spending such as military spending. The bellicose language used interchangeably with calls for peace towards Armenia by Azerbaijani president Aliyev after the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War were described as doublespeak in media. In advertising Advertisers can use doublespeak to mask their commercial intent from users, as users' defenses against advertising become more entrenched. Some are attempting to counter this technique with a number of systems offering diverse views and information to highlight the manipulative and dishonest methods that advertisers employ. According to Jacques Ellul, "the aim is not to even modify people’s ideas on a given subject, rather, it is to achieve conformity in the way that people act." He demonstrates this view by offering an example from drug advertising. Use of doublespeak in advertisements resulted in aspirin production rates rising by almost 50 percent from over 23 million pounds in 1960 to over 35 million pounds in 1970. In comedy Doublespeak, particularly when exaggerated, can be used as a device in satirical comedy and social commentary to ironically parody political or bureaucratic establishments' intent on obfuscation or prevarication. The television series Yes Minister is notable for its use of this device. Oscar Wilde was an early proponent of this device and a significant influence on Orwell. Intensify/downplay pattern This pattern was formulated by Hugh Rank and is a simple tool designed to teach some basic patterns of persuasion used in political propaganda and commercial advertising. The function of the intensify/downplay pattern is not to dictate what should be discussed but to encourage coherent thought and systematic organization. The pattern works in two ways: intensifying and downplaying. All people intensify, and this is done via repetition, association and composition. Downplaying is commonly done via omission, diversion and confusion as they communicate in words, gestures, numbers, et cetera. Individuals can better cope with organized persuasion by recognizing the common ways whereby communication is intensified or downplayed, so as to counter doublespeak. In social media In 2022 and 2023, it was widely reported that social media users were using a form of doublespeak – sometimes called "algospeak" – to subvert content moderation on platforms such as TikTok. Examples include using the word "unalive" instead of "dead" or "kill", or using "leg booty" instead of LGBT, which users believed would prevent moderation algorithms from banning or shadow banning their accounts. Doublespeak Award Doublespeak is often used by politicians to advance their agenda. The Doublespeak Award is an "ironic tribute to public speakers who have perpetuated language that is grossly deceptive, evasive, euphemistic, confusing, or self-centered." It has been issued by the US National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) since 1974. The recipients of the Doublespeak Award are usually politicians, national administration or departments. An example of this is the United States Department of Defense, which won the award three times, in 1991, 1993, and 2001. For the 1991 award, the United States Department of Defense "swept the first six places in the Doublespeak top ten" for using euphemisms like "servicing the target" (bombing) and "force packages" (warplanes). Among the other phrases in contention were "difficult exercise in labor relations", meaning a strike, and "meaningful downturn in aggregate output", an attempt to avoid saying the word "recession". Hugh Rank Hugh Rank helped form the Doublespeak committee in 1971 and was its first chairman. Under his editorship, the committee produced a book called Language and Public Policy (1974), with the aim of informing readers of the extensive scope of doublespeak being used to deliberately mislead and deceive the audience. He highlighted the deliberate public misuses of language and provided strategies for countering doublespeak by focusing on educating people in the English language so as to help them identify when doublespeak is being put into play. He was also the founder of the Intensify/Downplay pattern that has been widely used to identify instances of doublespeak being used. Education against doublespeak Charles Weingartner, one of the founding members of the NCTE committee on Public Doublespeak mentioned: "people do not know enough about the subject (the reality) to recognize that the language being used conceals, distorts, misleads. Teachers of English should teach our students that words are not things, but verbal tokens or signs of things that should finally be carried back to the things that they stand for to be verified." See also Aesopian language Business speak Cant (language) Catachresis Code word (figure of speech) Cognitive dissonance Corporate lingo Dog-whistle politics Double bind Double entendre Double-talk Doublespeak Award Euphemism Obfuscation Obscurantism Polite fiction Notes References Lutz, William. (1987). Doublespeak: From "Revenue Enhancement" to "Terminal Living": How Government, Business, Advertisers, and Others Use Language to Deceive You. New York: Harper & Row External links Business Doublespeak A short essay by William Lutz DoubleSpeak Homepage by Michele Damron (1998) National Council of Teachers of English Doublespeak Award established in 1974 Category:Euphemisms Category:Propaganda techniques using words Category:Cognitive dissonance Category:Nineteen Eighty-Four Category:1940s neologisms	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doublespeak	2025-04-05T18:28:38.094776
8481	Dressed to Kill (1980 film)	\| cinematography = Ralf D. Bode \| editing = Gerald B. Greenberg \| music = Pino Donaggio \| studio = Cinema 77/Film Group \| distributor = Filmways Pictures \| released \| runtime 105 minutes<!-- Theatrical runtime: 105:24 --> \| country = United States \| language = English \| budget $6.5 million \| gross $31.9 million }} Dressed to Kill is a 1980 American erotic psychological thriller film written and directed by Brian De Palma, and starring Michael Caine, Angie Dickinson and Nancy Allen. It depicts the events leading up to the brutal murder of a New York City housewife (Dickinson) before following a prostitute (Allen) who witnesses the crime, and her attempts to solve it with the help of the victim's son (Keith Gordon). It contains several direct references to Alfred Hitchcock's 1960 film Psycho. Released in July 1980, Dressed to Kill was a box office success in the United States, grossing over $30 million. It received largely favorable reviews, and critic David Denby of New York magazine proclaimed it "the first great American movie of the '80s". Dickinson won the Saturn Award for Best Actress for her performance. Allen received both a Golden Globe Award nomination for New Star of the Year, as well as an inaugural first-year Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Actress.Plot Sexually frustrated housewife Kate Miller is attending therapy sessions with New York City psychiatrist Dr. Robert Elliott. During an appointment, Kate attempts to seduce him, but Elliott rejects her advances, stating his unwillingness to jeopardize his happy marriage. Kate has planned to spend the day with her teenage son Peter, an inventor, but he has to cancel as he has reached a critical point in his research for his entry to the city's science fair. Thus, Kate goes alone to the Metropolitan Museum of Art where she unexpectedly flirts with a mysterious stranger. Kate and the stranger stalk each other through the museum until they finally wind up outside, where Kate joins him in a taxi, where he pleasures her. They go to his apartment and have sex. Hours later, Kate awakens and decides to discreetly leave while the man, Warren Lockman, is asleep. Kate sits at his desk to leave him a note and finds a document indicating that Warren has contracted both syphilis and gonorrhea. Shocked, she leaves the apartment, but having hastily forgotten her wedding ring on the nightstand, she returns to retrieve it. The elevator doors open on the figure of a tall, blonde woman in dark sunglasses wielding a straight razor, who violently slashes Kate to death in the elevator. Upon discovering the body, Liz Blake, a high-priced call girl, notices the killer in the elevator's convex mirror, and subsequently becomes both the prime suspect and the killer's next target. Dr. Elliott receives a bizarre message on his answering machine from "Bobbi", a transgender patient. Bobbi taunts the psychiatrist for ending their therapy sessions, apparently because Elliott refuses to sign the necessary papers for Bobbi to undergo sex reassignment surgery. Elliott tries to convince Dr. Levy, the patient's new doctor, that Bobbi is endangering herself and others. Police Detective Marino doubts Liz's story, partly because of her profession, so Liz partners with a revenge-minded Peter to find the killer, using a series of his homemade listening devices and time-lapse cameras to track patients leaving Elliott's office. They catch Bobbi on camera, and soon a tall blonde in sunglasses starts stalking Liz, subsequently making several attempts on her life. Peter thwarts one of them in the New York City Subway by spraying Bobbi with homemade Mace. The pair scheme to learn Bobbi's birth name by infiltrating Dr. Elliott's office. Liz baits the therapist by stripping to lingerie and flirting with him, distracting him long enough to briefly exit and look through his appointment book. Peter is watching through the window when a blonde pulls him away. When Liz returns, a razor-wielding blonde confronts her; the blonde outside shoots and wounds the blonde inside, knocking the wig off and revealing the razor-wielding blonde as Dr. Elliott/Bobbi. The blonde who shot Bobbi is actually a female police officer, revealing herself to be the blonde who has been trailing Liz. Elliott is arrested and committed to a mental institution. Dr. Levy later explains to Liz that Elliott wanted to be a woman, but his male side would not allow him to proceed with the operation. Whenever a woman sexually aroused Elliott, Bobbi, representing the unstable, female side of the doctor's personality, became threatened to the point that she finally became murderous. When Dr. Levy realized this through his last conversation with Elliott, he called the police, who went to work and eventually apprehended Elliott. Elliott escapes from the asylum after strangling a nurse, stalks Liz to Peter's house, and slashes her throat. She wakes up screaming and Peter rushes to her side, letting her realize it was merely a nightmare. Cast <!--- Cast and order per opening tombstone credits, roles per closing credits scroll ---> Production Casting De Palma originally wanted Norwegian actress Liv Ullmann to play Kate Miller, but she declined because of the violence. He also approached Jill Clayburgh, who was unavailable, and the role then went to Angie Dickinson. Sean Connery was offered the role of Robert Elliott and was enthusiastic about it, but declined because of previous commitments. Connery later worked with De Palma on the 1987 Oscar-winning adaptation of The Untouchables. Filming .]] Dressed to Kill was shot primarily in New York City, though the art gallery scene was filmed at the Philadelphia Museum of Art. The film was shot between October 1979 and January 1980. The naked body in the opening scene, taking place in a shower, was not that of Angie Dickinson, but of 1977 Penthouse Pet of the Year model Victoria Lynn Johnson. De Palma has referred to the elevator killing as the best murder scene he has ever done. Censorship Two versions of the film exist in North America, an R-rated version and an unrated version. The unrated version is around 30 seconds longer and shows more pubic hair in the shower scene, more blood in the elevator scene (including a close-up shot of the killer slitting Kate's throat), and more explicit dialogue from Liz during the scene in Elliott's office. These scenes were trimmed when the MPAA originally gave the film an X rating. Release Box officeDressed to Kill premiered in Los Angeles and New York City on July 25, 1980. It grossed a total of $31.9 million at the U.S. box office, and was the 21st highest-grossing film of the year. In September 2011, MGM released both R-rated and unrated versions on DVD and Blu-ray. The Criterion Collection released separate deluxe Blu-ray and DVD editions of the film on September 8, 2015. On October 25, 2022, Kino Lorber issued the film for the first time in 4K UHD Blu-ray format. Reception Critical response Dressed to Kill holds a 83% "fresh" rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 55 reviews, with an average rating of 6.70/10. The consensus states, "With arresting visuals and an engrossingly lurid mystery, Dressed to Kill stylishly encapsulates writer-director Brian De Palma's signature strengths." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 74 out of 100 based on 16 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times awarded the film three stars out of four, stating "the museum sequence is brilliant" and adding: "Dressed to Kill is an exercise in style, not narrative; it would rather look and feel like a thriller than make sense, but DePalma has so much fun with the conventions of the thriller that we forgive him and go along." Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune also gave it three stars out of four, writing that there were scenes "that are as exciting and as stylish as any ever put on film. Unfortunately, a good chunk of the film is a whodunit, and its mystery is so easy to solve that we merely end up watching the film's visual pyrotechnics at a distance, never getting all that involved." Vincent Canby of The New York Times called the film "witty, romantic," and "very funny, which helps to defuse the effect of the graphically photographed violence. In addition, the film is, in its own inside-out way, peculiarly moral." His review added that "The performers are excellent, especially Miss Dickinson." Variety declared "Despite some major structural weaknesses, the cannily manipulated combination of mystery, gore and kinky sex adds up to a slick commercial package that stands to draw some rich blood money." David Denby of New York magazine proclaimed the film "the first great American movie of the '80s." Sheila Benson of the Los Angeles Times wrote "The brilliance of Dressed to Kill is apparent within seconds of its opening gliding shot; it is a sustained work of terror—elegant, sensual, erotic, bloody, a directorial tour de force." Pauline Kael of The New Yorker stated of De Palma that "his timing is so great that when he wants you to feel something he gets you every time. His thriller technique, constantly refined, has become insidious, jewelled. It's hardly possible to find a point at which you could tear yourself away from this picture." Gary Arnold of The Washington Post wrote, "This elegant new murder thriller promises to revive the lagging summer box office and enhance De Palma's reputation as the most exciting and distinctive manipulator of suspense since Alfred Hitchcock." In his movie guide, Leonard Maltin gave the film stars out of four, calling it a "High-tension melodrama", and stating "De Palma works on viewers' emotions, not logic, and maintains a fever pitch from start to finish." He also praised Pino Donaggio's "chilling music score." John Simon, of the National Review, after taking note of the two-page advertisements full of superlatives in The New York Times, wrote "What Dressed to Kill dispenses liberally, however, is sophomoric soft-core pornography, vulgar manipulation of the emotions for mere sensation, salacious but inept dialogue that is a cross between comic-strip Freudianism and sniggering double entendres, and a plot line so full of holes to be at best a dotted line". Controversy The film led to controversy and protests upon its release. When the film was screened, Iowa City National Organization for Women and members of other feminist organizations picketed the film as it was shown on the University of Iowa campus, distributing leaflets against the film, condemning what they saw as a depiction of violence against women as entertainment. During the film's initial release, the activist group Women Against Violence in Pornography and Media distributed a leaflet, arguing that "The distorted image of a psychotic male transvestite makes all sexual minorities appear sick and dangerous." Numerous critics have since placed Dressed to Kill in a lineage of slasher movies that perpetuate the transphobic myth that trans people are mentally ill sexual predators. Dressed to Kill was featured in the 2020 documentary Disclosure: Trans Lives on Screen; in a 2020 reappraisal of the film for The Guardian, the critic Scott Tobias referred to De Palma's understanding of trans issues as "disconcertingly retrograde....There's no getting around the ugly association of gender transition with violence, other than to say that it feels thoroughly aestheticized". In a 2016 interview, De Palma said, "I don't know what the transgender community would think [of the film now]... Obviously I realize that it's not good for their image to be transgender and also be a psychopathic murderer. But I think that [perception] passes with time. We're in a different time." He added that he was "glad" that the film had become "a favorite of the gay community," which he attributed to its "flamboyance". Accolades {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Award ! Category ! Subject ! Result \|- \|Golden Globe Award \|New Star of the Year – Actress \|rowspan=3\|Nancy Allen \| \|- \|Stinkers Bad Movie Award \|Worst Actress \| \|- \|rowspan=3\|Golden Raspberry Awards \|Worst Actress \| \|- \|Worst Actor \|Michael Caine \| \|- \|Worst Director \|rowspan=2\|Brian De Palma \| \|- \|rowspan=4\|Saturn Awards \|Best Director \| \|- \|colspan=2\|Best Horror Film \| \|- \|Best Actress \|Angie Dickinson \| \|- \|Best Music \|Pino Donaggio \| \|- \|rowspan=2\|New York Film Critics Circle Awards \|colspan=2\|Best Film \| \|- \|Best Director \|Brian De Palma \| \|- \|} See also * List of horror films of 1980 * List of American films of 1980 * Transgender in film and television * Cruising, William Friedkin's cult 1980 film with similar LGBT themes * Giallo References Bibliography * * * External links * * * * * * [http://film.virtual-history.com/film.php?filmid=35 Film stills] * [https://www.criterion.com/current/posts/3691-dressed-to-kill-the-power-of-two Dressed to Kill: The Power of Two] – an essay by Michael Koresky at The Criterion Collection Category:1980 films Category:1980 controversies in the United States Category:1980 crime thriller films Category:1980 independent films Category:1980 LGBTQ-related films Category:1980s American films Category:1980s English-language films Category:1980s erotic thriller films Category:1980s mystery thriller films Category:1980s slasher films Category:American crime thriller films Category:American erotic horror films Category:American erotic thriller films Category:American horror thriller films Category:American independent films Category:American LGBTQ-related films Category:American neo-noir films Category:American mystery thriller films Category:American slasher films Category:Erotic mystery films Category:Erotic slasher films Category:Films about adultery in the United States Category:Films about dissociative identity disorder Category:Films about murderers Category:Films about prostitution in the United States Category:Films about psychiatry Category:Films about sexuality Category:Films about trans women Category:Films directed by Brian De Palma Category:Films scored by Pino Donaggio Category:Films set in art museums and galleries Category:Films set in New York City Category:Films shot in New York City Category:Films shot in Philadelphia Category:Filmways films Category:LGBTQ-related controversies in film Category:LGBTQ-related crime thriller films Category:Rating controversies in film Category:English-language independent films Category:English-language crime thriller films Category:English-language erotic thriller films Category:English-language mystery thriller films Category:Saturn Award–winning films	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dressed_to_Kill_(1980_film)	2025-04-05T18:28:38.109939
8483	Diesel cycle	The Diesel cycle is a combustion process of a reciprocating internal combustion engine. In it, fuel is ignited by heat generated during the compression of air in the combustion chamber, into which fuel is then injected. This is in contrast to igniting the fuel-air mixture with a spark plug as in the Otto cycle (four-stroke/petrol) engine. Diesel engines are used in aircraft, automobiles, power generation, diesel–electric locomotives, and both surface ships and submarines. The Diesel cycle is assumed to have constant pressure during the initial part of the combustion phase (V_2 to V_3 in the diagram, below). This is an idealized mathematical model: real physical diesels do have an increase in pressure during this period, but it is less pronounced than in the Otto cycle. In contrast, the idealized Otto cycle of a gasoline engine approximates a constant volume process during that phase. Idealized Diesel cycle thumb\|upright=1.2\|p–V diagram for the ideal Diesel cycle. The cycle follows the numbers 1–4 in clockwise direction. The image shows a p–V diagram for the ideal Diesel cycle; where p is pressure and V the volume or v the specific volume if the process is placed on a unit mass basis. The idealized Diesel cycle assumes an ideal gas and ignores combustion chemistry, exhaust- and recharge procedures and simply follows four distinct processes: 1→2 : isentropic compression of the fluid (blue) 2→3 : constant pressure heating (red) 3→4 : isentropic expansion (yellow) 4→1 : constant volume cooling (green) The Diesel engine is a heat engine: it converts heat into work. During the bottom isentropic processes (blue), energy is transferred into the system in the form of work W_{in}, but by definition (isentropic) no energy is transferred into or out of the system in the form of heat. During the constant pressure (red, isobaric) process, energy enters the system as heat Q_{in}. During the top isentropic processes (yellow), energy is transferred out of the system in the form of W_{out}, but by definition (isentropic) no energy is transferred into or out of the system in the form of heat. During the constant volume (green, isochoric) process, some of the energy flows out of the system as heat through the right depressurizing process Q_{out}. The work that leaves the system is equal to the work that enters the system plus the difference between the heat added to the system and the heat that leaves the system; in other words, net gain of work is equal to the difference between the heat added to the system and the heat that leaves the system. Work in (W_{in}) is done by the piston compressing the air (system) Heat in (Q_{in}) is done by the combustion of the fuel Work out (W_{out}) is done by the working fluid expanding and pushing a piston (this produces usable work) Heat out (Q_{out}) is done by venting the air Net work produced = Q_{in} - Q_{out} The net work produced is also represented by the area enclosed by the cycle on the p–V diagram. The net work is produced per cycle and is also called the useful work, as it can be turned to other useful types of energy and propel a vehicle (kinetic energy) or produce electrical energy. The summation of many such cycles per unit of time is called the developed power. The W_{out} is also called the gross work, some of which is used in the next cycle of the engine to compress the next charge of air. Maximum thermal efficiency The maximum thermal efficiency of a Diesel cycle is dependent on the compression ratio and the cut-off ratio. It has the following formula under cold air standard analysis: \eta_{th}=1-\frac{1}{r^{\gamma-1}}\left ( \frac{\alpha^{\gamma}-1}{\gamma(\alpha-1)} \right ) where \eta_{th} is thermal efficiency \alpha is the cut-off ratio \frac{V_3}{V_2} (ratio between the end and start volume for the combustion phase) is the compression ratio \frac{V_1}{V_2} \gamma is ratio of specific heats (Cp/Cv) The cut-off ratio can be expressed in terms of temperature as shown below: \frac{T_2}{T_1} {\left(\frac{V_1}{V_2}\right)^{\gamma-1}} r^{\gamma-1} \displaystyle {T_2} ={T_1} r^{\gamma-1} \frac{V_3}{V_2} = \frac{T_3}{T_2} \alpha = \left(\frac{T_3}{T_1}\right)\left(\frac{1}{r^{\gamma-1}}\right) T_3 can be approximated to the flame temperature of the fuel used. The flame temperature can be approximated to the adiabatic flame temperature of the fuel with corresponding air-to-fuel ratio and compression pressure, p_3. T_1 can be approximated to the inlet air temperature. This formula only gives the ideal thermal efficiency. The actual thermal efficiency will be significantly lower due to heat and friction losses. The formula is more complex than the Otto cycle (petrol/gasoline engine) relation that has the following formula: \eta_{otto,th}=1-\frac{1}{r^{\gamma-1}} The additional complexity for the Diesel formula comes around since the heat addition is at constant pressure and the heat rejection is at constant volume. The Otto cycle by comparison has both the heat addition and rejection at constant volume. Comparing efficiency to Otto cycle Comparing the two formulae it can be seen that for a given compression ratio (), the ideal Otto cycle will be more efficient. However, a real diesel engine will be more efficient overall since it will have the ability to operate at higher compression ratios. If a petrol engine were to have the same compression ratio, then knocking (self-ignition) would occur and this would severely reduce the efficiency, whereas in a diesel engine, the self ignition is the desired behavior. Additionally, both of these cycles are only idealizations, and the actual behavior does not divide as clearly or sharply. Furthermore, the ideal Otto cycle formula stated above does not include throttling losses, which do not apply to diesel engines. Applications Diesel engines Diesel engines have the lowest specific fuel consumption of any large internal combustion engine employing a single cycle, 0.26 lb/hp·h (0.16 kg/kWh) for very large marine engines (combined cycle power plants are more efficient, but employ two engines rather than one). Two-stroke diesels with high pressure forced induction, particularly turbocharging, make up a large percentage of the very largest diesel engines. In North America, diesel engines are primarily used in large trucks, where the low-stress, high-efficiency cycle leads to much longer engine life and lower operational costs. These advantages also make the diesel engine ideal for use in the heavy-haul railroad and earthmoving environments. Other internal combustion engines without spark plugs Many model airplanes use very simple "glow" and "diesel" engines. Glow engines use glow plugs. "Diesel" model airplane engines have variable compression ratios. Both types depend on special fuels. Some 19th-century or earlier experimental engines used external flames, exposed by valves, for ignition, but this becomes less attractive with increasing compression. (It was the research of Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot that established the thermodynamic value of compression.) A historical implication of this is that the diesel engine could have been invented without the aid of electricity. See the development of the hot-bulb engine and indirect injection for historical significance. References See also Diesel engine Hot-bulb engine Mixed/dual cycle Partially premixed combustion Category:Thermodynamic cycles	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_cycle	2025-04-05T18:28:38.116275
8484	Deus Ex (video game)	\| publisher = Eidos Interactive \| director = Warren Spector \| producer = Warren Spector \| designer = Harvey Smith \| programmer = \| artist = \| writer = \| composer = \| series = Deus Ex \| engine Unreal Engine 1 \| platforms = \| released \|Microsoft WindowsMac OSPlayStation 2}} \| genre = Action role-playing, first-person shooter \| modes = Single-player, multiplayer }} Deus Ex is a 2000 action role-playing game developed by Ion Storm and published by Eidos Interactive. Set in a cyberpunk-themed dystopian world in the year 2052, the game follows JC Denton, an agent of the fictional agency United Nations Anti-Terrorist Coalition (UNATCO), who is given superhuman abilities by nanotechnology, as he sets out to combat hostile forces in a world ravaged by inequality and a deadly plague. His missions entangle him in a conspiracy that brings him into conflict with the Triads, Majestic 12, and the Illuminati. Deus Exs gameplay combines elements of the first-person shooter with stealth elements, adventure, and role-playing genres, allowing for its tasks and missions to be completed in a variety of ways, which in turn lead to differing outcomes. Presented from the first-person perspective, the player can customize JC Denton's various abilities such as weapon skills or lockpicking, increasing his effectiveness in these areas; this opens up different avenues of exploration and methods of interacting with or manipulating other characters. The player can complete side missions away from the primary storyline by moving freely around the available areas, which can reward the player with experience points to upgrade abilities and alternative ways to tackle main missions. Powered by Unreal Engine 1, the game was released for Microsoft Windows in June 2000, with a Mac OS port following the next month. A modified version of the game was released for the PlayStation 2 in 2002 as Deus Ex: The Conspiracy. In the years following its release, Deus Ex has received additional improvements and content from its fan community. The game received critical acclaim, being praised for its immersive gameplay and player freedom, while its graphics and voice acting received more criticism. It received several Game of the Year awards, and is regarded as one of the best video games of all time, including being named "Best PC Game of All Time" in PC Gamers "Top 100 PC Games" in 2011. It has sold more than 1 million copies, as of April 23, 2009. The game led to a series, which includes the sequel Deus Ex: Invisible War (2003), and three prequels: Deus Ex: Human Revolution (2011), Deus Ex: The Fall (2013), and Deus Ex: Mankind Divided (2016). Gameplay Deus Ex incorporates elements from four video game genres: role-playing, first-person shooter, adventure, and "immersive simulation", the last of which being a game where "nothing reminds you that you're just playing a game." For example, the game uses a first-person camera during gameplay and includes exploration and character interaction as primary features. This nanotechnology is a central gameplay mechanism and allows players to perform superhuman feats. Role-playing elements As the player accomplishes objectives, the player character is rewarded with "skill points". Skill points are used to enhance a character's abilities in eleven different areas, and were designed to provide players with a way to customize their characters; Weapons may be customized through "weapon modifications", which can be found or purchased throughout the game. The player might add scopes, silencers, or laser sights; increase the weapon's range, accuracy, or magazine size; or decrease its recoil and reload time; as appropriate to the weapon type. Players are further encouraged to customize their characters through nano-augmentations—cybernetic devices that grant characters superhuman powers. While the game contains eighteen different nano-augmentations, the player can install a maximum of nine, as each must be used on a certain part of the body: one in the arms, legs, eyes, and head; two underneath the skin; and three in the torso. This forces the player to choose carefully between the benefits offered by each augmentation. For example, the arm augmentation requires the player to decide between boosting their character's skill in hand-to-hand combat or his ability to lift heavy objects. Interaction with non-player characters (NPCs) was a significant design focus. However, through the game's role-playing systems, it is possible to develop a character's skills and augmentations to create a tank-like combat specialist with the ability to deal and absorb large amounts of damage. Non-player characters will praise or criticize the main character depending on the use of force, incorporating a moral element into the gameplay. Deus Ex features a head-up display crosshair, whose size dynamically shows where shots will fall based on movement, aim, and the weapon in use; the reticle expands while the player is moving or shifting their aim, and slowly shrinks to its original size while at rest. Support for multiplayer modes was later incorporated through patches. The component consists of three game modes: deathmatch, basic team deathmatch, and advanced team deathmatch. Five maps, based on levels from the single-player portion of the game, were included with the original multiplayer patch, but many user-created maps exist, while also many features of the single-player game missing in multiplayer have been re-introduced by various user RPG modifications. In April 2014 it was announced that GameSpy would cease their masterserver services, also affecting Deus Ex. Synopsis Setting and characters Deus Ex takes place in 2052, as it exists if real-world conspiracy theories turn out to be true. It is headquartered near New York City in a bunker beneath Liberty Island, placed there after a terrorist strike on the Statue of Liberty. The main character of Deus Ex'' is UNATCO agent JC Denton (voiced by Jay Franke), one of the first in a new line of agents physically altered with advanced nanotechnology to gain superhuman abilities, and the bureaucratic UNATCO chief Joseph Manderley. UNATCO communications tech Alex Jacobson's character model and name are based on Warren Spector's nephew, Alec Jacobson. JC's missions bring him into contact with various characters, including NSF leader Juan Lebedev, hacker and scientist Tracer Tong, nano-tech expert Gary Savage, Nicolette DuClare (daughter of an Illuminati member), former Illuminati leader Morgan Everett, the Artificial Intelligences (AI) Daedalus and Icarus, and Bob Page, owner of VersaLife and leader of Majestic 12, a clandestine organization that has usurped the infrastructure of the Illuminati, allowing him to control the world for his own ends. Plot After completing his training, UNATCO agent JC Denton takes several missions given by Director Joseph Manderley to track down members of the National Secessionist Forces (NSF) and their stolen shipments of the Ambrosia vaccine, the treatment for the Gray Death virus. Through these missions, JC is reunited with his brother, Paul, who is also nano-augmented. JC tracks the Ambrosia shipment to a private terminal at LaGuardia Airport. Paul meets JC outside the plane and explains that he has defected from UNATCO and is working with the NSF after learning that the Gray Death is a human-made virus, with UNATCO using its power to make sure only the elite receive the vaccine. JC returns to UNATCO headquarters and is told by Manderley that both he and Paul have been outfitted with a 24-hour kill switch and that Paul's has been activated due to his betrayal. Manderley orders JC to fly to Hong Kong to eliminate Tracer Tong, a hacker whom Paul has contact with, and who can disable the kill switches. Instead, JC returns to Paul's apartment to find Paul hiding inside. Paul further explains his defection and encourages JC to also defect by sending out a distress call to alert the NSF's allies. Upon doing so, JC becomes a wanted man by UNATCO, and his kill switch is activated by Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Director Walton Simons. JC is unable to escape UNATCO forces, and both he and Paul (provided he survived the raid on the apartment) are taken to a secret prison below UNATCO headquarters. An entity named "Daedalus" contacts JC and informs him that the prison is part of Majestic 12, and arranges for him and Paul (if alive) to escape. JC and Paul (if alive) flee to Hong Kong to meet with Tong, who deactivates their kill switches. Tong requests that JC infiltrate the VersaLife building. Doing so, JC discovers that the corporation is the source for the Gray Death, and he can steal the plans for the virus and destroy the universal constructor (UC) that produces it. Analysis of the virus shows that its structure was designed by the Illuminati, prompting Tong to send JC to Paris to obtain their help fighting Majestic 12. JC meets with Illuminati leader Morgan Everett and learns that the technology behind the Gray Death was intended to be used for augmentation, but Majestic 12, led by trillionaire businessman and former Illuminatus Bob Page, stole and repurposed it. Everett recognizes that without VersaLife's UC, Majestic 12 can no longer create the virus, and will likely target Vandenberg Air Force Base (which in real life is now a space force base), where X-51, a group of former Area 51 scientists, have built another one. After aiding the base personnel in repelling a Majestic 12 attack, JC meets X-51 leader Gary Savage, who reveals that Daedalus is an artificial intelligence (AI) borne out of the ECHELON program. Everett attempts to gain control over Majestic 12's communications network by releasing Daedalus onto the U.S. military networks, but Page counters by releasing his own AI, Icarus. Icarus merges with Daedalus to form a new AI, Helios, which can control all global communications. Savage enlists JC's help in procuring schematics for reconstructing components for the UC that were damaged during Majestic 12's raid of Vandenberg. JC finds the schematics and transmits them to Savage. Page intercepts the transmission and targets a nuclear missile at Vandenberg to ensure that Area 51, now Majestic 12's headquarters, will be the only location in the world with an operational UC. However, JC can reprogram the missile to strike Area 51. JC travels to Area 51 to confront Page. Page reveals that he seeks to merge with Helios and gain full control over nanotechnology. JC is contacted by Tong, Everett, and the Helios AI successively. Each of the three ask for his help in defeating Page while furthering their own objectives. Tong seeks to plunge the world into a Dark Age by destroying the global communications hub and preventing anyone from taking control of the world. Everett offers Denton the chance to return the Illuminati to power by killing Page and using the Area 51 technology to rule the world with an invisible hand. Helios wishes to merge with Denton and rule the world as a benevolent dictator with infinite knowledge and reason. The player's decision determines the future and brings the game to a close. Development After Looking Glass Technologies and Origin Systems released Ultima Underworld II: Labyrinth of Worlds in January 1993, producer Warren Spector began to plan Troubleshooter, the game that would become Deus Ex. In his 1994 proposal, he described the concept as "Underworld-style first-person action" in a real-world setting with "big-budget, nonstop action". The game's working title was Shooter: Majestic Revelations, and it was scheduled for release on Christmas 1998. In early 1998, the Deus Ex team grew to 20 people, and the game entered a 28-month production phase. The development team consisted of three programmers, six designers, seven artists, a writer, an associate producer, a "tech", and Spector. Two writers and four testers were hired as contractors. Chris Norden was the lead programmer and assistant director, Harvey Smith the lead designer, Jay Lee the lead artist, and Sheldon Pacotti the lead writer.<!-- This is written the same year as release, so is going to be most accurate--> Australia on July 27, and the United Kingdom on August 4, 2000. and published by Eidos Interactive for Microsoft Windows. The team planned third-party ports for Mac OS 9 and Linux. Design The original 1997 design document for Deus Ex privileges character development over all other features. Once coded, the team's game systems did not work as intended. The early tests of the conversation system and user interface were flawed. The team also found augmentations and skills to be less interesting than they had seemed in the design document. In response, Harvey Smith substantially revised the augmentations and skills. was praised by critics for complementing the gritty atmosphere predominant throughout the game with melodious and ambient music incorporated from a number of genres, including techno, jazz, and classical. The music sports a basic dynamic element, similar to the iMUSE system used in early 1990s LucasArts games; during play, the music will change to a different iteration of the currently playing song based on the player's actions, such as when the player starts a conversation, engages in combat, or transitions to the next level. All the music in the game is tracked - Gabrels' contribution, "NYC Bar", was converted to a module by Alexander Brandon. Release Deus Ex has been re-released in several iterations since its original publication and has also been the basis of several mods developed by its fan community. The Deus Ex: Game of the Year Edition, which was released on May 8, 2001, contains the latest game updates and a software development kit, a separate soundtrack CD, and a page from a fictional newspaper featured prominently in Deus Ex titled The Midnight Sun, which recounts recent events in the game's world. However, later releases of said version do not include the soundtrack CD and contain a PDF version of the newspaper on the game's disc. Developed by Westlake Interactive, the Mac OS port was released on July 13, shipping with the same capabilities which can also be patched to enable multiplayer support. However, publisher Aspyr Media did not release any subsequent editions of the game or any additional patches. As such, the game is only supported in Mac OS 9 and the "Classic" environment in Mac OS X, neither of which are compatible with Intel-based Macs. The Windows version will run on Intel-based Macs using Crossover, Boot Camp, or other software to enable a compatible version of Windows to run on a Mac. A PlayStation 2 port of the game, retitled Deus Ex: The Conspiracy outside of Europe, was released in 2002 in North America on March 26, in the United Kingdom on June 7, and in Australia on December 13. and Along with motion-captured character animations and pre-rendered introductory and ending cinematics that replaced the original versions, it features a simplified interface with optional auto-aim. There are many minor changes in level design, some to balance gameplay, but most to accommodate loading transition areas, due to the memory limitations of the PlayStation 2. The PlayStation 2 version was re-released in Europe on the PlayStation 3 as a PlayStation 2 Classic on May 16, 2012. Loki Games worked on a Linux version of the game, but the company went out of business before releasing it. The OpenGL layer they wrote for the port, however, was sent out to Windows gamers through an online patch. Though their quality assurance did not see major Direct3D issues, players noted "dramatic slowdowns" immediately following the launch, and the team did not understand the "black box" of the Unreal engine well enough to make it do exactly what they needed. Spector characterized Deus Ex reviews into two categories based on how they begin with either how "Warren Spector makes games all by himself" or that "Deus Ex couldn't possibly have been made by Ion Storm". He has said that the game won over 30 "best of" awards in 2001, In September 2000, Eidos Interactive and Ion Storm announced in a press release that they would be releasing the software development kit (SDK), which included all the tools used to create the original game. Several team members, as well as project director Warren Spector, stated that they were "really looking forward to seeing what [the community] does with our tools". The kit was released on September 22, 2000, and soon gathered community interest, followed by the release of tutorials, small mods, up to announcements of large mods and conversions. The game's protagonist is a user of an Internet forum, with digital places represented as physical locations. The mod offers roughly the same amount of gameplay as Deus Ex and adds several new features to the game, with a more open world structure than Deus Ex and new weapons such as the player character's fists. The mod was developed over seven years and has thousands of lines of recorded dialogue and two different parallel story arcs. Upon its release, TNM earned a 9/10 overall from PC PowerPlay magazine. In Mod DB's 2009 Mod of the Year awards, The Nameless Mod won the Editor's Choice award for Best Singleplayer Mod. In 2015, during the 15th anniversary of the game's release, Square Enix (who had acquired Eidos earlier) endorsed a free fan-created mod, Deus Ex: Revision, which was released through Steam. The mod, created by Caustic Creative, is a graphical overhaul of the original game, adding in support for newer versions of DirectX, upgraded textures adapted from previous mods, a remixed soundtrack, and more world-building aesthetics. It also alters aspects of gameplay, including new level design paths and in-game architecture. Another overhaul mod, GMDX, released its final version in mid-2017 with enhanced artificial intelligence, improved physics, and upgraded visual textures. The Lay D Denton Project, a mod adding the ability to play as a female JC – a feature that had been planned for Deus Ex but ultimately not implemented – was released in 2021. This included the re-recording of all of JC's voice lines by voice actress Karen Rohan, the addition of 3D models for the character, and editing of all gendered references to JC including other characters' voice clips. The audio editing was the most difficult aspect, as any abnormalities would have been noticed easily; a few characters were too difficult to edit, and had to be recast for the mod. Reception SalesAccording to Computer Gaming Worlds Stefan Janicki, Deus Ex had "sold well in North America" by early 2001. In the United States, it debuted at #6 on PC Data's sales chart for the week ending June 24, at an average retail price of $40. It fell to eighth place in its second week but rose again to position 6 in its third. It proceeded to place in the top 10 rankings for August 6–12 and the week ending September 2 and to secure 10th place overall for the months of July and August. Deus Ex achieved sales of 138,840 copies and revenues of $5 million in the United States by the end of 2000, according to PC Data. The firm tracked another 91,013 copies sold in the country during 2001. The game was a larger hit in Europe; Janicki called it a "blockbuster" for the region, which broke a trend of weak sales for 3D games. He wrote, "[I]n Europe—particularly in England—the action/RPG dominated the charts all summer, despite competition from heavyweights like Diablo II and The Sims." In the United Kingdom, Deus Ex reached #1 on the sales charts during August and spent three months in the top 10. The ELSPA later raised it to "Gold" status, for 200,000 sales. In April 2009, Square-Enix revealed that Deus Ex had surpassed 1 million sales globally, but was outsold by Deus Ex: Invisible War. Critical response Deus Ex received critical acclaim, attaining a score of 90 out of 100 from 28 critics on Metacritic. Computer Games Magazine praised the title for its deep gameplay and its use of multiple solutions to situations in the game. Similarly, Edge highlighted the game's freedom of choice, saying that Deus Ex "never tells you what to do. Goals are set, but alter according to your decisions." Eurogamers Rob Fahey lauded the game, writing, "Moody and atmospheric, compelling and addictive, this is first person gaming in grown-up form, and it truly is magnificent." Former GameSpot reviewer Greg Kasavin, though awarding the game a score of 8.2 of 10, was disappointed by the security and lockpicking mechanics. "Such instances are essentially noninteractive", he wrote. "You simply stand there and spend a particular quantity of electronic picks or modules until the door opens or the security goes down." He poked fun at JC's "Joe Friday, 'just the facts', deadpan", and the "truly cheesy accents" of minor characters in Hong Kong and New York City. IGN called the graphics "blocky", adding that "the animation is stiff, and the dithering is just plain awful in some spots", referring to the limited capabilities of the Unreal Engine used to design the game. The website, later on, stated that "overall Deus Ex certainly looks better than your average game". Reviewers and players also complained about the size of Deus Exs save files. An Adrenaline Vault reviewer noted that "Playing through the entire adventure, [he] accumulated over 250 MB of save game data, with the average file coming in at over 15 MB." The game developed a strong cult following, leading to a core modding and playing community that remained active over 15 years after its release. In an interview with IGN in June 2015, game director Warren Spector said he never expected Deus Ex to sell many copies, but he did expect it to become a cult classic among a smaller, active community, and he continues to receive fan mail from players to date regarding their experiences and thoughts about Deus Ex. Awards and accolades Deus Ex received over 30 "best of" awards in 2001, It won "Excellence in Game Design" and "Game Innovation Spotlight" at the 2001 Game Developers Choice Awards, and it was nominated for "Game of the Year". At the 4th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards, Deus Ex had won awards in the "Computer Innovation" and "PC Action/Adventure" categories, as well as received nominations for "Sound Design", "PC Role-Playing", and "Game of the Year" in both the PC and overall categories. The game also collected several "Best Story" accolades, including first prize in Gamasutra's 2006 "Quantum Leap" awards for storytelling in a video game. Deus Ex has appeared in several lists of the greatest games. It was included in IGN "100 Greatest Games of All Time" (#40, #21 and #34 in 2003, 2005 and 2007, respectively), "Top 25 Modern PC Games" (4th place in 2010) and "Top 25 PC Games of All Time" (#20 and #21 in 2007 and 2009 respectively) lists. GameSpy featured the game in its "Top 50 Games of All Time" (18th place in 2001) and "25 Most Memorable Games of the Past 5 Years" (15th place in 2004) lists, and in the site's "Hall of Fame". PC Gamer placed Deus Ex on its "Top 100 PC Games of All Time" (#2, #2, #1 by staff and #4 by readers in 2007, 2008, 2010 and 2010 respectively) and "50 Best Games of All Time" (#10 and #27 in 2001 and 2005) lists, and it was awarded 1st place in PC Zones "101 Best PC Games Ever" feature. It was also included in Yahoo! UK Video Games' "100 Greatest Computer Games of All Time" (28th place) list, and in Edges "The 100 Best Videogames" (29th place in 2007) and "100 Best Games to Play Today" (57th place in 2009) lists. Deus Ex was named the second-best game of the 2000s by Gamasutra. In 2012, Time named it one of the 100 greatest video games of all time, and G4tv named it the 53rd best game of all time for its "complex and well-crafted story that was really the start of players making choices that genuinely affect the outcome". 1UP.com listed it as one of the most important games of all time, calling its influence "too massive to properly gauge". In 2019, the Guardian named it the 29th best game of the 21st century, describing it as a "cultural event". {\| class"wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" style"width:99%;" \|+ List of awards and nominations \|- ! Year !! Award !! Category !! Recipient!! Result !! class="unsortable" \| \|- \| rowspan="10"\| 2001 \| rowspan="3"\| Game Developers Choice Awards \| Excellence in Game Design \| Harvey Smith, Warren Spector \| \| rowspan"3" style"text-align:center;"\| <br /><br /><br /> \|- \| PC Game of the Year \| Deus Ex \| \|- \| PC Role-Playing \| Deus Ex \| \|- \| Sound Design \| Deus Ex \| \|- \| British Academy of Film and Television Arts \| PC Game of the Year \| Deus Ex \| \| style"text-align:center;"\| On March 29, 2007, Valve announced Deus Ex and its sequel would be available for purchase from their Steam service. Among the games announced are several other Eidos franchise titles, including Thief: Deadly Shadows and Tomb Raider. Eidos Montréal produced a prequel to Deus Ex called Deus Ex: Human Revolution. This was confirmed on November 26, 2007, when Eidos Montréal posted a teaser trailer for the title on their website. The game was released on August 23, 2011, for the PC, PlayStation 3, and Xbox 360 platforms and received critical acclaim. On April 7, 2015, Eidos announced a sequel to Deus Ex: Human Revolution and second prequel to Deus Ex titled Deus Ex: Mankind Divided. It was released on August 23, 2016. Adaptation A film adaptation based on the game was initially announced in May 2002 by Columbia Pictures. The film was being produced by Laura Ziskin, along with Greg Pruss attached with writing the screenplay. Peter Schlessel, president of the production for Columbia Pictures, and Paul Baldwin, president of marketing for Eidos Interactive, stated that they were confident in that the adaptation would be a successful development for both the studios and the franchise. In March 2003, during an interview with Greg Pruss, he informed IGN that the character of JC Denton would be "a little bit filthier than he was in the game". He further stated that the script was shaping up to be darker in tone than the original game. Although a release date was scheduled for 2006, the film did not get past the scripting stage. In 2012, CBS films revived the project, buying the rights and commissioning a film inspired by the Deus Ex series; its direct inspiration was the 2011 game Human Revolution. C. Robert Cargill and Scott Derrickson were to write the screenplay, and Derrickson was to direct the film. References Notes Footnotes ; Sources * External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100124021807/http://www.eidosgames.com/games/info.html?gmid=109 Official page] on Eidos site * Category:2000 video games Category:Fiction set in 2052 Category:Action role-playing video games Category:Aspyr games Category:BAFTA Interactive Entertainment Award for Best Games winners Category:Cancelled Linux games Category:Cyberpunk video games Category:Postcyberpunk Category:Nanopunk Category:Deus Ex Category:Dystopian video games Category:Eidos Interactive games Category:Existentialist video games Category:First-person shooters Category:Game Developers Choice Award winners Category:Immersive sims Category:Ion Storm games Category:Classic Mac OS games Category:Multiplayer and single-player video games Category:Multiplayer online games Category:PlayStation 2 games Category:Stealth video games Category:Triad video games Category:Unreal Engine 1 games Category:Video games about Area 51 Category:Video games about viral outbreaks Category:Video games directed by Warren Spector Category:Video games produced by Warren Spector Category:Video games designed by Harvey Smith Category:Video games developed in the United States Category:Video games scored by Alexander Brandon Category:Video games scored by Dan Gardopée Category:Video games scored by Michiel van den Bos Category:Video games set in the 21st century Category:Video games set in California Category:Video games set in Hong Kong Category:Video games set in Nevada Category:Video games set in New York City Category:Video games set in France Category:Video games set in Paris Category:Video games set in the 2050s Category:Windows games Category:Works about conspiracy theories Category:Works about globalism Category:Works about the Illuminati	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deus_Ex_(video_game)	2025-04-05T18:28:38.194603
8485	Diego Maradona	\| birth_place = Lanús, Argentina \| death_date \| death_place = Dique Luján, Argentina \| height 1.65 m \| position = Attacking midfielder, second striker<!--Do not delete second striker, it's well referenced--> \| youthyears1 = 1967–1969 \| youthclubs1 = Estrella Roja \| youthyears2 = 1969–1976 \| youthclubs2 = Argentinos Juniors \| years1 = 1976–1981 \| clubs1 = Argentinos Juniors \| caps1 = 166 \| goals1 = 116 \| years2 = 1981–1982 \| clubs2 = Boca Juniors \| caps2 = 40 \| goals2 = 28 \| years3 = 1982–1984 \| clubs3 = Barcelona \| caps3 = 36 \| goals3 = 22 \| years4 = 1984–1991 \| clubs4 = Napoli \| caps4 = 188 \| goals4 = 81 \| years5 = 1992–1993 \| clubs5 = Sevilla \| caps5 = 26 \| goals5 = 5 \| years6 = 1993–1994 \| clubs6 = Newell's Old Boys \| caps6 = 5 \| goals6 = 0 \| years7 = 1995–1997 \| clubs7 = Boca Juniors \| caps7 = 30 \| goals7 = 7 \| totalcaps = 491 \| totalgoals = 259 \| nationalyears1 = 1977–1979 \| nationalteam1 = Argentina U20 \| nationalcaps1 = 15 \| nationalgoals1 = 8 \| nationalyears2 = 1977–1994 \| nationalteam2 = Argentina \| nationalcaps2 = 91 \| nationalgoals2 = 34 \| manageryears1 = 1994 \| managerclubs1 = Deportivo Mandiyú \| manageryears2 = 1995 \| managerclubs2 = Racing Club \| manageryears3 = 2008–2010 \| managerclubs3 = Argentina \| manageryears4 = 2011–2012 \| managerclubs4 = Al-Wasl \| manageryears5 = 2013–2017 \| managerclubs5 = Deportivo Riestra (assistant) \| manageryears6 = 2017–2018 \| managerclubs6 = Fujairah \| manageryears7 = 2018–2019 \| managerclubs7 = Dorados de Sinaloa \| manageryears8 = 2019–2020 \| managerclubs8 = Gimnasia de La Plata \| medaltemplates = }} }} Diego Armando Maradona Franco (; 30 October 196025 November 2020) was an Argentine professional football player and manager. Widely regarded as one of the greatest players in the history of the sport, he was one of the two joint winners of the FIFA Player of the 20th Century award, alongside Pelé. An advanced playmaker who operated in the classic number 10 position, Maradona's vision, passing, ball control, and dribbling skills were combined with his small stature, which gave him a low centre of gravity and allowed him to manoeuvre better than most other players. His presence and leadership on the field had a great effect on his team's general performance, while he would often be singled out by the opposition. In addition to his creative abilities, he possessed an eye for goal and was known to be a free kick specialist. A precocious talent, Maradona was given the nickname ("The Golden Boy"), a name that stuck with him throughout his career. Maradona was the first player to set the world record transfer fee twice: in 1982 when he transferred to Barcelona for £5 million, and in 1984 when he moved to Napoli for a fee of £6.9 million. He played for Argentinos Juniors, Boca Juniors, Barcelona, Napoli, Sevilla and Newell's Old Boys during his club career, and is most famous for his time at Napoli where he won numerous accolades and led the club to their first Serie A title win only to do it all over again one year later. Maradona also had a troubled off-field life and his time with Napoli ended after he was banned for taking cocaine. In his international career with Argentina, he earned 91 caps and scored 34 goals. Maradona played in four FIFA World Cups, including the 1986 World Cup in Mexico, where he captained Argentina and led them to victory over West Germany in the final, and won the Golden Ball as the tournament's best player. In the 1986 World Cup quarter final, he scored both goals in a 2–1 victory over England that entered football history for two different reasons. The first goal was an unpenalized handling foul known as the "Hand of God", while the second goal followed a dribble past five England players, voted "Goal of the Century" by FIFA.com voters in 2002. Maradona also had a career in management. He became the coach of Argentina's national football team in November 2008. He was in charge of the team at the 2010 World Cup in South Africa before leaving at the end of the tournament. He then coached Dubai-based club Al Wasl in the UAE Pro-League for the 2011–12 season. In 2017, Maradona became the coach of Fujairah before leaving at the end of the season. From May to September 2018, he was the chairman of Dynamo Brest. From September 2018 to June 2019, Maradona was coach of Mexican club Dorados, and was the coach of Argentine Primera División club Gimnasia de La Plata from September 2019 until his death in 2020. He was ranked as the third best football player of all time by FourFourTwo.Early yearsDiego Armando Maradona was born on 30 October 1960, at the Policlínico (Polyclinic) Evita Hospital in Lanús, Buenos Aires Province, to a poor family that had moved from Corrientes Province; he was raised in Villa Fiorito, a shantytown on the southern outskirts of Buenos Aires, Argentina. His father Diego Maradona "Chitoro" (1927–2015), who worked at a chemicals factory, was of Guaraní (Indigenous) and Galician (Spanish) descent, and his mother Dalma Salvadora Franco, "Doña Tota" (1930–2011), was of Italian and Croatian descent. After the 1982 World Cup, Maradona was transferred to Barcelona for a then world record fee of £5 million ($7.6 million). In the 1982–83 season, under coach César Luis Menotti, Barcelona and Maradona won two trophies, the Copa del Rey and Copa de la Liga, both of them coming against Real Madrid. On 26 June 1983, in the 1st leg of the Copa de la Liga finals at Estadio Santiago Bernabeu, Maradona scored and became the first Barcelona player to be applauded by arch-rival Real Madrid fans. With the manner in which the goal was scored resulting in applause from opposition fans, only Ronaldinho (in November 2005) and Andrés Iniesta (in November 2015) have since been granted such an ovation as Barcelona players from Madrid fans at the Santiago Bernabéu. Three days later, Barcelona won the second leg 2–1, with Maradona scoring a penalty and helping his club win another title against their archrivals. injured Maradona on 24 September 1983]] Due to illness and injury as well as controversial incidents on the field, Maradona had a difficult tenure in Barcelona. First a bout of hepatitis, then a broken ankle in a La Liga game at the Camp Nou in September 1983 caused by a reckless tackle by Athletic Bilbao's Andoni Goikoetxea—nicknamed "the Butcher of Bilbao"—threatened to jeopardize Maradona's career, but with treatment and rehabilitation, it was possible for him to return to the pitch after a three-month recovery period. After receiving another hard tackle by Goikoetxea, as well as being taunted with racist insults related to his father's Native American ancestry throughout the match by Bilbao fans, and being provoked by Bilbao's Miguel Sola at full time after Barcelona lost 1–0, Maradona snapped. One Barcelona executive stated: "When I saw those scenes of Maradona fighting and the chaos that followed I realized we couldn't go any further with him." Maradona got into frequent disputes with Barcelona executives, particularly club president Josep Lluís Núñez, culminating with a demand to be transferred out of the Camp Nou in 1984. During his two injury-hit seasons at Barcelona, Maradona scored 38 goals in 58 games. Maradona transferred to Napoli in Italy's Serie A for another world record fee, £6.9 million ($10.48 million). Napoli in Naples during his presentation on 5 July 1984]] Maradona arrived in Naples and was presented to the world media as a Napoli player on 5 July 1984, where he was welcomed by 75,000 fans at his presentation at the Stadio San Paolo. Sports writer David Goldblatt commented, "They [the fans] were convinced that the saviour had arrived." Prior to Maradona's arrival, Italian football was dominated by teams from the north and centre of the country, such as AC Milan, Juventus, Inter Milan and Roma, and no team in the south of the Italian Peninsula had ever won a league title. This was perhaps the perfect scenario for Maradona and his working-class-sympathetic image, as he joined a once-great team that was facing relegation at the end of the 1983–84 Serie A season, in what was the toughest and most highly regarded football league in Europe. At Napoli, Maradona reached the peak of his professional career: he soon inherited the captain's armband from Napoli veteran defender Giuseppe Bruscolotti and quickly became an adored star among the club's fans; in his time there he elevated the team to the most successful era in its history. The following season, the team's prolific attacking trio, formed by Maradona, Bruno Giordano, and Careca, was later dubbed the "Ma-Gi-Ca" (magical) front-line. Despite the team failing to defend their league title, losing out to AC Milan after a collapse in the final four matches, Maradona was the Serie A top scorer in the 1987–88 season with 15 goals, and was the all-time leading goalscorer for Napoli, with 115 goals, He was also the top scorer for that season's Coppa Italia, scoring six goals, despite being eliminated in the quarter-finals by Torino, with Maradona's two goals in the second leg not enough to prevent the elimination. In the 1988–89 season, Napoli finished runner-up in the league and in the Coppa Italia, losing to Sampdoria in the final. However the team avenged these runner-up finishes with the UEFA Cup title, won over two legs in the final against Stuttgart. During the second leg of the quarterfinals against rivals Juventus, Maradona scored a penalty, and Napoli eventually qualified to the next round after extra time. During the first leg of the finals, Maradona scored from a penalty in a 2–1 home victory and later assisted Careca's match-winning goal, while in the second leg on 17 May—a 3–3 away draw—he assisted Ciro Ferrara's goal with a header. Napoli would win their second league title in 1989–90, and later won the 1990 Italian Supercup, beating rivals Juventus 5–1. Although Maradona was successful on the field during his time in Italy, his personal problems increased. His cocaine use continued, and he received US$70,000 in fines from his club for missing games and practices, ostensibly because of "stress". He faced a scandal there regarding an illegitimate son, and he was also the object of some suspicion over an alleged friendship with the Camorra crime syndicate. He also faced intense backlash and harassment from some local fans after the 1990 World Cup, in which he and Argentina beat Italy in a semi-final match at the San Paolo stadium. In 2000, the number 10 jersey of Napoli was officially retired, but in 2011, Maradona stated that he wanted Ezequiel Lavezzi to use it. In a poll on Il Mattino, 54% of fans voted to keep the shirt retired, and the change ultimately did not occur. On 4 December 2020, nine days after Maradona's death, Napoli's home stadium was renamed Stadio Diego Armando Maradona.Late careerAfter serving a 15-month ban for failing a drug test for cocaine, Maradona left Napoli in disgrace in 1992. Despite interest from Real Madrid and Marseille, he signed for Sevilla, where he stayed for one year. In 1993, he played for Newell's Old Boys and in 1995 returned to Boca Juniors for a two-year stint. In 1996, he played in a friendly match alongside his brother Raul for Toronto Italia against the Canadian National Soccer League All-Stars. In 2000, he captained Bayern Munich in a friendly against the German national team in the farewell game of Lothar Matthäus. Maradona was himself given a testimonial match on 10 November 2001, played between an all-star World XI and the Argentina national team, scoring two penalty kicks in a 6–3 win at La Bombonera. International career in the 1979 FIFA World Youth Championship Final in Japan]] Debut at age 16 Maradona made his full international debut at age 16, against Hungary, on 27 February 1977, only four months after his professional debut for Argentinos Juniors. He was left off the Argentine squad for the 1978 World Cup on home soil by coach César Luis Menotti who felt he was too young at age 17. On 3 November 1978, just a few days after turning 18, Maradona played for the U20 Argentina team in a friendly match against Franz Beckenbauer's New York Cosmos, scoring twice in a 2–1 win. 1979 World Youth Championship and Copa América At age 18, Maradona played the 1979 FIFA World Youth Championship in Japan and emerged as the star of the tournament, shining in Argentina's 3–1 final win over the Soviet Union, scoring a total of six goals in six appearances in the tournament. On 2 June 1979, Maradona scored his first senior international goal in a 3–1 win against Scotland at Hampden Park. He went on to play for Argentina in two 1979 Copa América ties during August 1979, a 2–1 loss against Brazil and a 3–0 win over Bolivia in which he scored his side's third goal. Maradona appeared at the 1979 Copa América, where Argentina had a poor performance, being knocked out in the first round. Maradona exited the tournament having scored once in a 3-0 victory against Bolivia. 1982 World Cup Maradona played his first World Cup tournament in 1982 in his new country of residence, Spain. Argentina played Belgium in the opening game of the 1982 Cup at the Camp Nou in Barcelona. Maradona did not perform to expectations, as Argentina, the defending champions, lost 1–0. Although the team convincingly beat both Hungary and El Salvador in Alicante to progress to the second round, there were internal tensions within the team, with the younger, less experienced players at odds with the older, more experienced players. With a team that also included such players as Mario Kempes, Osvaldo Ardiles, Ramón Díaz, Daniel Bertoni, Alberto Tarantini, Ubaldo Fillol and Daniel Passarella, the Argentine side was defeated in the second round by Brazil and by eventual winners Italy. The Italian match is renowned for Maradona being aggressively man-marked by Claudio Gentile, as Italy beat Argentina at the Sarrià Stadium in Barcelona, 2–1. Maradona played in all five matches without being substituted, scoring twice against Hungary. He was fouled repeatedly in all five games and particularly in the last one against Brazil at the Sarrià, a game that was blighted by poor officiating and violent fouls. With Argentina already down 3–0 to Brazil, Maradona's temper eventually got the better of him and he was sent off with five minutes remaining for a serious retaliatory foul against Batista. Throughout the tournament, Maradona asserted his dominance and was the most dynamic player of the competition. He played every minute of every Argentina game, scoring five goals and making five assists; three of the assists came in the opening match against South Korea at the Olímpico Universitario Stadium in Mexico City. His first goal of the tournament came against Italy in the second group game in Puebla. Argentina eliminated Uruguay in the first knockout round in Puebla, setting up a match against England at the Azteca Stadium, also in Mexico City. After scoring two contrasting goals in the 2–1 quarter-final win against England, his legend was cemented. The majesty of his second goal and the notoriety of his first led to the French newspaper ''L'Équipe'' describing Maradona as "half-angel, half-devil". This match was played with the background of the Falklands War between Argentina and the United Kingdom. Replays showed that the first goal was scored by striking the ball with his hand. Maradona was coyly evasive, describing it as "a little with the head of Maradona and a little with the hand of God". Maradona's second goal, just four minutes after the hotly disputed hand-goal, was later voted by FIFA as the greatest goal in the history of the World Cup. He received the ball in his own half, swivelled around and with 11 touches ran more than half the length of the field, dribbling past five English outfield players (Peter Beardsley, Steve Hodge, Peter Reid, Terry Butcher and Terry Fenwick) before he left goalkeeper Peter Shilton on his backside with a feint, and slotted the ball into the net. This goal was voted "Goal of the Century" in a 2002 online poll conducted by FIFA. A 2002 Channel 4 poll in the UK saw his performance ranked number 6 in the list of the 100 Greatest Sporting Moments. " goal) against England in Mexico 1986. In 2022, his shirt sold for £7.1 million ($9.3 million), the highest for a piece of sports memorabilia.]] Maradona followed this with two more goals in a semi-final match against Belgium at the Azteca, including another virtuoso dribbling display for the second goal. In the final match, West Germany attempted to contain him by double-marking him, but in the 84th minute he nevertheless found space past West German player Lothar Matthäus to give the final pass to Jorge Burruchaga for the winning goal. Argentina beat West Germany 3–2 in front of 115,000 fans at the Azteca with Maradona lifting the World Cup as captain. During the tournament, Maradona attempted or created more than half of Argentina's shots, attempted a tournament-best 90 dribbles—three times more than any other player—and was fouled a record 53 times, winning his team twice as many free kicks as any player. Maradona scored or assisted ten of Argentina's 14 goals (71%), including the assist for the winning goal in the final, ensuring that he would be remembered as one of the greatest names in football history. By the end of the World Cup, Maradona went on to win the Golden Ball as the best player of the tournament by unanimous vote and was widely regarded to have won the World Cup virtually single-handedly, something that he later stated he did not entirely agree with. Zinedine Zidane, watching the 1986 World Cup as a 14-year-old, stated Maradona "was on another level". In a tribute to him, Azteca Stadium authorities built a statue of him scoring the "Goal of the Century" and placed it at the entrance of the stadium. Regarding Maradona's performance at the 1986 World Cup in Mexico, in 2014, Roger Bennett of ESPN FC described it as "the most virtuoso performance a World Cup has ever witnessed," with Steven Goff of The Washington Post dubbing his performance as "one of the finest in tournament annals." In 2002, Russell Thomas of The Guardian described Maradona's second goal against England in the 1986 World Cup quarter-finals as "arguably the greatest individual goal ever." In a 2009 article for CBC Sports, John Molinaro described the goal as "the greatest ever scored in the tournament – and, maybe, in soccer." In a 2018 article for Sportsnet, he added: "No other player, not even Pel[é] in 1958 nor Paolo Rossi in 1982, had dominated a single competition the way Maradona did in Mexico." He also went on to say of Maradona's performance: "The brilliant Argentine artist single-handedly delivered his country its second World Cup." Regarding his two memorable goals against England in the quarter-finals, he commented: "Yes, it was Maradona's hand, and not God's, that was responsible for the first goal against England. But while the 'Hand of God' goal remains one of the most contentious moments in World Cup history, there can be no disputing that his second goal against England ranks as the greatest ever scored in the tournament. It transcended mere sports – his goal was pure art." 1987 and 1989 Copa América At the 1987 Copa América in Argentina, he scored three goals in four matches, including a brace in a 3-0 victory against Ecuador, but Argentina lost the semi-final 0–1 against eventual winners Uruguay. In the 1989 Copa América in Brazil, Maradona played six games but would not score any goals. Argentina would finish the tournament third. 1990 World Cup Maradona captained Argentina again in the 1990 World Cup in Italy to yet another World Cup final. An ankle injury affected his overall performance, and he was much less dominant than four years earlier, and the team were missing three of their best players due to injury. After losing their opening game to Cameroon at the San Siro in Milan, Argentina were almost eliminated in the group stage, only qualifying in third position from their group. In the round of 16 match against Brazil in Turin, Claudio Caniggia scored the only goal after being set up by Maradona. In the quarter-final, Argentina faced Yugoslavia in Florence; the match ended 0–0 after 120 minutes, with Argentina advancing in a penalty shootout even though Maradona's kick, a weak shot to the goalkeeper's right, was saved. The semi-final against the host nation Italy at Maradona's club stadium in Naples, the Stadio San Paolo, was also resolved on penalties after a 1–1 draw. This time, however, Maradona was successful with his effort, daringly rolling the ball into the net with an almost exact replica of his unsuccessful kick in the previous round. At the final in Rome, Argentina lost 1–0 to West Germany, the only goal being a controversial penalty scored by Andreas Brehme in the 85th minute, after Rudi Völler was adjudged to be fouled. 1993 Artemio Franchi Cup On 24 February 1993, Maradona returned to the national team when Argentina played the 1993 Artemio Franchi Cup against Denmark in Mar del Plata. Argentina won 5–4 in a penalty shoot-out after a 1–1 draw. 1994 World Cup At the 1994 World Cup in the United States, Maradona played in only two games (both at the Foxboro Stadium near Boston), scoring one goal against Greece, before being sent home after failing a drug test for ephedrine doping. After scoring Argentina's third goal against Greece, Maradona had one of the most remarkable World Cup goal celebrations as he ran towards one of the sideline cameras shouting with a distorted face and bulging eyes, in sheer elation of his return to international football. This turned out to be Maradona's last international goal for Argentina. In the second game, a 2–1 victory over Nigeria which was to be his last game for Argentina, he set up both of his team's goals on free kicks, the second an assist to Caniggia, in what were two very strong showings by the Argentine team. In his autobiography, Maradona argued that the test result was due to his personal trainer giving him the energy drink Rip Fuel. His claim was that the U.S. version, unlike the Argentine one, contained the chemical and that, having run out of his Argentine dosage, his trainer unwittingly bought the U.S. formula. Maradona also separately claimed that he had an agreement with FIFA, on which the organization reneged, to allow him to use the drug for weight loss before the competition in order to be able to play. His failed drug test at the 1994 World Cup signalled the end of his international career, which lasted 17 years and yielded 34 goals from 91 games, including one winner's medal and one runners-up medal in the World Cup.Unofficial internationalsAlongside official internationals, Maradona also played and scored for an Argentina XI against the World XI in 1978 to mark the first anniversary of their first World Cup win, a year after that captained the 'Rest of the World' against the English Football League XI to celebrate the organization's centenary (after reportedly securing a £100,000 appearance fee) Player profile Style of play stated, "Diego was capable of things no one else could match. The things I could do with a football, he could do with an orange." Maradona was a traditional playmaker who usually played in a free role, either as an attacking midfielder behind the forwards, or as a second striker in a front–two, although he was also deployed as an offensive–minded central midfielder in a 4–4–2 formation on occasion. A precocious talent, Maradona was given the nickname "El Pibe de Oro ("The Golden Boy"), a name that stuck with him throughout his career. He was renowned for his dribbling ability, vision, close ball control, passing and creativity, and is considered to have been one of the most skilful players in the sport. He had a compact physique, and with his strong legs, low center of gravity, and resulting balance, he could withstand physical pressure well while running with the ball, despite his small stature, while his acceleration, quick feet, and agility, combined with his dribbling skills and close control at speed, allowed him to change direction quickly, making him difficult for opponents to defend against. On his dribbling ability, former Dutch player Johan Cruyff saw similarities between Maradona and Lionel Messi with the ball seemingly attached to their boot. His physical strengths were illustrated by his two goals against Belgium in the 1986 World Cup. Although he was known for his penchant for undertaking individual runs with the ball, he was also a strategist and an intelligent team player, with excellent spatial awareness, as well as being highly technical with the ball. He was effective in limited spaces, and would attract defenders only to quickly dash out of the melee (as in the second goal against England in 1986), or give an assist to a free teammate. Being short, but strong, he could hold the ball long enough with a defender on his back to wait for a teammate making a run or to find a gap for a quick shot. He showed leadership qualities on the field and captained Argentina in their World Cup campaigns of 1986, 1990 and 1994. While he was primarily a creative playmaker, Maradona was also known for his finishing and goalscoring ability. Former Milan manager Arrigo Sacchi also praised Maradona for his defensive work-rate off the ball in a 2010 interview with Il Corriere dello Sport. The team leader on and off the field – he would speak up on a range of issues on behalf of the players – Maradona's ability as a player and his overpowering personality had a major positive effect on his team, with his 1986 World Cup teammate Jorge Valdano stating: Lauding the "charisma" of Maradona, another of his Argentina teammates, prolific striker Gabriel Batistuta, stated, "Diego could command a stadium, have everyone watch him. I played with him and I can tell you how technically decisive he was for the team". Napoli's former president – Corrado Ferlaino – commented on Maradona's leadership qualities during his time with the club in 2008, describing him as "a coach on the pitch." One of Maradona's trademark moves was dribbling full-speed on the right wing, and on reaching the opponent's goal line, delivering accurate passes to his teammates. Another trademark was the rabona, a reverse-cross pass shot behind the leg that holds all the weight. This manoeuvre led to several assists, such as the cross for Ramón Díaz's header against Switzerland in 1980. Moreover, he was also a well–known proponent of the roulette, a feint which involved him dragging the ball back first with one foot and then the other, while simultaneously performing a 360° turn; due to his penchant for using this move, it has even occasionally been described as the "Maradona turn" in the media. He was also a dangerous free kick and penalty kick taker, who was renowned for his ability to bend the ball from corners and direct set pieces. Regarded as one of the best dead-ball specialists of all time, his free kick technique, which often saw him raise his knee at a high angle when striking the ball, thus enabling him to lift it high over the wall, allowed him to score free kicks even from close range, within 22 to 17 yards (20 to 16 metres) from the goal, or even just outside the penalty area. His style of taking free kicks influenced several other specialists, including Gianfranco Zola, and Lionel Messi. Maradona was famous for his cunning personality. Some critics view his controversial "Hand of God" goal at the 1986 World Cup as a clever manoeuvre, with one of the opposition players, Glenn Hoddle, admitting that Maradona had disguised it by flicking his head at the same time as palming the ball. The goal itself has been viewed as an embodiment of the Buenos Aires shanty town Maradona was brought up in and its concept of viveza criolla—"cunning of the criollos". Although critical of the illegitimate first goal, England striker Gary Lineker conceded, "When Diego scored that second goal against us, I felt like applauding. It was impossible to score such a beautiful goal. He's the greatest player of all time, by a long way. A genuine phenomenon." Maradona used his hand in the 1990 World Cup, again without punishment, and this time on his own goal line, to prevent the Soviet Union from scoring. A number of publications have referred to Maradona as the Artful Dodger, the urchin pickpocket from Charles Dickens' Oliver Twist. Maradona was dominantly left-footed, often using his left foot even when the ball was positioned more suitably for a right-footed connection. His first goal against Belgium in the 1986 World Cup semi-final is a worthy indicator of such; he had run into the inside right channel to receive a pass but let the ball travel across to his left foot, requiring more technical ability. During his run past several England players in the previous round for the "Goal of the Century" he did not use his right foot once, despite spending the whole movement on the right-hand side of the pitch. In the 1990 World Cup second-round tie against Brazil, he used his right foot to set up the winning goal for Claudio Caniggia due to two Brazilian markers forcing him into a position that made use of his left foot less practical. Reception '' painting, on a ceiling of a sports club in Barracas, Buenos Aires]] Maradona is widely regarded as the best player of his generation. and by some as the best player ever. Known as one of the most skilful players in the game, he is regarded as one of the greatest dribblers Maradona's former Napoli manager – Ottavio Bianchi – also praised his discipline in training, commenting: "Diego is different to the one that they depict. When you got him on his own he was a very good kid. It was beautiful to watch him and coach him. They all speak of the fact that he did not train, but it was not true because Diego was the last person to leave the pitch, it was necessary to send him away because otherwise he would stay for hours to invent free kicks." However, although, as Bianchi noted, Maradona was known for making "great plays" and doing "unimaginable" and "incredible things" with the ball during training sessions, and would even go through periods of rigorous exercise, he was equally known for his limited work-rate in training without the ball, and even gained a degree of infamy during his time in Italy for missing training sessions with Napoli, while he often trained independently instead of with his team. In a 2019 documentary film on his life, Diego Maradona, Maradona confessed that his weekly regime consisted of "playing a game on Sunday, going out until Wednesday, then hitting the gym on Thursday." Regarding his inconsistent training regimen, the film's director, Asif Kapadia, commented in 2020: "He had a metabolism. He would look so incredibly out of shape, but then he'd train like crazy and sweat it off by the time matchday came along. His body shape just didn't look like a footballer, but then he had this ability and this balance. He had a way of being, and that idea of talking to him honestly about how a typical week transpired was pretty amazing." He also revealed that Maradona was ahead of his time in the fact that he had a personal fitness coach – Fernando Signorini – who trained him in a variety of areas, in addition to looking after his physical conditioning, adding: "While he [Maradona] was in a football team he had his own regime. How many players would do that? How many players would even know to think like that? 'I'm different to anyone else so I need to train at what I'm good at and what I'm weak at.' Signorini is very well read and very intelligent. He would literally say, 'This is the way I'm going to train you, read this book.' He would help him psychologically, talk to him about philosophy, and things like that." Moreover, Maradona was notorious for his poor diet and extreme lifestyle off the pitch, including his use of illicit drugs and alcohol abuse, which along with personal issues, his metabolism, medication that he was prescribed, and periods of inactivity due to injuries and suspensions, led to his significant weight–gain and physical decline as his career progressed; his lack of discipline and difficulties in his turbulent personal life are thought by some in the sport to have negatively impacted his performances and longevity in the later years of his playing career. A controversial figure in the sport, while he earned critical acclaim from players, pundits and managers over his playing style, he also drew criticism in the media for his temper and confrontational behaviour, both on and off the pitch. However, in 2005, Paolo Maldini described Maradona both as the greatest player he ever faced, and also as the most honest, stating: "He was a model of good behaviour on the pitch – he was respectful of everyone, from the great players down to the ordinary team member. He was always getting kicked around and he never complained – not like some of today's strikers." Franco Baresi stated when he was asked who was his greatest opponent: "Maradona; when he was on form, there was almost no way of stopping him," Zlatan Ibrahimović said that his off-field antics did not matter, and that he should only be judged for the impact he made on the field. "For me Maradona is more than football. What he did as a footballer, in my opinion, he will be remembered forever. When you see number 10 who do you think about? Maradona. It is a symbol, even today there are those who choose that number for him." s list of the 100 greatest World Cup players of all time, ahead of the 2014 World Cup in Brazil, once again behind Pelé. In 2017, FourFourTwo ranked him in first place in their list of "100 greatest players", In May 2020, Sky Sports ranked Maradona as the best player never to have won the UEFA Champions League/European Cup. Retirement and tributes ]] Hounded for years by the press, Maradona once fired a compressed-air rifle at reporters whom he claimed were invading his privacy. This quote from former teammate Jorge Valdano summarises the feelings of many: In 1990, the Konex Foundation from Argentina granted him the Diamond Konex Award, one of the most prestigious culture awards in Argentina, as the most important personality in sports in the last decade in his country. In April 1996, Maradona had a three-round exhibition boxing match with Santos Laciar for charity. In 2000, Maradona published his autobiography Yo Soy El Diego ("I am The Diego"), which became a bestseller in Argentina. Two years later, Maradona donated the Cuban royalties of his book to "the Cuban people and Fidel". In 2000, he won FIFA Player of the Century award which was to be decided by votes on their official website, their official magazine and a grand jury. Maradona won the Internet-based poll, garnering 53.6% of the votes against 18.53% for Pelé. In spite of this, and shortly before the ceremony, FIFA added a second award and appointed a "Football Family" committee composed of football journalists that also gave to Pelé the title of best player of the century to make it a draw. Maradona also came fifth in the vote of the IFFHS (International Federation of Football History and Statistics). In 2001, the Argentine Football Association (AFA) asked FIFA for authorization to retire the jersey number 10 for Maradona. FIFA did not grant the request, even though Argentine officials have maintained that FIFA hinted that it would. Maradona has topped a number of fan polls, including a 2002 FIFA poll in which his second goal against England was chosen as the best goal ever scored in a World Cup; he also won the most votes in a poll to determine the All-Time Ultimate World Cup Team. On 22 March 2010, Maradona was chosen number 1 in 'The Greatest 10 World Cup Players of All Time' by the London-based newspaper The Times. Argentinos Juniors named its stadium after Maradona on 26 December 2003. In 2003, Maradona was employed by the Libyan footballer Al-Saadi Gaddafi, the third son of Colonel Muammar Gaddafi, as a "technical consultant", while Al-Saadi was playing for the Italian club, Perugia, which was playing in Serie A at the time. , India, in December 2008. Maradona laid the foundation stone for a football academy in the eastern suburbs of the city, and was greeted by over 100,000 fans in Salt Lake Stadium.]] On 22 June 2005, it was announced that Maradona would return to former club Boca Juniors as a sports vice-president in charge of managing the First Division roster (after a disappointing 2004–05 season, which coincided with Boca's centenary). His contract began 1 August 2005, and one of his first recommendations proved to be very effective: advising the club to hire Alfio Basile as the new coach. With Maradona fostering a close relationship with the players, Boca won the 2005 Apertura, the 2006 Clausura, the 2005 Copa Sudamericana, and the 2005 Recopa Sudamericana. On 15 August 2005, Maradona made his debut as host of a talk-variety show on Argentine television, La Noche del 10 ("The Night of the no. 10"). His main guest on opening night was Pelé; the two had a friendly chat, showing no signs of past differences. However, the show also included a cartoon villain with a clear physical resemblance to Pelé. In subsequent evenings, La Noche del 10 led the ratings on all occasions but one. Most guests were drawn from the worlds of football and show business, including Ronaldo and Zinedine Zidane, but also included interviews with other notable friends and personalities such as Cuban leader Fidel Castro and boxers Roberto Durán and Mike Tyson. Maradona gave each of his guests a signed Argentina jersey, which Tyson wore when he arrived in Brazil, Argentina's biggest rivals. In November 2005, however, Maradona rejected an offer to work with Argentina's national football team. In May 2006, Maradona agreed to take part in UK's Soccer Aid (a program to raise money for UNICEF). In September 2006, Maradona, in his famous blue and white number 10, was the captain for Argentina in a three-day World Cup of Indoor Football tournament in Spain. On 26 August 2006, it was announced that Maradona was quitting his position in the club Boca Juniors because of disagreements with the AFA, who selected Alfio Basile to be the new coach of the Argentina national team. In 2008, Serbian filmmaker Emir Kusturica made Maradona, a documentary about Maradona's life. On 1 September 2014, Maradona, along with many current and former footballing stars, took part in the "Match for Peace", which was played at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome, with the proceeds being donated entirely to charity. Maradona set up a goal for Roberto Baggio during the first half of the match, with a chipped through-ball over the defence with the outside of his left foot. On 17 August 2015, Maradona visited Ali Bin Nasser, the Tunisian referee of the Argentina–England quarter-final match at the 1986 World Cup where Maradona scored his Hand of God, and paid tribute to him by giving him a signed Argentine jersey.Managerial careerClub management in 2011]] Maradona began his managerial career alongside former Argentinos Juniors midfield teammate Carlos Fren. The pair led Mandiyú of Corrientes in 1994 and Racing Club in 1995, with little success. In May 2011 he became manager of Dubai club Al Wasl FC in the United Arab Emirates. Maradona was sacked on 10 July 2012. In August 2013, Maradona moved on to become 'spiritual coach' at Argentine club Deportivo Riestra. Maradona departed this role in 2017 to become the head coach of Fujairah, in the UAE second division, before leaving at the end of the season upon failure to secure promotion at the club. In May 2018, Maradona was announced as the new chairman of Belarusian club Dynamo Brest. He arrived in Brest and was presented by the club to start his duties in July. In September 2018, he was appointed manager of Mexican second division side Dorados. He made his debut with Dorados on 17 September with a 4–1 victory over Cafetaleros de Tapachula. On 13 June 2019, after Dorados failed to clinch promotion to the Mexican top flight, Maradona's lawyer announced that he would be stepping down from the role, citing health reasons. On 5 September 2019, Maradona was unveiled as the new head coach of Gimnasia de La Plata, signing a contract until the end of the season. After two months in charge he left the club on 19 November. However, two days later, Maradona rejoined the club as manager saying that "we finally achieved political unity in the club". Maradona insisted that Gabriel Pellegrino remain club president if he were to stay with Gimnasia de La Plata. Originally scheduled to be held on 23 November, Despite having a bad record during the 2019–20 season, Gimnasia renewed Maradona's contract on 3 June 2020 for the 2020–21 season. In November 2020, Maradona died in post. His coaching staff resigned from the club following his death. International management in South Africa.]] After the resignation of Argentina national team coach Alfio Basile in 2008, Maradona immediately proposed his candidacy for the vacant role. According to several press sources, his major challengers included; Diego Simeone, Carlos Bianchi, Miguel Ángel Russo, and Sergio Batista. On 29 October 2008, AFA chairman Julio Grondona confirmed that Maradona would be the head coach of the national team. On 19 November, Maradona managed Argentina for the first time when they played against Scotland at Hampden Park in Glasgow, which Argentina won 1–0. After winning his first three matches as the coach of the national team, he oversaw a 6–1 defeat to Bolivia, equalling the team's worst ever margin of defeat. With two matches remaining in the qualification tournament for the 2010 World Cup, Argentina was in fifth place and faced the possibility of failing to qualify, but victory in the last two matches secured qualification for the finals. After Argentina's qualification, Maradona used abusive language at the live post-game press conference, telling members of the media to "suck it and keep on sucking it". FIFA responded with a two-month ban on all footballing activity, which expired on 15 January 2010, and a CHF 25,000 fine, with a warning as to his future conduct. The friendly match scheduled to take place at home to the Czech Republic on 15 December, during the period of the ban, was cancelled. The only match Argentina played during Maradona's ban was a friendly away to Catalonia, which they lost 4–2. At the 2010 FIFA World Cup, Argentina started by winning 1–0 against Nigeria, followed by a 4–1 victory over South Korea on the strength of a Gonzalo Higuaín hat-trick. In the final match of the group stage, Argentina won 2–0 against Greece to win the group and advance to a second round, meeting Mexico. After defeating Mexico 3–1, however, Argentina was routed by Germany 4–0 in the quarter-finals to go out of the competition. Argentina was ranked fifth in the tournament. After the defeat to Germany, Maradona admitted that he was reconsidering his future as Argentina's coach, stating, "I may leave tomorrow." On 15 July, the AFA said that he would be offered a new four-year deal that would keep him in charge through to the summer of 2014 when Brazil staged the World Cup. On 27 July, however, the AFA announced that its board had unanimously decided not to renew his contract. Afterwards, on 29 July, Maradona claimed that AFA president Julio Grondona and director of national teams (as well as his former Argentine national team and Sevilla coach) Carlos Bilardo had "lied to", "betrayed", and effectively sacked him from the role. He said, "They wanted me to continue, but seven of my staff should not go on, if he told me that, it meant he did not want me to keep working." Personal life Family , and it is kept in one of the Vatican Museums.]] Born to a Roman Catholic family, his parents were Diego Maradona Senior and Dalma Salvadora Franco. Maradona married long-time fiancée Claudia Villafañe on 7 November 1989 in Buenos Aires, and they had two daughters, Dalma Nerea (born 2 April 1987) and Gianinna Dinorah (born 16 May 1989), by whom he became a grandfather in 2009 after she married Sergio Agüero (now divorced). Maradona and Villafañe divorced in 2004. Daughter Dalma has since asserted that the divorce was the best solution for all as her parents remained on friendly terms. They travelled together to Naples for a series of homages in June 2005 and were seen together on other occasions, including the Argentina games during 2006 World Cup. During the divorce proceedings, Maradona admitted that he was the father of Diego Sinagra (born in Naples on 20 September 1986). The Italian courts had already ruled so in 1993, after Maradona refused to undergo DNA tests to prove or disprove his paternity. Diego Junior met Maradona for the first time in May 2003 after tricking his way onto a golf course in Italy where Maradona was playing. Sinagra is now a footballer playing in Italy. After the divorce, Claudia embarked on a career as a theatre producer, and Dalma sought an acting career; she previously had expressed her desire to attend the Actors Studio West in Los Angeles. Maradona's relationship with his immediate family was a close one. In a 1990 interview with Sports Illustrated, he showed phone bills where he had spent a minimum of $15,000 US per month calling his parents and siblings. Maradona's mother, Dalma, died on 19 November 2011. He was in Dubai at the time, and desperately tried to fly back in time to see her, but was too late. She was 81 years old. His father, "Don" Diego, died on 25 June 2015 at age 87. In 2014, Maradona was accused of assaulting his girlfriend, Rocío Oliva, allegations which he denied. In 2017, he gifted her a house in Bella Vista, but in December 2018 they split up. Maradona's great-nephew Hernán López is also a professional footballer.Drug abuse and health problemsin Russia, where he was treated by paramedics after collapsing following Argentina's victory over Nigeria]] From the mid-1980s until 2004, Maradona was addicted to cocaine. He allegedly began using the drug in Barcelona in 1983. By the time he was playing for Napoli, he had a full-blown addiction, which interfered with his ability to play football. In the midst of his drug crisis in 1991, Maradona was asked by journalists if the hit song "Mi enfermedad" () was dedicated to him. Maradona was banned from football in both 1991 and 1994 for abusing drugs. Maradona had a tendency to put on weight and suffered increasingly from obesity, at one point weighing . He was obese from the end of his playing career until undergoing gastric bypass surgery in a clinic in Cartagena, Colombia, on 6 March 2005. His surgeon said that Maradona would follow a liquid diet for three months in order to return to his normal weight. When Maradona resumed public appearances shortly thereafter, he displayed a notably thinner figure. On 29 March 2007, Maradona was readmitted to a hospital in Buenos Aires. He was treated for hepatitis and effects of alcohol abuse and was released on 11 April, but readmitted two days later. In the following days, there were constant rumours about his health, including three false claims of his death within a month. After being transferred to a psychiatric clinic specializing in alcohol-related problems, Maradona was discharged on 7 May. On 8 May, Maradona appeared on Argentine television and stated that he had quit drinking and had not used drugs in two and a half years. During the 2018 World Cup match between Argentina and Nigeria, Maradona was shown on television cameras behaving extremely erratically, with an abundance of white residue visible on the glass in front of his seat in the stands. The smudges could have been fingerprints, and he later blamed his behaviour on consuming lots of wine. In January 2019, Maradona underwent surgery after a hernia caused internal bleeding in his stomach.Political views in December 2007]] Maradona was ideologically left-wing. He became friends with Cuban president Fidel Castro while receiving treatment on the island, with Castro stating, "Diego is a great friend and very noble, too. There's also no question he's a wonderful athlete and has maintained a friendship with Cuba to no material gain of his own." In his autobiography, El Diego, he dedicated the book to various people, including Castro. He wrote: "To Fidel Castro and, through him, all the Cuban people." In 1990, he visited Lenin's Mausoleum in Red Square. and Evo Morales, at the funeral of former President of Argentina Néstor Kirchner, 28 October 2010]] Maradona voiced support for Bolivia's president Evo Morales and was also a supporter of former Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez. In 2005, he came to Venezuela to meet Chávez, who received him in the presidential Miraflores Palace. After the meeting, Maradona said that he had come to meet a "great man" (un grande, which can also mean "a big man", in Spanish), but had instead met a gigantic man (un gigante). He also stated, "I believe in Chávez, I am a Chavista. Everything Fidel does, everything Chávez does, for me is the best." Maradona was Chávez's guest of honour at the opening game of the 2007 Copa América held in Venezuela. In a 2017 interview, Maradona praised Russian president Vladimir Putin and considered him, along with Chavez and Castro, to be among the best political leaders in the world, stating: "Putin is a man who can bring peace to many in this world. He’s a phenomenon; simply a phenomenon". " (with the "s" in "Bush" being replaced with a swastika) and referring to Bush as "human garbage". In August 2007, Maradona went further, making an appearance on Chávez's weekly television show Aló Presidente and saying, "I hate everything that comes from the United States. I hate it with all my strength." By December 2008, Maradona seemed to adopt a more positive U.S. attitude and expressed admiration for Bush's successor, then-President-elect Barack Obama, for whom he had great expectations. In Argentina, Maradona is considered an icon. Concerning the idolatry that exists in his country, former teammate Jorge Valdano said: In leading his nation to the 1986 World Cup, and in particular his performance and two goals in the quarter-final against England, Guillem Balagué writes: "That Sunday in Mexico City, the world saw one man single-handedly – in more than one sense of the phrase – lift the mood of a depressed and downtrodden nation into the stratosphere. With two goals in the space of four minutes, he allowed them to dare to dream that they, like him, could be the best in the world. He did it first by nefarious and then spellbindingly brilliant means. In those moments, he went from star player to legend." In Argentina, Maradona is often talked about in terms reserved for legends. In the Argentine film El hijo de la novia ("Son of the Bride"), somebody who impersonates a Catholic priest says to a bar patron, "They idolized him and then crucified him." When a friend scolds him for taking the prank too far, the fake priest retorts, "But I was talking about Maradona." He is the subject of the film El camino de San Diego, though he himself only appears in archive footage. Maradona was included in many cameos in the Argentine comic book El Cazador de Aventuras. After the closing of it, the authors started a new short-lived comic book titled El Die,<!-- Note: This is not a mistake, the comic book was actually called "El Die", not "El Diez", which would had been grammatically correct. The "mistake" was done for humorous effect --> using Maradona as the main character. Maradona has had several online Flash games that are entirely dedicated to his legacy. In Rosario, Argentina, locals organized the parody religion of the "Church of Maradona". The organization reformulates many elements from Christian tradition, such as Christmas or prayers, reflecting instead details from Maradona. It had 200 founding members, and tens of thousands more have become members via the church's official web site. during the rock band's 1981 South American tour]] Many Argentine artists performed songs in tribute to Diego, such as "La Mano de Dios" by El Potro Rodrigo, "Maradona" by Andrés Calamaro, "Para siempre Diego" (Diego Forever) by Los Ratones Paranoicos, "Francotirador" (Sniper) by Attaque 77, "Maradona Blues" by Charly García, "Santa Maradona" (Saint Maradona) by Mano Negra, and "La Vida Tómbola" by Manu Chao, among others. There are also other films, such as: Maradona, La Mano de Dios (Maradona, the Hand of God), Amando a Maradona (Loving Maradona), and Maradona by Kusturica. By 1982, Maradona had become one of the biggest sports stars in the world and had endorsements with many companies, including Puma and Coca-Cola, earning him an additional $1.5 million per year on top of his club salary. In 1984 he earned $7m a year at Napoli, and sponsorships included $5m from Hitachi. In 2010 he appeared in a commercial for French fashion house Louis Vuitton, indulging in a game of table football with fellow World Cup winners Pelé and Zinedine Zidane. Maradona featured in the music video to the 2010 World Cup song "Waka Waka" by Shakira, with footage shown of him celebrating Argentina winning the 1986 World Cup. at the 2018 World Cup in Russia – often appear at Argentina games.]] A 2006 television commercial for Brazilian soft drink Guaraná Antarctica portrayed Maradona as a member of the Brazil national team, including wearing the yellow jersey and singing the Brazilian national anthem with Brazilian players Ronaldo and Kaká. Later on in the commercial he wakes up realizing it was a nightmare after having too much of the drink. This generated some controversy in the Argentine media after its release (although the commercial was not supposed to air for the Argentine market, fans could see it online). Maradona replied that he had no problem wearing the Brazilian national squad jersey despite Argentina and Brazil's tense football rivalry, but that he would refuse to wear the shirt of River Plate, Boca Juniors' traditional rival. There is a documented phenomenon of Brazilians being named in honour of Maradona, an example being footballer Diego Costa. In 2017, Maradona featured as a legendary player in the football video games FIFA 18 and Pro Evolution Soccer 2018. In 2019, a documentary film titled Diego Maradona was released by Academy Award and BAFTA Award winning filmmaker Asif Kapadia, director of Amy (on singer Amy Winehouse) and Senna (on motor racing driver Ayrton Senna). Kapadia stated that " ...Maradona is the third part of a trilogy about child geniuses and fame." He added, "...I was fascinated by his journey, wherever he went there were moments of incredible brilliance and drama. He was a leader, taking his teams to the very top, but also many lows in his career. He was always the little guy fighting against the system... and he was willing to do anything, to use all of his cunning and intelligence to win."Career statisticsMaradona made 680 appearances and scored 345 goals for club and country combined, with a goalscoring average of .Club{\| class"wikitable" style="text-align:center" \|+ Appearances and goals by club, season and competition \|- !rowspan="2"\|Club !rowspan="2"\|Season !colspan="3"\|League !colspan="2"\|National cup !colspan="2"\|Continental !colspan="2"\|Other !colspan="2"\|Total \|- !Division!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals \|- \|rowspan"6"\|Argentinos Juniors \|1976 \|Argentine Primera División \|11\|\|2\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan="2"\|–\|\|11\|\|2 \|- \|1977 \|Argentine Primera División \|49\|\|19\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan="2"\|–\|\|49\|\|19 \|- \|1978 \|Argentine Primera División \|35\|\|26\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan="2"\|–\|\|35\|\|26 \|- \|1979 \|Argentine Primera División \|26\|\|26\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan="2"\|–\|\|26\|\|26 \|- \|1980 \|Argentine Primera División \|45\|\|43\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan="2"\|–\|\|45\|\|43 \|- !colspan="2"\|Total !166\|\|116\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan="2"\|–\|\|166\|\|116 \|- \|Boca Juniors \|1977\|\|3\|\|0\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|3\|\|0 \|- \|1978\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan="2"\|– \|- \|1979\|\|11\|\|7\|\|1\|\|1\|\|12\|\|8 \|- !Total\|\|14\|\|7\|\|1\|\|1\|\|15\|\|8 \|- \|rowspan"19"\|Argentina \|1977\|\|colspan="2"\|–\|\|3\|\|0\|\|3\|\|0 \|- \|1978\|\|colspan="2"\|–\|\|1\|\|0\|\|1\|\|0 \|- \|1979\|\|2\|\|1\|\|6\|\|2\|\|8\|\|3 \|- \|1980\|\|colspan="2"\|–\|\|10\|\|7\|\|10\|\|7 \|- \|1981\|\|2\|\|1\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|2\|\|1 \|- \|1982\|\|5\|\|2\|\|5\|\|0\|\|10\|\|2 \|- \|1983\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan="2"\|– \|- \|1984\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan="2"\|– \|- \|1985\|\|6\|\|3\|\|4\|\|3\|\|10\|\|6 \|- \|1986\|\|7\|\|5\|\|3\|\|2\|\|10\|\|7 \|- \|1987\|\|4\|\|3\|\|2\|\|1\|\|6\|\|4 \|- \|1988\|\|2\|\|1\|\|1\|\|0\|\|3\|\|1 \|- \|1989\|\|6\|\|0\|\|1\|\|0\|\|7\|\|0 \|- \|1990\|\|7\|\|0\|\|3\|\|1\|\|10\|\|1 \|- \|1991\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan="2"\|– \|- \|1992\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan="2"\|– \|- \|1993\|\|3\|\|0\|\|1\|\|0\|\|4\|\|0 \|- \|1994\|\|2\|\|1\|\|5\|\|1\|\|7\|\|2 \|- !Total\|\|46\|\|17\|\|45\|\|17\|\|91\|\|34 \|- !colspan="2"\|Career total\|\|60\|\|24\|\|46\|\|18\|\|106\|\|42 \|} Notes Managerial statistics{\| class"wikitable" style="text-align: center" \|- !rowspan"2" width"150"\|Team !rowspan"2" width"125"\|From !rowspan"2" width"125"\|To !colspan="5"\|Record \|- !width="37"\|G !width="35"\|W !width="34"\|D !width="35"\|L !width="57"\|Win % \|- \|aligncenter\|Textil Mandiyú \|align=center\|January 1994 \|align=center\|June 1994 \|- \|aligncenter\|Racing Club \|align=center\|May 1995 \|align=center\|November 1995 \|- \|aligncenter\|Argentina \|align=center\|November 2008 \|align=center\|July 2010 \|- \|aligncenter\|Al-Wasl \|align=center\|May 2011 \|align=center\|July 2012 \|- \|aligncenter\|Fujairah \|align=center\|April 2017 \|align=center\|April 2018 \|- \|aligncenter\|Dorados \|align=center\|September 2018 \|align=center\|June 2019 \|- \|aligncenter\|Gimnasia de La Plata \|align=center\|September 2019 \|align=center\|November 2020 \|- !colspan=3\|Total \|} Honours Boca Juniors Argentine Primera División: 1981 Metropolitano Barcelona Individual award in "The Champions Promenade" on the seafront of the Principality of Monaco]] Argentine Primera División top scorers: 1978 Metropolitano, 1979 Metropolitano, 1979 Nacional, 1980 Metropolitano, 1980 Nacional * FIFA World Youth Championship Golden Ball: 1979 * Guerin Sportivo World Player of the Year: 1979, 1986, 1987 * Argentine Football Writers' Footballer of the Year: 1979, 1980, 1981, 1986 * El Mundo South American Footballer of the Year: 1979, 1980, 1986, 1989, 1990, 1992 * El Gráfico Footballer of the Americas: 1980, 1981 * Guerin Sportivo World All-star Team: 1980, 1981, 1982, 1983, 1985 * Eric Batty's World XI: 1984, 1987 * Serie A Team of The Year: 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988 * Guerin d'Oro (Serie A Footballer of the Year): 1985 * Onze de Onze: 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989 * FIFA World Cup Golden Ball: 1986 * FIFA World Cup Most Assists: 1986 * ''L'Équipe'' Champion of Champions: 1986 * La Gazzetta dello Sport Athlete of the Year: 1986 * Agence France-Presse Athlete of the Year: 1986 * Onze d'Or: 1986, 1987 * Capocannoniere (Serie A top scorer): 1987–88 * FIFA World Cup Bronze Ball: 1990 * FIFA World Cup All-Time Team: 1994 * Ballon d'Or for services to football (France Football): 1995 * World Team of the 20th Century: 1998 * Marca Leyenda: 1999 * Number 10 retired by Napoli football team as a recognition to his contribution to the club: 2000 * FIFA Player of the Century: 2000 * Golden Foot: 2003, as football legend * FIFA 100 Greatest Living Players: 2004 * Greatest Footballers in World Cup History: No. 1, by The Times, 2010 * Best Athlete in History: No. 1, by Corriere dello Sport – Stadio, 2012 * Player of the 20th Century, by Globe Soccer Awards: 2012 * World Soccer magazine's Greatest XI of All Time: 2013 * Italian Football Hall of Fame: 2014 * AFA Team of All Time: 2015 * Greatest Football Players of All-Time: No. 1 by FourFourTwo magazine, 2017 * Napoli all-time Top Scorer (1991–2017) * International Federation of Football History & Statistics (IFFHS) Legends * Ballon d'Or Dream Team: 2020 * IFFHS All-time Men's Dream Team: 2021 IFFHS South America Men's Team of All Time: 2021 Notes Works * See also * List of association football families * List of most valuable celebrity memorabilia * 1989 warm up to Live Is Life References External links * [https://worldnews24daily.com/2020/11/diego-maradona-argentina-football-legend-dies-aged-60.html/amp Diego Maradona: Argentina football legend dies aged 60] * [https://worldnews24daily.com/2021/02/diego-maradona-was-addicted-alcohol-and-marijuana-cause-of-death.html Diego Maradona was addicted alcohol and marijuana cause of death] * * !colspan"3" style"background:#C1D8FF;"\| World Cup-winners status \|- \| style="width:30%; text-align:center;"\| Preceded by<br />Carlos Alberto Torres<br />1944 \| style="width:40%; text-align:center;"\| Latest Born Captain to Die<br />25 November 2020 – present \| style="width:30%; text-align:center;"\| Incumbent Steve Cram}} Ben Johnson}} Hugo Porta}} Gabriela Sabatini}} Sergey Bubka}} Ben Johnson</del>}} Category:1960 births Category:2020 deaths Category:1979 Copa América players Category:1982 FIFA World Cup players Category:1986 FIFA World Cup players Category:1987 Copa América players Category:1989 Copa América players Category:1990 FIFA World Cup players Category:1994 FIFA World Cup players Category:2010 FIFA World Cup managers Category:FIFA World Cup–winning players Category:Al Wasl F.C. managers Category:Anti-Americanism Category:Argentina men's international footballers Category:Argentina national football team managers Category:Argentina men's under-20 international footballers Category:Argentina men's youth international footballers Category:Argentine expatriate men's footballers Category:Argentine expatriate football managers Category:Argentine expatriates in Cuba Category:Argentine expatriate sportspeople in Italy Category:Argentine expatriate sportspeople in Mexico Category:Argentine expatriate sportspeople in Spain Category:Argentine expatriate sportspeople in the United Arab Emirates Category:Argentine men's footballers Category:Argentine football managers Category:Argentine nationalists Category:Argentine people of Basque descent Category:Argentine people of Croatian descent Category:Argentine people of Guaraní descent Category:Argentine sportspeople of Italian descent Category:Argentine Primera División managers Category:Argentine Primera División players Category:Argentine Roman Catholics Category:Argentine socialists Category:Argentine sportspeople in doping cases Category:Argentine television talk show hosts Category:Argentinos Juniors footballers Category:Men's association football forwards Category:Men's association football midfielders Category:Boca Juniors footballers Category:Club de Gimnasia y Esgrima La Plata managers Category:Deified men Category:Doping cases in association football Category:Dorados de Sinaloa managers Category:Expatriate men's footballers in Italy Category:Expatriate men's footballers in Spain Category:Expatriate football managers in Mexico Category:Expatriate football managers in the United Arab Emirates Category:FC Barcelona players Category:FIFA 100 Category:Fujairah FC managers Category:Illeists Category:La Liga players Category:Maradona family Category:Newell's Old Boys footballers Category:Parody religion deities Category:People convicted of drug offenses Category:People from Lomas de Zamora Partido Category:Racing Club de Avellaneda managers Category:SSC Napoli players Category:Serie A players Category:Sevilla FC players Category:South American Footballer of the Year winners Category:Footballers from Lanús Category:Textil Mandiyú managers Category:UAE Pro League managers Category:UEFA Europa League–winning players Category:World Soccer Magazine World Player of the Year winners Category:Association football players with retired numbers Category:20th-century Argentine sportsmen	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diego_Maradona	2025-04-05T18:28:38.378398
8487	David Brewster	\| image = David Brewster 1618.jpg \| caption = Brewster, c. 1824 \| birth_date = 11 December 1781 \| birth_place = Canongate, Jedburgh, Roxburghshire, Kingdom of Great Britain \| death_date \| death_place = Allerly House, Gattonside, Roxburghshire, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland \| title1 = Principal of the University of Edinburgh \| term_start1 = 1859 \| term_end1 = 1868 \| predecessor1 = John Lee \| successor1 = Sir Alexander Grant \| title2 = 1st Principal of the University of St Andrews \| term_start2 = 1837 \| term_end2 = 1859 \| predecessor2 \| successor2 Reverend John Tulloch \| module = * }} \| children = 5 \| prizes = Copley Medal (1815)<br>Keith Prize (1827–29, 1829–31)<br>Royal Medal (1830)<br>Pour le Mérite (1847) \| footnotes = Founding Director of the Scottish Society of Arts (1821) \| signature = }} }} Sir David Brewster <small>KH PRSE FRS FSA Scot FSSA MICE</small> (11 December 178110 February 1868) was a Scottish scientist, inventor, author, and academic administrator. In science he is principally remembered for his experimental work in physical optics, mostly concerned with the study of the polarization of light and including the discovery of Brewster's angle. He studied the birefringence of crystals under compression and discovered photoelasticity, thereby creating the field of optical mineralogy. For this work, William Whewell dubbed him the "father of modern experimental optics" and "the Johannes Kepler of optics." Brewster was a pioneer in photography. He invented an improved stereoscope, which he called "lenticular stereoscope" and which became the first portable 3D-viewing device. He also invented the stereoscopic camera, two types of polarimeters, the polyzonal lens, the lighthouse illuminator, and the kaleidoscope. Brewster was a devout Presbyterian and marched arm-in-arm with his brother during the events of the Disruption of 1843, which led to the formation of the Free Church of Scotland. As a historian of science, Brewster focused on the life and work of his hero, Isaac Newton. Brewster published a detailed biography of Newton in 1831 and later became the first scientific historian to examine many of the papers in Newton's Nachlass. Brewster also wrote numerous works of popular science, and was one of the founders of the British Science Association, of which he was elected president in 1849. He became the public face of higher education in Scotland, serving as Principal of the University of St Andrews (1837–1859) and later of the University of Edinburgh (1859–1868). Brewster also edited the 18-volume Edinburgh Encyclopædia.LifeDavid Brewster was born in the Canongate in Jedburgh, Roxburghshire, to Margaret Key (1753–1790) and James Brewster (c. 1735–1815), the rector of Jedburgh Grammar School and a teacher of high reputation. David was the third of six children, two daughters and four sons: James (1777–1847), minister at Craig, Ferryden; David; George (1784–1855), minister at Scoonie, Fife; and Patrick (1788–1859), minister at the abbey church, Paisley. By then, Brewster had already shown a strong inclination for the natural sciences and had established a close association with James Veitch of Inchbonny. Veitch, who enjoyed a local reputation as a man of science and was particularly skilled in making telescopes, was characterized by Sir Walter Scott as a "self-taught philosopher, astronomer and mathematician". Brewster is buried in the grounds of Melrose Abbey, in Roxburghshire. Career Work on optics Though Brewster duly finished his theological studies and was licensed to preach, his other interests distracted him from the duties of his profession. In 1799 fellow-student Henry Brougham persuaded him to study the diffraction of light. The results of his investigations were communicated from time to time in papers to the Philosophical Transactions of London and other scientific journals. The fact that other scientists – notably Étienne-Louis Malus and Augustin Fresnel – were pursuing the same investigations contemporaneously in France does not invalidate Brewster's claim to independent discovery, even though in one or two cases the priority must be assigned to others. A lesser-known classmate of his, Thomas Dick, also went on to become a popular astronomical writer. The most important subjects of his inquiries can be enumerated under the following five headings: #The laws of light polarization by reflection and refraction, and other quantitative laws of phenomena; #The discovery of the polarising structure induced by heat and pressure; #The discovery of crystals with two axes of double refraction, and many of the laws of their phenomena, including the connection between optical structure and crystalline forms; #The laws of metallic reflection; #Experiments on the absorption of light. In this line of investigation, the prime importance belongs to the discovery of #the connection between the refractive index and the polarizing angle; #biaxial crystals, and #the production of double refraction by irregular heating. These discoveries were promptly recognised. As early as 1807 the degree of LL.D. was conferred upon Brewster by Marischal College, Aberdeen; in 1815 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, and received the Copley Medal; and in 1816 the French Institute awarded him one-half of the prize of three thousand francs for the two most important discoveries in physical science made in Europe during the two preceding years. In 1821, he was made a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and in 1822 a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Among the non-scientific public, his fame spread more effectually by his invention in about 1815 of the kaleidoscope, for which there was a great demand in both the United Kingdom, France, and the United States. As a reflection of this fame, Brewster's portrait was later printed in some cigar boxes. Brewster chose renowned achromatic lens developer Philip Carpenter as the sole manufacturer of the kaleidoscope in 1817. Although Brewster patented the kaleidoscope in 1817 (GB 4136), a copy of the prototype was shown to London opticians and copied before the patent was granted. As a consequence, the kaleidoscope became produced in large numbers, but yielded no direct financial benefits to Brewster. It proved to be a massive success with two hundred thousand kaleidoscopes sold in London and Paris in just three months. An instrument of more significance, the stereoscope, which – though of much later date (1849) – along with the kaleidoscope did more than anything else to popularise his name, was not as has often been asserted the invention of Brewster. Sir Charles Wheatstone discovered its principle and applied it as early as 1838 to the construction of a cumbersome but effective instrument, in which the binocular pictures were made to combine by means of mirrors. A dogged rival of Wheatstone's, Brewster was unwilling to credit him with the invention, however, and proposed that the true author of the stereoscope was a Mr. Elliot, a "Teacher of Mathematics" from Edinburgh, who, according to Brewster, had conceived of the principles as early as 1823 and had constructed a lensless and mirrorless prototype in 1839, through which one could view drawn landscape transparencies, since photography had yet to be invented. Brewster's personal contribution was the suggestion to use prisms for uniting the dissimilar pictures; and accordingly the lenticular stereoscope may fairly be said to be his invention. A much more valuable and practical result of Brewster's optical researches was the improvement of the British lighthouse system. Although Fresnel, who had also the satisfaction of being the first to put it into operation, perfected the dioptric apparatus independently, Brewster was active earlier in the field than Fresnel, describing the dioptric apparatus in 1812. Brewster pressed its adoption on those in authority at least as early as 1820, two years before Fresnel suggested it, and it was finally introduced into lighthouses mainly through Brewster's persistent efforts. Other work Although Brewster's own discoveries were important, they were not his only service to science. He began writing in 1799 as a regular contributor to the Edinburgh Magazine, of which he acted as editor 1802–1803 at the age of twenty. In 1807, he undertook the editorship of the newly projected Edinburgh Encyclopædia, of which the first part appeared in 1808, and the last not until 1830. The work was strongest in the scientific department, and many of its most valuable articles were from the pen of the editor. At a later period he was one of the leading contributors to the Encyclopædia Britannica (seventh and eighth editions) writing, among others, the articles on electricity, hydrodynamics, magnetism, microscope, optics, stereoscope, and voltaic electricity. He was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1816. In 1819 Brewster undertook further editorial work by establishing, in conjunction with Robert Jameson (1774–1854), the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, which took the place of the Edinburgh Magazine. The first ten volumes (1819–1824) were published under the joint editorship of Brewster and Jameson, the remaining four volumes (1825–1826) being edited by Jameson alone. After parting company with Jameson, Brewster started the Edinburgh Journal of Science in 1824, 16 volumes of which appeared under his editorship during the years 1824–1832, with very many articles from his own pen. He contributed around three hundred papers a short popular account of the philosopher's life, in ''Murray's Family Library'', followed by an 1832 American edition in Harper's Family Library; but it was not until 1855 that he was able to issue the much fuller Memoirs of the Life, Writings and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton, a work which embodied the results of more than 20 years' investigation of original manuscripts and other available sources. Brewster's position as editor brought him into frequent contact with the most eminent scientific men, and he was naturally among the first to recognise the benefit that would accrue from regular communication among those in the field of science. In a review of Charles Babbage's book Decline of Science in England in ''John Murray's Quarterly Review, he suggested the creation of "an association of our nobility, clergy, gentry and philosophers". This was taken up by various Declinarians and found speedy realisation in the British Association for the Advancement of Science. Its first meeting was held at York in 1831; and Brewster, along with Babbage and Sir John Herschel, had the chief part in shaping its constitution. Of a high-strung and nervous temperament, Brewster was somewhat irritable in matters of controversy; but he was repeatedly subjected to serious provocation. He was a man of highly honourable and fervently religious character. In estimating his place among scientific discoverers, the chief thing to be borne in mind is that his genius was not characteristically mathematical. His method was empirical, and the laws that he established were generally the result of repeated experiment. To the ultimate explanation of the phenomena with which he dealt he contributed nothing, and it is noteworthy although he did not maintain to the end of his life the corpuscular theory he never explicitly adopted the wave theory of light. Few would dispute the verdict of James David Forbes, an editor of the eighth edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica: "His scientific glory is different in kind from that of Young and Fresnel; but the discoverer of the law of polarization of biaxial crystals, of optical mineralogy, and of double refraction by compression, will always occupy a foremost rank in the intellectual history of the age." In addition to the various works of Brewster already mentioned, the following may be added: Notes and Introduction to Carlyle's translation of Legendre's Elements of Geometry (1824); Treatise on Optics (1831); [http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.rbc/general.29167.1 Letters on Natural Magic, addressed to Sir Walter Scott (1832)] The Martyrs of Science, or the Lives of Galileo, Tycho Brahe, and Kepler (1841); More Worlds than One (1854). and he described for the first time the red fluorescence of chlorophyll.History of Scottish FreemasonryAs well as his many scientific works and biographies of notable scientists, Brewster also wrote The History of Free Masonry, Drawn from Authentic Sources of Information; with an Account of the Grand Lodge of Scotland, from Its Institution in 1736, to the Present Time'', published in 1804, when he was only 23. The work was commissioned by Alexander Lawrie, publisher to the Grand Lodge of Scotland, to whom the work has been, frequently, mis-attributed. Given that the book bears Lawrie's name and not Brewster's this is understandable. The book became one of the standard works on early Scottish freemasonry although it has been largely superseded by later works. There is no evidence that Brewster was a Freemason at the time he wrote the book, nor any that he became one later. Opposition to evolution Brewster's Christian beliefs stirred him to respond against the idea of the transmutation of species and the theory of evolution. His opinion was that "science and religion must be one since each dealt with Truth, which had only one and the same Author." In 1845 he wrote a highly critical review of the evolutionist work Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, in the North British Review. which he considered to be an insult to Christian revelation and a dangerous example of materialism. In 1862, he responded to Darwin's On the Origin of Species and published the article The Facts and Fancies of Mr Darwin in Good Words. He stated that Darwin's book combined both "interesting facts and idle fancies" which made up a "dangerous and degrading speculation". He accepted adaptive changes, but he strongly opposed Darwin's statement about the primordial form, which he considered an offensive idea to "both the naturalist and the Christian." Family , Lady Brewster (Jane Kirk Purnell), Mrs. Jones, David Brewster and Miss Parnell (seated)]] Brewster married twice. His first wife, Juliet Macpherson (c. 1776–1850), was a daughter of James Macpherson (1736–1796), a probable translator of Ossian poems. They married on 31 July 1810 in Edinburgh and had four sons and a daughter: James (1812–) Charles Macpherson (1813–1828), drowned. Henry Craigie (1816–1905) became a military officer and photographer. Margaret Maria Gordon (1823–1907) wrote a book on Brewster, which is considered the most comprehensive description of his life. Brewster married a second time in Nice, on 26 (or 27) March 1857, to Jane Kirk Purnell (b. 1827), the second daughter of Thomas Purnell of Scarborough. Lady Brewster famously fainted at the Oxford evolution debate of 30 June 1860. Brewster died in 1868, and was buried at Melrose Abbey, next to his first wife and second son. The physics building at Heriot-Watt University is named in his honour.Recognition and modern references A bust of Brewster is in the Hall of Heroes of the National Wallace Monument in Stirling. Brewster's views on the possibility of evolution of intelligence on other planets, contrasted with the opinion of William Whewell, are cited in the novel Barchester Towers. He appears as a minor antagonist in the 2015 video game ''Assassin's Creed Syndicate'' as a scientist working for the game's opposing faction. He is assassinated by one of the protagonists, Evie Frye. A street within the Kings Buildings complex (science buildings linked to Edinburgh University) was named in his memory in 2015. See also * Brewster's angle * Coddington magnifier * Brewster crater * Brewsterite References Sources <!-- Significant parts of the text are lightly paraphrased from EB1911, which is acknowledged in the references section --> * * [https://archive.org/stream/homelifeofsirdav00gord/#page/n5/mode/2up Downloadable archive copy] Further reading * Brewster, David (1854). The Creed of the Philosopher and the Hope of the Christian. Murray (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; ) * [http://www.kaleidoscopecollector.com/brewster_thekaleidoscope.pdf PDF copy] * "The Home Life of Sir David Brewster" (1869). Written by his daughter Margaret Maria Gordon. External links * [http://www.brewstersociety.com/ The Brewster Kaleidoscope Society] * * * * Brewster's (1831) [http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/color/id/5540 "On a new analysis of solar light, indicating three primary colours, forming coincident spectra of equal length,"] Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. 12, p. 123–136. – digital facsimile from the Linda Hall Library * Brewster's (1834) [http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/color/id/5524 "On the colours of natural bodies,"] Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. 12, p. 538–545. – Linda Hall Library * Brewster's (1835) [http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/color/id/8396 A treatise on optics] – Linda Hall Library [http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.rbc/general.29167.1 Letters on Natural magic Addressed to Sir Walter Scott] From the Rare Book and Special Collection Division at the Library of Congress [https://www.grandlodgescotland.com/ The Grand Lodge of Antient Free and Accepted Masons of Scotland.] Category:1781 births Category:1868 deaths Category:Principals of the University of Edinburgh Category:19th-century British physicists Category:19th-century Scottish writers Category:19th-century British engineers Category:19th-century Scottish mathematicians Category:Scottish inventors Category:19th-century Scottish philosophers Category:Scottish astronomers Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Category:Fellows of the Royal Society Category:Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences Category:Presidents of the Royal Society of Edinburgh Category:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences Category:Honorary members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences Category:Knights Bachelor Category:Alumni of the University of Edinburgh Category:Academics of the University of St Andrews Category:Toy inventors Category:British scientific instrument makers Category:British optical physicists Category:Recipients of the Copley Medal Category:People from Jedburgh Category:Royal Medal winners Category:Scottish encyclopedists Category:Scottish antiquarians Category:Members of the French Academy of Sciences Category:Members of the Royal Irish Academy Category:Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class) Category:Scottish civil engineers Category:Principals of the University of St Andrews Category:19th-century ministers of the Church of Scotland Category:19th-century Scottish Presbyterian ministers Category:Burials at Melrose Abbey Category:Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland Category:Newton scholars	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Brewster	2025-04-05T18:28:38.398057
8488	DTMF signaling	:For the song by Bad Bunny, see DTMF (song). --> \| native_name_lang = <!-- ISO 639-1 code e.g. "fr" for French. If more than one, use inside native_name items instead --> \| status = Active \| year_started \| first_published <!-- --> \| version \| version_date \| preview \| preview_date \| organization \| committee ITU-T \| series \| editors \| authors = Bell Laboratories \| base_standards \| related_standards \| predecessor \| successor \| domain \| license \| copyright \| website }} Dual-tone multi-frequency (DTMF) signaling is a telecommunication signaling system using the voice-frequency band over telephone lines between telephone equipment and other communications devices and switching centers. The different beeps heard when pressing the number buttons on a telephone are the DTMF frequencies. On modern telephones like smartphones, these beeps do not serve a technical function anymore, but are for decorative purposes. DTMF was first developed in the Bell System in the United States, and became known under the trademark Touch-Tone for use in push-button telephones, starting in 1963. The DTMF frequencies are standardized in ITU-T Recommendation Q.23. The signaling system is also known as MF4 in the United Kingdom, as MFV in Germany, and Digitone in Canada. Touch-tone dialing with a telephone keypad gradually replaced the use of rotary dials and has become the industry standard in telephony to control automated equipment and signal user intent. Other multi-frequency systems are also used for signaling on trunks in the telephone network.Multifrequency signaling keypads were one of the few production units to include all 16 DTMF signals. The red keys in the fourth column produce the A, B, C, and D DTMF events.\|thumb]] Before the development of DTMF, telephone numbers were dialed with rotary dials for loop-disconnect (LD) signaling, also known as pulse dialing. It functions by interrupting the current in the local loop between the telephone exchange and the calling party's telephone at a precise rate with a switch in the telephone that operates the dial spins back to its rest position after having been rotated to each desired digit. The exchange equipment responds to the dial pulses either directly by operating relays or by storing the digits in a register that records the dialed telephone number. Pulse dialing was possible only on direct metallic lines and was limited in physical distance by the amount of electrical distortions present. For signaling over trunks between switching systems, operators used a different type of multi-frequency signaling. Multi-frequency signaling (MF) is a group of signaling methods that use a mixture of two pure tone (pure sine wave) sounds. Various MF signaling protocols were devised by the Bell System and CCITT. The earliest of these were for in-band signaling between switching centers, where long-distance telephone operators used a 16-digit keypad to input the next portion of the destination telephone number in order to contact the next downstream long-distance telephone operator. This semi-automated signaling and switching proved successful in both speed and cost effectiveness. Based on this prior success with using MF by specialists to establish long-distance telephone calls, dual-tone multi-frequency signaling was developed for end-user signaling without the assistance of operators. The DTMF system uses two sets of four frequencies in the voice frequency range transmitted in pairs to represent sixteen signals, representing the ten digits, four and six additional signals identified as the letters A to D, and the symbols # and . As the signals are audible tones they can be transmitted through line repeaters and amplifiers, and over radio and microwave links. AT&T described the product as "a method for pushbutton signaling from customer stations using the voice transmission path". To prevent consumer telephones from interfering with the MF-based routing and switching between telephone switching centers, DTMF frequencies differ from all of the pre-existing MF signaling protocols between switching centers: MF/R1, R2, CCS4, CCS5, and others that were later replaced by SS7 digital signaling. DTMF was known throughout the Bell System by the trademark Touch-Tone. The term was first used by AT&T in commerce on July 5, 1960, and was introduced to the public on November 18, 1963, when the first push-button telephone was made available to the public. As a parent company of Bell Systems, AT&T held the trademark from September 4, 1962, to March 13, 1984. It is standardized by ITU-T Recommendation Q.23. Other vendors of compatible telephone equipment called the Touch-Tone feature tone dialing or DTMF. Automatic Electric (GTE) referred to it as "Touch-calling" in their marketing. Other trade names such as Digitone were used by the Northern Electric Company in Canada. As a method of in-band signaling, DTMF signals were also used by cable television broadcasters as cue tones to indicate the start and stop times of local commercial insertion points during station breaks for the benefit of cable companies. Until out-of-band signaling equipment was developed in the 1990s, fast, unacknowledged DTMF tone sequences could be heard during the commercial breaks of cable channels in the United States and elsewhere. Previously, terrestrial television stations used DTMF tones to control remote transmitters. In IP telephony, DTMF signals can also be delivered as either in-band or out-of-band tones, or even as a part of signaling protocols, as long as both endpoints agree on a common approach to adopt.Keypad The DTMF telephone keypad is laid out as a matrix of push buttons in which each row represents the low frequency component and each column represents the high frequency component of the DTMF signal. The commonly used keypad has four rows and three columns, but a fourth column is present for some applications. Pressing a key sends a combination of the row and column frequencies. For example, the 1 key produces a superimposition of a 697 Hz low tone and a 1209 Hz high tone. Initial pushbutton designs employed levers, enabling each button to activate one row and one column contact. The tones are decoded by the switching center to determine the keys pressed by the user. {\| class="wikitable" \|+ DTMF keypad frequencies (with sound clips) They consulted with companies to determine the requirements. This led to the addition of the square sign which is typically approximated by the number sign (#), also "pound", "diamond", "hash", "gate" (UK), and "octothorpe") in the fourth row of the first column of keys, and the star () key, or asterisk (France) in the fourth row of the third column. In addition a fourth column of keys was added for menu selection: A, B, C and D. The lettered keys were dropped from most keypads and it was many years before the two symbol keys became widely used for vertical service codes such as 67 in the United States and Canada to suppress caller ID. Public payphones that accept credit cards use these additional codes to send the information from the magnetic strip. The AUTOVON telephone system of the United States Armed Forces used signals A, B, C, and D to assert certain privilege and priority levels when placing telephone calls. Precedence is still a feature of military telephone networks, but using number combinations. For example, entering 93 before a number is a priority call. Present-day uses of the signals A, B, C and D are rare in telephone networks, and are exclusive to network control. For example, A is used in some networks for cycling through a list of carriers. The signals are used in radio phone patch and repeater operations to allow, among other uses, control of the repeater while connected to an active telephone line. The signals star, square, A, B, C, and D are still widely used worldwide by amateur radio operators and commercial two-way radio systems for equipment control, repeater control, remote-base operations and some telephone communications systems. DTMF signaling tones may also be heard at the start and/or end of some prerecorded VHS videocassettes. Information on the master version of the video tape is encoded in the DTMF tones. The encoded tones provide information to automatic duplication machines, such as format, duration and volume levels in order to replicate the original video as closely as possible. DTMF tones are used in some caller ID systems to transfer the caller ID information, a function that is performed in the United States by Bell 202 modulated frequency-shift keying (FSK) signaling. Decoding DTMF was originally decoded by tuned electrical filter banks. By the end of the 20th century, digital signal processing became the predominant technology for decoding. DTMF decoding algorithms typically use the Goertzel algorithm although application of MUSIC (algorithm) to DTMF decoding has been shown to outperform Goertzel and being the only possibility in cases when number of available samples is limited. As DTMF signaling is often transmitted in-band with voice or other audio signals present simultaneously, the DTMF signal definition includes strict limits for timing (minimum duration and interdigit spacing), frequency deviations, harmonics, and amplitude relation of the two components with respect to each other (twist). Other multiple frequency signals National telephone systems define other tones, outside the DTMF specification, that indicate the status of lines, equipment, or the result of calls, and for control of equipment for troubleshooting or service purposes. Such call-progress tones are often also composed of multiple frequencies and are standardized in each country. The Bell System defined them in the Precise Tone Plan. Bell's multi-frequency signaling was exploited by blue box devices. Some early modems were based on touch-tone frequencies, such as Bell 400-style modems. See also Selective calling * * Cue tone * References Further reading * [http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-F.902/en ITU's recommendations for implementing DTMF services] * Frank Durda, [https://web.archive.org/web/20110925184759/http://nemesis.lonestar.org/reference/telecom/signaling/dtmf.html Dual Tone Multi-Frequency (Touch-Tone) Reference], 2006. * [http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-Q.24/en ITU-T Recommendation Q.24 - Multifrequency push-button signal reception] Category:Telephony signals Category:Broadcast engineering	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DTMF_signaling	2025-04-05T18:28:38.409055
8489	Deuterocanonical books	The deuterocanonical books,, of 'deutero' () + 'canonical' (, from }} meaning 'of, pertaining to, or constituting a second canon', collectively known as the Deuterocanon (DC), are certain books and passages considered to be canonical books of the Old Testament by the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Oriental Orthodox Church, and the Church of the East. In contrast, modern Rabbinic Judaism and Protestants regard the DC as Apocrypha. Seven books are accepted as deuterocanonical by all the ancient churches: Tobit, Judith, Baruch, Ecclesiasticus, Wisdom, First and Second Maccabees and also the Greek additions to Esther and Daniel. Canonical for the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Oriental Orthodox Church, and the Church of the East: * Tobit * Judith * Baruch including the Letter of Jeremiah (Baruch chapter 6) * Sirach (or Ecclesiasticus) * 1 Maccabees * 2 Maccabees * Wisdom * Greek additions to Esther * Greek additions to Daniel Canonical only for the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Oriental Orthodox Church: The acceptance of some of these books among early Christians was widespread, though not universal, and surviving Bibles from the early Church always include, with varying degrees of recognition, books now called deuterocanonical. Some say that their canonicity seems not to have been doubted in the Church until it was challenged by Jews after 100 AD, sometimes postulating a hypothetical Council of Jamnia. Regional councils in the West published official canons that included these books as early as the 4th and 5th centuries. Five fragments from the Book of Tobit have been found in Qumran written in Aramaic and in one written in Hebrew (papyri 4Q, nos. 196–200).\|nameDSS\|group}} that the Qumran library of approximately 1,100 manuscripts found in the eleven caves at Qumran was not entirely produced at Qumran, but may have included part of the library of the Jerusalem Temple, that may have been hidden in the caves for safekeeping at the time the Temple was destroyed by Romans in 70 AD. Influence of the Septuagint Deuterocanonical and Apocryphal books included in the Septuagint are: {\| class"toccolours" cellspacing"0px" style="width:75%; margin:auto; clear:center; text-align:left; font-size:85%;" \|- style="vertical-align:bottom; font-weight:bold;" \| style"border-bottom:2px groove #aaa; "\| Greek name \| style="border-bottom:2px groove #aaa; "\|Transliteration \| style="border-bottom:2px groove #aaa; "\|English name \|- !colspan=3\|Deuterocanonical for the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Churches \|- \| style"text-indent:1em"\| or in some sources.\|nameΤωβείτ\|group}}\|\| or \|nameTōbeit\|group=}}\|\| Tobit or Tobias \|- \| style="text-indent:1em"\| \|\| \|\| Judith \|- \| style="text-indent:1em"\| \|\| \|\| Esther with additions \|- \| style="text-indent:1em"\| \|\| \|\| 1 Maccabees \|- \| style="text-indent:1em"\| \|\| \|\| 2 Maccabees \|- \| style="text-indent:1em"\| \|\| \|\| Wisdom or Wisdom of Solomon \|- \| style="text-indent:1em"\| \|\| \|\| Sirach or Ecclesiasticus \|- \| style="text-indent:1em"\| \|\| \|\| Baruch \|- \| style="text-indent:1em"\| \|\| \|\| Epistle of Jeremiah \|- \| style="text-indent:1em"\| \|\| \|\| Daniel with additions \|- !colspan3\|Deuterocanonical for the Eastern Orthodox Churches \|- \| style="text-indent:1em"\| \|\| \|\| Prayer of Manasseh \|- \| style="text-indent:1em"\| \|\| \|\| 1 Esdras \|- \| style="text-indent:1em"\| \|\| \|\| 3 Maccabees \|- \| style="text-indent:1em"\| \|\| \|\| 4 Maccabees \|- \| style="text-indent:1em"\| \|\| \|\| Psalm 151 \|- \| colspan="3" \|Apocrypha \|- \| style="text-indent:1em" \|\|\| \|\|Psalms of Solomon \|- \|} The large majority of Old Testament references in the New Testament are taken from the Koine Greek Septuagint (LXX), editions of which include the deuterocanonical books, as well as apocrypha – both of which are called collectively ("readable, worthy of reading"). No two Septuagint codices contain the same apocrypha. Greek Psalm manuscripts from the fifth century contain three New Testament "psalms": the Magnificat, the Benedictus, the Nunc dimittis from Luke's birth narrative, and the conclusion of the hymn that begins with the "Gloria in Excelsis". Beckwith states that manuscripts of anything like the capacity of Codex Alexandrinus were not used in the first centuries of the Christian era, and believes that the comprehensive codices of the Septuagint, which start appearing in the 4th century AD, are all of Christian origin. In the New Testament, Hebrews 11:35 is understood by some as referring to an event that was recorded in one of the deuterocanonical books, 2 Maccabees. For instance, the author of Hebrews references oral tradition which spoke of an Old Testament prophet who was sawn in half in Hebrews 11:37, two verses after the 2nd Maccabees reference. Other New Testament authors such as Paul also reference or quote period literature.Influence of early authorsThe Jewish historian Josephus () wrote that the Hebrew Bible contained 22 canonical books. The same number of 22 books was reported also by the Christian bishop Athanasius, but they might differ on the exact content (see below for Athanasius), as Josephus did not provide a detailed list. Origen of Alexandria (), cited by Eusebius, described the Hebrew Bible as containing 22 canonical books. Among these books he listed the Epistle of Jeremiah and the Maccabees. Eusebius wrote in his Church History () that Bishop Melito of Sardis in the 2nd century AD considered the deuterocanonical Wisdom of Solomon as part of the Old Testament and that it was considered canonical by Jews and Christians. On the other hand, the contrary claim has been made: "In the catalogue of Melito, presented by Eusebius, after Proverbs, the word Wisdom occurs, which nearly all commentators have been of opinion is only another name for the same book, and not the name of the book now called 'The Wisdom of Solomon'." Cyril of Jerusalem () in his Catechetical Lectures cites as canonical books "Jeremiah one, including Baruch and Lamentations and the Epistle (of Jeremiah)". Epiphanius of Salamis () mentions that "there are 27 books given the Jews by God, but they are counted as 22, however, like the letters of their Hebrew alphabet, because ten books are doubled and reckoned as five". He wrote in his that Jews had in their books the deuterocanonical Epistle of Jeremiah and Baruch, both combined with Jeremiah and Lamentations in only one book. While Wisdom of Sirach and the Wisdom of Solomon were books of disputed canonicity. Augustine of Hippo (), in his book On Christian Doctrine (Book II Chapter 8), cites a list of the canon of the Old Testament and the New Testament, including the deuterocanonical books as canonical: According to the monk Rufinus of Aquileia () the deuterocanonical books were not called canonical but ecclesiastical books. In this category Rufinus includes the Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach, Judith, Tobit and two books of Maccabees. Pope Innocent I (405 AD) sent a letter to the bishop of Toulouse citing deuterocanonical books as a part of the Old Testament canon. In the 7th century Latin document the Muratorian fragment, which some scholars actually believe to be a copy of an earlier 170 AD Greek original, the book of the Wisdom of Solomon is counted by the church. SynodsIn later copyings of the canons of the Council of Laodicea (from 364 AD) a canon list became appended to Canon 59, likely before the mid fifth century, which affirmed that Jeremiah, and Baruch, the Lamentations, and the Epistle (of Jeremiah) were canonical, while excluding the other deuterocanonical books. According to Decretum Gelasianum, which is a work written by an anonymous scholar between 519 and 553, the Council of Rome (382 AD) cites a list of books of scripture presented as having been made canonical. This list mentions all the deuterocanonical books as a part of the Old Testament canon: On 28 August 397, the Council of Carthage confirmed the canon issued at Hippo; the recurrence of the Old Testament part is stated: In 419 AD, the Council of Carthage in its canon 24 lists the deuterocanonical books as canonical scripture: (According to the Council of Laodicea, and Epiphanius of Salamis, The Council of Florence (1442) promulgated a list of the books of the Bible, including the books of Judith, Esther, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch and two books of the Maccabees as Canonical books: The Council of Trent (1546) adopted an understanding of the canons of these previous councils as corresponding to its own list of deuterocanonical books: Influence of Jerome Jerome in one of his Vulgate prologues describes a canon which excludes the deuterocanonical books. In these prologues, Jerome mentions all of the deuterocanonical and apocryphal works by name as being apocryphal or "not in the canon" except for Prayer of Manasses and Baruch. He mentions Baruch by name in his Prologue to Jeremiah and notes that it is neither read nor held among the Hebrews, but does not explicitly call it apocryphal or "not in the canon". The inferior status to which the deuterocanonical books were relegated by authorities like Jerome is seen by some as being due to a rigid conception of canonicity, one demanding that a book, to be entitled to this supreme dignity, must be received by all, must have the sanction of Jewish antiquity, and must moreover be adapted not only to edification, but also to the "confirmation of the doctrine of the Church". Jerome's Vulgate included the deuterocanonical books as well as apocrypha. Jerome referenced and quoted from some as scripture despite describing them as "not in the canon". Michael Barber asserts that, although Jerome was once suspicious of the apocrypha, he later viewed them as scripture. Barber argues that this is clear from Jerome's epistles; he cites Jerome's letter to Eustochium, in which Jerome quotes Sirach 13:2. Elsewhere Jerome apparently also refers to Baruch, the Story of Susannah and Wisdom as scripture. Henry Barker states that Jerome quotes the Apocrypha with marked respect, and even as "Scripture", giving them an ecclesiastical if not a canonical position and use. Luther also wrote introductions to the books of the Apocrypha, and occasionally quoted from some to support an argument. In his prologue to Judith, without using the word canon, Jerome mentioned that Judith was held to be scriptural by the First Council of Nicaea. In his reply to Rufinus, Jerome affirmed that he was consistent with the choice of the church regarding which version of the deuterocanonical portions of Daniel to use, which the Jews of his day did not include: Thus Jerome acknowledged the principle by which the canon would be settled—the judgment of the Church (at least the local churches in this case) rather than his own judgment or the judgment of Jews; though concerning translation of Daniel to Greek, he wondered why one should use the version of a translator whom he regarded as a heretic and judaizer (Theodotion). This decree was clarified somewhat by Pope Pius XI on 2 June 1927, who allowed that the Comma Johanneum was open to dispute. The Council of Trent also ratified the Vulgate Bible as the official Latin version of the Bible for the Roman Catholic Church. Deuterocanonical and Apocryphal books included in the Latin Vulgate are: {\| class"toccolours" cellspacing"0px" style="width:75%; margin:auto; clear:center; text-align:left; font-size:85%;" \|- style="vertical-align:bottom; font-weight:bold;" \| style="border-bottom:2px groove #aaa; "\|Latin name \| style="border-bottom:2px groove #aaa; "\|English name \|- !colspan=3\|Deuterocanonical Books \|- \| style="text-indent:1em"\| \|\| Tobit or Tobias \|- \| style="text-indent:1em"\| \|\| Judith \|- \| style="text-indent:1em"\| \|\| Esther with additions \|- \| style="text-indent:1em"\| \|\| 1 Maccabees \|- \| style="text-indent:1em"\| \|\| 2 Maccabees \|- \| style="text-indent:1em"\| \|\| Wisdom or Wisdom of Solomon \|- \| style="text-indent:1em"\| \|\| Sirach or Ecclesiasticus \|- \| style="text-indent:1em"\| \|\| Baruch included the Epistle of Jeremiah \|- \| style="text-indent:1em"\| \|\| Daniel with additions \|- !colspan=3\|Apocryphal Books \|- \| style="text-indent:1em"\| \|\| 1 Esdras \|- \| style="text-indent:1em"\| \|\| 2 Esdras \|- \| style="text-indent:1em"\| \|\| Psalm 151 \|- \| style="text-indent:1em"\| \|\| Prayer of Manasseh \|- \| style="text-indent:1em"\| \|\| Epistle to the Laodiceans \|- \|} Masoretic Text The existence of the Septuagint, Samaritan Pentateuch, and the Peshitta versions of the Hebrew scriptures demonstrate that different versions of Judaism used different texts, and it is debated which is closest to the Urtext (a theoretical "original" text from which all of these emerged). The Dead Sea Scrolls contain some of the deuterocanonical books, while the Masoretic Text excludes them. Since the Enlightenment, it was wrongly believed that the Masoretic Text was the "original" Hebrew Bible when this was in fact a medieval version created by the Masoretes. The oldest nearly-complete manuscripts of the Old Testament include the Codex Vaticanus (4th century) and the Codex Alexandrinus (5th century), while the oldest complete manuscript of the Masoretic text is the Codex Leningradensis from 1008. The Septuagint was the version of the Hebrew Bible from which the early Christians emerged. The Christian Bible contained these deuterocanonical books until Martin Luther, assuming the Masoretic text to be the original, removed them to match this new Jewish canon. Rabbinic Judaism is a newer form of Judaism that created the Masoretic text in part to deter a Christian reading of the Old Testament. In Judaism Although there is no scholarly consensus as to when the Hebrew Bible canon was fixed, some scholars hold that the Hebrew canon was established well before the 1st century AD – even as early as the 4th century BC, or by the Hasmonean dynasty (140–40 BC). The canon of modern Rabbinic Judaism excludes the deuterocanonical books. Albert J. Sundberg writes that Judaism did not exclude from their scriptures the deuterocanonicals and the additional Greek texts listed here. The Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, which the early Christian church used as its Old Testament, included all of the deuterocanonical books. The term distinguished these books from both the protocanonical books (the books of the Hebrew canon) and the biblical apocrypha (books of Jewish origin that were sometimes read in Christian churches as scripture but which were not regarded as canonical). Some commentators see texts from these particular books being paraphrased, referred, or alluded to many times in the New Testament, depending in large measure on what is counted as a reference; other scholars point to a correspondence of thought.In the Catholic Church The Catholic Church considers that in the Council of Rome in 382 AD, under the Papacy of Damasus I, was defined the complete canon of the Bible, accepting 46 books for the Old Testament, including what the Reformed Churches consider as deuterocanonical books, and 27 books for the New Testament. Based in this first canon, Saint Jerome compiled and translated the 73 books of the Bible into Latin, later known as the Vulgate Bible version, which has been considered during many centuries as one of the official Bible translations of the Catholic Church. The Synod of Hippo (in 393 AD), followed by the Council of Carthage (397) and the Council of Carthage (419), also explicitly accepted the first canon from the Council of Rome. These councils Schaff says that this canon remained undisturbed till the 16th century, and was sanctioned by the Council of Trent at its fourth session, Subsequent research qualifies this latter statement, in that a distinct tradition of large format pandect bibles has been identified as having been promoted by the 11th and 12th century reforming Papacy for presentation to monasteries in Italy; and now commonly termed 'Atlantic Bibles' on account of their very great size. While not all these bibles present a consistent reformed Vulgate text, they generally exclude the deuterocanonical books. Baruch According to the canon lists of the Council of Laodicea, Athanasius (367 AD), and Epiphanius of Salamis (), Esdras For the Roman Catholic Church and Protestant Churches, Greek Esdras is now considered apocryphal. The Orthodox Church considers it as canonical. The earlier canonical status of this book in the Western church can be less easy to track, as references to Esdras in canon lists and citations may refer either to this book, or to Greek Ezra–Nehemiah, or both together. In the surviving Greek pandect Bibles of the 4th and 5th centuries, Greek Esdras always stands as 'Esdras A' while the Greek translation of the whole of canonical Ezra–Nehemiah stands as 'Esdras B'. The same is found in the surviving witness of the Old Latin Bible. Consequently Gallagher and Meade conclude that "when the ancient canon lists, whether Greek or Latin, mention two books of Esdras, they must have in mind the books known in the LXX and Old Latin as Esdras A and Esdras B; i.e. our 1 Esdras and Ezra-Nehemiah." In his prologue to Ezra Jerome refers to four books of Ezra in the Latin tradition. Jerome's first and second Latin books of Ezra are those of the Old Latin Bible - corresponding to Greek Esdras and Ezra-Nehemiah in the Septuagint. These two books he considers each to be a corrupt version of the single Hebrew book of Ezra, so he claims that his Vulgate version of Ezra from the Hebrew replaces both of them. Jerome condemns the third and fourth Latin books of Ezra as apocrypha. His third book must correspond to the Jewish Apocalypse of Ezra while the fourth book is likely to comprise other material from Latin Ezra. From the 9th century, occasional Latin Vulgate manuscripts are found in which Jerome's single Ezra text is split to form the separate books of Ezra and Nehemiah. In the Paris Bibles of the 13th century this split has become universal, with Esdras A being reintroduced as '3 Esdras' and Latin Esdras being added as '4 Esdras'. At the Council of Trent neither '3 Esdras' nor '4 Esdras' were accepted as canonical books, but were eventually printed in the section of 'Apocrypha' in the Sixto-Clementine Vulgate, along with the Prayer of Manasses. The Council of Trent in 1546 stated the list of books included in the canon as it had been set out in the Council of Florence. In respect to the deuterocanonical books this list conformed with the canon lists of Western synods of the late 4th century, other than including Baruch with the Letter of Jeremiah (Baruch chapter 6) as a single book. While the majority at Trent supported this decision there were participants in the minority who disagreed with accepting any other than the protocanonical books in the canon. Among the minority, at Trent, were Cardinals Seripando and Cajetan, the latter an opponent of Luther at Augsburg. In Eastern Orthodoxy The Eastern Orthodox Churches have traditionally included all the books of the Septuagint in their Old Testaments. The Greeks use the word (, "readable, worthy to be read") to describe the books of the Greek Septuagint that are not present in the Hebrew Bible. When Eastern Orthodox theologians use the term "deuterocanonical", it is important to note that the meaning is not identical to the Roman Catholic usage. In Eastern Orthodox Christianity, deuterocanonical means that a book is part of the corpus of the Old Testament (i.e. is read during the services) but has secondary authority. In other words, deutero (second) applies to authority or witnessing power, whereas in Roman Catholicism, deutero applies to chronology (the fact that these books were confirmed later), not to authority. The Eastern Orthodox Churches canon includes the deuterocanonical books accepted by the Catholic Church plus 1 Esdras, 3 Maccabees, Psalm 151, and the Prayer of Manasseh, while Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah are separated. The Eastern Orthodox synod, the Synod of Jerusalem, held in 1672 receive as its canon the books found in the Septuagint, and in the Patristic, Byzantine, and liturgical tradition. The Synod declared the Eastern Orthodox canon as follows: <blockquote>specifically, "The Wisdom of Solomon," "Judith," "Tobit," "The History of the Dragon" [Bel and the Dragon], "The History of Susanna," "The Maccabees," and "The Wisdom of Sirach." For we judge these also to be with the other genuine Books of Divine Scripture genuine parts of Scripture. For ancient custom, or rather the Catholic Church, which has delivered to us as genuine the Sacred Gospels and the other Books of Scripture, has undoubtedly delivered these also as parts of Scripture, and the denial of these is the rejection of those. And if, perhaps, it seems that not always have all of these been considered on the same level as the others, yet nevertheless these also have been counted and reckoned with the rest of Scripture, both by Synods and by many of the most ancient and eminent Theologians of the Universal Church. All of these we also judge to be Canonical Books, and confess them to be Sacred Scripture.</blockquote> Other texts printed in Eastern Orthodox Bibles are included as an appendix, which is not the same in all churches; the appendix contains 4 Maccabees in Greek-language bibles, while it contains 2 Esdras in Slavonic-language and Russian-language. The Book of Enoch is unusual as it was quoted in the New Testament. 1 Enoch 1:9 is directly and explicitly quoted in Jude 1:14-15 and may be alluded to in Galatians 5:19. It is not part of the canon of any other churches. In Protestantism include the deuterocanonical books as an intertestamental section between the Old Testament and New Testament; they are termed the "Apocrypha" in Christian Churches having their origins in the Reformation.]] For churches which espouse sola scriptura independent of ecclesiastical authorities or sacred Tradition, it is necessary and critical to have a clear and complete list of the canonical books. The early Christian church largely relied upon the Septuagint in the canonization of the Christian Bible. In the 16th century, Martin Luther argued that many of the received texts of the New Testament lacked the authority of the Gospels, and therefore proposed removing a number of books from the New Testament, including Hebrews, James, Jude, and the Book of Revelation. While this proposal was not widely accepted among Protestants, the deuterocanonical books—which had previously been deprecated by Jewish scholars—were moved by Luther into an intertestamental section of the Bible called the apocrypha. Lutherans and Anglicans do not consider these books to be canonical but do consider them worthy of reverence. As such, readings from the Protestant apocrypha are found in the lectionaries of these churches.Anabaptist ChurchesAnabaptists use the Luther Bible, which contains the Apocrypha as intertestamental books, which has much overlap with the Catholic deuterocanonical books; Amish wedding ceremonies include "the retelling of the marriage of Tobias and Sarah in the Apocrypha". The fathers of Anabaptism, such as Menno Simons, quoted "them [the Apocrypha] with the same authority and nearly the same frequency as books of the Hebrew Bible" and the texts regarding the martyrdoms under Antiochus IV in 1 Maccabees and 2 Maccabees are held in high esteem by the Anabaptists, who faced persecution in their history. Anglican Communion The Thirty-nine Articles of Religion of the Church of England lists the deuterocanonical books as suitable to be read for "example of life and instruction of manners, but yet doth not apply them to establish any doctrine". The early lectionaries of the Anglican Church (as included in the Book of Common Prayer of 1662) included the deuterocanonical books amongst the cycle of readings, and passages from them were used regularly in services (such as the Kyrie Pantokrator and the Benedicite). Readings from the deuterocanonical books are now included in many modern lectionaries in the Anglican Communion, based on the Revised Common Lectionary (in turn based on the post-conciliar Roman Catholic lectionary), though alternative readings from protocanonical books are also provided. There is a great deal of overlap between the Apocrypha section of the original 1611 King James Bible and the Catholic deuterocanon, but the two are distinct. The Apocrypha section of the original 1611 King James Bible includes, in addition to the deuterocanonical books, the following three books, which were not included in the list of the canonical books by the Council of Trent: * 1 Esdras (Vulgate 3 Esdras) * 2 Esdras (Vulgate 4 Esdras) * Prayer of Manasseh These books make up the Apocrypha section of the Clementine Vulgate: 3 Esdras (a.k.a. 1 Esdras); 4 Esdras (a.k.a. 2 Esdras); and the Prayer of Manasseh, where they are specifically described as "outside of the series of the canon". The 1609 Douai Bible includes them in an appendix, but they have not been included in English Catholic Bibles since the Challoner revision of the Douai Bible in 1750. Using the word apocrypha (Greek: "hidden away") to describe texts, although not necessarily pejorative, implies that the writings in question should not be included in the canon of the Bible. This classification commingles them with certain non-canonical gospels and New Testament apocrypha. The Society of Biblical Literature recommends the use of the term deuterocanonical books instead of Apocrypha in academic writing.Lutheran ChurchesLuther termed the deuterocanonical books "Apocrypha, that is, books which are not considered equal to the Holy Scriptures, but are useful and good to read." These are included in copies of the Luther Bible as intertestamental books between the Old Testament and New Testament. The Revised Common Lectionary, in use by most mainline Protestants including Methodists and Moravians, lists readings from the deuterocanonical books in the liturgical kalendar, although alternate Old Testament scripture lessons are provided.Presbyterian ChurchesThe Westminster Confession of Faith, a Calvinist document that serves as a systematic summary of doctrine for the Church of Scotland and other Presbyterian Churches worldwide, recognizes only the sixty-six books of the Protestant canon as authentic scripture. Chapter 1, Article 3 of the Confession reads: "The books commonly called Apocrypha, not being of divine inspiration, are no part of the Canon of Scripture; and therefore are of no authority in the Church of God, nor to be any otherwise approved, or made use of, than other human writings."Reformed ChurchesThe Belgic Confession, used in Reformed churches, devotes a section (Article 6) to "the difference between the canonical and apocryphal books" and says of them: "All which the Church may read and take instruction from, so far as they agree with the canonical books; but they are far from having such power and efficacy as that we may from their testimony confirm any point of faith or of the Christian religion; much less to detract from the authority of the other sacred books." New Testament deuterocanonicals The term deuterocanonical is sometimes used to describe the canonical antilegomena, those books of the New Testament which, like the deuterocanonicals of the Old Testament, were not universally accepted by the early Church. The antilegomena or "disputed writings" were widely read in the Early Church and include: * The Epistle to the Hebrews * The Epistle of James * The Second Epistle of Peter * The Second Epistle of John * The Third Epistle of John * The Epistle of Jude * The Book of Revelation * The Apocalypse of Peter * The Acts of Paul * The Shepherd of Hermas * The Epistle of Barnabas * The Didache See also * Biblical apocrypha * Biblical canon * Pseudepigrapha Notes References Further reading * Harrington, Daniel J. Invitation to the Apocrypha. Grand Rapids, Michigan: W.B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1999. * Roach, Corwin C. The Apocrypha: the Hidden Books of the Bible. Cincinnati, Ohio: Forward Movement Publications, 1966 – Concerns the Deuterocanonical writings (Apocrypha), according to Anglican usage. External links [https://archive.today/20130411150518/http://www.petersvoice.com/scriptures/deuterocanonical-books.htm Prophecies in the Deuterocanonical books] [http://www.godrules.net/articles/deutero.htm Protestants defending the Deuterocanonical books] [http://www.ewtn.com/library/answers/deuteros.htm Defending the Deuterocanonicals] by Jimmy Akin [http://catholiceducation.org/articles/apologetics/ap0120.html Five common arguments Protestants give for rejecting the Deuterocanonicals] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20120225151009/https://catholiceducation.org/articles/apologetics/ap0120.html webarchive link]) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140801214700/http://scripturecatholic.com/deuterocanon.html Deuterocanon Use in New Testament] [http://st-takla.org/pub_Deuterocanon/Deuterocanon-Apocrypha_El-Asfar_El-Kanoneya_El-Tanya__0-index.html Deuterocanonical books] – Full text from Saint Takla Haymanot Church Website (also available, the full text in Arabic) *[https://www.christiancourier.com/articles/111-the-apocrypha-inspired-of-god The Apocrypha: Inspired of God?] Category:Biblical criticism Category:Development of the Christian biblical canon Category:Christian terminology Category:Ancient Hebrew texts	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deuterocanonical_books	2025-04-05T18:28:38.474540
8490	Discus throw	(2024) \|ORmen = (2024)}} \|CRmen = (2023)}} \|WRwomen = (1988)}} \|ORwomen = (1988)}} \|CRwomen = (1987)}} }} The discus throw (), also known as disc throw, is a track and field sport in which the participant athlete throws an oblate spheroid weight — called a discus — in an attempt to mark a further distance than other competitors. It is an ancient sport, as demonstrated by the fifth-century-BC Myron statue Discobolus. Although not part of the current pentathlon, it was one of the events of the ancient Greek pentathlon, which can be dated back to at least 708 BC, and it is part of the modern decathlon. History ]] The sport of throwing the discus traces back to it being an event in the original Olympic Games of Ancient Greece. The discus as a sport was resurrected in Magdeburg, Germany, by gymnastics teacher Christian Georg Kohlrausch and his students in the 1870s. Organized men's competition was resumed in the late 19th century, and has been a part of the modern Summer Olympic Games since the first modern competition, the 1896 Summer Olympics. Images of discus throwers figured prominently in advertising for early modern Games, such as fundraising stamps for the 1896 Games, and the main posters for the 1920 and 1948 Summer Olympics. Today the sport of discus is a routine part of modern track-and-field meets at all levels, and retains a particularly iconic place in the Olympic Games. ]] The first modern athlete to throw the discus while rotating the whole body was František Janda-Suk from Bohemia (the present Czech Republic). Janda-Suk invented this technique when studying the position of the statue of Discobolus. After a year of developing the technique, he earned a silver medal in the 1900 Olympics. Women's competition began in the first decades of the 20th century. Following competition at national and regional levels, it was added to the Olympic program for the 1928 games. Regulations The event consists of throwing a heavy disc, with the weight or size depending on the competitor. Men and women throw different sized discs, with varying sizes and weights depending on age. The weight of the discus is either governed by World Athletics for international or USA Track & Field for the United States. In the United States, Henry Canine advocated for a lighter-weight discus in high school competition. His suggestion was adopted by the National High School Athletic Association in 1938. {\| class"wikitable" style"display: inline-table;" \|+US Weights \|- !Age !Men !Women \|- \|High School \|1.6 kg \|1 kg \|- \|- \|Collegiate \|2 kg \|1 kg \|- \|- \|Professional \|2 kg \|1 kg \|- \|- \|Master's (35–59) \|1.5 kg \|1 kg \|- \|- \|Master's (60–74) \|1 kg \|1 kg \|- \|- \|Master's (75+) \|1 kg \|0.75 kg \|- \|} {\| class"wikitable" style"display: inline-table" \|+ International Weights \|- !Age !Men !Women \|- \|- \|≤17 \|1.5 kg \|1 kg \|- \|- \|18–19 \|1.75 kg \|1 kg \|- \|- \|20–49 \|2 kg \|1 kg \|- \|- \|50–59 \|1.5 kg \|1 kg \|- \|- \|60–74 \|1 kg \|1 kg \|- \|- \|75+ \|1 kg \|0.75 kg \|- \|} certified for competitions ]] The typical discus has sides made of plastic, wood, fiberglass, carbon fiber or metal with a metal rim and a metal core to attain the weight. The rim must be smooth, with no roughness or finger holds. A discus with more weight in the rim produces greater angular momentum for any given spin rate, and thus more stability, although it is more difficult to throw. However, a higher rim weight, if thrown correctly, can lead to a longer throw. In some competitions, a solid rubber discus is used (see in the United States). To make a throw, the competitor starts in a circle of diameter, which is recessed in a concrete pad by . The thrower typically takes an initial stance facing away from the direction of the throw. They then spin anticlockwise (for right-handers) times while staying within the circle to build momentum before releasing the discus. The discus must land within a 34.92º circular sector that is centered on the throwing circle. The rules of competition for discus are virtually identical to those of shot put, except that the circle is larger, a stop board is not used and there are no form rules concerning how the discus is to be thrown. The basic motion is a fore-handed sidearm movement. The discus is spun off the index finger or the middle finger of the throwing hand. In flight the disc spins clockwise when viewed from above for a right-handed thrower, and anticlockwise for a left-handed thrower. As well as achieving maximum momentum in the discus on throwing, the discus' distance is also determined by the trajectory the thrower imparts, as well as the aerodynamic behavior of the discus. Generally, throws into a moderate headwind achieve the maximum distance. Also, a faster-spinning discus imparts greater gyroscopic stability. The technique of discus throwing is quite difficult to master and needs much experience to perfect; thus most top throwers are 30 years old or more. The discus throw is sometimes contested indoors, but it is not included at the World Athletics Indoor Championships. World Athletics used to keep "world indoor best" discus records, but since 2023 they now combine both indoor and outdoor marks. by the Kleomelos Painter, Louvre Museum\|alt=]] 's Discobolus in University of Copenhagen Botanical Garden, Denmark\|alt\|none]]PhasesThe discus technique can be broken down into phases. The purpose is to transfer from the back to the front of the throwing circle while turning through one and a half circles. The speed of delivery is high, and speed is built up during the throw (slow to fast). Correct technique involves the buildup of torque so that maximum force can be applied to the discus on delivery. in phases of the discus throw]] Initially, the thrower takes up their position in the throwing circle, distributing their body weight evenly over both feet, which are roughly shoulder width apart. They crouch in order to adopt a more efficient posture to start from whilst also isometrically preloading their muscles; this will allow them to start faster and achieve a more powerful throw. They then begin the wind-up, which sets the tone for the entire throw; the rhythm of the wind-up and throw is very important. Focusing on rhythm can bring about the consistency to get in the right positions that many throwers lack. Executing a sound discus throw with solid technique requires perfect balance. This is due to the throw being a linear movement combined with a one and a half rotation and an implement at the end of one arm. Thus, a good discus thrower needs to maintain balance within the circle. For a right handed thrower, the next stage is to move the weight over the left foot. From this position the right foot is raised, and the athlete 'runs' across the circle. There are various techniques for this stage where the leg swings out to a small or great extent, some athletes turn on their left heel (e.g. Ilke Wylluda) but turning on the ball of the foot is far more common. The aim is to land in the 'power position', the right foot should be in the center and the heel should not touch the ground at any point. The left foot should land very quickly after the right. Weight should be mostly over the back foot with as much torque as possible in the body—so the right arm is high and far back. This is very hard to achieve. The critical stage is the delivery of the discus, from this 'power position' the hips drive through hard, and will be facing the direction of the throw on delivery. Athletes employ various techniques to control the end-point and recover from the throw, such as fixing feet (to pretty much stop dead). Sports scientist Richard Ganslen researched the Aerodynamics of the Discus, reporting the discus will stall at an angle of 29°. Culture The discus throw has been the subject of a number of well-known ancient Greek statues and Roman copies such as the Discobolus and Discophoros. The discus throw also appears repeatedly in ancient Greek mythology, featured as a means of manslaughter in the cases of Hyacinth, Crocus, Phocus, and Acrisius, and as a named event in the funeral games of Patroclus. Discus throwers have been selected as a main motif in numerous collectors' coins. One of the recent samples is the €10 Greek Discus commemorative coin, minted in 2003 to commemorate the 2004 Summer Olympics. On the obverse of the coin a modern athlete is seen in the foreground in a half-turned position, while in the background an ancient discus thrower has been captured in a lively bending motion, with the discus high above his head, creating a vivid representation of the sport. All-time top 25 {\| style="wikitable" \|Tables show data for two definitions of "Top 25" - the top 25 discus throw marks and the top 25 athletes: \|- \| style="background: #f6F5CE" \|- denotes top performance for athletes in the top 25 discus throw marks \|- \|- denotes lesser performances, still in the top 25 discus throw marks, by repeat athletes \|- \| style="background: #CCFFCC" \|- denotes top performance (only) for other top 25 athletes who fall outside the top 25 discus throw marks \|} Men Correct as of May 2024. {\| class="wikitable sortable" ! !! !! Mark !! Athlete !! Nation !! Date !! Place !! class="unsortable" \| \|- bgcolor="#f6F5CE" \| aligncenter\|1 \|\| aligncenter\|1 \|\| \|\| Mykolas Alekna \|\| \|\| 14 April 2024 \|\| Ramona\|\| \|- bgcolor="#f6F5CE" \| aligncenter\|2 \|\| align"center" \|2 \|\| \|\| Jürgen Schult \|\| \|\| 6 June 1986 \|\| Neubrandenburg \|\| \|- bgcolor="#f6F5CE" \| aligncenter\|3 \|\| align"center" \|3 \|\| \|\| Virgilijus Alekna \|\| \|\| 3 August 2000 \|\| Kaunas \|\| \|- bgcolor="#f6F5CE" \| aligncenter\|4 \|\| align"center" \|4 \|\| \|\| Gerd Kanter \|\| \|\| 4 September 2006 \|\| Helsingborg \|\| \|- \| rowspan2\| \|\| aligncenter\|5 \|\| \|\| Kanter #2 \|\| rowspan=2\| \|\| 3 May 2007 \|\| Salinas \|\| \|- \| align=center\|6 \|\| \|\| Kanter #3 \|\| 8 May 2008 \|\| Salinas \|\| \|- bgcolor="#f6F5CE" \| rowspan"3" align"center" \|5 \|\| rowspan"3" align"center" \|7 \|\| rowspan="3" \| \|\| Yuriy Dumchev \|\| \|\| 29 May 1983 \|\| Moscow \|\| \|- bgcolor="#f6F5CE" \| Daniel Ståhl \|\| \|\| 29 June 2019 \|\| Bottnaryd \|\| \|-bgcolor="#f6F5CE" \|Kristjan Čeh \| \|16 June 2023 \|Jõhvi \| \|- bgcolor="#f6F5CE" \| align"center" \|8 \|\| align"center" \|10 \|\| \|\| Piotr Małachowski\|\| \|\| 8 June 2013 \|\| Hengelo\|\| \|- bgcolor="#f6F5CE" \| align"center" \|9 \|\| align"center" \|11 \|\| \|\| Róbert Fazekas\|\| \|\| 14 July 2002 \|\| Szombathely\|\| \|- \| rowspan"2" \| \|\| align"center" \|12 \|\| \|\| Kanter #4\|\| rowspan="2" \| \|\| 25 June 2009 \|\| Kohila \|\| \|- \| align="center" \|13 \|\| \|\| V. Alekna #2\|\| 25 July 2007 \|\| Kaunas\|\| \|- bgcolor="#f6F5CE" \| align"center" \|10 \|\| align"center" \|14 \|\| \|\| Lars Riedel \|\| \|\| 3 May 1997 \|\| Wiesbaden \|\| \|- bgcolor="#f6F5CE" \| align"center" \|11 \|\| align"center" \|15 \|\| \|\| Alex Rose \|\| \|\| 11 May 2024 \|\| Allendale \|\| \|- \| rowspan7\| \|\| align"center" \|16 \|\| \|\| Ståhl #2\|\| rowspan7\| \|\| 21 June 2022 \|\| Uppsala \|\| \|- \|align"center" \|17 \|\| \|\| Ståhl #3 \|\| 21 August 2023 \|\| Budapest \|\| \|- \| rowspan"2" align"center" \|18 \|\| rowspan="2" \| \|\| Kanter #5\|\| 29 April 2010 \|\| Chula Vista \|\| \|- \|Ståhl #4 \|16 June 2023 \|Jõhvi \| \|- \| align="center" \|22 \|\| \|\| Ståhl #6 \|\| 10 August 2020 \|\| Sollentuna \|\| \|- bgcolor="#f6F5CE" \| align"center" \|12 \|\| align"center" \|23 \|\| \|\| Ben Plucknett\|\| \|\| 4 June 1983 \|\| Eugene \|\| \|- \| rowspan2\| \|\| align"center" \|24 \|\| \|\| Ståhl #7\|\| rowspan=2\| \|\| 29 June 2017 \|\| Sollentuna \|\| \|- \| align"center" \|25 \|\| \|\| Čeh #2 \|\| 21 May 2022 \|\| Birmingham \|\| \|- bgcolor=#CCFFCC \| rowspan"3" align"center" \|13 \|\| rowspan13\| \|\| rowspan"3" \| \|\| John Powell \|\| \|\| 9 June 1984 \|\| San Jose \|\| \|- bgcolor=#CCFFCC \| Rickard Bruch \|\| \|\| 15 November 1984 \|\| Malmö \|\| \|- bgcolor=#CCFFCC \| Imrich Bugár \|\| \|\| 25 May 1985 \|\| San Jose \|\| \|- bgcolor=#CCFFCC \| align=center\|16 \|\| \|\| Art Burns \|\| \|\| 19 July 1983 \|\| San Jose \|\| \|- bgcolor=#CCFFCC \| align=center\|17 \|\| \|\| Wolfgang Schmidt \|\| \|\| 9 August 1978 \|\| Berlin \|\| \|- bgcolor=#CCFFCC \| align=center\|18 \| \|\| Anthony Washington \|\| \|\| 22 May 1996 \|\| Salinas \|\| \|- bgcolor=#CCFFCC \|align=center\|19 \| \|\| Luis Delís \|\| \|\| 21 May 1983 \|\| Havana \|\| \|-bgcolor=#CCFFCC \|align=center\|20 \| \|\| Mac Wilkins\|\| \|\| 9 July 1980 \|\| Helsinki\|\| \|- bgcolor="#CCFFCC" \| align="center" \|21 \| \|\| Aleksander Tammert\|\| \|\| 15 April 2006 \|\| Denton \|\| \|- bgcolor="#CCFFCC" \| align="center" \|22 \| \|Fedrick Dacres \|\| \|16 June 2019 \|Rabat \| \|- bgcolor="#CCFFCC" \| align="center" \|23 \| \|\| Lukas Weißhaidinger\|\| \|\| 19 May 2023 \|\| Schwechat\|\| \|- bgcolor="#CCFFCC" \| align="center" \|24 \| \|\| Robert Harting\|\| \|\| 22 May 2012 \|\| Turnov\|\| \|- bgcolor="#CCFFCC" \| align="center" \|25 \| \|\| Dmitriy Shevchenko\|\| \|\| 7 May 2002 \|\| Krasnodar\|\| \|- bgcolor="#CCFFCC" \|} Notable series Mykolas Alekna had throws of 72.71, 72.89 and 74.35, initially measured as 74.41, at the Oklahoma Throws Series in Ramona on 14 April 2024, becoming the first man to produce three throws above 72 meters (and six throws above 70 meters) in a single competition. Kristjan Čeh had throws of 71.86, 71.70 and 71.19 in Jõhvi on 16 June 2023 becoming the first man to have three throws above 71 metres in a single competition. Annulled marks Ben Plucknett also threw a world record of 72.34 in Stockholm on 7 July 1981. This performance was annulled due to doping offences. Kamy Keshmiri threw 70.84 in Salinas on 27 May 1992. This performance was annulled due to doping offences. Non-legal marks Rickard Bruch also threw 72.18 at an exhibition meeting in Piteå on 23 July 1974. John Powell also threw 72.08 in Klagshamn on 11 September 1987, but the throw was made onto a sloping/downhill sector. Women Correct as of April 2024. {\| class="wikitable sortable" ! !! !! Mark !! Athlete !! Nation !! Date !! Place !! class="unsortable" \| \|- bgcolor="#f6F5CE" \| aligncenter\|1 \|\| aligncenter\|1 \|\| \|\| Gabriele Reinsch \|\| \|\| 9 July 1988 \|\| Neubrandenburg \|\| \|- bgcolor="#f6F5CE" \| rowspan2 aligncenter\|2 \|\| rowspan2 aligncenter\|2 \|\| rowspan=2\| \|\| Zdeňka Šilhavá \|\| \|\| 26 August 1984 \|\| Nitra \|\| \|- bgcolor="#f6F5CE" \| Ilke Wyludda \|\| \|\| 23 July 1989 \|\| Neubrandenburg \|\| \|- \| rowspan2\| \|\| aligncenter\|4 \|\| \|\| Reinsch #2 \|\| rowspan=2\| \|\| 13 September 1988 \|\| Berlin \|\| \|- \| align=center\|5 \|\| \|\| Wyludda #2 \|\| 13 September 1988 \|\| Berlin \|\| \|- bgcolor="#f6F5CE" \| aligncenter\|4 \|\| aligncenter\|6 \|\| \|\| Diana Gansky \|\| \|\| 20 June 1987 \|\| Karl-Marx-Stadt \|\| \|- \| rowspan2\| \|\| aligncenter\|7 \|\| \|\| Gansky #2 \|\| rowspan=2\| \|\| 27 June 1987 \|\| Prague \|\| \|- \| align=center\|8 \|\| \|\| Reinsch #3 \|\| 12 June 1988 \|\| Karl-Marx-Stadt \|\| \|- bgcolor="#f6F5CE" \| aligncenter\|5 \|\| aligncenter\|9 \|\| \|\| Irina Meszynski \|\| \|\| 17 August 1984 \|\| Prague \|\| \|- \| \|\| align=center\|10 \|\| \|\| Gansky #2 \|\| \|\| 11 June 1987 \|\| Neubrandenburg \|\| \|- bgcolor="#f6F5CE" \| aligncenter\|6 \|\| aligncenter\|11 \|\| \|\| Galina Savinkova \|\| \|\| 8 September 1984 \|\| Donetsk \|\| \|- \| rowspan3\| \|\| rowspan2 aligncenter\|12 \|\| rowspan2\| \|\| Savinkova #2 \|\| rowspan=3\| \|\| 22 May 1983 \|\| Leselidze \|\| \|- \| Gansky #3 \|\| 6 June 1986 \|\| Neubrandenburg \|\| \|- \| align=center\|14 \|\| \|\| Gansky #4 \|\| 29 May 1987 \|\| Leipzig \|\| \|- bgcolor="#f6F5CE" \| aligncenter\|7 \|\| aligncenter\|15 \|\| \|\| Tsvetanka Khristova \|\| \|\| 19 April 1987 \|\| Kazanlak \|\| \|- \| \|\| align=center\|16 \|\| \|\| Wyludda #3 \|\| \|\| 13 September 1988 \|\| Berlin \|\| \|- bgcolor="#f6F5CE" \| aligncenter\|8 \|\| aligncenter\|17 \|\| \|\| Gisela Beyer \|\| \|\| 20 July 1984 \|\| Berlin \|\| \|- bgcolor="#f6F5CE" \|align=center\|9 \|align=center\|18 \| \|Yaime Pérez \| \|13 April 2024 \|Ramona \| \|- \| rowspan"4" \| \|\| rowspan"2" align"center" \|19 \|\| rowspan"2" \| \|\| Gansky #5 \|\| rowspan="4" \| \|\| 6 June 1987 \|\| Potsdam \|\| \|- \| Wyludda #4 \|\| 5 August 1989 \|\| Gateshead \|\| \|- \| align=center\|21 \|\| \|\| Savinkova #3 \|\| 23 June 1985 \|\| Erfurt \|\| \|- \| align=center\|22 \|\| \|\| Gansky #6 \|\| 9 July 1988 \|\| Neubrandenburg \|\| \|- bgcolor="#f6F5CE" \| aligncenter\|10 \|\| align"center" \|23 \|\| \|\| Martina Hellmann \|\| \|\| 20 August 1987 \|\| Potsdam \|\| \|- \| rowspan"2" \| \|\| rowspan2 aligncenter\|24 \|\| rowspan"2" \| \|\| Hellmann #2 \|\| rowspan="2" \| \|\| 11 June 1987 \|\| Neubrandenburg \|\| \|- \| Reinsch #4 \|\| 29 June 1988 \|\| Berlin \|\| \|- bgcolor="#CCFFCC" \| align="center" \|11 \| rowspan="15" \| \| \|\| Galina Murashova \|\| \|17 August 1984 \|Prague \| \|- bgcolor="#CCFFCC" \| align="center" \|12 \| \|\| Mariya Vergova\|\| \|13 July 1980 \|Sofia \| \|- bgcolor="#CCFFCC" \| align="center" \|13 \| \|\| Xiao Yanling\|\| \|14 March 1992 \|Beijing \| \|- bgcolor="#CCFFCC" \| align="center" \|14 \| \|\| Ellina Zvereva\|\| \|12 June 1988 \|Leningrad \| \|- bgcolor="#CCFFCC" \| align="center" \|15 \| \|\| Evelin Jahl\|\| \|10 May 1980 \|Potsdam \| \|- bgcolor="#CCFFCC" \| align="center" \|16 \| \|Valarie Allman\|\| \|8 April 2022 \|San Diego \| \|- bgcolor="#CCFFCC" \| align="center" \|17 \| \|Sandra Perković\|\| \|18 July 2017 \|Bellinzona \| \|- bgcolor="#CCFFCC" \| align="center" \|18 \| \|\| Larisa Korotkevich\|\| \|29 May 1992 \|Sochi \| \|- bgcolor="#CCFFCC" \| align="center" \|19 \| \|\| Ria Stalman\|\| \|15 July 1984 \|Walnut \| \|- bgcolor="#CCFFCC" \| align="center" \|20 \| \|\| Hilda Ramos\|\| \|8 May 1992 \|Havana \| \|- bgcolor="#CCFFCC" \| align="center" \|21 \| \|\| Larisa Mikhalchenko\|\| \|18 June 1988 \|Kharkiv \| \|- bgcolor="#CCFFCC" \| align="center" \|22 \| \|\| Maritza Martén\|\| \|18 July 1992 \|Seville \| \|- bgcolor="#CCFFCC" \| align="center" \|23 \| \|\| Denia Caballero\|\| \|20 June 2015 \|Bilbao \| \|- bgcolor="#CCFFCC" \| align="center" \|24 \| \|\| Faina Melnik\|\| \|24 April 1976 \|Sochi \| \|- bgcolor="#CCFFCC" \| align="center" \|25 \| \|\| Silvia Madetzky\|\| \|16 May 1988 \|Athens \| \|} Annulled marks Daniela Costian of Romania threw a best of 73.48 in Bucharest on 30 April 1988. This performance was annulled due to doping offences. Darya Pishchalnikova of Russia threw a best of 70.69 in Cheboksary on 5 July 2012. This performance was annulled due to doping offences. Non-legal marks Martina Hellmann also threw 78.14 at an unofficial meeting in Berlin on 6 September 1988. Ilke Wyludda also threw 75.36 at an unofficial meeting in Berlin on 6 September 1988. Olympic medalists Men Women World Championships medalists Men Women Season's bests Men {\| class"wikitable sortable" style"font-size:85%;" \|- !Year !Mark !Athlete !Place \|- \|1968 \| \|align=left\| \|Reno \|- \|1969 \| \|align=left\| \|Malmö \|- \|1970 \| \|align=left\| \|Malmö \|- \|1971 \| \|align=left\| \|Lancaster \|- \|1972 \| \|align=left\| \|Stockholm \|- \|1973 \| \|align=left\| \|Skellefteå \|- \|1974 \| \|align=left\| \|Helsingborg \|- \|1975 \| \|align=left\| \|Long Beach \|- \|1976 \| \|align=left\| \|San Jose \|- \|1977 \| \|align=left\| \| Westwood \|- \|1978 \| \|align=left\| \|Berlin \|- \|1979 \| \|align=left\| \|Walnut \|- \|1980 \| \|align=left\| \|Erfurt \|- \|1981 \| \|align=left\| \|Modesto \|- \|1982 \| \|align=left\| \|Salinas \|- \|1983 \| \|align=left\| \|Moskva \|- \|rowspan=2\|1984 \|rowspan=2\| \|align=left\| \|San Jose \|- \|align=left\| \|Malmö \|- \|1985 \| \|align=left\| \|San Jose \|- \|1986 \| \|align=left\| \|Neubrandenburg \|- \|1987 \| \|align=left\| \|Neubrandenburg \|- \|1988 \| \|align=left\| \|Berlin \|- \|1989 \| \|align=left\| \|Norden \|- \|1990 \| \|align=left\| \|Smalininkai \|- \|1991 \| \|align=left\| \|Fresno \|- \|1992 \| \|align=left\| \|Halle \|- \|1993 \| \|align=left\| \|Jena \|- \|1994 \| \|align=left\| \|Budapest \|- \|rowspan=2\|1995 \|rowspan=2\| \|rowspan2 alignleft\| \|Bellinzona \|- \|Monaco \|- \|1996 \| \|align=left\| \|Salinas \|- \|1997 \| \|align=left\| \|Wiesbaden \|- \|1998 \| \|align=left\| \|Salinas \|- \|1999 \| \|align=left\| \|Jena \|- \|2000 \| \|align=left\| \|Kaunas \|- \|2001 \| \|align=left\| \|Stellenbosch \|- \|2002 \| \|align=left\| \|Szombathely \|- \|2003 \| \|align=left\| \|Budapest \|- \|2004 \| \|align=left\| \|Rethimno \|- \|2005 \| \|align=left\| \|Madrid \|- \|2006 \| \|align=left\| \|Helsingborg \|- \|2007 \| \|align=left\| \|Salinas \|- \|2008 \| \|align=left\| \|Salinas \|- \|2009 \| \|align=left\| \|Kohila \|- \|2010 \| \|align=left\| \|Chula Vista \|- \|2011 \| \|align=left\| \|Budapest \|- \|2012 \| \|align=left\| \|Turnov \|- \|2013 \| \|align=left\| \|Hengelo \|- \|2014 \| \|align=left\| \|Halle \|- \|2015 \| \|align=left\| \|Cetniewo \|- \|2016 \| \|align=left\| \|Sollentuna \|- \|2017 \| \|align=left\| \|Sollentuna \|- \|2018 \| \|align=left\| \|Eskilstuna \|- \|2019 \| \|align=left\| \|Bottnaryd \|- \|2020 \| \|align=left\| \|Sollentuna \|- \|2021 \| \|align=left\| \|Bottnaryd \|- \|2022 \| \|align=left\| \|Uppsala \|- \|2023 \| \|align=left\| \|Jöhvi \|- \|2024 \| \|align=left\| \|Ramona \|} Women {\| class"wikitable sortable" style"font-size:85%;" \|- !Year !Mark !Athlete !Place \|- \|1968 \| \|align=left\| \|Werdohl \|- \|1969 \| \|align=left\| \|Hamburg \|- \|1970 \| \|align=left\| \|Leipzig \|- \|1971 \| \|align=left\| \|Munich \|- \|1972 \| \|align=left\| \|Constanța \|- \|1973 \| \|align=left\| \|Edinburgh \|- \|1974 \| \|align=left\| \|Prague \|- \|1975 \| \|align=left\| \|Zürich \|- \|1976 \| \|align=left\| \|Sochi \|- \|1977 \| \|align=left\| \|Karl-Marx-Stadt \|- \|1978 \| \|align=left\| \|Dresden \|- \|1979 \| \|align=left\| \|Leipzig \|- \|1980 \| \|align=left\| \|Sofia \|- \|1981 \| \|align=left\| \|Berlin \|- \|1982 \| \|align=left\| \|Karl-Marx-Stadt \|- \|1983 \| \|align=left\| \|Leselidze \|- \|1984 \| \|align=left\| \|Nitra \|- \|1985 \| \|align=left\| \|Erfurt \|- \|1986 \| \|align=left\| \|Neubrandenburg \|- \|1987 \| \|align=left\| \|Karl-Marx-Stadt \|- \|1988 \| \|align=left\| \|Neubrandenburg \|- \|1989 \| \|align=left\| \|Neubrandenburg \|- \|1990 \| \|align=left\| \|Tel Aviv \|- \|1991 \| \|align=left\| \|Tokyo \|- \|1992 \| \|align=left\| \|Beijing \|- \|1993 \| \|align=left\| \|Vénissieux \|- \|1994 \| \|align=left\| \|Auckland \|- \|1995 \| \|align=left\| \|Florø \|- \|1996 \| \|align=left\| \|Atlanta \|- \|1997 \| \|align=left\| \|Shanghai \|- \|1998 \| \|align=left\| \|Stendal \|- \|1999 \| \|align=left\| \|Thessaloníki \|- \|2000 \| \|align=left\| \|Bucharest \|- \|2001 \| \|align=left\| \|Edmonton \|- \|2002 \| \|align=left\| \|Tula \|- \|2003 \| \|align=left\| \|Halle \|- \|2004 \| \|align=left\| \|Minsk \|- \|2005 \| \|align=left\| \|Madrid \|- \|2006 \| \|align=left\| \|Schönebeck \|- \|2007 \| \|align=left\| \|Halle \|- \|2008 \| \|align=left\| \|Istanbul \|- \|2009 \| \|align=left\| \|Jinan \|- \|2010 \| \|align=left\| \|Wiesbaden \|- \|2011 \| \|align=left\| \|Schönebeck \|- \|2012 \| \|align=left\| \|London \|- \|2013 \| \|align=left\| \|Lausanne \|- \|2014 \| \|align=left\| \|Zürich \|- \|2015 \| \|align=left\| \|Bilbao \|- \|2016 \| \|align=left\| \|Shanghai \|- \|2017 \| \|align=left\| \|Barcelona \|- \|2018 \| \|align=left\| \|Doha \|- \|2019 \| \|align=left\| \|Sotteville \|- \|2020 \| \|align=left\| \|Rathdrum \|- \|2021 \| \|align=left\| \|Berlin \|- \|2022 \| \|align=left\| \|San Diego \|- \|2023 \| \|align=left\| \|Berlin \|- \|2024 \| \|align=left\| \|Ramona \|} See also * List of discus throw national champions (men) * United States champions in women's discus throw * Notes and references External links [https://web.archive.org/web/20071128113423/http://multimedia.olympic.org/pdf/en_report_86.pdf World Record] [https://web.archive.org/web/20090727165807/http://trackfieldevents.com/history/discus-history Discus History] *[https://iaaf.gekko.de/?athrows&ddiscus-throw IAAF list of discus-throw records in XML] Category:Events in track and field Category:Athletic culture based on Greek antiquity Category:Ancient Olympic sports Category:Throwing sports Category:Summer Olympic disciplines in athletics	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discus_throw	2025-04-05T18:28:38.554761
8492	Discrete mathematics	Discrete Mathematics (journal)}} such as these are among the objects studied by discrete mathematics, for their interesting mathematical properties, their usefulness as models of real-world problems, and their importance in developing computer algorithms.]] Discrete mathematics is the study of mathematical structures that can be considered "discrete" (in a way analogous to discrete variables, having a bijection with the set of natural numbers) rather than "continuous" (analogously to continuous functions). Objects studied in discrete mathematics include integers, graphs, and statements in logic. By contrast, discrete mathematics excludes topics in "continuous mathematics" such as real numbers, calculus or Euclidean geometry. Discrete objects can often be enumerated by integers; more formally, discrete mathematics has been characterized as the branch of mathematics dealing with countable sets (finite sets or sets with the same cardinality as the natural numbers). However, there is no exact definition of the term "discrete mathematics". The set of objects studied in discrete mathematics can be finite or infinite. The term finite mathematics is sometimes applied to parts of the field of discrete mathematics that deals with finite sets, particularly those areas relevant to business. Research in discrete mathematics increased in the latter half of the twentieth century partly due to the development of digital computers which operate in "discrete" steps and store data in "discrete" bits. Concepts and notations from discrete mathematics are useful in studying and describing objects and problems in branches of computer science, such as computer algorithms, programming languages, cryptography, automated theorem proving, and software development. Conversely, computer implementations are significant in applying ideas from discrete mathematics to real-world problems. Although the main objects of study in discrete mathematics are discrete objects, analytic methods from "continuous" mathematics are often employed as well. In university curricula, discrete mathematics appeared in the 1980s, initially as a computer science support course; its contents were somewhat haphazard at the time. The curriculum has thereafter developed in conjunction with efforts by ACM and MAA into a course that is basically intended to develop mathematical maturity in first-year students; therefore, it is nowadays a prerequisite for mathematics majors in some universities as well. Some high-school-level discrete mathematics textbooks have appeared as well. At this level, discrete mathematics is sometimes seen as a preparatory course, like precalculus in this respect. The Fulkerson Prize is awarded for outstanding papers in discrete mathematics. Topics Theoretical computer science studies the time taken by algorithms, such as this sorting routine.]] applies computer algorithms to representations of geometrical objects.]] Theoretical computer science includes areas of discrete mathematics relevant to computing. It draws heavily on graph theory and mathematical logic. Included within theoretical computer science is the study of algorithms and data structures. Computability studies what can be computed in principle, and has close ties to logic, while complexity studies the time, space, and other resources taken by computations. Automata theory and formal language theory are closely related to computability. Petri nets and process algebras are used to model computer systems, and methods from discrete mathematics are used in analyzing VLSI electronic circuits. Computational geometry applies algorithms to geometrical problems and representations of geometrical objects, while computer image analysis applies them to representations of images. Theoretical computer science also includes the study of various continuous computational topics. Information theory codes for the word "Wikipedia", given here in binary, provide a way of representing the word in information theory, as well as for information-processing algorithms.]] Information theory involves the quantification of information. Closely related is coding theory which is used to design efficient and reliable data transmission and storage methods. Information theory also includes continuous topics such as: analog signals, analog coding, analog encryption. Logic Logic is the study of the principles of valid reasoning and inference, as well as of consistency, soundness, and completeness. For example, in most systems of logic (but not in intuitionistic logic) Peirce's law (((P→Q)→P)→P) is a theorem. For classical logic, it can be easily verified with a truth table. The study of mathematical proof is particularly important in logic, and has accumulated to automated theorem proving and formal verification of software. Logical formulas are discrete structures, as are proofs, which form finite trees or, more generally, directed acyclic graph structures (with each inference step combining one or more premise branches to give a single conclusion). The truth values of logical formulas usually form a finite set, generally restricted to two values: true and false, but logic can also be continuous-valued, e.g., fuzzy logic. Concepts such as infinite proof trees or infinite derivation trees have also been studied, e.g. infinitary logic.Set theory Set theory is the branch of mathematics that studies sets, which are collections of objects, such as {blue, white, red} or the (infinite) set of all prime numbers. Partially ordered sets and sets with other relations have applications in several areas. In discrete mathematics, countable sets (including finite sets) are the main focus. The beginning of set theory as a branch of mathematics is usually marked by Georg Cantor's work distinguishing between different kinds of infinite set, motivated by the study of trigonometric series, and further development of the theory of infinite sets is outside the scope of discrete mathematics. Indeed, contemporary work in descriptive set theory makes extensive use of traditional continuous mathematics. Combinatorics Combinatorics studies the ways in which discrete structures can be combined or arranged. Enumerative combinatorics concentrates on counting the number of certain combinatorial objects - e.g. the twelvefold way provides a unified framework for counting permutations, combinations and partitions. Analytic combinatorics concerns the enumeration (i.e., determining the number) of combinatorial structures using tools from complex analysis and probability theory. In contrast with enumerative combinatorics which uses explicit combinatorial formulae and generating functions to describe the results, analytic combinatorics aims at obtaining asymptotic formulae. Topological combinatorics concerns the use of techniques from topology and algebraic topology/combinatorial topology in combinatorics. Design theory is a study of combinatorial designs, which are collections of subsets with certain intersection properties. Partition theory studies various enumeration and asymptotic problems related to integer partitions, and is closely related to q-series, special functions and orthogonal polynomials. Originally a part of number theory and analysis, partition theory is now considered a part of combinatorics or an independent field. Order theory is the study of partially ordered sets, both finite and infinite. Graph theory has close links to group theory. This truncated tetrahedron graph is related to the alternating group A<sub>4</sub>.]] Graph theory, the study of graphs and networks, is often considered part of combinatorics, but has grown large enough and distinct enough, with its own kind of problems, to be regarded as a subject in its own right. Graphs are one of the prime objects of study in discrete mathematics. They are among the most ubiquitous models of both natural and human-made structures. They can model many types of relations and process dynamics in physical, biological and social systems. In computer science, they can represent networks of communication, data organization, computational devices, the flow of computation, etc. In mathematics, they are useful in geometry and certain parts of topology, e.g. knot theory. Algebraic graph theory has close links with group theory and topological graph theory has close links to topology. There are also continuous graphs; however, for the most part, research in graph theory falls within the domain of discrete mathematics. Number theory of numbers, with black pixels showing prime numbers. This diagram hints at patterns in the distribution of prime numbers.]] Number theory is concerned with the properties of numbers in general, particularly integers. It has applications to cryptography and cryptanalysis, particularly with regard to modular arithmetic, diophantine equations, linear and quadratic congruences, prime numbers and primality testing. Other discrete aspects of number theory include geometry of numbers. In analytic number theory, techniques from continuous mathematics are also used. Topics that go beyond discrete objects include transcendental numbers, diophantine approximation, p-adic analysis and function fields. Algebraic structures Algebraic structures occur as both discrete examples and continuous examples. Discrete algebras include: Boolean algebra used in logic gates and programming; relational algebra used in databases; discrete and finite versions of groups, rings and fields are important in algebraic coding theory; discrete semigroups and monoids appear in the theory of formal languages. Discrete analogues of continuous mathematics There are many concepts and theories in continuous mathematics which have discrete versions, such as discrete calculus, discrete Fourier transforms, discrete geometry, discrete logarithms, discrete differential geometry, discrete exterior calculus, discrete Morse theory, discrete optimization, discrete probability theory, discrete probability distribution, difference equations, discrete dynamical systems, and discrete vector measures. Calculus of finite differences, discrete analysis, and discrete calculus In discrete calculus and the calculus of finite differences, a function defined on an interval of the integers is usually called a sequence. A sequence could be a finite sequence from a data source or an infinite sequence from a discrete dynamical system. Such a discrete function could be defined explicitly by a list (if its domain is finite), or by a formula for its general term, or it could be given implicitly by a recurrence relation or difference equation. Difference equations are similar to differential equations, but replace differentiation by taking the difference between adjacent terms; they can be used to approximate differential equations or (more often) studied in their own right. Many questions and methods concerning differential equations have counterparts for difference equations. For instance, where there are integral transforms in harmonic analysis for studying continuous functions or analogue signals, there are discrete transforms for discrete functions or digital signals. As well as discrete metric spaces, there are more general discrete topological spaces, finite metric spaces, finite topological spaces. The time scale calculus is a unification of the theory of difference equations with that of differential equations, which has applications to fields requiring simultaneous modelling of discrete and continuous data. Another way of modeling such a situation is the notion of hybrid dynamical systems. Discrete geometry Discrete geometry and combinatorial geometry are about combinatorial properties of discrete collections of geometrical objects. A long-standing topic in discrete geometry is tiling of the plane. In algebraic geometry, the concept of a curve can be extended to discrete geometries by taking the spectra of polynomial rings over finite fields to be models of the affine spaces over that field, and letting subvarieties or spectra of other rings provide the curves that lie in that space. Although the space in which the curves appear has a finite number of points, the curves are not so much sets of points as analogues of curves in continuous settings. For example, every point of the form <math>V(x-c) \subset \operatorname{Spec} K[x] \mathbb{A}^1</math> for <math>K</math> a field can be studied either as <math>\operatorname{Spec} K[x]/(x-c) \cong \operatorname{Spec} K</math>, a point, or as the spectrum <math>\operatorname{Spec} K[x]_{(x-c)}</math> of the local ring at (x-c), a point together with a neighborhood around it. Algebraic varieties also have a well-defined notion of tangent space called the Zariski tangent space, making many features of calculus applicable even in finite settings. Discrete modelling In applied mathematics, discrete modelling is the discrete analogue of continuous modelling. In discrete modelling, discrete formulae are fit to data. A common method in this form of modelling is to use recurrence relation. Discretization concerns the process of transferring continuous models and equations into discrete counterparts, often for the purposes of making calculations easier by using approximations. Numerical analysis provides an important example.Challengeswas motivated by attempts to prove that all maps, like this one, can be colored using only four colors so that no areas of the same color share an edge. Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken proved this in 1976.]] The history of discrete mathematics has involved a number of challenging problems which have focused attention within areas of the field. In graph theory, much research was motivated by attempts to prove the four color theorem, first stated in 1852, but not proved until 1976 (by Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken, using substantial computer assistance). The Cold War meant that cryptography remained important, with fundamental advances such as public-key cryptography being developed in the following decades. The telecommunications industry has also motivated advances in discrete mathematics, particularly in graph theory and information theory. Formal verification of statements in logic has been necessary for software development of safety-critical systems, and advances in automated theorem proving have been driven by this need. Computational geometry has been an important part of the computer graphics incorporated into modern video games and computer-aided design tools. Several fields of discrete mathematics, particularly theoretical computer science, graph theory, and combinatorics, are important in addressing the challenging bioinformatics problems associated with understanding the tree of life. Currently, one of the most famous open problems in theoretical computer science is the P NP problem, which involves the relationship between the complexity classes P and NP. The Clay Mathematics Institute has offered a $1 million USD prize for the first correct proof, along with prizes for six other mathematical problems. See also * Outline of discrete mathematics * Cyberchase, a show that teaches discrete mathematics to children References Further reading * * * * * * * * * * * External links * [http://archives.math.utk.edu/topics/discreteMath.html Discrete mathematics] at the utk.edu Mathematics Archives, providing links to syllabi, tutorials, programs, etc. * [http://www.iowacentral.edu/industrial_technology/electrical_technologies/index.asp Iowa Central: Electrical Technologies Program] Discrete mathematics for Electrical engineering.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_mathematics	2025-04-05T18:28:38.568194
8494	DDT	\| UNII = CIW5S16655 \| KEGG_Ref = \| KEGG = D07367 \| InChI = 1/C14H9Cl5/c15-11-5-1-9(2-6-11)13(14(17,18)19)10-3-7-12(16)8-4-10/h1-8,13H \| InChIKey = YVGGHNCTFXOJCH-UHFFFAOYAJ \| ChEMBL_Ref = \| ChEMBL = 416898 \| StdInChI_Ref = \| StdInChI = 1S/C14H9Cl5/c15-11-5-1-9(2-6-11)13(14(17,18)19)10-3-7-12(16)8-4-10/h1-8,13H \| StdInChIKey_Ref = \| StdInChIKey = YVGGHNCTFXOJCH-UHFFFAOYSA-N \| CASNo = 50-29-3 \| CASNo_Ref = \| ChemSpiderID_Ref = \| ChemSpiderID=2928 \| ChEBI_Ref = \| ChEBI = 16130 \| SMILES ClC1CCC(C(C(Cl)(Cl)Cl)C2CCC(CC2)Cl)C=C1 }} \| Section2 = \| GHSSignalWord = Danger \| HPhrases = \| PPhrases = \| PEL = TWA 1 mg/m<sup>3</sup> [skin] \| IDLH = 500 mg/m<sup>3</sup> \| REL = Ca TWA 0.5 mg/m<sup>3</sup> \| NIOSH_id = 0174 \| LD50113–800 mg/kg (rat, oral) }} }} Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, commonly known as DDT, is a colorless, tasteless, and almost odorless crystalline chemical compound, The WHO's anti-malaria campaign of the 1950s and 1960s relied heavily on DDT and the results were promising, though there was a resurgence in developing countries afterwards. Along with the passage of the Endangered Species Act, the United States ban on DDT is a major factor in the comeback of the bald eagle (the national bird of the United States) and the peregrine falcon from near-extinction in the contiguous United States. The evolution of DDT resistance and the harm both to humans and the environment led many governments to curtail DDT use. DDT is one of many tools to fight malaria, which remains the primary public health challenge in many countries. WHO guidelines require that absence of DDT resistance must be confirmed before using it. <gallery mode"packed" heights"100" caption"Components of commercial DDT" class"skin-invert-image"> File:P,p'-dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane.svg\|p,p-DDT<br />(desired compound) File:O,p'-dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane.svg\|o,p-DDT<br />(isomeric impurity) File:P,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethene.svg\|p,p-DDE<br />(impurity) File:P,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane.svg\|p,''p-DDD<br />(impurity) </gallery> Production and use DDT has been formulated in multiple forms, including solutions in xylene or petroleum distillates, emulsifiable concentrates, water-wettable powders, granules, aerosols, smoke candles and charges for vaporizers and lotions. From 1950 to 1980, DDT was extensively used in agriculturemore than 40,000 tonnes each year worldwideand it has been estimated that a total of 1.8 million tonnes have been produced globally since the 1940s. In the United States, it was manufactured by some 15 companies, including Monsanto, Ciba, Montrose Chemical Company, Pennwalt, and Velsicol Chemical Corporation. Production peaked in 1963 at 82,000 tonnes per year. China ceased production in 2007, leaving India the only country still manufacturing DDT; it is the largest consumer. In 2009, 3,314 tonnes were produced for malaria control and visceral leishmaniasis. In recent years, in addition to India, just seven other countries, all in Africa, are still using DDT.Mechanism of insecticide actionIn insects, DDT opens voltage-sensitive sodium ion channels in neurons, causing them to fire spontaneously, which leads to spasms and eventual death. Insects with certain mutations in their sodium channel gene are resistant to DDT and similar insecticides. as greater quantities of some enzymes of this group accelerate the toxin's metabolism into inactive metabolites. Genomic studies in the model genetic organism Drosophila melanogaster revealed that high level DDT resistance is polygenic, involving multiple resistance mechanisms. In the absence of genetic adaptation, Roberts and Andre 1994 find behavioral avoidance nonetheless provides insects with some protection against DDT. The M918T mutation event produces dramatic kdr for pyrethroids but Usherwood et al. 2005 find it is entirely ineffective against DDT. Scott 2019 believes this test in Drosophila oocytes holds for oocytes in general.<!--Augustin claims that Baeyer synthesized it already in 1872--> It was further described in 1929 in a dissertation by W. Bausch and in two subsequent publications in 1930. The insecticide properties of "multiple chlorinated aliphatic or fat-aromatic alcohols with at least one trichloromethane group" were described in a patent in 1934 by Wolfgang von Leuthold. DDT's insecticidal properties were not, however, discovered until 1939 by the Swiss scientist Paul Hermann Müller, who was awarded the 1948 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine for his efforts. Due to the potency of DDT, it was not long before America's War Production Board placed it on military supply lists in 1942 and 1943 and encouraged its production for overseas use. Enthusiasm regarding DDT became obvious through the American government's advertising campaigns of posters depicting Americans fighting the Axis powers and insects and through media publications celebrating its military uses. In 1945, DDT was made available to farmers as an agricultural insecticide Despite concerns emerging in the scientific community, and lack of research, the FDA considered it safe up to 7 parts per million in food. There was a large economic incentive to push DDT into the market and sell it to farmers, governments, and individuals to control diseases and increase food production. The program eliminated the disease in "North America, Europe, the former Soviet Union", and dramatically reduced mortality in Sri Lanka and India. The program succeeded in eliminating malaria only in areas with "high socio-economic status, well-organized healthcare systems, and relatively less intensive or seasonal malaria transmission". DDT was less effective in tropical regions due to the continuous life cycle of mosquitoes and poor infrastructure. It was applied in sub-Saharan Africa by various colonial states, but the 'global' WHO eradication program didn't include the region. Mortality rates in that area never declined to the same dramatic extent, and now constitute the bulk of malarial deaths worldwide, especially following the disease's resurgence as a result of resistance to drug treatments and the spread of the deadly malarial variant caused by Plasmodium falciparum. Eradication was abandoned in 1969 and attention instead focused on controlling and treating the disease. Spraying programs (especially using DDT) were curtailed due to concerns over safety and environmental effects, as well as problems in administrative, managerial and financial implementation.United States banBy October 1945, DDT was available for public sale in the United States, used both as an agricultural pesticide and as a household insecticide. and had become an important part of the local economy. Citing research performed by Michigan State University in 1946, Robinson, a past president of the local Conservation Club, opined that: As its production and use increased, public response was mixed. At the same time that DDT was hailed as part of the "world of tomorrow", concerns were expressed about its potential to kill harmless and beneficial insects (particularly pollinators), birds, fish, and eventually humans. The issue of toxicity was complicated, partly because DDT's effects varied from species to species, and partly because consecutive exposures could accumulate, causing damage comparable to large doses. A number of states attempted to regulate DDT. In the 1950s the federal government began tightening regulations governing its use. In 1957 The New York Times reported an unsuccessful struggle to restrict DDT use in Nassau County, New York, and the issue came to the attention of the popular naturalist-author Rachel Carson when a friend, Olga Huckins, wrote to her including an article she had written in the Boston Globe about the devastation of her local bird population after DDT spraying. William Shawn, editor of The New Yorker, urged her to write a piece on the subject, which developed into her 1962 book Silent Spring. The book argued that pesticides, including DDT, were poisoning both wildlife and the environment and were endangering human health. and recommended a phaseout of "persistent toxic pesticides". In 1965, the U.S. military removed DDT from the military supply system due in part to the development of resistance by body lice to DDT; it was replaced by lindane. In the mid-1960s, DDT became a prime target of the burgeoning environmental movement, as concern about DDT and its effects began to rise in local communities. In 1966, a fish kill in Suffolk County, New York, was linked to a 5,000-gallon DDT dump by the county's mosquito commission, leading a group of scientists and lawyers to file a lawsuit to stop the county's further use of DDT. A year later, the group, led by Victor Yannacone and Charles Wurster, founded the Environmental Defense Fund (EDF), along with scientists Art Cooley and Dennis Puleston, and brought a string of lawsuits against DDT and other persistent pesticides in Michigan and Wisconsin. Around the same time, evidence was mounting further about DDT causing catastrophic declines in wildlife reproduction, especially in birds of prey like peregrine falcons, bald eagles, ospreys, and brown pelicans, whose eggshells became so thin that they often cracked before hatching. Toxicologists like David Peakall were measuring DDE levels in the eggs of peregrine falcons and California condors and finding that increased levels corresponded with thinner shells. Compounding the effect was DDT’s persistence in the environment, as it was unable to dissolve in water, and ended up accumulating in animal fat and disrupting hormone metabolism across a wide range of species. In response to an EDF suit, the U.S. District Court of Appeals in 1971 ordered the EPA to begin the de-registration procedure for DDT. After an initial six-month review process, William Ruckelshaus, the Agency's first Administrator rejected an immediate suspension of DDT's registration, citing studies from the EPA's internal staff stating that DDT was not an imminent danger. Industry sought to overturn the ban, while the EDF wanted a comprehensive ban. The cases were consolidated, and in 1973 the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit ruled that the EPA had acted properly in banning DDT. DDT continued to be produced in the United States for foreign markets until 1985, when over 300 tons were exported. although in practice it continued to be used through at least 1970. This was followed by Norway and Sweden in 1970, West Germany and the United States in 1972, but not in the United Kingdom until 1984. In contrast to West Germany, in the German Democratic Republic DDT was used until 1988. Especially of relevance were large-scale applications in forestry in the years 1982–1984, with the aim to combat bark beetle and pine moth. As a consequence, DDT-concentrations in eastern German forest soils are still significantly higher compared to soils in the former western German states. By 1991, total bans, including for disease control, were in place in at least 26 countries; for example, Cuba in 1970, the US in the 1980s, Singapore in 1984, Chile in 1985, and the Republic of Korea in 1986. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, which took effect in 2004, put a global ban on several persistent organic pollutants, and restricted DDT use to vector control. The convention was ratified by more than 170 countries. Recognizing that total elimination in many malaria-prone countries is currently unfeasible in the absence of affordable/effective alternatives, the convention exempts public health use within World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines from the ban. Resolution 60.18 of the World Health Assembly commits WHO to the Stockholm Convention's aim of reducing and ultimately eliminating DDT. Malaria Foundation International states, "The outcome of the treaty is arguably better than the status quo going into the negotiations. For the first time, there is now an insecticide which is restricted to vector control only, meaning that the selection of resistant mosquitoes will be slower than before." Despite the worldwide ban, agricultural use continued in India, North Korea, and possibly elsewhere. DDT is applied to the inside walls of homes to kill or repel mosquitoes. This intervention, called indoor residual spraying (IRS), greatly reduces environmental damage. It also reduces the incidence of DDT resistance. For comparison, treating of cotton during a typical U.S. growing season requires the same amount of chemical to treat roughly 1,700 homes.Environmental impactDDT is a persistent organic pollutant that is readily adsorbed to soils and sediments, which can act both as sinks and as long-term sources of exposure affecting organisms.). Its breakdown products and metabolites, DDE and DDD, are also persistent and have similar chemical and physical properties. Medical researchers in 1974 found a measurable and significant difference in the presence of DDT in human milk between mothers who lived in New Brunswick and mothers who lived in Nova Scotia, "possibly because of the wider use of insecticide sprays in the past". Because of its lipophilic properties, DDT can bioaccumulate, especially in predatory birds. DDT is toxic to a wide range of living organisms, including marine animals such as crayfish, daphnids, sea shrimp and many species of fish. DDT, DDE and DDD magnify through the food chain, with apex predators such as raptor birds concentrating more chemicals than other animals in the same environment. They are stored mainly in body fat. DDT and DDE are resistant to metabolism; in humans, their half-lives are 6 and up to 10 years, respectively. In the United States, these chemicals were detected in almost all human blood samples tested by the Centers for Disease Control in 2005, though their levels have sharply declined since most uses were banned. Estimated dietary intake has declined, Despite being banned for many years, in 2018 research showed that DDT residues are still present in European soils and Spanish rivers. Eggshell thinning The chemical and its breakdown products DDE and DDD caused eggshell thinning and population declines in multiple North American and European bird of prey species. Both laboratory experiments and field studies confirmed this effect. The effect was first conclusively proven at Bellow Island in Lake Michigan during University of Michigan-funded studies on American herring gulls in the mid-1960s. DDE-related eggshell thinning is considered a major reason for the decline of the bald eagle, peregrine falcon and osprey. though DDT's role in the decline of the California condor is disputed. Other evidence indicates that o,p'-DDT disrupts female reproductive tract development, later impairing eggshell quality. Multiple mechanisms may be at work, or different mechanisms may operate in different species. It is considered likely to be a human carcinogen although the majority of studies suggest it is not directly genotoxic. DDE acts as a weak androgen receptor antagonist, but not as an estrogen. p,p-DDT, DDT's main component, has little or no androgenic or estrogenic activity. The minor component o,''p-DDT has weak estrogenic activity. Acute toxicity DDT is classified as "moderately toxic" by the U.S. National Toxicology Program (NTP) and "moderately hazardous" by WHO, based on the rat oral of 113 mg/kg. Indirect exposure is considered relatively non-toxic for humans. Chronic toxicity Primarily through the tendency for DDT to build up in areas of the body with high lipid content, chronic exposure can affect reproductive capabilities and the embryo or fetus. * Studies are inconsistent on whether high blood DDT or DDE levels increase time to pregnancy. * Indirect exposure of mothers through workers directly in contact with DDT is associated with an increase in spontaneous abortions. * Mothers with high levels of DDT circulating in their blood during pregnancy were found to be more likely to give birth to children who would go on to develop autism. Carcinogenicity In 2015, the International Agency for Research on Cancer classified DDT as Group 2A "probably carcinogenic to humans". Previous assessments by the U.S. National Toxicology Program classified it as "reasonably anticipated to be a carcinogen" and by the EPA classified DDT, DDE and DDD as class B2 "probable" carcinogens; these evaluations were based mainly on animal studies. A 2009 review, whose co-authors included persons engaged in DDT-related litigation, reached broadly similar conclusions, with an equivocal association with testicular cancer. Case–control studies did not support an association with leukemia or lymphoma. The United States Institute of Medicine reviewed data on the association of breast cancer with DDT exposure in 2012 and concluded that a causative relationship could neither be proven nor disproven. A 2007 case-control study The National Toxicology Program notes that while the majority of studies have not found a relationship between DDT exposure and breast cancer that positive associations have been seen in a "few studies among women with higher levels of exposure and among certain subgroups of women". Malaria control Malaria remains the primary public health challenge in many countries. In 2015, there were 214 million cases of malaria worldwide resulting in an estimated 438,000 deaths, 90% of which occurred in Africa. DDT is one of many tools to fight the disease. Its use in this context has been called everything from a "miracle weapon [that is] like Kryptonite to the mosquitoes", to "toxic colonialism". Before DDT, eliminating mosquito breeding grounds by drainage or poisoning with Paris green or pyrethrum was sometimes successful. In parts of the world with rising living standards, the elimination of malaria was often a collateral benefit of the introduction of window screens and improved sanitation. such as larviciding with insecticides, ecological controls such as draining mosquito breeding grounds or introducing fish to eat larvae and indoor residual spraying (IRS) with insecticides, possibly including DDT. IRS involves the treatment of interior walls and ceilings with insecticides. It is particularly effective against mosquitoes, since many species rest on an indoor wall before or after feeding. DDT is one of 12 WHO–approved IRS insecticides. Resistance was largely fueled by unrestricted agricultural use. Resistance and the harm both to humans and the environment led many governments to curtail DDT use in vector control and agriculture. Once the mainstay of anti-malaria campaigns, as of 2019 only five countries used DDT for Indoor Residual Spraying Initial effectiveness When it was introduced in World War II, DDT was effective in reducing malaria morbidity and mortality. and 29 in 1964. Thereafter the program was halted to save money and malaria rebounded to 600,000 cases in 1968 and the first quarter of 1969. The country resumed DDT vector control but the mosquitoes had evolved resistance in the interim, presumably because of continued agricultural use. The program switched to malathion, but despite initial successes, malaria continued its resurgence into the 1980s. DDT remains on WHO's list of insecticides recommended for IRS. After the appointment of Arata Kochi as head of its anti-malaria division, WHO's policy shifted from recommending IRS only in areas of seasonal or episodic transmission of malaria, to advocating it in areas of continuous, intense transmission. WHO reaffirmed its commitment to phasing out DDT, aiming "to achieve a 30% cut in the application of DDT world-wide by 2014 and its total phase-out by the early 2020s if not sooner" while simultaneously combating malaria. WHO plans to implement alternatives to DDT to achieve this goal. South Africa continues to use DDT under WHO guidelines. In 1996, the country switched to alternative insecticides and malaria incidence increased dramatically. Returning to DDT and introducing new drugs brought malaria back under control. Malaria cases increased in South America after countries in that continent stopped using DDT. Research data showed a strong negative relationship between DDT residual house sprayings and malaria. In a research from 1993 to 1995, Ecuador increased its use of DDT and achieved a 61% reduction in malaria rates, while each of the other countries that gradually decreased its DDT use had large increases.Mosquito resistanceIn some areas, resistance reduced DDT's effectiveness. WHO guidelines require that absence of resistance must be confirmed before using the chemical. Resistance is largely due to agricultural use, in much greater quantities than required for disease prevention. Resistance was noted early in spray campaigns. Paul Russell, former head of the Allied Anti-Malaria campaign, observed in 1956 that "resistance has appeared after six or seven years". In many parts of India, DDT is ineffective. Agricultural uses were banned in 1989 and its anti-malarial use has been declining. Urban use ended. One study concluded that "DDT is still a viable insecticide in indoor residual spraying owing to its effectivity in well supervised spray operation and high excito-repellency factor." Studies of malaria-vector mosquitoes in KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa found susceptibility to 4% DDT (WHO's susceptibility standard), in 63% of the samples, compared to the average of 87% in the same species caught in the open. The authors concluded that "Finding DDT resistance in the vector An. arabiensis, close to the area where we previously reported pyrethroid-resistance in the vector An. funestus Giles, indicates an urgent need to develop a strategy of insecticide resistance management for the malaria control programmes of southern Africa." DDT can still be effective against resistant mosquitoes Others argue that the avoidance behavior slows eradication. Unlike other insecticides such as pyrethroids, DDT requires long exposure to accumulate a lethal dose; however its irritant property shortens contact periods. "For these reasons, when comparisons have been made, better malaria control has generally been achieved with pyrethroids than with DDT." Residents' concerns IRS is effective if at least 80% of homes and barns in a residential area are sprayed. Pyrethroid insecticides (e.g. deltamethrin and lambda-cyhalothrin) can overcome some of these issues, increasing participation. Illegal diversion to agriculture is also a concern as it is difficult to prevent and its subsequent use on crops is uncontrolled. For example, DDT use is widespread in Indian agriculture, particularly mango production and is reportedly used by librarians to protect books. Other examples include Ethiopia, where DDT intended for malaria control is reportedly used in coffee production, and Ghana where it is used for fishing. The residues in crops at levels unacceptable for export have been an important factor in bans in several tropical countries. These arguments were rejected as "outrageous" by former WHO scientist Socrates Litsios. both positive and negativeto human health and the environment, as well as the uncertainties associated with all these considerations?" \|width = 50% \|author Hans Herren & Charles Mbogo }} Criticisms of a DDT "ban" often specifically reference the 1972 United States ban (with the erroneous implication that this constituted a worldwide ban and prohibited use of DDT in vector control). Reference is often made to Silent Spring, even though Carson never pushed for a DDT ban. John Quiggin and Tim Lambert wrote, "the most striking feature of the claim against Carson is the ease with which it can be refuted". Investigative journalist Adam Sarvana and others characterize these notions as "myths" promoted principally by Roger Bate of the pro-DDT advocacy group Africa Fighting Malaria (AFM).AlternativesInsecticides Organophosphate and carbamate insecticides, e.g. malathion and bendiocarb, respectively, are more expensive than DDT per kilogram and are applied at roughly the same dosage. Pyrethroids such as deltamethrin are also more expensive than DDT, but are applied more sparingly (0.02–0.3 g/m<sup>2</sup> vs 1–2 g/m<sup>2</sup>), so the net cost per house per treatment is about the same. In 2019, the related compound difluorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DFDT) was described as a potentially more effective and therefore potentially safer alternative to DDT.Non-chemical vector controlBefore DDT, malaria was successfully eliminated or curtailed in several tropical areas by removing or poisoning mosquito breeding grounds and larva habitats, for example by eliminating standing water. These methods have seen little application in Africa for more than half a century. According to CDC, such methods are not practical in Africa because "Anopheles gambiae, one of the primary vectors of malaria in Africa, breeds in numerous small pools of water that form due to rainfall ... It is difficult, if not impossible, to predict when and where the breeding sites will form, and to find and treat them before the adults emerge." The relative effectiveness of IRS versus other malaria control techniques (e.g. bednets or prompt access to anti-malarial drugs) varies and is dependent on local conditions. Vietnam has enjoyed declining malaria cases and a 97% mortality reduction after switching in 1991 from a poorly funded DDT-based campaign to a program based on prompt treatment, bednets and pyrethroid group insecticides. In Mexico, effective and affordable chemical and non-chemical strategies were so successful that the Mexican DDT manufacturing plant ceased production due to lack of demand. A review of fourteen studies in sub-Saharan Africa, covering insecticide-treated nets, residual spraying, chemoprophylaxis for children, chemoprophylaxis or intermittent treatment for pregnant women, a hypothetical vaccine and changing front–line drug treatment, found decision making limited by the lack of information on the costs and effects of many interventions, the small number of cost-effectiveness analyses, the lack of evidence on the costs and effects of packages of measures and the problems in generalizing or comparing studies that relate to specific settings and use different methodologies and outcome measures. The two cost-effectiveness estimates of DDT residual spraying examined were not found to provide an accurate estimate of the cost-effectiveness of DDT spraying; the resulting estimates may not be good predictors of cost-effectiveness in current programs. However, a study in Thailand found the cost per malaria case prevented of DDT spraying (US$1.87) to be 21% greater than the cost per case prevented of lambda-cyhalothrin–treated nets (US$1.54), casting some doubt on the assumption that DDT was the most cost-effective measure. The director of Mexico's malaria control program found similar results, declaring that it was 25% cheaper for Mexico to spray a house with synthetic pyrethroids than with DDT. A more comprehensive approach to measuring the cost-effectiveness or efficacy of malarial control would not only measure the cost in dollars, as well as the number of people saved, but would also consider ecological damage and negative human health impacts. One preliminary study found that it is likely that the detriment to human health approaches or exceeds the beneficial reductions in malarial cases, except perhaps in epidemics. It is similar to the earlier study regarding estimated theoretical infant mortality caused by DDT and subject to the criticism also mentioned earlier. A study in the Solomon Islands found that "although impregnated bed nets cannot entirely replace DDT spraying without substantial increase in incidence, their use permits reduced DDT spraying". A comparison of four successful programs against malaria in Brazil, India, Eritrea and Vietnam does not endorse any single strategy but instead states, "Common success factors included conducive country conditions, a targeted technical approach using a package of effective tools, data-driven decision-making, active leadership at all levels of government, involvement of communities, decentralized implementation and control of finances, skilled technical and managerial capacity at national and sub-national levels, hands-on technical and programmatic support from partner agencies, and sufficient and flexible financing." DDT resistant mosquitoes may be susceptible to pyrethroids in some countries. However, pyrethroid resistance in Anopheles mosquitoes is on the rise with resistant mosquitoes found in multiple countries. See also * DDT in New Zealand * Operation Cat Drop * Environmental hazard * Index of pesticide articles Pest control Pesticide Pesticide residue Pesticide standard value ** WHO Pesticide Evaluation Scheme * Mosquito control References Further reading * Berry-Cabán, Cristóbal S. "DDT and silent spring: fifty years after". ''Journal of Military and Veterans' Health 19 (2011): 19–24. [https://jmvh.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/JMVH-Vol19-No4_Cristobal.pdf online] * Conis, Elena. "Debating the health effects of DDT: Thomas Jukes, Charles Wurster, and the fate of an environmental pollutant". Public Health Reports 125.2 (2010): 337–342. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2821864/ online] * Davis, Frederick Rowe. "Pesticides and the perils of synecdoche in the history of science and environmental history". History of Science 57.4 (2019): 469–492. * "DDT Banning" in Richard L. Wilson, ed. Historical Encyclopedia of American Business, Vol I. Accounting Industry – Google, (Salem Press: 2009) p. 223 . * Dunlap, Thomas, ed. DDT, Silent Spring, and the Rise of Environmentalism (University of Washington Press, 2008). * Dunlap, Thomas, ed. DDT, Silent Spring, and the Rise of Environmentalism: Classic texts (University of Washington Press, 2015). . * * Kinkela, David. DDT and the American Century: Global Health, Environmental Politics, and the Pesticide That Changed the World (University of North Carolina Press, 2011). . * Morris, Peter J. T. (2019). "Chapter 9: A Tale of Two Nations: DDT in the United States and the United Kingdom". Hazardous Chemicals: Agents of Risk and Change, 1800–2000. Environment in History: International Perspectives 17. Berghahn Books. 294–327. (book: ; ). External links ;Chemistry * [http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/mv_DDT.htm DDT] at The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham) ;Toxicity * * * [http://www.scorecard.org/chemical-profiles/summary.tcl?edf_substance_id=50-29-3 Scorecard: The Pollution Information Site – DDT] * [http://www.loe.org/shows/shows.htm?programID=07-P13-00040 Interview] with Barbara Cohn, PhD about DDT and breast cancer * [http://www.inchem.org/documents/jmpr/jmpmono/v00pr03.htm Pesticide residues in food 2000 : DDT] ;Politics and DDT * * ;Malaria and DDT * * [http://www.vega.org.uk/video/programme/87 'Andrew Spielman, Harvard School of Public Health, discusses environmentally friendly control of Malaria and uses of DDT] Freeview video provided by the Vega Science Trust * ;DDT in popular culture * * [https://digital.sciencehistory.org/collections/mg74qm28w Phil Allegretti Pesticide Collection] consisting of ephemera and 3-D objects, including cans, sprayers, and diffusers, related to DDT pesticide and insecticide in the United States in the mid-20th century (all images freely available for download in variety of formats from Science History Institute Digital Collections at [https://web.archive.org/web/20190202042542/https://digital.sciencehistory.org/ digital.sciencehistory.org]). Category:4-Chlorophenyl compounds Category:Endocrine disruptors Category:Environmental controversies Category:Environmental effects of pesticides Category:GPER agonists Category:IARC Group 2A carcinogens Category:Malaria Category:Nonsteroidal antiandrogens Category:Persistent organic pollutants under the Stockholm Convention Category:Persistent organic pollutants under the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution Category:Pesticides Category:Sodium channel openers Category:Trichloromethyl compounds	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DDT	2025-04-05T18:28:38.650504
8495	Data set	thumb\|right\|Various plots of the multivariate data set Iris flower data set introduced by Ronald Fisher (1936). In the open data discipline, data set is the unit to measure the information released in a public open data repository. The European data.europa.eu portal aggregates more than a million data sets. Properties Several characteristics define a data set's structure and properties. These include the number and types of the attributes or variables, and various statistical measures applicable to them, such as standard deviation and kurtosis. The values may be numbers, such as real numbers or integers, for example representing a person's height in centimeters, but may also be nominal data (i.e., not consisting of numerical values), for example representing a person's ethnicity. More generally, values may be of any of the kinds described as a level of measurement. For each variable, the values are normally all of the same kind. Missing values may exist, which must be indicated somehow. In statistics, data sets usually come from actual observations obtained by sampling a statistical population, and each row corresponds to the observations on one element of that population. Data sets may further be generated by algorithms for the purpose of testing certain kinds of software. Some modern statistical analysis software such as SPSS still present their data in the classical data set fashion. If data is missing or suspicious an imputation method may be used to complete a data set. Classics Several classic data sets have been used extensively in the statistical literature: Iris flower data set – Multivariate data set introduced by Ronald Fisher (1936). Provided online by University of California-Irvine Machine Learning Repository. MNIST database – Images of handwritten digits commonly used to test classification, clustering, and image processing algorithms Categorical data analysis – Data sets used in the book, An Introduction to Categorical Data Analysis, provided online by UCLA Advanced Research Computing. Robust statistics – Data sets used in Robust Regression and Outlier Detection (Rousseeuw and Leroy, 1968). Provided online at the University of Cologne. Time series – Data used in Chatfield's book, The Analysis of Time Series, are provided on-line by StatLib. Extreme values – Data used in the book, An Introduction to the Statistical Modeling of Extreme Values are a snapshot of the data as it was provided on-line by Stuart Coles, the book's author. Bayesian Data Analysis – Data used in the book are provided on-line (archive link) by Andrew Gelman, one of the book's authors. The Bupa liver data – Used in several papers in the machine learning (data mining) literature. Anscombe's quartet – Small data set illustrating the importance of graphing the data to avoid statistical fallacies. Example Loading datasets using Python: pip install datasets from datasets import load_dataset dataset = load_dataset(NAME OF DATASET) See also List of datasets for machine-learning research List of datasets in computer vision and image processing Data blending Data (computer science) Sampling Data store Interoperability Data collection system References External links Data.gov – the U.S. Government's open data GCMD – the Global Change Master Directory containing over 34,000 descriptions of Earth science and environmental science data sets and services Humanitarian Data Exchange(HDX) – The Humanitarian Data Exchange (HDX) is an open humanitarian data sharing platform managed by the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. NYC Open Data – free public data published by New York City agencies and other partners. Relational data set repository Research Pipeline – a wiki/website with links to data sets on many different topics StatLib–JASA Data Archive UCI – a machine learning repository UK Government Public Data World Bank Open Data – Free and open access to global development data by World Bank Category:Computer data Category:Statistical data sets	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_set	2025-04-05T18:28:38.662468
8496	DMA	DMA may refer to: Arts DMA (magazine), a defunct dance music magazine Dallas Museum of Art, in Texas, US BT Digital Music Awards, an annual event in the UK Danish Music Awards Detroit Music Awards Doctor of musical arts, a degree DMA's, an Australian alternative rock band Organisations DMA Design, now Rockstar North, a video game developer in Edinburgh, Scotland Danish Medical Association Derbyshire Miners' Association, England Data & Marketing Association, formerly Direct Marketing Association Durham Miners' Association, a trade union Disney Movies Anywhere Education DMA eV, () an academic association for German and Moroccan graduates in Hanover, Germany Delaware Military Academy, US Digital Media Academy, US Government and military Davis–Monthan Air Force Base (IATA airport code), near Tucson, Arizona, US Defense Mapping Agency, a former agency of the US Department of Defense Defense Media Activity, an organization of the US Department of Defense Department of Military Affairs, India Places Dominica (IOC code) Dublin Metropolitan Area, an Irish jurisdiction Science and technology Dynamic mechanical analysis of a polymer's viscoelasticity Differential mobility analyzer, an instrument to measure particle size distribution Chemistry Botiacrine, also known as (S)-[2-(dimethylamino)ethyl] 9,9-dimethylacridine-10-carbothioate (DMA), an antiparkinsonian drug Delmadinone acetate, a veterinary drug Dimethandrolone, an anabolic–androgenic steroid Dimethoxyamphetamine, a psychedelic phenethylamine Dimethylacetamide, an organic solvent Dimethylamine Dimethylaniline Distributed multipole analysis, a method to describe the charge distribution of a molecule Dimethylarsinic acid Computing Direct memory access Dynamic memory allocation Dynamic Microprocessor Associates, developer of pcAnywhere DragonFly Mail Agent, in the DragonFly BSD operating system Other uses Designated market area, a region whose population can receive the same media offerings Digital Markets Act, a European Union regulation for digital platform fairness Direct market access, used in financial markets Peugeot DMA, a historical light van and pickup truck See also	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DMA	2025-04-05T18:28:38.666189
8498	Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders	The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM; latest edition: DSM-5-TR, published in March 2022) is a publication by the American Psychiatric Association (APA) for the classification of mental disorders using a common language and standard criteria. It is an internationally accepted manual on the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders, though it may be used in conjunction with other documents. Other commonly used principal guides of psychiatry include the International Classification of Diseases (ICD), Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders (CCMD), and the Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual. However, not all providers rely on the DSM-5 as a guide, since the ICD's mental disorder diagnoses are used around the world, and scientific studies often measure changes in symptom scale scores rather than changes in DSM-5 criteria to determine the real-world effects of mental health interventions. It is used by researchers, psychiatric drug regulation agencies, health insurance companies, pharmaceutical companies, the legal system, and policymakers. Some mental health professionals use the manual to determine and help communicate a patient's diagnosis after an evaluation. Hospitals, clinics, and insurance companies in the United States may require a DSM diagnosis for all patients with mental disorders. Health-care researchers use the DSM to categorize patients for research purposes. The DSM evolved from systems for collecting census and psychiatric hospital statistics, as well as from a United States Army manual. Revisions since its first publication in 1952 have incrementally added to the total number of mental disorders, while removing those no longer considered to be mental disorders. Recent editions of the DSM have received praise for standardizing psychiatric diagnosis grounded in empirical evidence, as opposed to the theory-bound nosology (the branch of medical science that deals with the classification of diseases) used in DSM-III. However, it has also generated controversy and criticism, including ongoing questions concerning the reliability and validity of many diagnoses; the use of arbitrary dividing lines between mental illness and "normality"; possible cultural bias; and the medicalization of human distress. The APA itself has published that the inter-rater reliability is low for many disorders in the DSM-5, including major depressive disorder and generalized anxiety disorder. Distinction from ICD An alternate, widely used classification publication is the International Classification of Diseases (ICD), produced by the World Health Organization (WHO). The ICD has a broader scope than the DSM, covering overall health as well as mental health; chapter 6 of the ICD specifically covers mental, behavioral and neurodevelopmental disorders. Moreover, while the DSM is the most popular diagnostic system for mental disorders in the US, the ICD is used more widely in Europe and other parts of the world, giving it a far larger reach than the DSM. An international survey of psychiatrists in sixty-six countries compared the use of the ICD-10 and DSM-IV. It found the former was more often used for clinical diagnosis while the latter was more valued for research. This may be because the DSM tends to put more emphasis on clear diagnostic criteria, while the ICD tends to put more emphasis on clinician judgement and avoiding diagnostic criteria unless they are independently validated. That is, the ICD descriptions of psychiatric disorders tend to be more qualitative information, such as general descriptions of what various disorders tend to look like. The DSM focuses more on quantitative and operationalized criteria; e.g., to be diagnosed with X disorder, one must fulfill 5 of 9 criteria for at least 6 months. Since 1980, every code that has been listed in the DSM has been an ICD-9 code. However, DSM-5, unlike previous versions of DSM, contains both ICD-9 and ICD-10 codes. Though recent editions of the DSM and ICD have become more similar due to collaborative agreements, each one contains information absent from the other. For instance, the two manuals contain overlapping but substantially different lists of recognized culture-bound syndromes. The ICD also tends to focus more on primary-care and low and middle-income countries, as opposed to the DSM's focus on secondary psychiatric care in high-income countries. The Association of Medical Superintendents of American Institutions for the Insane ("The Superintendents' Association") was formed in 1844. In 1860, during the international statistical congress held in London, Florence Nightingale made a proposal that was to result in the development of the first international model of systematic collection of hospital data. In 1872, the American Medical Association (AMA) published its Nomenclature of Diseases, which included various "Disorders of the Intellect". Its use was short-lived however. Edward Jarvis and later Francis Amasa Walker helped expand the census, from two volumes in 1870 to twenty-five volumes in 1880. In 1888, the Census Office published Frederick H. Wines' 582-page volume called Report on the Defective, Dependent, and Delinquent Classes of the Population of the United States, As Returned at the Tenth Census (June 1, 1880). Wines used seven categories of mental illness, which were also adopted by the Superintendents: dementia, dipsomania (uncontrollable craving for alcohol), epilepsy, mania, melancholia, monomania, and paresis. In 1892, the Superintendents' Association expanded its membership to include other mental health workers, and renamed to the American Medico-Psychological Association (AMPA). In 1893, a French physician, Jacques Bertillon, introduced the Bertillon Classification of Causes of Death at a congress of the International Statistical Institute (ISI) in Chicago. (The ISI had commissioned him to create it in 1891). APA Statistical Manual (1917) and AMA Standard (1933) In 1917, together with the National Commission on Mental Hygiene (now Mental Health America), the American Medico-Psychological Association developed a new guide for mental hospitals called the Statistical Manual for the Use of Institutions for the Insane. This guide included twenty-two diagnoses. It would be revised several times by the Association, and by the tenth edition in 1942, was titled Statistical Manual for the Use of Hospitals of Mental Diseases. In 1921, the AMPA became the present American Psychiatric Association (APA). The first edition of the DSM notes in its foreword: "In the late twenties, each large teaching center employed a system of its own origination, no one of which met more than the immediate needs of the local institution." In 1933, the AMA's general medical guide the Standard Classified Nomenclature of Disease, (referred to as the Standard), was released. Along with the New York Academy of Medicine, the APA provided the psychiatric nomenclature subsection. It became well adopted in the US within two years. Medical 203 (1945) World War II saw the large-scale involvement of U.S. psychiatrists in the selection, processing, assessment, and treatment of soldiers. This moved the focus away from mental institutions and traditional clinical perspectives. The U.S. armed forces initially used the Standard, but found it lacked appropriate categories for many common conditions that troubled troops. The United States Navy made some minor revisions but "the Army established a much more sweeping revision, abandoning the basic outline of the Standard and attempting to express present-day concepts of mental disturbance." a committee headed by psychiatrist Brigadier General William C. Menninger, with the assistance of the Mental Hospital Service, developed a new classification scheme in 1944 and 1945. Issued in War Department Technical Bulletin, Medical, 203 (TB MED 203); Nomenclature and Method of Recording Diagnoses was released shortly after the war in October 1945 under the auspices of the Office of the Surgeon General. It was reprinted in the Journal of Clinical Psychology for civilian use in July 1946 with the new title Nomenclature of Psychiatric Disorders and Reactions. This system came to be known as "Medical 203". This nomenclature eventually was adopted by all the armed forces, and "assorted modifications of the Armed Forces nomenclature [were] introduced into many clinics and hospitals by psychiatrists returning from military duty." ICD-6 (1948) In 1948, the newly formed World Health Organization took over the maintenance of the ILCD. They greatly expanded it, included non-fatal conditions for the first time, and renamed it the International Statistical Classification of Diseases (ICD). The foreword to the DSM-I states the ICD-6 "categorized mental disorders in rubrics similar to those of the Armed Forces nomenclature." These included several categories of "personality disturbance", generally distinguished from "neurosis" (nervousness, egodystonic). The foreword to this edition describes itself as being a continuation of the Statistical Manual for the Use of Hospitals of Mental Diseases. Within each class of mental disorder, classifying information is provided to differentiate conditions with similar symptoms. Under each broad class of disorder (e.g. "Psychoneurotic Disorders" or "Personality Disorders"), all possible diagnoses are listed, generally from least to most severe. In 1956, however, the psychologist Evelyn Hooker performed a study comparing the happiness and well-adjusted nature of self-identified homosexual men with heterosexual men and found no difference. but homosexuality remained in the DSM until May 1974.DSM-II (1968) In the 1960s, there were many challenges to the concept of mental illness itself. These challenges came from psychiatrists like Thomas Szasz, who argued mental illness was a myth used to disguise moral conflicts; from sociologists such as Erving Goffman, who said mental illness was another example of how society labels and controls non-conformists; from behavioural psychologists who challenged psychiatry's fundamental reliance on unobservable phenomena; and from gay rights activists who criticised the APA's listing of homosexuality as a mental disorder. The APA was closely involved in the next significant revision of the mental disorder section of the ICD (version 8 in 1968). It decided to go ahead with a revision of the DSM, which was published in 1968. DSM-II was similar to DSM-I, listed 182 disorders, and was 134 pages long. The term "reaction" was dropped, but the term "neurosis" was retained. Both the DSM-I and the DSM-II reflected the predominant psychodynamic psychiatry, although both manuals also included biological perspectives and concepts from Kraepelin's system of classification. Symptoms were not specified in detail for specific disorders. Many were seen as reflections of broad underlying conflicts or maladaptive reactions to life problems that were rooted in a distinction between neurosis and psychosis (roughly, anxiety/depression broadly in touch with reality, as opposed to hallucinations or delusions disconnected from reality). Sociological and biological knowledge was incorporated, under a model that did not emphasize a clear boundary between normality and abnormality. The idea that personality disorders did not involve emotional distress was discarded. Spitzer and Fleiss found that different practitioners using the DSM-II rarely agreed when diagnosing patients with similar problems. In reviewing previous studies of eighteen major diagnostic categories, Spitzer and Fleiss concluded that "there are no diagnostic categories for which reliability is uniformly high. Reliability appears to be only satisfactory for three categories: mental deficiency, organic brain syndrome (but not its subtypes), and alcoholism. The level of reliability is no better than fair for psychosis and schizophrenia and is poor for the remaining categories". Seventh printing of the DSM-II (1974) As described by Ronald Bayer, a psychiatrist and gay rights activist, specific protests by gay rights activists against the APA began in 1970, when the organization held its convention in San Francisco. The activists disrupted the conference by interrupting speakers and shouting down and ridiculing psychiatrists who viewed homosexuality as a mental disorder. In 1971, gay rights activist Frank Kameny worked with the Gay Liberation Front collective to demonstrate at the APA's convention. At the 1971 conference, Kameny grabbed the microphone and yelled: "Psychiatry is the enemy incarnate. Psychiatry has waged a relentless war of extermination against us. You may take this as a declaration of war against you." This gay activism occurred in the context of a broader anti-psychiatry movement that had come to the fore in the 1960s and was challenging the legitimacy of psychiatric diagnosis. Anti-psychiatry activists protested at the same APA conventions, with some shared slogans and intellectual foundations as gay activists. Taking into account data from researchers such as Alfred Kinsey and Evelyn Hooker, the seventh printing of the DSM-II, in 1974, no longer listed homosexuality as a category of disorder. After a vote by the APA trustees in 1973, and confirmed by the wider APA membership in 1974, the diagnosis was replaced with the category of "sexual orientation disturbance".DSM-III (1980)The emergence of DSM-III represented a "quantum leap" in terms of the scale and reach of the manual. In 1974, the decision to revise the DSM was made, and psychiatrist Robert Spitzer was selected as chair of the task force. The initial impetus was to make the DSM nomenclature consistent with that of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD). The revision took on a far wider mandate under the influence and control of Spitzer and his chosen committee members. One added goal was to improve the uniformity and validity of psychiatric diagnosis in the wake of a number of critiques, including the famous Rosenhan experiment. There was also felt a need to standardize diagnostic practices within the United States and with other countries, after research showed that psychiatric diagnoses differed between Europe and the United States. The establishment of consistent criteria was an attempt to facilitate the pharmaceutical regulatory process. The criteria adopted for many of the mental disorders were influenced by the Research Diagnostic Criteria (RDC) and Feighner Criteria, which had just been developed by a group of research-orientated psychiatrists based primarily at Washington University School of Medicine and the New York State Psychiatric Institute. However, the influence of clinical psychiatrists, themselves often working with psychoanalytic ideas, were still strong. A new "multiaxial" system attempted to yield a picture more amenable to a statistical population census, rather than a simple diagnosis. Spitzer argued "mental disorders are a subset of medical disorders", but the task force decided on this statement for the DSM: "Each of the mental disorders is conceptualized as a clinically significant behavioral or psychological syndrome." Field trials sponsored by the U.S. National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) were conducted between 1977 and 1979 to test the reliability of the new diagnoses. A controversy emerged regarding deletion of the concept of neurosis, a mainstream of psychoanalytic theory and therapy but seen as vague and unscientific by the DSM task force. Faced with enormous political opposition, DSM-III was in serious danger of not being approved by the APA Board of Trustees unless "neurosis" was included in some form; a political compromise reinserted the term in parentheses after the word "disorder" in some cases. Additionally, the diagnosis of ego-dystonic homosexuality replaced the DSM-II category of "sexual orientation disturbance". The gender identity disorder in children (GIDC) diagnosis was introduced in the DSM-III; prior to the DSM-III's publication in 1980, there was no diagnostic criteria for gender dysphoria. Finally published in 1980, DSM-III listed 265 diagnostic categories and was 494 pages long. It rapidly came into widespread international use and has been termed a revolution, or transformation, in psychiatry. "Ego-dystonic homosexuality" was also removed and was largely subsumed under "sexual disorder not otherwise specified", which could include "persistent and marked distress about one's sexual orientation." Altogether, the DSM-III-R contained 292 diagnoses and was 567 pages long. Further efforts were made for the diagnoses to be purely descriptive, although the introductory text stated for at least some disorders, "particularly the Personality Disorders, the criteria require much more inference on the part of the observer"[page xxiii]. A major change from previous versions was the inclusion of a clinical-significance criterion to almost half of all the categories, which required symptoms causing "clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning". Some personality-disorder diagnoses were deleted or moved to the appendix. It also notes that "although this manual provides a classification of mental disorders it must be admitted that no definition adequately specifies precise boundaries for the concept of 'mental disorder." DSM-IV categorization The DSM-IV is a categorical classification system. The categories are prototypes, and a patient with a close approximation to the prototype is said to have that disorder. DSM-IV states, "there is no assumption each category of mental disorder is a completely discrete entity with absolute boundaries" but isolated, low-grade, and non-criterion (unlisted for a given disorder) symptoms are not given importance. Qualifiers are sometimes used: for example, to specify mild, moderate, or severe forms of a disorder. For nearly half the disorders, symptoms must be sufficient to cause "clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning", although DSM-IV-TR removed the distress criterion from tic disorders and several of the paraphilias due to their egosyntonic nature. Each category of disorder has a numeric code taken from the ICD coding system, used for health service (including insurance) administrative purposes. DSM-IV multi-axial system The DSM-IV was organized into a five-part axial system: DSM-IV sourcebooks The DSM-IV does not specifically cite its sources, but there are four volumes of "sourcebooks" intended to be APA's documentation of the guideline development process and supporting evidence, including literature reviews, data analyses, and field trials. The sourcebooks have been said to provide important insights into the character and quality of the decisions that led to the production of DSM-IV, and the scientific credibility of contemporary psychiatric classification.DSM-IV-TR (2000)A text revision of DSM-IV, titled DSM-IV-TR, was published in 2000. The diagnostic categories were unchanged as were the diagnostic criteria for all but nine diagnoses. The majority of the text was unchanged; however, the text of two disorders, pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified and Asperger's disorder, had significant and/or multiple changes made. The definition of pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified was changed back to what it was in DSM-III-R and the text for Asperger's disorder was practically entirely rewritten. Most other changes were to the associated features sections of diagnoses that contained additional information such as lab findings, demographic information, prevalence, and course. Also, some diagnostic codes were changed to maintain consistency with ICD-9-CM. DSM-5 (2013) The fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), the DSM-5, was approved by the Board of Trustees of the APA on December 1, 2012. Published on May 18, 2013, the DSM-5 contains extensively revised diagnoses and, in some cases, broadens diagnostic definitions while narrowing definitions in other cases. The DSM-5 is the first major edition of the manual in 20 years. DSM-5, and the abbreviations for all previous editions, are registered trademarks owned by the American Psychiatric Association. A significant change in the fifth edition is the deletion of the subtypes of schizophrenia: paranoid, disorganized, catatonic, undifferentiated, and residual. The deletion of the subsets of autistic spectrum disordernamely, Asperger's syndrome, classic autism, Rett syndrome, childhood disintegrative disorder and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specifiedwas also implemented, with specifiers regarding intensity: mild, moderate, and severe. Severity is based on social communication impairments and restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, with three levels: # requiring support # requiring substantial support # requiring very substantial support During the revision process, the APA website periodically listed several sections of the DSM-5 for review and discussion. The National Board of Medical Examiners (NBME), which is responsible for creating and publishing board exams for medical students around the United States, conforms to the use of DSM-5 criteria.Future revisions and updatesAfter the release of the fifth edition, the APA communicated that they intended to add subsequent revisions more often, to keep up with research in the field. It is notable that DSM-5 uses Arabic rather than Roman numerals. Beginning with DSM-5, the APA planned to use decimals to identify incremental updates (e.g., DSM-5.1, DSM-5.2) and whole numbers for new editions (e.g., DSM-5, DSM-6), similar to the scheme used for software versioning. DSM-5-TR (2022) A revision of DSM-5, titled DSM-5-TR, was published in March 2022, updating diagnostic criteria and ICD-10-CM codes. The diagnostic criteria for avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder was changed, along with adding entries for prolonged grief disorder, unspecified mood disorder and stimulant-induced mild neurocognitive disorder. Prolonged grief disorder, which had been present in the ICD-11, had criteria agreed upon by consensus in a one day in-person workshop sponsored by the APA. Three review groups for sex and gender, culture and suicide, along with an "ethnoracial equity and inclusion work group" were involved in the creation of the DSM-5-TR which led to additional sections for each mental disorder discussing sex and gender, racial and cultural variations, and adding diagnostic codes for specifying levels of suicidality and nonsuicidal self-injury for mental disorders. * Autism spectrum disorder * Bipolar I disorder, Bipolar II disorder, and related bipolar disorders * Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder in the alternative DSM-5 model for personality disorders * Depressive episodes with short-duration hypomania * Intellectual developmental disorder * Delusional disorder * Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder * Brief psychotic disorder DSM Library The APA have supplemented the DSM with supporting works, collectively forming the "DSM Library." As of 2022, the other books in the library are "DSM-5 Handbook of Differential Diagnosis", "DSM-5 Clinical Cases", "DSM-5 Handbook on the Cultural Formulation Interview" and "Guía De Consulta De Los Criterios Diagnósticos Del DSM-5". In 2013, shortly before the publication of DSM-5, the director of the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), Thomas R. Insel, declared that the agency would no longer fund research projects that relied exclusively on DSM diagnostic criteria, due to its lack of validity. Insel questioned the validity of the DSM classification scheme because "diagnoses are based on a consensus about clusters of clinical symptoms" as opposed to "collecting the genetic, imaging, physiologic, and cognitive data to see how all the data – not just the symptoms – cluster and how these clusters relate to treatment response." Field trials of DSM-5 brought the debate of reliability back into the limelight, as the diagnoses of some disorders showed poor reliability. For example, a diagnosis of major depressive disorder, a common mental illness, had a poor reliability kappa statistic of 0.28, indicating that clinicians frequently disagreed on diagnosing this disorder in the same patients. The most reliable diagnosis was major neurocognitive disorder, with a kappa of 0.78. Diagnosis based on superficial symptoms By design, the DSM is primarily concerned with the signs and symptoms of mental disorders, rather than the underlying causes. It claims to collect these disorders based on statistical or clinical patterns. As such, it has been compared to a naturalist's field guide to birds, with similar advantages and disadvantages. The lack of a causative or explanatory basis, however, is not specific to the DSM, but rather reflects a general lack of pathophysiological understanding of psychiatric disorders. Proponents argue this absence of explanatory classification is necessary, but it presents a problem for researchers as it results in the grouping of individuals who may have little in common except superficial criteria. As DSM-III chief architect Robert Spitzer and DSM-IV editor Michael First outlined in 2005, "little progress has been made toward understanding the pathophysiological processes and cause of mental disorders. If anything, the research has shown the situation is even more complex than initially imagined, and we believe not enough is known to structure the classification of psychiatric disorders according to etiology." While there is generally a lack of consensus on underlying causation for most psychiatric disorders, some proponents of specific psychopathological paradigms have faulted the DSM for failing to incorporate evidence from other disciplines. For instance, evolutionary psychology distinguishes between genuine cognitive malfunctions and malfunctions due to psychological adaptations (that is learned behaviors may be adaptive in one context but maladaptive in another). However, this distinction is one that is challenged within general psychology. There is also criticism of the strong operationalist viewpoint of the DSM. The DSM relies on operational definitions, which means that intuitive concepts like depression are defined by specific measurable criteria (observable behavior, specific timelines). Some have argued that instead of replacing metaphysical terms like "desire" or "purpose" the DSM chose to legitimize them by giving them operational definitions. However, this may have served only to provide a "reassurance fetish" for mainstream methodological practice, rather than representing a substantial and meaningful alteration of mainstream psychiatric practice. A central problem with the use of superficial symptoms is that psychiatry deals with the phenomena of consciousness, which adds much more complexity than the somatic symptoms and signs used by most of medicine. A 2013 review published in the European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience gives the example of the problem of superficial characterization of psychiatric signs and symptoms. If a patient says they "feel depressed, sad, or down" there are actually a wide variety of underlying experiences they could be referencing: "not only depressed mood but also, for instance, irritation, anger, loss of meaning, varieties of fatigue, ambivalence, ruminations of different kinds, hyper-reflectivity, thought pressure, psychological anxiety, varieties of depersonalization, and even voices with negative content, and so forth." This criticism is especially pertinent to the structured interview, as simple "yes or no" questions may not be specific enough to truly confirm or deny the diagnostic criterion at issue. That is, whether a patient says yes or no will rely on their own understanding of the meaning of the various words in the question as well as their own interpretation of their experience. There is thus danger in being overconfident in the face value of the answers. The authors of the 2013 review give an example: A patient who was being administered the Structured Clinical Interview for the DSM-IV Axis I Disorders denied thought insertion, but during a "conversational, phenomenological interview", a semi-structured interview tailored to the patient, the same patient admitted to experiencing thought insertion, along with a delusional elaboration. The authors suggested 2 reasons for this discrepancy: either the patient did not "recognize his own experience in the rather blunt, implicitly either/or formulation of the structured-interview question", or the experience did not "fully articulate itself" until the patient started talking about his experiences.Obscuring root causes Economic causes The DSM-5 has been criticized for overlooking capitalism’s interconnectivity with pathology. One example is the development and treatment of diagnoses: around 69% of psychiatrists involved in the development of the DSM-5 were reported to have financial ties to the pharmaceutical industry. These ties situate many care services within the medical-industrial complex, a framework that prioritizes profit instead of the care of individuals. Lane found the medical-industrial complex intertwined with setting the parameters to diagnose conditions such as social anxiety disorder. Other authors have supported similar findings. Kincaid and Sullivan estimate that the cost of the industry surrounding diagnosis will rise to around six trillion dollars by 2030. Scholars differ in the extent of capitalism's influence on diagnosis. Davies supports the social model of disability in explaining that diagnosis at present relies on considering conditions a consequence of a “broken brain.” His wider logic on mental illness in response to societal issues problematizes diagnosis as a tool of the medical-industrial complex. Others find that the dependency of patients on their psychiatric care providers makes the industry vulnerable to economic exploitation under capitalism. These individuals argue that diagnosis is manipulated, but not caused, by capitalistic forces. Institutional causes Diagnoses of mental conditions have been used to obscure institutional practices of discrimination. Late nineteenth-century diagnoses of white women with hysteria, for instance, were said to be caused by “overcivilization,” shaped by racially discriminatory Social Darwinism. Similarly, American physician Samuel Cartwright coined "drapetomania" in 1851 as a mental condition which "caused" slaves to escape captivity. In the present day, Brinkmann finds that “contemporary diagnostic cultures,” whereby humans assess their conditions through a psychiatric lens, can “risk losing sight of the larger historical and social forces that affect [their] lives.” Contemporary diagnostic cultures help explain how diagnosis reflect larger historical biases. Critics have argued that the DSM-5's criteria pathologize a wide range of people with distress or impairment. Chapman et al. discuss the implications for obscuring distress in the incarceration and confinement of "intellectually disabled" populations; they argue that "differentiation based on psychiatric and intellectual disability" is arbitrarily set and altered based on capitalism's needs for "mobile and free workers." Metzl demonstrates that the shifting diagnostic parameters of schizophrenia became a method for institutionalizing Black men during the Civil Rights Movement.OverdiagnosisAllen Frances, an outspoken critic of DSM-5, states that "normality is an endangered species," because of "fad diagnoses" and an "epidemic" of over-diagnosing, and suggests that the "DSM-5 threatens to provoke several more [epidemics]." Some researchers state that changes in diagnostic criteria, following each published version of the DSM, reduce thresholds for a diagnosis, which results in increases in prevalence rates for ADHD and autism spectrum disorder. Bruchmüller, et al. (2012) suggest that as a factor that may lead to overdiagnosis are situations when the clinical judgment of the diagnostician regarding a diagnosis (ADHD) is affected by heuristics. In addition, it is argued that the current approach based on exceeding a threshold of symptoms does not adequately take into account the context in which a person is living, and to what extent there is internal disorder of an individual versus a psychological response to adverse situations. The DSM does include a step ("Axis IV") for outlining "Psychosocial and environmental factors contributing to the disorder" once someone is diagnosed with that particular disorder. Because an individual's degree of impairment is often not correlated with symptom counts and can stem from various individual and social factors, the DSM's standard of distress or disability can often produce false positives. On the other hand, individuals who do not meet symptom counts may nevertheless experience comparable distress or disability in their life.Cultural biasPsychiatrists have argued that published diagnostic standards rely on an exaggerated interpretation of neurophysiological findings and so understate the scientific importance of social-psychological variables. In addition, current diagnostic guidelines have been criticized as having a fundamentally Euro-American outlook. Although these guidelines have been widely implemented, opponents argue that even when a diagnostic criterion-set is accepted across different cultures, it does not necessarily indicate that the underlying constructs have any validity within those cultures; even reliable application can only demonstrate consistency, not legitimacy. Cross-cultural psychiatrist Arthur Kleinman contends that Western bias is ironically illustrated in the introduction of cultural factors to the DSM-IV: the fact that disorders or concepts from non-Western or non-mainstream cultures are described as "culture-bound", whereas standard psychiatric diagnoses are given no cultural qualification whatsoever, is to Kleinman revelatory of an underlying assumption that Western cultural phenomena are universal. Other cross-cultural critics largely share Kleinman's negative view toward the culture-bound syndrome, common responses included both disappointment over the large number of documented non-Western mental disorders still left out, and frustration that even those included were often misinterpreted or misrepresented. Mainstream psychiatrists have also been dissatisfied with these new culture-bound diagnoses, although not for the same reasons. Robert Spitzer, a lead architect of DSM-III, has held the opinion that the addition of cultural formulations was an attempt to placate cultural critics, and that they lack any scientific motivation or support. Spitzer also posits that the new culture-bound diagnoses are rarely used in practice, maintaining that the standard diagnoses apply regardless of the culture involved. In general, the mainstream psychiatric opinion remains that if a diagnostic category is valid, cross-cultural factors are either irrelevant or are only significant to specific symptom presentations. Medicalization and financial conflicts of interest There was extensive analysis and comment on DSM-IV (published in 1994) in the years leading up to the 2013 publication of DSM-5. It was alleged that the way the categories of DSM-IV were structured, as well as the substantial expansion of the number of categories within it, represented increasing medicalization of human nature, very possibly attributable to disease mongering by psychiatrists and pharmaceutical companies, the power and influence of the latter having grown dramatically in recent decades. In 2005, then APA President Steven Sharfstein released a statement in which he conceded that psychiatrists had "allowed the biopsychosocial model to become the bio-bio-bio model". It was reported that of the authors who selected and defined the DSM-IV psychiatric disorders, roughly half had financial relationships with the pharmaceutical industry during the period 1989–2004, raising the prospect of a direct conflict of interest. The same article concluded that the connections between panel members and the drug companies were particularly strong involving those diagnoses where drugs are the first line of treatment, such as schizophrenia and mood disorders, where 100% of the panel members had financial ties with the pharmaceutical industry. William Glasser referred to DSM-IV as having "phony diagnostic categories", arguing that "it was developed to help psychiatrists – to help them make money". A 2012 article in The New York Times commented sharply that DSM-IV (then in its 18th year), through copyrights held closely by the APA, had earned the Association over $100 million. However, although the number of identified diagnoses had increased by more than 200% (from 106 in DSM-I to 365 in DSM-IV-TR), psychiatrists such as Zimmerman and Spitzer argued that this almost entirely represented greater specification of the forms of pathology, thereby allowing better grouping of similar patients. Others, however, question the accuracy of diagnosis, or feel they have been given a label that invites social stigma and discrimination (the terms "mentalism" and "sanism" have been used to describe such discriminatory treatment). Diagnoses can become internalized and affect an individual's self-identity, and some psychotherapists have found that the healing process can be inhibited and symptoms can worsen as a result. Some members of the psychiatric survivors movement (more broadly the consumer/survivor/ex-patient movement) actively campaign against their diagnoses, or the assumed implications, or against the DSM system in general. Additionally, it has been noted that the DSM often uses definitions and terminology that are inconsistent with a recovery model, and such content can erroneously imply excess psychopathology (e.g. multiple "comorbid" diagnoses) or chronicity. In a December 2012, blog post on Psychology Today, Frances provides his "list of DSM 5's ten most potentially harmful changes:" * Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder, for temper tantrums * Major Depressive Disorder, includes normal grief * Minor Neurocognitive Disorder, for normal forgetfulness in old age * Adult Attention Deficit Disorder, encouraging psychiatric prescriptions of stimulants * Binge Eating Disorder, for excessive eating * Autism, defining the disorder more specifically, possibly leading to decreased rates of diagnosis and the disruption of school services * First-time drug users will be lumped in with addicts * Behavioral Addictions, making a "mental disorder of everything we like to do a lot." * Generalized Anxiety Disorder, includes everyday worries * Post-traumatic stress disorder, changes "opened the gate even further to the already existing problem of misdiagnosis of PTSD in forensic settings." * Are they more like theoretical constructs or more like diseases? * How to reach an agreed definition? * Should the DSM-5 take a cautious or conservative approach? * What is the role of practical rather than scientific considerations? * How should it be used by clinicians or researchers? * Is an entirely different diagnostic system required? In 2011, psychologist Brent Robbins co-authored a national letter for the Society for Humanistic Psychology that has brought thousands into the public debate about the DSM. Over 15,000 individuals and mental health professionals have signed a petition in support of the letter. Robbins has noted that under the new guidelines, certain responses to grief could be labeled as pathological disorders, instead of being recognized as being normal human experiences. Cultural responses to the DSM There are several works written in recent years by scholars of the disabled community that specifically critique the cultural impact of the DSM V. These pieces criticize the DSM V from different cultural perspectives, integrating the experiences of disabled people identifying as crip, feminists, Asian Americans, Black Americans and other marginalized viewpoints. DSM CRIP DSM CRIP is a collection of essays by various authors that explore the critiques of the DSM V from feminist and crip perspectives. These essays tackle the critiques of the DSM using specific diagnoses such as gender dysphoria, transvestic disorder, complex somatic symptom disorder, hypoactive sexual desire disorder, schizophrenia and autism. These are used as case studies to tackle the topics of the potential harm of labels, overmedicalization, overdiagnosis, pathologizing normality and various other critiques informed by the feminist and crip lens. Open in Emergency Open in Emergency is a multimedia collaborative project of the Asian American Literary Review that takes the lens of an Asian American Experience and redefines wellness in terms of care instead of focusing on diagnosis, unlike the original DSM V. This included mock versions of DSM diagnoses such as gender dysphoria, social anxiety disorder and cannabis use disorder that mean to recharacterize the disorders under the lens of wellness and care. The project was said to contextualize mental disorders with their relationship to structures of power like patriarchy, colonialism and violence (here). The Protest Psychosis: How Schizophrenia became a Black disease The Protest Psychosis: How Schizophrenia became a Black disease is a critically acclaimed book that was written to analyze the history of schizophrenia and how perceptions of the condition have changed. In this book, Metzl shows how the condition of schizophrenia was experienced against the backdrop of the Civil Rights Movement. See also * Chinese Classification and Diagnostic Criteria of Mental Disorders * Classification of mental disorders * Diagnostic classification and rating scales used in psychiatry * DSM-IV codes * Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF) Scale * International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD) * Kraepelinian dichotomy * Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual * Relational disorder (proposed DSM-5 new diagnosis) * Research Domain Criteria (RDoC), a framework being developed by the National Institute of Mental Health * Rosenhan experiment * Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (SCID) * Homosexuality in DSM Notes References Further reading * * External links * [http://www.dsm5.org/pages/default.aspx Official DSM-5 development website] * [https://archive.today/20120527015056/http://www.behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/dsm4TRclassification.htm Diagnostic Criteria from DSM-IV-TR] * [https://archive.today/20120527015056/http://www.behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/dsm4TRclassification.htm Diagnostic Criteria from DSM-IV-TR] * [https://apicalhealth.com/illness-and-recovery/dsm-iv/ The Multiaxial System of Diagnosis in DSM-IV Criteria]. . Category:American Psychiatric Association Category:Data coding framework Category:Medical manuals Category:Medical statistics Category:Psychiatric assessment Category:Classification of mental disorders Category:Psychiatric diagnosis Category:Psychopathology Category:Publications established in 1952 Category:Statistical data coding	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders	2025-04-05T18:28:38.786809
8500	Dar es Salaam	\| image_flag = Dar Es-Salaam City Flag.png \| image_seal = Emblem of Dar es Salaam.svg \| image_shield \| image_map \| map_caption \| pushpin_label Dar es Salaam \| pushpin_map = Tanzania# \| pushpin_map_caption = Location of Dar es Salaam \| pushpin_relief = yes \| coordinates \| subdivision_type = Country \| subdivision_name = \| subdivision_type1 = Zone \| subdivision_name1 = Coastal Indian Ocean \| established_title \| established_date \| leader_title = Regional Commissioner \| leader_name = Albert Challamila \| leader_title1 = Regional Administrative Secretary \| leader_name1 \| leader_title2 Regional Executive Director \| leader_name2 \| leader_title3 Lord Mayor \| leader_name3 = Omary Said Kumbilamoto \| leader_title4 = Hon Deputy Mayor \| leader_name4 \| parts_type Districts \| p1 = Ilala \| p2 = Kigamboni \| p3 = Kinondoni \| p4 = Ubungo \| p5 = Temeke \| image \| area_footnotes \| area_total_km2 = 1599 \| area_land_km2 \| area_water_km2 0 \| elevation_footnotes \| elevation_m \| elevation_min_m \| elevation_min_ft \| population_total = 10,599,999 \| population_as_of = 2025 \| population_footnotes \| population_density_km2 auto \| population_metro \| elevation_max_m \| elevation_max_ft \| postal_code_type Postcode \| postal_code = 11xxx \| area_code = 022 \| timezone = EAT \| utc_offset = +3 \| timezone_DST \| utc_offset_DST \| blank_name = Climate \| blank_info = Tropical savanna (Aw) \| blank_name_sec1 = HDI (2018) \| blank_info_sec1 = 0.699<br /> · 2nd \| website = \| flag_size = 125 }} Dar es Salaam (; from ) is the largest city and financial hub of Tanzania. It is also the capital of the Dar es Salaam Region. With a population of over ten million people, Dar es Salaam is the largest city in East Africa by population and the sixth-largest in Africa. Located on the Swahili coast, Dar es Salaam is an important economic center and one of the fastest-growing cities in the world. The city was founded in the mid-19th century. It was the main administrative and commercial center of German East Africa, Tanganyika, and Tanzania. The decision was made in 1974 to move the capital to Dodoma which was officially completed in 1996. Dar es Salaam is Tanzania's most prominent city for arts, fashion, media, film, television, and finance. It is the capital of the co-extensive Dar es Salaam Region, one of Tanzania's 31 administrative regions, and consists of five districts: Kinondoni in the north; Ilala in the centre; Ubungo and Temeke in the south; and Kigamboni in the east across the Kurasini estuary. History In the 19th century, 'Mzizima (Swahili for "healthy town") was a coastal fishing village on the periphery of Indian Ocean trade routes. In 1865 or 1866, Sultan Majid bin Said of Zanzibar began building a new city very close to Mzizima In the East African campaign of World War I, British and Empire forces captured German East Africa. The Royal Navy bombarded the city with the monitor on 21 July 1916 and battleship on 21 August. The German colonial authorities surrendered the city on 3 September. German East Africa became the British Tanganyika Territory. Dar es Salaam remained the administrative and commercial centre. Under British indirect rule, European areas such as Oyster Bay and African areas (e.g., Kariakoo and Ilala) developed separately from the city centre. The city's population also included a large number of workers from British India, many of whom came to take advantage of trade and commercial opportunities. After World War II, Dar es Salaam experienced a period of rapid growth. Political developments, including the formation and growth of the Tanganyika African National Union, led to Tanganyika's independence from colonial rule in December 1961. Dar es Salaam continued to serve as its capital, even when Tanganyika and the People's Republic of Zanzibar merged to form Tanzania in 1964. In 1973, provisions were made to relocate the capital to Dodoma, a more centrally located city in the interior. The relocation process to Dodoma was completed, although Dar es Salaam continued to be the location of most government offices. In 1967, the Tanzanian government declared the ujamaa policy, which made Tanzania lean towards socialism. The move hampered the potential growth of the city as the government encouraged people not to move into cities and instead remain in Ujamaa socialist villages. By the 1980s, the policy failed to combat the increasing poverty and hunger that Tanzania faced, and had delayed necessary development. This situation led to the liberalization policy of the 1980s that essentially ended socialism and silenced its proponents within Tanzania's government through political repression. and St. Joseph's Cathedral prominently in view]] Until the late 1990s, Dar es Salaam was not regarded in the same echelon as Africa's leading cities like Cairo, Nairobi, Johannesburg, Lagos, or Addis Ababa. During the 2000s, businesses opened and prospered; growth expanded in the construction sector, with new multi-storey buildings, bridges and roads; Tanzanian banks headquartered in the city became better regulated; and the Dar es Salaam Stock Exchange expanded. The port is prominent for entrepot trade with landlocked countries like Rwanda, Burundi, Zambia, and the eastern portion of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The city's skyline features tall buildings, among them the 35-storey PSPF Tower (finished in 2015) and the Tanzania Ports Authority (TPA) Tower, the tallest in the country (completed in 2016). A number of historical buildings and elements of urban planning, such as parts of the harbour and streets going back to colonial times, still exist. The Old Boma, one of the city's oldest buildings, was built in 1866–67 by Majid bin Said, sultan of Zanzibar, and enlarged under German rule. The Botanical Gardens now are close to the National Museum of Tanzania. The present-day State House goes back to Majid bin Said, and were the seat of the German and later the British colonial governments. Along with the Azania Front Lutheran Church, built between 1899 and 1902, and the Roman Catholic St. Joseph's Cathedral, constructed around the same period, Ocean Road Hospital are early historical buildings in Dar es Salaam.GeographyDar es Salaam is located at 6°48' S, 39°17' E (−6.8000, 39.2833), on a natural harbour on the coast of East Africa, with sandy beaches in some areas.Districts of Dar es Salaam region Dar es Salaam Region is divided into five administrative districts, four of which are governed by municipal councils that are affiliated with the city's suburbs or wards. {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|+Districts of Dar es Salaam Region ! District ! Population<br>(2016) ! Area<br>(km<sup>2</sup>) \|- \| Ilala District \| style="text-align:right;" \| 1,528,489 \| style="text-align:right;" \| 210 \|- \| Kigamboni District \| style="text-align:right;" \| 1,510,129 \| style="text-align:right;" \| N/A \|- \| Kinondoni District \| style="text-align:right;" \| 1,164,177 \| style="text-align:right;" \| 527 \|- \| Temeke District \| style="text-align:right;" \| 204,029 \| style="text-align:right;" \| 656 \|- \| Ubungo District \| style="text-align:right;" \| 1,058,597 \| style="text-align:right;" \| N/A \|- ! Dar es Salaam\|Dar es Salaam Region !! style="text-align:right;" \| 5,465,420 !! style="text-align:right;" \| 1,393 \|} Kinondoni Kinondoni is the most populated of the districts. It houses half of the city's population and several high-income suburbs. Masaki, Oyster Bay and Ada Estate are the high-income suburbs located along the central beach. During the Colonial Era, they were the major European suburbs of the city. Diplomats and expatriates currently reside in these areas. Oyster Bay Beach (also known as Coco Beach) is the only white sandy beach east of Kinondoni. Mikocheni and Regent Estate are also suburbs within the district. These are high and middle-income areas with Mikocheni B enjoying a higher population density than Mikocheni A and Regent Estate. According to the 2012 census, the Mikocheni ward had a population of 32,947. Msasani is a peninsula to the northeast of the city center and home to expatriates from the United Kingdom and other western countries. It contains a mixture of traditional shops and western-oriented resorts and stores including the redevelopment of the former Msani Slipway shipyard by architect Antoni Folkers Mbezi Beach is the beachfront suburb located along the northern Dar es Salaam Beach. It contains several tourist hotels, residences and a kite-surfing area by Upepo Avenue. Sinza, Kijitonyama, Magomeni, Kinondoni and Mwenge are more ethnically mixed than the areas above and are located west of Dar es Salaam's Central Business District. Ilala The administrative district of Ilala contains almost all government offices, ministries, and the Central Business District. It is the transportation hub of the city, as the Julius Nyerere International Airport, Central Railway Station and Tazara Railway Station are all within the district's boundaries. The residential areas are mainly middle- to high-income, among them: along Samora Avenue marks the exact centre of Dar es Salaam, in the Ilala district.]] Upanga and Kisutu have the highest concentration of Asian communities within Dar es Salaam, with residents of Indian and Arabic descent. These areas contain colonial houses and mansions built in Indian, Arabic and European styles. Upanga is divided into Upanga East and Upanga West. Kariakoo is the shopping district of the city: shops, bazaars, and merchants sell products from foodstuffs to hardware. The Kariakoo Market contains the only underground section of the city. It is the major supply point of the food consumed by all Dar es Salaam residents. Tabata, Segerea and Ukonga are located slightly farther west from the city center. Ilala, among the middle-income suburbs very near to the city center, is marked by the Askari Monument and suffers from gang activity. Temeke Temeke is the main industrial district of the city, where manufacturing (both heavy and light industry) is located. To the east is the Port of Dar es Salaam, the largest port in the country. Temeke is believed to have the largest concentration of low-income residents due to industry. It is home to military and police officers as well as port officials. Kurasini, located on the harbour, contains Dar es Salaam Port, the Police College, the Mgulani Police Barracks and the Dar es Salaam International Trade Fair grounds. The main residents are police officers and port officials. at night]] Chang'ombe is one of the few higher-income areas in Temeke. It has maintained this status due to the presence of African high colonial officers and some industry owners from the Colonial Era. Chang'ombe houses the Dar es Salaam University College of Education, the National Stadium and Uhuru Stadium. Temeke, Mtoni, Tandika, Kijichi, and Mbagala are middle to low-income suburbs, of which the last is the largest suburb in the entire district. Ubungo The Ubungo terminal serves as a transportation link to most large Dar es Salaam urban nodes. The narrow-gauge commuter rail runs from there to the city centre, with ten level crossings along the route. This district is characterised with a lot of potential social and economic centres such as industries i.e. Urafiki textile industry, bus station and various institutes and universities such as National Institute of Transport(NIT) Kigamboni Kigamboni (also known as South Beach), a beachfront suburb on a peninsula, is home to an economically diverse population. Access to the suburb is mainly by ferry, although the Kigamboni Bridge provides an alternative. Climate Dar es Salaam experiences tropical climatic conditions, typified by hot and humid weather throughout much of the year due to its proximity to the equator and the warm Indian Ocean. It has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen: Aw/As). Annual rainfall is approximately , and in a normal year there are two rainy seasons: the "long rains" in April and May, and the "short rains" in November and December. Climate change A 2019 paper published in PLOS One estimated that under Representative Concentration Pathway 4.5, a "moderate" scenario of climate change where global warming reaches ~ by 2100, the climate of Dar es Salaam in the year 2050 would most closely resemble the current climate of Barquisimeto in Venezuela. The annual temperature and temperatures of the warmest month would increase by , while the temperature of the coldest month would go down by . According to Climate Action Tracker, the current warming trajectory appears consistent with , which closely matches RCP 4.5. Moreover, according to the 2022 IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, Dar es Salaam is one of 12 major African cities (Abidjan, Alexandria, Algiers, Cape Town, Casablanca, Dakar, Dar es Salaam, Durban, Lagos, Lomé, Luanda and Maputo) which would be the most severely affected by the future sea level rise. It estimates that they would collectively sustain cumulative damages of US$65 billion under RCP 4.5 and US$86.5 billion for the high-emission scenario RCP 8.5 by the year 2050. Additionally, RCP 8.5 combined with the hypothetical impact from marine ice sheet instability at high levels of warming would involve up to US$137.5 billion in damages, while the additional accounting for the "low-probability, high-damage events" may increase aggregate risks to US$187 billion for the "moderate" RCP4.5, US$206 billion for RCP8.5 and US$397 billion under the high-end ice sheet instability scenario. Since sea level rise would continue for about 10,000 years under every scenario of climate change, future costs of sea level rise would only increase, especially without adaptation measures. Government ]] In his 1979 journal A Modern History of Tanganyika, historian John Iliffe wrote, "In 1949 the town became a municipality...[with] four honourable nominated Town Councillors who elected a Mayor." According to Associational Life in African Cities: Popular Responses to the Urban Crisis, published in 2001: "Until June 1996, Dar es Salaam was managed by the Dar es Salaam City Council...the highest policy-making body in the city." As of 2017, Paul Makonda serves as the commissioner of Dar es Salaam Region. Demographics Dar es Salaam is the most populous city in Tanzania and the fifth most populous in Africa. In 2020, the population was estimated to be 8 million. When the 2012 national census was taken, the city had a population of 4,364,541, about ten percent of the country's total. The average private household size was 3.9 persons compared to the national average of 4.7. Less than half of the city's residents were married, with a rate lower than any other region in the country. The literacy rate in the city was 96%, while the national average was 78%. Between the 2002 and 2012 censuses, the city's 5.6% average annual growth rate was the highest in the country. More than three-quarters of the city's population live in informal settlements. Dar es Salaam is the second-fastest-growing city in the world and could have a population as high as 15.9 million by 2030. {\| class="wikitable sortable" !Census year !Population \|- \|1978 \|843,090 \|- \|1988 \|1,360,850 \|- \|2002 \|2,487,288 \|- \|2012 \|4,364,541 \|- \|2022 \|5,383,728 \|} Economy and infrastructure ]] Dar es Salaam is Tanzania's most important city for both business and government. The city contains high concentrations of trade and other services and manufacturing compared to other parts of the country, which has about 65 percent of its population in rural areas. Downtown includes small businesses, many of which are run by traders and proprietors whose families originated in the Middle East and the Indian subcontinent—areas of the world with which the settlements of the Tanzanian coast have had long-standing trading relations. The Dar es Salaam Central Business District is the largest in Tanzania and comprises the Kisutu, Kivukoni, Upanga and Kariakoo areas. The downtown area is located in the Ilala district. Kivukoni is home to the Tanzania Central Bank, The Bank of Tanzania, the Dar es Salaam Stock Exchange and the city's important Magogoni fish market. The city has major infrastructural challenges, including an outdated transport system and occasional power rationing.Financial servicesThe Dar es Salaam Stock Exchange (DSE) is the country's first stock market. The headquarters of the Natural Gas Revenue Fund is also here.RetailDar es Salaam hosts the Mlimani City shopping mall, the City Mall in the Kisutu area, Quality Center Mall, GSM Pugu Shopping Mall, GSM Msasani Mall, and Dar Free Market Mall.Transportation , Dar es Salaam]] On a natural harbour on the Indian Ocean, Dar es Salaam is one of the hubs of the Tanzanian transportation system, as the main railways and several highways originate in or near the city to provide convenient transportation for commuters. Local public transport Public minibus share taxis (dala dala) are the most common form of transport in Dar es Salaam and are often found at the major bus terminals of Makumbusho, Ubungo and other areas of the city. However, since the introduction of the motorcycle transit business known as "bodaboda", most people prefer it, allowing them to get into the city faster as compared with the minibuses, which encounter heavy traffic. Other types of transport include motorcycles and bajaj (auto rickshaws).Bus The government has been introducing a metro bus system, Dar es Salaam bus rapid transit (mwendo kasi in Kiswahili). The metro buses are managed by UDA-RT, a partnership between Usafiri Dar es Salaam (UDA) and the government. The bus rapid-transit system Phase 1 has been completed by UDA-RT and began operation on 10 May 2016. The first section runs between Kimara in the northwest to Kivukoni on the northern headland of the harbour. Phase 1 was funded by the World Bank, African Development Bank and the Tanzanian government. Metro Dar es Salaam will have a metro system, currently undergoing a feasibility study conducted by Mota-Engil and Dar Rapid Transit Agency.Maritime transportPortThe Port of Dar es Salaam is Tanzania's busiest, handling 90% of the country's cargo. It is located in the Kurasini administrative ward of Temeke District southeast of the city's central business district. Due to a huge influx of cargo and the slow pace of expansion, a new cargo port northwest of Dar es Salaam is proposed at Bagamoyo. Ferry MV Kigamboni ferries run between southeast of Kivukoni and northwest of Kigamboni in Dar es Salaam.RailwayDar es Salaam commuter railTravel to urban and suburban parts of the city is provided by the Dar es Salaam commuter rail.Intra-city railwayTanzania Railways operates the Central Line from Dar es Salaam west to Kigoma.International railwayThe city also hosts the head office of Tanzania–Zambia Railways Authority (TAZARA) built in the late 1960s to early 1970s. The main terminal is located west of Dar es Salaam's central business district in north Yombo Vituka along the Nelson Mandela Road. The TAZARA Railway connects Dar es Salaam to Zambia.SGRTanzania Standard Gauge Railway is a new railway station currently under construction. It will link the country to Rwanda, Uganda, Burundi and Congo.AirportThe Julius Nyerere International Airport is the principal airport serving the country, with three operating terminals. Terminal Three is located at Kipawa in Ilala Municipality. The airport is located west of Dar es Salaam's central business district.CultureArtThe Tingatinga painting style originates from Dar es Salaam. The Nyumba ya sanaa ("House of Art") is a cultural centre, workshop and retail outlet dedicated to Tanzanian art, showcasing and promoting Tanzanian craftsmanship. Prominent Tanzanian sculptor George Lilanga has donated some of his works to the centre, including decorations of the building's main entrance.MusicThe music scene in Dar es Salaam is divided among several styles. The longest-standing style is live dance music (muziki wa dansi) played by bands such as DDC Mlimani Park Orchestra and Malaika Musical Band. Taarab, which was traditionally popular in Zanzibar has also found a niche. However, it remains small compared both to dance music and "Bongo Flava", a broad category representing the Tanzanian take on hip hop and rhythm and blues that has quickly become the most popular locally produced music. The rap music scene is also present. Traditional music, which locally refers to tribal music, is still performed, but typically only on family-oriented occasions such as weddings. In the 1970s, the Ministry of National Youth Culture aimed to create a national culture stressing the importance of music. Dar es Salaam became the music center in Tanzania, with the local radio showcasing new bands and dominating the music and cultural scene. With this ujamaa (family) mentality governing culture and music, a unified people's culture was created, leading to the rise of hip hop culture. located in the outskirts of the city on the road to Bagamoyo, showcases traditional huts from 16 different Tanzanian ethnic groups. There are also examples of traditional cultivation, as well as daily traditional music and dance shows. Close to the National Museum are also the botanical gardens, with tropical plants and trees. There are beaches on the Msasani peninsula north of Dar es Salaam and in Kigamboni to the south. Bongoyo Island can be reached by boat from the Msasani Slipway. Places of worship is the largest religion in Tanzania.]] The city is home to several churches and mosques. The churches in the city belong to various denominations; for example, Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Dar es Salaam (Catholic Church), Anglican Church of Tanzania (Anglican Communion), Evangelical Lutheran Church in Tanzania (Lutheran World Federation), Baptist Convention of Tanzania (Baptist World Alliance), Ilala Seventh Day Adventist Church and Assemblies of God. There is a Hindu temple like Shree Shankarashram temple, Shree Sanatan Dharma Sabha temple, Swaminarayan temple. Muslims make up 70% of the population in Dar es Salaam.SportsStadiumDar es Salaam is the sports center of Tanzania and hosts the second-largest stadium in East and Central Africa, the National Stadium, which can accommodate up to 60,000 people.Association footballThe Tanzanian National Stadium hosts football clubs based in Dar es Salaam: Young Africans and Simba. It also hosts other Tanzanian football clubs and international matches. A new stadium in Dodoma with a much larger capacity has been proposed by the government as a donation from Morocco. Apart from the National Stadium, the city is home to two other stadiums: the Uhuru Stadium, the Karume Memorial Stadium and Chamazi Stadium. The Uhuru Stadium is used mainly for local tournaments and political gatherings, whilst the Karume Memorial Stadium is situated west of Kurasini and home to the Tanzania Football Federation. Azam Complex Chamazi is owned by Azam Football Club.GolfThe Gymkhana Golf Courses located northwest of the Kivukoni area (between the city centre overlooking the shores of the Indian Ocean in the east and Barack Obama Drive), also have tennis courts, squash courts, and a fitness club. Outside of the metropolitan districts is Lugalo Military Golf Course located in the Lugalo Military Barracks.AcrobaticsFounded in 2003, Mama Africa is a school known for training some of Africa's professional acrobats.BoxingBoxing is a popular sport in Tanzania and Dar es Salaam hosts numerous boxing galas organised throughout the year. Tanzanian professional boxer Francis Checka is the current World Boxing Federation (WBF) Super Middleweight Champion.MediaNewspapers ]] Newspapers in Dar es Salaam are often sold by vendors weaving through stationary traffic at road intersections. English-language newspapers, with online versions, include The Citizen and The Guardian. Swahili dailies Tanzania Daima and Mwananchi are also available. Business Times is the only financial and economic newspaper in the city; it was established in 1988 and became the first private newspaper in Tanzania. Business Times owns Majira, another Swahili newspaper. Television stations Dar es Salaam is home to ITV, Sibuka, Channel Ten Television Station (formerly Dar es Salaam Television [DTV]) and Azam TV, a subscription-based service from the Azam group of companies. Television station Ayo TV is based in Ubungo, Dar es Salaam, as is the Tanzania Broadcasting Corporation.Internet access headquarters in Dar es Salaam]] Installation of the trans-Indian Ocean backbone cable (SEACOM) in 2009 has, in theory, made Internet access much more readily available in Dar es Salaam in particular and in East Africa in general. However, roll-out to end-users is currently slow. Telephone-line coverage provided by the Tanzania Telecommunications Company Limited is limited, prices are high, and long contracts are required for purchase of bandwidth for small Internet service providers. The expressed aim of the SEACOM cable is to enable East Africa to develop economically through increased online trading. Internet cafés are found in the city centre, and free Wi-Fi hotspots are available in various government and nongovernment institutions as well as public transport. Mobile-telephone access to the Internet via 4G is still relatively expensive, though 5G is making its way through major cities and towns with plans to go nationwide in the advanced stages.RadioDar es Salaam's first radio station began operation in the early 1950s with "little more equipment than a microphone and a blanket hung over a wall..." This project was overseen by Edward Twining.EnvironmentSince the 1990s, Dar es Salaam has experienced heavy and frequent flooding due to intense rainfall. The city is especially vulnerable to flooding, due to its lowland coastal orientation and the fact that the Msimbazi River flows through the city. The situation has worsened over the years, both due to climate change and the expansion of city pavement, which increases surface runoff. In 2019, flooding displaced 1,215 households. Between 2017 and 2018, the city experienced seven floods. compared to the national average of 77,89%. The city's GER is lacks in comparison to the rest of the country with 96,1%, which is however still sufficient. On the other hand, its secondary GER is one of the highest in the country (61.8%). It is located in the western part of the city in north-east Ubungo, and occupies on Observation Hill, from the city centre. The university has 16,400 undergraduate and 2,700 postgraduate students. Ardhi University (ARU) was established on 1 July 1996 after transforming the former University College of Lands and Architectural Studies (UCLAS), which was then a Constituent College of the University of Dar es Salaam. Historically, Ardhi University, dates back to 1956 when it started as Surveying Training School offering land surveying technician certificate courses at the present location of Mgulani Salvation Army Camp in Dar es Salaam. In 1958, the school was moved to the present location on Observation Hill. At present, there are over 80 PhD holders who have graduated from over 25 universities worldwide. The university comprises four schools, one institute and several centres, and offers undergraduate and postgraduate studies with postgraduate, bachelor's, master's and PhD degrees in various disciplines. The Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences consists of Muhimbili Campus and Mloganzila Campus. Muhimbili Campus is situated in Upanga, Ilala Municipality, along United Nations Road. Mloganzila Campus occupies and is located off the Dar es Salaam-Morogoro highway, from Dar es Salaam. The Open University of Tanzania is a full-fledged, accredited public institution of higher learning, featuring programmes leading to certificates, diplomas, undergraduate and postgraduate qualifications. Since it was founded, the university has enrolled students from Malawi, Uganda, Kenya, Namibia, Hungary, Burundi, Libya, Ethiopia, Rwanda, Saudi Arabia, Lesotho, Botswana and most of Tanzania. , total enrollment was 44,099, the majority of which was Tanzanian. Hubert Kairuki Memorial University is a private institution located on plot No. 322 Regent Estate in the Mikocheni area, about from Dar es Salaam's city centre, off Ali Hassan Mwinyi and Old Bagamoyo Roads. International Medical and Technological University is a privately owned institute of higher education. Kampala International University began operations in 2009. The University Centre is situated on of land in the Gongo la Mboto area, Ilala District, from Mwalimu Julius Nyerere International Airport along Pugu Road. Notable people Sir David Frank Adjaye (born 1966), London-based architect born in Dar es Salaam C.A. "Peter" Bransgrove (1914–1966), architect in Dar es Salaam from 1947 to 1966 Joaquim Chissano (born 1939), the second President of Mozambique, from 1986 to 2005; headed the FRELIMO headquarters in Dar es Salaam Kanyama Chiume (1929–2007), a leading nationalist in the struggle for Malawi's independence in the 1950s and 1960s and Minister Roald Dahl (1916–1990) a British novelist, short-story writer and poet; he lived in Dar es Salaam from 1934 to 1939 Jane Goodall (born 1934), scientist and primatologist Gertrud von Hassel (1908–1999) a German teacher and painter Marin Hinkle (born 1966), actress, Two and a Half Men TV show Rachel Luttrell (born 1971), actress, Stargate Atlantis, born in Dar es Salaam Nairn McEwan (1941–2018), rugby union player and second national coach, born in Dar es Salaam. Bibi Titi Mohammed (1926–2000), politician and chair of the women's branch of TANU Yoweri Museveni (born 1944), president of Uganda since 1986 Godfrey Mwakikagile (born 1949), prominent Tanzanian author, Africanist scholar and journalist Juma Mwapachu (1942–2025), Tanzanian diplomat, lawyer and author of books on African politics and economics; served as secretary-general of the East African Community (EAC) Herieth Paul (born 1995), fashion model Walter Rodney (1942–1980) Guyanese historian, political activist; author of How Europe Underdeveloped Africa Justinian Rweyemamu (1942–1982), Tanzanian economist, author and professor of economics at the University of Dar es Salaam; worked at the United Nations; economic adviser to Tanzania's first president, Julius Nyerere Mbwana Samatta (born 1992), footballer, 2015 CAF African Player of the Year; 68 caps for Tanzania Issa G. Shivji (born 1946), Tanzanian scholar, and expert on constitutional law and development issues Ally Sykes (1926–2013), politician and leading figure in Tanzania's independence movement Hasheem Thabeet (born 1987), basketball player in the US Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck (1870–1964), commander of the German East Africa Army Kontawa ( born 1996) Musician and actor International relations Dar es Salaam is sister cities with: Hamburg, Germany * Mumbai, India * Samsun, Turkey * Changzhou, Jiangsu, China * Sari, Iran Notes }} Bibliography External links * <!--please leave the empty space as standard--> Category:Cities in Tanzania Category:Regional capitals in Tanzania <!--please leave the empty space as standard--> Category:Regions of Tanzania Category:Former national capitals Category:Port cities and towns in Tanzania Category:Ports and harbours of the Indian Ocean Category:Economy of German East Africa Category:Populated coastal places in Tanzania Category:1860s establishments in Africa Category:Populated places established in the 1860s	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dar_es_Salaam	2025-04-05T18:28:38.846635
8501	Distributed computing	Distributed computing is a field of computer science that studies distributed systems, defined as computer systems whose inter-communicating components are located on different networked computers. The components of a distributed system communicate and coordinate their actions by passing messages to one another in order to achieve a common goal. Three significant challenges of distributed systems are: maintaining concurrency of components, overcoming the lack of a global clock, and managing the independent failure of components. Also, distributed systems are prone to fallacies of distributed computing. On the other hand, a well designed distributed system is more scalable, more durable, more changeable and more fine-tuned than a monolithic application deployed on a single machine. According to Marc Brooker: "a system is scalable in the range where marginal cost of additional workload is nearly constant." Serverless technologies fit this definition but the total cost of ownership, and not just the infra cost must be considered. A computer program that runs within a distributed system is called a distributed program, and distributed programming is the process of writing such programs. There are many different types of implementations for the message passing mechanism, including pure HTTP, RPC-like connectors and message queues. Distributed computing also refers to the use of distributed systems to solve computational problems. In distributed computing, a problem is divided into many tasks, each of which is solved by one or more computers, which communicate with each other via message passing. Introduction The word distributed in terms such as "distributed system", "distributed programming", and "distributed algorithm" originally referred to computer networks where individual computers were physically distributed within some geographical area. The terms are nowadays used in a much wider sense, even referring to autonomous processes that run on the same physical computer and interact with each other by message passing. the following defining properties are commonly used as: There are several autonomous computational entities (computers or nodes), each of which has its own local memory. The entities communicate with each other by message passing. A distributed system may have a common goal, such as solving a large computational problem; the user then perceives the collection of autonomous processors as a unit. Alternatively, each computer may have its own user with individual needs, and the purpose of the distributed system is to coordinate the use of shared resources or provide communication services to the users. Other typical properties of distributed systems include the following: The system has to tolerate failures in individual computers. The structure of the system (network topology, network latency, number of computers) is not known in advance, the system may consist of different kinds of computers and network links, and the system may change during the execution of a distributed program. Each computer has only a limited, incomplete view of the system. Each computer may know only one part of the input. Patterns Here are common architectural patterns used for distributed computing: Saga interaction pattern Microservices Event driven architecture Events vs. Messages In distributed systems, events represent a fact or state change (e.g., OrderPlaced) and are typically broadcast asynchronously to multiple consumers, promoting loose coupling and scalability. While events generally don’t expect an immediate response, acknowledgment mechanisms are often implemented at the infrastructure level (e.g., Kafka commit offsets, SNS delivery statuses) rather than being an inherent part of the event pattern itself. In contrast, messages serve a broader role, encompassing commands (e.g., ProcessPayment), events (e.g., PaymentProcessed), and documents (e.g., DataPayload). Both events and messages can support various delivery guarantees, including at-least-once, at-most-once, and exactly-once, depending on the technology stack and implementation. However, exactly-once delivery is often achieved through idempotency mechanisms rather than true, infrastructure-level exactly-once semantics. The same system may be characterized both as "parallel" and "distributed"; the processors in a typical distributed system run concurrently in parallel. Parallel computing may be seen as a particularly tightly coupled form of distributed computing, and distributed computing may be seen as a loosely coupled form of parallel computing. In distributed computing, each processor has its own private memory (distributed memory). Information is exchanged by passing messages between the processors. The figure on the right illustrates the difference between distributed and parallel systems. Figure (a) is a schematic view of a typical distributed system; the system is represented as a network topology in which each node is a computer and each line connecting the nodes is a communication link. Figure (b) shows the same distributed system in more detail: each computer has its own local memory, and information can be exchanged only by passing messages from one node to another by using the available communication links. Figure (c) shows a parallel system in which each processor has a direct access to a shared memory. The situation is further complicated by the traditional uses of the terms parallel and distributed algorithm that do not quite match the above definitions of parallel and distributed systems (see below for more detailed discussion). Nevertheless, as a rule of thumb, high-performance parallel computation in a shared-memory multiprocessor uses parallel algorithms while the coordination of a large-scale distributed system uses distributed algorithms. History The use of concurrent processes which communicate through message-passing has its roots in operating system architectures studied in the 1960s. The first widespread distributed systems were local-area networks such as Ethernet, which was invented in the 1970s. ARPANET, one of the predecessors of the Internet, was introduced in the late 1960s, and ARPANET e-mail was invented in the early 1970s. E-mail became the most successful application of ARPANET, and it is probably the earliest example of a large-scale distributed application. In addition to ARPANET (and its successor, the global Internet), other early worldwide computer networks included Usenet and FidoNet from the 1980s, both of which were used to support distributed discussion systems. The study of distributed computing became its own branch of computer science in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The first conference in the field, Symposium on Principles of Distributed Computing (PODC), dates back to 1982, and its counterpart International Symposium on Distributed Computing (DISC) was first held in Ottawa in 1985 as the International Workshop on Distributed Algorithms on Graphs. Architectures Various hardware and software architectures are used for distributed computing. At a lower level, it is necessary to interconnect multiple CPUs with some sort of network, regardless of whether that network is printed onto a circuit board or made up of loosely coupled devices and cables. At a higher level, it is necessary to interconnect processes running on those CPUs with some sort of communication system. Whether these CPUs share resources or not determines a first distinction between three types of architecture: Shared memory Shared disk Shared nothing. Distributed programming typically falls into one of several basic architectures: client–server, three-tier, n-tier, or peer-to-peer; or categories: loose coupling, or tight coupling. Client–server: architectures where smart clients contact the server for data then format and display it to the users. Input at the client is committed back to the server when it represents a permanent change. Three-tier: architectures that move the client intelligence to a middle tier so that stateless clients can be used. This simplifies application deployment. Most web applications are three-tier. n-tier: architectures that refer typically to web applications which further forward their requests to other enterprise services. This type of application is the one most responsible for the success of application servers. Peer-to-peer: architectures where there are no special machines that provide a service or manage the network resources. Instead all responsibilities are uniformly divided among all machines, known as peers. Peers can serve both as clients and as servers. Examples of this architecture include BitTorrent and the bitcoin network. Another basic aspect of distributed computing architecture is the method of communicating and coordinating work among concurrent processes. Through various message passing protocols, processes may communicate directly with one another, typically in a main/sub relationship. Alternatively, a "database-centric" architecture can enable distributed computing to be done without any form of direct inter-process communication, by utilizing a shared database. Database-centric architecture in particular provides relational processing analytics in a schematic architecture allowing for live environment relay. This enables distributed computing functions both within and beyond the parameters of a networked database. Cell-Based Architecture Cell-based architecture is a distributed computing approach in which computational resources are organized into self-contained units called cells. Each cell operates independently, processing requests while maintaining scalability, fault isolation, and availability. A cell typically consists of multiple services or application components and functions as an autonomous unit. Some implementations replicate entire sets of services across multiple cells, while others partition workloads between cells. In replicated models, requests may be rerouted to an operational cell if another experiences a failure. This design is intended to enhance system resilience by reducing the impact of localized failures. Some implementations employ circuit breakers within and between cells. Within a cell, circuit breakers may be used to prevent cascading failures among services, while inter-cell circuit breakers can isolate failing cells and redirect traffic to those that remain operational. Cell-based architecture has been adopted in some large-scale distributed systems, particularly in cloud-native and high-availability environments, where fault isolation and redundancy are key design considerations. Its implementation varies depending on system requirements, infrastructure constraints, and operational objectives. Applications Reasons for using distributed systems and distributed computing may include: The very nature of an application may require the use of a communication network that connects several computers: for example, data produced in one physical location and required in another location. There are many cases in which the use of a single computer would be possible in principle, but the use of a distributed system is beneficial for practical reasons. For example: It can allow for much larger storage and memory, faster compute, and higher bandwidth than a single machine. It can provide more reliability than a non-distributed system, as there is no single point of failure. Moreover, a distributed system may be easier to expand and manage than a monolithic uniprocessor system. It may be more cost-efficient to obtain the desired level of performance by using a cluster of several low-end computers, in comparison with a single high-end computer. Examples Examples of distributed systems and applications of distributed computing include the following: telecommunications networks: telephone networks and cellular networks, computer networks such as the Internet, wireless sensor networks, routing algorithms; network applications: World Wide Web and peer-to-peer networks, massively multiplayer online games and virtual reality communities, distributed databases and distributed database management systems, network file systems, distributed cache such as burst buffers, distributed information processing systems such as banking systems and airline reservation systems; real-time process control: aircraft control systems, industrial control systems; parallel computation: scientific computing, including cluster computing, grid computing, cloud computing, and various volunteer computing projects, distributed rendering in computer graphics. peer-to-peer Reactive distributed systems According to Reactive Manifesto, reactive distributed systems are responsive, resilient, elastic and message-driven. Subsequently, Reactive systems are more flexible, loosely-coupled and scalable. To make your systems reactive, you are advised to implement Reactive Principles. Reactive Principles are a set of principles and patterns which help to make your cloud native application as well as edge native applications more reactive. Theoretical foundations Models Many tasks that we would like to automate by using a computer are of question–answer type: we would like to ask a question and the computer should produce an answer. In theoretical computer science, such tasks are called computational problems. Formally, a computational problem consists of instances together with a solution for each instance. Instances are questions that we can ask, and solutions are desired answers to these questions. Theoretical computer science seeks to understand which computational problems can be solved by using a computer (computability theory) and how efficiently (computational complexity theory). Traditionally, it is said that a problem can be solved by using a computer if we can design an algorithm that produces a correct solution for any given instance. Such an algorithm can be implemented as a computer program that runs on a general-purpose computer: the program reads a problem instance from input, performs some computation, and produces the solution as output. Formalisms such as random-access machines or universal Turing machines can be used as abstract models of a sequential general-purpose computer executing such an algorithm. The field of concurrent and distributed computing studies similar questions in the case of either multiple computers, or a computer that executes a network of interacting processes: which computational problems can be solved in such a network and how efficiently? However, it is not at all obvious what is meant by "solving a problem" in the case of a concurrent or distributed system: for example, what is the task of the algorithm designer, and what is the concurrent or distributed equivalent of a sequential general-purpose computer? The discussion below focuses on the case of multiple computers, although many of the issues are the same for concurrent processes running on a single computer. Three viewpoints are commonly used: Parallel algorithms in shared-memory model All processors have access to a shared memory. The algorithm designer chooses the program executed by each processor. One theoretical model is the parallel random-access machines (PRAM) that are used. However, the classical PRAM model assumes synchronous access to the shared memory. Shared-memory programs can be extended to distributed systems if the underlying operating system encapsulates the communication between nodes and virtually unifies the memory across all individual systems. A model that is closer to the behavior of real-world multiprocessor machines and takes into account the use of machine instructions, such as Compare-and-swap (CAS), is that of asynchronous shared memory. There is a wide body of work on this model, a summary of which can be found in the literature. Parallel algorithms in message-passing model The algorithm designer chooses the structure of the network, as well as the program executed by each computer. Models such as Boolean circuits and sorting networks are used. A Boolean circuit can be seen as a computer network: each gate is a computer that runs an extremely simple computer program. Similarly, a sorting network can be seen as a computer network: each comparator is a computer. Distributed algorithms in message-passing model The algorithm designer only chooses the computer program. All computers run the same program. The system must work correctly regardless of the structure of the network. A commonly used model is a graph with one finite-state machine per node. In the case of distributed algorithms, computational problems are typically related to graphs. Often the graph that describes the structure of the computer network is the problem instance. This is illustrated in the following example. An example Consider the computational problem of finding a coloring of a given graph G. Different fields might take the following approaches: Centralized algorithms was originally presented as a parallel algorithm, but the same technique can also be used directly as a distributed algorithm. Moreover, a parallel algorithm can be implemented either in a parallel system (using shared memory) or in a distributed system (using message passing). The traditional boundary between parallel and distributed algorithms (choose a suitable network vs. run in any given network) does not lie in the same place as the boundary between parallel and distributed systems (shared memory vs. message passing). Complexity measures In parallel algorithms, yet another resource in addition to time and space is the number of computers. Indeed, often there is a trade-off between the running time and the number of computers: the problem can be solved faster if there are more computers running in parallel (see speedup). If a decision problem can be solved in polylogarithmic time by using a polynomial number of processors, then the problem is said to be in the class NC. The class NC can be defined equally well by using the PRAM formalism or Boolean circuits—PRAM machines can simulate Boolean circuits efficiently and vice versa. In the analysis of distributed algorithms, more attention is usually paid on communication operations than computational steps. Perhaps the simplest model of distributed computing is a synchronous system where all nodes operate in a lockstep fashion. This model is commonly known as the LOCAL model. During each communication round, all nodes in parallel (1) receive the latest messages from their neighbours, (2) perform arbitrary local computation, and (3) send new messages to their neighbors. In such systems, a central complexity measure is the number of synchronous communication rounds required to complete the task. This complexity measure is closely related to the diameter of the network. Let D be the diameter of the network. On the one hand, any computable problem can be solved trivially in a synchronous distributed system in approximately 2D communication rounds: simply gather all information in one location (D rounds), solve the problem, and inform each node about the solution (D rounds). On the other hand, if the running time of the algorithm is much smaller than D communication rounds, then the nodes in the network must produce their output without having the possibility to obtain information about distant parts of the network. In other words, the nodes must make globally consistent decisions based on information that is available in their local D-neighbourhood. Many distributed algorithms are known with the running time much smaller than D rounds, and understanding which problems can be solved by such algorithms is one of the central research questions of the field. Typically an algorithm which solves a problem in polylogarithmic time in the network size is considered efficient in this model. Another commonly used measure is the total number of bits transmitted in the network (cf. communication complexity). The features of this concept are typically captured with the CONGEST(B) model, which is similarly defined as the LOCAL model, but where single messages can only contain B bits. Other problems Traditional computational problems take the perspective that the user asks a question, a computer (or a distributed system) processes the question, then produces an answer and stops. However, there are also problems where the system is required not to stop, including the dining philosophers problem and other similar mutual exclusion problems. In these problems, the distributed system is supposed to continuously coordinate the use of shared resources so that no conflicts or deadlocks occur. There are also fundamental challenges that are unique to distributed computing, for example those related to fault-tolerance. Examples of related problems include consensus problems, Byzantine fault tolerance, and self-stabilisation. Much research is also focused on understanding the asynchronous nature of distributed systems: Synchronizers can be used to run synchronous algorithms in asynchronous systems. Logical clocks provide a causal happened-before ordering of events. Clock synchronization algorithms provide globally consistent physical time stamps. Note that in distributed systems, latency should be measured through "99th percentile" because "median" and "average" can be misleading. Election Coordinator election (or leader election) is the process of designating a single process as the organizer of some task distributed among several computers (nodes). Before the task is begun, all network nodes are either unaware which node will serve as the "coordinator" (or leader) of the task, or unable to communicate with the current coordinator. After a coordinator election algorithm has been run, however, each node throughout the network recognizes a particular, unique node as the task coordinator. The network nodes communicate among themselves in order to decide which of them will get into the "coordinator" state. For that, they need some method in order to break the symmetry among them. For example, if each node has unique and comparable identities, then the nodes can compare their identities, and decide that the node with the highest identity is the coordinator. Coordinator election algorithms are designed to be economical in terms of total bytes transmitted, and time. The algorithm suggested by Gallager, Humblet, and Spira for general undirected graphs has had a strong impact on the design of distributed algorithms in general, and won the Dijkstra Prize for an influential paper in distributed computing. Many other algorithms were suggested for different kinds of network graphs, such as undirected rings, unidirectional rings, complete graphs, grids, directed Euler graphs, and others. A general method that decouples the issue of the graph family from the design of the coordinator election algorithm was suggested by Korach, Kutten, and Moran. In order to perform coordination, distributed systems employ the concept of coordinators. The coordinator election problem is to choose a process from among a group of processes on different processors in a distributed system to act as the central coordinator. Several central coordinator election algorithms exist. Properties of distributed systems So far the focus has been on designing a distributed system that solves a given problem. A complementary research problem is studying the properties of a given distributed system. The halting problem is an analogous example from the field of centralised computation: we are given a computer program and the task is to decide whether it halts or runs forever. The halting problem is undecidable in the general case, and naturally understanding the behaviour of a computer network is at least as hard as understanding the behaviour of one computer. However, there are many interesting special cases that are decidable. In particular, it is possible to reason about the behaviour of a network of finite-state machines. One example is telling whether a given network of interacting (asynchronous and non-deterministic) finite-state machines can reach a deadlock. This problem is PSPACE-complete, i.e., it is decidable, but not likely that there is an efficient (centralised, parallel or distributed) algorithm that solves the problem in the case of large networks. See also (LOA) Notes References Books . . . . . . . . . . Articles . . . . Web sites Further reading Books . . : Java Distributed Computing by Jim Faber, 1998 . Articles . Conference Papers External links	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_computing	2025-04-05T18:28:38.992112
8504	Dublin	\| native_name_lang \| settlement_type Capital city \| image_skyline = \| image_flag = IRL Dublin flag.svg \| flag_size = 150px \| image_shield = Coat of Arms of Dublin, Ireland.png \| shield_size = 100px \| nickname = The Fair City \| motto <br />"The obedience of the citizens produces a happy city"<br />Alternatively translated as<br />"An obedient citizenry produces a happy city" \| mapsize = 250px \| pushpin_map = Ireland#Europe \| pushpin_map_caption = Location within Ireland##Location within Europe \| pushpin_relief = yes \| coordinates \| subdivision_type = Country \| subdivision_name = Ireland \| subdivision_type1 = Province \| subdivision_name1 = Leinster \| subdivision_type2 = Region \| subdivision_name2 = Eastern and Midland \| subdivision_type3 = County \| subdivision_name3 = Dublin \| leader_title = Local authority \| leader_name = Dublin City Council \| leader_title1 = Headquarters \| leader_name1 = Dublin City Hall \| leader_title2 = Lord Mayor \| leader_name2 = Emma Blain (Fine Gael) \| leader_title3 = Dáil constituencies \| leader_name3 = \| leader_title4 = EP constituency \| leader_name4 = Dublin \| unit_pref = Metric \| area_footnotes \| area_total_km2 = 117.8 \| area_urban_km2 = 345 \| population_total 592,713 \| population_blank2_title Ethnicity<br /><small>(2022 census)</small> \| population_blank2 = \| population_demonyms = Dubliner, Dub \| postal_code_type = Eircode \| postal_code = D01 to D18, D20, D22, D24 & D6W \| area_code = 01 (+3531) \| blank_name_sec2 GDP \| blank_info_sec2 = €157.2 billion (city) €222.1 billion (greater) \| blank1_name_sec2 = GDP per capita \| blank1_info_sec2 = €108,500 (city) €106,600 (greater) \| pushpin_label = Dublin \| timezone = GMT \| utc_offset = +00:00 \| timezone_DST = IST \| utc_offset_DST = +01:00 \| official_name \| population_as_of 2022 \| established_date Unknown \| established_title = Founded \| mapframe = yes \| mapframe-wikidata = yes \| mapframe-zoom = 10 \| population_urban_footnotes = <small>(2024)</small> \| iso_code = IE-D \| website = }} Dublin; , <small>or</small> }} is the capital and largest city of Ireland. On a bay at the mouth of the River Liffey, it is in the province of Leinster, bordered on the south by the Dublin Mountains, a part of the Wicklow Mountains range. At the 2022 census, the city council area had a population of 592,713, while Dublin and its suburbs had a population of 1,263,219, and County Dublin had a population of 1,501,500, making it the largest city by population on the island of Ireland. A settlement was established in the area by the Gaels during or before the 7th century, followed by the Vikings. As the Kingdom of Dublin grew, it became Ireland's principal settlement by the 12th century Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland. Following independence in 1922, Dublin became the capital of the Irish Free State, renamed Ireland in 1937. , the city was listed by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network (GaWC) as a global city, with a ranking of "Alpha minus", which placed it among the top thirty cities in the world. Etymology The name Dublin comes from the Middle Irish word (literally "Blackpool"), from "black, dark" and "pool". This evolved into the Early Modern Irish form , Divlin and Difflin. Variations on the name are also found in traditionally Gaelic-speaking areas of Scotland (Gàidhealtachd, cognate with Irish Gaeltacht), such as ("the black pool"), which is part of Loch Linnhe. It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, from which Dyflin took its name. Beginning in the 9th and 10th centuries, there were two settlements where the modern city stands. The Viking settlement of about 841, Dyflin, and a Gaelic settlement, Áth Cliath ("ford of hurdles") further up the river, at the present-day Father Mathew Bridge (also known as Dublin Bridge), at the bottom of Church Street. , meaning "town of the hurdled ford", is the common name for the city in Modern Irish, which is often contracted to or when spoken. is a place name referring to a fording point of the River Liffey near Father Mathew Bridge. was an early Christian monastery, believed to have been in the area of Aungier Street, currently occupied by Whitefriar Street Carmelite Church. There are other towns of the same name, such as Àth Cliath in East Ayrshire, Scotland, which is anglicised as Hurlford.History The area of Dublin Bay has been inhabited by humans since prehistoric times; fish traps discovered from excavations during the construction of the Convention Centre Dublin indicate human habitation as far back as 6,000 years ago. Further traps were discovered closer to the old settlement of the city of Dublin on the south quays near St. James's Gate which also indicate mesolithic human activity. Ptolemy's map of Ireland, of about 140 AD, provides possibly the earliest reference to a settlement near Dublin. Ptolemy, the Greco-Roman astronomer and cartographer, called it Eblana polis (). on a longship in Dublin]] , also known as Dublin Bridge]] Dublin celebrated its 'official' millennium in 1988, meaning the Irish government recognised 988 as the year in which the city was settled and that this first settlement would later become the city of Dublin. It is now thought the Viking settlement of about 841 was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, from which Dyflin took its name. Evidence indicating that Anglo-Saxons occupied Dublin before the Vikings arrived in 841 has been found in an archaeological dig in Temple Bar. Beginning in the 9th and 10th centuries, there were two settlements which later became modern Dublin. The subsequent Scandinavian settlement centred on the River Poddle, a tributary of the Liffey in an area now known as Wood Quay. The Dubhlinn was a pool on the lowest stretch of the Poddle, where ships used to moor. This pool was finally fully infilled during the early 18th century, as the city grew. The Dubhlinn lay where the Castle Garden is now located, opposite the Chester Beatty Library within Dublin Castle. Táin Bó Cuailgne ("The Cattle Raid of Cooley") refers to Dublind rissa ratter Áth Cliath, meaning "Dublin, which is called Ath Cliath". Middle Ages In 841, the Vikings established a fortified base in Dublin. The town grew into a substantial commercial center under Olaf Guthfrithson in the mid-to-late 10th century and, despite a number of attacks by the native Irish, it remained largely under Viking control until the Norman invasion of Ireland was launched from Wales in 1169. The hinterland of Dublin in the Norse period was named in . It was upon the death of Muirchertach Mac Lochlainn in early 1166 that Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair, King of Connacht, proceeded to Dublin and was inaugurated King of Ireland without opposition. According to some historians, part of the city's early economic growth is attributed to a trade in slaves. Slavery in Ireland and Dublin reached its pinnacle in the 9th and 10th centuries. Prisoners from slave raids and kidnappings, which captured men, women and children, brought revenue to the Gaelic Irish Sea raiders, as well as to the Vikings who had initiated the practice. The victims came from Wales, England, Normandy and beyond. Around this time, the county of the City of Dublin was established along with certain liberties adjacent to the city proper. This continued down to 1840 when the barony of Dublin City was separated from the barony of Dublin. Since 2001, both baronies have been redesignated as the City of Dublin. , with its 13th-century tower, was the fortified seat of British rule in Ireland until 1922.]] Dublin Castle, which became the centre of Anglo-Norman power in Ireland, was founded in 1204 as a major defensive work on the orders of King John of England. Following the appointment of the first Lord Mayor of Dublin in 1229, the city expanded and had a population of 8,000 by the end of the 13th century. Dublin prospered as a trade centre, despite an attempt by King Robert the Bruce of Scotland to capture the city in 1317. Dublin was the heart of the area known as the Pale, a narrow strip of English settlement along the eastern coast, under the control of the English Crown. The Tudor conquest of Ireland in the 16th century spelt a new era for Dublin, with the city enjoying a renewed prominence as the centre of administrative rule in Ireland where English control and settlement had become much more extensive. Determined to make Dublin a Protestant city, Queen Elizabeth I established Trinity College in 1592 as a solely Protestant university and ordered that the Catholic St. Patrick's and Christ Church cathedrals be converted to the Protestant church. The earliest map of the city of Dublin dates from 1610, and was by John Speed. The city had a population of 21,000 in 1640 before a plague from 1649 to 1651 wiped out almost half of the inhabitants. However, the city prospered again soon after as a result of the wool and linen trade with England and reached a population of over 50,000 in 1700. By 1698 the manufacture of wool employed 12,000 people.Early modern , developed in the 1720s, is the earliest Georgian street in Dublin.]] As the city continued to prosper during the 18th century, Georgian Dublin became, for a short period, the second-largest city of the British Empire and the fifth largest city in Europe, with the population exceeding 130,000. While some medieval streets and layouts (including the areas around Temple Bar, Aungier Street, Capel Street and Thomas Street) were less affected by the wave of Georgian reconstruction, much of Dublin's architecture and layout dates from this period. Dublin grew even more dramatically during the 18th century, with the construction of many new districts and buildings, such as Merrion Square, Parliament House and the Royal Exchange. The Wide Streets Commission was established in 1757 at the request of Dublin Corporation to govern architectural standards on the layout of streets, bridges and buildings. In 1759, the Guinness brewery was founded, and would eventually grow to become the largest brewery in the world and the largest employer in Dublin. During the 1700s, linen was not subject to the same trade restrictions with England as wool, and became the most important Irish export. Over 1.5 million yards of linen was exported from Ireland in 1710, rising to almost 19 million yards by 1779. Late modern and contemporary on O'Connell Street was at the centre of the 1916 Easter Rising.]] Dublin suffered a period of political and economic decline during the 19th century following the Acts of Union 1800, under which the seat of government was transferred to the Westminster Parliament in London. The city played no major role in the Industrial Revolution, but remained the centre of administration and a transport hub for most of the island. Ireland had no significant sources of coal, the fuel of the time, and Dublin was not a centre of ship manufacturing, the other main driver of industrial development in Britain and Ireland. By 1814, the population of Dublin was 175,319 as counted under the Population Act, making the population of Dublin higher than any town in England except London. with the ruins of the GPO to the left]] The Easter Rising of 1916, the Irish War of Independence, and the subsequent Irish Civil War resulted in a significant amount of physical destruction in central Dublin. The Government of the Irish Free State rebuilt the city centre and located the new parliament, the Oireachtas, in Leinster House. Since the beginning of Norman rule in the 12th century, the city has functioned as the capital in varying geopolitical entities: Lordship of Ireland (1171–1541), Kingdom of Ireland (1541–1800), as part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (1801–1922), and the Irish Republic (1919–1922). Following the partition of Ireland in 1922, it became the capital of the Irish Free State (1922–1937) and now is the capital of Ireland. One of the memorials to commemorate that time is the Garden of Remembrance. Dublin was also a victim of the Northern Irish Troubles, although during this 30-year conflict, violence mainly occurred within Northern Ireland. A Loyalist paramilitary group, the Ulster Volunteer Force, bombed the city during this time – notably in an atrocity known as the Dublin and Monaghan bombings in which 34 people died, mainly in central Dublin. Large parts of Georgian Dublin were demolished or substantially redeveloped in the mid-20th century during a boom in office building. After this boom, the recessions of the 1970s and 1980s slowed down the pace of building. Cumulatively, this led to a large decline in the number of people living in the centre of the city, and by 1985 the city had approximately 150 acres of derelict land which had been earmarked for development and of office space. Since 1997, the landscape of Dublin has changed. The city was at the forefront of Ireland's economic expansion during the Celtic Tiger period, with private sector and state development of housing, transport and business. Following an economic decline during the Great Recession, Dublin has rebounded and has close to full employment, but has a significant problem with housing supply in both the city and surrounds.GovernmentLocal ]] Dublin City Council is a unicameral assembly of 63 members elected every five years from local electoral areas. It is presided over by the Lord Mayor, who is elected for a yearly term and resides in Dublin's Mansion House. Council meetings occur at Dublin City Hall, while most of its administrative activities are based in the Civic Offices on Wood Quay. The party or coalition of parties with the majority of seats assigns committee members, introduces policies, and proposes the Lord Mayor. The Council passes an annual budget for spending on areas such as housing, traffic management, refuse, drainage, and planning. The Dublin City Manager is responsible for implementing City Council decisions but also has considerable executive power. Other neighbouring Dublin County Councils include South Dublin County Council, Fingal County Council and Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown County Council. National on Kildare Street houses the Oireachtas.]] As the capital city, Dublin is the seat of the national parliament of Ireland, the Oireachtas. It is composed of the President of Ireland, Dáil Éireann as the house of representatives, and Seanad Éireann as the upper house. The President resides in Áras an Uachtaráin in Phoenix Park, while both houses of the Oireachtas meet in Leinster House, a former ducal residence on Kildare Street. It has been the home of the Irish parliament since the foundation of the Irish Free State in 1922. The old Irish Houses of Parliament of the Kingdom of Ireland, which dissolved in 1801, are located in College Green. Government Buildings house the Department of the Taoiseach, the Council Chamber, the Department of Finance and the Office of the Attorney General. It consists of a main building (completed 1911) with two wings (completed 1921). It was designed by Thomas Manley Dean and Sir Aston Webb as the Royal College of Science. The First Dáil originally met in the Mansion House in 1919. The Irish Free State government took over the two wings of the building to serve as a temporary home for some ministries, while the central building became the College of Technology until 1989. Although both it and Leinster House were intended to be temporary locations, they became the permanent homes of parliament from then on. For elections to Dáil Éireann, there are five constituencies that are wholly or predominantly in the Dublin City area: Dublin Central (4 seats), Dublin Bay North (5 seats), Dublin North-West (3 seats), Dublin South-Central (4 seats) and Dublin Bay South (4 seats). Twenty TDs are elected in total. The constituency of Dublin West (4 seats) is partially in Dublin City, but predominantly in Fingal. At the 2024 general election, the Dublin city area elected 5 Sinn Féin, 4 Fianna Fáil, 4 Social Democrats, 3 Fine Gael, 2 Labour and 2 Independents.GeographyLandscape entering the Irish Sea as it divides Dublin into the Northside and the Southside]] Dublin is situated at the mouth of the River Liffey and its urban area encompasses approximately in east-central Ireland. It is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range and sub range of the Wicklow Mountains, to the south and surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west. The city itself was founded where the River Poddle met the Liffey, and the early Viking settlement was also facilitated by the small Steine or Steyne River, the larger Camac and the Bradogue, in particular. Two secondary rivers further divide the city: the River Tolka, running southeast into Dublin Bay, and the River Dodder running northeast to near the mouth of the Liffey, and these and the Liffey have multiple tributaries. A number of lesser rivers and streams also flow to the sea within the suburban parts of the city. Two canals – the Grand Canal on the southside and the Royal Canal on the northside – ring the inner city on their way from the west, both connecting with the River Shannon. Climate Similar to much of the rest of northwestern Europe, Dublin experiences a maritime climate (Cfb) with mild-warm summers, cool winters, and a lack of temperature extremes. At Merrion Square, the coldest month is February, with an average minimum temperature of , and the warmest month is July, with an average maximum temperature of . Due to the urban heat island effect, Dublin city has the warmest summertime nights in Ireland. The average minimum temperature at Merrion Square in July is , and the lowest July temperature ever recorded at the station was on 3 July 1974. The highest temperature officially recorded in Dublin is on 18 July 2022, at the Phoenix Park. A non-official record of was also recorded at Phoenix Park in July 1876 Dublin's sheltered location on the east coast makes it the driest place in Ireland, receiving only about half the rainfall of the west coast. Ringsend in the south of the city records the lowest rainfall in the country, with an average annual precipitation of , with the average annual precipitation in the city centre being . At Merrion Square, the wettest year and driest year on record occurred within 5 years of each other, with 1953 receiving just of rainfall, while 1958 recorded . with the climate getting progressively duller inland. Dublin airport, located north of city and about from the coast, records an average of 1,485 hours of sunshine per year. The station at Dublin airport has been maintaining climate records since November 1941. The sunniest year on record was 1,740 hours in 1959, and the dullest year was 1987 with 1,240 hours of sunshine. The lowest amount of monthly sunshine on record was 16.4 hours in January 1996, while the highest was 305.9 hours in July 1955. In the 20th century, smog and air-pollution were an issue in the city, precipitating a ban on bituminous fuels across Dublin. The ban was implemented in 1990 to address black smoke concentrations, that had been linked to cardiovascular and respiratory deaths in residents. Since the ban, non-trauma death rates, respiratory death rates and cardiovascular death rates have declined – by an estimated 350 deaths annually. }} Cityscape Areas City centre The historic city centre of Dublin is encircled by the Royal Canal and Grand Canal, bounded to the west by Heuston railway station and Phoenix Park, and to the east by the IFSC and the Docklands. O'Connell Street is the main thoroughfare of the inner city and many Dublin Bus routes, as well as the Green line of the Luas, have a stop at O'Connell Street. The main shopping streets of the inner city include Henry Street on the Northside, and Grafton Street on the Southside. , are common in the south inner city.]] In some tourism and real-estate marketing contexts, inner Dublin is sometimes divided into a number of quarters. These include the Medieval Quarter (in the area of Dublin Castle, Christ Church and St Patrick's Cathedral and the old city walls), the Georgian Quarter (including the area around St Stephen's Green, Trinity College, and Merrion Square), the Docklands Quarter (around the Dublin Docklands and Silicon Docks), the Cultural Quarter (around Temple Bar), and Creative Quarter (between South William Street and George's Street). Suburbs ]] Dublin has dozens of suburbs; northside suburbs include Blanchardstown, Finglas, Ballymun, Clontarf, Raheny, Malahide and Howth, while southside suburbs include Tallaght, Sandyford, Templeogue, Drimnagh, Rathmines, Dún Laoghaire and Dalkey. Starting in the late 2010s, there was a significant amount of high density residential developments in the suburbs of Dublin, with mid to high-rise apartments being built in Sandyford, Ashtown, and Tallaght. statue]] Cultural divide A north–south division once, to some extent, traditionally existed, with the River Liffey as the divider. The southside was, in recent times, generally seen as being more affluent and genteel than the northside. Largely complete by 1230, the castle was of typical Norman courtyard design, with a central square without a keep, bounded on all sides by tall defensive walls and protected at each corner by a circular tower. Sited to the south-east of Norman Dublin, the castle formed one corner of the outer perimeter of the city, using the River Poddle as a natural means of defence. One of Dublin's most prominent landmarks is the Spire of Dublin, officially entitled the "Monument of Light". It is a conical spire made of stainless steel, completed in 2003 and located on O'Connell Street, where it meets Henry Street and North Earl Street. It replaced Nelson's Pillar and is intended to mark Dublin's place in the 21st century. The spire was designed by Ian Ritchie Architects, who sought an "Elegant and dynamic simplicity bridging art and technology". The base of the monument is lit and the top is illuminated to provide a beacon in the night sky across the city. The Old Library of Trinity College Dublin, holding the Book of Kells, is one of the city's most visited sites. The Book of Kells is an illustrated manuscript created by Irish monks circa 800 AD. The Ha'penny Bridge, an iron footbridge over the River Liffey, is one of the most photographed sights in Dublin and is considered to be one of Dublin's most iconic landmarks. rises behind the statue of Jim Larkin.]]Other landmarks and monuments include Christ Church Cathedral and St Patrick's Cathedral, the Mansion House, the Molly Malone statue, the complex of buildings around Leinster House, including part of the National Museum of Ireland and the National Library of Ireland, The Custom House and Áras an Uachtaráin. Other sights include the Anna Livia monument. The Poolbeg Towers are also landmark features of Dublin, and visible from various spots around the city. Parks ]] There are 302 parks and 66 green spaces within the Dublin City Council area as of 2018, with the council managing over of parks. Public parks include the Phoenix Park, Herbert Park, St Stephen's Green, Saint Anne's Park and Bull Island. The Phoenix Park is about west of the city centre, north of the River Liffey. Its perimeter wall encloses , making it one of the largest walled city parks in Europe. It includes large areas of grassland and tree-lined avenues, and since the 17th century has been home to a herd of wild fallow deer. The residence of the President of Ireland (Áras an Uachtaráin), which was built in 1751, is located in the park. The park is also home to Dublin Zoo, Ashtown Castle, and the official residence of the United States Ambassador. Music concerts are also sometimes held in the park. St Stephen's Green is adjacent to one of Dublin's main shopping streets, Grafton Street, and to a shopping centre named after it, while on its surrounding streets are the offices of a number of public bodies. Saint Anne's Park is a public park and recreational facility, shared between Raheny and Clontarf, both suburbs on the Northside. The park, the second largest municipal park in Dublin, is part of a former estate assembled by members of the Guinness family, beginning with Benjamin Lee Guinness in 1835. The largest municipal park is adjacent (North) Bull Island, also shared between Clontarf and Raheny, featuring a 5 km beach, Dollymount Strand. City boundaries From 1842, the boundaries of the city were comprehended by the baronies of Dublin City and the barony of Dublin. Over time, the city has absorbed area previously administered as part of County Dublin (now the three counties of Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown, Fingal and South Dublin), with a change in 1985 also returning areas to the county. {\| class="wikitable" \|+Changes to city boundaries !Year !Changes \|- \|1900 \|Transfer of former urban districts of Clontarf, Drumcondra, Clonliffe and Glasnevin, and New Kilmainham from County Dublin \|- \|1930 \|Transfer of former urban districts of Pembroke and Rathmines and Rathgar from County Dublin \|- \|1931 \|Transfer of Drumcondra, Glasnevin, Donnybrook and Terenure from County Dublin \|- \|1941 \|Transfer of Crumlin from County Dublin \|- \|1942 \|Transfer of former urban district of Howth from County Dublin \|- \|1953 \|Transfer of Finglas, Coolock and Ballyfermot from County Dublin. \|- \|1985 \|Transfer of Santry and Phoenix Park from County Dublin; transfer of Howth, Sutton and parts of Kilbarrack including Bayside to County Dublin \|- \|1994 \|Alterations to western boundaries in the vicinities of Ballyfermot and Cabra on establishment of new counties \|} Economy on George's Quay Plaza]] The Dublin region is the economic centre of Ireland, and was at the forefront of the country's economic expansion during the Celtic Tiger period. In 2009, Dublin was listed as the fourth richest city in the world by purchasing power and 10th richest by personal income. According to ''Mercer's 2011 Worldwide Cost of Living Survey'', Dublin was the 13th most expensive city in the European Union (down from 10th in 2010) and the 58th most expensive place to live in the world (down from 42nd in 2010). , approximately 874,400 people were employed in the Greater Dublin Area. Around 60% of people who are employed in Ireland's financial, ICT, and professional sectors are located in this area. A number of Dublin's traditional industries, such as food processing, textile manufacturing, brewing, and distilling have gradually declined, although Guinness has been brewed at the St. James's Gate Brewery since 1759. Economic improvements in the 1990s attracted a number of global pharmaceutical, information and communications technology companies to the city and Greater Dublin Area. Companies such as Microsoft, Google, Amazon, eBay, PayPal, Yahoo!, Facebook, X, Accenture, TikTok and Pfizer now have European headquarters or operational bases in the city with several located in enterprise clusters like the Digital Hub and Silicon Docks. The presence of these companies has driven economic expansion in the city and led to Dublin sometimes being referred to as the "Tech Capital of Europe". Many international firms have established major headquarters in the city, such as Citibank. The Irish Stock Exchange (ISEQ), Internet Neutral Exchange (INEX) and Irish Enterprise Exchange (IEX) are also located in Dublin. Dublin has been positioned as one of the main cities vying to host Financial Services companies hoping to retain access to the Eurozone after Brexit. The Celtic Tiger also led to a temporary boom in construction, with large redevelopment projects in the Dublin Docklands and Spencer Dock. Completed projects include the Convention Centre, the 3Arena, and the Bord Gáis Energy Theatre. In the second quarter of 2018, Dublin touched its lowest unemployment rate in a decade, when it fell down to 5.7% as reported by the Dublin Economic Monitor. In November 2022, Dublin was ranked as one of the worst cities in the world for travel, health and cost of living. On 24 September 2022, thousands took to the streets in protest against the cost of living crisis. As of 2024, the Gross Domestic Product of Dublin is €253.6 billion, meaning it has one of the biggest city economies in the European Union. Transport Road surrounding Dublin]] The road network in Ireland is primarily focused on Dublin. The M50 motorway, a semi-ring road which runs around the south, west and north of the city, connects important national primary routes to the rest of the country. In 2008, the West-Link toll bridge was replaced by the eFlow barrier-free tolling system, with a three-tiered charge system based on electronic tags and car pre-registration. The first phase of a proposed eastern bypass for the city is the Dublin Port Tunnel, which officially opened in 2006 to mainly cater for heavy vehicles. The tunnel connects Dublin Port and the M1 motorway close to Dublin Airport. The city is also surrounded by an inner and outer orbital route. The inner orbital route runs approximately around the heart of the Georgian city and the outer orbital route runs primarily along the natural circle formed by Dublin's two canals, the Grand Canal and the Royal Canal, as well as the North and South Circular Roads. The 2016 TomTom Traffic Index ranked Dublin the 15th most congested city in the world and the 7th most congested in Europe.BusDublin is served by a network of nearly 200 bus routes which cover the city and suburbs. The majority of these are provided by Dublin Bus, with a modest number having been transferred to Go Ahead Ireland in 2018. A number of smaller companies also operate. Fares are generally calculated on a stage system based on distance travelled. There are several different levels of fares, which apply on most services. A "Real Time Passenger Information" system was introduced at Dublin Bus bus stops in 2012 in which signs relay display the projected time of the next buses' arrival based on its GPS position. The National Transport Authority is responsible for integration of bus and rail services in Dublin and has been involved in introducing a pre-paid smart card, called a TFI Leap Card, which can be used on all of Dublin's public transport services. The BusConnects programme includes a number of proposed improvements to Dublin's bus network, including new spine and orbital routes. The spine routes are intended to increase the frequency of buses along major corridors, and the orbital routes aim to "provide connections between suburbs and town centres, without having to travel into the City Centre". In 2022, Dublin Bus began the process of electrifying its fleet with new battery-powered buses, with plans for 85% of Dublin buses to be zero-emission by 2032.Cycling terminal in the Docklands]] The 2011 census indicated that 5.9% of commuters in Dublin cycled. A 2013 report by Dublin City Council on traffic flows crossing the canals in and out of the city found that just under 10% of all traffic was made up of cyclists, representing an increase of 14.1% over 2012 and an 87.2% increase over 2006 levels. The increase was attributed to measures such as the Dublinbikes bike rental scheme, the provision of cycle lanes, public awareness campaigns to promote cycling and the introduction of the 30 km/h city centre speed limit. Dublin City Council began installing cycle lanes and tracks throughout the city in the 1990s, and the city had over of specific on- and off-road tracks for cyclists. In 2011, the city was ranked 9th of major world cities on the Copenhagenize Index of Bicycle-Friendly Cities. The same index showed a fall to 15th in 2015, and Dublin was outside the top 20 in 2017. Dublinbikes is a self-service bicycle rental scheme which has been in operation in Dublin since 2009. Sponsored by JCDecaux and Just Eat, the scheme consists of hundreds of unisex bicycles stationed at 44 terminals throughout the city centre. Users must make a subscription for either an annual Long Term Hire Card or purchase a three-day ticket. , Dublinbikes had over 66,000 long-term subscribers making over 2 million journeys per year. Rail trams at the Tallaght terminus]] Heuston and Connolly stations are the two main railway termini in Dublin. Operated by Iarnród Éireann, the Dublin Suburban Rail network consists of five railway lines serving the Greater Dublin Area and commuter towns such as Drogheda and Dundalk in County Louth, Gorey in County Wexford, and extending as far as Portlaoise in County Laois, and once a day to Newry. One of the five lines is the electrified Dublin Area Rapid Transit (DART) line, which runs primarily along the coast of Dublin, comprising 31 stations, from Malahide and Howth southwards as far as Bray and Greystones in County Wicklow. Commuter rail operates on the other four lines using Irish Rail diesel multiple units. In 2013, passengers for DART and Dublin Suburban lines were 16 million and 11.7 million, respectively (around 75% of all Irish Rail passengers). Dublin once had an extensive system of trams but this was largely phased out by 1949. A new light rail system, often described as a tram system, the Luas, was launched in 2004, and is run by Transdev Ireland (under contract from Transport Infrastructure Ireland), carrying over 34 million passengers annually. The network consists of two interconnecting lines; the Red Line links the Docklands and city centre with the south-western suburbs of Tallaght and Saggart, while the Green Line connects northern inner city suburbs and the main city centre with suburbs to the south of the city including Sandyford and Brides Glen, mostly along the former route of the Harcourt Street railway line. Together these lines comprise a total 67 stops and of track. A metro service is proposed under the name of Metrolink, and planned to run from Dublin's northside to Charlemont via Dublin Airport and St. Stephen's Green. Rail and ferry Dublin Connolly is connected by bus to Dublin Port and ferries run by Irish Ferries and Stena Line to Holyhead for connecting trains on the North Wales Coast Line to Chester, Crewe and London Euston. Dublin Connolly to Dublin Port can be reached via Amiens Street, Dublin into Store Street or by Luas via Busáras where Dublin Bus operates services to the Ferry Terminal.AirDublin Airport ]] Dublin Airport (owned and operated by DAA) is located north of Dublin city, near Swords in the administrative county of Fingal. The headquarters of Ireland's flag carrier Aer Lingus and regional airline CityJet are located there, and those of low-cost carrier Ryanair nearby. The airport offers a short and medium-haul network, domestic services to regional airports in Ireland, and long-haul services to the United States, Canada, the Middle East and Hong Kong. Dublin Airport is the 11th busiest in the European Union, and by far the busiest airport on the island of Ireland. In 2015 and 2016, transatlantic traffic grew, with 158 summer flights a week to North America, making it the sixth largest European hub for that route over the year. Transatlantic traffic was also the fastest-growing segment of the market for the airport in 2016, in which a 16% increase from 2015 brought the yearly number of passengers travelling between Dublin and North America to 2.9 million. From 2010 to 2016, Dublin Airport saw an increase of nearly 9.5 million passengers in its annual traffic, In 2019, Dublin Airport was the 12th busiest airport in Europe, with almost 33 million passengers passing through the airport. Other air transport Dublin is also served by Weston Airport and other small facilities, by a range of helicopter operators, and the military and some State services use Casement Aerodrome nearby. Education Dublin is the largest centre of education in Ireland, and is home to four universities and a number of other higher education institutions. It was the European Capital of Science in 2012. ]] ]] The University of Dublin is the oldest university in Ireland, dating from the 16th century, and is located in the city centre. Its sole constituent college, Trinity College (TCD), was established by Royal Charter in 1592 under Elizabeth I. It was closed to Roman Catholics until 1793, and the Catholic hierarchy then banned Roman Catholics from attending until 1970. It is situated in the city centre, on College Green, and has over 18,000 students. The National University of Ireland (NUI) has its seat in Dublin, which is also the location of the associated constituent university'' of University College Dublin (UCD), which has over 30,000 students. Founded in 1854, it is now the largest university in Ireland. UCD's main campus is at Belfield, about from the city centre, in the southeastern suburbs. As of 2019, Dublin's principal, and Ireland's largest, institution for technological education and research, Dublin Institute of Technology (DIT), with origins in 1887, has merged with two major suburban third level institutions, Institute of Technology, Tallaght and Institute of Technology, Blanchardstown, to form Technological University Dublin, Ireland's second largest university by student population. The new university offers a wide range of courses in areas include engineering, architecture, the sciences, health, journalism, digital media, hospitality, business, art and design, music and the humanities programmes, and has three long-term campuses, at Grangegorman, Tallaght and Blanchardstown. Dublin City University (DCU), formerly the National Institute for Higher Education (NIHE) Dublin, offers courses in business, engineering, science, communication courses, languages and primary education. It has around 16,000 students, and its main campus is located about from the city centre, in the northern suburbs. Aside from the main Glasnevin Campus, the Drumcondra campuses includes the former St. Patrick's College of Education, Drumcondra now also hosting students from the nearby Mater Dei Institute of Education and students from the Church of Ireland College of Education at the DCU Campus at All Hallows College. The Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland (RCSI) conducts a medical school which is both a university (since 2019) and a recognised college of the NUI, and is situated at St. Stephen's Green in the city centre; there are also large medical schools within UCD and Trinity College. The National College of Art and Design (NCAD) provides education and research in art, design and media. The National College of Ireland (NCI) is also based in Dublin, as well as the Economic and Social Research Institute, a social science research institute, on Sir John Rogerson's Quay, and the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. The Institute of International and European Affairs is also in Dublin. Dublin Business School (DBS) is Ireland's largest private third level institution with over 9,000 students located on Aungier Street, and Griffith College Dublin has its main facility in Portobello. There are also smaller specialised colleges, including The Gaiety School of Acting. The Irish public administration and management training centre has its base in Dublin, the Institute of Public Administration provides a range of undergraduate and post graduate awards via the National University of Ireland and in some instances, Queen's University Belfast. Dublin is also home to the Royal Irish Academy, membership of which is considered Ireland's highest academic honour. The suburban town of Dún Laoghaire is home to the Dún Laoghaire Institute of Art, Design and Technology (IADT), which supports training and research in art, design, business, psychology and media technology. Dublin joined the UNESCO Global Network of Learning Cities in 2019. Demographics {\| class"wikitable floatright" style"width:20%;" \|+ Main immigrant groups in Dublin City and suburbs (2016) \|- ! scope="column" \| Nationality ! scope="column" \| Population \|- ! scope="row" \| Poland \| 33,751 \|- ! scope="row" \| UK \| 19,196 \|- ! scope="row" \| Romania \| 16,808 \|- ! scope="row" \| Lithuania \|9,869 \|- ! scope="row" \| Brazil \| 8,903 \|- ! scope="row" \| Italy \| 6,834 \|- ! scope="row" \| India \| 6,546 \|- ! scope="row" \| Spain \| 6,341 \|- ! scope="row" \| Latvia \| 5,771 \|- ! scope="row" \| Mainland China \| 5,748 \|- ! scope="row" \| France \| 5,576 \|- ! scope="row" \| United States \| 4,042 \|- ! scope="row" \| Nigeria \| 2,563 \|- ! scope="row" \| Pakistan \| 2,515 \|- ! scope="row" \| Philippines \| 2,204 \|} The City of Dublin is the area administered by Dublin City Council. The traditional County Dublin includes the city and the administrative counties of Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown, Fingal and South Dublin. The Greater Dublin Area includes County Dublin and the adjoining counties, County Kildare, County Meath and County Wicklow. In the 2022 census, the population of the City of Dublin was 592,713, while the population of Dublin city and suburbs was 1,263,219. County Dublin had a population of 1,458,154, and the population of the Greater Dublin Area was 2,082,605. Of the population of Dublin city and its suburbs, 62.9% (794,925) were born in Dublin, 26.6% (336,021) were born outside of Ireland, while the remaining 10.5% (132,273) were born in a county other than Dublin. After World War II, Italians were by far the largest immigrant group in both Dublin and Ireland and became synonymous with the catering and restaurant landscape. Since the late 1990s, Dublin has experienced a significant level of net immigration, with the greatest numbers coming from the European Union, especially the United Kingdom, Poland and Lithuania. There is also immigration from outside Europe, including from Pakistan, Brazil, the Philippines, China, India and Nigeria. Dublin is home to a greater proportion of newer arrivals than any other part of the country. Sixty percent of Ireland's Asian population lives in Dublin. The capital attracts the largest proportion of non-Catholic migrants from other countries. Increased secularisation in Ireland has prompted a drop in regular Catholic church attendance in Dublin from over 90 percent in the mid-1970s down to 14 percent according to a 2011 survey and less than 2% in some areas As of the 2016 census, 68.2% of Dublin's population identified as Catholic, 12.7% as other stated religions, with 19.1% having no religion or no religion stated. According to the 2022 census, the population of County Dublin self-identified as 80.4% white (68.0% white Irish, 12.0% other white and 0.4% Irish traveller), 5.8% Asian, 3.0% mixed backgrounds, 2.2% Black and 8.5% not stated. In the same census, the ethnic makeup of Dublin city was 76.81% white (including 64.23% white Irish and 12.19% other white people), 12.98% not stated, 5.11% Asian, 3.50% other and 1.58% black. , there were 1,367 families within the Dublin region living in homeless accommodation or other emergency housing.Culture]]The artsDublin has a significant literary history, and produced many literary figures, including Nobel laureates William Butler Yeats, George Bernard Shaw and Samuel Beckett. Other influential writers and playwrights include Oscar Wilde, Jonathan Swift and the creator of Dracula, Bram Stoker. It is also the location of key and notable works of James Joyce, including Ulysses, which is set in Dublin and includes much topical detail. Dubliners is a collection of short stories by Joyce about incidents and typical characters of the city during the early 20th century. Other renowned writers include J. M. Synge, Seán O'Casey, Brendan Behan, Maeve Binchy, John Banville and Roddy Doyle. Ireland's biggest libraries and literary museums are found in Dublin, including the National Print Museum of Ireland and National Library of Ireland. In July 2010, Dublin was named as a UNESCO City of Literature, joining Edinburgh, Melbourne and Iowa City with the permanent title. ]] Handel's oratorio Messiah was first performed at Neal's Music Hall, in Fishamble Street, on 13 April 1742. There are several theatres within the city centre, and various well-known actors have emerged from the Dublin theatrical scene, including Noel Purcell, Michael Gambon, Brendan Gleeson, Stephen Rea, Colin Farrell, Colm Meaney and Gabriel Byrne. The best known theatres include the Gaiety, Abbey, Olympia, Gate, and Grand Canal. The Gaiety specialises in musical and operatic productions, and also opens its doors after the evening theatre production to host a variety of live music, dancing, and films. The Abbey was founded in 1904 by a group that included Yeats with the aim of promoting indigenous literary talent. It went on to provide a breakthrough for some of the city's most famous writers, such as Synge, Yeats himself and George Bernard Shaw. The Gate was founded in 1928 to promote European and American Avant Garde works. The Grand Canal Theatre is a newer 2,111 capacity theatre which opened in 2010 in the Grand Canal Dock area. Apart from being the focus of the country's literature and theatre, Dublin is also the focal point for much of Irish art and the Irish artistic scene. The Book of Kells, a world-famous manuscript produced by Celtic monks in AD 800 and an example of Insular art, is on display in Trinity College. The Chester Beatty Library houses a collection of manuscripts, miniature paintings, prints, drawings, rare books and decorative arts assembled by American mining millionaire (and honorary Irish citizen) Sir Alfred Chester Beatty (1875–1968). The collections date from 2700 BCE onwards and are drawn from Asia, the Middle East, North Africa and Europe. In addition public art galleries are found across the city and are free to visit, including the Irish Museum of Modern Art, the National Gallery, the Hugh Lane Municipal Gallery, the Douglas Hyde Gallery, the Project Arts Centre and the exhibition space of the Royal Hibernian Academy. Private galleries in Dublin include Green on Red Gallery, Kerlin Gallery, Kevin Kavanagh Gallery and Mother's Tankstation. Three branches of the National Museum of Ireland are located in Dublin: Archaeology in Kildare Street, Decorative Arts and History in Collins Barracks and Natural History in Merrion Street. Dublin is home to the National College of Art and Design, which dates from 1746, and Dublin Institute of Design, founded in 1991. Dublinia is a living history attraction showcasing the Viking and Medieval history of the city. Dublin has long had an 'underground' arts scene, with Temple Bar hosting artists in the 1980s, and spaces such as the Project Arts Centre acting as a hub for collectives and new exhibitions. The Guardian noted that Dublin's independent and underground arts flourished during the economic recession of . Dublin also has many dramatic, musical and operatic companies, including Festival Productions, Lyric Opera Productions, the Pioneers' Musical & Dramatic Society, Rathmines and Rathgar Musical Society, the Glasnevin Musical Society, Third Day Chorale, Second Age Theatre Company, Irish National Opera. Dublin was shortlisted to be World Design Capital 2014. Taoiseach Enda Kenny was quoted to say that Dublin "would be an ideal candidate to host the World Design Capital in 2014". In October 2021, Dublin was shortlisted for the European Commission's 2022 European Capital of Smart Tourism award along with Bordeaux, Copenhagen, Florence, Ljubljana, Palma de Mallorca and Valencia. Entertainment Dublin has a vibrant nightlife and is reputedly one of Europe's most youthful cities; in 2009 it was estimated that 50% of its citizens were younger than 25. There are many pubs across the city centre, with the area around St. Stephen's Green and Grafton Street, especially Harcourt Street, Camden Street, Wexford Street and Leeson Street, the location of many nightclubs and pubs. ]] The best known area for nightlife is Temple Bar, south of the River Liffey. The area has become popular among tourists, including stag and hen parties from the UK. It was developed as Dublin's cultural quarter and does retain this spirit as a centre for small arts productions, photographic and artists' studios, and in the form of street performers and small music venues; however, it has been criticised as overpriced, false and dirty by Lonely Planet. The areas around Leeson Street, Harcourt Street, South William Street and Camden/George's Street are popular nightlife spots for locals.Music , member of The Dubliners, on South King Street]] Live music is played on streets and at venues throughout Dublin, and the city has produced several musicians and groups of international success, including the Dubliners, Thin Lizzy, the Boomtown Rats, U2, the Script, Sinéad O'Connor, Boyzone, Kodaline, Fontaines D.C. and Westlife. Dublin has several mid-range venues that host live music throughout the week, including Whelans and Vicar Street. The 3Arena venue in the Dublin Docklands plays host to visiting global performers. Shopping Market]] ]] Dublin city centre is a popular shopping destination for both locals and tourists. The city has numerous shopping districts, particularly around Grafton Street and Henry Street. The city centre is also the location of large department stores, including Arnotts, Brown Thomas and (prior to its 2015 closure) Clerys. While the city has seen the loss of some traditional market sites, Moore Street remains one of the city's oldest trading districts. There has also been some growth in local farmers' markets and other markets. In 2007, Dublin Food Co-op relocated to a warehouse in The Liberties area, where it is home to market and community events. Suburban Dublin has several modern retail centres, including Dundrum Town Centre, Blanchardstown Centre, the Square in Tallaght, Liffey Valley Shopping Centre in Clondalkin, Omni Shopping Centre in Santry, Nutgrove Shopping Centre in Rathfarnham, Northside Shopping Centre in Coolock and Swords Pavilions in Swords. Media Dublin is the centre of both media and communications in Ireland, with many newspapers, radio stations, television stations and telephone companies based there. RTÉ is Ireland's national state broadcaster, and is based in Donnybrook. Fair City is RTÉ's soap opera, located in the fictional Dublin suburb of Carraigstown. Virgin Media Television, eir Sport, MTV Ireland and Sky News are also based in the city. The headquarters of An Post and telecommunications companies such as Eir, as well as mobile operators Vodafone and 3 are all located there. Dublin is also the headquarters of national newspapers such as The Irish Times and Irish Independent, as well as local newspapers such as The Evening Herald. As well as being home to RTÉ Radio, Dublin also hosts the national radio networks Today FM and Newstalk, and local stations. Commercial radio stations based in the city include 4fm (94.9 MHz), Dublin's 98FM (98.1 MHz), Radio Nova 100FM (100.3 MHz), Q102 (102.2 MHz), SPIN 1038 (103.8 MHz), FM104 (104.4 MHz), Sunshine 106.8 (106.8 MHz). There are also numerous community and special interest stations, including Dublin City FM (103.2 MHz), Dublin South FM (93.9 MHz), Liffey Sound FM (96.4 MHz), Near FM (90.3 MHz), and Raidió Na Life (106.4 MHz). Sport GAA ]] Croke Park is the largest sport stadium in Ireland. The headquarters of the Gaelic Athletic Association, it has a capacity of 82,300. It is the third-largest stadium in Europe after Nou Camp in Barcelona and Wembley Stadium in London. It hosts the premier Gaelic football and hurling games, international rules football and irregularly other sporting and non-sporting events including concerts. Muhammad Ali fought there in 1972 and it played host to the opening and closing ceremonies of the 2003 Special Olympics. It also has conference and banqueting facilities. There is a GAA Museum there and tours of the stadium are offered, including a rooftop walk of the stadium. During the redevelopment of Lansdowne Road, Croke Park played host to the Irish Rugby Union Team and Republic of Ireland national football team as well as hosting the Heineken Cup rugby 2008–09 semi-final between Munster and Leinster, which set a world record attendance for a club rugby match. The Dublin GAA team plays most of their home league hurling games at Parnell Park.Rugby Union ]] IRFU Stadium Lansdowne Road was laid out in 1874. This was the venue for home games of both the Irish Rugby Union Team and the Republic of Ireland national football team. A joint venture between the Irish Rugby Football Union, the FAI and the Government, saw it redeveloped into a new state-of-the-art 50,000 seat Aviva Stadium, which opened in May 2010. Lansdowne Road/Aviva Stadium hosted the Heineken Cup final in 1999, 2003, 2013, and 2023. Rugby union team Leinster Rugby play their competitive home games in the RDS Arena and the Aviva Stadium, while Donnybrook Stadium hosts their friendlies and A games, Ireland A and Women, Leinster Schools and Youths and the home club games of All Ireland League clubs Old Wesley and Bective Rangers. County Dublin is home for 13 of the senior rugby union clubs in Ireland including 5 of the 10 sides in the top division 1A.Association footballDublin is home to five League of Ireland association football clubs: Bohemian, Shamrock Rovers, Shelbourne, St Patrick's Athletic and University College Dublin. The first Irish side to reach the group stages of a European competition (2011–12 UEFA Europa League group stage) are Shamrock Rovers, who play at Tallaght Stadium in South Dublin. Bohemian F.C play at Dalymount Park, the oldest football stadium in the country, and home ground for the Ireland football team from 1904 to the 1970s. St Patrick's Athletic play at Richmond Park; University College Dublin at the UCD Bowl in Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown; and Shelbourne at Tolka Park. Tolka Park, Dalymount Park, UCD Bowl and Tallaght Stadium, along with the Carlisle Grounds in Bray, hosted all Group 3 games in the intermediary round of the 2011 UEFA Regions' Cup. The Aviva Stadium hosted the 2011 UEFA Europa League final and the 2024 UEFA Europa League final. Cricket Dublin has two ODI cricket grounds in Castle Avenue (Clontarf Cricket Club) and Malahide Cricket Club Ground. College Park has Test status and played host to Ireland's first Test cricket match, a women's match against Pakistan in 2000. The men's Irish cricket team also played their first Test match against Pakistan at Malahide Cricket Club Ground during 2018. Leinster Lightning play their home inter-provincial matches in Dublin at College Park.OtherThe Dublin Marathon has been run since 1980 at the end of October. The Women's Mini Marathon has been run since 1983 on the first Monday in June, which is also a bank holiday in Ireland. It is said to be the largest all female event of its kind in the world. The Great Ireland Run takes place in Dublin's Phoenix Park in mid-April. Two Dublin baseball clubs compete in the Irish Baseball League. The Dublin Spartans and the Dublin Bay Hurricanes are both based at The O'Malley Fields at Corkagh Park. The Portmarnock Red Rox, from outside the city, competes in the Baseball Ireland B League. The Dublin area hosts greyhound racing at Shelbourne Park and horse racing at Leopardstown. The Dublin Horse Show takes place at the RDS, which hosted the Show Jumping World Championships in 1982. The national boxing arena is located in The National Stadium on the South Circular Road. The National Basketball Arena is located in Tallaght, is the home of the Irish basketball team, the venue for the basketball league finals, and has also hosted boxing and wrestling events. The National Aquatic Centre in Blanchardstown is Ireland's largest indoor water leisure facility. There are also Gaelic Handball, hockey and athletics stadia, most notably Morton Stadium in Santry, which held the athletics events of the 2003 Special Olympics. Cuisine As of the 2024 Michelin Guide, seven Dublin restaurants shared ten Michelin stars – including Restaurant Patrick Guilbaud, Liath and Chapter One with two. Irish-born Kevin Thornton was awarded two Michelin stars in 2001 – though his restaurant, Thornton's, closed in 2016. The Dublin Institute of Technology commenced a bachelor's degree in culinary skills in 1999. Historically, Irish coffee houses and cafes were associated with those working in media. Since the beginning of the 21st century, with the growth of apartment living in the city, Dublin's cafés attracted younger patrons looking for an informal gathering place and an ad hoc office. Immigrant groups, such as Chinese, Japanese and Italian émigrés, have also opened restaurants around Dublin. A number of South-East Asians immigrated from places such as Hong Kong, Malaysia and Mainland China to Dublin during the 1960s and opened restaurants featuring their cuisines. Modern Irish adaptions of Chinese cuisine include the Spice bag, a takeaway dish consisting of mainly chicken, chips and vegetables. In 2020, it was voted 'Ireland's Favourite Takeaway Dish' in the Just Eat National Takeaway Awards. English and Irish languages Dublin was traditionally a city of two languages, English and Irish, a situation found also in the area around it, the Pale. The Irish of County Dublin represented the easternmost extension of a broad central dialect area which stretched between Leinster and Connacht, but had its own local characteristics. It may also have been influenced by the east Ulster dialect of County Meath and County Louth to the north. In the words of a 16th-century English administrator, William Gerard (1518–1581): "All Englishe, and the most part with delight, even in Dublin, speak Irishe". The Old English historian Richard Stanihurst (1547–1618) wrote as follows: "When their posteritie became not altogither so warie in keeping, as their ancestors were valiant in conquering, the Irish language was free dennized in the English Pale: this canker tooke such deep root, as the bodie that before was whole and sound, was by little and little festered, and in manner wholly putrified". English authorities of the Cromwellian period accepted the fact that Irish was widely spoken in the city and its surrounds. In 1655 several local dignitaries were ordered to oversee a lecture in Irish to be given in Dublin. In March 1656 a converted Catholic priest, Séamas Corcy, was appointed to preach in Irish at Bride's parish every Sunday, and was also ordered to preach at Drogheda and Athy. In 1657 the English colonists in Dublin presented a petition to the Municipal Council complaining that in Dublin itself "there is Irish commonly and usually spoken". In early 18th century Dublin, Irish was the language of a group of poets and scribes led by Seán and Tadhg Ó Neachtain. Scribal activity in Irish persisted in Dublin right through the 18th century. There were still native Irish speakers in County Dublin at the time of the 1851 census. Though the number of Irish speakers declined throughout Ireland in the 19th century, the end of the century saw a Gaelic revival, centred in Dublin and accompanied by renewed literary activity. This was the harbinger of a steady renewal of urban Irish, though with new characteristics of its own.Current eraThe native language of most Dubliners today is English, and several local dialects are subsumed under the label Dublin English. Dublin also has many thousands of habitual Irish speakers, with the 2016 census showing that daily speakers (outside the education system) numbered 14,903. They form part of an urban Irish-speaking cohort which is generally better-educated than monoglot English speakers. The Dublin Irish-speaking cohort is supported by a number of Irish-medium schools. There are 12,950 students in the Dublin region attending 34 gaelscoileanna (Irish-language primary schools) and 10 gaelcholáistí (Irish-language secondary schools). Two Irish language radio stations, Raidió Na Life and RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta, have studios in the city, and the online station Raidió Rí-Rá broadcasts from studios in the city. A number of Irish language agencies are also located in the capital. offers language classes and is used as a meeting place for different groups. The closest Gaeltacht to Dublin is the County Meath Gaeltacht of Ráth Cairn and Baile Ghib which is away. International relations Dublin city council has an International Relations Unit, established in 2007. It works on hosting of international delegations, staff exchanges, international promotion of the city, twinning and partnerships, work with multi-city organisations such as Eurocities, economic partnerships and advice to other Council units. Twin and partner cities Dublin is twinned with five places: {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center; background:white; width:42%;" \|- style="color:white;" ! ! style="background:#659ec7; width:10%;"\| City ! ! style="background:#659ec7; width:15%;"\| Nation ! ! style="background:#659ec7; width: 5%;"\| Since \|- \|! ! style="background:lemonchiffon;"\| San Jose \|! ! style"text-align:center;"\| United States \|! !\| 1986 \|- \|! ! style="background:lemonchiffon;"\| Liverpool \|! ! style"text-align:center;"\| United Kingdom \|! !\| 1997 \|- \|! ! style="background:lemonchiffon;"\| Barcelona \|! ! style"text-align:center;"\| Spain \|! !\| 1998 \|- \|! ! style="background:lemonchiffon;"\| Beijing \|! ! style"text-align:center;"\| China \|! !\| 2011 \|- \|! ! style="background:lemonchiffon;"\| Ramallah \|! ! style"text-align:center;"\| Palestine \|! !\| 2023 \|} The city also has "friendship" or "co-operation agreements" with a number of other cities: Moscow (since 2009) and St Petersburg (since 2010) in Russia and Guadalajara in Mexico (since 2013), Previous agreements have included those with Mexico City (2014−2018), Tbilisi in Georgia (2014−2017) and Wuhan in China (2016−2019). Notable people See also * Dublin English * List of people from Dublin * List of subdivisions of County Dublin Notes References Sources * Further reading * John Flynn and Jerry Kelleher, Dublin Journeys in America (High Table Publishing, 2003), * Pat Liddy, Dublin A Celebration: From the 1st to the 21st century (Dublin City Council, 2000), * Maurice Craig, The Architecture of Ireland from the Earliest Times to 1880 (Batsford, Paperback edition 1989), * Frank McDonald, Saving the City: How to Halt the Destruction of Dublin (Tomar Publishing, 1989), * Edward McParland, Public Architecture in Ireland 1680–1760 (Yale University Press, 2001), External links * [http://www.dublincity.ie/ Dublin City Council] – Official website of the local authority for Dublin * [http://www.visitdublin.com/ Dublin Tourist Board] – Official tourism site * [http://www.dublincityofliterature.ie/ Dublin UNESCO City of Literature official site] * [https://www.dublinhistoricmaps.ie/ Dublin Historic Maps, Boundaries & an OSM Miscellany] }} Category:841 establishments Category:9th-century establishments in Ireland Category:Capitals in Europe Category:Cities in the Republic of Ireland Category:County towns in the Republic of Ireland Category:Former boroughs in the Republic of Ireland Category:Leinster Category:Local government areas of the Republic of Ireland Category:Populated coastal places in the Republic of Ireland Category:Populated places established in the 9th century Category:Port cities and towns of the Irish Sea Category:Staple ports Category:Tourism regions of the island of Ireland Category:Viking Age populated places	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dublin	2025-04-05T18:28:39.103883
8506	DirectX	\| latest_release_version = 12 Ultimate API \| latest_release_date = \| operating system = Microsoft Windows, Windows Phone 8, Dreamcast, Xbox, Xbox 360, Xbox One, Xbox Series X and Series S, Linux (Gallium Nine) (DirectX 12 only, Exclusive to Windows Subsystem for Linux) \| genre = API }} Microsoft DirectX is a collection of application programming interfaces (APIs) for handling tasks related to multimedia, especially game programming and video, on Microsoft platforms. Originally, the names of these APIs all began with "Direct", such as Direct3D, DirectDraw, DirectMusic, DirectPlay, DirectSound, and so forth. The name DirectX was coined as a shorthand term for all of these APIs (the X standing in for the particular API names) and soon became the name of the collection. When Microsoft later set out to develop a gaming console, the X was used as the basis of the name Xbox to indicate that the console was based on DirectX technology. The X initial has been carried forward in the naming of APIs designed for the Xbox such as XInput and the Cross-platform Audio Creation Tool (XACT), while the DirectX pattern has been continued for Windows APIs such as Direct2D and DirectWrite. Direct3D (the 3D graphics API within DirectX) is widely used in the development of video games for Microsoft Windows and the Xbox line of consoles. Direct3D is also used by other software applications for visualization and graphics tasks such as CAD/CAM engineering. As Direct3D is the most widely publicized component of DirectX, it is common to see the names "DirectX" and "Direct3D" used interchangeably. The DirectX software development kit (SDK) consists of runtime libraries in redistributable binary form, along with accompanying documentation and headers for use in coding. Originally, the runtimes were only installed by games or explicitly by the user. Windows 95 did not launch with DirectX, but DirectX was included with Windows 95 OEM Service Release 2. Windows 98 and Windows NT 4.0 both shipped with DirectX, as has every version of Windows released since. The SDK is available as a free download. While the runtimes are proprietary, closed-source software, source code is provided for most of the SDK samples. Starting with the release of Windows 8 Developer Preview, DirectX SDK has been integrated into Windows SDK.Development historyIn late 1994, Microsoft was ready to release Windows 95, its next operating system. An important factor in its value to consumers was the programs that would be able to run on it. Microsoft employee Alex St. John had been in discussions with various game developers asking how likely they would be to bring their MS-DOS games to Windows 95, and found the responses mostly negative, since programmers had found that the Windows environment did not provide the necessary features which were available under MS-DOS using BIOS routines or direct hardware access. There were also strong fears of compatibility; a notable case of this was from ''Disney's Animated Storybook: The Lion King'' which was based on the WinG programming interface. Due to numerous incompatible graphics drivers from new Compaq computers that were not tested with the WinG interface which came bundled with the game, it crashed so frequently on many desktop systems that parents had flooded Disney's call-in help lines. St. John recognized the resistances for game development under Windows would be a limitation, and recruited two additional engineers, Craig Eisler and Eric Engstrom, to develop a better solution to get more programmers to develop games for Windows. The project was codenamed the Manhattan Project, like the World War II project of the same name, and the idea was to displace the Japanese-developed video game consoles with personal computers running Microsoft's operating system. Most of the work by the three was done among other assigned projects starting near the end of 1994. DirectSound for audio, and DirectPlay for communication between players over a network. Furthermore, an extended joystick API already present in Windows 95 was documented for the first time as DirectInput, while a description of how to implement the immediate start of the installation procedure of a software title after inserting its CD-ROM, a feature called AutoPlay, was also part of the SDK. The "Direct" part of the library was so named as these routines bypassed existing core Windows 95 routines and accessed the computer hardware only via a hardware abstraction layer (HAL). Though the team had named it the "Game SDK" (software development kit), the name "DirectX" came from one journalist that had mocked the naming scheme of the various libraries. The team opted to continue to use that naming scheme and call the project DirectX. and WinG APIs for Windows 3.1. DirectX allowed all versions of Microsoft Windows, starting with Windows 95, to incorporate high-performance multimedia. Eisler wrote about the frenzy to build DirectX 1 through 5 in his blog. To get more developers on board DirectX, Microsoft approached id Software's John Carmack and offered to port Doom and Doom 2 from MS-DOS to DirectX, free of charge, with id retaining all publishing rights to the game. Carmack agreed, and Microsoft's Gabe Newell led the porting project. The first game was released as Doom 95 in August 1996, the first published DirectX game. Microsoft promoted the game heavily with Bill Gates appearing in ads for the title. It was at this event that Microsoft first introduced Direct3D, and demonstrated multiplayer MechWarrior 2 being played over the Internet. The DirectX team faced the challenging task of testing each DirectX release against an array of computer hardware and software. A variety of different graphics cards, audio cards, motherboards, CPUs, input devices, games, and other multimedia applications were tested with each beta and final release. The DirectX team also built and distributed tests that allowed the hardware industry to confirm that new hardware designs and driver releases would be compatible with DirectX. Prior to DirectX Microsoft had added OpenGL to their Windows NT platform. OpenGL had been designed as a cross-platform, window system independent software interface to graphics hardware by Silicon Graphics, Inc. to bring 3D graphics programming into the mainstream of application programming. Besides it could also be used for 2D graphics and imaging and was controlled by the Architectural Review Board (ARB) which included Microsoft. Direct3D was intended to be a Microsoft controlled alternative to OpenGL, focused initially on game use. As 3D gaming grew game developers were discovering that OpenGL could be used effectively for game development. At that point a "battle" began between supporters of the cross-platform OpenGL and the Windows-only Direct3D. Incidentally, OpenGL was supported at Microsoft by the DirectX team. If a developer chose to use the OpenGL 3D graphics API in computer games, the other APIs of DirectX besides Direct3D were often combined with OpenGL because OpenGL does not include all of DirectX's functionality (such as sound or joystick support). In a console-specific version, DirectX was used as a basis for Microsoft's Xbox, Xbox 360 and Xbox One console API. The API was developed jointly between Microsoft and Nvidia, which developed the custom graphics hardware used by the original Xbox. The Xbox API was similar to DirectX version 8.1, but is non-updateable like other console technologies. The Xbox was code named DirectXbox, but this was shortened to Xbox for its commercial name. In 2002, Microsoft released DirectX 9 with support for the use of much longer shader programs than before with pixel and vertex shader version 2.0. Microsoft has continued to update the DirectX suite since then, introducing Shader Model 3.0 in DirectX 9.0c, released in August 2004. As of April 2005, DirectShow was removed from DirectX and moved to the Microsoft Platform SDK instead. DirectX has been confirmed to be present in Microsoft's Windows Phone 8. Real-time raytracing was announced as DXR in 2018. Support for compiling HLSL to SPIR-V was also added in the DirectX Shader Compiler the same year. Components DirectX is composed of multiple APIs: * Direct3D (D3D): Real-time 3D rendering API * DXGI: Enumerates adapters and monitors and manages swap chains for Direct3D 10 and later. * Direct2D: 2D graphics API * DirectWrite: Text rendering API * DirectCompute: API for general-purpose computing on graphics processing units * DirectX Diagnostics (DxDiag): A tool for diagnosing and generating reports on components related to DirectX, such as audio, video, and input drivers * XACT3: High-level audio API * XAudio2: Low-level audio API * DirectX Raytracing (DXR): Real-time raytracing API * DirectStorage: GPU-oriented file I/O API * DirectML: GPU-accelerated machine learning and artificial intelligence API * DirectSR: GPU-accelerated resolution upscaling API * Media Foundation ** DirectX Video Acceleration for accelerated video playback Microsoft has deprecated the following components: * DirectX Media: Consists of: DirectAnimation for 2D/3D web animation, DirectShow for multimedia playback and streaming media DirectX Media Objects: Support for streaming objects such as encoders, decoders, and effects (Deprecated in favor of Media Foundation Transforms; MFTs) DirectX Transform for web interactivity, and Direct3D Retained Mode for higher level 3D graphics DirectX plugins for audio signal processing * DirectDraw: 2D graphics API (Deprecated in favor of Direct2D) * DirectInput: Input API for interfacing with keyboards, mice, joysticks, and game controllers (Deprecated after version 8 in favor of XInput for Xbox 360 controllers or standard WM_INPUT window message processing for keyboard and mouse input) * DirectPlay: Network API for communication over a local-area or wide-area network (Deprecated after version 8 in favor of Games for Windows Live and Xbox Live) * DirectSound: Audio API (Deprecated since DirectX 8 in favor of XAudio2 and XACT3) * DirectSound3D (DS3D): 3D sounds API (Deprecated since DirectX 8 in favor of XAudio2 and XACT3) * DirectMusic: Components for playing soundtracks authored in DirectMusic Producer (Deprecated since DirectX 8 in favor of XAudio2 and XACT3) DirectX functionality is provided in the form of COM-style objects and interfaces. Additionally, while not DirectX components themselves, managed objects have been built on top of some parts of DirectX, such as Managed Direct3D and the XNA graphics library on top of Direct3D 9. Microsoft distributes debugging tool for DirectX called "PIX". Versions DirectX 9 Introduced by Microsoft in 2002, DirectX 9 was a significant release in the DirectX family. It brought many important features and enhancements to the graphics capabilities of Windows. At the time of its release, it supported Windows 98, Windows Me, Windows 2000, and Windows XP. As of August 2024 it remains supported by all subsequent versions of Windows for backward compatibility. One of the key features introduced in DirectX 9 was Shader Model 2.0, which included Pixel Shader 2.0 and Vertex Shader 2.0. These allowed for more complex and realistic graphics rendering. It also brought much needed performance improvements through better hardware acceleration capabilities, and better utilization of GPU resources. It also introduced HLSL, which provided a more accessible way for developers to produce shaders. DirectX 9.0c was an update to the original, and has been continuously changed over the years affecting its compatibility with older operating systems. As of January 2007, Windows 2000 and Windows XP became the minimum required operating systems. This means support was officially dropped for Windows 98 and Windows Me. As of August 2024, DirectX 9.0c is still regularly updated. Windows XP SP2 and newer include DirectX 9.0c, but may require a newer DirectX runtime redistributable installation for DirectX 9.0c applications compiled with the February 2005 DirectX 9.0 SDK or newer. DirectX 9 had a significant impact on game development. Many games from the mid-2000s to early 2010s were developed using DirectX 9 and it became a standard target for developers. Even today, some games still use DirectX 9 as an option for older or less powerful hardware. DirectX 10 A major update to DirectX API, DirectX 10 ships with and is only available with Windows Vista (launched in late 2006) and later. Previous versions of Windows such as Windows XP are not able to run DirectX 10-exclusive applications. Rather, programs that are run on a Windows XP system with DirectX 10 hardware simply resort to the DirectX 9.0c code path, the latest available for Windows XP computers. Changes for DirectX 10 were extensive. Many former parts of DirectX API were deprecated in the latest DirectX SDK and are preserved for compatibility only: DirectInput was deprecated in favor of XInput, DirectSound was deprecated in favor of the Cross-platform Audio Creation Tool system (XACT) and additionally lost support for hardware accelerated audio, since the Vista audio stack renders sound in software on the CPU. The DirectPlay DPLAY.DLL was also removed and was replaced with dplayx.dll; games that rely on this DLL must duplicate it and rename it to dplay.dll. In order to achieve backwards compatibility, DirectX in Windows Vista contains several versions of Direct3D: * Direct3D 9: emulates Direct3D 9 behavior as it was on Windows XP. Details and advantages of Vista's Windows Display Driver Model are hidden from the application if WDDM drivers are installed. This is the only API available if there are only XP graphic drivers (XDDM) installed, after an upgrade to Vista for example. * Direct3D 9Ex (known internally during Windows Vista development as 9.0L or 9.L): allows full access to the new capabilities of WDDM (if WDDM drivers are installed) while maintaining compatibility for existing Direct3D applications. The Windows Aero user interface relies on D3D 9Ex. * Direct3D 10: Designed around the new driver model in Windows Vista and featuring a number of improvements to rendering capabilities and flexibility, including Shader Model 4. Direct3D 10.1 is an incremental update of Direct3D 10.0 which shipped with, and required, Windows Vista Service Pack 1, which was released in February 2008. This release mainly sets a few more image quality standards for graphics vendors, while giving developers more control over image quality. It also adds support for cube map arrays, separate blend modes per-MRT, coverage mask export from a pixel shader, ability to run pixel shader per sample, access to multi-sampled depth buffers and requires that the video card supports Shader Model 4.1 or higher and 32-bit floating-point operations. Direct3D 10.1 still fully supports Direct3D 10 hardware, but in order to utilize all of the new features, updated hardware is required. DirectX 11 Microsoft unveiled DirectX 11 at the Gamefest 08 event in Seattle. The Final Platform Update launched for Windows Vista on October 27, 2009, which was a week after the initial release of Windows 7, which launched with Direct3D 11 as a base standard. Major scheduled features including GPGPU support (DirectCompute), and Direct3D 11 with tessellation support and improved multi-threading support to assist video game developers in developing games that better utilize multi-core processors. Parts of the new API such as multi-threaded resource handling can be supported on Direct3D 9/10/10.1-class hardware. Hardware tessellation and Shader Model 5.0 require Direct3D 11 supporting hardware. Microsoft has since released the Direct3D 11 Technical Preview. Direct3D 11 is a strict superset of Direct3D 10.1 — all hardware and API features of version 10.1 are retained, and new features are added only when necessary for exposing new functionality. This helps to keep backwards compatibility with previous versions of DirectX. Four updates for DirectX 11 were released: * DirectX 11.1 is included in Windows 8. It supports WDDM 1.2 for increased performance, features improved integration of Direct2D (now at version 1.1), Direct3D, and DirectCompute, and includes DirectXMath, XAudio2, and XInput libraries from the XNA framework. It also features stereoscopic 3D support for gaming and video. DirectX 11.1 was also partially backported to Windows 7, via the Windows 7 platform update. * DirectX 11.2 is included in Windows 8.1 (including the RT version) and Windows Server 2012 R2. It added some new features to Direct2D like geometry realizations. It also added swap chain composition, which allows some elements of the scene to be rendered at lower resolutions and then composited via hardware overlay with other parts rendered at higher resolution. * DirectX 11.X is a superset of DirectX 11.2 running on the Xbox One. It actually includes some features, such as draw bundles, that were later announced as part of DirectX 12. * DirectX 11.3 was announced along with DirectX 12 at GDC and released in 2015. It is meant to complement DirectX 12 as a higher-level alternative. It is included with Windows 10. The release of Direct3D 12 comes alongside other initiatives for low-overhead graphics APIs including AMD's Mantle for AMD graphics cards, Apple's Metal for iOS and macOS and Khronos Group's cross-platform Vulkan. Multiadapter support will feature in DirectX 12 allowing developers to utilize multiple GPUs on a system simultaneously; multi-GPU support was previously dependent on vendor implementations such as AMD CrossFireX or NVIDIA SLI. Implicit Multiadapter support will work in a similar manner to previous versions of DirectX where frames are rendered alternately across linked GPUs of similar compute-power. Explicit Multiadapter will provide two distinct API patterns to developers. Linked GPUs will allow DirectX to view graphics cards in SLI or CrossFireX as a single GPU and use the combined resources; whereas Unlinked GPUs will allow GPUs from different vendors to be utilized by DirectX, such as supplementing the dedicated GPU with the integrated GPU on the CPU, or combining AMD and NVIDIA cards. However, elaborate mixed multi-GPU setups requires significantly more attentive developer support. DirectX 12 is supported on all Fermi and later Nvidia GPUs, on AMD's GCN-based chips and on Intel's Haswell and later processors' graphics units. At SIGGRAPH 2014, Intel released a demo showing a computer generated asteroid field, in which DirectX 12 was claimed to be 50–70% more efficient than DirectX 11 in rendering speed and CPU power consumption. Ashes of the Singularity was the first publicly available game to utilize DirectX 12. Testing by Ars Technica in August 2015 revealed slight performance regressions in DirectX 12 over DirectX 11 mode for the Nvidia GeForce 980 Ti, whereas the AMD Radeon R9 290x achieved consistent performance improvements of up to 70% under DirectX 12, and in some scenarios the AMD outperformed the more powerful Nvidia under DirectX 12. The performance discrepancies may be due to poor Nvidia driver optimizations for DirectX 12, or even hardware limitations of the card which was optimized for DirectX 11 serial execution; however, the exact cause remains unclear. The performance improvements of DirectX 12 on the Xbox are not as substantial as on the PC. In March 2018, DirectX Raytracing (DXR) was announced, capable of real-time ray-tracing on supported hardware, and the DXR API was added in the Windows 10 October 2018 update. In 2019 Microsoft announced the arrival of DirectX 12 to Windows 7 but only as a plug-in for certain game titles. DirectX 12 Ultimate Microsoft revealed DirectX 12 Ultimate in March 2020. DirectX 12 Ultimate will unify to a common library on both Windows 10 computers and the Xbox Series X and other ninth-generation Xbox consoles. Among the new features in Ultimate includes DirectX Raytracing 1.1, Variable Rate Shading, which gives programmers control over the level of detail of shading depending on design choices, Mesh Shaders, and Sampler Feedback. Version history {\| class"wikitable" style"margin:auto; width:auto; font-size:90%; text-align:left;" \|+DirectX versions ! colspan="3" \|Version ! rowspan="2" \|Release date ! rowspan="2" \|Notes \|- !Major ! Minor ! Number \|- !1 \| style="text-align:center;" \|1.0 \|\| 4.02.0095 \|\| September 30, 1995 \|\| Initially released as Windows Game SDK, replacing WinG for Windows 95 onward \|- ! rowspan="2" \|2 \| style="text-align:center;" \|2.0 \|\| \|\| 1996 \|\| Was shipped only with a few 3rd party applications \|- \|style="text-align:center;" \|2.0a \|\| 4.03.00.1096 \|\| June 5, 1996 \|\| Windows 95 OSR2 and Windows NT 4.0 exclusive \|- ! rowspan="4" \|3 \|rowspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \| 3.0 \|\| 4.04.00.0068 \|\| September 15, 1996 \|\| \|- \|4.04.00.0069 \|\| 1996 \|\| Later package of DirectX 3.0 included Direct3D 4.04.00.0069 \|- \|style="text-align:center;" \|3.0a \|\| 4.04.00.0070 \|\| December 1996 \|\| Windows NT 4.0 SP3 (and above)<br />Last version supporting Windows NT 4.0 \|- \|style="text-align:center;" \|3.0b \|\| 4.04.00.0070 \|\| January 1997 \|\| This was a very minor update to 3.0a that fixed a cosmetic problem with the Japanese version of Windows 95 (DSETUPJ.DLL) \|- !4 \|style"text-align:center;" \|4.0 \|\| colspan2 \| Never released \|\| DirectX 4 was never released. Raymond Chen of Microsoft explained in his book, The Old New Thing, that after DirectX 3 was released, Microsoft began developing versions 4 and 5 at the same time. Version 4 was to be a shorter-term release with small features, whereas version 5 would be a more substantial release. The lack of interest from game developers in the features stated for DirectX 4 resulted in it being shelved, and the large amount of documents that already distinguished the two new versions resulted in Microsoft choosing to not re-use version 4 to describe features intended for version 5. \|- ! rowspan="4" \|5 \|rowspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \|5.0 \|\| 4.05.00.0155 (RC55) \|\| August 4, 1997 \|\| Available as a beta for Windows 2000 that would install on Windows NT 4.0 \|- \|4.05.00.0155 (RC66) \|\| \|\| Installer included on the Windows 95 OSR 2.5 installation media \|- \|rowspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \|5.2 \|\| 4.05.01.1600 (RC00) \|\| May 5, 1998 \|\| DirectX 5.2 release for Windows 95 \|- \|4.05.01.1998 (RC0) \|\| June 25, 1998 \|\| Windows 98 exclusive \|- ! rowspan="3" \|6 \|style"text-align:center;" \|6.0 \|\| 4.06.00.0318 (RC3) \|\| August 7, 1998 \|\| Windows CE as implemented on Dreamcast and other devices \|- \|style"text-align:center;" \|6.1 \|\| 4.06.02.0436 (RC0) \|\| February 3, 1999 \|\| \|- \|style"text-align:center;" \|6.1a \|\| 4.06.03.0518 (RC0) \|\| May 5, 1999 \|\| Windows 98 Second Edition exclusive. This is last version that runs on 486 or older CPU. \|- ! rowspan="5" \|7 \|rowspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \|7.0 \|\| 4.07.00.0700 (RC1) \|\| September 22, 1999\|\| \|- \|4.07.00.0700 \|\| February 17, 2000 \|\| Windows 2000 exclusive \|- \|rowspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \|7.0a \|4.07.00.0716 (RC0) \|\| November 1999 \|\| \|- \|4.07.00.0716 (RC1) \|\| December 17, 1999 \|\| Released only for Windows 95 to 98 \|- \|style"text-align:center;" \|7.1 \|\| 4.07.01.3000 (RC1) \|\| September 14, 2000 \|\| Windows Me exclusive. Last version to have built-in RGB software rendering support \|- ! rowspan="6" \|8 \|style"text-align:center;" \|8.0 \|\| 4.08.00.0400 (RC10) \|\| November 10, 2000 \|\| \|- \|style"text-align:center;" \|8.0a \|\| 4.08.00.0400 (RC14) \|\| January 24, 2001\|\| Last version supporting Windows 95 and last version to have software rendering support in dxdiag.exe \|- \|rowspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \|8.1 \|\| 4.08.01.0810 \|\| October 25, 2001 \|\| Windows XP, Windows XP SP1, Windows Server 2003 \|- \|4.08.01.0881 (RC7) \|\| November 8, 2001 \|\| This version is for the down level operating systems (Windows 98, Windows Me and Windows 2000) \|- \|style="text-align:center;" \|8.1b \|\| 4.08.01.0901 (RC7) \|\| June 25, 2002 \|\| This release includes an update to Direct3D (D3d8.dll). Includes a fix to DirectShow on Windows 2000 (Quartz.dll) \|- \|style="text-align:center;" \|8.2 \|\| 4.08.02.0134 (RC0) \|\| 2002 \|\| Same as the DirectX 8.1b but includes DirectPlay 8.2 \|- ! rowspan="8" \|9 \|style="text-align:center;" \|9.0 \|\| 4.09.00.0900 (RC4) \|\| December 19, 2002 \|\| \|- \|style="text-align:center;" \|9.0a \|\| 4.09.00.0901 (RC6) \|\| March 26, 2003 \|\| \|- \|style="text-align:center;" \|9.0b \|\| 4.09.00.0902 (RC2) \|\| August 13, 2003 \|\| \|- \| rowspan"5" \|9.0c \|4.09.00.0904 (RC0) \|\| July 22, 2004 \|\| First 9.0c version<br>Periodic hybrid 32-bit/64-bit updates, starting from October 2004, were released bimonthly until August 2007, and quarterly thereafter. The last update was released in June 2010 \|- \|rowspan="4" \|4.09.00.0904 \|\| August 6, 2004 / April 21, 2008* \|\| Windows XP SP2 and SP3, Windows Server 2003 SP1 and Windows Server 2003 R2 \|- \|October 10, 2006 \|Last version supporting Windows 98, 98 SE and Me \|Last version supporting Windows 2000, \|- ! rowspan="3" \|10 \|style="text-align:center;" \|10 \|\| 6.00.6000.16386 \|\| November 30, 2006 \|\| Windows Vista exclusive \|- \|rowspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \|10.1 \|\| 6.00.6001.18000 \|\| February 4, 2008 \|\| Windows Vista SP1, Windows Server 2008<br />Includes Direct3D 10.1 \|- \|6.00.6002.18005 \|\| April 28, 2009 \|\| Windows Vista SP2, Windows Server 2008 SP2<br />Includes Direct3D 10.1 \|- ! rowspan="6" \|11 \|rowspan"3" style"text-align:center;" \|11 \|\| 6.01.7600.16385 \|\| October 22, 2009 \|\| Windows 7, Windows Server 2008 R2 \|- \|\| 6.00.6002.18107 \|\| October 27, 2009 \|\| Windows Vista SP2 and Windows Server 2008 SP2, through the [https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/topic/platform-update-supplement-for-windows-vista-and-for-windows-server-2008-5f6a1e60-0bcd-2080-06ab-85ecc8110d5f Platform Update for Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008] \|- \|6.01.7601.17514 \|\| February 16, 2011 \|\| Windows 7 SP1, Windows Server 2008 R2 SP1 \|- \|rowspan"2" style"text-align:center;" \|11.1 \|\| 6.02.9200.16384 \|\| August 1, 2012 \|\| Windows 8, Windows RT, Windows Server 2012<br /> \|- \|6.02.9200.16492 \|\| February 11, 2013 \|\| Windows 7 SP1 and Windows Server 2008 R2 SP1, through the [https://support.microsoft.com/en-gb/topic/platform-update-for-windows-7-sp1-and-windows-server-2008-r2-sp1-d97da9ca-c15c-b21f-ebb0-838f7be8d9f6 Platform Update for Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2] \|- \|style="text-align:center;" \|11.2 \|\| 6.03.9600.16384 \|\| October 18, 2013 \|\| Windows 8.1, Windows RT, Windows Server 2012 R2 \|- ! rowspan="7" \|12 \| rowspan"3" style"text-align:center;" \|12 \|\|10.00.10240.16384 \|\| July 29, 2015 \|\| Windows 10 \|- \|10.00.15063.0000 \|\| March 20, 2017 \|\| Windows 10, Depth Bounds Testing and Programmable MSAA added \|- \|10.00.17763.0000 \|\| November 20, 2019 \|\| Direct3D 12 only for Windows 7 SP1, via a dedicated source code package for app developers \|- \| rowspan="2" \|12.1 \| 10.00.17763.0001\|\|October 2, 2018 \|\| Windows 10, DirectX Raytracing support added \|- \|10.00.18362.0116 \|May 19, 2019 \|\| Windows 10, Variable Rate Shading (VRS) support added \|- \| rowspan="2" \|12.2 \|10.00.19041.0928 \|November 10, 2020\|\|Windows 10, Ultimate \|- \|10.00.22000.1000 \|October 5, 2021 \|Windows 11, Added native refresh rate switching and improved graphics capabilities to Windows Subsystem for Linux \|} The version number as reported by Microsoft's DxDiag tool (version 4.09.0000.0900 and higher) use the x.xx.xxxx.xxxx format for version numbers. However, the DirectX and Windows XP MSDN page claims that the registry always has been in the x.xx.xx.xxxx format. Therefore, when the above table lists a version as '4.09.00.0904' Microsoft's DxDiag tool may have it as '4.09.0000.0904'.CompatibilityVarious releases of Windows have included and supported various versions of DirectX, allowing newer versions of the operating system to continue running applications designed for earlier versions of DirectX until those versions can be gradually phased out in favor of newer APIs, drivers, and hardware. APIs such as Direct3D and DirectSound need to interact with hardware, and they do this through a device driver. Hardware manufacturers have to write these drivers for a particular DirectX version's device driver interface (or DDI), and test each individual piece of hardware to make them DirectX compatible. Some hardware devices have only DirectX compatible drivers (in other words, one must install DirectX in order to use that hardware). Early versions of DirectX included an up-to-date library of all of the DirectX compatible drivers currently available. This practice was stopped however, in favor of the web-based Windows Update driver-update system, which allowed users to download only the drivers relevant to their hardware, rather than the entire library. Prior to DirectX 10, DirectX runtime was designed to be backward compatible with older drivers, meaning that newer versions of the APIs were designed to interoperate with older drivers written against a previous version's DDI. The application programmer had to query the available hardware capabilities using a complex system of "cap bits" each tied to a particular hardware feature. Direct3D 7 and earlier would work on any version of the DDI, Direct3D 8 requires a minimum DDI level of 6 and Direct3D 9 requires a minimum DDI level of 7. However, the Direct3D 10 runtime in Windows Vista cannot run on older hardware drivers due to the significantly updated DDI, which requires a unified feature set and abandons the use of "cap bits". Direct3D 10.1 introduces "feature levels" 10_0 and 10_1, which allow use of only the hardware features defined in the specified version of Direct3D API. Direct3D 11 adds level 11_0 and "10 Level 9" - a subset of the Direct3D 10 API designed to run on Direct3D 9 hardware, which has three feature levels (9_1, 9_2 and 9_3) grouped by common capabilities of "low", "med" and "high-end" video cards; the runtime directly uses Direct3D 9 DDI provided in all WDDM drivers. Feature level 11_1 has been introduced with Direct3D 11.1. .NET Framework In 2002, Microsoft released a version of DirectX compatible with the Microsoft .NET Framework, thus allowing programmers to take advantage of DirectX functionality from within .NET applications using compatible languages such as managed C++ or the use of the C# programming language. This API was known as "Managed DirectX" (or MDX for short), and claimed to operate at 98% of performance of the underlying native DirectX APIs. In December 2005, February 2006, April 2006, and August 2006, Microsoft released successive updates to this library, culminating in a beta version called Managed DirectX 2.0. While Managed DirectX 2.0 consolidated functionality that had previously been scattered over multiple assemblies into a single assembly, thus simplifying dependencies on it for software developers, development on this version has subsequently been discontinued, and it is no longer supported. The Managed DirectX 2.0 library expired on October 5, 2006. During the GDC 2006, Microsoft presented the XNA Framework, a new managed version of DirectX (similar but not identical to Managed DirectX) that is intended to assist development of games by making it easier to integrate DirectX, HLSL and other tools in one package. It also supports the execution of managed code on the Xbox 360. The XNA Game Studio Express RTM was made available on December 11, 2006, as a free download for Windows XP. Unlike the DirectX runtime, Managed DirectX, XNA Framework or the Xbox 360 APIs (XInput, XACT etc.) have not shipped as part of Windows. Developers are expected to redistribute the runtime components along with their games or applications. No Microsoft product including the latest XNA releases provides DirectX 10 support for the .NET Framework. The other approach for DirectX in managed languages is to use third-party libraries like: SlimDX, an open source library for DirectX programming on the .NET Framework * SharpDX, which is an open source project delivering the full DirectX API for .NET on all Windows platforms, allowing the development of high performance game, 2D and 3D graphics rendering as well as real-time sound applications * [http://sourceforge.net/projects/directshownet DirectShow.NET] for the DirectShow subset * [http://code.msdn.microsoft.com/WindowsAPICodePack Windows API CodePack for .NET Framework] , which is an open source library from Microsoft. Alternatives There are alternatives to the DirectX family of APIs, with OpenGL, its successor Vulkan, Metal and Mantle having the most features comparable to Direct3D. Examples of other APIs include SDL, Allegro, OpenMAX, OpenML, OpenAL, OpenCL, FMOD, SFML etc. Many of these libraries are cross-platform or have open codebases. There are also alternative implementations that aim to provide the same API, such as the one in Wine. Furthermore, the developers of ReactOS are trying to reimplement DirectX under the name "ReactX". See also * ActiveX * Direct3D * DxDiag * Graphics Device Interface (GDI) * Graphics pipeline * Simple DirectMedia Layer * Timeout Detection and Recovery * Vulkan References External links * [https://docs.microsoft.com/windows/win32/directx Microsoft's DirectX developer site] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100429174843/http://hothardware.com/Articles/The%2DState%2Dof%2DDirectX%2D10%2D%2DImage%2DQuality%2D%2DPerformance/ The State of DirectX 10 - Image Quality & Performance] Category:1995 software Category:Application programming interfaces Category:Microsoft application programming interfaces Category:Virtual reality	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectX	2025-04-05T18:28:39.143480
8508	Slalom skiing	thumbnail\|right\|300px\|Tonje Sekse competes in the slalom Slalom is an alpine skiing and alpine snowboarding discipline, involving skiing between poles or gates. These are spaced more closely than those in giant slalom, super giant slalom and downhill, necessitating quicker and shorter turns. Internationally, the sport is contested at the FIS Alpine World Ski Championships, and at the Olympic Winter Games. History thumbnail\|right\|Nathalie Eklund skis slalom at Trysil, Norway in 2011 The term slalom comes from the Morgedal/Seljord dialect of the Norwegian word "slalåm": "sla", meaning "slightly inclining hillside", and "låm", meaning "track after skis". The inventors of modern skiing classified their trails according to their difficulty: Slalåm was a trail used in Telemark by boys and girls not yet able to try themselves on the more challenging runs. Ufsilåm was a trail with one obstacle (ufse) like a jump, a fence, a difficult turn, a gorge, a cliff (often more than high), et cetera. Uvyrdslåm was a trail with several obstacles. A Norwegian military downhill competition in 1767 included racing downhill among trees "without falling or breaking skis". Sondre Norheim and other skiers from Telemark practiced uvyrdslåm or "disrespectful/reckless downhill" where they raced downhill in difficult and untested terrain (i.e., off piste). The 1866 "ski race" in Oslo was a combined cross-country, jumping and slalom competition. In the slalom participants were allowed use poles for braking and steering, and they were given points for style (appropriate skier posture). During the late 19th century Norwegian skiers participated in all branches (jumping, slalom, and cross-country) often with the same pair of skis. Slalom and variants of slalom were often referred to as hill races. Around 1900 hill races were abandoned in the Oslo championships at Huseby and Holmenkollen. Mathias Zdarsky's development of the Lilienfeld binding helped change hill races into a specialty of the Alps region. The rules for the modern slalom were developed by Arnold Lunn in 1922 for the British National Ski Championships, and adopted for alpine skiing at the 1936 Winter Olympics. Under these rules gates were marked by pairs of flags rather than single ones, were arranged so that the racers had to use a variety of turn lengths to negotiate them, and scoring was on the basis of time alone, rather than on both time and style. Course thumbnail\|100px\|right\|Example of a slalom course, whereby the skier passes through pairs of poles (gates) of alternating colors on this German language diagram. Ziel stands for the finish line. A course is constructed by laying out a series of gates, formed by alternating pairs of red and blue poles. The skier must pass between the two poles forming the gate, with the tips of both skis and the skier's feet passing between the poles. A course has 55 to 75 gates for men and 40 to 60 for women. The vertical drop for a men's course is and measures slightly less for women. The gates are arranged in a variety of configurations to challenge the competitor. Clearing the gates Traditionally, bamboo poles were used for gates, the rigidity of which forced skiers to maneuver their entire body around each gate. In the early 1980s, rigid poles were replaced by hard plastic poles, hinged at the base. The hinged gates require, according to FIS rules, only that the skis and boots of the skier go around each gate. The new gates allow a more direct path down a slalom course through the process of cross-blocking or shinning the gates. Cross-blocking is a technique in which the legs go around the gate with the upper body inclined toward, or even across, the gate; in this case the racer's outside pole and shinguards hit the gate, knocking it down and out of the way. Cross-blocking is done by pushing the gate down with the arms, hands, or shins. By 1989, most of the top technical skiers in the world had adopted the cross-block technique. Equipment 240px\|thumb\|right\|Bottom: 2013 FIS legal slalom race skis, top: giant slalom race skis from 2006 With the innovation of shaped skis around the turn of the 21st century, equipment used for slalom in international competition changed drastically. World Cup skiers commonly skied on slalom skis at a length of in the 1980s and 1990s but by the 2002 Olympic Winter Games in Salt Lake City, the majority of competitors were using skis measuring or less. The downside of the shorter skis was that athletes found that recoveries were more difficult with a smaller platform underfoot. Out of concern for the safety of athletes, the FIS began to set minimum ski lengths for international slalom competition. The minimum was initially set at for men and for women, but was increased to for men and for women for the 2003–2004 season. The equipment minimums and maximums imposed by the International Ski Federation (FIS) have created a backlash from skiers, suppliers, and fans. The main objection is that the federation is regressing the equipment, and hence the sport, by two decades. American Bode Miller hastened the shift to the shorter, more radical sidecut skis when he achieved unexpected success after becoming the first Junior Olympic athlete to adopt the equipment in giant slalom and super-G in 1996. A few years later, the technology was adapted to slalom skis as well. Men's slalom World Cup podiums In the following table men's slalom World Cup podiums in the World Cup since first season in 1967. Season1st2nd3rd1967 Jean-Claude Killy Guy Perillat Heinrich Messner1968 Dumeng Giovanoli Jean-Claude Killy Patrick Russel1969 Alain Penz Alfred Matt Jean-Noel Augert Patrick Russel 1970 Alain Penz Jean-Noël Augert Patrick Russel 1971 Jean-Noël Augert Gustav Thöni Tyler Palmer1972 Jean-Noël Augert Andrzej Bachleda Roland Thöni1973 Gustav Thöni Christian Neureuther Jean-Noël Augert1974 Gustav Thöni Christian Neureuther Johann Kniewasser1975 Ingemar Stenmark Gustav Thöni Piero Gros1976 Ingemar Stenmark Piero Gros Gustav Thöni Hans Hinterseer1977 Ingemar Stenmark Klaus Heidegger Paul Frommelt1978 Ingemar Stenmark Klaus Heidegger Phil Mahre1979 Ingemar Stenmark Phil Mahre Christian Neureuther1980 Ingemar Stenmark Bojan Križaj Christian Neureuther1981 Ingemar Stenmark Phil Mahre Bojan Križaj Steve Mahre1982 Phil Mahre Ingemar Stenmark Steve Mahre1983 Ingemar Stenmark Stig Strand Andreas Wenzel1984 Marc Girardelli Ingemar Stenmark Franz Gruber1985 Marc Girardelli Paul Frommelt Ingemar Stenmark1986 Rok Petrovič Bojan Križaj Ingemar Stenmark Paul Frommelt 1987 Bojan Križaj Ingemar Stenmark Armin Bittner1988 Alberto Tomba Günther Mader Felix McGrath1989 Armin Bittner Alberto Tomba Marc Girardelli Ole Kristian Furuseth1990 Armin Bittner Alberto Tomba Ole Kristian Furuseth 1991 Marc Girardelli Ole Kristian Furuseth Rudolf Nierlich1992 Alberto Tomba Paul Accola Finn Christian Jagge1993 Thomas Fogdö Alberto Tomba Thomas Stangassinger1994 Alberto Tomba Thomas Stangassinger Jure Košir1995 Alberto Tomba Michael Tritscher Jure Košir1996 Sebastien Amiez Alberto Tomba Thomas Sykora1997 Thomas Sykora Thomas Stangassinger Finn Christian Jagge1998 Thomas Sykora Thomas Stangassinger Hans Petter Buraas1999 Thomas Stangassinger Jure Košir Finn Christian Jagge2000 Kjetil André Aamodt Ole Kristian Furuseth Matjaž Vrhovnik2001 Benjamin Raich Heinz Schilchegger Mario Matt2002 Ivica Kostelić Bode Miller Jean-Pierre Vidal2003 Kalle Palander Ivica Kostelić Rainer Schönfelder2004 Rainer Schönfelder Kalle Palander Benjamin Raich2005 Benjamin Raich Rainer Schönfelder Manfred Pranger2006 Giorgio Rocca Kalle Palander Benjamin Raich2007 Benjamin Raich Mario Matt Jens Byggmark2008 Manfred Mölgg Jean-Baptiste Grange Reinfried Herbst2009 Jean-Baptiste Grange Ivica Kostelić Julien Lizeroux2010 Reinfried Herbst Julien Lizeroux Silvan Zurbriggen2011 Ivica Kostelić Jean-Baptiste Grange André Myhrer2012 André Myhrer Ivica Kostelić Marcel Hirscher2013 Marcel Hirscher Felix Neureuther Ivica Kostelić2014 Marcel Hirscher Felix Neureuther Henrik Kristoffersen2015 Marcel Hirscher Felix Neureuther Alexander Khoroshilov2016 Henrik Kristoffersen Marcel Hirscher Felix Neureuther2017 Marcel Hirscher Henrik Kristoffersen Manfred Mölgg2018 Marcel Hirscher Henrik Kristoffersen André Myhrer2019 Marcel Hirscher Clément Noël Daniel Yule2020 Henrik Kristoffersen Clément Noël Daniel Yule2021 Marco Schwarz Clément Noël Ramon Zenhäusern2022 Henrik Kristoffersen Manuel Feller Atle Lie McGrath2023 Lucas Braathen Henrik Kristoffersen Ramon Zenhäusern2024 Manuel Feller Linus Straßer Timon Haugan Women's slalom World Cup podiums In the following table women's slalom World Cup podiums in the World Cup since first season in 1967. Season1st2nd3rd1967 Annie Famose Marielle Goitschel Nancy Greene1968 Marielle Goitschel Gertrud Gabl Florence Steurer1969 Gertrud Gabl Kiki Cutter Ingrid Lafforgue1970 Ingrid Lafforgue Barbara Cochran Michèle Jacot1971 Betsy Clifford Britt Lafforgue Barbara Cochran Annemarie Moser-Pröll1972 Britt Lafforgue Françoise Macchi Florence Steurer1973 Patricia Emonet Rosi Mittermaier Monika Kaserer1974 Christa Zechmeister Rosi Mittermaier Fabienne Serrat1975 Lise-Marie Morerod Hanni Wenzel Christa Zechmeister1976 Rosi Mittermaier Lise-Marie Morerod Danièle Debernard1977 Lise-Marie Morerod Perrine Pelen Claudia Giordani1978 Hanni Wenzel Perrine Pelen Fabienne Serrat1979 Regina Sackl Annemarie Moser-Pröll Lea Sölkner1980 Perrine Pelen Hanni Wenzel Annemarie Moser-Pröll1981 Erika Hess Christin Cooper Daniela Zini1982 Erika Hess Ursula Konzett Christin Cooper1983 Erika Hess Roswitha Steiner Maria Rosa Quario1984 Tamara McKinney Roswitha Steiner Perrine Pelen1985 Erika Hess Tamara McKinney Perrine Pelen1986 Roswitha Steiner Erika Hess Perrine Pelen1987 Corinne Schmidhauser Tamara McKinney Erika Hess1988 Roswitha Steiner Vreni Schneider Anita Wachter1989 Vreni Schneider Monika Maierhofer Tamara McKinney1990 Vreni Schneider Claudia Strobl Ida Ladstätter1991 Petra Kronberger Pernilla Wiberg Blanca Fernández Ochoa1992 Vreni Schneider Pernilla Wiberg Blanca Fernández Ochoa1993 Vreni Schneider Annelise Coberger Patricia Chauvet1994 Vreni Schneider Pernilla Wiberg Urska Hrovat1995 Vreni Schneider Pernilla Wiberg Martina Ertl1996 Elfi Eder Urska Hrovat Pernilla Wiberg1997 Pernilla Wiberg Claudia Riegler Deborah Compagnoni1998 Ylva Nowén Kristina Koznick Hilde Gerg1999 Sabine Egger Pernilla Wiberg Anja Pärson2000 Špela Pretnar Christel Pascal Anja Pärson2001 Janica Kostelić Sonja Nef Martina Ertl2002 Laure Pequegnot Kristina Koznick Anja Pärson2003 Janica Kostelić Anja Pärson Tanja Poutiainen2004 Anja Pärson Marlies Schild Monika Bergmann-Schmuderer2005 Tanja Poutiainen Janica Kostelić Marlies Schild2006 Janica Kostelić Marlies Schild Anja Pärson2007 Marlies Schild Nicole Hosp Veronika Zuzulová2008 Marlies Schild Nicole Hosp Veronika Zuzulová2009 Maria Riesch Šárka Záhrobská Lindsey Vonn2010 Maria Riesch Kathrin Zettel Marlies Schild2011 Marlies Schild Tanja Poutiainen Maria Riesch2012 Marlies Schild Michaela Kirchgasser Tina Maze2013 Mikaela Shiffrin Tina Maze Veronika Velez-Zuzulová2014 Mikaela Shiffrin Frida Hansdotter Marlies Schild2015 Mikaela Shiffrin Frida Hansdotter Tina Maze2016 Frida Hansdotter Veronika Velez-Zuzulová Wendy Holdener2017 Mikaela Shiffrin Veronika Velez-Zuzulová Wendy Holdener2018 Mikaela Shiffrin Wendy Holdener Frida Hansdotter2019 Mikaela Shiffrin Petra Vlhová Wendy Holdener2020 Petra Vlhová Mikaela Shiffrin Katharina Liensberger2021 Katharina Liensberger Mikaela Shiffrin Petra Vlhová2022 Petra Vlhová Mikaela Shiffrin Lena Dürr2023 Mikaela Shiffrin Wendy Holdener Petra Vlhová2024 Mikaela Shiffrin Lena Dürr Petra Vlhová References External links Category:Alpine skiing cs:Alpské lyžování#Slalom fi:Pujottelu	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slalom_skiing	2025-04-05T18:28:39.568764
8518	Dachshund	Wiener-Dog (film)}} at the withers Standard Dachshund: at the withers \| maleheight \| femaleheight \| weight =Miniature Dachshund: up to Standard Dachshund: \| maleweight \| femaleweight \| coat = Smooth-haired, Long-haired, Wire-haired \| colour = Solid red, black & tan, chocolate & tan, dapple, brindle, piebald or blue. \| litter_size \| life_span <!-----Kennel club standards-----> \| kc_name = VDH \| kc_std = https://www.vdh.de/welpen/mein-welpe/dachshund \| fcistd = http://www.fci.be/Nomenclature/Standards/148g04-en.pdf <!-----Notes-----> \| note = }} The dachshund ( or ; German: 'badger dog'), also known as the wiener dog or sausage dog, badger dog and doxie, is a short-legged, long-bodied, hound-type dog breed. The dog may be smooth-haired, wire-haired, or long-haired, with varied coloration. The dachshund was bred to scent, chase, and flush out badgers and other burrow-dwelling animals. The miniature dachshund was bred to hunt small animals such as rabbits. The dachshund was ranked 9th in registrations with the American Kennel Club in 2022. Etymology The name dachshund is of German origin, and means 'badger dog', from ('badger') and ('dog, hound'). The German word Dachshund is pronounced . The pronunciation varies in English: variations of the first and second syllables include , and , , . The first syllable may be incorrectly pronounced as by some English speakers. Although is a German word, in modern Germany, the dogs are more commonly known by the short name . Working dogs are less commonly known as . Because of their long, narrow build, they are often nicknamed wiener or sausage dog. Classification While classified in the hound group or scent hound group in the United States and Great Britain, the breed has its own group in the countries which belong to the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (World Canine Federation). Many dachshunds, especially the wire-haired subtype, may exhibit behavior and appearance similar to the terrier group of dogs. An argument can be made for the scent (or hound) group classification because the breed was developed to use scent to trail and hunt animals, and probably descended from the Saint Hubert Hound like many modern scent hound breeds such as bloodhounds and Basset Hounds; but with the persistent personality and love for digging that probably developed from the terrier, it can also be argued that they could belong in the terrier, or "earth dog", group. Coat and color There are three dachshund coat varieties: smooth coat (short hair), long-haired, and wire-haired. The Dachshund Club of America (DCA) and the American Kennel Club (AKC) consider Double Dapple to be out of standard and a disqualifying color in the show ring. Piebald is now a recognized color in the Dachshund Club of America (DCA) breed standard. Dogs that are double-dappled have the merle pattern of a dapple, but with distinct white patches that occur when the dapple gene expresses itself twice in the same area of the coat. The DCA excluded the wording "double-dapple" from the standard in 2007 and now strictly uses the wording "dapple" as the double dapple gene is commonly responsible for blindness and deafness. Size Dachshunds come in three sizes: standard, miniature, and kaninchen (German for "rabbit"). Although the standard and miniature sizes are recognized almost universally, the rabbit size is not recognized by clubs in the United States and the United Kingdom. The rabbit size is recognized by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (World Canine Federation) (FCI), which contain kennel clubs from 83 countries all over the world. An increasingly common size for family pets falls between the miniature and the standard size; these are frequently referred to as "tweenies," which is not an official classification. A full-grown standard dachshund typically weighs , while the miniature variety normally weighs less than . Eye color Light-colored dachshunds can sport amber, light brown, or green eyes; however, kennel club standards state that the darker the eye color, the better. Dapple and double dapple dachshunds can have multi-coloured "wall" eyes with fully blue, partially blue or patched irises owing to the effect of the dapple gene on eye pigmentation expression. "Wall" eye is permissible according to DCA standards but undesirable by AKC standards. Temperament Dachshunds can be stubborn and refuse commands, especially if chasing a small animal which they have a propensity for. As dachshunds were originally used as badger hunters they have a keen sense for chasing smaller animals. Dachshunds are often stubborn, making them a challenge to train.}} Dachshunds can be aggressive to strangers and other dogs. Despite this, they are rated in the intelligence of dogs as an average working dog with a persistent ability to follow trained commands 50% of the time or more. They can have a loud bark. Some bark quite a lot and may need training to stop, while others will not bark much at all. According to the American Kennel Club's breed standards, "the dachshund is clever, lively and courageous to the point of rashness, persevering in above and below ground work, with all the senses well-developed. Any display of shyness is a serious fault." Their temperament and body language give the impression that they do not know or care about their relatively small size. Like many small hunting dogs, they will challenge a larger dog. Indulged dachshunds may become snappy or extremely obstinate. A 2008 University of Pennsylvania study of 6,000 dog owners who were interviewed indicated that dogs of smaller breeds were more likely to be "genetically predisposed toward aggressive behaviour". Dachshunds were rated the most aggressive, with 20% having bitten strangers, as well as high rates of attacks on other dogs and their owners. The study noted that attacks by small dogs were unlikely to cause serious injuries and because of this were probably under-reported. Health The breed is prone to spinal problems, especially intervertebral disk disease (IVDD), due in part to an extremely long spinal column and short rib cage. The risk of injury may be worsened by obesity, jumping, rough handling, or intense exercise, which place greater strain on the vertebrae. About 20–25% of dachshunds will develop IVDD. Dachshunds with a number of calcified intervertebral discs at a young age have a higher risk of developing disc disease in later life. In addition, studies have shown that development of calcified discs is highly heritable in the breed. An appropriate screening programme for IVDD has been identified by Finnish researchers and a UK IVDD screening programme has been developed for breeders with the aim to reduce prevalence of spinal problems. Treatment consists of combinations of crate confinement and courses of anti-inflammatory medications (steroids and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs like carprofen and meloxicam), or chronic pain medications, like tramadol. Serious cases may require surgery to remove the troublesome disk contents. A dog may need the aid of a cart to get around if paralysis occurs. A minimally invasive procedure called "percutaneous laser disk ablation" has been developed at the Oklahoma State University Veterinary Hospital. Originally, the procedure was used in clinical trials Dachshunds may also be affected by osteogenesis imperfecta (brittle bone disease). The condition seems to be mainly limited to wire-haired Dachshunds, with 17% being carriers. A genetic test is available to allow breeders to avoid breeding carriers to carriers. In such pairings, each puppy will have a 25% chance of being affected. In some double dapples, there are varying degrees of vision and hearing loss, including reduced or absent eyes. Not all double dapples have problems with their eyes and/or ears, which may include degrees of hearing loss, full deafness, malformed ears, congenital eye defects, reduced or absent eyes, partial or full blindness, or varying degrees of both vision and hearing problems; but heightened problems can occur owing to the genetic process in which two dapple genes cross, particularly in certain breeding lines. Dapple genes, which are dominant genes, are considered "dilution" genes, meaning whatever color the dog would have originally carried is lightened, or diluted, randomly; two dominant "dilution" genes can cancel each other out, or "cross", removing all color and producing a white recessive gene, essentially a white mutation. When occurring genetically within the eyes or ears, this white mutation can be detrimental to development, causing hearing or vision problems. Other dachshund health problems include hereditary epilepsy, granulomatous meningoencephalitis, dental issues, Cushing's syndrome, thyroid various allergies and atopies, and various eye conditions including cataracts, glaucoma, progressive retinal atrophy, The records analyzed contained data on 42,855 litters. It was found that as the inbreeding coefficient increased, litter size decreased and the percentage of stillborn puppies increased, thus indicating inbreeding depression. It was also found that young and older dams had smaller litter sizes and more stillborn puppies than middle-aged dams. A study in Japan found the Miniature Dachshund to have lower rates of glaucoma than other breeds. With 2.4% of cases belonging to the breed but the breed making up 10.1% of visits to the veterinary hospital. Dachshunds are predisposed to hypothyroidism. Life expectancy A 2018 study in Japan of pet cemetery data put the Miniature Dachshund life expectancy at 13.9 years compared to 13.7 overall and 15.1 for crossbreeds. A 2024 study in the UK found a life expectancy of 13.2 years for the breed compared to an average of 12.7 for purebreeds and 12 for crossbreeds with the Miniature Dachshund found to have a life expectancy of 14 years. A 2024 Italian study found a life expectancy of 11.5 years for the breed compared to 10 years overall. A 2005 Swedish study of insurance data found 28% of Dachshund died by the age of 10, less than the overall rate of 35% of dogs dying by the age of 10. History ]] The dachshund is a creation of German breeders and includes elements of German, French, and English hounds and terriers. Dachshunds have been kept by royal courts all over Europe, including that of Queen Victoria, who was particularly enamored of the breed. The first verifiable references to the dachshund, originally named the "Dachs Kriecher" ("badger crawler") or "Dachs Krieger" ("badger warrior"), came from books written in the early 18th century. Prior to that, there exist references to "badger dogs" and "hole dogs", but these likely refer to purposes rather than to specific breeds. The original German dachshunds were larger than the modern full-size variety, weighing between , and originally came in straight-legged and crook-legged varieties (the modern dachshund is descended from the latter). Though the breed is famous for its use in exterminating badgers and badger-baiting, dachshunds were also commonly used for rabbit and fox hunting, for locating wounded deer, and in packs were known to hunt game as large as wild boar and as fierce as the wolverine. There are huge differences of opinion as to when dachshunds were specifically bred for their purpose of hunting badger, as the American Kennel Club states the dachshund was bred in the 15th century, while the Dachshund Club of America states that foresters bred the dogs in the 18th or 19th century. Double-dapple dachshunds, which are prone to eye disease, blindness, or hearing problems, are generally believed to have been introduced to the United States between 1879 and 1885. The flap-down ears and famous curved tail of the dachshund have deliberately been bred into the dog. In the case of the ears, this is to keep grass seeds, dirt, and other matter from entering the ear canal. The curved tail is dual-purposed: to be seen more easily in long grass and, in the case of burrowing dachshunds, to help haul the dog out if it becomes stuck in a burrow. The smooth-haired dachshund, the oldest style, may be a cross between the German Shorthaired Pointer, a Pinscher, and a Bracke (a type of bloodhound), or to have been produced by crossing a short Bruno Jura Hound with a pinscher. Others believe it was a cross from a miniature French pointer and a pinscher; others claim that it was developed from the St. Hubert Hound, also a bloodhound, in the 18th century, and still others believe that they were descended from Basset Hounds, based upon their scent abilities and general appearance. The exact origins of the dachshund are therefore unknown. According to William Loeffler, from The American Book of the Dog (1891), in the chapter on dachshunds: "The origin of the Dachshund is in doubt, our best authorities disagreeing as to the beginning of the breed." There are two theories about how the standard long-haired dachshund came about. One theory is that smooth dachshunds would occasionally produce puppies which had slightly longer hair than their parents. By selectively breeding these animals, breeders eventually produced a dog which consistently produced long-haired offspring, and the long-haired dachshund was born. Another theory is that the standard long-haired dachshund was developed by breeding smooth dachshunds with various land and water spaniels. The long-haired dachshund may be a cross among any of the small dog breeds in the spaniel group, including the German Stoeberhund, and the smooth dachshund. During World War I, the dachshund's popularity in the United States plummeted because of this association. As a result, they were often called "liberty hounds", just as "liberty cabbage" became a term for sauerkraut mostly in North America. The stigma of the association was revived to a lesser extent during World War II, though it was comparatively short-lived. Kaiser Wilhelm II and German field marshal Erwin Rommel were known for keeping dachshunds. Owing to the association of the breed with Germany, as well as its particular popularity among dog keepers in Munich at the time, the dachshund was chosen as the first official mascot for the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, with the name Waldi. In the German sitcom Hausmeister Krause, the main protagonist, Dieter Krause, is portrayed as a typical German square and fuddy-duddy, who embodies many German stereotypes, and his obsession for dachshunds is one of them. The important role of dachshunds in the series even led to a new rise in popularity of dachshunds in Germany. Sports Some people train and enter their dachshunds to compete in dachshund races, such as the Wiener Nationals. Several races across the United States routinely draw several thousand attendees. Despite the popularity of these events, the Dachshund Club of America opposes "wiener racing", as many greyhound tracks use the events to draw large crowds to their facilities. The DCA is also worried about potential injuries to dogs, owing to their predisposition to back injuries. Another favorite sport is earthdog trials, in which dachshunds enter tunnels with dead ends and obstacles attempting to locate either an artificial bait or live but caged (and thus protected) rats. Dackel versus Teckel In Germany, dachshunds are widely called Dackel (both singular and plural). Among hunters, they are mainly referred to as Teckel. There are kennels which specialize in breeding hunting dachshunds, the so-called jagdliche Leistungszucht ("hunting-related performance breeding") or Gebrauchshundezucht ("working dog breeding"), as opposed to breeding family dogs. Therefore, it is sometimes incorrectly believed that Teckel is either a name for the hunting breed or a mark for passing the test for a trained hunting dog (called "VGP", "Verband-Gebrauchsprüfung") in Germany.PopularityDachshunds are one of the most popular dogs in the United States, ranking 12th in the 2018 AKC registration statistics. They are popular with urban and apartment dwellers, ranking among the top 10 most popular breeds in 76 of 190 major US cities surveyed by the AKC. There are organized local dachshund clubs in most major American cities, including New York, New Orleans, Portland, Los Angeles, and Chicago. As of 2024, the American Kennel Club found the Dachshund to be the 6th most popular dog breed. <gallery class"center" caption"In Art"> File:Adolf Eberle Dackelfamilie.jpg\|Die Dackelfamilie mit Jäger und Magd (The Dachshund family with Hunter and Maid) by Adolf Eberle File:Jean-Baptiste Oudry - Hound with Gun and Dead Game - WGA16780.jpg\|Jean-Baptiste Oudry – Dachshund with Gun and Dead Game, 1740 File:L Riedler Hunde 1 Wie wird es enden.jpg\|How will it end? Wie wird es enden? c. 1900. File:Dackel mit Bierkrug.jpg\|German (Swabian) postcard with inscription "This beer belongs to my master!" c. 1900. File:Carl Reichert - Curious dachshund puppies and a frog.jpg\|Curious Dachshund Puppies & A Frog. Carl Reichert. </gallery> Notable dogs and owners * John F. Kennedy bought a dachshund puppy while touring Europe in 1937 for his then-girlfriend Olivia. The puppy, named Dunker, never left Germany after Kennedy started to get allergic reactions. * Grover Cleveland, the 22nd and 24th President, had a dachshund in the White House. * William Randolph Hearst was an avid lover of dachshunds. When his own dachshund Helena died, he eulogized her in his "In The News" column. * Fred, E. B. White's dachshund, appeared in many of his famous essays. * Lump (; German for "rascal"), the pet of Pablo Picasso, who was thought to have inspired some of his artwork. Picasso & Lump tells the story of Picasso and Lump. * Jack Ruby, the killer of Lee Harvey Oswald, had a dachshund named Sheba, which he often referred to as his wife. * Andy Warhol had a pair of dachshunds, Archie and Amos, whom he depicted in his paintings and mentioned frequently in his diaries. * Stanley and Boodgie, immortalized on canvas by owner David Hockney, and published in the book ''David Hockney's Dog Days''. * Wadl and Hexl, Kaiser Wilhelm II's famous ferocious pair. Upon arriving at Archduke Franz Ferdinand's country seat, Konopiště castle, on a semi-official visit, they promptly proceeded to do away with one of the Austro-Hungarian heir presumptive's priceless golden pheasants, thereby almost causing an international incident. Another one of his beloved dachshunds, Senta, is currently buried at Huis Doorn, Wilhelm's manor in the Netherlands. * In Zelenogorsk, Russia, a parade of dachshunds pass by a dachshund monument every July 25 to commemorate the day the city was founded. * Joe was the dachshund of General Claire Lee Chennault, commander of the Flying Tigers and then the China Air Task Force of the US Army Air Forces, and became the mascot of those organizations. * Maxie, a dachshund owned by actress Marie Prevost, tried to awaken his dead mistress, who was found with small bites on her legs. Maxie's barking eventually summoned neighbors to the scene. The incident inspired the 1977 Nick Lowe song "Marie Prevost". * Liliane Kaufmann, wife of Edgar J. Kaufmann who commissioned the home Fallingwater from Frank Lloyd Wright in 1935, was a well-known breeder and owner of long-haired dachshunds. At the Fallingwater bookstore, visitors are able to purchase a book titled Moxie, which is about one of the dachshunds who lived at Fallingwater. Liliane raised long-haired dachshunds and they traveled from Pittsburgh to Bear Run with her. * The former Queen of Denmark, Margrethe II, is one of several Danish royals to keep dachshunds. Margrethe of Denmark has a particular fondness of dachshunds and has kept many throughout her life. Her 80th birthday, celebrated in 2020, was marked by posing with one of her favourites (Lilia) on the grounds of Fredensborg Castle. * Obie is a dachshund who became infamous for his obesity, weighing as much as , more than twice a normal-weight standard dachshund. He reached his target weight of in July 2013. * Carole Lombard and Clark Gable had a dachshund named Commissioner. * Crusoe the Celebrity Dachshund gained fame on social media. In 2015, Crusoe came out with his The New York Times best-selling book titled Crusoe: Adventures of the Wiener Dog Extraordinaire!. In 2018, Crusoe came out with another book titled Crusoe: The Worldly Weiner Dog. At the 9th annual Shorty Awards, Crusoe won the best animal category. In 2018, Crusoe won the People's Choice Awards Animal Star of 2018. * English singer-songwriter Adele has a dachshund named Louis Armstrong. See also * List of dog breeds * Nintendogs: Dachshund and Friends References Further reading * [http://www.dachshund-land.ru/Documents/StandartTaks.htm Dachshund Breed Standard] Russian Kennel Club 13 March 2001 * [http://www.dachshund-land.ru/Documents/StandartTaksPL.htm Dachshund Breed Standard] Poland Kennel Club 9 May 2001 External links <!-- DO NOT ADD PRIVATE BREEDERS OR ADVERTISING; IT WILL BE REMOVED --> <!--Editors: breed registry, club, rescue, and kennel information links are placed on "long dead (2017)" DMOZ, not here--> * [http://www.learnersdictionary.com/audio?filedachsh01&formatmp3&worddachshund&pron%CB%88d%C3%A6ks%C9%99nd Dachshund pronunciation] Category:Companion dogs Category:Dog breeds originating in Germany Category:Scent hounds	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dachshund	2025-04-05T18:28:39.602676
8519	Data structure	}} .]] In computer science, a data structure is a data organization and storage format that is usually chosen for efficient access to data. More precisely, a data structure is a collection of data values, the relationships among them, and the functions or operations that can be applied to the data, i.e., it is an algebraic structure about data. Usage Data structures serve as the basis for abstract data types (ADT). The ADT defines the logical form of the data type. The data structure implements the physical form of the data type. Different types of data structures are suited to different kinds of applications, and some are highly specialized to specific tasks. For example, relational databases commonly use B-tree indexes for data retrieval, while compiler implementations usually use hash tables to look up identifiers. Data structures provide a means to manage large amounts of data efficiently for uses such as large databases and internet indexing services. Usually, efficient data structures are key to designing efficient algorithms. Some formal design methods and programming languages emphasize data structures, rather than algorithms, as the key organizing factor in software design. Data structures can be used to organize the storage and retrieval of information stored in both main memory and secondary memory.ImplementationData structures can be implemented using a variety of programming languages and techniques, but they all share the common goal of efficiently organizing and storing data. Data structures are generally based on the ability of a computer to fetch and store data at any place in its memory, specified by a pointer—a bit string, representing a memory address, that can be itself stored in memory and manipulated by the program. Thus, the array and record data structures are based on computing the addresses of data items with arithmetic operations, while the linked data structures are based on storing addresses of data items within the structure itself. This approach to data structuring has profound implications for the efficiency and scalability of algorithms. For instance, the contiguous memory allocation in arrays facilitates rapid access and modification operations, leading to optimized performance in sequential data processing scenarios. The implementation of a data structure usually requires writing a set of procedures that create and manipulate instances of that structure. The efficiency of a data structure cannot be analyzed separately from those operations. This observation motivates the theoretical concept of an abstract data type, a data structure that is defined indirectly by the operations that may be performed on it, and the mathematical properties of those operations (including their space and time cost).Examples hierarchy of the programming language Python 3.]] There are numerous types of data structures, generally built upon simpler primitive data types. Well known examples are: * An array is a number of elements in a specific order, typically all of the same type (depending on the language, individual elements may either all be forced to be the same type, or may be of almost any type). Elements are accessed using an integer index to specify which element is required. Typical implementations allocate contiguous memory words for the elements of arrays (but this is not always a necessity). Arrays may be fixed-length or resizable. * A linked list (also just called list) is a linear collection of data elements of any type, called nodes, where each node has itself a value, and points to the next node in the linked list. The principal advantage of a linked list over an array is that values can always be efficiently inserted and removed without relocating the rest of the list. Certain other operations, such as random access to a certain element, are however slower on lists than on arrays. * A record (also called tuple or struct) is an aggregate data structure. A record is a value that contains other values, typically in fixed number and sequence and typically indexed by names. The elements of records are usually called fields or members. In the context of object-oriented programming, records are known as plain old data structures to distinguish them from objects. * Hash tables, also known as hash maps, are data structures that provide fast retrieval of values based on keys. They use a hashing function to map keys to indexes in an array, allowing for constant-time access in the average case. Hash tables are commonly used in dictionaries, caches, and database indexing. However, hash collisions can occur, which can impact their performance. Techniques like chaining and open addressing are employed to handle collisions. * Graphs are collections of nodes connected by edges, representing relationships between entities. Graphs can be used to model social networks, computer networks, and transportation networks, among other things. They consist of vertices (nodes) and edges (connections between nodes). Graphs can be directed or undirected, and they can have cycles or be acyclic. Graph traversal algorithms include breadth-first search and depth-first search. * Stacks and queues are abstract data types that can be implemented using arrays or linked lists. A stack has two primary operations: push (adds an element to the top of the stack) and pop (removes the topmost element from the stack), that follow the Last In, First Out (LIFO) principle. Queues have two main operations: enqueue (adds an element to the rear of the queue) and dequeue (removes an element from the front of the queue) that follow the First In, First Out (FIFO) principle. * Trees represent a hierarchical organization of elements. A tree consists of nodes connected by edges, with one node being the root and all other nodes forming subtrees. Trees are widely used in various algorithms and data storage scenarios. Binary trees (particularly heaps), AVL trees, and B-trees are some popular types of trees. They enable efficient and optimal searching, sorting, and hierarchical representation of data. A trie, or prefix tree, is a special type of tree used to efficiently retrieve strings. In a trie, each node represents a character of a string, and the edges between nodes represent the characters that connect them. This structure is especially useful for tasks like autocomplete, spell-checking, and creating dictionaries. Tries allow for quick searches and operations based on string prefixes. Language support Most assembly languages and some low-level languages, such as BCPL (Basic Combined Programming Language), lack built-in support for data structures. On the other hand, many high-level programming languages and some higher-level assembly languages, such as MASM, have special syntax or other built-in support for certain data structures, such as records and arrays. For example, the C (a direct descendant of BCPL) and Pascal languages support structs and records, respectively, in addition to vectors (one-dimensional arrays) and multi-dimensional arrays. Most programming languages feature some sort of library mechanism that allows data structure implementations to be reused by different programs. Modern languages usually come with standard libraries that implement the most common data structures. Examples are the C++ Standard Template Library, the Java Collections Framework, and the Microsoft .NET Framework. Modern languages also generally support modular programming, the separation between the interface of a library module and its implementation. Some provide opaque data types that allow clients to hide implementation details. Object-oriented programming languages, such as C++, Java, and Smalltalk, typically use classes for this purpose. Many known data structures have concurrent versions which allow multiple computing threads to access a single concrete instance of a data structure simultaneously.See also * Abstract data type * Concurrent data structure * Data model * Dynamization * Linked data structure * List of data structures * Persistent data structure * Plain old data structure * Queap * Succinct data structure * Tree (data structure) References Bibliography * Peter Brass, Advanced Data Structures, Cambridge University Press, 2008, * Donald Knuth, The Art of Computer Programming, vol. 1. Addison-Wesley, 3rd edition, 1997, * Dinesh Mehta and Sartaj Sahni, Handbook of Data Structures and Applications, Chapman and Hall/CRC Press, 2004, * Niklaus Wirth, Algorithms and Data Structures, Prentice Hall, 1985, Further reading * [https://opendatastructures.org Open Data Structures by Pat Morin] * G. H. Gonnet and R. Baeza-Yates, [https://users.dcc.uchile.cl/~rbaeza/handbook/hbook.html Handbook of Algorithms and Data Structures - in Pascal and C], second edition, Addison-Wesley, 1991, * Ellis Horowitz and Sartaj Sahni, Fundamentals of Data Structures in Pascal, Computer Science Press, 1984, External links * [https://xlinux.nist.gov/dads/ Descriptions] from the Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures * [http://www.cs.auckland.ac.nz/software/AlgAnim/ds_ToC.html Data structures course] * [http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/aa289148(VS.71).aspx An Examination of Data Structures from .NET perspective] * [http://people.cs.vt.edu/~shaffer/Book/C++3e20110915.pdf Schaffer, C. Data Structures and Algorithm Analysis]	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_structure	2025-04-05T18:28:39.630810
8520	Dmitri Shostakovich	\| native_name_lang = ru \| image = Композитор Дмитрий Дмитриевич Шостакович.jpg \| caption = Shostakovich in 1942 \| birth_date \| birth_place = Saint Petersburg, Russia \| death_place = Moscow, Soviet Union \| death_date \| occupation = \| spouse = * }} \| children = \| works = List of compositions \| signature = Shostakovich_signature.svg }} Dmitri Dmitriyevich Shostakovich; \|groupn}} (9 August 1975) was a Soviet-era Russian composer and pianist who became internationally known after the premiere of his First Symphony in 1926 and thereafter was regarded as a major composer. <!-- Paragraph 1: career and his relationship with authority --> Shostakovich achieved early fame in the Soviet Union, but had a complex relationship with its government. His 1934 opera Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk was initially a success but later condemned by the Soviet government, putting his career at risk. In 1948, his work was denounced under the Zhdanov Doctrine, with professional consequences lasting several years. Even after his censure was rescinded in 1956, performances of his music were occasionally subject to state interventions, as with his Thirteenth Symphony (1962). Nevertheless, Shostakovich was a member of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR (1947) and the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union (from 1962 until his death), as well as chairman of the RSFSR Union of Composers (1960–1968). Over the course of his career, he earned several important awards, including the Order of Lenin, from the Soviet government. <!-- Paragraph 2: musical style and compositions--> Shostakovich combined a variety of different musical techniques in his works. His music is characterized by sharp contrasts, elements of the grotesque, and ambivalent tonality; he was also heavily influenced by neoclassicism and by the late Romanticism of Gustav Mahler. His orchestral works include 15 symphonies and six concerti (two each for piano, violin, and cello). His chamber works include 15 string quartets, a piano quintet, and two piano trios. His solo piano works include two sonatas, an early set of 24 preludes, and a later set of 24 preludes and fugues. Stage works include three completed operas and three ballets. Shostakovich also wrote several song cycles, and a substantial quantity of music for theatre and film. <!-- Pargaraph 3 reputation and legacy --> Shostakovich's reputation has continued to grow after his death. Scholarly interest has increased significantly since the late 20th century, including considerable debate about the relationship between his music and his attitudes toward the Soviet government. Biography Youth Born into a Russian family that lived on Podolskaya Street in Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire, Shostakovich was the second of three children of Dmitri Boleslavovich Shostakovich and Sofiya Vasilievna Kokoulina. Shostakovich's immediate forebears came from Siberia, but his paternal grandfather, Bolesław Szostakowicz, was of Polish Roman Catholic descent, tracing his family roots to the region of the town of Vileyka in today's Belarus. A Polish revolutionary in the January Uprising of 1863–64, Szostakowicz was exiled to Narym in 1866 in the crackdown that followed Dmitry Karakozov's assassination attempt on Tsar Alexander II. When his term of exile ended, Szostakowicz decided to remain in Siberia. He eventually became a successful banker in Irkutsk and raised a large family. His son Dmitri Boleslavovich Shostakovich, the composer's father, was born in exile in Narym in 1875 and studied physics and mathematics at Saint Petersburg University, graduating in 1899. He then went to work as an engineer under Dmitri Mendeleev at the Bureau of Weights and Measures in Saint Petersburg. In 1903, he married another Siberian immigrant to the capital, Sofiya Vasilievna Kokoulina, one of six children born to a Siberian Russian. Their son, Dmitri Dmitriyevich Shostakovich, displayed musical talent after he began piano lessons with his mother at the age of nine. On several occasions, he displayed a remarkable ability to remember what his mother had played at the previous lesson, and would get "caught in the act" of playing the previous lesson's music while pretending to read different music placed in front of him. In 1918, he wrote a funeral march in memory of two leaders of the Kadet party murdered by Bolshevik sailors. In 1919, at age 13, Shostakovich was admitted to the Petrograd Conservatory, then headed by Alexander Glazunov, who monitored his progress closely and promoted him. Shostakovich studied piano with Leonid Nikolayev and Elena Rozanova, composition with Maximilian Steinberg, and counterpoint and fugue with Nikolay Sokolov, who became his friend. He also attended Alexander Ossovsky's music history classes. In 1925, he enrolled in the conducting classes of Nikolai Malko, where he conducted the conservatory orchestra in a private performance of Beethoven's First Symphony. According to the recollections of the composer's classmate, : <blockquote>Shostakovich stood at the podium, played with his hair and jacket cuffs, looked around at the hushed teenagers with instruments at the ready and raised the baton. ... He neither stopped the orchestra, nor made any remarks; he focused his entire attention on aspects of tempi and dynamics, which were very clearly displayed in his gestures. The contrasts between the "Adagio molto" of the introduction and "Allegro con brio" first theme were quite striking, as were those between the percussive accents of the chords (woodwinds, French horns, pizzicato strings) and the momentarily extended piano in the introduction following them. In the character given to the pattern of the first theme, I recall, there was both vigorous striving and lightness; in the bass part there was an emphasized pliancy of tenderly threaded articulation.... Moments of these sorts... were discoveries of an improvised order, born from an intuitively refined understanding of the character of a piece and the elements of musical imagery embedded in it. And the players enjoyed it.</blockquote> On 20 March 1925, Shostakovich's music was played in Moscow for the first time, in a program which also included works by his friend Vissarion Shebalin. To the composer's disappointment, the critics and public there received his music coolly. During his visit to Moscow, Mikhail Kvadri introduced him to Mikhail Tukhachevsky, who helped the composer find accommodation and work there, and sent a driver to take him to a concert in "a very stylish automobile". Shostakovich's musical breakthrough was the First Symphony, written as his graduation piece at the age of 19. Initially, Shostakovich aspired only to perform it privately with the conservatory orchestra and prepared to conduct the scherzo himself. By late 1925, Malko agreed to conduct its premiere with the Leningrad Philharmonic Orchestra after Steinberg and Shostakovich's friend Boleslav Yavorsky brought the symphony to his attention. On 12 May 1926, Malko led the premiere of the symphony; the audience received it enthusiastically, demanding an encore of the scherzo. Thereafter, Shostakovich regularly celebrated the date of his symphonic debut. Early career After graduation, Shostakovich embarked on a dual career as concert pianist and composer, but his dry keyboard style was often criticized. Shostakovich maintained a heavy performance schedule until 1930; after 1933, he performed only his own compositions. Along with , Grigory Ginzburg, Lev Oborin, and Josif Shvarts, he was among the Soviet contestants in the inaugural I International Chopin Piano Competition in Warsaw in 1927. Bogdanov-Berezhovsky later remembered: }} , who heard Shostakovich play his Chopin programs before he went to Warsaw, said that his "anti-sentimental" playing, which eschewed rubato and extreme dynamic contrasts, was unlike anything he had ever heard. called Shostakovich's playing "profound and lacking any salon-like mannerisms." Shostakovich was stricken with appendicitis on the opening day of the competition, but his condition improved by the time of his first performance on 27 January 1927. (He had his appendix removed on 25 April.) According to Shostakovich, his playing found favor with the audience. He persisted into the final round of the competition but ultimately earned only a diploma, no prize; Oborin was declared the winner. Shostakovich was upset about the result but for a time resolved to continue a career as performer. While recovering from his appendectomy in April 1927, Shostakovich said he was beginning to reassess those plans: }} After the competition, Shostakovich and Oborin spent a week in Berlin. There he met the conductor Bruno Walter, who was so impressed by Shostakovich's First Symphony that he conducted its first performance outside Russia later that year. Leopold Stokowski led the American premiere the next year in Philadelphia and also made the work's first recording. In 1927, Shostakovich wrote his Second Symphony (subtitled To October), a patriotic piece with a pro-Soviet choral finale. Owing to its modernism, it did not meet with the same enthusiasm as his First. This year also marked the beginning of Shostakovich's close friendship with musicologist and theatre critic Ivan Sollertinsky, whom he had first met in 1921 through their mutual friends Lev Arnshtam and Lydia Zhukova. Shostakovich later said that Sollertinsky "taught [him] to understand and love such great masters as Brahms, Mahler, and Bruckner" and that he instilled in him "an interest in music ... from Bach to Offenbach." While writing the Second Symphony, Shostakovich also began work on his satirical opera The Nose, based on the story by Nikolai Gogol. In June 1929, against the composer's wishes, the opera was given a concert performance; it was ferociously attacked by the Russian Association of Proletarian Musicians (RAPM). Its stage premiere on 18 January 1930 opened to generally poor reviews and widespread incomprehension among musicians. In the late 1920s and early 1930s, Shostakovich worked at TRAM, a proletarian youth theatre. Although he did little work in this post, it shielded him from ideological attack. Much of this period was spent writing his opera Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk, which was first performed in 1934. It was initially immediately successful, on both popular and official levels. It was described as "the result of the general success of Socialist construction, of the correct policy of the Party", and as an opera that "could have been written only by a Soviet composer brought up in the best tradition of Soviet culture". Shostakovich married his first wife, Nina Varzar, in 1932. Difficulties led to a divorce in 1935, but the couple soon remarried when Nina became pregnant with their first child, Galina. First denunciation by Helikon Opera in 2014]] On 17 January 1936, Joseph Stalin paid a rare visit to the opera for a performance of a new work, Quiet Flows the Don'', based on the novel by Mikhail Sholokhov, by the little-known composer Ivan Dzerzhinsky, who was called to Stalin's box at the end of the performance and told that his work had "considerable ideological-political value". On 26 January, Stalin revisited the opera, accompanied by Vyacheslav Molotov, Andrei Zhdanov and Anastas Mikoyan, to hear Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District. He and his entourage left without speaking to anyone. Shostakovich had been forewarned by a friend that he should postpone a planned concert tour in Arkhangelsk in order to be present at that particular performance. Eyewitness accounts testify that Shostakovich was "white as a sheet" when he went to take his bow after the third act. The next day, Shostakovich left for Arkhangelsk, where he heard on 28 January that Pravda had published an editorial titled "Muddle Instead of Music", complaining that the opera was a "deliberately dissonant, muddled stream of sounds ...[that] quacks, hoots, pants and gasps." Shostakovich continued his performance tour as scheduled, with no disruptions. From Arkhangelsk, he instructed Isaac Glikman to subscribe to a clipping service. The editorial was the signal for a nationwide campaign, during which even Soviet music critics who had praised the opera were forced to recant in print, saying they "failed to detect the shortcomings of Lady Macbeth as pointed out by Pravda". There was resistance from those who admired Shostakovich, including Sollertinsky, who turned up at a composers' meeting in Leningrad called to denounce the opera and praised it instead. Two other speakers supported him. When Shostakovich returned to Leningrad, he had a telephone call from the commander of the Leningrad Military District, who had been asked by Marshal Mikhail Tukhachevsky to make sure that he was all right. When the writer Isaac Babel was under arrest four years later, he told his interrogators that "it was common ground for us to proclaim the genius of the slighted Shostakovich." On 6 February, Shostakovich was again attacked in Pravda, this time for his light comic ballet The Limpid Stream, which was denounced because "it jangles and expresses nothing" and did not give an accurate picture of peasant life on a collective farm. Fearful that he was about to be arrested, Shostakovich secured an appointment with the Chairman of the USSR State Committee on Culture, Platon Kerzhentsev, who reported to Stalin and Molotov that he had instructed the composer to "reject formalist errors and in his art attain something that could be understood by the broad masses", and that Shostakovich had admitted being in the wrong and had asked for a meeting with Stalin, which was not granted. The Pravda campaign against Shostakovich caused his commissions and concert appearances, and performances of his music, to decline markedly. His monthly earnings dropped from an average of as much as 12,000 rubles to as little as 2,000. 1936 marked the beginning of the Great Terror, in which many of Shostakovich's friends and relatives were imprisoned or killed. These included Tukhachevsky, executed 12 June 1937; his brother-in-law Vsevolod Frederiks, who was eventually released but died before he returned home; his close friend Nikolai Zhilyayev, a musicologist who had taught Tukhachevsky, was executed; his mother-in-law, the astronomer , who was sent to a camp in Karaganda and later released; his friend the Marxist writer Galina Serebryakova, who spent 20 years in the gulag; his uncle Maxim Kostrykin (died); and his colleagues Boris Kornilov (executed) and Adrian Piotrovsky (executed). Shostakovich's daughter Galina was born during this period in 1936; his son Maxim was born two years later. Withdrawal of the Fourth Symphony The publication of the Pravda editorials coincided with the composition of Shostakovich's Fourth Symphony. The work continued a shift in his style, influenced by the music of Mahler, and gave him problems as he attempted to reform his style. Despite the Pravda articles, he continued to compose the symphony and planned a premiere at the end of 1936. Rehearsals began that December, but according to Isaac Glikman, who had attended the rehearsals with the composer, the manager of the Leningrad Philharmonic persuaded Shostakovich to withdraw the symphony. Shostakovich did not repudiate the work and retained its designation as his Fourth Symphony. (A reduction for two pianos was performed and published in 1946, and the work was finally premiered in 1961.) In the months between the withdrawal of the Fourth Symphony and the completion of the Fifth on 20 July 1937, the only concert work Shostakovich composed was the Four Romances on Texts by Pushkin. Fifth Symphony and return to favor The composer's response to his denunciation was the Fifth Symphony of 1937, which was musically more conservative than his recent works. Premiered on 21 November 1937 in Leningrad, it was a phenomenal success. The Fifth brought many to tears and welling emotions. Later, Shostakovich's purported memoir, Testimony, stated: "I'll never believe that a man who understood nothing could feel the Fifth Symphony. Of course they understood, they understood what was happening around them and they understood what the Fifth was about." The success put Shostakovich in good standing once again. Music critics and the authorities alike, including those who had earlier accused him of formalism, claimed that he had learned from his mistakes and become a true Soviet artist. In a newspaper article published under Shostakovich's name, the Fifth was characterized as "A Soviet artist's creative response to just criticism." The composer Dmitry Kabalevsky, who had been among those who disassociated themselves from Shostakovich when the Pravda article was published, praised the Fifth and congratulated Shostakovich for "not having given in to the seductive temptations of his previous 'erroneous' ways." It was also at this time that Shostakovich composed the first of his string quartets. In September 1937, he began to teach composition at the Leningrad Conservatory, which provided some financial security. Second World War In 1939, before Soviet forces attempted to invade Finland, the Party Secretary of Leningrad Andrei Zhdanov commissioned a celebratory piece from Shostakovich, the Suite on Finnish Themes, to be performed as the marching bands of the Red Army paraded through Helsinki. The Winter War was a bitter experience for the Red Army, the parade never happened, and Shostakovich never laid claim to the authorship of this work. It was not performed until 2001. After the outbreak of war between the Soviet Union and Germany in 1941, Shostakovich initially remained in Leningrad. He tried to enlist in the military but was turned away because of his poor eyesight. To compensate, he became a volunteer for the Leningrad Conservatory's firefighter brigade and delivered a radio broadcast to the Soviet people. The photograph for which he posed was published in newspapers throughout the country. Shostakovich's most famous wartime contribution was the Seventh Symphony. The composer wrote the first three movements in Leningrad while it was under siege; he completed the work in Kuybyshev (now Samara), where he and his family had been evacuated. According to a radio address he made on 17 September 1941, he continued work on the symphony in order to show his fellow citizens that everyone had a "soldier's duty" to ensure life went on. In another article written on 8 October, he wrote that the Seventh was a "symphony about our age, our people, our sacred war, and our victory." Shostakovich finished his Seventh Symphony on 27 December. The symphony was premiered by the Bolshoi Theatre Orchestra in Kuibyshev on 29 March and soon performed in London and the United States, where several conductors vied to conduct its first American performance. It was subsequently performed in Leningrad while the city was still under siege. The city's remaining orchestra only had 14 musicians left, which led conductor Karl Eliasberg to reinforce it by recruiting anyone who could play an instrument. The Shostakovich family moved to Moscow in spring 1943, by which time the Red Army was on the offensive. As a result, Soviet authorities and the international public were puzzled by the tragic tone of the Eighth Symphony, which in the Western press had briefly acquired the nickname "Stalingrad Symphony". The symphony was received tepidly in the Soviet Union and the West. Olin Downes expressed his disappointment in the piece, but Carlos Chávez, who had conducted the symphony's Mexican premiere, praised it highly. Shostakovich had expressed as early as 1943 his intention to cap his wartime trilogy of symphonies with a grandiose Ninth. On 16 January 1945, he announced to his students that he had begun work on its first movement the day before. In April, his friend Isaac Glikman heard an extensive portion of the first movement, noting that it was "majestic in scale, in pathos, in its breathtaking motion". Shortly thereafter, Shostakovich ceased work on this version of the Ninth, which remained lost until musicologist Olga Digonskaya rediscovered it in December 2003. Shostakovich began to compose his actual, unrelated Ninth Symphony in late July 1945; he completed it on 30 August. It was shorter and lighter in texture than its predecessors. Gavriil Popov wrote that it was "splendid in its joie de vivre, gaiety, brilliance, and pungency!" By 1946 it was the subject of official criticism. Israel Nestyev asked whether it was the right time for "a light and amusing interlude between Shostakovich's significant creations, a temporary rejection of great, serious problems for the sake of playful, filigree-trimmed trifles." The New York World-Telegram of 27 July 1946 was similarly dismissive: "The Russian composer should not have expressed his feelings about the defeat of Nazism in such a childish manner". Shostakovich continued to compose chamber music, notably his Second Piano Trio, dedicated to the memory of Sollertinsky, with a Jewish-inspired finale. In 1947, Shostakovich was made a deputy to the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR. Second denunciation In 1948, Shostakovich, along with many other composers, was again denounced for formalism in the Zhdanov decree. Andrei Zhdanov, Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR, accused the composers (including Sergei Prokofiev and Aram Khachaturian) of writing inappropriate and formalist music. This was part of an ongoing anti-formalism campaign intended to root out all Western compositional influence as well as any perceived "non-Russian" output. The conference resulted in the publication of the Central Committee's Decree "On V. Muradeli's opera The Great Friendship", which targeted all Soviet composers and demanded that they write only "proletarian" music, or music for the masses. The accused composers, including Shostakovich, were summoned to make public apologies in front of the committee. Most of Shostakovich's works were banned, and his family had privileges withdrawn. Yuri Lyubimov says that at this time "he waited for his arrest at night out on the landing by the lift, so that at least his family wouldn't be disturbed." The decree's consequences for composers were harsh. Shostakovich was among those dismissed from the Conservatory altogether. For him, the loss of money was perhaps the heaviest blow. Others still in the Conservatory experienced an atmosphere thick with suspicion. No one wanted his work to be understood as formalist, so many resorted to accusing their colleagues of writing or performing anti-proletarian music. During the next few years, Shostakovich composed three categories of work: film music to pay the rent, official works aimed at securing official rehabilitation, and serious works "for the desk drawer". The last included the Violin Concerto No. 1 and the song cycle From Jewish Folk Poetry. The cycle was written at a time when the postwar anti-Semitic campaign was already under way, with widespread arrests, including that of Dobrushin and Yiditsky, the compilers of the book from which Shostakovich took his texts. The restrictions on Shostakovich's music and living arrangements were eased in 1949, when Stalin decided that the Soviets needed to send artistic representatives to the Cultural and Scientific Congress for World Peace in New York City, and that Shostakovich should be among them. For Shostakovich, it was a humiliating experience, culminating in a New York press conference where he was expected to read a prepared speech. Nicolas Nabokov, who was present in the audience, witnessed Shostakovich starting to read "in a nervous and shaky voice" before he had to break off "and the speech was continued in English by a suave radio baritone". Fully aware that Shostakovich was not free to speak his mind, Nabokov publicly asked him whether he supported the then recent denunciation of Stravinsky's music in the Soviet Union. A great admirer of Stravinsky who had been influenced by his music, Shostakovich had no alternative but to answer in the affirmative. Nabokov did not hesitate to write that this demonstrated that Shostakovich was "not a free man, but an obedient tool of his government." Shostakovich never forgave Nabokov for this public humiliation. That same year, he composed the cantata Song of the Forests, which praised Stalin as the "great gardener". Stalin's death in 1953 was the biggest step toward Shostakovich's rehabilitation as a creative artist, which was marked by his Tenth Symphony. It features a number of musical quotations and codes (notably the DSCH and Elmira motifs, Elmira Nazirova being a pianist and composer who had studied under Shostakovich in the year before his dismissal from the Moscow Conservatory), the meaning of which is still debated, while the savage second movement, according to Testimony, is intended as a musical portrait of Stalin. The Tenth ranks alongside the Fifth and Seventh as one of Shostakovich's most popular works. 1953 also saw a stream of premieres of the "desk drawer" works. During the 1940s and 1950s, Shostakovich had close relationships with two of his pupils, Galina Ustvolskaya and Elmira Nazirova. In the background to all this remained Shostakovich's first, open marriage to Nina Varzar until her death in 1954. He taught Ustvolskaya from 1939 to 1941 and then from 1947 to 1948. The nature of their relationship is far from clear: Mstislav Rostropovich described it as "tender". Ustvolskaya rejected a proposal of marriage from him after Nina's death. Shostakovich's daughter, Galina, recalled her father consulting her and Maxim about the possibility of Ustvolskaya becoming their stepmother. Ustvolskaya's friend Viktor Suslin said that she had been "deeply disappointed by [Shostakovich's] conspicuous silence" when her music faced criticism after her graduation from the Leningrad Conservatory. The relationship with Nazirova seems to have been one-sided, expressed largely in his letters to her, and can be dated to around 1953 to 1956. He married his second wife, Komsomol activist Margarita Kainova, in 1956; the couple proved ill-matched, and divorced five years later. In 1954, Shostakovich wrote the Festive Overture, opus 96; it was used as the theme music for the 1980 Summer Olympics. (His "Theme from the film Pirogov, Opus 76a: Finale" was played as the cauldron was lit at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece.) In 1959, Shostakovich appeared on stage in Moscow at the end of a concert performance of his Fifth Symphony, congratulating Leonard Bernstein and the New York Philharmonic Orchestra for their performance (part of a concert tour of the Soviet Union). Later that year, Bernstein and the Philharmonic recorded the symphony in Boston for Columbia Records. Joining the Party The year 1960 marked another turning point in Shostakovich's life: he joined the Communist Party. The government wanted to appoint him Chairman of the RSFSR Union of Composers, but to hold that position he was required to obtain Party membership. It was understood that Nikita Khrushchev, the First Secretary of the Communist Party from 1953 to 1964, was looking for support from the intelligentsia's leading ranks in an effort to create a better relationship with the Soviet Union's artists. This event has variously been interpreted as a show of commitment, a mark of cowardice, the result of political pressure, and his free decision. On the one hand, the apparat was less repressive than it had been before Stalin's death. On the other, his son recalled that the event reduced Shostakovich to tears, and that he later told his wife Irina that he had been blackmailed. Lev Lebedinsky has said that the composer was suicidal. In 1960, he was appointed Chairman of the RSFSR Union of Composers; from 1962 until his death, he also served as a delegate in the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. By joining the party, Shostakovich also committed himself to finally writing the homage to Lenin that he had promised before. His Twelfth Symphony, which portrays the Bolshevik Revolution and was completed in 1961, was dedicated to Lenin and called "The Year 1917". Shostakovich's musical response to these personal crises was the Eighth String Quartet, composed in only three days. He subtitled the piece "To the victims of fascism and war", ostensibly in memory of the Dresden fire bombing that took place in 1945. Yet like the Tenth Symphony, the quartet incorporates quotations from several of his past works and his musical monogram. Shostakovich confessed to his friend Isaac Glikman, "I started thinking that if some day I die, nobody is likely to write a work in memory of me, so I had better write one myself." Several of Shostakovich's colleagues, including Natalya Vovsi-Mikhoels and the cellist Valentin Berlinsky, were also aware of the Eighth Quartet's biographical intent. Peter J. Rabinowitz has also pointed to covert references to Richard Strauss's Metamorphosen in it. In 1962, Shostakovich married for the third time, to Irina Supinskaya. In a letter to Glikman, he wrote, "her only defect is that she is 27 years old. In all other respects she is splendid: clever, cheerful, straightforward and very likeable." According to Galina Vishnevskaya, who knew the Shostakoviches well, this marriage was a very happy one: "It was with her that Dmitri Dmitriyevich finally came to know domestic peace... Surely, she prolonged his life by several years." In November, he conducted publicly for the only time in his life, leading a couple of his own works in Gorky; otherwise he declined to conduct, citing nerves and ill health. That year saw Shostakovich again turn to the subject of anti-Semitism in his Thirteenth Symphony (subtitled Babi Yar). The symphony sets a number of poems by Yevgeny Yevtushenko, the first of which commemorates a massacre of Ukrainian Jews during the Second World War. Opinions are divided as to how great a risk this was: the poem had been published in Soviet media and was not banned, but it remained controversial. After the symphony's premiere, Yevtushenko was forced to add a stanza to his poem that said that Russians and Ukrainians had died alongside the Jews at Babi Yar. In 1965, Shostakovich raised his voice in defence of poet Joseph Brodsky, who was sentenced to five years of exile and hard labor. Shostakovich co-signed protests with Yevtushenko, fellow Soviet artists Kornei Chukovsky, Anna Akhmatova, Samuil Marshak, and the French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre. After the protests, the sentence was commuted, and Brodsky returned to Leningrad. Later life In 1964, Shostakovich composed the music for the Russian film Hamlet, which was favorably reviewed by The New York Times: "But the lack of this aural stimulation—of Shakespeare's eloquent words—is recompensed in some measure by a splendid and stirring musical score by Dmitri Shostakovich. This has great dignity and depth, and at times an appropriate wildness or becoming levity". In later life, Shostakovich suffered from chronic ill health, but he resisted giving up cigarettes and vodka. He also suffered heart attacks in 1966,1970, Death )]] Despite suffering from motor neurone disease (ALS) or some other neurological ailment from as early as the 1950s, His death is variously attributed to lung cancer or heart failure. Legacy Shostakovich left behind several recordings of his own piano works; other noted interpreters of his music include Mstislav Rostropovich, Tatiana Nikolayeva, Maria Yudina, David Oistrakh, and members of the Beethoven Quartet. Shostakovich's influence on later composers outside the former Soviet Union has been relatively slight. His influence can be seen in some Nordic composers, such as Lars-Erik Larsson. The Shostakovich Peninsula on Alexander Island, Antarctica, is named for him. Music Overview Shostakovich's works are broadly tonal but with elements of atonality and chromaticism. In some of his later works (e.g., the Twelfth Quartet), he made use of tone rows. His output is dominated by his cycles of symphonies and string quartets, each totaling 15. The symphonies are distributed fairly evenly throughout his career, while the quartets are concentrated towards the latter part. Among the most popular are the Fifth and Seventh Symphonies and the Eighth and Fifteenth Quartets. Other works include operas, concertos, chamber music, and a large quantity of theatre and film music. Shostakovich's music shows the influence of many of the composers he most admired: Bach in his fugues and passacaglias; Beethoven in the late quartets; Mahler in the symphonies; and Berg in his use of musical codes and quotations. Among Russian composers, he particularly admired Modest Mussorgsky, whose operas Boris Godunov and Khovanshchina he reorchestrated; Mussorgsky's influence is most prominent in the wintry scenes of Lady Macbeth and the Eleventh Symphony, as well as in satirical works such as "Rayok". Prokofiev's influence is most apparent in the earlier piano works, such as the first sonata and first concerto. The influence of Russian church and folk music is evident in his works for unaccompanied choir of the 1950s. Shostakovich's relationship with Stravinsky was profoundly ambivalent; as he wrote to Glikman, "Stravinsky the composer I worship. Stravinsky the thinker I despise." He was particularly enamoured of the Symphony of Psalms, presenting a copy of his own piano version of it to Stravinsky when the latter visited the USSR in 1962. (The meeting of the two composers was not very successful; observers commented on Shostakovich's extreme nervousness and Stravinsky's "cruelty" to him.) Many commentators have noted the disjunction between the experimental works before the 1936 denunciation and the more conservative ones that followed; the composer told Flora Litvinova, "without 'Party guidance' ... I would have displayed more brilliance, used more sarcasm, I could have revealed my ideas openly instead of having to resort to camouflage." Articles Shostakovich published in 1934 and 1935 cited Berg, Schoenberg, Krenek, Hindemith, "and especially Stravinsky" among his influences. Key works of the earlier period are the First Symphony, which combined the academicism of the conservatory with his progressive inclinations; The Nose ("The most uncompromisingly modernist of all his stage-works"); Lady Macbeth, which precipitated the denunciation; and the Fourth Symphony, described in Grove's Dictionary as "a colossal synthesis of Shostakovich's musical development to date". The Fourth was also the first piece in which Mahler's influence came to the fore, prefiguring the route Shostakovich took to secure his rehabilitation, while he himself admitted that the preceding two were his least successful. After 1936, Shostakovich's music became more conservative. During this time, he also composed more chamber music. While his chamber works were largely tonal, the late chamber works, which Grove's Dictionary calls a "world of purgatorial numbness", included tone rows, although he treated these thematically rather than serially. Vocal works are also a prominent feature of his late output. Jewish themes In the 1940s, Shostakovich began to show an interest in Jewish themes. He was intrigued by Jewish music's "ability to build a jolly melody on sad intonations". Examples of works that included Jewish themes are the Fourth String Quartet (1949), the First Violin Concerto (1948), and the Four Monologues on Pushkin Poems (1952), as well as the Piano Trio in E minor (1944). He was further inspired to write with Jewish themes when he examined Moisei Beregovski's 1944 thesis on Jewish folk music. In 1948, Shostakovich acquired a book of Jewish folk songs, from which he composed the song cycle From Jewish Folk Poetry. He initially wrote eight songs meant to represent the hardships of being Jewish in the Soviet Union. To disguise this, he added three more meant to demonstrate the great life Jews had under the Soviet regime. Despite his efforts to hide the real meaning in the work, the Union of Composers refused to approve his music in 1949 under the pressure of the anti-Semitism that gripped the country. From Jewish Folk Poetry could not be performed until after Stalin's death in March 1953, along with all the other works that were forbidden. Self-quotations Throughout his compositions, Shostakovich demonstrated a controlled use of musical quotation. This stylistic choice had been common among earlier composers, but Shostakovich developed it into a defining characteristic of his music. Rather than quoting other composers, Shostakovich preferred to quote himself. Musicologists such as Sofia Moshevich, Ian McDonald, and Stephen Harris have connected his works through their quotations. One example is the main theme of Katerina's aria, Seryozha, khoroshiy moy, from the fourth act of Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District. The aria's beauty comes as a breath of fresh air in the intense, overbearing tone of the scene, in which Katerina visits her lover Sergei in prison. The theme is made tragic when Sergei betrays her and finds a new lover upon blaming Katerina for his incarceration. More than 25 years later, Shostakovich quoted this theme in his Eighth String Quartet. In the midst of this quartet's oppressive and somber themes, the cello introduces the Seryozha theme "in the 'bright' key of F-sharp major" about three minutes into the fourth movement. This theme emerges once again in his Fourteenth String Quartet. As in the Eighth Quartet, the cello introduces the theme, which here serves as a dedication to the cellist of the Beethoven String Quartet, Sergei Shirinsky. Posthumous publications In 2004, the musicologist Olga Digonskaya discovered a trove of Shostakovich manuscripts at the Glinka State Central Museum of Musical Culture in Moscow. In a cardboard file were some "300 pages of musical sketches, pieces and scores" in Shostakovich's hand. <blockquote>A composer friend bribed Shostakovich's housemaid to regularly deliver the contents of Shostakovich's office waste bin to him, instead of taking it to the garbage. Some of those cast-offs eventually found their way into the Glinka. ... The Glinka archive "contained a huge number of pieces and compositions which were completely unknown or could be traced quite indirectly," Digonskaya said.</blockquote> Among these were Shostakovich's piano and vocal sketches for a prologue to an opera, Orango (1932). They were orchestrated by the British composer Gerard McBurney and premiered in December 2011 by the Los Angeles Philharmonic conducted by Esa-Pekka Salonen. Reputation According to McBurney, opinion is divided on whether Shostakovich's music is "of visionary power and originality, as some maintain, or, as others think, derivative, trashy, empty and second-hand". William Walton, his British contemporary, described him as "the greatest composer of the 20th century". Musicologist David Fanning concludes in Grove's Dictionary that "Amid the conflicting pressures of official requirements, the mass suffering of his fellow countrymen, and his personal ideals of humanitarian and public service, he succeeded in forging a musical language of colossal emotional power." Some modern composers have been critical. Pierre Boulez dismissed Shostakovich's music as "the second, or even third pressing of Mahler". The Romanian composer and Webern disciple Philip Gershkovich called Shostakovich "a hack in a trance". A related complaint is that Shostakovich's style is vulgar and strident: Stravinsky wrote of Lady Macbeth: "brutally hammering ... and monotonous". English composer and musicologist Robin Holloway described his music as "battleship-grey in melody and harmony, factory-functional in structure; in content all rhetoric and coercion". In the 1980s, the Finnish conductor and composer Esa-Pekka Salonen was critical of Shostakovich and refused to conduct his music. For instance, he said in 1987: Salonen has since performed and recorded several of Shostakovich's works, including leading the world premiere of Orango, but has dismissed the Fifth Symphony as "overrated", adding that he was "very suspicious of heroic things in general". Shostakovich borrows extensively from the material and styles both of earlier composers and of popular music; the vulgarity of "low" music is a notable influence on this "greatest of eclectics". McBurney traces this to the avant-garde artistic circles of the early Soviet period in which Shostakovich moved early in his career, and argues that these borrowings were a deliberate technique to allow him to create "patterns of contrast, repetition, exaggeration" that gave his music large-scale structure. Personality Shostakovich was in many ways an obsessive man: according to his daughter he was "obsessed with cleanliness". He synchronised the clocks in his apartment and regularly sent himself cards to test how well the postal service was working. Elizabeth Wilson's Shostakovich: A Life Remembered indexes 26 references to his nervousness. Mikhail Druskin remembers that even as a young man the composer was "fragile and nervously agile". Yuri Lyubimov comments, "The fact that he was more vulnerable and receptive than other people was no doubt an important feature of his genius." In later life, Krzysztof Meyer recalled, "his face was a bag of tics and grimaces." In Shostakovich's lighter moods, sport was one of his main recreations, although he preferred spectating or umpiring to participating (he was a qualified football referee). His favorite football club was Zenit Leningrad (now Zenit Saint Petersburg), which he would watch regularly. He also enjoyed card games, particularly patience. Shostakovich was fond of satirical writers such as Gogol, Chekhov and Mikhail Zoshchenko. Zoshchenko's influence in particular is evident in his letters, which include wry parodies of Soviet officialese. Zoshchenko noted the contradictions in the composer's character: "he is ... frail, fragile, withdrawn, an infinitely direct, pure child ... [but also] hard, acid, extremely intelligent, strong perhaps, despotic and not altogether good-natured (although cerebrally good-natured)." Shostakovich was diffident by nature: Flora Litvinova has said he was "completely incapable of saying 'No' to anybody." This meant he was easily persuaded to sign official statements, including a denunciation of Andrei Sakharov in 1973. His widow later told that his name was included without his permission. But he was willing to try to help constituents in his capacities as chairman of the Composers' Union and Deputy to the Supreme Soviet. Oleg Prokofiev said, "he tried to help so many people that ... less and less attention was paid to his pleas." When asked if he believed in God, Shostakovich said "No, and I am very sorry about it." Orthodoxy and revisionism Testimony (Volkov book)}} {{Image frame\|content<score sound"1"> { \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c' { \clef treble \time 4/4 d es c b } } </score>\|width300\|captionShostakovich represented himself in some works with the DSCH motif, consisting of D-E-C-B.}}Shostakovich's response to official criticism and whether he used music as a kind of covert dissidence is a matter of dispute. He outwardly conformed to government policies and positions, reading speeches and putting his name to articles expressing the government line. But it is evident he disliked many aspects of the regime, as confirmed by his family, his letters to Isaac Glikman, and the satirical cantata "Rayok", which ridiculed the "anti-formalist" campaign and was kept hidden until after his death. He was a close friend of Marshal of the Soviet Union Mikhail Tukhachevsky, who was executed in 1937 during the Great Purge. It is also uncertain to what extent Shostakovich expressed his opposition to the state in his music. The revisionist view was put forth by Solomon Volkov in the 1979 book Testimony, which claimed to be Shostakovich's memoirs dictated to Volkov. The book alleged that many of the composer's works contained coded anti-government messages, placing Shostakovich in a tradition of Russian artists outwitting censorship that goes back at least to Alexander Pushkin. He incorporated many quotations and motifs in his work, most notably his musical signature DSCH. His longtime musical collaborator Yevgeny Mravinsky said, "Shostakovich very often explained his intentions with very specific images and connotations." The revisionist perspective has subsequently been supported by his children, Maxim and Galina, although Maxim said in 1981 that Volkov's book was not his father's work. Volkov has further argued, both in Testimony and in Shostakovich and Stalin, that Shostakovich adopted the role of the yurodivy or holy fool in his relations with the government. Maxim Shostakovich has also commented on Testimony and Volkov more favorably since 1991, when the Soviet regime fell. To Allan B. Ho and Dmitry Feofanov, he confirmed that his father had told him about "meeting a young man from Leningrad who knows his music extremely well" and that "Volkov did meet with Shostakovich to work on his reminiscences". Maxim has repeatedly said he is "a supporter both of Testimony and of Volkov." Other prominent revisionists are Ian MacDonald, whose book The New Shostakovich put forward further revisionist interpretations of his music, and Elizabeth Wilson, whose Shostakovich: A Life Remembered provides testimony from many of the composer's acquaintances. Musicians and scholars including Laurel Fay and Richard Taruskin contested the authenticity and debate the significance of Testimony, alleging that Volkov compiled it from a combination of recycled articles, gossip, and possibly some information directly from the composer. Fay documents these allegations in her 2002 article "Volkov's Testimony reconsidered", showing that the only pages of the original Testimony manuscript that Shostakovich had signed and verified are word-for-word reproductions of earlier interviews he gave, none of which are controversial. Ho and Feofanov have countered that at least two of the signed pages contain controversial material: for instance, "on the first page of chapter 3, where [Shostakovich] notes that the plaque that reads 'In this house lived [[Vsevolod Meyerhold\|[Vsevolod] Meyerhold]]' should also say 'And in this house his wife was brutally murdered'." Recorded legacy In May 1958, during a visit to Paris, Shostakovich recorded his two piano concertos with André Cluytens, as well as some short piano works. These were issued on LP by EMI and later reissued on CD. Shostakovich recorded the two concertos in stereo in Moscow for Melodiya. Shostakovich also played the piano solos in recordings of the Cello Sonata, Op. 40 with cellist Daniil Shafran and also with Mstislav Rostropovich; the Violin Sonata, Op. 134, in a private recording made with violinist David Oistrakh; and the Piano Trio, Op. 67 with violinist David Oistrakh and cellist Miloš Sádlo. There is also a short newsreel of Shostakovich as soloist in a 1930s concert performance of the closing moments of his first piano concerto. A color film of Shostakovich supervising the Soviet revival of The Nose in 1974 was also made. Awards Soviet Union Hero of Socialist Labour (1966) * Order of Lenin (1946, 1956, 1966) * Order of the October Revolution (1971) * Order of the Red Banner of Labour (1940) * People's Artist of the RSFSR (1948) * People's Artist of the USSR (1954) * International Peace Prize (1954) * Lenin Prize (1958 – for the Symphony No. 11 "The Year 1905") * Stalin Prize (1941 – for Piano Quintet; 1942 – for the Symphony No. 7; 1946 – for Piano Trio No. 2; 1950 – for Song of the Forests and the score for the film The Fall of Berlin; 1952 – for Ten Poems on Texts by Revolutionary Poets) * USSR State Prize (1968 – for the cantata The Execution of Stepan Razin for bass, chorus and orchestra) * Glinka State Prize of the RSFSR (1974 – for the String Quartet No. 14 and choral cycle Loyalty) Shevchenko National Prize (1976, posthumous – for the opera Katerina Izmailova) Academic titles Member of the Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium (1960) * Honorary Doctor of Arts, Northwestern University (1973) Other awards * Léonie Sonning Music Prize (1973) * Wihuri Sibelius Prize (1958) * Gold Medal of the Royal Philharmonic Society (1966) In 1962, he was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Scoring of a Musical Picture for Khovanshchina (1959). See also * Sinyavsky–Daniel trial * The Noise of Time, a novel by Julian Barnes about Shostakovich * Europe Central, a novel by William T. Vollmann featuring Shostakovich as one of its main characters * Shostakovich (1969–1981), a series of oil paintings in tribute to the composer by Aubrey Williams Notes Citations References * * * * * * \| title-link = The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians }}<br /> * * * * * * * * * * [Orig. in Polish 1973.] * * * * Glikman \| publisher=Cornell University Press \| isbn = 978-0-8014-3979-7 }} * * * * :: }} :: * * :: :: :: (2nd ed. – Kindle) Faber and Faber. 2010. . :: Further reading * Eichler, Jeremy. [https://www.nytimes.com/2004/04/04/books/music-the-composer-and-the-dictator.html "MUSIC; The Composer And the Dictator"]. The New York Times. April 4, 2004. * Figes, Orlando. [https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2004/06/10/the-truth-about-shostakovich/ "The Truth About Shostakovich"]. The New York Review of Books. June 10, 2004. * * * * * * External links * * * [http://www.sikorski.de/media/files/1/12/190/249/336/8953/schostakowitsch_werkverzeichnis.pdf Complete catalogue of works, with many additional comments] by Sikorski * [http://www.siue.edu/~aho/musov/deb/deb.html The Shostakovich Debate: Interpreting the composer's life and music] * * [http://listserv.uh.edu/archives/dsch-l.html University of Houston Moderated Discussion List: Dmitri Shostakovich and other Russian Composers] }} Category:1906 births Category:1975 deaths Category:Soviet classical composers Category:20th-century Russian male musicians Category:Communist Party of the Soviet Union members Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Category:Foreign members of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts Category:Members of the Royal Academy of Belgium Category:Members of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts Category:Academic staff of Moscow Conservatory Category:Academic staff of Saint Petersburg Conservatory Category:Saint Petersburg Conservatory alumni Category:Members of the Soviet of Nationalities Category:Members of the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, 1947–1951 Category:Members of the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, 1951–1955 Category:Members of the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, 1955–1959 Category:Members of the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, 1959–1963 Category:Members of the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, 1963–1967 Category:Members of the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, 1967–1971 Category:Members of the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, 1971–1975 Category:Members of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union Category:Sixth convocation members of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union Category:Seventh convocation members of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union Category:Eighth convocation members of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union Category:Ninth convocation members of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union Category:Heroes of Socialist Labour Category:People's Artists of Azerbaijan Category:People's Artists of the RSFSR Category:People's Artists of the USSR Category:Recipients of the Stalin Prize Category:Recipients of the Lenin Prize Category:Commandeurs of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres Category:Glinka State Prize of the RSFSR winners Category:Recipients of the Austrian Decoration for Science and Art Category:Recipients of the Léonie Sonning Music Prize Category:Recipients of the Order of Friendship of Peoples Category:Recipients of the Order of Lenin Category:Recipients of the Order of the October Revolution Category:Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner of Labour Category:Recipients of the Shevchenko National Prize Category:Recipients of the USSR State Prize Category:Royal Philharmonic Society Gold Medallists Category:Composers for piano Category:Composers for viola Category:Jazz-influenced classical composers Category:Male classical pianists Category:Male film score composers Category:Soviet male opera composers Category:Male operetta composers Category:Modernist composers Category:String quartet composers Category:Residents of the Benois House Category:Russian anti-fascists Category:Russian atheists Category:Russian ballet composers Category:Russian classical pianists Category:Russian film score composers Category:Russian male classical composers Category:Russian opera composers Category:Soviet people of Belarusian descent Category:Soviet people of Polish descent Category:Soviet atheists Category:Soviet classical pianists Category:Soviet film score composers Category:Soviet opera composers Category:Deaths from lung cancer in Russia Category:Deaths from lung cancer in the Soviet Union Category:Burials at Novodevichy Cemetery Category:Russian satirists Category:Russian satirical musicians	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitri_Shostakovich	2025-04-05T18:28:39.678425
8521	Doom (1993 video game)	Doom (2016 video game)\|other uses\|Doom (disambiguation)}} \| director \| programmer \| artist = \| composer Bobby Prince Sources * * * * * * * * * * * * External links * * [https://www.gamers.org/docs/FAQ/doomfaq/ The "Official" Doom FAQ] * [https://github.com/id-Software/DOOM Source code] for Doom on GitHub Category:1993 video games Category:32X games Category:3DO games Category:Acorn Archimedes games Category:Android (operating system) games Category:Atari Jaguar games Category:Censored video games Category:Classic Mac OS games Category:Commercial video games with freely available source code Category:Cooperative video games Category:Doom (franchise) games Category:Doom engine games Category:DOS games Category:Fiction set on Mars' moons Category:First-person shooter multiplayer online games Category:First-person shooters Category:Game Boy Advance games Category:Games commercially released with DOSBox Category:GT Interactive games Category:Id Software games Category:Imagineer games Category:IOS games Category:Multiplayer and single-player video games Category:Multiplayer null modem games Category:Nintendo Switch games Category:Obscenity controversies in video games Category:PlayStation (console) games Category:PlayStation 3 games Category:PlayStation 4 games Category:PlayStation 5 games Category:Science fantasy video games Category:Sega Saturn games Category:Shareware games Category:Split-screen multiplayer games Category:Sprite-based first-person shooters Category:Super FX games Category:Super Nintendo Entertainment System games Category:Video games about demons Category:Video games about Satanism Category:Video games designed by John Romero Category:Video games developed in the United States Category:Video games scored by Bobby Prince Category:Video games set in hell Category:Video games set on Mars Category:Video games with 2.5D graphics Category:Video games with digitized sprites Category:Williams video games Category:Windows games Category:World Video Game Hall of Fame Category:Xbox 360 games Category:Xbox 360 Live Arcade games Category:Xbox Cloud Gaming games Category:Xbox One games Category:Xbox Series X and Series S games	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doom_(1993_video_game)	2025-04-05T18:28:39.782199
8522	Denver	\| image_flag = Flag of Denver, Colorado.svg \| image_seal = Seal of Denver, Colorado.svg \| image_blank_emblem = Denver Logo.png \| blank_emblem_type = Logo \| nicknames The Mile High City<br />Queen City of the Plains<br />Wall Street of the West \| image_map = ###### \| zoom = SWITCH:9;5;3 \| type = SWITCH:shape;point;point \| marker = city \| stroke-width = 2 \| stroke-color = #0096FF \| fill = #0096FF \| id2 = SWITCH:Q16554;Q1261;Q30 \| type2 = shape-inverse \| stroke-width2 = 2 \| stroke-color2 = #5F5F5F \| stroke-opacity2 = SWITCH:0;1;1 \| fill2 = #000000 \| fill-opacity2 = SWITCH:0;0.5;0.5 \| switch = Denver;Colorado;the United States }} \| pushpin_map = USA#USA Colorado \| pushpin_relief \| coordinates \| coordinates_footnotes \|subdivision_type = Country \|subdivision_name = \|subdivision_type1 = State \|subdivision_name1 = \|subdivision_type2 = City and county \|subdivision_name2 Denver \| established_title = Platted \| established_date , as<br/>Denver City, Kansas Territory \| established_title2 = Incorporated \| established_date2 , as<br/>Denver City, Colorado Territory \| established_title3 = Consolidated \| established_date3 , as the<br/>City and County of Denver \| leader_title1 \| leader_name1 <!-- Area ---------------------> \| unit_pref = US \| total_type = Total \| area_footnotes \| area_total_km2 = 400.739 \| area_land_km2 = 396.463 \| area_water_km2 = 4.276 \| area_metro_km2 = 21763.67 \| population_as_of = 2020 \| population_footnotes \| population_total = 715522 \| population_rank = 58th in North America<br />19th in the United States<br />1st in Colorado \| population_density_sq_mi = 4,674 \| population_urban = 2,686,147 (US: 18th) \| population_density_urban_km2 = 1,609.1 \| population_density_urban_sq_mi = 4,167.5 \| population_urban_footnotes \| population_demonym = Denverite \| population_metro = 2,963,821 (US: 19th) \| population_metro_footnotes \| population_blank1_title = CSA \| population_blank1 = 3,623,560 (US: 17th) \| population_blank1_footnotes \| population_blank2_title = Front Range \| population_blank2 = 5,055,344 <!-- GDP ----------->\| demographics_type2 = GDP \| demographics2_footnotes \| demographics2_title1 = Total \| demographics2_info1 = $118.569 billion (2023) \| demographics2_title2 = Metro \| demographics2_info2 = $311.876 billion (2023) <!-- General information ----------------------->\| timezone1 = MST \| utc_offset1 = −07:00 \| timezone1_DST = MDT \| utc_offset1_DST = −06:00 \| postal_code_type = ZIP Codes \| postal_code 80012, 80014, 80022, 80033, 80123, 80201–80212, 80214–80239, 80241, 80243–80244, 80246–80252, 80256–80257, 80259-80261, 80263-80266, 80271, 80273–80274, 80279–80281, 80290–80291, 80293–80295, 80299 \| area_codes = 303/720/983 \| blank_name = FIPS code \| blank_info = 08-20000 \| blank1_name = GNIS feature ID \| blank1_info 201738 \| website = \| footnotes }} \| elevation_ft = 5280 \| elevation_footnotes \| elevation_min_ft = 5130 \| elevation_min_footnotes \| elevation_max_ft = 5680 \| elevation_max_footnotes }} Denver ( ) is a consolidated city and county, the capital and most populous city of the U.S. state of Colorado. It is located in the Western United States, in the South Platte River Valley on the western edge of the High Plains east of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains. With a population of 715,522 as of the 2020 census, a 19.22% increase since 2010, The 105th meridian west of Greenwich, the longitudinal reference for the Mountain Time Zone, passes directly through Denver Union Station. <!-- Please do not update the population figures to non-U.S. Census estimates, see talk --> As the most populous metropolitan area in a radius, Denver is a major cultural hub with a variety of museums and cultural institutions, including the Denver Performing Arts Complex and Denver Art Museum. Denver also has sports teams in all five major professional leagues. While the 10-county Denver–Aurora–Lakewood, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area had a population of 2,963,821 and the 12-county Denver–Aurora, CO Combined Statistical Area had a population of 3,623,560 at the 2020 United States census, Denver functions as the principal city of the 18-county Front Range Urban Corridor, an oblong urban region stretching across Colorado and Wyoming with a population of 5,055,344 at the 2020 U.S. census. History Governor James W. Denver visited his namesake city in 1875 and in 1882.]] 's "Bronco Buster" Western sculpture at the Denver capitol grounds, a gift from J.K. Mullen in 1920]] The greater Denver area was inhabited by several Indigenous peoples such as Apaches, Utes, Cheyennes, Comanches, and Arapahoes. By the terms of the 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie between the United States and various tribes including the Cheyenne and Arapaho, the United States unilaterally defined and recognized Cheyenne and Arapaho territory as ranging from the North Platte River in present-day Wyoming and Nebraska southward to the Arkansas River in present-day Colorado and Kansas. This definition specifically encompasses the land of modern Metropolitan Denver. But the discovery in November 1858 of gold in the Rocky Mountains in Colorado (then part of the western Kansas Territory) brought on a gold rush and a consequent flood of white immigration across Cheyenne and Arapaho lands. On November 22, 1858, General William Larimer and Captain Jonathan Cox, both land speculators from eastern Kansas Territory, placed cottonwood logs to stake a claim on the bluff overlooking the confluence of the South Platte River and Cherry Creek, across the creek from the existing mining settlement of Auraria, and on the site of the existing townsite of St. Charles. Larimer named the townsite Denver City to curry favor with Kansas Territorial Governor James W. Denver. Larimer hoped the town's name would help it be selected as the county seat of Arapahoe County, but unbeknownst to him, Governor Denver had already resigned from office. The location was accessible to existing trails and was across the South Platte River from the site of seasonal encampments of the Cheyenne and Arapaho. The site of these first towns is now occupied by Confluence Park near downtown Denver. Edward W. Wynkoop came to Colorado in 1859 and became one of the city's founders. Wynkoop Street in Denver is named after him. Larimer, along with associates in the St. Charles City Land Company, sold parcels in the town to merchants and miners, with the intention of creating a major city that would cater to new immigrants. Denver City was a frontier town, with an economy based on servicing local miners with gambling, saloons, livestock, and goods trading. In the early years, land parcels were often traded for grubstakes or gambled away by miners in Auraria. at Bent's New Fort at Big Timbers near what is now Lamar, Colorado. They ceded more than 90 percent of the lands designated for them by the Fort Laramie Treaty, including the area of modern Denver. Ten days later, on February 28, 1861, the Colorado Territory was created, Arapahoe County was formed on November 1, 1861, Denver City served as the Arapahoe County Seat from 1861 until consolidation in 1902. '' building]] Although by the close of the 1860s Denver residents could look with pride at their success establishing a vibrant supply and service center, the decision to route the nation's first transcontinental railroad through Cheyenne City, rather than Denver, threatened the prosperity of the young town. The transcontinental railroad passed a daunting away, but citizens mobilized to build a railroad to connect Denver to it. Spearheaded by visionary leaders, including Territorial Governor John Evans, David Moffat, and Walter Cheesman, fundraising began. Within three days, $300,000 had been raised, and citizens were optimistic. Fundraising stalled before enough was raised, forcing these visionary leaders to take control of the debt-ridden railroad. Despite challenges, on June 24, 1870, citizens cheered as the Denver Pacific completed the link to the transcontinental railroad, ushering in a new age of prosperity for Denver. Finally linked to the rest of the nation by rail, Denver prospered as a service and supply center. The young city grew during these years, attracting millionaires with their mansions, as well as a mixture of crime and poverty of a rapidly growing city. Denver citizens were proud when the rich chose Denver and were thrilled when Horace Tabor, the Leadville mining millionaire, built a business block at 16th and Larimer, as well as the elegant Tabor Grand Opera House. Luxurious hotels, including the much-loved Brown Palace Hotel, soon followed, as well as splendid homes for millionaires, such as the Croke, Patterson, Campbell Mansion at 11th and Pennsylvania and the now-demolished Moffat Mansion at 8th and Grant. Intent on transforming Denver into one of the world's great cities, leaders wooed industry and attracted laborers to work in these factories. Soon, in addition to the elite and a large middle class, Denver had a growing population of immigrant German, Italian, and Chinese laborers, soon followed by African Americans from the Deep South and Hispanic workers. The influx of the new residents strained available housing. In addition, the Silver Crash of 1893 unsettled political, social, and economic balances. Competition among the different ethnic groups was often expressed as bigotry, and social tensions gave rise to the Red Scare. Americans were suspicious of immigrants, who were sometimes allied with socialist and labor union causes. After World War I, a revival of the Ku Klux Klan attracted white, native-born Americans who were anxious about the many changes in society. Unlike the earlier organization that was active in the rural South, KKK chapters developed in urban areas of the Midwest and West, including Denver, and into Idaho and Oregon. Corruption and crime also developed in Denver. Between 1880 and 1895, the city underwent a huge rise in corruption, as crime bosses, such as Soapy Smith, worked side by side with elected officials and the police to control elections, gambling, and bunco gangs. The city also suffered a depression in 1893 after the crash of silver prices. In 1887, the precursor to the international charity United Way was formed in Denver by local religious leaders, who raised funds and coordinated various charities to help Denver's poor. By 1890, Denver had grown to be the second-largest city west of Omaha, Nebraska. In 1900, whites represented 96.8% of Denver's population. The African American and Hispanic populations increased with migrations of the 20th century. Many African Americans first came as workers on the railroad, which had a terminus in Denver, and began to settle there. Between the 1880s and 1930s, Denver's floriculture industry developed and thrived. This period became known locally as the Carnation Gold Rush. A bill proposing a state constitutional amendment to allow home rule for Denver and other municipalities was introduced in the legislature in 1901 and passed. The measure called for a statewide referendum, which voters approved in 1902. On December 1 that year, Governor James Orman proclaimed the amendment part of the state's fundamental law. The City and County of Denver came into being on that date and was separated from Arapahoe and Adams counties. From 1953 to 1989, the Rocky Flats Plant, a DOE nuclear weapon facility that was about 15 miles from Denver, produced fissile plutonium "pits" for nuclear warheads. A major fire at the facility in 1957, as well as leakage from nuclear waste stored at the site between 1958 and 1968, resulted in the contamination of some parts of Denver, to varying degrees, with plutonium-239, a harmful radioactive substance with a half-life of 24,200 years. A 1981 study by the Jefferson County health director, Carl Johnson, linked the contamination to an increase in birth defects and cancer incidence in central Denver and nearer Rocky Flats. Later studies confirmed many of his findings. Plutonium contamination was still present outside the former plant site . It presents risks to building the envisioned Jefferson Parkway, which would complete Denver's automotive beltway. In 1970, Denver was selected to host the 1976 Winter Olympics to coincide with Colorado's centennial celebration, but in November 1972, Colorado voters struck down ballot initiatives allocating public funds to pay for the high costs of the games. They were moved to Innsbruck, Austria. The notoriety of being the only city ever to decline to host an Olympiad after being selected has made subsequent bids difficult. The movement against hosting the games was based largely on environmental issues and was led by State Representative Richard Lamm. He was subsequently elected to three terms (1975–87) as Colorado governor. Denver explored a potential bid for the 2022 Winter Olympics, but no bid was submitted. In 2010, Denver adopted a comprehensive update of its zoning code, which was developed to guide development as envisioned in adopted plans such as Blueprint Denver, Transit Oriented Development Strategic Plan, Greenprint Denver, and the Strategic Transportation Plan.<!-- What does it include? --> Denver has hosted the Democratic National Convention twice, in 1908 and 2008. It promoted the city on the national, political, and socioeconomic stage. On August 10–15, 1993, Denver hosted the Catholic Church's 6th World Youth Day, which was attended by an estimated 500,000, making it the largest gathering in Colorado history. In 2015, a new commuter railway system commenced operations in the Denver metropolitan area with a network operation of 25 kV 60 Hz. Denver has been known historically as the Queen City of the Plains and the Queen City of the West, because of its important role in the agricultural industry of the High Plains region in eastern Colorado and along the foothills of the Colorado Front Range. Geography Denver is in the center of the Front Range Urban Corridor, between the Rocky Mountains to the west and the High Plains to the east. Its topography consists of plains in the city center with hilly areas to the north, west, and south. It is the only state capital in the United States that is a consolidated city-county. At the 2020 United States census, the City and County of Denver had an area of , including of water. The system of neighborhood boundaries and names dates to 1970 when city planners divided the city into 73 groups of one to four census tracts, called "statistical neighborhoods," most of which are unchanged since then. Unlike some other cities, such as Chicago, Denver does not have official larger area designations. Colloquially, names such as Northside and Westside are still in use, but not well-known. Community planners have recently been using a set of 19 larger areas, all of which are groups of statistical neighborhoods, as part of the Area Planning process. Denver also has a number of colloquial neighborhood names and boundaries reflecting how people in an area, or others such as community groups and real estate developers, have defined areas. Well-known non-administrative neighborhoods include the historic and trendy LoDo (short for "Lower Downtown"), part of the city's Union Station neighborhood; Uptown, straddling North Capitol Hill and City Park West; Curtis Park and RiNo ("River North"), both part of the Five Points neighborhood; Alamo Placita, the northern part of the Speer neighborhood; Park Hill, a successful example of intentional racial integration; and Golden Triangle, in the Civic Center. One of Denver's newer neighborhoods was built on the site of Stapleton International Airport, named after former Denver mayor Benjamin F. Stapleton, a member of the Ku Klux Klan. In 2020, the neighborhood's community association voted to change the name from Stapleton to Central Park (see more in Politics section below). The Central Park neighborhood itself has 12 "neighborhoods" within its boundaries.Adjacent counties, municipalities and census-designated places <!--**EDITORS PLEASE NOTE: What is a "surrounding municipality" and what is not? A line has to be drawn somewhere. This table is intended to include only those cities and towns that Denver shares a border with - the following should not change unless there is an applicable annexation or incorporation.--> {\| class"wikitable" style"margin:auto;" \|- \| style="width:35%; text-align:center;"\| \| style="width:30%; text-align:center;" \|North: Adams County, Berkley, Northglenn, Commerce City \| style="width:35%; text-align:center;"\| \|- \| style="width:10%; text-align:center;" \|West: Jefferson County, Arvada, Wheat Ridge, Lakeside, Mountain View, Edgewater, Lakewood, Dakota Ridge \| style="width:35%; text-align:center;" \|Denver<br />Enclave: Arapahoe County, Glendale, Holly Hills \| style="width:30%; text-align:center;" \|Adams County<br />East: Aurora<br />Arapahoe County \|- \| style="width:35%; text-align:center;"\| \| style="width:30%; text-align:center;"\|South: Arapahoe County, Bow Mar, Littleton, Sheridan, Englewood, Cherry Hills Village, Greenwood Village, Aurora \| style="width:35%; text-align:center;"\| \|} Climate Denver features a continental semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification: BSk, Trewartha: BSao) with generally low humidity and around 3,100 hours of sunshine per year, although humid microclimates can be found nearby depending on exact location. It has four distinct seasons and receives most of its precipitation from April through August. Due to its inland location on the High Plains, at the foot of the Rocky Mountains, the region can be subject to sudden changes in weather. July is the warmest month, with an average high temperature of . Summers range from warm to hot with occasional, sometimes severe, afternoon thunderstorms and high temperatures reaching on 38 days annually, and occasionally . December, the coldest month of the year, has an average daily high temperature of . Winters consist of periods of snow and very low temperatures alternating with periods of milder weather due to the warming effect of Chinook winds. In winter, daytime highs occasionally exceed , but they also often fail to reach during periods of cold weather. Occasionally, daytime highs can even fail to rise above due to arctic air masses. On the coldest nights of the year, lows can fall to or below, with the city experiencing a low of on December 22, 2022, with a wind chill of . Snowfall is common throughout the late fall, winter and early spring, averaging for 1981–2010; The average window for measurable (≥) snow is October 17 through April 27; however, measurable snowfall has occurred as early as September 4 and as late as June 3. Extremes in temperature range from on January 9, 1875, up to as recently as June 28, 2018. Due to the city's high elevation and aridity, diurnal temperature variation is large throughout the year. Tornadoes are rare west of the I-25 corridor; one notable exception was an F3 tornado that struck south of downtown on June 15, 1988. On the other hand, the suburbs east of Denver and the city's east-northeastern extension (Denver International Airport) can see a few tornadoes, often weak landspout tornadoes, each spring and summer, especially during June, with the enhancement of the Denver Convergence Vorticity Zone (DCVZ). The DCVZ, also known as the Denver Cyclone, is a variable vortex of storm-forming air flow usually found north and east of downtown, and which often includes the airport. Heavy weather from the DCVZ can disrupt airport operations. In a study looking at hail events in areas with a population of at least 50,000, Denver was found to be ranked 10th most prone to hail storms in the continental United States. In fact, Denver has had three of the top 10 costliest hailstorms in U.S. history, on July 11, 1990; July 20, 2009; and May 8, 2017. Based on 30-year averages obtained from NOAA's National Climatic Data Center for the months of December, January and February, Weather Channel ranked Denver the 18th-coldest major U.S. city . Denver's official weather station is at Denver International Airport, roughly from downtown. A 2019 analysis showed the average temperature at Denver International Airport, , was significantly cooler than downtown, . Many of the suburbs also have warmer temperatures and there is controversy regarding the location of the official temperature readings. {\|style"width:100%;text-align:center;line-height:1.2em;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto" class"wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" \|- !Colspan=14\|Climate data for Denver \|- !Month !Jan !Feb !Mar !Apr !May !Jun !Jul !Aug !Sep !Oct !Nov !Dec !style="border-left-width:medium"\|Year \|- !Mean daily daylight hours \|style="background:#F0F011;color:#000000;"\|10.0 \|style="background:#F7F722;color:#000000;"\|11.0 \|style="background:#FFFF33;color:#000000;"\|12.0 \|style="background:#FFFF44;color:#000000;"\|13.0 \|style="background:#FFFF55;color:#000000;"\|14.0 \|style="background:#FFFF66;color:#000000;"\|15.0 \|style="background:#FFFF66;color:#000000;"\|15.0 \|style="background:#FFFF55;color:#000000;"\|14.0 \|style="background:#FFFF33;color:#000000;"\|12.0 \|style="background:#F7F722;color:#000000;"\|11.0 \|style="background:#F0F011;color:#000000;"\|10.0 \|style="background:#E9E900;color:#000000;"\|9.0 \|style="background:#FFFF35;color:#000000;border-left-width:medium"\|12.2 \|- !Average Ultraviolet index \|style="background:#289500;color:#000000;"\|2 \|style="background:#90bf00;color:#000000;"\|3 \|style="background:#f7e400;color:#000000;"\|5 \|style="background:#f8a000;color:#000000;"\|7 \|style="background:#f85900;color:#000000;"\|9 \|style="background:#6b49c8;color:#000000;"\|11 \|style="background:#6b49c8;color:#000000;"\|11 \|style="background:#f8001d;color:#000000;"\|10 \|style="background:#f8a000;color:#000000;"\|7 \|style="background:#f7e400;color:#000000;"\|5 \|style="background:#90bf00;color:#000000;"\|3 \|style="background:#289500;color:#000000;"\|2 \|style="background:#f8bf00;color:#000000;border-left-width:medium"\|6.2 \|- \| !Colspan14 style"background:#f8f9fa;font-weight:normal;font-size:95%;"\|Source: Weather Atlas \|} Demographics {\| class"wikitable sortable collapsible w-b collapsed" style"font-size: 90%;" \|- ! Historical racial composition !!2020!! 2010!! 1990 White: 60.6% (Non-Hispanic Whites: 54.3%) * Hispanic or Latino (of any race): 27.9%; Mexican Americans made up 20.3% of the city's population. * Black or African American: 8.9% * Asian: 3.9% (0.82% Vietnamese, 0.60% Chinese, 0.51% Indian, 0.33% Korean, 0.31% Filipino, 0.21% Japanese, 0.13% Burmese, 0.12% Nepalese, 0.11% Afghan, 0.09% Cambodian) !Pop 2010 ! !% 2000 !% 2010 ! \|- \|White alone (NH) \|287,997 \|313,012 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|388,764 \|51.93% \|52.15% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|54.33% \|- \|Black or African American alone (NH) \|59,921 \|58,388 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|61,098 \|10.80% \|9.73% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|8.54% \|- \|Native American or Alaska Native alone (NH) \|3,846 \|3,525 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|3,740 \|0.69% \|0.59% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|0.52% \|- \|Asian alone (NH) \|15,137 \|19,925 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|27,198 \|2.73% \|3.32% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|3.80% \|- \|Pacific Islander alone (NH) \|473 \|495 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|1,395 \|0.09% \|0.08% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|0.19% \|- \|Other race alone (NH) \|975 \|1,208 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|3,746 \|0.18% \|0.20% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|0.52% \|- \|Mixed race or Multiracial (NH) \|10,583 \|12,640 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|30,121 \|1.91% \|2.11% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|4.21% \|- \|Hispanic or Latino (any race) \|175,704 \|190,965 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|199,460 \|31.68% \|31.82% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|27.88% \|- \|Total \|554,636 \|600,158 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|715,522 \|100.00% \|100.00% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|100.00% \|} Approximately 70.3% of the population (over five years old) spoke only English at home. An additional 23.5% of the population spoke Spanish at home. In terms of ancestry, 31.8% were Hispanic or Latino, 14.6% of the population were of German ancestry, 9.7% were of Irish ancestry, 8.9% were of English ancestry, and 4.0% were of Italian ancestry. There were 250,906 households, of which 23.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 34.7% were married couples living together, 10.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 50.1% were non-families. 39.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.27, and the average family size was 3.14. Age distribution was 22.0% under the age of 18, 10.7% from 18 to 24, 36.1% from 25 to 44, 20.0% from 45 to 64, and 11.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. Overall there were 102.1 males for every 100 females. Due to a skewed sex ratio wherein single men outnumber single women, some protologists had nicknamed the city as Menver. The median household income was $45,438, and the median family income was $48,195. Males had a median income of $36,232 versus $33,768 for females. The per capita income for the city was $24,101. 19.1% of the population and 14.6% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 25.3% of those under the age of 18 and 13.7% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line. Denver has one of the largest populations of Mexican-Americans in the entire United States. Approximately one third of the city is Hispanic, with the overwhelming majority of them being of Mexican descent. Many of them speak Spanish at home. English, German, Irish, Swedish, Italian, Polish, Chinese, Japanese, Greek, and Russian immigrants immigrated to Denver by the 1920s. Languages , 72.28% (386,815) of Denver residents aged five and older spoke only English at home, while 21.42% (114,635) spoke Spanish, 0.85% (4,550) Vietnamese, 0.57% (3,073) African languages, 0.53% (2,845) Russian, 0.50% (2,681) Chinese, 0.47% (2,527) French, and 0.46% (2,465) German. In total, 27.72% (148,335) of Denver's population aged five and older spoke a language other than English. , looking east along Speer Blvd\|align-capcenter}} Longevity According to a report in the Journal of the American Medical Association, residents of Denver had a 2014 life expectancy of 80.02 years.Economy in Denver (2010)]] , Colorado's tallest building]] The Denver MSA had a gross metropolitan product of $311.9 billion in 2023, making it the 18th largest metro economy in the United States. Additionally, the 12-County Denver–Aurora, CO Combined Statistical Area had a GDP of $377.7 billion in 2023 while the broader Front Range had a GDP of $474.6 billion. Denver's economy is based partially on its geographic position and its connection to some of the country's major transportation systems. Because Denver is the largest city within , it has become a natural location for storage and distribution of goods and services to the Mountain States, Southwest states, as well as all western states. Another benefit for distribution is that Denver is nearly equidistant from large cities of the Midwest, such as Chicago and St. Louis and some large cities of the West Coast, such as Los Angeles and San Francisco. Over the years, the city has been home to other large corporations in the central United States, making Denver a key trade point for the country. Several well-known companies originated in or have relocated to Denver. William Ainsworth opened the Denver Instrument Company in 1895 to make analytical balances for gold assayers. Its factory is now in Arvada. Aimco is headquartered in Denver. Samsonite began in Denver in 1910 as Shwayder Trunk Manufacturing Company, but Samsonite closed its NE Denver factory in 2001, and moved its headquarters to Massachusetts after a change of ownership in 2006. Qwest Corporation, founded in Denver in 1911 as Mountain States Telephone & Telegraph Company, is now a part of Lumen Technologies (previously CenturyLink). On October 31, 1937, Continental Airlines, now United Airlines, moved its headquarters to Stapleton Airport in Denver, Colorado (before United Airlines later moved to its current home in Chicago). Robert F. Six arranged to have the headquarters moved to Denver from El Paso, Texas because Six believed that the airline should have its headquarters in a large city with a potential base of customers. Continental later moved to Houston from Denver, but merged with United Airlines in 2013. Throughout that time, the company held a large employee base in the Denver area, which is home to the United Airlines Flight Training Center in the Central Park neighborhood. MediaNews Group purchased the Denver Post in 1987; the company is based in Denver. The Gates Corporation, the world's largest producer of automotive belts and hoses, was established in S. Denver in 1919. Russell Stover Candies made its first chocolate candy in Denver in 1923, but moved to Kansas City in 1969. The original Frontier Airlines began operations at Denver's old Stapleton International Airport in 1950; Frontier was reincarnated at DIA in 1994. Scott's Liquid Gold, Inc., has been making furniture polish in Denver since 1954. Village Inn restaurants began as a single pancake house in Denver in 1958. Big O Tires, LLC, of Centennial opened its first franchise in 1962 in Denver. The Shane Company sold its first diamond jewelry in 1971 in Denver. In 1973 Re/Max made Denver its headquarters. Johns Manville Corp., a manufacturer of insulation and roofing products, relocated its headquarters to Denver from New York in 1972. CH2M Hill, an engineering and construction firm, relocated from Oregon to the Denver Technological Center in 1980. The Ball Corporation sold its glass business in Indiana in the 1990s and moved to suburban Broomfield; Ball has several operations in greater Denver. Molson Coors Brewing Company established its U.S. headquarters in Denver in 2005, but announced its departure in 2019. Its subsidiary and regional wholesale distributor, Coors Distributing Company, is in NW Denver. The Newmont Mining Corporation, the second-largest gold producer in North America and one of the largest in the world, is headquartered in Denver. MapQuest, an online site for maps, directions and business listings, is headquartered in Denver's LoDo district. Large Denver-area employers that have headquarters elsewhere include Lockheed Martin Corp., United Airlines, Kroger Co. and Xcel Energy, Inc. Geography also allows Denver to have a considerable government presence, with many federal agencies based or having offices in the Denver area. Along with federal agencies come many companies based on US defense and space projects, and more jobs are brought to the city by virtue of its being the capital of the state of Colorado. The Denver area is home to the former nuclear weapons plant Rocky Flats, the Denver Federal Center, Byron G. Rogers Federal Building and United States Courthouse, the Denver Mint, and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory. In 2005, a $310.7 million expansion of the Colorado Convention Center was completed, doubling its size. The hope was the center's expansion would elevate the city to one of the top 10 cities in the nation for holding a convention. Denver's position near the mineral-rich Rocky Mountains encouraged mining and energy companies to spring up in the area. In the early days of the city, gold and silver booms and busts played a large role in the city's economic success. In the 1970s and early 1980s, the energy crisis in America and resulting high oil prices created an energy boom in Denver captured in the soap opera Dynasty. Denver was built up considerably during this time with the construction of many new downtown skyscrapers. When the price of oil dropped from $34 a barrel in 1981 to $9 a barrel in 1986, the Denver economy also dropped, leaving almost 15,000 oil industry workers in the area unemployed (including former mayor and governor John Hickenlooper, a former geologist), and the nation's highest office vacancy rate (30%). The industry has recovered and the region has 700 employed petroleum engineers. Advances in hydraulic fracturing have made the DJ Basin of Colorado into an accessible and lucrative oil play. Energy and mining are still important in Denver's economy today, with companies such as Ovintiv, Halliburton, Smith International, Rio Tinto Group, Newmont Mining, and Chevron Corporation, headquartered or having significant operations. Denver is in 149th place in terms of the cost of doing business in the United States. , near the campus of the University of Denver]] Denver's west-central geographic location in the Mountain Time Zone (UTC−7) also benefits the telecommunications industry by allowing communication with both North American coasts, South America, Europe, and Asia on the same business day. Denver's location on the 105th meridian at over in elevation also enables it to be the largest city in the U.S. to offer a "one-bounce" real-time satellite uplink to six continents in the same business day. Qwest Communications now part of CenturyLink, Dish Network Corporation, Starz, DIRECTV, and Comcast are a few of the many telecommunications companies with operations in the Denver area. These and other high-tech companies had a boom in Denver in the mid to late 1990s. After a rise in unemployment in the Great Recession, Denver's unemployment rate recovered and had one of the lowest unemployment rates in the nation at 2.6% in November 2016. As of December 2016, the unemployment rate for the Denver–Aurora–Broomfield MSA is 2.6%. The Downtown region has seen increased real estate investment with the construction of several new skyscrapers from 2010 onward and major development around Denver Union Station. Denver has also enjoyed success as a pioneer in the fast-casual restaurant industry, with many popular national chain restaurants founded and based in Denver. Quiznos and Smashburger were founded and headquartered in Denver. Qdoba Mexican Grill, Noodles & Company, and Good Times Burgers & Frozen Custard originated in Denver, but have moved their headquarters to the suburbs of Wheat Ridge, Broomfield, and Golden, respectively. Chipotle Mexican Grill was founded in Denver, but moved its headquarters to Newport Beach, California in 2018. In 2015, Denver ranked No. 1 on Forbes list of the Best Places for Business and Careers. In 2024, Denver based Ibotta's initial public offering (IPO) was the largest tech IPO in Colorado's history. Top employers As of the city's 2023 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, Denver's top employers are: {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|- ! # !! Employer !! Number of employees \|- \| 1 \|\| City and County of Denver \|\| 13,584 \|- \| 2 \|\| Denver Public Schools \|\| 12,693 \|- \| 3 \|\| State of Colorado Central Payroll \|\| 10,686 \|- \| 4 \|\| Denver Health & Hospital Authority \|\| 9,502 \|- \| 5 \|\| United Airlines \|\| 7,230 \|- \| 6 \|\| CHC Payroll Agent (HCA Health One) \|\| 4,592 \|- \| 7 \|\| University of Denver \|\| 4,548 \|- \| 8 \|\| USDA National Finance Center \|\| 4,496 \|- \| 9 \|\| Southwest Airlines \|\| 4,247 \|- \| 10 \|\| ADP TotalSource \|\| 2,535 \|- \|} Culture \|thumb]] Apollo Hall opened soon after the city's founding in 1859 and staged many plays for eager settlers. In the 1880s Horace Tabor built Denver's first opera house. After the start of the 20th century, city leaders embarked on a city beautification program that created many of the city's parks, parkways, museums, and the Municipal Auditorium, which was home to the 1908 Democratic National Convention and is now known as the Ellie Caulkins Opera House. Denver and the metropolitan areas around it continued to support culture. In July 1982, Denver hosted the World Theatre Festival at the Denver Center for Performing Arts, which comprised a program of 114 performances of 18 plays, by theatre companies from 13 countries, across 25 days. In 1988, voters in the Denver Metropolitan Area approved the Scientific and Cultural Facilities Tax (commonly known as SCFD), a 0.1% (1 cent per $10) sales tax that contributes money to various cultural and scientific facilities and organizations throughout the Metro area. The tax was renewed by voters in 1994 and 2004 and allowed the SCFD to operate until 2018. Ballot issue 4B in 2016 won approval 62.8 percent to 37.2 percent, by Denver metro area voters, to extend the SCFD sales tax until 2030. Denver is home to a wide array of museums. Many are nationally recognized, including a new wing for the Denver Art Museum by architect Daniel Libeskind, the nation's second-largest Performing Arts Center after Lincoln Center in New York City, and bustling neighborhoods such as LoDo, filled with art galleries, restaurants, bars and clubs. That is part of the reason Denver was, in 2006, recognized for the third year in a row as the best city for singles. Its neighborhoods also continue their influx of diverse people and businesses while the city's cultural institutions grow and prosper. The city acquired the estate of abstract expressionist painter Clyfford Still in 2004 and built a museum to exhibit his works near the Denver Art Museum. The Denver Museum of Nature and Science holds an aquamarine specimen valued at over $1 million, as well as specimens of the state mineral, rhodochrosite. Every September the Denver Mart, at 451 E. 58th Avenue, hosts a gem and mineral show. The state history museum, History Colorado Center, opened in April 2012. It features hands-on and interactive exhibits, artifacts and programs about Colorado history. It was named in 2013 by True West Magazine as one of the top-ten "must see" history museums in the country. History Colorado's Byers-Evans House Museum and the Molly Brown House are nearby. Denver has numerous art districts, including Denver's Art District on Santa Fe and the River North Art District (RiNo). While Denver may not be as recognized for historical musical prominence as some other American cities, it has an active pop, jazz, jam, folk, metal, and classical music scene, which has nurtured several artists and genres to regional, national, and even international attention. Of particular note is Denver's importance in the folk scene of the 1960s and 1970s. Well-known folk artists such as Bob Dylan, Judy Collins and John Denver lived in Denver at various points during this time and performed at local clubs. Three members of the widely popular group Earth, Wind, and Fire are also from Denver. More recent Denver-based artists include India Arie, Nathaniel Rateliff & the Night Sweats, The Lumineers, Air Dubai, The Fray, Flobots, Cephalic Carnage, Axe Murder Boyz, Deuce Mob, Havok, Bloodstrike, Primitive Man, and Five Iron Frenzy. Denver is also home to the Denver Record Collectors Expo, a biannual music collectors event. Because of its proximity to the mountains and generally sunny weather, Denver has gained a reputation as being a very active, outdoor-oriented city. Many Denver residents spend the weekends in the mountains; skiing in the winter and hiking, climbing, kayaking, and camping in the summer. Denver and surrounding cities are home to a large number of local and national breweries. Many of the region's restaurants have on-site breweries, and some larger brewers offer tours, including Coors and New Belgium Brewing Company. The city also welcomes visitors from around the world when it hosts the annual Great American Beer Festival each fall. Denver used to be a major trading center for beef and livestock when ranchers would drive (or later transport) cattle to the Denver Union Stockyards for sale. As a celebration of that history, for more than a century Denver has hosted the annual National Western Stock Show, attracting as many as 10,000 animals and 700,000 attendees. The show is held every January at the National Western Complex northeast of downtown. Denver has one of the country's largest populations of Mexican Americans and hosts four large Mexican-American celebrations: Cinco de Mayo (with over 500,000 attendees), in May; El Grito de la Independencia, in September; the annual Lowrider show, and the Dia De Los Muertos art shows/events in North Denver's Highland neighborhood, and the Lincoln Park neighborhood in the original section of West Denver. Denver is known for its dedication to New Mexican cuisine and the Chile. It is best known for its green and red chile sauce, Colorado burrito, Southwest (Denver) omelette, breakfast burrito, empanadas, chiles rellenos, and tamales. Denver is also known for other types of food such as Rocky Mountain oysters, rainbow trout, and the Denver sandwich. The Dragon Boat Festival in July, Moon Festival in September and Chinese New Year are annual events in Denver for the Chinese and Asian-American communities. Chinese hot pot (huo guo) and Korean BBQ restaurants have been growing in popularity. The Denver area has two Chinese newspapers, the Chinese American Post and the Colorado Chinese News. A Korean Newspaper, the "Colorado Times News" is also based in Denver. Denver has long been a place tolerant of the LGBTQ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer) community. Many gay bars can be found on Colfax Avenue and on South Broadway. Every June, Denver hosts the annual Denver PrideFest in Civic Center Park, the largest LGBTQ Pride festival in the Rocky Mountain region. Denver is the setting for The Bill Engvall Show, Tim Allen's Last Man Standing, and the 18th season of MTV's The Real World. It was also the setting for the prime time drama Dynasty from 1981 to 1989 (although the show was mostly filmed in Los Angeles). From 1998 to 2002 the city's Alameda East Veterinary Hospital was home to the Animal Planet series Emergency Vets, which spun off three documentary specials and the current Animal Planet series E-Vet Interns. The city is also the setting for the Disney Channel sitcom Good Luck Charlie. <gallery widths"150px" class"center"> File:Denver Pavilions sign and escalators.jpg\|Denver Pavilions is a popular arts, entertainment, and shopping center on the 16th Street Mall in downtown Denver. File:Denver Performing Arts Complex.jpg\|Denver Performing Arts Complex File:Denver Art Museum.JPG\|Denver Art Museum File:Civiccenter1.JPG\|Civic Center Park, with museums and the central library in background </gallery> Sports Denver is home to a variety of sports teams and is one of 12 U.S. cities with teams from four major league sports (the Denver metro area is the smallest metropolitan area in the country to have a team in all four major sports leagues). Including MLS soccer, it is also one of 10 U.S. cities to have five major sports teams. The Denver Broncos of the National Football League have drawn crowds of over 70,000 since their origins in the early 1960s, and continue to draw fans today to their current home Empower Field at Mile High. The Broncos have sold out every home game (except for strike-replacement games) since 1970. The Broncos have advanced to eight Super Bowls and won back-to-back titles in 1997 and 1998, and won again in 2015. The Colorado Rockies were created as an expansion franchise in 1993 and Coors Field opened in 1995. The Rockies advanced to the playoffs that year but were eliminated in the first round. In 2007, they advanced to the playoffs as a wild-card entrant, won the NL Championship Series, and brought the World Series to Denver for the first time but were swept in four games by the Boston Red Sox. Denver has been home to two National Hockey League teams. The Colorado Rockies played from 1976 to 1982, but later moved to the New York metropolitan area to become the New Jersey Devils. The Colorado Avalanche joined in 1995, after relocating from Quebec City. While in Denver, they have won three Stanley Cups in 1996, 2001, and 2022. The Denver Nuggets joined the American Basketball Association in 1967 and the National Basketball Association in 1976. The Nuggets won their first NBA championship in 2023. The Avalanche and Nuggets have both played at Ball Arena (formerly known as Pepsi Center) since 1999. The Major League Soccer team Colorado Rapids play in Dick's Sporting Goods Park, an 18,000-seat soccer-specific stadium opened for the 2007 MLS season in the Denver suburb of Commerce City. The Rapids won the MLS Cup in 2010. {\| class="wikitable" \|- \|+ Major League sports teams \|- !Club !League !Venue !Attendance !Attendance rank in League !Start !Championship \|- \| Denver Broncos \| align=center \| NFL \| Empower Field at Mile High \| aligncenter \| 76,388 \| align=center \| 5th of 32 \| align=center \| 1960 \| align=center \| 1997, 1998, 2015 \|- \| Colorado Rockies \| align=center \| MLB \| Coors Field \| aligncenter \| 32,196 \| align=center \| 14th of 30 \| align=center \| 1993 \| align=center \| \|- \| Denver Nuggets \| align=center \| NBA \| Ball Arena \| aligncenter \| 19,669 \| align=center \| 6th of 30 \| align=center \| 1967 \| align=center \| 2023 \|- \| Colorado Avalanche \| align=center \| NHL \| Ball Arena \| aligncenter \| 17,991 \| align=center \| 13th of 32 \| align=center \| 1995 \| align=center \| 1996, 2001, 2022 \|- \| Colorado Rapids \| align=center \| MLS \| Dick's Sporting Goods Park \| aligncenter \| 15,409 \| align=center \| 28th of 29 \| align=center \| 1996 \| align=center \| 2010 \|} Denver has several additional professional teams. In 2006, Denver established a Major League Lacrosse team, the Denver Outlaws. They play in Empower Field at Mile High. In 2006, the Denver Outlaws won the Western Conference Championship and then won their first championship in 2014 eight years later. They also won in 2016 and 2018 and would fold in 2020 with the MLL-PLL merger. The Colorado Mammoth of the National Lacrosse League play at Ball Arena. They won championships in 2006 and 2022. In 2018, the Denver Bandits were established as the first professional football team for women in Colorado and will be a part of the initial season for the Women's National Football Conference (WNFC) in 2019. Denver was awarded a National Women's Soccer League team in 2025. Denver submitted the winning bid to host the 1976 Winter Olympics but subsequently withdrew, giving it the distinction of being the first city to back out after having won its bid to host the Olympics. Denver also has 29 recreation centers providing places and programming for resident's recreation and relaxation. Many of Denver's parks were acquired from state lands in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This coincided with the City Beautiful movement, and Denver mayor Robert Speer (1904–12 and 1916–18) set out to expand and beautify the city's parks. Reinhard Schuetze was the city's first landscape architect, and he brought his German-educated landscaping genius to Washington Park, Cheesman Park, and City Park among others. Speer used Schuetze as well as other landscape architects such as Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. and Saco Rienk DeBoer to design not only parks such as Civic Center Park, but many city parkways and tree-lawns. Cheesman Park neighbor the Denver Botanic Gardens displays the beauty and versatility of micro-climates within the semi-arid Denver Basin. All of these parks were fed with South Platte River water diverted through the city ditch. In addition to the parks within Denver, the city acquired land for mountain parks starting in the 1911s. Over the years, Denver has acquired, built and maintained approximately of mountain parks, including Red Rocks Park, which is known for its scenery and musical history revolving around the unique Red Rocks Amphitheatre. Denver also owns the mountain on which the Winter Park Resort ski area operates in Grand County, west of Denver. City parks are important places for Denverites and visitors, inciting controversy with every change. Denver continues to grow its park system with the development of many new parks along the Platte River through the city, and with Central Park and Bluff Lake Nature Center in the Central Park neighborhood redevelopment. All of these parks are important gathering places for residents and allow what was once a dry plain to be lush, active, and green. Denver is also home to a large network of public community gardens, most of which are managed by Denver Urban Gardens, a non-profit organization. Since 1974, Denver and the surrounding jurisdictions have rehabilitated the urban South Platte River and its tributaries for recreational use by hikers and cyclists. The main stem of the South Platte River Greenway runs along the South Platte into Adams County in the north. The Greenway project is recognized as one of the best urban reclamation projects in the U.S., winning, for example, the Silver Medal Rudy Bruner Award for Urban Excellence in 2001. , Park Score by the Trust for Public Land, a national land conservation organization, reported Denver as having the 18th best park system among the 50 most populous U.S. cities. The report noted that 89% of Denverites live within a 10-minute walk of a park. <gallery widths"140" class"center"> File:The 1908 pavilion in Denver, Colorado's, Cheesman Park LCCN2015633572.tif\|Cheesman Park started as a cemetery. File:Carla Madison Recreation Center.JPG\|The Carla Madison Recreation Center, completed in 2017 File:Red Rocks Amphitheater.JPG\|Red Rocks is a Denver park and world-famous amphitheater in the foothills. File:Washington Park Denver.JPG\|Washington Park File:Dmp.JPG\|Genesee Park is the largest of the Denver Mountain Parks. </gallery> Government ]] looking east]] Denver is a consolidated city-county with a mayor elected on a nonpartisan ballot, a 13-member city council, and an auditor. The Denver City Council is elected from 11 districts with two at-large council members and is responsible for passing and changing all laws, resolutions, and ordinances, usually after a public hearing. The city council can also call for misconduct investigations of Denver's departmental officials. All elected officials have four-year terms, with a maximum of three terms. The current mayor is Mike Johnston. Denver has a strong mayor/weak city council government. The mayor can approve or veto any ordinances or resolutions approved by the council, makes sure all contracts with the city are kept and performed, signs all bonds and contracts, is responsible for the city budget, and can appoint people to various city departments, organizations, and commissions. The council can override the mayor's veto with a nine votes. The city budget must be approved and can be changed by a simple majority vote of the council. The auditor checks all expenditures and may refuse to allow specific ones, usually for financial reasons. The Denver Department of Safety oversees three branches: the Denver Police Department, Denver Fire Department, and Denver Sheriff Department. The Denver County Court is an integrated Colorado County Court and Municipal Court and is managed by Denver instead of the state. Politics While Denver elections are nonpartisan, Democrats have long dominated the city's politics; most citywide officials are known to be registered with the Democratic Party. The mayor's office has been occupied by a Democrat since the 1963 municipal election. All the city's seats in the state legislature are held by Democrats. In statewide elections, the city also tends to favor Democrats, though Republicans were occasionally competitive until the turn of the millennium. The last Republican to win Denver in a gubernatorial election was John A. Love in 1970 by a narrow majority. Bill Owens in 2002 remains the last Republican governor to receive at least 40% of Denver's vote. The last Republican Senator to carry Denver was William L. Armstrong during his 1984 landslide. The last statewide Republican officeholder to carry Denver was Secretary of State Victoria Buckley in 1994 by 1.2% margin; she was, at the time, the highest ranking African-American Republican woman in the United States. In federal elections, Denver is a Democratic stronghold. It has supported a Democrat for president in every election since 1984. Despite then-president Ronald Reagan's landslide that year both nationally and in Colorado, Democrat Walter Mondale won Denver by a margin of 2.32%, and since then the party has increased its margin in almost every election. At the federal level, Denver is the heart of , which includes all of Denver and parts of Arapahoe County. It is the most Democratic district in the Mountain West and has been in Democratic hands for all but two terms since 1933. It is currently represented by Democrat Diana DeGette. Benjamin F. Stapleton was the mayor of Denver for two periods, from 1923 to 1931 and from 1935 to 1947. He was responsible for many civic improvements, notably during his second term, when he had access to funds and manpower from the New Deal. During this time, the park system was considerably expanded and the Civic Center completed. His signature project was the construction of Denver Municipal Airport, which began in 1929 amid heavy criticism. It was later renamed Stapleton International Airport in his honor. Today, the airport has been replaced by a neighborhood initially named Stapleton. In 2020, during the George Floyd protests, because of Stapleton's demonstrated racism and prominent membership in the Ku Klux Klan, neighborhood residents changed the name to Central Park. During the 1960s and 1970s, Denver was one of the centers of the Chicano Movement. The boxer-turned-activist Rodolfo "Corky" Gonzales formed an organization called the Crusade for Justice, which battled police brutality, fought for bilingual education, and, most notably, hosted the First National Chicano Youth Liberation Conference in March 1969. In recent years, Denver has taken a stance on helping people who are or become homeless, particularly under the administrations of mayors John Hickenlooper and Wellington Webb. At a rate of 19 homeless per 10,000 residents in 2011 as compared to 50 or more per 10,000 residents for the four metro areas with the highest rate of homelessness, Denver's homeless population and rate of homeless are both considerably lower than many other major cities. But residents of the city streets suffer Denver winters – which, although mild and dry much of the time, can have brief periods of extremely cold temperatures and snow. In 2005, Denver became the first major U.S. city to vote to make the private possession of less than an ounce of marijuana legal for adults 21 and older. The city voted 53.5 percent in favor of the marijuana legalization measure, which, as then-mayor John Hickenlooper pointed out, was without effect, because the city cannot usurp state law, which at that time treated marijuana possession in much the same way as a speeding ticket, with fines of up to $100 and no jail time. In May 2019, Denver became the first U.S. city to decriminalize psilocybin mushrooms after an initiative passed with 50.6% of the vote. The measure prohibits Denver from using any resources to prosecute adults over 21 for personal use of psilocybin mushrooms, though such use remains illegal under state and federal law. Denver hosted the 2008 Democratic National Convention, which was the centennial of the city's first hosting of the landmark 1908 convention. It also hosted the G7 summit between June 20 and 22 in 1997 and the 2000 National Convention of the Green Party. In 1972, 1981, and 2008, Denver also hosted the Libertarian Party of the United States National Convention. The 1972 Convention was notable for nominating Tonie Nathan for vice president, the first woman, as well as the first Jew, to receive an electoral vote in a United States presidential election. On October 3, 2012, the University of Denver hosted the first of the three 2012 presidential debates. In July 2019, Mayor Hancock said that Denver will not assist U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement agents with immigration raids. <!-- PresRow should be --> Taxes The City and County of Denver levies an occupational privilege tax (OPT or head tax) on employers and employees. If any employee performs work in the city limits and is paid over $500 for that work in a single month, the employee and employer are both liable for the OPT regardless of where the main business office is located or headquartered. The employer is liable for $4 per employee per month and the employee is liable for $5.75 per month. It is the employer's responsibility to withhold, remit, and file the OPT returns. If an employer does not comply, the employer can be held liable for both portions of the OPT as well as penalties and interest. Education Denver Public Schools (DPS) is the public school system in all of Denver. It educates approximately 92,000 students in 92 elementary schools, 44 K-8 schools, 34 middle schools, 18 high schools, and 19 charter schools. The first school of what is now DPS was a log cabin that opened in 1859, which later became East High School. East High School, along with the other three directional high schools (West, North, and South), made up the first four high schools in Denver. The district boundaries are coextensive with the city limits. The Cherry Creek School District serves some areas with Denver postal addresses that are outside the city limits.<!--The source says that the district serves some of Denver but the US census bureau map at http://www2.census.gov/geo/maps/dc10map/sch_dist/st08_co/c08031_denver/DC10SD_C08031_001.pdf shows all of Denver being in the same school district--> Denver's many colleges and universities range in age and study programs. Three major public schools constitute the Auraria Campus: the University of Colorado Denver, Metropolitan State University of Denver, and Community College of Denver. The private University of Denver was the first institution of higher learning in the city and was founded in 1864. Other prominent Denver higher education institutions include Johnson & Wales University, Catholic (Jesuit) Regis University, and the city has Roman Catholic and Jewish institutions, as well as a health sciences school. In addition to those schools within the city, there are a number of schools throughout the surrounding metro area. <gallery widths"150px" class"center"> File:East High School in Denver, Colorado LCCN2015633554.tif\|Denver East High School File:CU Denver Student Wellness Center and Student Commons Building on the Downtown Denver Campus .jpg\|University of Colorado-Denver in downtown File:Ritchie Center sunrise 2006.jpg\|The Ritchie Center at University of Denver </gallery> Media The Denver metropolitan area is served by a variety of media outlets in print, radio, television, and the Internet. Television stations Denver is the 16th-largest market in the country for television, according to the 2009–2010 rankings from Nielsen Media Research. KWGN-TV, channel 2, a CW O&O station owned by Nexstar Media Group, who also owns Fox affiliate KDVR 31. KWGN is run by KDVR management and is Colorado's first TV station, on the air since July 1952. KCDO-TV, channel 3, an independent station owned by the E. W. Scripps Company, who also own KMGH-TV as part of a duopoly. KCNC-TV, channel 4, a CBS O&O station. * KRMA-TV, channel 6, the flagship of Rocky Mountain PBS, a state network of five public TV stations throughout Colorado. * KMGH-TV, channel 7, an ABC affiliate owned by the E. W. Scripps Company, previously owned by the McGraw-Hill company for 40 years prior to 2012. The station is part of a duopoly with KCDO-TV. * KUSA-TV, channel 9, an NBC affiliate owned by Tegna, who also owns KTVD 20, a MyNetworkTV affiliate. * KBDI-TV, channel 12, a secondary PBS member station. * KDEN-TV, channel 25, a Telemundo O&O station. * KPJR-TV, channel 38, a TBN O&O station. * KCEC, channel 50, a Univision affiliate. * KETD, channel 53, an Estrella TV O&O station. Radio stations Denver is also served by over 40 AM and FM radio stations, covering a wide variety of formats and styles. Denver–Boulder radio is the No. 19 market in the United States, according to the Spring 2011 Arbitron ranking (up from No. 20 in Fall 2009). For a list of Denver radio stations, see List of radio stations in Colorado. Print After continued rivalry between Denver's two main newspapers, The Denver Post and the Rocky Mountain News, the papers merged operations in 2001 under a joint operating agreement that formed the Denver Newspaper Agency. This arrangement lasted until February 2009 when the E. W. Scripps Company, the owner of the Rocky Mountain News, closed the paper. There are also several alternative or localized newspapers published in Denver, including the Westword, Law Week Colorado, Out Front Colorado, and the Intermountain Jewish News. Denver is home to multiple regional magazines such as 5280, which takes its name from the city's mile-high elevation (). The Colorado Times News is a Korean-language publication based in Denver. of paved, off-road, bike paths in Denver parks and along bodies of water, like Cherry Creek and the South Platte. This allows for a significant portion of Denver's population to be bicycle commuters and has led to Denver being known as a bicycle-friendly city. Some residents strongly oppose bike lanes, which has caused some plans to be watered down or nixed. The review process for one bike line on Broadway will last over a year before city council members will make a decision. In addition to the many bike paths, Denver launched B-Cycle – a citywide bicycle sharing program – in late April 2010. The B-Cycle network was the largest in the United States at the time of its launch, boasting 400 bicycles. The Denver Boot, a car-disabling device, was first used in Denver.CyclingThe League of American Bicyclists rated Colorado as the sixth most bicycle-friendly state in the nation for 2024. This is due in large part to Front Range cities like Boulder, Fort Collins and Denver placing an emphasis on legislation, programs and infrastructure developments that promote cycling as a mode of transportation. Walk Score has rated Denver as the fourth most bicycle-friendly large city in the United States. B-Cycle – Denver's citywide bicycle sharing program – was the largest in the United States at the time of its launch in 2010, boasting 400 bicycles. The city announced plans to seek one or more new contractors to run a bike-share program starting mid-2020. Electric rental scooters In 2018, electric scooter services began to place scooters in Denver. Hundreds of unsanctioned LimeBike and Bird electric scooters appeared on Denver streets in May, causing an uproar. In June, the city ordered the companies to remove them and acted quickly to create an official program, including a requirement that scooters be left at RTD stops and out of the public right-of-way. Lime and Bird scooters then reappeared in late July, with limited compliance. Uber's Jump e-bikes arrived in late August, followed by Lyft's nationwide electric scooter launch in early September. Lyft says that it will, each night, take the scooters to the warehouse for safety checks, maintenance and charging. Additionally, Spin and Razor each were permitted to add 350 scooters.Walkability2017 rankings by Walk Score placed Denver twenty-sixth among 108 U.S. cities with a population of 200,000 or greater. City leaders have acknowledged the concerns of walkability advocates that Denver has serious gaps in its sidewalk network. The 2019 "Denver Moves: Pedestrians" plan outlines a need for approximate $1.3 billion in sidewalk funding, plus $400 million for trails. In 2022, Denver voters passed Initiative 307, dubbed "Denver Deserves Sidewalks", to complete sidewalk construction and repair by shifting responsibility for sidewalk maintenance from property owners to the city and imposing a new fee on property owners based on the length of a property's sidewalk frontage, although the measure may be revised in the course of implementation.Modal characteristicsIn 2015, 9.6 percent of Denver households lacked a car, and in 2016, this was virtually unchanged (9.4 percent). The national average was 8.7 percent in 2016. Denver averaged 1.62 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8.Freeways and highways Denver is primarily served by the interstate freeways I-25 and I-70. The problematic intersection of the two interstates is referred to locally as "the mousetrap" because, when viewed from the air, the junction (and subsequent vehicles) resemble mice in a large trap. * Interstate 25 runs north–south from New Mexico through Denver to Wyoming * Interstate 225 traverses neighboring Aurora. I-225 was designed to link Aurora with I-25 in the southeastern corner of Denver, and I-70 to the north of Aurora, with construction starting May 1964 and ending May 21, 1976. * Interstate 70 runs east–west from Utah to Maryland. It is also the primary corridor on which motorists access the mountains. * Interstate 270 runs concurrently with US 36 from an interchange with Interstate 70 in northeast Denver to an interchange with Interstate 25 north of Denver. The freeway continues as US 36 from the interchange with Interstate 25. * Interstate 76 begins from I-70 just west of the city in Arvada. It intersects I-25 north of the city and runs northeast to Nebraska where it ends at I-80. * US 6 follows the alignment of 6th Avenue west of I-25, and connects downtown Denver to the west-central suburbs of Golden and Lakewood. It continues west through Utah and Nevada to Bishop, California. To the east, it continues as far as Provincetown, on Cape Cod in Massachusetts. * US 285 ends its route through New Mexico and Texas at Interstate 25 in the University Hills neighborhood. * US 85 also travels through Denver. This highway is often used as an alternate route to Castle Rock instead of taking Interstate 25. * U.S. Route 87 runs north–south and through Denver. It is concurrent with I-25 the entire length in the state. * US 36 connects Denver to Boulder and Rocky Mountain National Park near Estes Park. It runs east into Ohio, after crossing four other states. * State Highway 93 starts in the western Metropolitan area in Golden, Colorado, and travels almost to meet with SH 119 in central Boulder. This highway is often used as an alternate route to Boulder instead of taking US 36. * State Highway 470 (C-470, SH 470) is the southwestern portion of the Denver metro area's beltway. Originally planned as Interstate 470 in the 1960s, the beltway project was attacked on environmental impact grounds and the interstate beltway was never built. The portion of "Interstate 470" built as a state highway is the present-day SH 470, which is a freeway for its entire length. Denver also has a nearly complete beltway known as "the 470's". These are SH 470 (also known as C-470), a freeway in the southwest Metro area, and two toll highways, E-470 (from southeast to northeast) and Northwest Parkway (from terminus of E-470 to US 36). SH 470 was intended to be I-470 and built with federal highway funds, but the funding was redirected to complete conversion of downtown Denver's 16th Street to a pedestrian mall. As a result, construction was delayed until 1980 after state and local legislation was passed. I-470 was also once called "The Silver Stake Highway", from Gov. Lamm's declared intention to drive a silver stake through it and kill it. A highway expansion and transit project for the southern I-25 corridor, dubbed T-REX (Transportation Expansion Project), was completed on November 17, 2006. The project installed wider and additional highway lanes, and improved highway access and drainage. The project also includes a light rail line that traverses from downtown to the south end of the metro area at Lincoln Avenue. The project spanned almost along the highway with an additional line traveling parallel to part of I-225, stopping just short of Parker Road. Metro Denver highway conditions can be accessed on the Colorado Department of Transportation COtrip website. Mass transportation ]] Mass transportation throughout the Denver metropolitan area is managed and coordinated by the Regional Transportation District (RTD). RTD operates more than 1,000 buses serving over 10,000 bus stops in 38 municipal jurisdictions in eight counties around the Denver and Boulder metropolitan areas. Additionally, RTD operates ten rail lines, the A, B, D, E, G, H, L, N, R, and W, with a total of of track, serving 77 stations, 35 of which are located within the City of Denver proper. The D, E, H, L, R, and W Lines are light rail while the A, B, G, and N Lines are commuter rail. FasTracks is a commuter rail, light rail, and bus expansion project approved by voters in 2004, which will serve neighboring suburbs and communities. The W Line, or West line, opened in April 2013 serving Golden/Federal Center. The commuter rail A Line from Denver Union Station to Denver International Airport opened in April 2016 with ridership exceeding RTD's early expectations. The light rail R Line through Aurora opened in February 2017. The G Line to the suburb of Arvada (originally planned to open in the Fall of 2016) opened on April 26, 2019. The N Line to Commerce City and Thornton opened on September 21, 2020. An express bus service, known as the Flatiron Flyer, serves to connect Boulder and Denver. The service, billed as bus rapid transit, has been accused of bus rapid transit creep for failing to meet the majority of BRT requirements, including level boarding and all-door entry. A commuter rail connection to Boulder and its suburb of Longmont, also part of the FasTracks ballot initiative and an extension of the B Line, is planned to be finished by RTD, but no construction funds have yet been identified prior to 2040. RTD is currently considering an interim commuter service which would run rush-hour trains from Longmont to Denver. The Colorado Department of Transportation runs Bustang, a bus system that offers weekday and weekend service connecting Denver with many locations across the state, including Grand Junction, Colorado Springs, Fort Collins, and Gunnison. Greyhound Lines, the intercity bus operator, has a major hub in Denver, with routes to New York City, Portland, Reno, Las Vegas, and their headquarters, Dallas. Subsidiary Autobuses Americanos provides service to El Paso. Allied bus operators Express Arrow, and Burlington Trailways provide service to Billings, Omaha, Indianapolis, and Alamosa. Amtrak, the national passenger rail system, provides service to Denver, operating its California Zephyr daily in both directions between Chicago and Emeryville, California, across the bay from San Francisco. Amtrak Thruway service operated by private bus companies links the Denver station with Rocky Mountain points. In 2017 the Colorado legislature reinvigorated studies of passenger rail service along the Front Range, potentially connecting Denver to Fort Collins and Pueblo, or further to Amtrak connections in Cheyenne, Wyoming and Trinidad. Front Range Passenger Rail is a current proposal (as of 2023) to link the cities from Pueblo in the south, north to Fort Collins and possibly to Cheyenne, Wyoming. At Albuquerque, New Mexico, Denver Thruway connections are made daily with the Amtrak Southwest Chief. Additionally, the Ski Train operated on the former Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad, which took passengers between Denver and the Winter Park Ski Resort, but it is no longer in service. The Ski Train made its final run to Winter Park on March 29, 2009. The service was revived on a trial basis in 2016 with a great amount of local fanfare. Further development of a mountain corridor rail option, though publicly popular, has been met with resistance from politicians, namely the director of Colorado Department of Transportation. The Ski Train did return to service under Amtrak with the name "Winter Park Express" in 2017 and greatly expanded service for the 2024-2025 ski season, doubling capacity and increasing service to run Thursday-Monday during the winter ski seasons. The Colorado Department of Transportation plans to eventually expand service to Steamboat Springs and Craig as part of the Mountain Rail project. Denver's early years as a major train hub of the west are still very visible today. Trains stop in Denver at historic Union Station, where travelers can access RTD's 16th Street Free MallRide or use light rail to tour the city. Union Station will also serve as the main juncture for rail travel in the metro area, at the completion of FasTracks. The city also plans to invest billions to bringing frequent public transit within one-fourth of a mile of most of its residents. Denver public transportation statistics The average amount of time people spend commuting on public transit in Denver and Boulder, Colorado—for example, to and from work, on a weekday—is 77 minutes; 31% of public transit riders ride for more than two hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 14 minutes, while 25% of riders wait for over 20 minutes, on average, every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is , while 31% travel over in a single direction. Airports ]] Denver International Airport (IATA: DEN, ICAO: KDEN), commonly known as DIA, serves as the primary airport for the Front Range Urban Corridor surrounding Denver. DIA is east-northeast of the Colorado State Capitol and opened in 1995. DIA is the 3rd busiest airport in the world with 58.8 million passengers in 2021; it had the 5th highest number of passengers in the U.S., 61 million, in the pre-pandemic year 2019. It covers more than , making it the largest airport by land area in the United States and larger than the island of Manhattan. DIA serves as a major hub for United Airlines, is the headquarters and primary hub for Frontier Airlines, and is a major focus city and the fastest-growing market for Southwest Airlines. In 2017, Denver International Airport was rated by Skytrax as the 28th-best airport in the world, falling to second place in the United States behind Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport. Skytrax also named DIA as the second-best regional airport in North America for 2017, and the fourth-best regional airport in the world. Three general aviation airports serve the Denver area. Rocky Mountain Metropolitan Airport (KBJC) is north-northwest, Centennial Airport (KAPA) is south-southeast, and Colorado Air and Space Port (KCFO), formerly Front Range Airport, is east of the state capitol. Centennial Airport also offers limited commercial airline service, on two cargo airlines. In the past, Denver has been home to several other airports that are no longer operational. Stapleton International Airport was closed in 1995 when it was replaced by DIA. Lowry Air Force Base was a military flight training facility that ceased flight operations in 1966, with the base finally closing in 1994. Both Stapleton and Lowry have since been redeveloped into primarily residential neighborhoods. Buckley Space Force Base is the only military facility in the Denver area. Notable people Twin towns – sister cities Denver's relationship with Brest, France, began in 1948, making it the second-oldest sister city in the United States. In 1947, Amanda Knecht, a teacher at East High School, visited World War II–ravaged Brest. When she returned, she shared her experiences in the city with her students, and her class raised $32,000 to help rebuild the children's wing of Brest's hospital. The gift led to the development of the sister city program with Brest. There were serious efforts in the early 2000s, in both Denver and Sochi, Russian Federation, to establish sister-city ties, but the negotiations did not come to fruition. Since then, Denver has established relationships with additional sister cities: * Brest, France (1948) * Takayama, Japan (1960) * Nairobi, Kenya (1975) * Karmiel, Israel (1977) * Cuernavaca, Mexico (1983) * Potenza, Italy (1983) * Chennai, India (1984) * Kunming, China (1985) * Axum, Ethiopia (1995) * Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia (2001) * Akureyri, Iceland (2012) See also National Register of Historic Places listings in Denver Front Range Urban Corridor USS Denver, 3 ships Explanatory notes References External links [http://www.denvergov.org/ City and County of Denver website] }} <!-- rambot will ignore this: --> Category:1858 establishments in Kansas Territory Category:Cities in Colorado Category:Colorado counties Category:Consolidated city-counties Category:County seats in Colorado Category:Denver metropolitan area Category:Populated places established in 1858 Category:Railway towns in Colorado Category:State capitals in the United States	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denver	2025-04-05T18:28:39.872775
8524	Deuterium	H \|mass_number = 2 \|symbol = H \|num_neutrons = 1 \|num_protons = 1 \|abundance 0.0156% (Earth) \|mass = 2.01410177811 \|spin = 1<sup>+</sup> \|excess_energy = \|binding_energy = \|halflife=stable}} Deuterium (hydrogen-2, symbol H or D, also known as heavy hydrogen) is one of two stable isotopes of hydrogen; the other is protium, or hydrogen-1, H. The deuterium nucleus (deuteron) contains one proton and one neutron, whereas the far more common H has no neutrons. The name deuterium comes from Greek deuteros, meaning "second". American chemist Harold Urey discovered deuterium in 1931. Urey and others produced samples of heavy water in which the H had been highly concentrated. The discovery of deuterium won Urey a Nobel Prize in 1934. Nearly all deuterium found in nature was synthesized in the Big Bang 13.8 billion years ago, forming the primordial ratio of H to H (≈26 deuterium nuclei per 10 hydrogen nuclei). Deuterium is subsequently produced by the slow stellar proton–proton chain, but rapidly destroyed by exothermic fusion reactions. The deuterium-deuterium reaction has the second-lowest energy threshold, and is the most astrophysically accessible, occurring in both stars and brown dwarfs. The gas giant planets display the primordial ratio of deuterium. Comets show an elevated ratio similar to Earth's oceans (156 deuterium nuclei per 10 hydrogen nuclei). This reinforces theories that much of Earth's ocean water is of cometary origin. The deuterium ratio of comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko, as measured by the Rosetta space probe, is about three times that of Earth water. This figure is the highest yet measured in a comet, thus deuterium ratios continue to be an active topic of research in both astronomy and climatology. Deuterium is used in most nuclear weapons, many fusion power experiments, and as the most effective neutron moderator, primarily in heavy water nuclear reactors. It is also used as an isotopic label, in biogeochemistry, NMR spectroscopy, and deuterated drugs. Differences from common hydrogen (protium) Chemical symbol Deuterium is often represented by the chemical symbol D. Since it is an isotope of hydrogen with mass number 2, it is also represented by H. IUPAC allows both D and H, though H is preferred. A distinct chemical symbol is used for convenience because of the isotope's common use in various scientific processes. Also, its large mass difference with protium (H) confers non-negligible chemical differences with H compounds. Deuterium has a mass of , about twice the mean hydrogen atomic weight of , or twice protium's mass of . The isotope weight ratios within other elements are largely insignificant in this regard. Spectroscopy In quantum mechanics, the energy levels of electrons in atoms depend on the reduced mass of the system of electron and nucleus. For a hydrogen atom, the role of reduced mass is most simply seen in the Bohr model of the atom, where the reduced mass appears in a simple calculation of the Rydberg constant and Rydberg equation, but the reduced mass also appears in the Schrödinger equation, and the Dirac equation for calculating atomic energy levels. The reduced mass of the system in these equations is close to the mass of a single electron, but differs from it by a small amount about equal to the ratio of mass of the electron to the nucleus. For H, this amount is about , or 1.000545, and for H it is even smaller: , or 1.0002725. The energies of electronic spectra lines for H and H therefore differ by the ratio of these two numbers, which is 1.000272. The wavelengths of all deuterium spectroscopic lines are shorter than the corresponding lines of light hydrogen, by 0.0272%. In astronomical observation, this corresponds to a blue Doppler shift of 0.0272% of the speed of light, or 81.6 km/s. The differences are much more pronounced in vibrational spectroscopy such as infrared spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy, and in rotational spectra such as microwave spectroscopy because the reduced mass of the deuterium is markedly higher than that of protium. In nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, deuterium has a very different NMR frequency (e.g. 61 MHz when protium is at 400 MHz) and is much less sensitive. Deuterated solvents are usually used in protium NMR to prevent the solvent from overlapping with the signal, though deuterium NMR on its own right is also possible. Big Bang nucleosynthesis Deuterium is thought to have played an important role in setting the number and ratios of the elements that were formed in the Big Bang. Combining thermodynamics and the changes brought about by cosmic expansion, one can calculate the fraction of protons and neutrons based on the temperature at the point that the universe cooled enough to allow formation of nuclei. This calculation indicates seven protons for every neutron at the beginning of nucleogenesis, a ratio that would remain stable even after nucleogenesis was over. This fraction was in favor of protons initially, primarily because the lower mass of the proton favored their production. As the Universe expanded, it cooled. Free neutrons and protons are less stable than helium nuclei, and the protons and neutrons had a strong energetic reason to form helium-4. However, forming helium-4 requires the intermediate step of forming deuterium. Through much of the few minutes after the Big Bang during which nucleosynthesis could have occurred, the temperature was high enough that the mean energy per particle was greater than the binding energy of weakly bound deuterium; therefore, any deuterium that was formed was immediately destroyed. This situation is known as the deuterium bottleneck. The bottleneck delayed formation of any helium-4 until the Universe became cool enough to form deuterium (at about a temperature equivalent to 100 keV). At this point, there was a sudden burst of element formation (first deuterium, which immediately fused into helium). However, very soon thereafter, at twenty minutes after the Big Bang, the Universe became too cool for any further nuclear fusion or nucleosynthesis. At this point, the elemental abundances were nearly fixed, with the only change as some of the radioactive products of Big Bang nucleosynthesis (such as tritium) decay. The deuterium bottleneck in the formation of helium, together with the lack of stable ways for helium to combine with hydrogen or with itself (no stable nucleus has a mass number of 5 or 8) meant that an insignificant amount of carbon, or any elements heavier than carbon, formed in the Big Bang. These elements thus required formation in stars. At the same time, the failure of much nucleogenesis during the Big Bang ensured that there would be plenty of hydrogen in the later universe available to form long-lived stars, such as the Sun. Abundance Deuterium occurs in trace amounts naturally as deuterium gas (H or D), but most deuterium atoms in the Universe are bonded with H to form a gas called hydrogen deuteride (HD or HH). Similarly, natural water contains deuterated molecules, almost all as semiheavy water HDO with only one deuterium. The existence of deuterium on Earth, elsewhere in the Solar System (as confirmed by planetary probes), and in the spectra of stars, is also an important datum in cosmology. Gamma radiation from ordinary nuclear fusion dissociates deuterium into protons and neutrons, and there is no known natural process other than Big Bang nucleosynthesis that might have produced deuterium at anything close to its observed natural abundance. Deuterium is produced by the rare cluster decay, and occasional absorption of naturally occurring neutrons by light hydrogen, but these are trivial sources. There is thought to be little deuterium in the interior of the Sun and other stars, as at these temperatures the nuclear fusion reactions that consume deuterium happen much faster than the proton–proton reaction that creates deuterium. However, deuterium persists in the outer solar atmosphere at roughly the same concentration as in Jupiter, and this has probably been unchanged since the origin of the Solar System. The natural abundance of H seems to be a very similar fraction of hydrogen, wherever hydrogen is found, unless there are obvious processes at work that concentrate it. The existence of deuterium at a low but constant primordial fraction in all hydrogen is another one of the arguments in favor of the Big Bang over the Steady State theory of the Universe. The observed ratios of hydrogen to helium to deuterium in the universe are difficult to explain except with a Big Bang model. It is estimated that the abundances of deuterium have not evolved significantly since their production about 13.8 billion years ago. Measurements of Milky Way galactic deuterium from ultraviolet spectral analysis show a ratio of as much as 23 atoms of deuterium per million hydrogen atoms in undisturbed gas clouds, which is only 15% below the WMAP estimated primordial ratio of about 27 atoms per million from the Big Bang. This has been interpreted to mean that less deuterium has been destroyed in star formation in the Milky Way galaxy than expected, or perhaps deuterium has been replenished by a large in-fall of primordial hydrogen from outside the galaxy. In space a few hundred light years from the Sun, deuterium abundance is only 15 atoms per million, but this value is presumably influenced by differential adsorption of deuterium onto carbon dust grains in interstellar space. The abundance of deuterium in Jupiter's atmosphere has been directly measured by the Galileo space probe as 26 atoms per million hydrogen atoms. ISO-SWS observations find 22 atoms per million hydrogen atoms in Jupiter. and this abundance is thought to represent close to the primordial Solar System ratio. Production Deuterium is produced for industrial, scientific and military purposes, by starting with ordinary water—a small fraction of which is naturally occurring heavy water—and then separating out the heavy water by the Girdler sulfide process, distillation, or other methods. In theory, deuterium for heavy water could be created in a nuclear reactor, but separation from ordinary water is the cheapest bulk production process. The world's leading supplier of deuterium was Atomic Energy of Canada Limited until 1997, when the last heavy water plant was shut down. Canada uses heavy water as a neutron moderator for the operation of the CANDU reactor design. Another major producer of heavy water is India. All but one of India's atomic energy plants are pressurized heavy water plants, which use natural (i.e., not enriched) uranium. India has eight heavy water plants, of which seven are in operation. Six plants, of which five are in operation, are based on D–H exchange in ammonia gas. The other two plants extract deuterium from natural water in a process that uses hydrogen sulfide gas at high pressure. While India is self-sufficient in heavy water for its own use, India also exports reactor-grade heavy water. Properties Data for molecular deuterium Formula: or * Density: 0.180 kg/m at STP (0 °C, 101325 Pa). * Atomic weight: 2.0141017926 Da. * Mean abundance in ocean water (from VSMOW) 155.76 ± 0.1 atoms of deuterium per million atoms of all isotopes of hydrogen (about 1 atom of in 6420); that is, about 0.015% of all atoms of hydrogen (any isotope) Data at about 18 K for H (triple point): * Density: Liquid: 162.4 kg/m Gas: 0.452 kg/m ** Liquefied HO: 1105.2 kg/m at STP * Viscosity: 12.6 μPa·s at 300 K (gas phase) * Specific heat capacity at constant pressure c: Solid: 2950 J/(kg·K) Gas: 5200 J/(kg·K) Physical properties Compared to hydrogen in its natural composition on Earth, pure deuterium (H) has a higher melting point (18.72 K vs. 13.99 K), a higher boiling point (23.64 vs. 20.27 K), a higher critical temperature (38.3 vs. 32.94 K) and a higher critical pressure (1.6496 vs. 1.2858 MPa). The physical properties of deuterium compounds can exhibit significant kinetic isotope effects and other physical and chemical property differences from the protium analogs. HO, for example, is more viscous than normal . There are differences in bond energy and length for compounds of heavy hydrogen isotopes compared to protium, which are larger than the isotopic differences in any other element. Bonds involving deuterium and tritium are somewhat stronger than the corresponding bonds in protium, and these differences are enough to cause significant changes in biological reactions. Pharmaceutical firms are interested in the fact that H is harder to remove from carbon than H. Deuterium can replace H in water molecules to form heavy water (HO), which is about 10.6% denser than normal water (so that ice made from it sinks in normal water). Heavy water is slightly toxic in eukaryotic animals, with 25% substitution of the body water causing cell division problems and sterility, and 50% substitution causing death by cytotoxic syndrome (bone marrow failure and gastrointestinal lining failure). Prokaryotic organisms, however, can survive and grow in pure heavy water, though they develop slowly. Despite this toxicity, consumption of heavy water under normal circumstances does not pose a health threat to humans. It is estimated that a person might drink of heavy water without serious consequences. Small doses of heavy water (a few grams in humans, containing an amount of deuterium comparable to that normally present in the body) are routinely used as harmless metabolic tracers in humans and animals. Quantum properties The deuteron has spin +1 ("triplet state") and is thus a boson. The NMR frequency of deuterium is significantly different from normal hydrogen. Infrared spectroscopy also easily differentiates many deuterated compounds, due to the large difference in IR absorption frequency seen in the vibration of a chemical bond containing deuterium, versus light hydrogen. The two stable isotopes of hydrogen can also be distinguished by using mass spectrometry. The triplet deuteron nucleon is barely bound at }}, and none of the higher energy states are bound. The singlet deuteron is a virtual state, with a negative binding energy of . There is no such stable particle, but this virtual particle transiently exists during neutron–proton inelastic scattering, accounting for the unusually large neutron scattering cross-section of the proton. Nuclear properties (deuteron) Deuteron mass and radius The deuterium nucleus is called a deuteron. It has a mass of (just over ). The charge radius of a deuteron is Like the proton radius, measurements using muonic deuterium produce a smaller result: . Spin and energy Deuterium is one of only five stable nuclides with an odd number of protons and an odd number of neutrons. (H, Li, B, N, Ta; the long-lived radionuclides K, V, La, Lu also occur naturally.) Most odd–odd nuclei are unstable to beta decay, because the decay products are even–even, and thus more strongly bound, due to nuclear pairing effects. Deuterium, however, benefits from having its proton and neutron coupled to a spin-1 state, which gives a stronger nuclear attraction; the corresponding spin-1 state does not exist in the two-neutron or two-proton system, due to the Pauli exclusion principle which would require one or the other identical particle with the same spin to have some other different quantum number, such as orbital angular momentum. But orbital angular momentum of either particle gives a lower binding energy for the system, mainly due to increasing distance of the particles in the steep gradient of the nuclear force. In both cases, this causes the diproton and dineutron to be unstable. The proton and neutron in deuterium can be dissociated through neutral current interactions with neutrinos. The cross section for this interaction is comparatively large, and deuterium was successfully used as a neutrino target in the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory experiment. Diatomic deuterium (H) has ortho and para nuclear spin isomers like diatomic hydrogen, but with differences in the number and population of spin states and rotational levels, which occur because the deuteron is a boson with nuclear spin equal to one. Isospin singlet state of the deuteron Due to the similarity in mass and nuclear properties between the proton and neutron, they are sometimes considered as two symmetric types of the same object, a nucleon. While only the proton has electric charge, this is often negligible due to the weakness of the electromagnetic interaction relative to the strong nuclear interaction. The symmetry relating the proton and neutron is known as isospin and denoted I (or sometimes T). Isospin is an SU(2) symmetry, like ordinary spin, so is completely analogous to it. The proton and neutron, each of which have isospin-1/2, form an isospin doublet (analogous to a spin doublet), with a "down" state (↓) being a neutron and an "up" state (↑) being a proton. A pair of nucleons can either be in an antisymmetric state of isospin called singlet, or in a symmetric state called triplet. In terms of the "down" state and "up" state, the singlet is : <math>\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\Big( \|{\uparrow\downarrow}\rangle - \|{\downarrow\uparrow}\rangle\Big).</math>, which can also be written :<math>\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\Big( \|p n \rangle - \|n p \rangle\Big).</math> This is a nucleus with one proton and one neutron, i.e. a deuterium nucleus. The triplet is : <math> \left( \begin{array}{ll} \|{\uparrow\uparrow}\rangle\\ \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}( \|{\uparrow\downarrow}\rangle + \|{\downarrow\uparrow}\rangle )\\ \|{\downarrow\downarrow}\rangle \end{array} \right) </math> and thus consists of three types of nuclei, which are supposed to be symmetric: a deuterium nucleus (actually a highly excited state of it), a nucleus with two protons, and a nucleus with two neutrons. These states are not stable. Approximated wavefunction of the deuteron The deuteron wavefunction must be antisymmetric if the isospin representation is used (since a proton and a neutron are not identical particles, the wavefunction need not be antisymmetric in general). Apart from their isospin, the two nucleons also have spin and spatial distributions of their wavefunction. The latter is symmetric if the deuteron is symmetric under parity (i.e. has an "even" or "positive" parity), and antisymmetric if the deuteron is antisymmetric under parity (i.e. has an "odd" or "negative" parity). The parity is fully determined by the total orbital angular momentum of the two nucleons: if it is even then the parity is even (positive), and if it is odd then the parity is odd (negative). The deuteron, being an isospin singlet, is antisymmetric under nucleons exchange due to isospin, and therefore must be symmetric under the double exchange of their spin and location. Therefore, it can be in either of the following two different states: * Symmetric spin and symmetric under parity. In this case, the exchange of the two nucleons will multiply the deuterium wavefunction by (−1) from isospin exchange, (+1) from spin exchange and (+1) from parity (location exchange), for a total of (−1) as needed for antisymmetry. * Antisymmetric spin and antisymmetric under parity. In this case, the exchange of the two nucleons will multiply the deuterium wavefunction by (−1) from isospin exchange, (−1) from spin exchange and (−1) from parity (location exchange), again for a total of (−1) as needed for antisymmetry. In the first case the deuteron is a spin triplet, so that its total spin s is 1. It also has an even parity and therefore even orbital angular momentum l. The lower its orbital angular momentum, the lower its energy. Therefore, the lowest possible energy state has 1}}, 0}}. In the second case the deuteron is a spin singlet, so that its total spin s is 0. It also has an odd parity and therefore odd orbital angular momentum l. Therefore, the lowest possible energy state has 0}}, 1}}. Since 1}} gives a stronger nuclear attraction, the deuterium ground state is in the 1}}, 0}} state. The same considerations lead to the possible states of an isospin triplet having 0}}, even}} or 1}}, odd}}. Thus, the state of lowest energy has 1}}, 1}}, higher than that of the isospin singlet. The analysis just given is in fact only approximate, both because isospin is not an exact symmetry, and more importantly because the strong nuclear interaction between the two nucleons is related to angular momentum in spin–orbit interaction that mixes different s and l states. That is, s and l are not constant in time (they do not commute with the Hamiltonian), and over time a state such as 1}}, 0}} may become a state of 1}}, 2}}. Parity is still constant in time, so these do not mix with odd l states (such as 0}}, 1}}). Therefore, the quantum state of the deuterium is a superposition (a linear combination) of the 1}}, 0}} state and the 1}}, 2}} state, even though the first component is much bigger. Since the total angular momentum j is also a good quantum number (it is a constant in time), both components must have the same j, and therefore 1}}. This is the total spin of the deuterium nucleus. To summarize, the deuterium nucleus is antisymmetric in terms of isospin, and has spin 1 and even (+1) parity. The relative angular momentum of its nucleons l is not well defined, and the deuteron is a superposition of mostly 0}} with some 2}}. Magnetic and electric multipoles In order to find theoretically the deuterium magnetic dipole moment μ, one uses the formula for a nuclear magnetic moment : <math>\mu \frac{1}{j+1}\bigl\langle(l,s),j,m_j{}j \,\bigr\|\, \vec{\mu}\cdot \vec{\jmath} \,\bigl\|\,(l,s),j,m_j{=}j\bigr\rangle</math> with : <math>\vec{\mu} = g^{(l)}\vec{l} + g^{(s)}\vec{s} </math> g and g are g-factors of the nucleons. Since the proton and neutron have different values for g and g, one must separate their contributions. Each gets half of the deuterium orbital angular momentum <math>\vec{l}</math> and spin <math>\vec{s}</math>. One arrives at : <math>\mu \frac{1}{j+1} \Bigl\langle(l,s),j,m_j{}j \,\Bigr\|\left(\frac{1}{2}\vec{l} {g^{(l)}}_p + \frac{1}{2}\vec{s} ({g^{(s)}}_p + {g^{(s)}}_n)\right)\cdot \vec{\jmath} \,\Bigl\|\, (l,s),j,m_j{=}j \Bigr\rangle</math> where subscripts p and n stand for the proton and neutron, and 0}}. By using the same identities as here and using the value 1}}, one gets the following result, in units of the nuclear magneton μ : <math>\mu = \frac{1}{4(j+1)}\left[({g^{(s)}}_p + {g^{(s)}}_n)\big(j(j+1) - l(l+1) + s(s+1)\big) + \big(j(j+1) + l(l+1) - s(s+1)\big)\right]</math> For the 1}}, 0}} state ( 1}}), we obtain : <math>\mu \frac{1}{2}({g^{(s)}}_p + {g^{(s)}}_n) 0.879</math> For the 1}}, 2}} state ( 1}}), we obtain : <math>\mu -\frac{1}{4}({g^{(s)}}_p + {g^{(s)}}_n) + \frac{3}{4} 0.310</math> The measured value of the deuterium magnetic dipole moment, is , which is 97.5% of the value obtained by simply adding moments of the proton and neutron. This suggests that the state of the deuterium is indeed to a good approximation 1}}, 0}} state, which occurs with both nucleons spinning in the same direction, but their magnetic moments subtracting because of the neutron's negative moment. But the slightly lower experimental number than that which results from simple addition of proton and (negative) neutron moments shows that deuterium is actually a linear combination of mostly 1}}, 0}} state with a slight admixture of 1}}, 2}} state. The electric dipole is zero as usual. The measured electric quadrupole of the deuterium is }}. While the order of magnitude is reasonable, since the deuteron radius is of order of 1 femtometer (see below) and its electric charge is e, the above model does not suffice for its computation. More specifically, the electric quadrupole does not get a contribution from the state (which is the dominant one) and does get a contribution from a term mixing the and the states, because the electric quadrupole operator does not commute with angular momentum. The latter contribution is dominant in the absence of a pure 0}} contribution, but cannot be calculated without knowing the exact spatial form of the nucleons wavefunction inside the deuterium. Higher magnetic and electric multipole moments cannot be calculated by the above model, for similar reasons. Applications Nuclear reactors reactor giving off its characteristic pinkish-red glow]] Deuterium is used in heavy water moderated fission reactors, usually as liquid HO, to slow neutrons without the high neutron absorption of ordinary hydrogen. This is a common commercial use for larger amounts of deuterium. In research reactors, liquid H is used in cold sources to moderate neutrons to very low energies and wavelengths appropriate for scattering experiments. Experimentally, deuterium is the most common nuclide used in fusion reactor designs, especially in combination with tritium, because of the large reaction rate (or nuclear cross section) and high energy yield of the deuterium–tritium (DT) reaction. There is an even higher-yield H–He fusion reaction, though the breakeven point of H–He is higher than that of most other fusion reactions; together with the scarcity of He, this makes it implausible as a practical power source, at least until DT and deuterium–deuterium (DD) fusion have been performed on a commercial scale. Commercial nuclear fusion is not yet an accomplished technology. NMR spectroscopy of an ultraviolet deuterium arc lamp]] Deuterium is most commonly used in hydrogen nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (proton NMR) in the following way. NMR ordinarily requires compounds of interest to be analyzed as dissolved in solution. Because of deuterium's nuclear spin properties which differ from the light hydrogen usually present in organic molecules, NMR spectra of hydrogen/protium are highly differentiable from that of deuterium, and in practice deuterium is not "seen" by an NMR instrument tuned for H. Deuterated solvents (including heavy water, but also compounds like deuterated chloroform, CDCl or CHCl, are therefore routinely used in NMR spectroscopy, in order to allow only the light-hydrogen spectra of the compound of interest to be measured, without solvent-signal interference. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy can also be used to obtain information about the deuteron's environment in isotopically labelled samples (deuterium NMR). For example, the configuration of hydrocarbon chains in lipid bilayers can be quantified using solid state deuterium NMR with deuterium-labelled lipid molecules. Deuterium NMR spectra are especially informative in the solid state because of its relatively small quadrupole moment in comparison with those of bigger quadrupolar nuclei such as chlorine-35, for example. Mass spectrometry Deuterated (i.e. where all or some hydrogen atoms are replaced with deuterium) compounds are often used as internal standards in mass spectrometry. Like other isotopically labeled species, such standards improve accuracy, while often at a much lower cost than other isotopically labeled standards. Deuterated molecules are usually prepared via hydrogen isotope exchange reactions. Tracing In chemistry, biochemistry and environmental sciences, deuterium is used as a non-radioactive, stable isotopic tracer, for example, in the doubly labeled water test. In chemical reactions and metabolic pathways, deuterium behaves somewhat similarly to ordinary hydrogen (with a few chemical differences, as noted). It can be distinguished from normal hydrogen most easily by its mass, using mass spectrometry or infrared spectrometry. Deuterium can be detected by femtosecond infrared spectroscopy, since the mass difference drastically affects the frequency of molecular vibrations; H–carbon bond vibrations are found in spectral regions free of other signals. Measurements of small variations in the natural abundances of deuterium, along with those of the stable heavy oxygen isotopes O and O, are of importance in hydrology, to trace the geographic origin of Earth's waters. The heavy isotopes of hydrogen and oxygen in rainwater (meteoric water) are enriched as a function of the environmental temperature of the region in which the precipitation falls (and thus enrichment is related to latitude). The relative enrichment of the heavy isotopes in rainwater (as referenced to mean ocean water), when plotted against temperature falls predictably along a line called the global meteoric water line (GMWL). This plot allows samples of precipitation-originated water to be identified along with general information about the climate in which it originated. Evaporative and other processes in bodies of water, and also ground water processes, also differentially alter the ratios of heavy hydrogen and oxygen isotopes in fresh and salt waters, in characteristic and often regionally distinctive ways. The ratio of concentration of H to H is usually indicated with a delta as δH and the geographic patterns of these values are plotted in maps termed as isoscapes. Stable isotopes are incorporated into plants and animals and an analysis of the ratios in a migrant bird or insect can help suggest a rough guide to their origins. Contrast properties Neutron scattering techniques particularly profit from availability of deuterated samples: The H and H cross sections are very distinct and different in sign, which allows contrast variation in such experiments. Further, a nuisance problem of normal hydrogen is its large incoherent neutron cross section, which is nil for H. The substitution of deuterium for normal hydrogen thus reduces scattering noise. Hydrogen is an important and major component in all materials of organic chemistry and life science, but it barely interacts with X-rays. As hydrogen atoms (including deuterium) interact strongly with neutrons; neutron scattering techniques, together with a modern deuteration facility, fills a niche in many studies of macromolecules in biology and many other areas. Nuclear weapons See below. Most stars, including the Sun, generate energy over most of their lives by fusing hydrogen into heavier elements; yet such fusion of light hydrogen (protium) has never been successful in the conditions attainable on Earth. Thus, all artificial fusion, including the hydrogen fusion in hydrogen bombs, requires heavy hydrogen (deuterium, tritium, or both). Drugs A deuterated drug is a small molecule medicinal product in which one or more of the hydrogen atoms in the drug molecule have been replaced by deuterium. Because of the kinetic isotope effect, deuterium-containing drugs may have significantly lower rates of metabolism, and hence a longer half-life. In 2017, deutetrabenazine became the first deuterated drug to receive FDA approval. Reinforced essential nutrients Deuterium can be used to reinforce specific oxidation-vulnerable C–H bonds within essential or conditionally essential nutrients, such as certain amino acids, or polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), making them more resistant to oxidative damage. Deuterated polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as linoleic acid, slow down the chain reaction of lipid peroxidation that damage living cells. Deuterated ethyl ester of linoleic acid (RT001), developed by Retrotope, is in a compassionate use trial in infantile neuroaxonal dystrophy and has successfully completed a Phase I/II trial in Friedreich's ataxia. Slowing circadian oscillations Deuterium has been shown to lengthen the period of oscillation of the circadian clock when dosed in rats, hamsters, and Gonyaulax dinoflagellates. In rats, chronic intake of 25% HO disrupts circadian rhythm by lengthening the circadian period of suprachiasmatic nucleus-dependent rhythms in the brain's hypothalamus. History Suspicion of lighter element isotopes The existence of nonradioactive isotopes of lighter elements had been suspected in studies of neon as early as 1913, and proven by mass spectrometry of light elements in 1920. At that time the neutron had not yet been discovered, and the prevailing theory was that isotopes of an element differ by the existence of additional protons in the nucleus accompanied by an equal number of nuclear electrons. In this theory, the deuterium nucleus with mass two and charge one would contain two protons and one nuclear electron. However, it was expected that the element hydrogen with a measured average atomic mass very close to , the known mass of the proton, always has a nucleus composed of a single proton (a known particle), and could not contain a second proton. Thus, hydrogen was thought to have no heavy isotopes. Deuterium detected <!--Deuterium was predicted in 1926 by Walter Russell, using his "spiral" periodic table, and independently by Charles Janet in 1928.--> It was first detected spectroscopically in late 1931 by Harold Urey, a chemist at Columbia University. Urey's collaborator, Ferdinand Brickwedde, distilled five liters of cryogenically produced liquid hydrogen to of liquid, using the low-temperature physics laboratory that had recently been established at the National Bureau of Standards (now National Institute of Standards and Technology) in Washington, DC. The technique had previously been used to isolate heavy isotopes of neon. The cryogenic boiloff technique concentrated the fraction of the mass-2 isotope of hydrogen to a degree that made its spectroscopic identification unambiguous. Naming of the isotope and Nobel Prize Urey created the names protium, deuterium, and tritium in an article published in 1934. The name is based in part on advice from Gilbert N. Lewis who had proposed the name "deutium". The name comes from Greek deuteros 'second', and the nucleus was to be called a "deuteron" or "deuton". Isotopes and new elements were traditionally given the name that their discoverer decided. Some British scientists, such as Ernest Rutherford, wanted to call the isotope "diplogen", from Greek diploos 'double', and the nucleus to be called "diplon". The amount inferred for normal abundance of deuterium was so small (only about 1 atom in 6400 hydrogen atoms in seawater [156 parts per million]) that it had not noticeably affected previous measurements of (average) hydrogen atomic mass. This explained why it hadn't been suspected before. Urey was able to concentrate water to show partial enrichment of deuterium. Lewis, Urey's graduate advisor at Berkeley, had prepared and characterized the first samples of pure heavy water in 1933. The discovery of deuterium, coming before the discovery of the neutron in 1932, was an experimental shock to theory; but when the neutron was reported, making deuterium's existence more explicable, Urey was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry only three years after the isotope's isolation. Lewis was deeply disappointed by the Nobel Committee's decision in 1934 and several high-ranking administrators at Berkeley believed this disappointment played a central role in his suicide a decade later. During World War II, Nazi Germany was known to be conducting experiments using heavy water as moderator for a nuclear reactor design. Such experiments were a source of concern because they might allow them to produce plutonium for an atomic bomb. Ultimately it led to the Allied operation called the "Norwegian heavy water sabotage", the purpose of which was to destroy the Vemork deuterium production/enrichment facility in Norway. At the time this was considered important to the potential progress of the war. After World War II ended, the Allies discovered that Germany was not putting as much serious effort into the program as had been previously thought. The Germans had completed only a small, partly built experimental reactor (which had been hidden away) and had been unable to sustain a chain reaction. By the end of the war, the Germans did not even have a fifth of the amount of heavy water needed to run the reactor, partially due to the Norwegian heavy water sabotage operation. However, even if the Germans had succeeded in getting a reactor operational (as the U.S. did with Chicago Pile-1 in late 1942), they would still have been at least several years away from the development of an atomic bomb. The engineering process, even with maximal effort and funding, required about two and a half years (from first critical reactor to bomb) in both the U.S. and U.S.S.R., for example. In thermonuclear weapons H bomb, attached to instrumentation and cryogenic equipment. The 20-ft-tall bomb held a cryogenic Dewar flask with room for 160 kg of liquid deuterium.]] The 62-ton Ivy Mike device built by the United States and exploded on 1 November 1952, was the first fully successful hydrogen bomb (thermonuclear bomb). In this context, it was the first bomb in which most of the energy released came from nuclear reaction stages that followed the primary nuclear fission stage of the atomic bomb. The Ivy Mike bomb was a factory-like building, rather than a deliverable weapon. At its center, a very large cylindrical, insulated vacuum flask or cryostat, held cryogenic liquid deuterium in a volume of about 1000 liters (160 kilograms in mass, if this volume had been completely filled). Then, a conventional atomic bomb (the "primary") at one end of the bomb was used to create the conditions of extreme temperature and pressure that were needed to set off the thermonuclear reaction. Within a few years, so-called "dry" hydrogen bombs were developed that did not need cryogenic hydrogen. Released information suggests that all thermonuclear weapons built since then contain chemical compounds of deuterium and lithium in their secondary stages. The material that contains the deuterium is mostly lithium deuteride, with the lithium consisting of the isotope lithium-6. When the lithium-6 is bombarded with fast neutrons from the atomic bomb, tritium (hydrogen-3) is produced, and then the deuterium and the tritium quickly engage in thermonuclear fusion, releasing abundant energy, helium-4, and even more free neutrons. "Pure" fusion weapons such as the Tsar Bomba are believed to be obsolete. In most modern ("boosted") thermonuclear weapons, fusion directly provides only a small fraction of the total energy. Fission of a natural uranium-238 tamper by fast neutrons produced from D–T fusion accounts for a much larger (i.e. boosted) energy release than the fusion reaction itself. Modern research In August 2018, scientists announced the transformation of gaseous deuterium into a liquid metallic form. This may help researchers better understand gas giant planets, such as Jupiter, Saturn and some exoplanets, since such planets are thought to contain a lot of liquid metallic hydrogen, which may be responsible for their observed powerful magnetic fields. Antideuterium <!-- This section is linked from Antihydrogen --> An antideuteron is the antimatter counterpart of the deuteron, consisting of an antiproton and an antineutron. The antideuteron was first produced in 1965 at the Proton Synchrotron at CERN and the Alternating Gradient Synchrotron at Brookhaven National Laboratory. A complete atom, with a positron orbiting the nucleus, would be called antideuterium, but antideuterium has not yet been created. The proposed symbol for antideuterium is , that is, D with an overbar. See also * Isotopes of hydrogen * Tokamak References External links * * * * Category:Environmental isotopes Category:Isotopes of hydrogen Category:Neutron moderators Category:Nuclear fusion fuels Category:Nuclear materials Category:Subatomic particles with spin 1 Category:Medical isotopes	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deuterium	2025-04-05T18:28:39.932229
8525	Digital signal processing	Digital signal processing (DSP) is the use of digital processing, such as by computers or more specialized digital signal processors, to perform a wide variety of signal processing operations. The digital signals processed in this manner are a sequence of numbers that represent samples of a continuous variable in a domain such as time, space, or frequency. In digital electronics, a digital signal is represented as a pulse train, which is typically generated by the switching of a transistor. Digital signal processing and analog signal processing are subfields of signal processing. DSP applications include audio and speech processing, sonar, radar and other sensor array processing, spectral density estimation, statistical signal processing, digital image processing, data compression, video coding, audio coding, image compression, signal processing for telecommunications, control systems, biomedical engineering, and seismology, among others. DSP can involve linear or nonlinear operations. Nonlinear signal processing is closely related to nonlinear system identification and can be implemented in the time, frequency, and spatio-temporal domains.<!--sort of a flip stab at a wikilink for this concept. Readers might get the idea.--> The application of digital computation to signal processing allows for many advantages over analog processing in many applications, such as error detection and correction in transmission as well as data compression. Digital signal processing is also fundamental to digital technology, such as digital telecommunication and wireless communications. DSP is applicable to both streaming data and static (stored) data. Signal sampling To digitally analyze and manipulate an analog signal, it must be digitized with an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). Sampling is usually carried out in two stages, discretization and quantization. Discretization means that the signal is divided into equal intervals of time, and each interval is represented by a single measurement of amplitude. Quantization means each amplitude measurement is approximated by a value from a finite set. Rounding real numbers to integers is an example. The Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem states that a signal can be exactly reconstructed from its samples if the sampling frequency is greater than twice the highest frequency component in the signal. In practice, the sampling frequency is often significantly higher than this. It is common to use an anti-aliasing filter to limit the signal bandwidth to comply with the sampling theorem, however careful selection of this filter is required because the reconstructed signal will be the filtered signal plus residual aliasing from imperfect stop band rejection instead of the original (unfiltered) signal. Theoretical DSP analyses and derivations are typically performed on discrete-time signal models with no amplitude inaccuracies (quantization error), created by the abstract process of sampling. Numerical methods require a quantized signal, such as those produced by an ADC. The processed result might be a frequency spectrum or a set of statistics. But often it is another quantized signal that is converted back to analog form by a digital-to-analog converter (DAC). Domains DSP engineers usually study digital signals in one of the following domains: time domain (one-dimensional signals), spatial domain (multidimensional signals), frequency domain, and wavelet domains. They choose the domain in which to process a signal by making an informed assumption (or by trying different possibilities) as to which domain best represents the essential characteristics of the signal and the processing to be applied to it. A sequence of samples from a measuring device produces a temporal or spatial domain representation, whereas a discrete Fourier transform produces the frequency domain representation. Time and space domains Time domain refers to the analysis of signals with respect to time. Similarly, space domain refers to the analysis of signals with respect to position, e.g., pixel location for the case of image processing. The most common processing approach in the time or space domain is enhancement of the input signal through a method called filtering. Digital filtering generally consists of some linear transformation of a number of surrounding samples around the current sample of the input or output signal. The surrounding samples may be identified with respect to time or space. The output of a linear digital filter to any given input may be calculated by convolving the input signal with an impulse response. Frequency domain Signals are converted from time or space domain to the frequency domain usually through use of the Fourier transform. The Fourier transform converts the time or space information to a magnitude and phase component of each frequency. With some applications, how the phase varies with frequency can be a significant consideration. Where phase is unimportant, often the Fourier transform is converted to the power spectrum, which is the magnitude of each frequency component squared. The most common purpose for analysis of signals in the frequency domain is analysis of signal properties. The engineer can study the spectrum to determine which frequencies are present in the input signal and which are missing. Frequency domain analysis is also called spectrum- or spectral analysis. Filtering, particularly in non-realtime work can also be achieved in the frequency domain, applying the filter and then converting back to the time domain. This can be an efficient implementation and can give essentially any filter response including excellent approximations to brickwall filters. There are some commonly used frequency domain transformations. For example, the cepstrum converts a signal to the frequency domain through Fourier transform, takes the logarithm, then applies another Fourier transform. This emphasizes the harmonic structure of the original spectrum. Z-plane analysis Digital filters come in both infinite impulse response (IIR) and finite impulse response (FIR) types. Whereas FIR filters are always stable, IIR filters have feedback loops that may become unstable and oscillate. The Z-transform provides a tool for analyzing stability issues of digital IIR filters. It is analogous to the Laplace transform, which is used to design and analyze analog IIR filters. Autoregression analysis A signal is represented as linear combination of its previous samples. Coefficients of the combination are called autoregression coefficients. This method has higher frequency resolution and can process shorter signals compared to the Fourier transform. Prony's method can be used to estimate phases, amplitudes, initial phases and decays of the components of signal. non-linear (e.g., Wigner–Ville transform are used for representation of signal on the time-frequency plane. Non-linear and segmented Prony methods can provide higher resolution, but may produce undesirable artifacts. Time-frequency analysis is usually used for analysis of non-stationary signals. For example, methods of fundamental frequency estimation, such as RAPT and PEFAC are based on windowed spectral analysis. Wavelet . The original image is high-pass filtered, yielding the three large images, each describing local changes in brightness (details) in the original image. It is then low-pass filtered and downscaled, yielding an approximation image; this image is high-pass filtered to produce the three smaller detail images, and low-pass filtered to produce the final approximation image in the upper-left.]] In numerical analysis and functional analysis, a discrete wavelet transform is any wavelet transform for which the wavelets are discretely sampled. As with other wavelet transforms, a key advantage it has over Fourier transforms is temporal resolution: it captures both frequency and location information. The accuracy of the joint time-frequency resolution is limited by the uncertainty principle of time-frequency. Empirical mode decomposition Empirical mode decomposition is based on decomposition signal into intrinsic mode functions (IMFs). IMFs are quasi-harmonical oscillations that are extracted from the signal. Implementation DSP algorithms may be run on general-purpose computers and digital signal processors. DSP algorithms are also implemented on purpose-built hardware such as application-specific integrated circuit (ASICs). Additional technologies for digital signal processing include more powerful general-purpose microprocessors, graphics processing units, field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), digital signal controllers (mostly for industrial applications such as motor control), and stream processors. For systems that do not have a real-time computing requirement and the signal data (either input or output) exists in data files, processing may be done economically with a general-purpose computer. This is essentially no different from any other data processing, except DSP mathematical techniques (such as the DCT and FFT) are used, and the sampled data is usually assumed to be uniformly sampled in time or space. An example of such an application is processing digital photographs with software such as Photoshop. When the application requirement is real-time, DSP is often implemented using specialized or dedicated processors or microprocessors, sometimes using multiple processors or multiple processing cores. These may process data using fixed-point arithmetic or floating point. For more demanding applications FPGAs may be used. For the most demanding applications or high-volume products, ASICs might be designed specifically for the application. Parallel implementations of DSP algorithms, utilizing multi-core CPU and many-core GPU architectures, are developed to improve the performances in terms of latency of these algorithms. is done by the computer's CPU rather than by DSP or outboard processing, which is done by additional third-party DSP chips located on extension cards or external hardware boxes or racks. Many digital audio workstations such as Logic Pro, Cubase, Digital Performer and Pro Tools LE use native processing. Others, such as Pro Tools HD, Universal Audio's UAD-1 and TC Electronic's Powercore use DSP processing. Applications General application areas for DSP include Audio signal processing Audio data compression e.g. MP3 Video data compression Computer graphics Digital image processing Photo manipulation Speech processing Speech recognition Data transmission Radar Sonar Financial signal processing Economic forecasting Seismology Biomedicine Weather forecasting Specific examples include speech coding and transmission in digital mobile phones, room correction of sound in hi-fi and sound reinforcement applications, analysis and control of industrial processes, medical imaging such as CAT scans and MRI, audio crossovers and equalization, digital synthesizers, and audio effects units. DSP has been used in hearing aid technology since 1996, which allows for automatic directional microphones, complex digital noise reduction, and improved adjustment of the frequency response. Techniques * Bilinear transform * Discrete Fourier transform * Discrete-time Fourier transform * Filter design * Goertzel algorithm * Least-squares spectral analysis * LTI system theory * Minimum phase * s-plane * Transfer function * Z-transform Related fields * Analog signal processing * Automatic control * Computer engineering * Computer science * Data compression * Dataflow programming * Discrete cosine transform * Electrical engineering * Fourier analysis * Information theory * Machine learning * Real-time computing * Stream processing * Telecommunications * Time series * Wavelet Further reading * Jonathan M. Blackledge, Martin Turner: Digital Signal Processing: Mathematical and Computational Methods, Software Development and Applications, Horwood Publishing, James D. Broesch: Digital Signal Processing Demystified, Newnes, 118 \| publisher Academic Press \| doi 10.1016/S0065-2458(08)60403-9 \| isbn 978-0120121373 \| issn 0065-2458 \| lccn 59015761 \| chapter-url https://books.google.com/books?idvL-bB7GALAwC&pgPA104 \| ol OL10070096M \| oclc 858439915 \| df dmy-all}} Paul M. Embree, Damon Danieli: C++ Algorithms for Digital Signal Processing, Prentice Hall, Hari Krishna Garg: Digital Signal Processing Algorithms, CRC Press, P. Gaydecki: Foundations Of Digital Signal Processing: Theory, Algorithms And Hardware Design, Institution of Electrical Engineers, Ashfaq Khan: Digital Signal Processing Fundamentals, Charles River Media, Sen M. Kuo, Woon-Seng Gan: Digital Signal Processors: Architectures, Implementations, and Applications, Prentice Hall, Paul A. Lynn, Wolfgang Fuerst: Introductory Digital Signal Processing with Computer Applications, John Wiley & Sons, Richard G. Lyons: Understanding Digital Signal Processing, Prentice Hall, Vijay Madisetti, Douglas B. Williams: The Digital Signal Processing Handbook, CRC Press, James H. McClellan, Ronald W. Schafer, Mark A. Yoder: Signal Processing First, Prentice Hall, Bernard Mulgrew, Peter Grant, John Thompson: Digital Signal Processing – Concepts and Applications, Palgrave Macmillan, Boaz Porat: A Course in Digital Signal Processing, Wiley, John G. Proakis, Dimitris Manolakis: Digital Signal Processing: Principles, Algorithms and Applications, 4th ed, Pearson, April 2006, John G. Proakis: A Self-Study Guide for Digital Signal Processing, Prentice Hall, Charles A. Schuler: Digital Signal Processing: A Hands-On Approach, McGraw-Hill, Doug Smith: Digital Signal Processing Technology: Essentials of the Communications Revolution, American Radio Relay League, * * * * * *Hayes, Monson H. Statistical digital signal processing and modeling. John Wiley & Sons, 2009. (with [https://www.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/fileexchange/2183-statistical-digital-signal-processing-and-modeling?s_tid=prof_contriblnk MATLAB scripts]) References Category:Digital electronics Category:Computer engineering Category:Telecommunication theory Category:Radar signal processing	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_processing	2025-04-05T18:28:39.954847
8527	Discordianism	Discordianism is a belief system based around Eris, the Greek goddess of strife and discord, and variously defined as a religion, new religious movement, virtual religion, or act of social commentary; though prior to 2005, some sources categorized it as a parody religion. It was founded after the 1963 publication of its holy book, Principia Discordia, written by Greg Hill with Kerry Wendell Thornley, the two working under the pseudonyms Malaclypse the Younger and Omar Khayyam Ravenhurst. David Chidester considers Discordianism to be the first virtual religion and the first to take up the challenge of establishing its religious authenticity. When the Yahoo search engine categorized Discordianism as a parody religion, in May 2001 Discordians started an email campaign to get the religion reclassified. It is difficult to estimate the number of Discordians because they are not required to hold Discordianism as their only belief system. According to Arthur Versluis, Discordianism "both shaped and reflects the counterculture of the 1960s and 1970s". Founding and structure The foundational document of Discordianism is Principia Discordia, fourth edition (1970), written by Malaclypse the Younger, an alias of Gregory Hill. Principia Discordia often hints that Discordianism was founded as a dialectic antithesis to more popular religions based on order, although the rhetoric throughout the book describes chaos as a much more underlying impulse of the universe. This may have been done with the intention of merely "balancing out" the creative forces of order and disorder, but the focus is on the more disorderly aspects of the world — at times the forces of order are even vilified. Disharmony is particularly emphasized, along with its relation to harmony.OrganizationsDiscordian SocietyThe most general group, presumably including all Discordians (and potentially others), is the Discordian Society, whose definition is "The Discordian Society has no definition". Its members include many adherents of Neopaganism and Thelema. POEE The sect of Discordianism founded by Malaclypse the Younger and Omar Khayyam Ravenhurst is known as the Paratheo-Anametamystikhood of Eris Esoteric (POEE), a non-prophet irreligious disorganisation. Principia Discordia contains some details about the structure of POEE. In particular: <!--this is a permissible source per WP:ABOUTSELF --> }} Episkopos Episkoposes are the overseers of sects of Discordianism which they have created. They speak to Eris through the use of their pineal gland. It is said in Principia Discordia that Eris says different things to each listener. She may even say radically different things to each Episkopos, but all of what she says is equally her word (even if it contradicts another iteration of her word). Popes According to Principia Discordia, "every single man, woman, and child on this Earth" is a pope. Included in Principia Discordia is an official Pope card that may be reproduced and distributed freely to anyone and everyone.SaintsThere are also five classes of saints within Discordianism, who are those who best act as exemplars and are closer to perfection. Only the first of these classes "Saint Second Class" contains real human beings (deceased and alive), with higher classes reserved for fictional beings who, by virtue of being fictional, are better able to reach the Discordian view of perfection. An example of a second-class saint is Emperor Norton, a citizen in 19th-century San Francisco, who despite suffering delusions was beloved by much of the city. He is honoured as a saint within Discordianism for living his life according to truth as he saw it and a disregard for reality as others would perceive it. Other Since the first edition, various approaches to a Discordian organization chart – called in the work is "disorganization" and later "disorganizational matrix" – have differed from volume to volume, but have included especially the House of the Apostles of Eris, which is inclusive of the founders as the Apostles, of the Golden Apple Corps and Holders of the Sacred Chao, of the priesthood and saints, of the episkoposes, and even of "heretical" or "protestant" internal opponents of some of these, but not inclusive of the popes, legionnaires, disciples, and various other parties.<!--Work's pages unnumbered; this is the pagination of the PDF.--> A variety of other notional organizations were renamed and shuffled around and often enough replaced, as part of POEE (which did not appear in the first edition). But the House of the Apostles of Eris continued to be credited as the sanctioning body of the later editions, and remained the top division of the POEE "Eristocracy". Another recurrent organizational name is the Legion of Dynamic Discord, inclusive of legionnaires, disciples, and evangelists. LODD was also introduced in the first edition and survived throughout later versions (as an element of POEE's House of the Rising Podge for the Disciples), as well as in works less centrally associated with Discordianism, such ''The Zenarchist's Cookbook'' which integrates some elements of Thornley's Zenarchy material and is dedicated (in an obfuscatory introduction) to the LODD.<!--Work's pages unnumbered; this is the pagination of the PDF.--> Mythology Eris and Aneris and their brother Spirituality In Discordian mythology, Aneris is described as the sister of Eris a.k.a. Discordia. Whereas Eris/Discordia is the goddess of disorder and being, Aneris/Harmonia is the goddess of order and non-being. "DOGMA III – HISTORY 32, 'COSMOGONY in Principia Discordia, states: The sterile Aneris becomes jealous of Eris (who was born pregnant), and starts making existent things non-existent. This explains why life begins, and later ends in death: However, the Void decrees that Aneris may not absorb her brother Spirituality, that he can only be absorbed back into the Void itself. Cusack points out that this is "distilled into a teaching about the ultimate fate of humans: 'so it shall be that non-existence shall take us back from existence and that nameless spirituality shall return to the Void, like a tired child home from a very wild circus.'"Hand of Eris .]] The "five-fingered hand of Eris" (shown at right) is one of several symbols used in Discordianism. It was adapted as an astronomical/astrological symbol for the dwarf planet Eris. Initially, the planetary symbol, designed by Discordian Denis Moskowitz, was rotated 90 degrees and had a cross-bar added so that it resembled two lunate epsilons (Є) back-to-back (), with epsilon being the Greek initial of Eris. The cross-bar was later dropped, but the vertical orientation retained. The Hand of Eris has appeared in a public-outreach publication by NASA, though planetary symbols play only a minor role in modern astronomy. The symbol was accepted by Unicode in 2016 as (⯰). Original Snub ]] The "Original Snub" is the Discordian name for the events leading up to the judgement of Paris, although more focus is put on the actions of Eris. Zeus believes that Eris is a troublemaker, so he does not invite her to Peleus and Thetis's wedding. Having been snubbed, Eris creates a golden apple with the word (, 'for the prettiest') inscribed in it. This, the Apple of Discord, is a notable symbol in Discordianism for its inclusion in the Sacred Chao, and is traditionally described as being made of gold.}}Curse of GreyfaceOne of the most important parts of Discordianism, the Curse of Greyface features prominently on several pages of the Principia Discordia. According to Principia Discordia, Greyface was a man who lived in the year 1166 BC and taught that life is serious and play is sin. The curse is the psychological and spiritual imbalance that results from these beliefs, both individually and within groups, nations, and civilizations. In addition to the generic advice of cultivating the natural love of chaos and playing with Her, the Principia Discordia provides "The Turkey Curse Revealed by the Apostle Dr. Van Van Mojo" to counteract the Curse of Greyface. The Turkey Curse is designed to counteract destructive order. It derives its name from the fact that the incantation resembles the sounds of a turkey. Theology Three core principlesThe Principia Discordia holds three core principles: the Aneristic and Eristic principles representing order and disorder, and the notion that both are mere illusions. The Pentabarf The Pentabarf are five rules of Discordianism, described by David G. Robertson as "the Discordian take on the Ten Commandments". As venerators of Eris, Discordian views vary from one person to the next as neither order or disorder, nor chaos are requisites of falling into the Discordian category. The fifth rule is representative of that. }} Sri Syadasti The third "apostle of Eris & who they be's" name, commonly called just Sri Syadasti, is Sanskrit, and means: All affirmations are true in some sense, false in some sense, meaningless in some sense, true and false in some sense, true and meaningless in some sense, false and meaningless in some sense, and true and false and meaningless in some sense. The Sacred Chao <!--Sacred Chao and The Sacred Chao redirect here--> A unique symbol created in Discordianism, the Sacred Chao<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA--> is said to have been devised by the Apostle Hung Mung in ancient China. It is a modified version of the Yin-Yang, a common symbol in Taoism. The Sacred Chao is not the Yin-Yang of the Taoists. On one side of the Sacred Chao is a pentagon and on the other depicts the golden Apple of Discord. The Sacred Chao symbolizes absolutely everything anyone would need to ever know about anything, and more. It even symbolizes everything not worth knowing, depicted by the internal empty space surrounding. Discordians pronounce "chao" as "cow", thus making the terms "Sacred Chao", "Holy Chao", and "Wholly Chao", into puns and inside jokes. Operation Mindfuck Operation Mindfuck is an important practice in the Discordian religion, in which "all national calamities, assassinations, or conspiracies" are publicly attributed to the Bavarian Illuminati, an 18th-century secret society, in an attempt to "sow the culture with paranoia". The concept was developed by Kerry Thornley and Robert Anton Wilson in 1968 and given its name by Wilson and Robert Shea in The Illuminatus! Trilogy.<!-- both sources are permissible per WP:ABOUTSELF --> Operation Mindfuck uses many of the recurring themes of Discordianism, including "hidden knowledge, secret societies, chaos magic, ancient cults, mysterious rituals and conspiracy theories". Stuart Rathbone described it as "a deliberate campaign of revolutionary disinformation" and notes that "many of these topics have had a lasting impact on anarchism, the pseudo-sciences and even mainstream culture." Writings Discordian works include a number of books, including Principia Discordia, drafted in 1963 and first published in 1965 (which includes portions of The Honest Book of Truth); and The Illuminatus! Trilogy, which had its first volume published in 1975.Principia Discordia editions The first edition was printed using Jim Garrison's Xerox printer in 1963. The second edition was published under the title Principia Discordia or How The West Was Lost in a limited edition of five copies (and released into the public domain) in 1965. In 1978, a copy of the work from Kerry Thornley, under the title The Principia Discordia or How the West Was Lost, was placed in the HSCA JFK collections as document 010857. Adam Gorightly said he had been given Greg Hill's copy of the first edition. This appeared in its entirety in Historia Discordia, a book on Discordian history released in spring of 2014. Related works The Discordian movement encompasses a diverse array of works, both real and fictitious, that explore themes of chaos, satire, and alternative spirituality. These include Zen Without Zen Masters by Camden Benares, which presents koans and stories of a Discordian nature, and Zenarchy by Kerry Thornley, which proposes a non-combative approach to anarchy infused with Zen philosophy. ''Natural Law, or Don't Put a Rubber on Your Willy'' by Robert Anton Wilson delves into themes of personal freedom and self-awareness, expanding upon Wilson's essay originally published in 1985. In addition, there are compilations such as Apocrypha Discordia and Historia Discordia, which gather diverse materials from the Discordian tradition, including writings by both original and contemporary Discordians. Several works also explore the lives of key figures within Discordianism, such as The Prankster and the Conspiracy by Adam Gorightly, which focuses on Kerry Thornley's interactions with countercultural figures like Lee Harvey Oswald. Chasing Eris by Brenton Clutterbuck provides an in-depth examination of Discordianism's impact on various aspects of culture and society, offering interviews and insights into the movement's global reach and influence.Religious studiesAcademic interest in Discordianism has grown over the years, with scholars examining its role in the broader context of new religious movements (NRMs) and its reflection of the social and cultural upheavals of the 20th century. The religion’s ability to blur the lines between parody and serious belief has made it a unique subject of study in the field of religious studies and has contributed to ongoing discussions about the nature of religion in the modern world. The first academic study of Discordianism was David Chidester's 2005 book Authentic Fakes, who wrote that "If it were possible to trace a genealogy of virtual religions on the Internet, it would probably begin with Discordianism." According to J. Christian Greer, this study was published just at the time Discordianism had transformed itself from a parody religion to a new religious movement. The entry for Discordianism in Rabinovitch and Lewis's Encyclopedia of Modern Witchcraft and Neo-Paganism (2002) defines Discordianism as "somewhere between parody, social commentary, and religion". However, David G. Robertson writes that "Although Hill and Thornley started Discordianism as a joke, then, they came in time to believe, if not entirely trust, in Eris." Robertson discusses Discordian theology in the 2012 book Handbook of New Religions and Cultural Production, writing that despite Discordian claims that its "catmas" are soft, optional beliefs: Robertson writes in the 2016 book Fiction, Invention and Hyper-reality that: Influence Discordianism has exerted a notable influence on several facets of counterculture, particularly during the 1960s and 1970s. One of the religion's key contributions lies in its challenge to established norms through the use of humor, satire, and paradox. This approach mirrored the broader countercultural movements that sought to upend conventional thinking and embrace new forms of expression. Discordianism’s foundational text, the Principia Discordia, became a cornerstone for other works that blend satire with serious philosophical inquiry. A prime example is Robert Anton Wilson and Robert Shea’s The Illuminatus! Trilogy (1975), which played a significant role in spreading Discordian ideas. The trilogy’s mix of conspiracy theory, satire, and occultism deeply resonated with the countercultural mindset and has been credited with influencing later works in both literature and popular culture. Moreover, Discordianism has impacted the development of NRMs by promoting a model of religious practice that is decentralized, playful, and often ironic. This model has informed other NRMs that prioritize personal spiritual experiences over rigid dogma. In particular, Discordianism's embrace of paradox and chaos has inspired movements that reject traditional religious hierarchies in favor of more fluid and adaptable structures. In popular culture The Discordian phrase "Hail Eris! All Hail Discordia!" can be heard in the background on many rock albums. See also * 23 enigma * Chaos magic * Church of the SubGenius * Discordian calendar * Marvel Whiteside Parsons * Religion and the Internet * Religious satire * SNAFU Principle * Symbol of Chaos * The All * The Void * Trivialism References Notes Citations Works cited * * * * * * * * * * * * * * }} }} * * * * * * * * * * * * * * }} Further reading * * * * * * * * External links * [https://www.libraryoferis.org The Great Library of Eris] – active archive of literature published by Discordians around the world * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060322175108/http://appendix.23ae.com/archives.html The Semi-Official Quasi-Clandestine Bavarian Illuminati/Discordian Archives] – 2006 archive of early Discordian documents, photos, and paraphernalia * [https://web.archive.org/web/19990117002658/http://www.cs.monash.edu.au/~acb/discordianism/saints.html Discordian Saints] – 1999 archive from Andrew C. Bulhak Category:Counterculture of the 1960s Category:Counterculture of the 1970s Category:Counterculture of the 1980s Category:Counterculture of the 1990s Category:Counterculture of the 2000s Category:Culture jamming Category:Eris (mythology) Category:Religious belief systems founded in the United States Category:Religious organizations established in 1963 Category:Robert Anton Wilson	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discordianism	2025-04-05T18:28:39.977743
8528	Disjunction introduction	Disjunction introduction or addition (also called or introduction) is a rule of inference of propositional logic and almost every other deduction system. The rule makes it possible to introduce disjunctions to logical proofs. It is the inference that if P is true, then P or Q must be true. An example in English: Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is a man or pigs are flying in formation over the English Channel. The rule can be expressed as: \frac{P}{\therefore P \lor Q} where the rule is that whenever instances of "P" appear on lines of a proof, "P \lor Q" can be placed on a subsequent line. More generally it's also a simple valid argument form, this means that if the premise is true, then the conclusion is also true as any rule of inference should be, and an immediate inference, as it has a single proposition in its premises. Disjunction introduction is not a rule in some paraconsistent logics because in combination with other rules of logic, it leads to explosion (i.e. everything becomes provable) and paraconsistent logic tries to avoid explosion and to be able to reason with contradictions. One of the solutions is to introduce disjunction with over rules. See . Formal notation The disjunction introduction rule may be written in sequent notation: P \vdash (P \lor Q) where \vdash is a metalogical symbol meaning that P \lor Q is a syntactic consequence of P in some logical system; and expressed as a truth-functional tautology or theorem of propositional logic: P \to (P \lor Q) where P and Q are propositions expressed in some formal system. References Category:Rules of inference Category:Paraconsistent logic Category:Theorems in propositional logic	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disjunction_introduction	2025-04-05T18:28:39.981092
8529	Disjunction elimination	In propositional logic, disjunction elimination (sometimes named proof by cases, case analysis, or or elimination) is the valid argument form and rule of inference that allows one to eliminate a disjunctive statement from a logical proof. It is the inference that if a statement P implies a statement Q and a statement R also implies Q, then if either P or R is true, then Q has to be true. The reasoning is simple: since at least one of the statements P and R is true, and since either of them would be sufficient to entail Q, Q is certainly true. An example in English: If I'm inside, I have my wallet on me. If I'm outside, I have my wallet on me. It is true that either I'm inside or I'm outside. Therefore, I have my wallet on me. It is the rule can be stated as: \frac{P \to Q, R \to Q, P \lor R}{\therefore Q} where the rule is that whenever instances of "P \to Q", and "R \to Q" and "P \lor R" appear on lines of a proof, "Q" can be placed on a subsequent line. Formal notation The disjunction elimination rule may be written in sequent notation: (P \to Q), (R \to Q), (P \lor R) \vdash Q where \vdash is a metalogical symbol meaning that Q is a syntactic consequence of P \to Q, and R \to Q and P \lor R in some logical system; and expressed as a truth-functional tautology or theorem of propositional logic: (((P \to Q) \land (R \to Q)) \land (P \lor R)) \to Q where P, Q, and R are propositions expressed in some formal system. See also Disjunction Argument in the alternative Disjunct normal form Proof by exhaustion References Category:Rules of inference Category:Theorems in propositional logic	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disjunction_elimination	2025-04-05T18:28:39.984286
8530	Dead Sea	\| image = File:Dead Sea beach 00.JPG \| caption = A view of the sea from the Jordanian shore with the hills of the West Bank in the background \| image_bathymetry \| caption_bathymetry \| coords \| lake_type = Endorheic<br />Hypersaline \| inflow = Jordan River \| outflow = None \| catchment \| basin_countries = Jordan, Palestine (Israeli-occupied West Bank), Israel \| length (northern basin only) \| width \| area (2016) \| depth \| reference \| location = Western Asia <!-- Map -->\| pushpin_map = Israel \| pushpin_label_position \| pushpin_map_alt Location of the Dead Sea \| pushpin_map_caption = <!-- Below --> \| website = }} \|thumb]] The Dead Sea (, or ; ), also known by other names, is a landlocked salt lake bordered by Jordan to the east, the Israeli-occupied West Bank to the west and Israel to the southwest. making its shores the lowest land-based elevation on Earth. It is deep, the deepest hypersaline lake in the world. With a salinity of 342 g/kg, or 34.2% (in 2011), it is one of the world's saltiest bodies of water – 9.6 times as salty as the ocean – and has a density of 1.24 kg/litre, which makes swimming similar to floating. This salinity makes for a harsh environment in which plants and animals cannot flourish, hence its name. The Dead Sea's main, northern basin is long and wide at its widest point. have been made to reduce its recession. Names The English name "Dead Sea" is a calque of the Arabic name, itself a calque of earlier Greek and Latin names, in reference to the scarcity of aquatic life caused by the lake's extreme salinity. Historical English names include the , and modern Hebrew name for the lake is the (, \|helpno}}). Other Hebrew names for the lake also mentioned in the Bible are the (}}, ) and the (}}, ). In the Talmud it's called '' or 'Sea of Sodom'. The Arabic name is \|helpno}} (), or usually without the article al-, so just etc. It is also known in Arabic as the (, , , or ) from the nephew of Abraham whose wife was said to have turned into a pillar of salt during the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah. Less often, it has been known in Arabic as the Sea of Zo'ar from a formerly important city along its shores. Because of the large volume of ancient trade in the lake's naturally occurring free-floating bitumen, its usual names in ancient Greek and Roman geography were some form of ( or , or ; ) or Sea (, ). It was also known as the 'Dead Sea' (Greek , , Latin ().Geography , showing the location of the Dead Sea east of the Mediterranean Sea]] The Dead Sea is a salt lake is bordered by Jordan to the east and Palestine's Israeli-occupied West Bank and Israel to the west. It is an endorheic lake, meaning there are no outlet streams. The Dead Sea lies in the Jordan Rift Valley, a geographic feature formed by the Dead Sea Transform (DST). This left lateral-moving transform fault lies along the tectonic plate boundary between the African Plate and the Arabian Plate. It runs between the East Anatolian Fault zone in Turkey and the northern end of the Red Sea Rift offshore of the southern tip of Sinai. Water feeds into the Dead Sea from various sources, many small or intermittent, including: * Jordan River, international border from the north * Wadi Wala, Jordan side The Wadi Mujib valley, 420 m below the sea level in the southern part of the Jordan valley, is a biosphere reserve, with an area of . Rainfall is scarcely per year in the northern part of the Dead Sea and barely in the southern part. The Dead Sea zone's aridity is due to the rainshadow effect of the Judaean Mountains. The highlands east of the Dead Sea receive more rainfall than the Dead Sea itself. To the west of the Dead Sea, the Judaean mountains rise less steeply and are much lower than the mountains to the east. Along the southwestern side of the lake is a tall halite mineral formation called Mount Sodom.GeologyFormation theoriesThere are two contending hypotheses about the origin of the low elevation of the Dead Sea. The older hypothesis is that the Dead Sea lies in a true rift zone, an extension of the Red Sea Rift, or even of the Great Rift Valley of eastern Africa. A more recent hypothesis is that the Dead Sea basin is a consequence of a "step-over" discontinuity along the Dead Sea Transform, creating an extension of the crust with consequent subsidence.Sedom LagoonDuring the late Pliocene-early Pleistocene, what is now the valley of the Jordan River, Dead Sea, and the northern Wadi Arabah was repeatedly inundated by waters from the Mediterranean Sea. The waters formed in a narrow, crooked bay that is called by geologists the Sedom Lagoon, which was connected to the sea through what is now the Jezreel Valley. The floods of the valley came and went depending on long-scale changes in the tectonic and climatic conditions.Salt depositsThe Sedom Lagoon deposited evaporites mainly consisting of rock salt, which eventually reached a thickness of on the old basin floor in the area of today's Mount Sedom.Lake formation photo showing depth of the Dead Sea basin (slightly below center). The Mediterranean Sea is on the right, with the Suez Canal visible connecting it to the Red Sea on left (slightly above center).]] According to Kafri, during the late Neogene, i.e. in the Pliocene (ended c. 2.5 million years ago), the eustatic sea level was at 50–100 metres above the current sea level, thus flooding the northern valleys connecting the Mediterranean Sea with the Jordan Rift Valley, which led to the creation of a crooked-shaped lagoon. This high eustatic sea level situation subsequently came to an end, and the ocean could no longer flood the area. Thus, the long lagoon became a landlocked lake, which – due to the high evaporation rate – retreated toward the lower, southern part of the rift valley. Its level fluctuated dramatically, rising to its highest level around 26,000 years ago, indicating a very wet climate in the Near East. Around 10,000 years ago, the lake's level dropped dramatically, probably even lower than today. During the last several thousand years, the lake has fluctuated approximately , with some significant drops and rises. Current theories as to the cause of this dramatic drop in levels rule out volcanic activity; therefore, it may have been a seismic event. Salt mounts formation In prehistoric times, great amounts of sediment collected on the floor of Lake Amora. The sediment was heavier than the salt deposits and squeezed the salt deposits upwards into what are now the Lisan Peninsula and Mount Sodom (on the southwest side of the lake). Geologists explain the effect in terms of a bucket of mud into which a large flat stone is placed, forcing the mud to creep up the sides of the bucket. When the floor of the Dead Sea dropped further due to tectonic forces, the salt mounts of Lisan and Mount Sodom stayed in place as high cliffs (see salt dome). Climate The Dead Sea has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh), with year-round sunny skies and dry air. It has less than mean annual rainfall and a summer average temperature between . Winter average temperatures range between . The region has weaker ultraviolet radiation, particularly the UVB (erythrogenic rays). Given the higher atmospheric pressure, the air has a slightly higher oxygen content (3.3% in summer to 4.8% in winter) as compared to oxygen concentration at sea level. Barometric pressures at the Dead Sea were measured between 1061 and 1065 hPa and clinically compared with health effects at higher altitude. (This barometric measure is about 5% higher than sea level standard atmospheric pressure of 1013.25 hPa, which is the global ocean mean or ATM.) The Dead Sea affects temperatures nearby because of the moderating effect a large body of water has on climate. During the winter, sea temperatures tend to be higher than land temperatures, and vice versa during the summer months. This is the result of the water's mass and specific heat capacity. On average, there are 192 days above annually. Chemistry ) along the western Dead Sea coast]] With 34.2% salinity (in 2011), it is one of the world's saltiest bodies of water, though Lake Vanda in Antarctica (35%), Lake Assal in Djibouti (34.8%), Lagoon Garabogazköl in the Caspian Sea (up to 35%) and some hypersaline ponds and lakes of the McMurdo Dry Valleys in Antarctica (such as Don Juan Pond (44%)) have reported higher salinities. In the 19th century and the early 20th century, the surface layers of the Dead Sea were less salty than today, which resulted in an average density in the range of 1.15–1.17 g/cm<sup>3</sup> instead of the present value of around 1.25 g/cm<sup>3</sup>. A sample tested by Bernays in the 19th century had a salinity of 19%. By the year 1926, the salinity had increased (although it was also suspected that the salinity varies seasonally and depends on the distance from the mouth of the Jordan). Until the winter of 1978–79, when a major mixing event took place, Since the water near the bottom is saturated with NaCl, that salt precipitates out of solution onto the sea floor. Beginning in the 1960s, water inflow to the Dead Sea from the Jordan River was reduced as a result of large-scale irrigation and generally low rainfall. By 1975, the upper water layer was saltier than the lower layer. Nevertheless, the upper layer remained suspended above the lower layer because its waters were warmer and thus less dense. When the upper layer cooled so its density was greater than the lower layer, the waters mixed (1978–79). For the first time in centuries, the lake was a homogeneous body of water. Since then, stratification has begun to redevelop. on the western shore of the Dead Sea near Ein Gedi\|alt=\|left]] The mineral content of the Dead Sea is very different from that of ocean water. The exact composition of the Dead Sea water varies mainly with season, depth and temperature. In the early 1980s, the concentration of ionic species (in g/kg) of Dead Sea surface water was Cl<sup>−</sup> (181.4), Br<sup>−</sup> (4.2), SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2−</sup> (0.4), HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup> (0.2), Ca<sup>2+</sup> (14.1), Na<sup>+</sup> (32.5), K<sup>+</sup> (6.2) and Mg<sup>2+</sup> (35.2). The total salinity was 276 g/kg. These results show that the composition of the salt, as anhydrous chlorides on a weight percentage basis, was calcium chloride (CaCl<sub>2</sub>) 14.4%, potassium chloride (KCl) 4.4%, magnesium chloride (MgCl<sub>2</sub>) 50.8% and sodium chloride (NaCl) 30.4%. In comparison, the salt in the water of most oceans and seas is approximately 85% sodium chloride. The concentration of sulfate ions (SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2−</sup>) is very low, and the concentration of bromide ions (Br<sup>−</sup>) is the highest of all waters on Earth. ; western coast]] The salt concentration of the Dead Sea fluctuates around 31.5%. This is unusually high and results in a nominal density of 1.24 kg/L. Anyone can easily float in the Dead Sea because of natural buoyancy. In this respect the Dead Sea is similar to the Great Salt Lake in Utah in the United States. An unusual feature of the Dead Sea is its discharge of asphalt. From deep seeps, the Dead Sea constantly spits up small pebbles and blocks of the black substance. Asphalt-coated figurines and bitumen-coated Neolithic skulls from archaeological sites have been found. Egyptian mummification processes used asphalt imported from the Dead Sea region. Putative therapies The Dead Sea area has become a location for health research and potential treatment for several reasons. The mineral content of the water, the low content of pollens and other allergens in the atmosphere, the reduced ultraviolet component of solar radiation, and the higher atmospheric pressure at this great depth each may have specific health effects. For example, persons experiencing reduced respiratory function from diseases such as cystic fibrosis seem to benefit from the increased atmospheric pressure. The region's climate and low elevation have made it a popular center for assessment of putative therapies: * Climatotherapy: Treatment which exploits local climatic features such as temperature, humidity, sunshine, barometric pressure and special atmospheric constituents * Heliotherapy: Treatment that exploits the biological effects of the sun's radiation * Thalassotherapy: Treatment that exploits bathing in Dead Sea water There is evidence that the unique attenuation and spectrum of UV rays near the Dead Sea contribute to effective photoclimatherapy for psoriasis, in part because the reduced exposure to solar radiation allows for longer periods of sunbathing. Rhinosinusitis patients receiving Dead Sea saline nasal irrigation exhibited improved symptom relief compared to standard hypertonic saline spray in one study. Dead Sea mud pack therapy has been suggested to temporarily relieve pain in patients with osteoarthritis of the knees. According to researchers of the Ben Gurion University of the Negev, treatment with mineral-rich mud compresses can be used to augment conventional medical therapy. Life forms ]] The sea is called "dead" because its high salinity prevents macroscopic aquatic organisms, such as fish and aquatic plants, from living in it, though minuscule quantities of bacteria and microbial fungi are present. In times of flood, the salt content of the Dead Sea can drop from its usual 35% to 30% or lower. It temporarily comes to life in the wake of rainy winters. In 1980, after one such rainy winter, the normally dark blue Dead Sea turned red. Researchers from Hebrew University of Jerusalem found it to be teeming with an alga called Dunaliella. Dunaliella in turn nourished carotenoid-containing (red-pigmented) halobacteria, whose presence caused the color change. Since 1980, the basin has been dry and the algae and the bacteria have not returned in measurable numbers. In 2011 a group of scientists from Be'er Sheva, Israel and Germany discovered fissures in the floor of the Dead Sea by scuba diving and observing the surface. These fissures allow fresh and brackish water to enter. They sampled biofilms surrounding the fissures and discovered numerous species of bacteria and archaea.Human settlementThere are several small communities near the Dead Sea. These include Ein Gedi, Neve Zohar and the Israeli settlements in the Megilot Regional Council: Kalya, Mitzpe Shalem and Avnat. There is a nature preserve at Ein Gedi, and several Dead Sea hotels are located on the southwest end at Ein Bokek near Neve Zohar. Highway 90 runs north–south on the Israeli side for a total distance of from Metula on the Lebanese border in the north to its southern terminus at the Egyptian border near the Red Sea port of Eilat. Potash City is a small community on the Jordanian side of the Dead Sea, and others including Suweima. Highway 65 runs north–south on the Jordanian side from near Jordan's northern tip down past the Dead Sea to the port of Aqaba. Human history Biblical period , Israel, showing the so-called "Lot's Wife" pillar (made of halite like the rest of the mountain)]] Dwelling in caves near the Dead Sea is recorded in the Hebrew Bible as having taken place before the Israelites came to Canaan, and extensively at the time of King David. Just northwest of the Dead Sea is Jericho. Somewhere, perhaps on the southeastern shore, would be the cities mentioned in the Book of Genesis which were said to have been destroyed in the time of Abraham: Sodom and Gomorrah (Genesis 18) and the three other "Cities of the Plain", Admah, Zeboim and Zoar (Deuteronomy 29:23). Zoar escaped destruction when Abraham's nephew Lot escaped to Zoar from Sodom (Genesis 19:21–22). Before the destruction, the Dead Sea was a valley full of natural tar pits, which was called the vale of Siddim. King David was said to have hidden from Saul at Ein Gedi nearby. In Ezekiel 47:8–9 there is a specific prophecy that the sea will "be healed and made fresh", becoming a normal lake capable of supporting marine life. A similar prophecy is stated in Zechariah 14:8, which says that "living waters will go out from Jerusalem, half of them to the eastern sea [likely the Dead Sea] and half to the western sea [the Mediterranean]." Greek and Roman period Greek and Jewish writers report that the Nabateans had monopolistic control over the Dead Sea. Archaeological evidence shows multiple anchorages existing on both sides of the sea, including in Ein Gedi, Khirbet Mazin (where the ruins of a Hasmonean-era dry dock are located), Numeira and near Masada. King Herod the Great built or rebuilt several fortresses and palaces on the western bank of the Dead Sea. The most famous was Masada, where in 70 CE a small group of Jewish zealots fled after the fall of the destruction of the Second Temple. The zealots survived until 73 CE, when a siege by the X Legion ended in the deaths by suicide of its 960 inhabitants. Another historically important fortress was Machaerus (מכוור), on the eastern bank, where, according to Josephus, John the Baptist was imprisoned by Herod Antipas and died. Also in Roman times, some Essenes settled on the Dead Sea's western shore; Pliny the Elder identifies their location with the words, "on the west side of the Dead Sea, away from the coast ... [above] the town of Engeda" (Natural History, Bk 5.73); and it is therefore a hugely popular but contested hypothesis today, that same Essenes are identical with the settlers at Qumran and that "the Dead Sea Scrolls" discovered during the 20th century in the nearby caves had been their own library. , from the 6th century AD]] Josephus identified the Dead Sea in geographic proximity to the ancient Biblical city of Sodom. However, he referred to the lake by its Greek name, Asphaltites. Various sects of Jews settled in caves overlooking the Dead Sea. The best known of these are the Essenes of Qumran, who left an extensive library known as the Dead Sea Scrolls. The town of Ein Gedi, mentioned many times in the Mishna, produced persimmon for the temple's fragrance and for export, using a secret recipe. "Sodomite salt" was an essential mineral for the temple's holy incense, but was said to be dangerous for home use and could cause blindness. The Roman camps surrounding Masada were built by Jewish slaves receiving water from the towns around the lake. These towns had drinking water from the Ein Feshcha springs and other sweetwater springs in the vicinity.Byzantine periodThe sixth-century mosaic known as the Madaba Map indicates that trade across the Dead Sea was very prevalent during the Byzantine period. Connected with the Judean wilderness to its northwest and west, the Dead Sea was a place of escape and refuge. The remoteness of the region attracted Greek Orthodox monks since the Byzantine era. Their monasteries, such as Saint George in Wadi Kelt and Mar Saba in the Judaean Desert, are places of pilgrimage.Medieval periodFrom the seventh century onwards, the Dead Sea area entered a period of decline and its population decreased. The cultivation of sugarcane near the northern and southern shores of the lake began to develop during the Crusader period and reached its peak under the Mamluks. The full text of W. F. Lynch's 1849 book ''Narrative of the United States' Expedition to the River Jordan and the Dead Sea'' is available online. Charles Leonard Irby and James Mangles travelled along the shores of the Dead Sea already in 1817–18, but didn't navigate on its waters. , 1971]] Explorers and scientists arrived in the area to analyze the minerals and research the unique climate. After the find of the "Moabite Stone" in 1868 on the plateau east of the Dead Sea, Moses Wilhelm Shapira and his partner Salim al-Khouri forged and sold a whole range of presumed "Moabite" antiquities, and in 1883 Shapira presented what is now known as the "Shapira Strips", a supposedly ancient scroll written on leather strips which he claimed had been found near the Dead Sea. The strips were declared to be forgeries and Shapira took his own life in disgrace. The 1922 census of Palestine lists 100 people (68 Muslims and 32 Christians) with "Dead Sea & Jordan" as their main locality. The 1931 census shows a sharp increase with 535 people (264 Muslims, 230 Jews, 21 Christians, 17 Druze, and three with no religion) listing "Dead Sea" as their main village/town. The 1938 nor 1945 village statistics does not give a number for the general Dead Sea area. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, hundreds of Jewish religious documents dated between 150 BCE and 70 CE were found in caves near the ancient settlement of Qumran, about inland from the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea (presently in the West Bank). They became known and famous as the Dead Sea Scrolls. The world's lowest roads, Highway 90, run along the Israeli and West Bank shores of the Dead Sea, along with Highway 65 on the Jordanian side, at below sea level.Tourism and leisure, a resort on the Israeli shore]]British Mandate periodA golf course named for Sodom and Gomorrah was built by the British at Kalia on the northern shore.Israel The first major Israeli hotels were built in nearby Arad, and since the 1960s at the Ein Bokek resort complex. Israel has 15 hotels along the Dead Sea shore, generating total revenues of $291 million in 2012. Most Israeli hotels and resorts on the Dead Sea are on a stretch of the southern shore. On 22 November 2015, the Dead Sea panorama road was included along with 40 archaeological locations in Jordan, to become live on Google Street View.Palestine (West Bank)The portion of Dead Sea coast which Palestinians could possibly eventually manage is about long. The World Bank estimates that such Dead Sea tourism industry could generate $290 million of revenues per year and 2,900 jobs. and produced potash by solar evaporation of the brine. Employing Arabs and Jews, it was an island of peace in turbulent times. In 1934 a second plant was built on the southwest shore, in the Mount Sodom area, south of the 'Lashon' region of the Dead Sea. Palestine Potash Company supplied half of Britain's potash during World War II. Both plants were destroyed by the Jordanians in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War.IsraelThe Dead Sea Works was founded in 1952 as a state-owned enterprise based on the remnants of the Palestine Potash Company. In 1995, the company was privatized and it is now owned by Israel Chemicals. From the Dead Sea brine, Israel produces (2001) 1.77 million tons potash, 206,000 tons elemental bromine, 44,900 tons caustic soda, 25,000 tons magnesium metal, and sodium chloride. Israeli companies generate around US$3 billion annually from the sale of Dead Sea minerals (primarily potash and bromine), and from other products that are derived from Dead Sea Minerals. Jordan On the Jordanian side of the Dead Sea, Arab Potash (APC), formed in 1956, produces 2.0 million tons of potash annually, as well as sodium chloride and bromine. The plant is located at Safi, South Aghwar Department, in the Karak Governorate. Jordanian Dead Sea mineral industries generate about $1.2 billion in sales (equivalent to 4 percent of Jordan's GDP). West Bank The Palestinian Dead Sea Coast is about long. The Palestinian economy is unable to benefit from Dead Sea chemicals due to restricted access, permit issues and the uncertainties of the investment climate. The southern end is fed by a canal maintained by the Dead Sea Works, a company that converts the sea's raw materials. From a water surface of below sea level in 1970 it fell below sea level in 2006, reaching a drop rate of per year. By 2025 it reached a height of below sea level, a drop of more than per year. As the water level decreases, the characteristics of the Sea and surrounding region may substantially change. , the surface of the Sea has shrunk by about 33 percent since the 1960s, which is partly attributed to the much-reduced flow of the Jordan River since the construction of the National Water Carrier project, and the amount of water from the rains reaching the Dead Sea has diminished even further since flash floods started pouring into the sinkholes left by its shrinkage. The EcoPeace Middle East, a joint Israeli-Palestinian-Jordanian environmental group, has estimated that the annual flow into the Dead Sea from the Jordan is less than of water, compared with former flows of between and . Sinkholes and their impact The Dead Sea level drop has been followed by a groundwater level drop, causing brines that used to occupy underground layers near the shoreline to be flushed out by freshwater. This is believed to be the cause of the recent appearance of large sinkholes along the western shore—incoming freshwater dissolves salt layers, rapidly creating subsurface cavities that subsequently collapse to form these sinkholes. Ein Gedi, on the western coast, has been subject to a large number of sinkholes appearing in the area, attributed to the decline in the water level of the Dead Sea. As a result of the sinkholes, most beach resorts along the west shore of the northern basin had to be shut down, with just three remaining near the basin's northwest tip (see List of beaches in Palestine: Dead Sea). Link to the Red Sea ]] In May 2009 at the World Economic Forum, Jordan introduced plans for a "Jordan National Red Sea Development Project" (JRSP). This is a plan to convey seawater from the Red Sea near Aqaba to the Dead Sea. Water would be desalinated along the route to provide fresh water to Jordan, with the brine discharge sent to the Dead Sea for replenishment. Israel has expressed its support and will likely benefit from some of the water delivery to its Negev region. At a regional conference in July 2009, officials expressed concern about the declining water levels. Some suggested industrial activities around the Dead Sea might need to be reduced. Others advised environmental measures to restore conditions such as increasing the volume of flow from the Jordan River to replenish the Dead Sea. Currently, only sewage and effluent from fish ponds run in the river's channel. Experts also stressed the need for strict conservation efforts. They said agriculture should not be expanded, sustainable support capabilities should be incorporated into the area and pollution sources should be reduced. In October 2009, the Jordanians accelerated plans to extract around of water per year from the Red Sea, desalinate it for use as fresh water and send the waste water to the Dead Sea by tunnel, despite concerns about inadequate time to assess the potential environmental impact. According to Jordan's minister for water, General Maysoun Zu'bi, this project could be considered as the first phase of the Red Sea–Dead Sea Water Conveyance. In December 2013, Israel, Jordan and the Palestinian Authority signed an agreement for laying a water pipeline to link the Red Sea with the Dead Sea. The pipeline would be long and is estimated to take up to five years to complete. In January 2015 it was reported that the level of water was dropping by a year. On 27 November 2016, the Jordanian government shortlisted five consortia to implement the project. Jordan's ministry of Water and Irrigation said that the $100 million first phase of the project would begin construction in the first quarter of 2018, and would be completed by 2021.See also * Aral Sea * List of drying lakes * List of places on land with elevations below sea level * Mediterranean–Dead Sea Canal * Benjamin Elazari Volcani * PEF rock with the Dead Sea level reference line used between 1900 and 1913 References Further reading * The World Bank, 2013, [https://web.archive.org/web/20130915013427/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/MENAEXT/EXTREDSEADEADSEA/0,,contentMDK:21827416~pagePK:64168427~piPK:64168435~theSitePK:5174617,00.html "The Red Sea – Dead Sea Water Conveyance Study Program"], and source of basic data on the Dead Sea. * Yehouda Enzel, et al., eds (2006) New Frontiers in Dead Sea Paleoenvironmental Research, Geological Society of America, * Niemi, Tina M., Ben-Avraham, Z., and Gat, J., eds., 1997, The Dead Sea: The Lake and Its Setting: N.Y., Oxford University Press, 286 p. * World Bank, Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Department, [http://hlrn.org/img/violation/Area+C+Report+Oct-13.pdf Area C and the Future of the Palestinian Economy], October 2, 2013 External links * * (Israeli and West Bank part and Jordanian part) * * * <!-- Please be cautious adding more external links. Wikipedia is not a collection of links and should not be used for advertising. Excessive or inappropriate links will be removed. See Wikipedia:External links and Wikipedia:Spam for details. If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using . --> Category:Endorheic lakes of Asia Category:Extreme points of Earth Category:Lowest points of countries Category:Bodies of water of Jordan Category:Lakes of Israel Category:Catholic pilgrimage sites Category:Sacred lakes Category:Shrunken lakes Category:Hebrew Bible geography Category:Lakes of the West Bank Category:Saline lakes of Asia Category:Israel–Jordan border Category:Borders of the West Bank Category:International lakes of Asia Category:Articles containing video clips	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Sea	2025-04-05T18:28:40.028946
8531	Dragon	Dragon lizard\|Komodo dragon\|Draconian (disambiguation)Draconian\|Dracones\|Dragoon}} A dragon is a magical legendary creature that appears in the folklore of multiple cultures worldwide. Beliefs about dragons vary considerably through regions, but dragons in Western cultures since the High Middle Ages have often been depicted as winged, horned, and capable of breathing fire. Dragons in eastern cultures are usually depicted as wingless, four-legged, serpentine creatures with above-average intelligence. Commonalities between dragons' traits are often a hybridization of reptilian, mammalian, and avian features. Etymology word (oblique singular of draca) in Beowulf]] The word dragon entered the English language in the early 13th century from Old French , which, in turn, comes from Latin (genitive ), meaning "huge serpent, dragon", from , (genitive , ) "serpent". The Greek and Latin term referred to any great serpent, not necessarily mythological. The Greek word is most likely derived from the Greek verb () meaning "I see", the aorist form of which is (). or unusually bright or "sharp" eyes, or because a snake's eyes appear to be always open; each eye actually sees through a big transparent scale in its eyelids, which are permanently shut. The Greek word probably derives from an Indo-European base meaning "to see"; the Sanskrit root () also means "to see".Overview hang outside Wawel Cathedral, but actually belong to a Pleistocene mammal.]] Draconic creatures appear in virtually all cultures around the globe and the earliest attested reports of draconic creatures resemble giant snakes. Draconic creatures are first described in the mythologies of the ancient Near East and appear in ancient Mesopotamian art and literature. Stories about storm-gods slaying giant serpents occur throughout nearly all Near Eastern and Indo-European mythologies. Famous prototypical draconic creatures include the mušḫuššu of ancient Mesopotamia; Apep in Egyptian mythology; Vṛtra in the Rigveda; the Leviathan in the Hebrew Bible; Grand'Goule in the Poitou region in France; Python, Ladon, Wyvern and the Lernaean Hydra in Greek mythology; Kulshedra in Albanian Mythology; Unhcegila in Lakota mythology; Quetzalcoatl in Aztec Culture; Jörmungandr, Níðhöggr, and Fafnir in Norse mythology; the dragon from Beowulf; and aži and az in ancient Persian mythology, closely related to another mythological figure, called Aži Dahaka or Zahhak. Nonetheless, scholars dispute where the idea of a dragon originates from, and a wide variety of hypotheses have been proposed. In his book An Instinct for Dragons (2000), anthropologist David E. Jones suggests a hypothesis that humans, like monkeys, have inherited instinctive reactions to snakes, large cats, and birds of prey. He cites a study which found that approximately 39 people in a hundred are afraid of snakes and notes that fear of snakes is especially prominent in children, even in areas where snakes are rare. The earliest attested dragons all resemble snakes or have snakelike attributes. Jones therefore concludes that dragons appear in nearly all cultures because humans have an innate fear of snakes and other animals that were major predators of humans' primate ancestors. Dragons are usually said to reside in "dark caves, deep pools, wild mountain reaches, sea bottoms, haunted forests", all places which would have been fraught with danger for early human ancestors. In her book The First Fossil Hunters: Dinosaurs, Mammoths, and Myth in Greek and Roman Times (2000), Adrienne Mayor argues that some stories of dragons may have been inspired by ancient discoveries of fossils belonging to dinosaurs and other prehistoric animals. She argues that the dragon lore of northern India may have been inspired by "observations of oversized, extraordinary bones in the fossilbeds of the Siwalik Hills below the Himalayas" and that ancient Greek artistic depictions of the Monster of Troy may have been influenced by fossils of Samotherium, an extinct species of giraffe whose fossils are common in the Mediterranean region. In China, a region where fossils of large prehistoric animals are common, these remains are frequently identified as "dragon bones" and are commonly used in traditional Chinese medicine. Mayor, however, is careful to point out that not all stories of dragons and giants are inspired by fossils and notes that Scandinavia has many stories of dragons and sea monsters, but has long "been considered barren of large fossils." In one of her later books, she states that, "Many dragon images around the world were based on folk knowledge or exaggerations of living reptiles, such as Komodo dragons, Gila monsters, iguanas, alligators, or, in California, alligator lizards, though this still fails to account for the Scandinavian legends, as no such animals (historical or otherwise) have ever been found in this region." Robert Blust in The Origin of Dragons (2000) argues that, like many other creations of traditional cultures, dragons are largely explicable as products of a convergence of rational pre-scientific speculation about the world of real events. In this case, the event is the natural mechanism governing rainfall and drought, with particular attention paid to the phenomenon of the rainbow. Egypt spearing the serpent Apep as he attacks the sun boat of Ra]] In Egyptian mythology, Apep or Apophis is a giant serpentine creature who resides in the Duat, the Egyptian Underworld. The Bremner-Rhind papyrus, written around 310 BC, preserves an account of a much older Egyptian tradition that the setting of the sun is caused by Ra descending to the Duat to battle Apep. In some accounts, Apep is as long as the height of eight men with a head made of flint. Thunderstorms and earthquakes were thought to be caused by Apep's roar and solar eclipses were thought to be the result of Apep attacking Ra during the daytime. In some myths, Apep is slain by the god Set. Nehebkau is another giant serpent who guards the Duat and aided Ra in his battle against Apep. Nehebkau was so massive in some stories that the entire earth was believed to rest atop his coils. Denwen is a giant serpent mentioned in the Pyramid Texts whose body was made of fire and who ignited a conflagration that nearly destroyed all the gods of the Egyptian pantheon. He was ultimately defeated by the Pharaoh, a victory which affirmed the Pharaoh's divine right to rule. The ouroboros was a well-known Egyptian symbol of a serpent swallowing its own tail. The precursor to the ouroboros was the "Many-Faced", a serpent with five heads, who, according to the Amduat, the oldest surviving Book of the Afterlife, was said to coil around the corpse of the sun god Ra protectively. The earliest surviving depiction of a "true" ouroboros comes from the gilded shrines in the tomb of Tutankhamun. In the early centuries AD, the ouroboros was adopted as a symbol by Gnostic Christians and chapter 136 of the Pistis Sophia, an early Gnostic text, describes "a great dragon whose tail is in its mouth". In medieval alchemy, the ouroboros became a typical western dragon with wings, legs, and a tail. A famous image of the dragon gnawing on its tail from the eleventh-century Codex Marcianus was copied in numerous works on alchemy. West Asia Mesopotamia is a serpentine, draconic monster from ancient Mesopotamian mythology with the body and neck of a snake, the forelegs of a lion, and the hind-legs of a bird. Here it is shown as it appears in the Ishtar Gate from the city of Babylon.]] Ancient people across the Near East believed in creatures similar to what modern people call "dragons". These ancient people were unaware of the existence of dinosaurs or similar creatures in the distant past. References to dragons of both benevolent and malevolent characters occur throughout ancient Mesopotamian literature. In Sumerian poetry, great kings are often compared to the ušumgal, a gigantic, serpentine monster. A draconic creature with the foreparts of a lion and the hind-legs, tail, and wings of a bird appears in Mesopotamian artwork from the Akkadian Period ( 2334 – 2154 BC) until the Neo-Babylonian Period (626 BC–539 BC). The dragon is usually shown with its mouth open. It may have been known as the (ūmu) nā’iru, which means "roaring weather beast", and may have been associated with the god Ishkur (Hadad). A slightly different lion-dragon with two horns and the tail of a scorpion appears in art from the Neo-Assyrian Period (911 BC–609 BC). A relief probably commissioned by Sennacherib shows the gods Ashur, Sin, and Adad standing on its back. Another draconic creature with horns, the body and neck of a snake, the forelegs of a lion, and the hind-legs of a bird appears in Mesopotamian art from the Akkadian Period until the Hellenistic Period (323 BC–31 BC). This creature, known in Akkadian as the mušḫuššu'', meaning "furious serpent", was used as a symbol for particular deities and also as a general protective emblem. It seems to have originally been the attendant of the Underworld god Ninazu, but later became the attendant to the Hurrian storm-god Tishpak, as well as, later, Ninazu's son Ningishzida, the Babylonian national god Marduk, the scribal god Nabu, and the Assyrian national god Ashur. Scholars disagree regarding the appearance of Tiamat, the Babylonian goddess personifying primeval chaos, slain by Marduk in the Babylonian creation epic Enûma Eliš. She was traditionally regarded by scholars as having had the form of a giant serpent, but several scholars have pointed out that this shape "cannot be imputed to Tiamat with certainty" and she seems to have at least sometimes been regarded as anthropomorphic. Nonetheless, in some texts, she seems to be described with horns, a tail, and a hide that no weapon can penetrate, all features which suggest she was conceived as some form of dragoness. Levant (1865) by Gustave Doré]] In the mythologies of the Ugarit region, specifically the Baal Cycle from the Ugaritic texts, the sea-dragon Lōtanu is described as "the twisting serpent / the powerful one with seven heads." In KTU 1.5 I 2–3, Lōtanu is slain by the storm-god Baal, but, in KTU'' 1.3 III 41–42, he is instead slain by the virgin warrior goddess Anat. In the Hebrew Bible, in the Book of Psalms, Psalm 74, Psalm 74:13–14, the sea-dragon Leviathan, is slain by Yahweh, god of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, as part of the creation of the world. Isaiah describes Leviathan as a (), which is translated as "sea monster", "serpent", or "dragon". In Isaiah 27:1, Yahweh's destruction of Leviathan is foretold as part of his impending overhaul of the universal order: \|head2=English \|בַּיּוֹם הַהוּא יִפְקֹד יְהוָה בְּחַרְבּוֹ הַקָּשָׁה וְהַגְּדוֹלָה וְהַחֲזָקָה, עַל לִוְיָתָן נָחָשׁ בָּרִחַ, וְעַל לִוְיָתָן, נָחָשׁ עֲקַלָּתוֹן; וְהָרַג אֶת-הַתַּנִּין, אֲשֶׁר בַּיָּם \|In that day the LORD will take His sharp, great, and mighty sword, and bring judgment on Leviathan the fleeing serpent — Leviathan the coiling serpent — and He will slay the dragon of the sea.}} Job 41:1–34 contains a detailed description of the Leviathan, who is described as being so powerful that only Yahweh can overcome it. Job 41:19–21 states that the Leviathan exhales fire and smoke, making its identification as a mythical dragon clearly apparent. In some parts of the Old Testament, the Leviathan is historicized as a symbol for the nations that stand against Yahweh. Rahab, a synonym for "Leviathan", is used in several Biblical passages in reference to Egypt. Isaiah 30:7 declares: "For Egypt's help is worthless and empty, therefore I have called her 'the silenced Rahab'." Similarly, Psalm 87:3 reads: "I reckon Rahab and Babylon as those that know me..." In Ezekiel 29:3–5 and Ezekiel 32:2–8, the pharaoh of Egypt is described as a "dragon" (tannîn). In the deuterocanonical story of Bel and the Dragon from the Book of Daniel, the prophet Daniel sees a dragon being worshipped by the Babylonians. Daniel makes "cakes of pitch, fat, and hair"; the dragon eats them and bursts open. Iran Azhi Dahaka (Avestan Great Snake) is a dragon or demonic figure in the texts and mythology of Zoroastrian Persia, where he is one of the subordinates of Angra Mainyu. Alternate names include Azi Dahak, Dahaka, and Dahak. Aži (nominative ažiš) is the Avestan word for "serpent" or "dragon. The Avestan term Aži Dahāka and the Middle Persian azdahāg are the sources of the Middle Persian Manichaean demon of greed "Az", Old Armenian mythological figure Azhdahak, Modern Persian 'aždehâ/aždahâ', Tajik Persian 'azhdahâ', Urdu 'azhdahā' (اژدها). The name also migrated to Eastern Europe, assumed the form "azhdaja" and the meaning "dragon", "dragoness" or "water snake" in the Balkanic and Slavic languages. Despite the negative aspect of Aži Dahāka in mythology, dragons have been used on some banners of war throughout the history of Iranian peoples. The Azhdarchid group of pterosaurs are named from a Persian word for "dragon" that ultimately comes from Aži Dahāka. In Persian Sufi literature, Rumi writes in his Masnavi that the dragon symbolizes the sensual soul (nafs), greed and lust, that need to be mortified in a spiritual battle. In Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, the Iranian hero Rostam must slay an 80-meter-long dragon (which renders itself invisible to human sight) with the aid of his legendary horse, Rakhsh. As Rostam is sleeping, the dragon approaches; Rakhsh attempts to wake Rostam, but fails to alert him to the danger until Rostam sees the dragon. Rakhsh bites the dragon, while Rostam decapitates it. This is the third trial of Rostam's Seven Labors. Rostam is also credited with the slaughter of other dragons in the Shahnameh and in other Iranian oral traditions, notably in the myth of Babr-e-Bayan. In this tale, Rostam is still an adolescent and kills a dragon in the "Orient" (either India or China, depending on the source) by forcing it to swallow either ox hides filled with quicklime and stones or poisoned blades. The dragon swallows these foreign objects and its stomach bursts, after which Rostam flays the dragon and fashions a coat from its hide called the babr-e bayān. In some variants of the story, Rostam then remains unconscious for two days and nights, but is guarded by his steed Rakhsh. On reviving, he washes himself in a spring. In the Mandean tradition of the story, Rostam hides in a box, is swallowed by the dragon, and kills it from inside its belly. The king of China then gives Rostam his daughter in marriage as a reward. East Asia China by Chen Rong, 1244 AD.]] from a seventeenth-century edition of the Shanhaijing]] ]]The word "dragon" has come to be applied to the legendary creature in Chinese mythology, loong (traditional 龍, simplified 龙, Japanese simplified 竜, Pinyin lóng), which is associated with good fortune, and many East Asian deities and demigods have dragons as their personal mounts or companions. Dragons were also identified with the Emperor of China, who, during later Chinese imperial history, was the only one permitted to have dragons on his house, clothing, or personal articles. Archaeologist Zhōu Chong-Fa believes that the Chinese word for dragon is an onomatopoeia of the sound of thunder or lùhng in Cantonese. The Chinese dragon () is the highest-ranking creature in the Chinese animal hierarchy. Its origins are vague, but its "ancestors can be found on Neolithic pottery as well as Bronze Age ritual vessels." A number of popular stories deal with the rearing of dragons. The Zuo zhuan, which was probably written during the Warring States period, describes a man named Dongfu, a descendant of Yangshu'an, who loved dragons and, because he could understand a dragon's will, he was able to tame them and raise them well. He served Emperor Shun, who gave him the family name Huanlong, meaning "dragon-raiser". In another story, Kong Jia, the fourteenth emperor of the Xia dynasty, was given a male and a female dragon as a reward for his obedience to the god of heaven, but could not train them, so he hired a dragon-trainer named Liulei, who had learned how to train dragons from Huanlong. One day, the female dragon died unexpectedly, so Liulei secretly chopped her up, cooked her meat, and served it to the king, who loved it so much that he demanded Liulei to serve him the same meal again. Since Liulei had no means of procuring more dragon meat, he fled the palace. One of the most famous dragon stories is about the Lord Ye Gao, who loved dragons obsessively, even though he had never seen one. He decorated his whole house with dragon motifs and, seeing this display of admiration, a real dragon came and visited Ye Gao, but the lord was so terrified at the sight of the creature that he ran away. In Chinese legend, the culture hero Fu Hsi is said to have been crossing the Lo River, when he saw the lung ma, a Chinese horse-dragon with seven dots on its face, six on its back, eight on its left flank, and nine on its right flank. He was so moved by this apparition that, when he arrived home, he drew a picture of it, including the dots. He later used these dots as letters and invented Chinese writing, which he used to write his book I Ching. In another Chinese legend, the physician Ma Shih Huang is said to have healed a sick dragon. Another legend reports that a man once came to the healer Lo Chên-jen, telling him that he was a dragon and that he needed to be healed. After Lo Chên-jen healed the man, a dragon appeared to him and carried him to heaven. In the Shanhaijing, a classic mythography probably compiled mostly during the Han dynasty, various deities and demigods are associated with dragons. One of the most famous Chinese dragons is Ying Long ("responding dragon"), who helped the Huangdi, the Yellow Emperor, defeat the tyrant Chiyou. The dragon Zhulong ("torch dragon") is a god "who composed the universe with his body." In the Shanhaijing, many mythic heroes are said to have been conceived after their mothers copulated with divine dragons, including Huangdi, Shennong, Emperor Yao, and Emperor Shun. The god Zhurong and the emperor Qi are both described as being carried by two dragons, as are Huangdi, Zhuanxu, Yuqiang, and Roshou in various other texts. According to the Huainanzi, an evil black dragon once caused a destructive deluge, which was ended by the mother goddess Nüwa by slaying the dragon. with dragon emblem on his chest. c. 1377]] A large number of ethnic myths about dragons are told throughout China. The Houhanshu, compiled in the fifth century BC by Fan Ye, reports a story belonging to the Ailaoyi people, which holds that a woman named Shayi who lived in the region around Mount Lao became pregnant with ten sons after being touched by a tree trunk floating in the water while fishing. She gave birth to the sons and the tree trunk turned into a dragon, who asked to see his sons. The woman showed them to him, but all of them ran away except for the youngest, who the dragon licked on the back and named Jiu Long, meaning "sitting back". The sons later elected him king and the descendants of the ten sons became the Ailaoyi people, who tattooed dragons on their backs in honor of their ancestor. The Miao people of southwest China have a story that a divine dragon created the first humans by breathing on monkeys that came to play in his cave. The Han people have many stories about Short-Tailed Old Li, a black dragon who was born to a poor family in Shandong. When his mother saw him for the first time, she fainted and, when his father came home from the field and saw him, he hit him with a spade and cut off part of his tail. Li burst through the ceiling and flew away to the Black Dragon River in northeast China, where he became the god of that river. On the anniversary of his mother's death on the Chinese lunar calendar, Old Li returns home, causing it to rain. He is still worshipped as a rain god. in relation to the central Dragon King of the Earth]] In China, a dragon is thought to have power over rain. Dragons and their associations with rain are the source of the Chinese customs of dragon dancing and dragon boat racing. Dragons are closely associated with rain and drought is thought to be caused by a dragon's laziness. Prayers invoking dragons to bring rain are common in Chinese texts. The Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals, attributed to the Han dynasty scholar Dong Zhongshu, prescribes making clay figurines of dragons during a time of drought and having young men and boys pace and dance among the figurines in order to encourage the dragons to bring rain. Texts from the Qing dynasty advise hurling the bone of a tiger or dirty objects into the pool where the dragon lives; since dragons cannot stand tigers or dirt, the dragon of the pool will cause heavy rain to drive the object out. Rainmaking rituals invoking dragons are still very common in many Chinese villages, where each village has its own god said to bring rain and many of these gods are dragons. The Chinese dragon kings are thought of as the inspiration for the Hindu myth of the naga. According to these stories, every body of water is ruled by a dragon king, each with a different power, rank, and ability, so people began establishing temples across the countryside dedicated to these figures. performed in Helsinki in the year 2000.]] Many traditional Chinese customs revolve around dragons. During various holidays, including the Spring Festival and Lantern Festival, villagers will construct an approximately sixteen-foot-long dragon from grass, cloth, bamboo strips, and paper, which they will parade through the city as part of a dragon dance. The original purpose of this ritual was to bring good weather and a strong harvest, but now it is done mostly only for entertainment. During the Duanwu festival, several villages, or even a whole province, will hold a dragon boat race, in which people race across a body of water in boats carved to look like dragons, while a large audience watches on the banks. The custom is traditionally said to have originated after the poet Qu Yuan committed suicide by drowning himself in the Miluo River and people raced out in boats hoping to save him. But most historians agree that the custom actually originated much earlier as a ritual to avert ill fortune. Starting during the Han dynasty and continuing until the Qing dynasty, the Chinese emperor gradually became closely identified with dragons, and emperors themselves claimed to be the incarnations of a divine dragon. Eventually, dragons were only allowed to appear on clothing, houses, and articles of everyday use belonging to the emperor and any commoner who possessed everyday items bearing the image of the dragon was ordered to be executed. After the last Chinese emperor was overthrown in 1911, this situation changed and now many ordinary Chinese people identify themselves as descendants of dragons. The impression of dragons in a large number of Asian countries has been influenced by Chinese culture, such as Korea, Vietnam, Japan, and so on. Chinese tradition has always used the dragon totem as the national emblem, and the "Yellow Dragon flag" of the Qing dynasty has influenced the impression that China is a dragon in many European countries. Korea .]] The Korean dragon is in many ways similar in appearance to other East Asian dragons such as the Chinese and Japanese dragons. It differs from the Chinese dragon in that it developed a longer beard. Very occasionally, a dragon may be depicted as carrying an orb known as the Yeouiju (여의주), the Korean name for the mythical Cintamani, in its claws or its mouth. It was said that whoever could wield the Yeouiju was blessed with the abilities of omnipotence and creation at will, and that only four-toed dragons (who had thumbs with which to hold the orbs) were both wise and powerful enough to wield these orbs, as opposed to the lesser, three-toed dragons. As with China, the number nine is significant and auspicious in Korea, and dragons were said to have 81 (9×9) scales on their backs, representing yang essence. Dragons in Korean mythology are primarily benevolent beings related to water and agriculture, often considered bringers of rain and clouds. Hence, many Korean dragons are said to have resided in rivers, lakes, oceans, or even deep mountain ponds. And human journeys to undersea realms, and especially the undersea palace of the Dragon King (용왕), are common in Korean folklore. In Korean myths, some kings who founded kingdoms were described as descendants of dragons because the dragon was a symbol of the monarch. Lady Aryeong, who was the first queen of Silla, is said to have been born from a cockatrice, while the grandmother of Taejo of Goryeo, founder of Goryeo, was reportedly the daughter of the dragon king of the West Sea. And King Munmu of Silla who, on his deathbed, wished to become a dragon of the East Sea in order to protect the kingdom. Dragon patterns were used exclusively by the royal family. The royal robe was also called the dragon robe (용포). In the Joseon dynasty, the royal insignia, featuring embroidered dragons, were attached to the robe's shoulders, the chest, and back. The King wore five-taloned dragon insignia while the Crown Prince wore four-taloned dragon insignia. Korean folk mythology states that most dragons were originally Imugis (이무기), or lesser dragons, which were said to resemble gigantic serpents. There are a few different versions of Korean folklore that describe both what imugis are and how they aspire to become full-fledged dragons. Koreans thought that an Imugi could become a true dragon, yong or mireu, if it caught a Yeouiju which had fallen from heaven. Another explanation states they are hornless creatures resembling dragons who have been cursed and thus were unable to become dragons. By other accounts, an Imugi is a proto-dragon which must survive one thousand years in order to become a fully-fledged dragon. In either case, they are said to be large, benevolent, python-like creatures that live in water or caves, and their sighting is associated with good luck.Japan ( 1730 – 1849)]] Japanese dragon myths amalgamate native legends with imported stories about dragons from China. Like some other dragons, most Japanese dragons are water deities associated with rainfall and bodies of water, and are typically depicted as large, wingless, serpentine creatures with clawed feet. Gould writes (1896:248), the Japanese dragon is "invariably figured as possessing three claws". A story about the samurai Minamoto no Mitsunaka tells that, while he was hunting in his own territory of Settsu, he dreamt under a tree and had a dream in which a beautiful woman appeared to him and begged him to save her land from a giant serpent which was defiling it. Mitsunaka agreed to help and the maiden gave him a magnificent horse. When he woke up, the seahorse was standing before him. He rode it to the Sumiyoshi temple, where he prayed for eight days. Then he confronted the serpent and slew it with an arrow. It was believed that dragons could be appeased or exorcised with metal. Nitta Yoshisada is said to have hurled a famous sword into the sea at Sagami to appease the dragon-god of the sea and Ki no Tsurayuki threw a metal mirror into the sea at Sumiyoshi for the same purpose. Japanese Buddhism has also adapted dragons by subjecting them to Buddhist law; the Japanese Buddhist deities Benten and Kwannon are often shown sitting or standing on the back of a dragon. Several Japanese sennin ("immortals") have taken dragons as their mounts. Bômô is said to have hurled his staff into a puddle of water, causing a dragon to come forth and let him ride it to heaven. The rakan Handaka is said to have been able to conjure a dragon out of a bowl, which he is often shown playing with on kagamibuta. The shachihoko is a creature with the head of a dragon, a bushy tail, fishlike scales, and sometimes with fire emerging from its armpits. The fun has the head of a dragon, feathered wings, and the tail and claws of a bird. A white dragon was believed to reside in a pool in Yamashiro Province and, every fifty years, it would turn into a bird called the Ogonchô, which had a call like the "howling of a wild dog". This event was believed to herald terrible famine. In the Japanese village of Okumura, near Edo, during times of drought, the villagers would make a dragon effigy out of straw, magnolia leaves, and bamboo and parade it through the village to attract rainfall. Vietnam period)]] , Revival Lê dynasty]] The Vietnamese dragon () was a mythical creature that was often used as a deity symbol and was associated with royalty. Similar to other cultures, dragons in Vietnamese culture represent yang and godly beings associated with creation and life. In the creation myth of the Vietnamese people, they are descended from the dragon lord Lạc Long Quân and the fairy Âu Cơ, who bore 100 eggs. When they separated, Lạc Long Quân brought 50 children to the sea while Âu Cơ brought the rest up the mountains. To this day, Vietnamese people often describe themselves as "Children of the dragon, grandchildren of the fairy" (Con rồng cháu tiên). South Asia India depicted on a musical instrument from Manipur, India]] In the Rigveda, the oldest of the four Vedas, Indra, the Vedic god of storms, battles Vṛtra, a giant serpent who represents drought. Indra kills Vṛtra using his vajra (thunderbolt) and clears the path for rain, which is described in the form of cattle: "You won the cows, hero, you won the Soma,/You freed the seven streams to flow" (Rigveda 1.32.12). In another Rigvedic legend, the three-headed serpent Viśvarūpa, the son of Tvaṣṭṛ, guards a wealth of cows and horses. Indra delivers Viśvarūpa to a god named Trita Āptya, who fights and kills him and sets his cattle free. Indra cuts off Viśvarūpa's heads and drives the cattle home for Trita. This same story is alluded to in the Younger Avesta, in which the hero Thraētaona, the son of Āthbya, slays the three-headed dragon Aži Dahāka and takes his two beautiful wives as spoils. Thraētaona's name (meaning "third grandson of the waters") indicates that Aži Dahāka, like Vṛtra, was seen as a blocker of waters and cause of drought.BhutanThe Druk (), also known as 'Thunder Dragon', is one of the national symbols of Bhutan. In the Dzongkha language, Bhutan is known as Druk Yul "Land of Druk", and Bhutanese leaders are called Druk Gyalpo, "Thunder Dragon Kings". The druk was adopted as an emblem by the Drukpa Lineage, which originated in Tibet and later spread to Bhutan.EuropeProto-Indo-European Serpent slayer\|Serpents in the Bible}} The tale of a hero slaying a giant serpent occurs in almost all Indo-European mythology. In most stories, the hero is some kind of thunder-god. In nearly every iteration of the story, the serpent is either multi-headed or "multiple" in some other way. Furthermore, in nearly every story, the serpent is always somehow associated with water. Bruce Lincoln has proposed that a Proto-Indo-European dragon-slaying myth can be reconstructed as follows: First, the sky gods give cattle to a man named Tritos ("the third"), who is so named because he is the third man on earth, but a three-headed serpent named steals them. Tritos pursues the serpent and is accompanied by H<sub>a</sub>nér, whose name means "man". Together, the two heroes slay the serpent and rescue the cattle.Ancient Greece vase painting depicting Heracles slaying the Lernaean Hydra, 375–340 BC]] The ancient Greek word usually translated as "dragon" (δράκων drákōn, genitive δράκοντοϛ drákontos) could also mean "snake", but it usually refers to a kind of giant serpent that either possesses supernatural characteristics or is otherwise controlled by some supernatural power. The first mention of a "dragon" in ancient Greek literature occurs in the Iliad, in which Agamemnon is described as having a blue dragon motif on his sword belt and an emblem of a three-headed dragon on his breast plate. In lines 820–880 of the Theogony, a Greek poem written in the seventh century BC by the Boeotian poet Hesiod, the Greek god Zeus battles the monster Typhon, who has one hundred serpent heads that breathe fire and make many frightening animal noises. Zeus scorches all of Typhon's heads with his lightning bolts and then hurls Typhon into Tartarus. In other Greek sources, Typhon is often depicted as a winged, fire-breathing serpent-like dragon. In the Homeric Hymn to Apollo, the god Apollo uses his poisoned arrows to slay the serpent Python, who has been causing death and pestilence in the area around Delphi. Apollo then sets up his shrine there. The Roman poet Virgil in his poem Culex, lines 163–201 [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/appvergculex.html Appendix Vergiliana: Culex], describing a shepherd having a fight with a big constricting snake, calls it "serpens" and also "draco", showing that in his time the two words were probably interchangeable. dragon disgorges the hero Jason]] Hesiod also mentions that the hero Heracles slew the Lernaean Hydra, a multiple-headed serpent which dwelt in the swamps of Lerna. The name "Hydra" means "water snake" in Greek. According to the Bibliotheka of Pseudo-Apollodorus, the slaying of the Hydra was the second of the Twelve Labors of Heracles. Accounts disagree on which weapon Heracles used to slay the Hydra, but, by the end of the sixth century BC, it was agreed that the clubbed or severed heads needed to be cauterized to prevent them from growing back. Heracles was aided in this task by his nephew Iolaus. During the battle, a giant crab crawled out of the marsh and pinched Heracles's foot, but he crushed it under his heel. Hera placed the crab in the sky as the constellation Cancer. One of the Hydra's heads was immortal, so Heracles buried it under a heavy rock after cutting it off. For his Eleventh Labor, Heracles must procure a golden apple from the tree in the Garden of the Hesperides, which is guarded by an enormous serpent that never sleeps, which Pseudo-Apollodorus calls "Ladon". In earlier depictions, Ladon is often shown with many heads. In Pseudo-Apollodorus's account, Ladon is immortal, but Sophocles and Euripides both describe Heracles as killing him, although neither of them specifies how. Some suggest that the golden apple was not claimed through battle with Ladon at all but through Heracles charming the Hesperides. The mythographer Herodorus is the first to state that Heracles slew him using his famous club. Apollonius of Rhodes, in his epic poem, the Argonautica, describes Ladon as having been shot full of poisoned arrows dipped in the blood of the Hydra. In Pindar's Fourth Pythian Ode, Aeëtes of Colchis tells the hero Jason that the Golden Fleece he is seeking is in a copse guarded by a dragon, "which surpassed in breadth and length a fifty-oared ship". Jason slays the dragon and makes off with the Golden Fleece together with his co-conspirator, Aeëtes's daughter, Medea. The earliest artistic representation of this story is an Attic red-figure kylix dated to 480–470 BC, showing a bedraggled Jason being disgorged from the dragon's open mouth as the Golden Fleece hangs in a tree behind him and Athena, the goddess of wisdom, stands watching. A fragment from Pherecydes of Athens states that Jason killed the dragon, but fragments from the Naupactica and from Herodorus state that he merely stole the Fleece and escaped. In Euripides's Medea, Medea boasts that she killed the Colchian dragon herself. In the final scene of the play, Medea also flies away on a chariot pulled by two dragons. In the most famous retelling of the story from Apollonius of Rhodes's Argonautica, Medea drugs the dragon to sleep, allowing Jason to steal the Fleece. Greek vase paintings show her feeding the dragon the sleeping drug in a liquid form from a phialē, or shallow cup. red-figure kylix-krater ( 350–340 BC) showing Cadmus fighting the dragon of Ares]] In the founding myth of Thebes, Cadmus, a Phoenician prince, was instructed by Apollo to follow a heifer and found a city wherever it laid down. Cadmus and his men followed the heifer and, when it laid down, Cadmus ordered his men to find a spring so he could sacrifice the heifer to Athena. His men found a spring, but it was guarded by a dragon, which had been placed there by the god Ares, and the dragon killed them. Cadmus killed the dragon in revenge, either by smashing its head with a rock or using his sword. Following the advice of Athena, Cadmus tore out the dragon's teeth and planted them in the earth. An army of giant warriors (known as spartoi, which means "sown men") grew from the teeth like plants. Cadmus hurled stones into their midst, causing them to kill each other until only five were left. To make restitution for having killed Ares's dragon, Cadmus was forced to serve Ares as a slave for eight years. At the end of this period, Cadmus married Harmonia, the daughter of Ares and Aphrodite. Cadmus and Harmonia moved to Illyria, where they ruled as king and queen, before eventually being transformed into dragons themselves. In the fifth century BC, the Greek historian Herodotus reported in Book IV of his Histories that western Libya was inhabited by monstrous serpents and, in Book III, he states that Arabia was home to many small, winged serpents, which came in a variety of colors and enjoyed the trees that produced frankincense. Herodotus remarks that the serpent's wings were like those of bats and that, unlike vipers, which are found in every land, winged serpents are only found in Arabia. The second-century BC Greek astronomer Hipparchus ( 190 BC – 120 BC) listed the constellation Draco ("the dragon") as one of forty-six constellations. Hipparchus described the constellation as containing fifteen stars, but the later astronomer Ptolemy ( 100 – 170 AD) increased this number to thirty-one in his Almagest. In the New Testament, Revelation 12:3, written by John of Patmos, describes a vision of a Great Red Dragon with seven heads, ten horns, seven crowns, and a massive tail, an image which is clearly inspired by the vision of the four beasts from the sea in the Book of Daniel and the Leviathan described in various Old Testament passages. The Great Red Dragon knocks "a third of the sun ... a third of the moon, and a third of the stars" out of the sky and pursues the Woman of the Apocalypse. Revelation 12:7–9 declares: "And war broke out in Heaven. Michael and his angels fought against Dragon. Dragon and his angels fought back, but they were defeated, and there was no longer any place for them in Heaven. Dragon the Great was thrown down, that ancient serpent who is called Devil and Satan, the one deceiving the whole inhabited World – he was thrown down to earth and his angels were thrown down with him." Then a voice booms down from Heaven heralding the defeat of "the Accuser" (ho Kantegor). In , Flavius Philostratus discussed dragons (δράκων, drákōn) in India in The Life of Apollonius of Tyana (II,17 and III,6–8). The Loeb Classical Library translation (by F.C. Conybeare) mentions (III,7) that, "In most respects the tusks resemble the largest swine's, but they are slighter in build and twisted, and have a point as unabraded as sharks' teeth." According to a collection of books by Claudius Aelianus called On Animals, Ethiopia was inhabited by a species of dragon that hunted elephants and could grow to a length of 180 feet (55 m) with a lifespan rivaling that of the most enduring of animals. In the 4th century, Basil of Caesarea, on chapter IX of his Address to Young Men on Greek Literature, mentions mythological dragons as guarding treasures and riches. Germanic from 1030, illustrating the Völsunga saga on a rock in Sweden. At (5), Sigurd plunges his sword into Fafnir's underside.]] In the Old Norse poem Grímnismál in the Poetic Edda, the dragon Níðhöggr is described as gnawing on the roots of Yggdrasil, the world tree. In Norse mythology, Jörmungandr is a giant serpent that encircles the entire realm of Miðgarð in the sea around it. According to the Gylfaginning from the Prose Edda, written by the thirteenth-century Icelandic mythographer Snorri Sturluson, Thor, the Norse god of thunder, once went out on a boat with the giant Hymnir to the outer sea and fished for Jörmungandr using an ox-head as bait. Thor caught the serpent and, after pulling its head out of the water, smashed it with his hammer, Mjölnir. Snorri states that the blow was not fatal: "and men say that he struck its head off on the sea bed. But I think the truth to tell you is that the Miðgarð Serpent still lives and lies in the surrounding sea." Towards the end of the Old English epic poem Beowulf, a slave steals a cup from the hoard of a sleeping dragon, causing the dragon to wake up and go on a rampage of destruction across the countryside. The eponymous hero of the poem insists on confronting the dragon alone, even though he is of advanced age, but Wiglaf, the youngest of the twelve warriors Beowulf has brought with him, insists on accompanying his king into the battle. Beowulf's sword shatters during the fight and he is mortally wounded, but Wiglaf comes to his rescue and helps him slay the dragon. Beowulf dies and tells Wiglaf that the dragon's treasure must be buried rather than shared with the cowardly warriors who did not come to the aid of their king. In the Old Norse Völsunga saga, the hero Sigurd catches the dragon Fafnir by digging a pit between the cave where he lives and the spring where he drinks his water and kills him by stabbing him in the underside. At the advice of Odin, Sigurd drains Fafnir's blood and drinks it, which gives him the ability to understand the language of the birds, who he hears talking about how his mentor Regin is plotting to betray him so that he can keep all of Fafnir's treasure for himself. The motif of a hero trying to sneak past a sleeping dragon and steal some of its treasure is common throughout many Old Norse sagas. The fourteenth-century Flóres saga konungs ok sona hans describes a hero who is actively concerned not to wake a sleeping dragon while sneaking past it. In the Yngvars saga víðförla, the protagonist attempts to steal treasure from several sleeping dragons, but accidentally wakes them up. Post-classical and White Dragons from Geoffrey of Monmouth's History of the Kings of Britain]] The modern, western image of a dragon developed in western Europe during the Middle Ages through the combination of the snakelike dragons of classical Graeco-Roman literature, references to Near Eastern dragons preserved in the Bible, and western European folk traditions. The period between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries represents the height of European interest in dragons as living creatures. The twelfth-century Welsh monk, Geoffrey of Monmouth, recounts a famous legend in his Historia Regum Britanniae in which the child prophet Merlin witnesses the Romano-Celtic warlord Vortigern attempt to build a tower on Snowdon to keep safe from the Anglo-Saxons, but the tower keeps being swallowed into the ground. Merlin informs Vortigern that, underneath the foundation he has built, is a pool with two dragons sleeping in it. Vortigern orders for the pool to be drained, exposing a red dragon and a white dragon, who immediately begin fighting. Merlin delivers a prophecy that the white dragon will triumph over the red, symbolizing England's conquest of Wales, but declares that the red dragon will eventually return and defeat the white one. This story remained popular throughout the fifteenth century. Dragons are generally depicted as living in rivers or having an underground lair or cave. They are envisioned as greedy and gluttonous, with voracious appetites. They are often identified with Satan, due to the references to Satan as a "dragon" in the Book of Revelation. The thirteenth-century Golden Legend, written in Latin, records the story of Saint Margaret of Antioch, a virgin martyr who, after being tortured for her faith in the Diocletianic Persecution and thrown back into her cell, is said to have been confronted by a monstrous dragon, but she made the sign of the cross and the dragon vanished. In some versions of the story, she is actually swallowed by the dragon alive and, after making the sign of the cross in the dragon's stomach, emerges unharmed. of Saint George slaying the dragon, dating to 1270]] The legend of Saint George and the Dragon may be referenced as early as the sixth century AD, but the earliest artistic representations of it come from the eleventh century and the first full account of it comes from an eleventh-century Georgian text. The most famous version of the story from the Golden Legend holds that a dragon kept pillaging the sheep of the town of Silene in Libya. After it ate a young shepherd, the people were forced to placate it by leaving two sheep as sacrificial offerings every morning beside the lake where the dragon lived. Eventually, the dragon ate all of the sheep and the people were forced to start offering it their own children. One day, the king's own daughter came up in the lottery and, despite the king's pleas for her life, she was dressed as a bride and chained to a rock beside the lake to be eaten. Then, Saint George arrived and saw the princess. When the dragon arrived to eat her, he stabbed it with his lance and subdued it by making the sign of the cross and tying the princess's girdle around its neck. Saint George and the princess led the now-docile dragon into the town and George promised to kill it if the townspeople would convert to Christianity. All the townspeople converted and Saint George killed the dragon with his sword. In some versions, Saint George marries the princess, but, in others, he continues wandering. , Galicia (Spain)).]] Dragons are well known in myths and legends of Spain, in no small part because St. George (Catalan Sant Jordi) is the patron saint of Catalonia. Like most mythical reptiles, the Catalan dragon (Catalan drac) is an enormous serpent-like creature with four legs and a pair of wings, or rarely, a two-legged creature with a pair of wings, called a wyvern. As in many other parts of the world, the dragon's face may be like that of some other animal, such as a lion or a bull. As is common elsewhere, Catalan dragons are fire-breathers, and the dragon-fire is all-consuming. Catalan dragons also can emit a fetid odor, which can rot away anything it touches. Gargoyles are carved stone figures sometimes resembling dragons that originally served as waterspouts on buildings. Precursors to the medieval gargoyle can be found on ancient Greek and Egyptian temples, but, over the course of the Middle Ages, many fantastic stories were invented to explain them. One medieval French legend holds that, in ancient times, a fearsome dragon known as La Gargouille had been causing floods and sinking ships on the river Seine, so the people of the town of Rouen would offer the dragon a human sacrifice once each year to appease its hunger. Then, around 600 AD, a priest named Romanus promised that, if the people would build a church, he would rid them of the dragon. Romanus slew the dragon and its severed head was mounted on the walls of the city as the first gargoyle. Dragons are prominent in medieval heraldry. Uther Pendragon was famously said to have had two gold dragons crowned with red standing back-to-back on his royal coat of arms. Originally, heraldic dragons could have any number of legs, but, by the late Middle Ages, due to the widespread proliferation of bestiaries, heraldry began to distinguish between a "dragon" (which could only have exactly four legs) and a "wyvern" (which could only have exactly two). In myths, wyverns are associated with viciousness, envy, and pestilence, but, in heraldry, they are used as symbols for overthrowing the tyranny of Satan and his demonic forces. Late medieval heraldry also distinguished a draconic creature known as a "cockatrice". A cockatrice is supposedly born when a serpent hatches an egg that has been laid on a dunghill by a rooster and it is so venomous that its breath and its gaze are both lethal to any living creature, except for a weasel, which is the cockatrice's mortal enemy. A basilisk is a serpent with the head of a dragon at the end of its tail that is born when a toad hatches an egg that has been laid in a midden by a nine-year-old cockatrice. Like the cockatrice, its glare is said to be deadly.Post-classical Eastern , a three-headed dragon from Russian folklore.]] from Sebastian Münster's Cosmographie Universalis (1544).]] In Albanian mythology and folklore, stihi, ljubi, bolla, bollar, errshaja, and kulshedra are mythological figures described as serpentine dragons. It is believed that bolla, a water and chthonic demonic serpent, undergoes metamorphosis passing through four distinct phases if it lives many years without being seen by a human. The bollar and errshaja are the intermediate stages, while the kulshedra is the ultimate phase, described as a huge multi-headed fire-spitting female serpent which causes drought, storms, flooding, earthquakes, and other natural disasters against mankind. She is usually fought and defeated by a drangue, a semi-human winged divine hero and protector of humans. Heavy thunderstorms are thought to be the result of their battles. In Slavic mythology, the words "zmey", "zmiy", or "zmaj" are used to describe dragons. These words are masculine forms of the Slavic word for "snake", which are normally feminine (like Russian zmeya). In Romania, there is a similar figure, derived from the Slavic dragon and named zmeu. Exclusively in Polish and Belarusian folklore, as well as in the other Slavic folklores, a dragon is also called (variously) смок, цмок, or smok. In South Slavic folklores, the same thing is also called lamya (ламя, ламjа, lamja). Although quite similar to other European dragons, Slavic dragons have their peculiarities. In Russian and Ukrainian folklore, Zmey Gorynych is a dragon with three heads, each one bearing twin goatlike horns. He is said to have breathed fire and smelled of sulfur. It was believed that eclipses were caused by Gorynych temporarily swallowing the sun. According to one legend, Gorynych's uncle was the evil sorcerer Nemal Chelovek, who abducted the daughter of the tsar and imprisoned her in his castle in the Ural Mountains. Many knights tried to free her, but all of them were killed by Gorynych's fire. Then a palace guard in Moscow named Ivan Tsarevich overheard two crows talking about the princess. He went to the tsar, who gave him a magic sword, and snuck into the castle. When Chelovek attacked Ivan in the form of a giant, the sword flew from Ivan's hand unbidden and killed him. Then the sword cut off all three of Gorynych's heads at once. Ivan brought the princess back to the tsar, who declared Ivan a nobleman and allowed him to marry the princess. A popular Polish folk tale is the legend of the Wawel Dragon, which is first recorded in the Chronica Polonorum of Wincenty Kadłubek, written between 1190 and 1208. According to Kadłubek, the dragon appeared during the reign of King Krakus and demanded to be fed a fixed number of cattle every week. If the villagers failed to provide enough cattle, the dragon would eat the same number of villagers as the number of cattle they had failed to provide. Krakus ordered his sons to slay the dragon. Since they could not slay it by hand, they tricked the dragon into eating calfskins filled with burning sulfur. Once the dragon was dead, the younger brother attacked and murdered his older brother and returned home to claim all the glory for himself, telling his father that his brother had died fighting the dragon. The younger brother became king after his father died, but his secret was eventually revealed and he was banished. In the fifteenth century, Jan Długosz rewrote the story so that King Krakus himself was the one who slew the dragon. Another version of the story told by Marcin Bielski instead has the clever shoemaker Skuba come up with the idea for slaying the dragon. Bielski's version is now the most popular. Modern depictions by David Demaret of the dragon Smaug from J. R. R. Tolkien's 1937 children's fantasy novel The Hobbit]] Dragons and dragon motifs are featured in many works of modern literature, particularly within the fantasy genre. As early as the eighteenth century, critical thinkers such as Denis Diderot were already asserting that too much literature had been published on dragons: "There are already in books all too many fabulous stories of dragons". In Lewis Carroll's classic children's novel Through the Looking-Glass (1871), one of the inset poems describes the Jabberwock, a kind of dragon. Carroll's illustrator John Tenniel, a famous political cartoonist, humorously showed the Jabberwock with the waistcoat, buck teeth, and myopic eyes of a Victorian university lecturer, such as Carroll himself. In works of comedic children's fantasy, dragons often fulfill the role of a magic fairy tale helper. In such works, rather than being frightening as they are traditionally portrayed, dragons are instead represented as harmless, benevolent, and inferior to humans. They are sometimes shown living in contact with humans, or in isolated communities of only dragons. Though popular in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, "such comic and idyllic stories" began to grow increasingly rare after the 1960s, due to demand for more serious children's literature. One of the most iconic modern dragons is Smaug from J. R. R. Tolkien's classic novel, The Hobbit. Dragons also appear in the best-selling Harry Potter series of children's novels by J. K. Rowling. Other prominent works depicting dragons include Anne McCaffrey's Dragonriders of Pern, Ursula K. Le Guin's Earthsea Cycle, George R. R. Martin's series A Song of Ice and Fire, and Christopher Paolini's The Inheritance Cycle. Sandra Martina Schwab writes, "With a few exceptions, including McCaffrey's Pern novels and the 2002 film Reign of Fire, dragons seem to fit more into the medievalized setting of fantasy literature than into the more technological world of science fiction. Indeed, they have been called the emblem of fantasy. The hero's fight against the dragon emphasizes and celebrates his masculinity, whereas revisionist fantasies of dragons and dragon-slaying often undermine traditional gender roles. In children's literature (such as Cressida Cowell's How to Train Your Dragon series) the friendly dragon may become a powerful ally in battling the child's fears." The popular role-playing game system Dungeons & Dragons (D&D) makes heavy use of dragons. <gallery mode"packed" heights"200px"> File:Jabberwocky.jpg\|John Tenniel's illustration of the Jabberwock for Lewis Carroll's Through the Looking-Glass, showing the dragon as a myopic professor File:Gringotts Dragon (42428011465).jpg\|Fire-breathing statue of the Ukrainian Ironbelly from Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 at Universal Studios Florida File:DnD Dragon.png\|Representation of a dragon as it appears in the role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons </gallery> See also Balaur Bat (heraldry) Behemoth Dragonology Feilong (mythology) Griffin Guivre Horned Serpent Ichneumon (medieval zoology) Lambton Worm The Last Dragon, fictional 2004 documentary List of dragons in literature List of dragons in mythology and folklore List of dragons in popular culture Mokele-mbembe Partridge Creek monster Peluda Scylla Sea serpent Snallygaster References Bibliography * * Bates, Roy. Chinese Dragons. Oxford University Press, 2002. . * * * * * * * * * * * * . * * * * * Garrett, Valery M. Chinese Dragon Robes. Oxford University Press, 1999. . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Visser, Marinus Willem de; [https://archive.org/details/cu31924021444728 The Dragon in China and Japan] , Amsterdam, J. Müller 1913. * * * * * External links * * * Category:Heraldic beasts Category:Fairy tale stock characters Category:Mythological animals	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragon	2025-04-05T18:28:40.124279
8533	Depeche Mode	\| discography = Depeche Mode discography \| years_active = 1980–present \| label = \| website = \| current_members = * Dave Gahan * Martin Gore \| past_members = * Andy Fletcher * Vince Clarke * Alan Wilder }} Depeche Mode are<!-- This article is written in British English, in which band names take the plural verb form; do not change "are" to "is". See WP:ENGVAR. --> an English electronic music band formed in Basildon, Essex in 1980. Originally formed with the lineup of Dave Gahan, Martin Gore, Andy Fletcher and Vince Clarke, the band currently consists of Gahan and Gore. With Clarke as their primary songwriter, Depeche Mode released their debut album Speak & Spell in 1981 amid the British new wave scene. Clarke left the band at the end of 1981, going on to form the groups Yazoo and later Erasure. The remaining trio recorded their second album, A Broken Frame (1982), with Martin Gore as chief songwriter. The band then recruited Alan Wilder, establishing a lineup that continued until 1995, beginning with the albums Construction Time Again (1983) and Some Great Reward (1984). The albums Black Celebration (1986) and Music for the Masses (1987) cemented them as a dominant force within the electronic and alternative music scenes, and their June 1988 concert at the Pasadena Rose Bowl drew a crowd of over 60,000 people. In 1990, they released their seventh album, Violator, which reached number seven on the Billboard 200 and was certified triple platinum by the RIAA. The following album Songs of Faith and Devotion (1993) was also a success, though the band's internal struggles during recording and touring resulted in Wilder's departure in 1995. The band returned to the lineup of Gahan, Gore, and Fletcher, and released the album Ultra in 1997. The band continued touring and recorded five more albums as a trio—Exciter (2001), Playing the Angel (2005), Sounds of the Universe (2009), Delta Machine (2013) and Spirit (2017)—until Fletcher's death in 2022. Gahan and Gore have since continued as a duo. Their latest album, Memento Mori, was released in 2023. Depeche Mode have had 54 songs in the UK singles chart, 17 Top 10 albums in the UK chart, and have sold more than 100 million records worldwide. Q included the band in its list of the "50 Bands That Changed the World!" Depeche Mode also rank No. 98 on VH1's "100 Greatest Artists of All Time." In 2016, Billboard named Depeche Mode the 10th Greatest of All Time Top Dance Club Artists. They were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2020. History Formation (1977–1980) Depeche Mode's origins date to 1977, when schoolmates Vince Clarke and Andy Fletcher formed a band called No Romance in China with Clarke on vocals and guitar and Fletcher on bass. Fletcher would later recall, "Why am I in the band? It was accidental right from the beginning. I was actually forced to be in the band. I played the guitar and I had a bass; it was a question of them roping me in." In 1979, Clarke played guitar in an Ultravox-influenced band, the Plan, with friends Robert Marlow and Paul Langwith. In 1978–1979, Martin Gore played guitar in an acoustic duo, Norman and the Worms, with school friend Phil Burdett on vocals. In 1980, Clarke and Fletcher formed a band called Composition of Sound, with Clarke on vocals/guitar and Fletcher on bass; the pair were soon joined by Gore as a third instrumentalist. Dave Gahan joined the ensemble later in 1980 after Clarke heard him perform at a local Scout hut jam session, singing a rendition of David Bowie's "Heroes". With the advent of affordable synthesisers and the increasing popularity of electronic music, the group began pursuing a synth-pop direction. The first live concert of Composition of Sound as a four-piece was on 14 June 1980 at Nicholas School, Basildon, England, UK. There is a plaque commemorating the gig at the James Hornsby School in Basildon, where Gore and Fletcher were pupils. Gahan's and Gore's favourite artists included Siouxsie and the Banshees, Sparks, Cabaret Voltaire, Talking Heads and Iggy Pop. Gahan's onstage persona was influenced by Dave Vanian, frontman of The Damned. Gahan has also later credited David Bowie, James Brown, Elvis Presley and Prince as influences on his performance style. Composition of Sound would become embarrassed about their band name and started thinking of changing it. There were several potential variants, including the name "Musical Moments" that was suggested by Vince Clarke as both a band name and the name of their first album. Starting at their concert on 24 September 1980 at Bridge House, the band changed their name to Depeche Mode, chosen by Dave Gahan. When explaining the choice for the new name, which was taken from a mistranslation of the name of French fashion magazine Dépêche Mode, Gore said, "It means 'hurried fashion' or 'fashion dispatch'. I like the sound of that." However, the more accurate translation of the magazine's name (and therefore the band's name) is "Fashion News" or "Fashion Update".A Broken Frame and Wilder joining (1981–1982) In late 1981, the band placed an anonymous ad in Melody Maker looking for another musician: "Name band, synthesise, must be under twenty-one." By sampling the noises of everyday objects, the band created an eclectic, industrial-influenced sound, with similarities to groups such as the Art of Noise and Einstürzende Neubauten (the latter becoming Mute labelmates in 1983). "Everything Counts" rose to number six in the UK, also reaching the top 30 in Ireland, South Africa, Switzerland, Sweden and West Germany. The song became a hit, reaching No. 2 in Ireland and Poland, No. 4 in the UK and Switzerland, and No. 1 in West Germany – the first time a DM single topped a country's singles chart – where it was used as the theme to West German TV's coverage of the 1984 Olympics. Beyond this European success, the song also reached No. 13 on the US charts in mid-1985, the first appearance of a DM single on the Billboard Hot 100, and was a Top 20 hit in Canada. "People Are People" became an anthem for the LGBT community, regularly played at gay establishments and gay pride festivals in the late 1980s. Sire, the band's North American record label, released a compilation of the same name which included tracks from A Broken Frame and Construction Time Again as well as several B-sides. On the American tour, the band was, according to Gore, "shocked by the way the fans were turning up in droves at the concerts". In contrast to the political and environmental subjects addressed on the previous album, the songs on Some Great Reward were mostly concerned with more personal themes such as sexual politics ("Master and Servant"), adulterous relationships ("Lie to Me"), and arbitrary divine justice ("Blasphemous Rumours"). Also included was the first Martin Gore ballad, "Somebody"—such songs would become a feature of all following albums. "Somebody" was released as a double A-side with "Blasphemous Rumours", and was the first single with Gore on lead vocal. Some Great Reward became the first Depeche Mode album to enter the US album charts, and made the Top 10 in several European countries. The World We Live In and Live in Hamburg was the band's first video release, almost an entire concert from their 1984 Some Great Reward Tour. Black Celebration (1985–1986) In July 1985, the band played their first-ever concerts behind the Iron Curtain, in Budapest and Warsaw. In October 1985, Mute released a compilation, The Singles 81→85 (Catching Up with Depeche Mode in the US), which included the two new non-album hit singles "Shake the Disease" and "It's Called a Heart", with the US version also including their B-sides ("Fly on the Windscreen", the B-side of "It's Called a Heart", would also be included on the next studio album Black Celebration). In the United States, the band's music appealed primarily to an alternative audience who were disenchanted with the predominance of "soft rock and 'disco hell'" on the radio. This view of the band was in sharp contrast to how the band was perceived in Europe, despite the increasingly dark and serious tone in their songs. In Germany, France, and other European countries, Depeche Mode were considered teen idols and regularly featured in European teen magazines, becoming one of the most famous synth-pop bands in the mid-'80s. Depeche Mode's musical style shifted slightly again in 1986 with the release of their fifteenth single, "Stripped", and its accompanying album Black Celebration. Retaining their often imaginative sampling and beginning to move away from the "industrial pop" sound that had characterised their previous two LPs, the band introduced an ominous, highly atmospheric and textured sound. Gore's lyrics also took on a darker tone and became more pessimistic. The music video for "A Question of Time" was the first to be directed by Anton Corbijn, beginning a working relationship that continues to the present. Corbijn has directed 22 of the band's videos. He has also filmed some of their live performances and designed stage sets, as well as most covers for albums and singles starting from Violator.Music for the Masses (1987–1989) For 1987's Music for the Masses, the band's sound and working methods continued to develop. It was the first time they worked with a producer not related to Mute Records. Dave Bascombe was called to assist with the recording sessions; although, according to Alan Wilder, Bascombe's role ended up being more that of engineer. In making the album, the band largely eschewed sampling in favour of synthesiser experimentation. While chart performance of the singles "Strangelove", "Never Let Me Down Again" and "Behind the Wheel" proved to be disappointing in the UK, they performed well in countries such as Canada, Brazil, West Germany, South Africa, Sweden and Switzerland, often reaching the top 10. Record Mirror described Music for the Masses as "the most accomplished and sexy Mode album to date". The album also reached No. 35 on the US Billboard 200 chart. The Music for the Masses Tour began 22 October 1987. On 7 March 1988, with no previous announcement that they would be the headlining act, Depeche Mode played in the Werner-Seelenbinder-Halle, East Berlin, becoming one of the few Western groups to perform in East Germany. They also performed concerts in Budapest and Prague in 1988. The world tour ended on 18 June 1988 with a concert at the Pasadena Rose Bowl. Paid attendance of 60,453 was the highest in eight years for the venue. Its massive success marked a breakthrough for the band in the United States.. The event was documented in 101, a concert film by D. A. Pennebaker and its accompanying soundtrack album. The film is notable for its portrayal of fan interaction. Alan Wilder came up with the title, noting that it was the 101st and final performance of the tour. On 7 September 1988, Depeche Mode performed "Strangelove" at the 1988 MTV Video Music Awards at the Universal Amphitheatre in Los Angeles. Violator (1989–1990) In mid-1989, the band began recording in Milan with producer Flood and engineer François Kevorkian. The initial result of this session was the single "Personal Jesus". Prior to its release, a marketing campaign was launched with advertisements placed in the personals columns of UK regional newspapers with the words "Your own personal Jesus." Later, the ads included a phone number one could dial to hear the song. The resulting furore helped propel the single to number 13 on the UK charts, becoming one of their biggest sellers to date. In the United States, it was their first gold single and their first Top 40 hit since "People Are People", eventually becoming the biggest-selling 12-inch single in Warner Records' history up to that point. \|width = 25% \|align = left \|style = padding:10px; }} Released in February 1990, "Enjoy the Silence" reached number six in the UK (the first Top 10 hit in that country since "Master And Servant"). A few months later it reached number eight in the US and earned the band a second gold record, and it won Best British Single at the 1991 Brit Awards. To promote their new album, Violator, the band held an in-store autograph signing at Wherehouse Entertainment in Los Angeles. The event attracted approximately 20,000 fans and turned into a near riot. Some attendees were injured while being pressed against the store's glass by the crowd. As an apology to those injured, the band released a limited edition cassette tape to fans in Los Angeles, distributed through radio station KROQ (the sponsor of the Wherehouse event). Violator was the first Depeche Mode album to enter the Top 10 of the Billboard 200, reaching Number 7 and staying 74 weeks in the chart. It was certified triple platinum in America. Two more singles from the album—"Policy of Truth" and "World in My Eyes"—were hits in the UK, with the former also charting in the US. \|width = 25% \|align = right \|style = padding:10px; }} The World Violation Tour saw the band play several stadium shows in the US. 42,000 tickets were sold within four hours for a show at Giants Stadium, and 48,000 tickets were sold within half-an-hour of going on sale for a show at Dodger Stadium. An estimated 1.2 million fans saw this tour worldwide. The first single from the album was the grunge-influenced "I Feel You". The gospel influences are most noticeable on the album's third single, "Condemnation". Interviews given by the band during this period tended to be conducted separately, unlike earlier albums, where the band was interviewed as a group. The band's second live album, Songs of Faith and Devotion Live, was released in December 1993. The tour continued into 1994 with the Exotic Tour, which began in February 1994 in South Africa, and ended in April in Mexico. The final leg of the tour, consisting of more North American dates, followed shortly thereafter and ran until July. As a whole, the Devotional Tour is to date the longest and most geographically diverse Depeche Mode tour, spanning fourteen months and 159 individual performances. Q magazine described the 1993 Devotional Tour as "The Most Debauched Rock 'n' Roll Tour Ever". According to The Independent, the "smack-blasted" Gahan "required cortisone shots just to perform, borderline alcoholic Gore suffered two stress-induced seizures, and Andrew Fletcher's deepening depression resulted, in the summer of 1994, in a full nervous breakdown." After the band played at the McNichols Sports Arena in Denver, Colorado, local police arrested Gore and fined him $50 for disturbing the peace when he held a loud party in his hotel room. Fletcher declined to participate in the second half of the Exotic Tour due to mental instability; he was replaced on stage by Daryl Bamonte, who had worked with the band as a personal assistant since the beginning of their career in 1980. In June 1995, Alan Wilder announced that he was leaving Depeche Mode, explaining: He continued to work on his personal project Recoil, releasing a fourth album (Unsound Methods) in 1997. Ultra (1996–1998) Despite Gahan's increasingly severe personal problems, Gore tried repeatedly during 1995 and 1996 to get the band recording again. However, Gahan would rarely turn up to scheduled sessions, and when he did, it would take weeks to get any vocals recorded; one six-week session at Electric Lady in New York produced just one usable vocal (for "Sister of Night"), and even that was pieced together from multiple takes. Gore was forced to contemplate breaking the band up and considered releasing the songs he had written as a solo album. In mid-1996, after his near-fatal overdose in which his heart stopped beating for two minutes, Gahan entered a court-ordered drug rehabilitation program to battle his addiction to cocaine and heroin. With Gahan out of rehab in 1996, Depeche Mode held recording sessions with producer Tim Simenon. Preceded by two singles, "Barrel of a Gun" and "It's No Good", the album Ultra was released in April 1997. The album debuted at No. 1 in the UK as well as Germany, and No. 5 in the US. The band did not tour in support of the album, with Fletcher quoted as saying: "We're not fit enough. Dave's only eight months into his sobriety, and our bodies are telling us to spend time with our families." As part of the promotion for the release of the album, they did perform two short concerts in London and Los Angeles, promoted as "Ultra Parties". Ultra spawned two further singles, "Home" and "Useless". A second singles compilation, The Singles 86>98, was released in 1998, preceded by the new single "Only When I Lose Myself". In April 1998, Depeche Mode held a press conference at the Hyatt Hotel in Cologne to announce the Singles Tour. The tour was the first to feature two backing musicians in place of Wilder—Austrian drummer Christian Eigner and British keyboardist Peter Gordeno. Exciter (1999–2004) In 2001, Depeche Mode released Exciter, produced by Mark Bell (of techno group LFO). Bell introduced a minimalist, digital sound to much of the album, influenced by IDM and glitch. "Dream On", "I Feel Loved", "Freelove" and "Goodnight Lovers" were released as singles in 2001 and 2002. Critical response to the album was mixed, with reasonably positive reviews from some magazines (NME, Rolling Stone and LA Weekly), while others (including Q magazine, PopMatters and Pitchfork) derided it as sounding underproduced, dull and lacking in luster. In March 2001, Depeche Mode held a press conference at the Valentino Hotel in Hamburg to announce the Exciter Tour. The tour featured 84 performances for over 1.5 million fans in 24 countries. The concerts held in Paris at the Palais Omnisports de Paris-Bercy were filmed and later released in May 2002 as a live DVD entitled One Night in Paris. In October 2002 the band won the first-ever Q magazine "Innovation Award". In 2003, Gahan released his first solo album, Paper Monsters, and toured to promote the record. Also released in 2003 was Gore's second solo album Counterfeit². Fletcher founded his own record label, Toast Hawaii, specialising in promoting electronic music. A new remix compilation album, Remixes 81–04, was released in 2004, featuring new and unreleased promo mixes of the band's singles from 1981 to 2004. A new version of "Enjoy the Silence", remixed by Mike Shinoda of Linkin Park, "Enjoy the Silence 04", was released as a single and reached No. 7 on the UK charts. Playing the Angel (2005–2007) concert in Bremen, June 2006\|300x300px]] In October 2005, the band released their 11th studio album Playing the Angel. Produced by Ben Hillier, the album peaked at No. 1 in 18 countries and featured the hit single "Precious". This is the first Depeche Mode album to feature lyrics written by Gahan and, consequently, the first album since 1984's Some Great Reward featuring songs not written by Gore. "Suffer Well" was the first ever post-Clarke Depeche Mode single not to be written by Gore (lyrics by Gahan, music by Philpott/Eigner). The final single from the album was "John the Revelator", an up-tempo electronic track with a running religious theme, accompanied by "Lilian", a lush track that was a hit in many clubs all over the world. To promote Playing the Angel, the band launched Touring the Angel, a concert tour of Europe and North America that began in November 2005 and ran for nine months. During the last two legs of the tour Depeche Mode headlined a number of festivals including the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival and the O<sub>2</sub> Wireless Festival. In total, the band played to more than 2.8 million people across 31 countries and the tour was one of the highest grossing and critically acclaimed tours of 2005/2006. Two shows at Milan's Fila Forum were filmed and edited into a concert film, released on DVD as Touring the Angel: Live in Milan. A "best-of" compilation was released in November 2006, entitled The Best of Depeche Mode Volume 1 featuring a new single "Martyr", an outtake from the Playing the Angel sessions. Later that month Depeche Mode received the MTV Europe Music Award in the Best Group category. In December 2006, iTunes released The Complete Depeche Mode as its fourth ever digital box-set. In August 2007, during promotion for Gahan's second solo album, Hourglass, it was announced that Depeche Mode were heading back in studio in early 2008 to work on a new album. Sounds of the Universe (2008–2011) In May 2008, the band returned to the studio with producer Ben Hillier to work on some songs that Martin Gore had demoed at his home studio in Santa Barbara, California. Later that year it was announced that Depeche Mode were splitting from their long-term US label, Warner Music, and signing with EMI Music worldwide. The album was created in four sessions, two in New York and two in Santa Barbara. A total of 22 songs were recorded, with the standard album being 13 songs in length while many of the others were released in subsequent deluxe editions. In 2009, Depeche Mode allowed their likeness to be used in Valve's Left 4 Dead 2. concert at London's O<sub>2</sub> Arena, December 2009]] On 15 January 2009, the official Depeche Mode website announced that the band's twelfth studio album would be called Sounds of the Universe. The album was released on 14 April 2009, also made available through an iTunes Pass, where the buyer received individual tracks in the weeks leading up to the official release date. Fletcher said the idea for their iTunes Pass was a combination of the band's and iTunes': "I think the digital and record companies are starting to get their act together. They were very lazy in the first 10 years when downloads came in. Now they're collaborating more and coming up with interesting ideas for fans to buy products." The album went to number one in 21 countries. Critical response was generally positive and it was nominated for a Grammy in the Best Alternative Album category. "Wrong" was the first single from the album, released digitally in February 2009. Subsequent singles were "Peace" and the double A-side "Fragile Tension / Hole to Feed". In addition, "Perfect" was released as a promotional-only (non-commercial) single in the United States. On 23 April 2009, Depeche Mode performed for the television program Jimmy Kimmel Live! at the famed corner of Hollywood Boulevard and Vine Street, drawing more than 12,000 fans, which was the largest audience the program had seen since its 2003 premiere, with a performance by Coldplay. In May 2009, the band embarked on a concert tour in support of the album, called Tour of the Universe; it had been announced at a press conference in October 2008 at the Olympiastadion in Berlin. There was a warm up show in Luxembourg and it officially started on 10 May 2009 in Tel Aviv. The first leg of the tour was disrupted when Dave Gahan was struck down with gastroenteritis. During treatment, doctors found and removed a low-grade tumour from the singer's bladder. Gahan's illness caused 16 concerts to be cancelled, but several of the shows were rescheduled for 2010. The band headlined the Lollapalooza festival during the North American leg of the tour. The tour also took the band back to South America for the first time since 1994's Exotic Tour. During the final European leg, the band played a show at London's Royal Albert Hall in aid of the Teenage Cancer Trust, where former member Alan Wilder joined Martin Gore on stage for a performance of "Somebody". In total the band played to more than 2.7 million people across 32 countries and the tour was one of the most profitable in America in 2009. The concerts held at Palau Sant Jordi, Barcelona, Spain were filmed and later released on DVD and Blu-ray release entitled Tour of the Universe: Barcelona 20/21.11.09. In March 2010, Depeche Mode won the award for "Best International Group – Rock / Pop" at the Echo Awards in Germany. On 6 June 2011, as the final commitment to their contract with EMI, the band released a remix compilation album, entitled Remixes 2: 81–11 that features remixes by former members Vince Clarke and Alan Wilder. Other remixers involved with the project were Nick Rhodes of Duran Duran, Röyksopp, Karlsson & Winnberg of Miike Snow, Eric Prydz, Clark and more. A new remix of "Personal Jesus" by Stargate, entitled "Personal Jesus 2011", was released as a single on 30 May 2011, in support of the compilation. Depeche Mode contributed their cover of the U2 song "So Cruel" to the tribute album AHK-toong BAY-bi Covered honouring the 20th anniversary of Achtung Baby, a 1991 album by U2. The compilation CD was released with the December 2011 issue of Q. Delta Machine (2012–2014) '']] In October 2012 during a press conference in Paris, Dave Gahan, Martin Gore and Andy Fletcher announced plans for a new album and a 2013 worldwide tour starting from Tel Aviv and continuing in Europe and North America. Martin Gore revealed that Flood mixed the album, marking the producer's first studio collaboration with the band since 1993's Songs of Faith and Devotion. In December 2012, the band officially announced signing a worldwide deal with Columbia Records and releasing a new album in March 2013. On 24 January 2013, it was confirmed that the album was titled Delta Machine. "Heaven", the debut single from Delta Machine was released commercially on Friday 1 February 2013 (although not in the UK). The release date in the UK was pushed back to 18 March 2013 (17 March 2013 on iTunes). The physical release still bore the Mute Records logo, even though the band have now severed ties with their long-standing label. Fletcher mentioned in an interview this was due to their "devotion" to the label and with the band's insistence.Delta Machine spawned two further singles, "Soothe My Soul" on 6 May and "Should Be Higher" on 11 October. Though neither performed well in the UK charts they did perform moderately in other European charts. In March, the band announced North American dates to their Delta Machine Tour, starting 22 August from Detroit and ending 8 October in Phoenix. In June, other European dates were confirmed for early 2014. The final gig of the tour took place in Moscow, Russia on 7 March 2014, at Olimpiski venue. That month, Depeche Mode won the award for "Best International Group – Rock / Pop" at the Echo Awards in Germany. Also, they were nominated at the category "Album des Jahres (national oder international)" for Delta Machine but lost against Helene Fischer's Farbenspiel. On 8 October 2014, the band announced Live in Berlin, the new video and audio release filmed and recorded at the O2 World in Berlin, Germany in November 2013 during the Delta Machine Tour. It was released on 17 November 2014 worldwide. Spirit (2015–2021) In a 2015 Rolling Stone interview celebrating the 25th anniversary of Violator, Gore stated that Johnny Cash's cover of "Personal Jesus" is his favorite cover version of a Depeche Mode song. On 25 January 2016, Gore announced a projected return to the recording studio in April, with both Gore and Gahan having already written and demoed new songs. In September, the official Depeche Mode Facebook page hinted at a new release, later confirmed by the band to be a music video compilation, Video Singles Collection, scheduled for release in November by Sony. In October 2016, the band announced that their fourteenth album titled Spirit. It was produced by James Ford, and was released on 17 March 2017. "Where's the Revolution", the lead single from Spirit, was released 3 February 2017, along with its lyric video. The official video was published a week later, on 9 February. The Global Spirit Tour officially kicked off on 5 May 2017 with a performance in Stockholm, Sweden, at the Friends Arena. The first leg of the tour covered European countries only, ending with a final stadium show in Cluj-Napoca, Romania, at the Cluj Arena. The second leg of the tour covered North America and returned to Europe. The North America leg of the tour kicked off in Salt Lake City, Utah, on 23 August, at the USANA Amphitheatre. Depeche Mode broke a record when the band became the first to play four nights at the Hollywood Bowl. The band remained in North America until 15 November when they left for Dublin to resume the European leg. The band ended the tour in Europe with two sold-out shows on 23 and 25 July 2018 in Berlin, Germany, at the Waldbühne. In September 2019, the band announced that Spirits in the Forest, a documentary that was partially filmed during these shows by long-time collaborator Anton Corbijn, would be released in theatres for one night only, 21 November 2019. It was released on CD, DVD and Blu-ray under the title LiVE SPiRiTS on 26 June 2020. On 7 November 2020, the band were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Prior to Fletcher's death, Gahan said: "There's a ton of stuff that we've done with Depeche Mode that I'm really proud of. I think that's come with time and age. Martin put out a record last year which I really liked. I actually bought a copy because it wouldn't feel right otherwise. I know he's been pottering away in his studio as well, so I guess at some point next year we'll get together. Hopefully at least to just have a chat about what we both feel like we could move forward with." On 15 August 2022, the social media accounts for Depeche Mode posted a photo of Gahan and Gore in a recording studio, with them tweeting, "finding stability in what we know and love, and focusing on what gives life meaning and purpose", which magazines like NME suggested was a hint at work on a new studio album. On 4 October 2022, Depeche Mode announced their fifteenth studio album Memento Mori and a tour to support the album which started on 23 March 2023. The first single, "Ghosts Again", released on 9 February 2023, was co-written by Richard Butler of the Psychedelic Furs. It received relative success in the UK, charting at No. 14. "Ghosts Again" had widespread success in the US, charting in the top 10 of 3 Billboard charts. Reaching number 2 on the Adult Alternative Songs chart, Gahan said it "captures this perfect balance of melancholy and joy", while Gore said it has "such an upbeat feel to it" and how rare it is for the band to record a song that "I just don't get sick of listening to." The band stated that work on the album began during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. Gahan and Gore said they would send each other ideas for songs, for example Gahan said, "I played guitar and sort of sang on my iPhone", while Gore "sent it back with his angelic voice." Musical style and influences Gore recalled, "My dream was to combine the emotion of Neil Young or John Lennon transmitted by Kraftwerk's synthesisers. Soul music played by electronic instruments." Gore also cited synth-pop group Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark (OMD), who provided support on the Music for the Masses Tour; Clarke stated that Depeche Mode would never have happened without OMD. Fletcher mentioned influences including the late 1970s punk rock scene, the post-punk bands Siouxsie and the Banshees and the Cure, and electronic group the Human League. Band members have also cited David Bowie, the Clash, Roxy Music and Brian Eno, Elvis Presley, the Velvet Underground, Fad Gadget, Suicide, and the blues. Depeche Mode were considered a teen pop group during their early period in the UK, and interviewed in teen pop magazines such as Smash Hits. Following the departure of Clarke, their music began to take on a darker tone, establishing a darker sound in the band's music, as Gore assumed lead songwriting duties. Gore has stated he feels lyrical themes which tackle issues related to solitude and loneliness are a better representation of reality, whereas he finds "happy songs" fake and unrealistic. At the same time, he asserts that the group's music contains "an element of hope". Depeche Mode's music has been variously described as synth-pop, electronic rock, new wave, dark wave, dance-rock, post-punk, alternative rock, The band have also experimented with other genres throughout their career, including avant-garde, electronica, pop, soul, techno, industrial rock and heavy metal.Legacy Depeche Mode have released a total of 15 studio albums, 10 compilation albums, six live albums, eight box sets, 13 video albums, 71 music videos, and 54 singles. They have sold over 100 million records and played live to more than 35 million fans worldwide. The band has had 50 songs in the UK singles chart, and one US and two UK number-one albums. In addition, all of their studio albums have reached the UK Top 10 and their albums have spent over 210 weeks on the UK Charts. Along with the Red Hot Chili Peppers and U2, Depeche Mode are one of three acts that have charted at least once on the Billboard Alternative Airplay chart in every decade since its debut in 1988. In 2006, American music critic Sasha Frere-Jones stated that "the last serious English influence was Depeche Mode, who seem more and more significant as time passes." Depeche Mode's releases have been nominated for five Grammy Awards: Devotional for Best Long Form Music Video; "I Feel Loved" and "Suffer Well", both for Best Dance Recording; Sounds of the Universe for Best Alternative Album; and "Wrong" for Best Short Form Music Video. In addition, Depeche Mode have been honoured with a Brit Award for "Enjoy the Silence" in the Best British Single category, the first-ever Q Innovation Award, and an Ivor Novello Award for Martin Gore in the category of International Achievement. Depeche Mode were called "the most popular electronic band the world has ever known" by Q, "one of the greatest British pop groups of all time" by The Sunday Telegraph, and "the quintessential eighties techno-pop band" by Rolling Stone and AllMusic. and Q included them on their list of "50 bands that changed the world". Muse's Matt Bellamy said, "They had their own thing, their own style, own sound. I respect them very much." During Depeche Mode's induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, Coldplay's Chris Martin remarked, "sonically, they were and are about throwing away all the rulebooks." Arcade Fire's Win Butler added, "I feel like their music still sounds like it could come out 20 years from now. Depeche were able to take that spirit and spread it, which is really kind of a sacred responsibility." On December 13, 2023, Los Angeles city council member Monica Rodriguez, officially declared December 13th as "Depeche Mode Day" in the city of Los Angeles. Dave Gahan and Martin Gore were present as they were honored in a public ceremony held at Los Angeles City Hall. Influence Many major artists have cited the band as an influence, including: Arcade Fire, the Killers, Nine Inch Nails, the Smashing Pumpkins, Coldplay, No Doubt, A Perfect Circle, Marilyn Manson, the Crystal Method, Fear Factory, La Roux, Gotye, Amanda Palmer, Rammstein, a-ha, Tegan and Sara (on Sainthood) and Paul van Dyk. Depeche Mode contemporaries Pet Shop Boys, Tears for Fears and Gary Numan have also cited the band as an influence. Colombian singer Shakira described "Enjoy the Silence" as the song that first sparked her passion for pop music. The dark themes and moods of Depeche Mode's lyrics and music have been enjoyed by several heavy metal artists, and the band influenced acts such as Marilyn Manson and Deftones. Trent Reznor of Nine Inch Nails also cited Depeche Mode, in particular their 1986 album Black Celebration, as a major influence on his beginnings.PhilanthropyEarly in their career, Depeche Mode was dismissive of benefit concerts such as Live Aid. Gore himself stated, "If these bands really care so much, they should just donate the money and let that be it. Why can't they do it without all the surrounding hype?". Since 2010, the band has applied their celebrity and cultural longevity to help promote and raise funds for several notable charity endeavours. They lent their support to high-profile charities such as MusiCares, Cancer Research UK and the Teenage Cancer Trust. The band has also supported the Small Steps Project, a humanitarian organization based in the UK, aiming to assist economically disadvantaged children into education. They have partnered with Swiss watchmaker Hublot to support Charity: Water, aimed at the provision of clean drinking water in developing countries. Such collaboration led to the release of two different limited edition watches, the Hublot Big Bang Depeche Mode in 2017 and The Singles Limited Edition series based from the Big Bang model in 2018. The proceeds helped raise $1.7 million for Charity: Water. In 2014, the partnership hosted a gala and fundraiser at the TsUM building in Moscow, raising $1.4 million for the charity. Band members Current members * Dave Gahan– lead vocals (1980–present) * Martin Gore– guitars, keyboards, backing and lead vocals (1980–present) Touring musicians * Christian Eigner– drums, keyboards (1997–present) * Peter Gordeno– keyboards, bass guitar, piano, backing vocals (1998–present) Former members * Andy Fletcher– keyboards, bass guitar, occasional backing vocals (1980–2022; his death) * Vince Clarke– keyboards, lead and backing vocals, guitars (1980–1981) * Alan Wilder– keyboards, piano, drums, backing vocals (1982–1995; touring member in 1982; guest in 2010) Former touring musicians * Hildia Campbell– backing vocals (1993–1994) * Samantha Smith– backing vocals (1993–1994) * Daryl Bamonte– keyboards, samplers (1994) * Dave Clayton– keyboards, programming (1996–1997) * Janet Cooke– backing vocals (1998) * Jordan Bailey– backing vocals (1998, 2001) * Georgia Lewis– backing vocals (2001) Timeline <div style="text-align:left;"> TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal format:yyyy Colors = id:band value:skyblue legend:Band_name id:lvocals value:red legend:Lead_and_backing_vocals id:bvocals value:pink legend:Backing_vocals id:guitars value:green legend:Guitars id:bass value:blue legend:Bass id:keys value:purple legend:Keyboards id:drums value:orange legend:Drums id:studio value:black legend:Studio_album id:bars value:gray(0.95) BackgroundColors = bars:bars Legend = orientation:vertical position:bottom columns:3 ScaleMinor = increment:1 start:1980 ScaleMajor = increment:3 start:1980 BarData = bar:COS text:"Composition of Sound" bar:DM text:"Depeche Mode" bar:Clarke text:"Vince Clarke" bar:Gahan text:"Dave Gahan" bar:Fletcher text:"Andy Fletcher" bar:Gore text:"Martin Gore" bar:Wilder text:"Alan Wilder" PlotData = width:13 textcolor:black align:left anchor:from shift:(10,-4) bar:COS from:start till:24/09/1980 color:band bar:DM from:24/09/1980 till:end color:band bar:Gahan from:14/06/1980 till:end color:lvocals bar:Gore from:01/03/1980 till:14/07/1987 color:keys bar:Gore from:01/03/1980 till:end color:lvocals width:3 bar:Gore from:07/09/1983 till:11/03/1984 color:guitars width:7 bar:Gore from:15/07/1987 till:end color:keys width:7 bar:Gore from:15/07/1987 till:end color:guitars bar:Fletcher from:start till:14/06/1980 color:bass bar:Fletcher from:14/06/1980 till:03/04/1994 color:keys bar:Fletcher from:15/07/1987 till:26/05/2022 color:bass width:3 bar:Fletcher from:04/04/1994 till:08/07/1994 color:keys width:9 bar:Fletcher from:09/07/1994 till:26/05/2022 color:keys bar:Clarke from:start till:14/06/1980 color:lvocals bar:Clarke from:start till:01/03/1980 color:guitars width:3 bar:Clarke from:01/03/1980 till:14/06/1980 color:keys width:3 bar:Clarke from:14/06/1980 till:03/12/1981 color:keys bar:Clarke from:14/06/1980 till:03/12/1981 color:bvocals width:3 bar:Wilder from:20/01/1982 till:14/10/1982 color:keys width:9 bar:Wilder from:20/01/1982 till:14/10/1982 color:bvocals width:3 bar:Wilder from:14/10/1982 till:01/06/1995 color:keys bar:Wilder from:14/10/1982 till:01/06/1995 color:bvocals width:3 bar:Wilder from:19/03/1990 till:01/06/1995 color:drums width:7 LineData = layer:back color:studio at:29/10/1981 at:27/09/1982 at:22/08/1983 at:24/09/1984 at:17/03/1986 at:28/09/1987 at:19/03/1990 at:22/03/1993 at:14/04/1997 at:14/05/2001 at:17/10/2005 at:20/04/2009 at:22/03/2013 at:17/03/2017 at:24/03/2023 }} </div> Touring members timeline <div style="text-align:left;"> TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal format:yyyy Colors = id:bvocals value:pink legend:Backing_vocals id:bass value:blue legend:Bass id:keys value:purple legend:Keyboards id:drums value:orange legend:Drums id:studio value:black legend:Studio_album id:bars value:gray(0.95) BackgroundColors = bars:bars Legend = orientation:vertical position:bottom columns:3 ScaleMinor = increment:1 start:1980 ScaleMajor = increment:3 start:1980 BarData = bar:Wilder text:"Alan Wilder" bar:Bamonte text:"Daryl Bamonte" bar:Clayton text:"Dave Clayton" bar:Gordeno text:"Peter Gordeno" bar:Eigner text:"Christian Eigner" bar:Campbell text:"Hildia Campbell" bar:Smith text:"Samantha Smith" bar:Cooke text:"Janet Cooke" bar:Bailey text:"Jordan Bailey" bar:Lewis text:"Georgia Lewis" PlotData = width:13 textcolor:black align:left anchor:from shift:(10,-4) bar:Wilder from:20/01/1982 till:14/10/1982 color:bvocals width:3 bar:Wilder from:20/01/1982 till:14/10/1982 color:keys bar:Wilder from:17/10/2010 till:17/10/2010 color:keys bar:Bamonte from:04/04/1994 till:08/07/1994 color:bass width:3 bar:Bamonte from:04/04/1994 till:08/07/1994 color:keys bar:Clayton from:01/01/1996 till:01/12/1997 color:keys bar:Gordeno from:01/08/1998 till:end color:keys bar:Gordeno from:01/08/1998 till:end color:bass width:7 bar:Gordeno from:01/08/1998 till:end color:bvocals width:3 bar:Eigner from:01/03/1997 till:end color:drums bar:Eigner from:01/03/1997 till:end color:keys width:3 bar:Campbell from:01/01/1993 till:08/07/1994 color:bvocals bar:Smith from:01/01/1993 till:08/07/1994 color:bvocals bar:Cooke from:01/08/1998 till:22/12/1998 color:bvocals bar:Bailey from:01/08/1998 till:22/12/1998 color:bvocals bar:Bailey from:30/05/2001 till:05/11/2001 color:bvocals bar:Lewis from:30/05/2001 till:05/11/2001 color:bvocals LineData = layer:back color:studio at:29/10/1981 at:27/09/1982 at:22/08/1983 at:24/09/1984 at:17/03/1986 at:28/09/1987 at:19/03/1990 at:22/03/1993 at:14/04/1997 at:14/05/2001 at:17/10/2005 at:20/04/2009 at:22/03/2013 at:17/03/2017 at:24/03/2023 }} </div> Discography ;Studio albums * Speak & Spell (1981) * A Broken Frame (1982) * Construction Time Again (1983) * Some Great Reward (1984) * Black Celebration (1986) * Music for the Masses (1987) * Violator (1990) * Songs of Faith and Devotion (1993) * Ultra (1997) * Exciter (2001) * Playing the Angel (2005) * Sounds of the Universe (2009) * Delta Machine (2013) * Spirit (2017) * Memento Mori (2023) Awards and nominations Tours * 1980 Tour (1980) * 1981 Tour (1981) * Speak & Spell Tour (1981) * See You Tour (1982) * Broken Frame Tour (1982–1983) * Construction Time Again Tour (1983–1984) * Some Great Reward Tour (1984–1985) * Black Celebration Tour (1986) * Music for the Masses Tour (1987–1988) * World Violation Tour (1990) * Devotional Tour (1993) * Exotic Tour/Summer Tour '94 (1994) * The Singles Tour 86>98 (1998) * Exciter Tour (2001) * Touring the Angel (2005–2006) * Tour of the Universe (2009–2010) * The Delta Machine Tour (2013–2014) * Global Spirit Tour (2017–2018) * Memento Mori World Tour (2023–2024) See also * List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Dance Club Songs chart * List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. alternative rock chart Notes References Bibliography * * * Further reading* * * External links * * * Category:1980 establishments in England Category:Brit Award winners Category:MTV Europe Music Award winners Category:British dark wave musical groups Category:British musical duos Category:English synth-pop new wave groups Category:Columbia Records artists Category:British dance-rock musical groups Category:English electronic rock musical groups Category:English alternative rock groups Category:English new wave musical groups Category:English post-punk music groups Category:English synth-pop groups Category:Musical groups established in 1980 Category:Musical groups from Essex Category:Second British Invasion artists Category:Mute Records artists Category:Sire Records artists Category:Reprise Records artists Category:Virgin Records artists Category:Hansa Records artists Category:Sonet Records artists	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depeche_Mode	2025-04-05T18:28:40.188863
8536	Differential cryptanalysis	Differential cryptanalysis is a general form of cryptanalysis applicable primarily to block ciphers, but also to stream ciphers and cryptographic hash functions. In the broadest sense, it is the study of how differences in information input can affect the resultant difference at the output. In the case of a block cipher, it refers to a set of techniques for tracing differences through the network of transformation, discovering where the cipher exhibits non-random behavior, and exploiting such properties to recover the secret key (cryptography key). History The discovery of differential cryptanalysis is generally attributed to Eli Biham and Adi Shamir in the late 1980s, who published a number of attacks against various block ciphers and hash functions, including a theoretical weakness in the Data Encryption Standard (DES). It was noted by Biham and Shamir that DES was surprisingly resistant to differential cryptanalysis, but small modifications to the algorithm would make it much more susceptible. In 1994, a member of the original IBM DES team, Don Coppersmith, published a paper stating that differential cryptanalysis was known to IBM as early as 1974, and that defending against differential cryptanalysis had been a design goal. According to author Steven Levy, IBM had discovered differential cryptanalysis on its own, and the NSA was apparently well aware of the technique. IBM kept some secrets, as Coppersmith explains: "After discussions with NSA, it was decided that disclosure of the design considerations would reveal the technique of differential cryptanalysis, a powerful technique that could be used against many ciphers. This in turn would weaken the competitive advantage the United States enjoyed over other countries in the field of cryptography." While DES was designed with resistance to differential cryptanalysis in mind, other contemporary ciphers proved to be vulnerable. An early target for the attack was the FEAL block cipher. The original proposed version with four rounds (FEAL-4) can be broken using only eight chosen plaintexts, and even a 31-round version of FEAL is susceptible to the attack. In contrast, the scheme can successfully cryptanalyze DES with an effort on the order of 247 chosen plaintexts. Attack mechanics Differential cryptanalysis is usually a chosen plaintext attack, meaning that the attacker must be able to obtain ciphertexts for some set of plaintexts of their choosing. There are, however, extensions that would allow a known plaintext or even a ciphertext-only attack. The basic method uses pairs of plaintexts related by a constant difference. Difference can be defined in several ways, but the eXclusive OR (XOR) operation is usual. The attacker then computes the differences of the corresponding ciphertexts, hoping to detect statistical patterns in their distribution. The resulting pair of differences is called a differential. Their statistical properties depend upon the nature of the S-boxes used for encryption, so the attacker analyses differentials (\Delta_x, \Delta_y) where \Delta_y = S(x \oplus \Delta_x) \oplus S(x) (and ⊕ denotes exclusive or) for each such S-box S. In the basic attack, one particular ciphertext difference is expected to be especially frequent. In this way, the cipher can be distinguished from random. More sophisticated variations allow the key to be recovered faster than an exhaustive search. In the most basic form of key recovery through differential cryptanalysis, an attacker requests the ciphertexts for a large number of plaintext pairs, then assumes that the differential holds for at least r − 1 rounds, where r is the total number of rounds. The attacker then deduces which round keys (for the final round) are possible, assuming the difference between the blocks before the final round is fixed. When round keys are short, this can be achieved by simply exhaustively decrypting the ciphertext pairs one round with each possible round key. When one round key has been deemed a potential round key considerably more often than any other key, it is assumed to be the correct round key. For any particular cipher, the input difference must be carefully selected for the attack to be successful. An analysis of the algorithm's internals is undertaken; the standard method is to trace a path of highly probable differences through the various stages of encryption, termed a differential characteristic. Since differential cryptanalysis became public knowledge, it has become a basic concern of cipher designers. New designs are expected to be accompanied by evidence that the algorithm is resistant to this attack and many including the Advanced Encryption Standard, have been proven secure against the attack. Attack in detail The attack relies primarily on the fact that a given input/output difference pattern only occurs for certain values of inputs. Usually the attack is applied in essence to the non-linear components as if they were a solid component (usually they are in fact look-up tables or S-boxes). Observing the desired output difference (between two chosen or known plaintext inputs) suggests possible key values. For example, if a differential of 1 > 1 (implying a difference in the least significant bit (LSB) of the input leads to an output difference in the LSB) occurs with probability of 4/256 (possible with the non-linear function in the AES cipher for instance) then for only 4 values (or 2 pairs) of inputs is that differential possible. Suppose we have a non-linear function where the key is XOR'ed before evaluation and the values that allow the differential are {2,3} and {4,5}. If the attacker sends in the values of {6, 7} and observes the correct output difference it means the key is either 6 ⊕ K 2, or 6 ⊕ K = 4, meaning the key K is either 2 or 4. In essence, to protect a cipher from the attack, for an n-bit non-linear function one would ideally seek as close to 2−(n − 1) as possible to achieve differential uniformity. When this happens, the differential attack requires as much work to determine the key as simply brute forcing the key. The AES non-linear function has a maximum differential probability of 4/256 (most entries however are either 0 or 2). Meaning that in theory one could determine the key with half as much work as brute force, however, the high branch of AES prevents any high probability trails from existing over multiple rounds. In fact, the AES cipher would be just as immune to differential and linear attacks with a much weaker non-linear function. The incredibly high branch (active S-box count) of 25 over 4R means that over 8 rounds, no attack involves fewer than 50 non-linear transforms, meaning that the probability of success does not exceed Pr[attack] ≤ Pr[best attack on S-box]50. For example, with the current S-box AES emits no fixed differential with a probability higher than (4/256)50 or 2−300 which is far lower than the required threshold of 2−128 for a 128-bit block cipher. This would have allowed room for a more efficient S-box, even if it is 16-uniform the probability of attack would have still been 2−200. There exist no bijections for even sized inputs/outputs with 2-uniformity. They exist in odd fields (such as GF(27)) using either cubing or inversion (there are other exponents that can be used as well). For instance, S(x) = x3 in any odd binary field is immune to differential and linear cryptanalysis. This is in part why the MISTY designs use 7- and 9-bit functions in the 16-bit non-linear function. What these functions gain in immunity to differential and linear attacks, they lose to algebraic attacks. That is, they are possible to describe and solve via a SAT solver. This is in part why AES (for instance) has an affine mapping after the inversion. Specialized types Higher-order differential cryptanalysis Truncated differential cryptanalysis Impossible differential cryptanalysis Boomerang attack See also Cryptography Integral cryptanalysis Linear cryptanalysis Differential equations of addition References Further reading External links A tutorial on differential (and linear) cryptanalysis Helger Lipmaa's links on differential cryptanalysis Category:Cryptographic attacks	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_cryptanalysis	2025-04-05T18:28:40.217209
8537	Document type definition	A document type definition (DTD) is a specification file that contains a set of markup declarations that define a document type for an SGML-family markup language (GML, SGML, XML, HTML). The DTD specification file can be used to validate documents. A DTD defines the valid building blocks of an XML document. It defines the document structure with a list of validated elements and attributes. A DTD can be declared inline inside an XML document, or as an external reference. A namespace-aware version of DTDs is being developed as Part 9 of ISO DSDL. DTDs persist in applications that need special publishing characters, such as the XML and HTML Character Entity References, which derive from larger sets defined as part of the ISO SGML standard effort. XML uses a subset of SGML DTD. , newer XML namespace-aware schema languages (such as W3C XML Schema and ISO RELAX NG) have largely superseded DTDs as a better way to validate XML structure. Associating DTDs with documents A DTD is associated with an XML or SGML document by means of a document type declaration (DOCTYPE). The DOCTYPE appears in the syntactic fragment doctypedecl near the start of an XML document. The declaration establishes that the document is an instance of the type defined by the referenced DTD. DOCTYPEs make two sorts of declarations: an optional external subset an optional internal subset. The declarations in the internal subset form part of the DOCTYPE in the document itself. The declarations in the external subset are located in a separate text file. The external subset may be referenced via a public identifier and/or a system identifier. Programs for reading documents may not be required to read the external subset. Any valid SGML or XML document that references an external subset in its DTD, or whose body contains references to parsed external entities declared in its DTD (including those declared within its internal subset), may only be partially parsed but cannot be fully validated by validating SGML or XML parsers in their standalone mode (this means that these validating parsers do not attempt to retrieve these external entities, and their replacement text is not accessible). However, such documents are still fully parsable in the non-standalone mode of validating parsers, which signals an error if it can not locate these external entities with their specified public identifier (FPI) or system identifier (a URI), or are inaccessible. (Notations declared in the DTD are also referencing external entities, but these unparsed entities are not needed for the validation of documents in the standalone mode of these parsers: the validation of all external entities referenced by notations is left to the application using the SGML or XML parser). Non-validating parsers may eventually attempt to locate these external entities in the non-standalone mode (by partially interpreting the DTD only to resolve their declared parsable entities), but do not validate the content model of these documents. Examples The following example of a DOCTYPE contains both public and system identifiers: All HTML 4.01 documents conform to one of three SGML DTDs. The public identifiers of these DTDs are constant and are as follows: -//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN -//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN -//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Frameset//EN The system identifiers of these DTDs, if present in the DOCTYPE, are URI references. A system identifier usually points to a specific set of declarations in a resolvable location. SGML allows mapping public identifiers to system identifiers in catalogs that are optionally available to the URI resolvers used by document parsing software. This DOCTYPE can only appear after the optional XML declaration, and before the document body, if the document syntax conforms to XML. This includes XHTML documents: ... An additional internal subset can also be provided after the external subset: ]> ... Alternatively, only the internal subset may be provided: ]> ... Finally, the document type definition may include no subset at all; in that case, it just specifies that the document has a single top-level element (this is an implicit requirement for all valid XML and HTML documents, but not for document fragments or for all SGML documents, whose top-level elements may be different from the implied root element), and it indicates the type name of the root element: ... Markup declarations DTDs describe the structure of a class of documents via element and attribute-list declarations. Element declarations name the allowable set of elements within the document, and specify whether and how declared elements and runs of character data may be contained within each element. Attribute-list declarations name the allowable set of attributes for each declared element, including the type of each attribute value, if not an explicit set of valid values. DTD markup declarations declare which element types, attribute lists, entities, and notations are allowed in the structure of the corresponding class of XML documents. Element type declarations An element type declaration defines an element and its possible content. A valid XML document contains only elements that are defined in the DTD. Various keywords and characters specify an element's content: EMPTY for specifying that the defined element allows no content, i.e., it cannot have any children elements, not even text elements (if there are whitespaces, they are ignored); ANY for specifying that the defined element allows any content, without restriction, i.e., that it may have any number (including none) and type of children elements (including text elements); or an expression, specifying the only elements allowed as direct children in the content of the defined element; this content can be either: a mixed content, which means that the content may include at least one text element and zero or more named elements, but their order and number of occurrences cannot be restricted; this can be: ( #PCDATA ): historically meaning parsed character data, this means that only one text element is allowed in the content (no quantifier is allowed); ( #PCDATA \| element name \| ... ): a limited choice (in an exclusive list between parentheses and separated by "\|" pipe characters and terminated by the required "" quantifier) of two or more child elements (including only text elements or the specified named elements) may be used in any order and number of occurrences in the content. an element content, which means that there must be no text elements in the children elements of the content (all whitespaces encoded between child elements are then ignored, just like comments). Such element content is specified as content particle in a variant of Backus–Naur form without terminal symbols and element names as non-terminal symbols. Element content consists of: a content particle can be either the name of an element declared in the DTD, or a sequence list or choice list. It may be followed by an optional quantifier. a sequence list means an ordered list (specified between parentheses and separated by a "," comma character) of one or more content particles: all the content particles must appear successively as direct children in the content of the defined element, at the specified position and relative order; a choice list means a mutually exclusive list (specified between parentheses and separated by a "\|" pipe character) of two or more content particles: only one of these content particles may appear in the content of the defined element at the same position. A quantifier is a single character that immediately follows the specified item it applies to, to restrict the number of successive occurrences of these items at the specified position in the content of the element; it may be either: + for specifying that there must be one or more occurrences of the item — the effective content of each occurrence may be different; * for specifying that any number (zero or more) of occurrences is allowed — the item is optional and the effective content of each occurrence may be different; ? for specifying that there must not be more than one occurrence — the item is optional; If there is no quantifier, the specified item must occur exactly one time at the specified position in the content of the element. For example: Element type declarations are ignored by non-validating SGML and XML parsers (in which cases, any elements are accepted in any order, and in any number of occurrences in the parsed document), but these declarations are still checked for form and validity. Attribute list declarations An attribute list specifies for a given element type the list of all possible attribute associated with that type. For each possible attribute, it contains: the declared name of the attribute, its data type (or an enumeration of its possible values), and its default value. For example: Here are some attribute types supported by both SGML and XML: CDATA this type means characters data and indicates that the effective value of the attribute can be any textual value, unless the attribute is specified as fixed (the comments in the DTD may further document values that are effectively accepted, but the DTD syntax does not allow such precise specification); ID the effective value of the attribute must be a valid identifier, and it is used to define and anchor to the current element the target of references using this defined identifier (including as document fragment identifiers that may be specified at end of an URI after a "#" sign); it is an error if distinct elements in the same document are defining the same identifier; the uniqueness constraint also implies that the identifier itself carries no other semantics and that identifiers must be treated as opaque in applications; XML also predefines the standard pseudo-attribute "xml:id" with this type, without needing any declaration in the DTD, so the uniqueness constraint also applies to these defined identifiers when they are specified anywhere in a XML document. IDREF or IDREFS the effective value of the attribute can only be a valid identifier (or a space-separated list of such identifiers) and must be referencing the unique element defined in the document with an attribute declared with the type ID in the DTD (or the unique element defined in an XML document with a pseudo-attribute "xml:id") and whose effective value is the same identifier; NMTOKEN or NMTOKENS the effective value of the attribute can only be a valid name token (or a spaced-separated list of such name tokens), but it is not restricted to a unique identifier within the document; this name may carry supplementary and application-dependent semantics and may require additional naming constraints, but this is out of scope of the DTD; ENTITY or ENTITIES the effective value of the attribute can only be the name of an unparsed external entity (or a space-separated list of such names), which must also be declared in the document type declaration; this type is not supported in HTML parsers, but is valid in SGML and XML 1.0 or 1.1 (including XHTML and SVG); (value1\|...) the effective value of the attribute can only be one of the enumerated list (specified between parentheses and separated by a "\|" pipe character) of textual values, where each value in the enumeration is possibly specified between 'single' or "double" quotation marks if it's not a simple name token; NOTATION (notation1\|...) the effective value of the attribute can only be any one of the enumerated list (specified between parentheses and separated by a "\|" pipe character) of notation names, where each notation name in the enumeration must also be declared in the document type declaration; this type is not supported in HTML parsers, but is valid in SGML and XML 1.0 or 1.1 (including XHTML and SVG). A default value can define whether an attribute must occur (#REQUIRED) or not (#IMPLIED), or whether it has a fixed value (#FIXED), or which value should be used as a default value ("…") in case the given attribute is left out in an XML tag. Attribute list declarations are ignored by non-validating SGML and XML parsers (in which cases any attribute is accepted within all elements of the parsed document), but these declarations are still checked for well-formedness and validity. Entity declarations An entity is similar to a macro. The entity declaration assigns it a value that is retained throughout the document. A common use is to have a name more recognizable than a numeric character reference for an unfamiliar character. Entities help to improve legibility of an XML text. In general, there are two types: internal and external. Internal (parsed) entities are associating a name with any arbitrary textual content defined in their declaration (which may be in the internal subset or in the external subset of the DTD declared in the document). When a named entity reference is then encountered in the rest of the document (including in the rest of the DTD), and if this entity name has effectively been defined as a parsed entity, the reference itself is replaced immediately by the textual content defined in the parsed entity, and the parsing continues within this replacement text. Predefined named character entities are similar to internal entities: 5 of them however are treated specially in all SGML, HTML and XML parsers. These entities are a bit different from normal parsed entities, because when a named character entity reference is encountered in the document, the reference is also replaced immediately by the character content defined in the entity, but the parsing continues after the replacement text, which is immediately inserted literally in the currently parsed token (if such character is permitted in the textual value of that token). This allows some characters that are needed for the core syntax of HTML or XML themselves to be escaped from their special syntactic role (notably "&" which is reserved for beginning entity references, "" which delimit the markup tags, and "double" or 'single' quotation marks, which delimit the values of attributes and entity definitions). Predefined character entities also include numeric character references that are handled the same way and can also be used to escape the characters they represent, or to bypass limitations in the character repertoire supported by the document encoding. In basic profiles for SGML or in HTML documents, the declaration of internal entities is not possible (because external DTD subsets are not retrieved, and internal DTD subsets are not supported in these basic profiles). Instead, HTML standards predefine a large set of several hundred named character entities, which can still be handled as standard parsed entities defined in the DTD used by the parser. External entities refer to external storage objects. They are just declared by a unique name in the document, and defined with a public identifier (an FPI) and/or a system identifier (interpreted as an URI) specifying where the source of their content. They exist in fact in two variants: parsed external entities (most often defined with a SYSTEM identifier indicating the URI of their content) that are not associated in their definition to a named annotation, in which case validating XML or SGML parsers retrieve their contents and parse them as if they were declared as internal entities (the external entity containing their effective replacement text); unparsed external entities that are defined and associated with an annotation name, in which case they are treated as opaque references and signaled as such to the application using the SGML or XML parser: their interpretation, retrieval and parsing is left to the application, according to the types of annotations it supports (see the next section about annotations and for examples of unparsed external entities). External entities are not supported in basic profiles for SGML or in HTML documents, but are valid in full implementations of SGML and in XML 1.0 or 1.1 (including XHTML and SVG, even if they are not strictly needed in those document types). An example of internal entity declarations (here in an internal DTD subset of an SGML document) is: ]> &question;&signature; Internal entities may be defined in any order, as long as they are not referenced and parsed in the DTD or in the body of the document, in their order of parsing: it is valid to include a reference to a still undefined entity within the content of a parsed entity, but it is invalid to include anywhere else any named entity reference before this entity has been fully defined, including all other internal entities referenced in its defined content (this also prevents circular or recursive definitions of internal entities). This document is parsed as if it was: ]> Why couldn’t I publish my books directly in standard SGML? — William Shakespeare. Reference to the "author" internal entity is not substituted in the replacement text of the "signature" internal entity. Instead, it is replaced only when the "signature" entity reference is parsed within the content of the "sgml" element, but only by validating parsers (non-validating parsers do not substitute entity references occurring within contents of element or within attribute values, in the body of the document. This is possible because the replacement text specified in the internal entity definitions permits a distinction between parameter entity references (that are introduced by the "%" character and whose replacement applies to the parsed DTD contents) and general entity references (that are introduced by the "&" character and whose replacement is delayed until they are effectively parsed and validated). The "%" character for introducing parameter entity references in the DTD loses its special role outside the DTD and it becomes a literal character. However, the references to predefined character entities are substituted wherever they occur, without needing a validating parser (they are only introduced by the "&" character). Notation declarations Notations are used in SGML or XML. They provide a complete reference to unparsed external entities whose interpretation is left to the application (which interprets them directly or retrieves the external entity themselves), by assigning them a simple name, which is usable in the body of the document. For example, notations may be used to reference non-XML data in an XML 1.1 document. For example, to annotate SVG images to associate them with a specific renderer: This declares the TEXT of external images with this type, and associates it with a notation name "type-image-svg". However, notation names usually follow a naming convention that is specific to the application generating or using the notation: notations are interpreted as additional meta-data whose effective content is an external entity and either a PUBLIC FPI, registered in the catalogs used by XML or SGML parsers, or a SYSTEM URI, whose interpretation is application dependent (here a MIME type, interpreted as a relative URI, but it could be an absolute URI to a specific renderer, or a URN indicating an OS-specific object identifier such as a UUID). The declared notation name must be unique within all the document type declaration, i.e. in the external subset as well as the internal subset, at least for conformance with XML. Notations can be associated to unparsed external entities included in the body of the SGML or XML document. The PUBLIC or SYSTEM parameter of these external entities specifies the FPI and/or the URI where the unparsed data of the external entity is located, and the additional NDATA parameter of these defined entities specifies the additional notation (i.e., effectively the MIME type here). For example: ]> Within the body of the SGML document, these referenced external entities (whose name is specified between "&" and ";") are not replaced like usual named entities (defined with a CDATA value), but are left as distinct unparsed tokens that may be used either as the value of an element attribute (like above) or within the element contents, provided that either the DTD allows such external entities in the declared content type of elements or in the declared type of attributes (here the ENTITY type for the data attribute), or the SGML parser is not validating the content. Notations may also be associated directly to elements as additional meta-data, without associating them to another external entity, by giving their names as possible values of some additional attributes (also declared in the DTD within the declaration of the element). For example: ]> &example1SVG; The example above shows a notation named "type-image-svg" that references the standard public FPI and the system identifier (the standard URI) of an SVG 1.1 document, instead of specifying just a system identifier as in the first example (which was a relative URI interpreted locally as a MIME type). This annotation is referenced directly within the unparsed "type" attribute of the "img" element, but its content is not retrieved. It also declares another notation for a vendor-specific application, to annotate the "sgml" root element in the document. In both cases, the declared notation named is used directly in a declared "type" attribute, whose content is specified in the DTD with the "NOTATION" attribute type (this "type" attribute is declared for the "sgml" element, as well as for the "img" element). However, the "title" attribute of the "img" element specifies the internal entity "example1SVGTitle" whose declaration that does not define an annotation, so it is parsed by validating parsers and the entity replacement text is "Title of example1.svg". The content of the "img" element references another external entity "example1SVG" whose declaration also does not define a notation, so it is also parsed by validating parsers and the entity replacement text is located by its defined SYSTEM identifier "example1.svg" (also interpreted as a relative URI). The effective content for the "img" element be the content of this second external resource. The difference with the GIF image, is that the SVG image is parsed within the SGML document, according to the declarations in the DTD, where the GIF image is just referenced as an opaque external object (which is not parsable with SGML) via its "data" attribute (whose value type is an opaque ENTITY). Only one notation name may be specified in the value of ENTITY attributes (there is no support in SGML, XML 1.0 or XML 1.1 for multiple notation names in the same declared external ENTITY, so separate attributes are needed). However multiple external entities may be referenced (in a space-separated list of names) in attributes declared with type ENTITIES, and where each named external entity is also declared with its own notation). Notations are also completely opaque for XML and SGML parsers, so they are not differentiated by the type of the external entity that they may reference (for these parsers they just have a unique name associated to a public identifier (an FPI) and/or a system identifier (a URI)). Some applications (but not XML or SGML parsers themselves) also allow referencing notations indirectly by naming them in the "URN:name" value of a standard CDATA attribute, everywhere a URI can be specified. However this behaviour is application-specific, and requires that the application maintains a catalog of known URNs to resolve them into the notations that have been parsed in a standard SGML or XML parser. This use allows notations to be defined only in a DTD stored as an external entity and referenced only as the external subset of documents, and allows these documents to remain compatible with validating XML or SGML parsers that have no direct support for notations. Notations are not used in HTML, or in basic profiles for XHTML and SVG, because: All external entities used by these standard document types are referenced by simple attributes, declared with the CDATA type in their standard DTD (such as the "href" attribute of an anchor "a" element, or the "src" attribute of an image "img" element, whose values are interpreted as a URI, without needing any catalog of public identifiers, i.e., known FPI) All external entities for additional meta-data are referenced by either: Additional attributes (such as type, which indicates the MIME type of the external entity, or the charset attribute, which indicates its encoding) Additional elements (such as link or meta in HTML and XHTML) within their own attributes Standard pseudo-attributes in XML and XHTML (such as xml:lang, or xmlns and xmlns:* for namespace declarations). Even in validating SGML or XML 1.0 or XML 1.1 parsers, the external entities referenced by an FPI and/or URI in declared notations are not retrieved automatically by the parsers themselves. Instead, these parsers just provide to the application the parsed FPI and/or URI associated to the notations found in the parsed SGML or XML document, and with a facility for a dictionary containing all notation names declared in the DTD; these validating parsers also check the uniqueness of notation name declarations, and report a validation error if some notation names are used anywhere in the DTD or in the document body but not declared: If the application can not use any notation (or if their FPI and/or URI are unknown or not supported in their local catalog), these notations may be either ignored silently by the application or the application could signal an error. Otherwise, the applications decide themselves how to interpret them, then if the external entities must be retrieved and then parsed separately. Applications may then signal an error, if such interpretation, retrieval or separate parsing fails. Unrecognized notations that may cause an application to signal an error should not block interpretation of the validated document using them. XML DTDs and schema validation The XML DTD syntax is one of several XML schema languages. However, many of the schema languages do not fully replace the XML DTD. Notably, the XML DTD allows defining entities and notations that have no direct equivalents in DTD-less XML (because internal entities and parsable external entities are not part of XML schema languages, and because other unparsed external entities and notations have no simple equivalent mappings in most XML schema languages). Most XML schema languages are only replacements for element declarations and attribute list declarations, in such a way that it becomes possible to parse XML documents with non-validating XML parsers (if the only purpose of the external DTD subset was to define the schema). In addition, documents for these XML schema languages must be parsed separately, so validating the schema of XML documents in pure standalone mode is not really possible with these languages: the document type declaration remains necessary for at least identifying (with a XML Catalog) the schema used in the parsed XML document and that is validated in another language. A common misconception holds that a non-validating XML parser does not have to read document type declarations, when in fact, the document type declarations must still be scanned for correct syntax as well as validity of declarations, and the parser must still parse all entity declarations in the internal subset, and substitute the replacement texts of internal entities occurring anywhere in the document type declaration or in the document body. A non-validating parser may, however, elect not to read parsable external entities (including the external subset), and does not have to honor the content model restrictions defined in element declarations and in attribute list declarations. If the XML document depends on parsable external entities (including the specified external subset, or parsable external entities declared in the internal subset), it should assert standalone="no" in its XML declaration. The validating DTD may be identified by using XML Catalogs to retrieve its specified external subset. In the example below, the XML document is declared with standalone="no" because it has an external subset in its document type declaration: If the XML document type declaration includes any SYSTEM identifier for the external subset, it can not be safely processed as standalone: the URI should be retrieved, otherwise there may be unknown named character entities whose definition may be needed to correctly parse the effective XML syntax in the internal subset or in the document body (the XML syntax parsing is normally performed after the substitution of all named entities, excluding the five entities that are predefined in XML and that are implicitly substituted after parsing the XML document into lexical tokens). If it just includes any PUBLIC identifier, it may be processed as standalone, if the XML processor knows this PUBLIC identifier in its local catalog from where it can retrieve an associated DTD entity. XML DTD schema example An example of a very simple external XML DTD to describe the schema of a list of persons might consist of: Taking this line by line: people_list is a valid element name, and an instance of such an element contains any number of person elements. The * denotes there can be 0 or more person elements within the people_list element. person is a valid element name, and an instance of such an element contains one element named name, followed by one named birthdate (optional), then gender (also optional) and socialsecuritynumber (also optional). The ? indicates that an element is optional. The reference to the name element name has no ?, so a person element must contain a name element. name is a valid element name, and an instance of such an element contains "parsed character data" (#PCDATA). birthdate is a valid element name, and an instance of such an element contains parsed character data. gender is a valid element name, and an instance of such an element contains parsed character data. socialsecuritynumber is a valid element name, and an instance of such an element contains parsed character data. An example of an XML file that uses and conforms to this DTD follows. The DTD is referenced here as an external subset, via the SYSTEM specifier and a URI. It assumes that we can identify the DTD with the relative URI reference "example.dtd"; the "people_list" after "!DOCTYPE" tells us that the root tags, or the first element defined in the DTD, is called "people_list": Fred Bloggs 2008-11-27 Male One can render this in an XML-enabled browser (such as Internet Explorer or Mozilla Firefox) by pasting and saving the DTD component above to a text file named example.dtd and the XML file to a differently-named text file, and opening the XML file with the browser. The files should both be saved in the same directory. However, many browsers do not check that an XML document confirms to the rules in the DTD; they are only required to check that the DTD is syntactically correct. For security reasons, they may also choose not to read the external DTD. The same DTD can also be embedded directly in the XML document itself as an internal subset, by encasing it within [square brackets] in the document type declaration, in which case the document no longer depends on external entities and can be processed in standalone mode: ]> Fred Bloggs 2008-11-27 Male Alternatives Alternatives to DTDs (for specifying schemas) are available: XML Schema, also referred to as XML Schema Definition (XSD), has achieved Recommendation status within the W3C, and is popular for "data oriented" (that is, transactional non-publishing) XML use because of its stronger typing and easier round-tripping to Java declarations. Most of the publishing world has found that the added complexity of XSD would not bring them any particular benefits, so DTDs are still far more popular there. An XML Schema Definition is itself an XML document while a DTD is not. RELAX NG, which is also a part of DSDL, is an ISO international standard. It is more expressive than XSD, while providing a simpler syntax, but commercial software support has been slow in coming. Security An XML DTD can be used to create a denial of service (DoS) attack by defining nested entities that expand exponentially, or by sending the XML parser to an external resource that never returns. For this reason, .NET Framework provides a property that allows prohibiting or skipping DTD parsing, and recent versions of Microsoft Office applications (Microsoft Office 2010 and higher) refuse to open XML files that contain DTD declarations. See also JATS (Journal Article Tag Suite) Semantic Web XML Schema (W3C) XML Schema Language Comparison – Comparison to other XML Schema languages. References External links Definition of the XML document type declaration from Extensible Markup Language (XML) 1.0 (Fourth Edition) on W3.org Category:SGML Category:XML	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Document_type_definition	2025-04-05T18:28:40.241204
8539	Devil	" in Kaunas, Lithuania\|alt=A winged male humanoid devil holds a naked woman as she touches her breast. ]] (the dragon; on the left) gives to the beast of the sea (on the right) power represented by a sceptre in a detail of panel III.40 of the medieval French Apocalypse Tapestry, produced between 1377 and 1382.]] , in which demons are depicted as having grotesque faces and bodies]] A devil is the mythical personification of evil as it is conceived in various cultures and religious traditions. It is seen as the objectification of a hostile and destructive force. Jeffrey Burton Russell states that the different conceptions of the devil can be summed up as 1) a principle of evil independent from God, 2) an aspect of God, 3) a created being turning evil (a fallen angel) or 4) a symbol of human evil. Each tradition, culture, and religion with a devil in its mythos offers a different lens on manifestations of evil. The history of these perspectives intertwines with theology, mythology, psychiatry, art, and literature, developing independently within each of the traditions. It occurs historically in many contexts and cultures, and is given many different names—Satan (Judaism), Lucifer (Christianity), Beelzebub (Judeo-Christian), Mephistopheles (German), Iblis (Islam)—and attributes: it is portrayed as blue, black, or red; it is portrayed as having horns on its head, and without horns, and so on. Etymology The Modern English word devil derives from the Middle English devel, from the Old English dēofol, that in turn represents an early Germanic borrowing of the Latin diabolus. This in turn was borrowed from the Greek diábolos, "slanderer", from diabállein, "to slander" from διά diá, "across, through" and βάλλειν bállein, "to hurl", probably akin to the Sanskrit gurate, "he lifts up". Definitions In his book The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, Jeffrey Burton Russell discusses various meanings and difficulties that are encountered when using the term devil. He does not claim to define the word in a general sense, but he describes the limited use that he intends for the word in his book—limited in order to "minimize this difficulty" and "for the sake of clarity". In this book Russell uses the word devil as "the personification of evil found in a variety of cultures", as opposed to the word Satan, which he reserves specifically for the figure in the Abrahamic religions. In the Introduction to his book Satan: A Biography, Henry Ansgar Kelly discusses various considerations and meanings that he has encountered in using terms such as devil and Satan, etc. While not offering a general definition, he describes that in his book "whenever diabolos is used as the proper name of Satan", he signals it by using "small caps". The Oxford English Dictionary has a variety of definitions for the meaning of "devil", supported by a range of citations: "Devil" may refer to Satan, the supreme spirit of evil, or one of Satan's emissaries or demons that populate Hell, or to one of the spirits that possess a demoniac person; "devil" may refer to one of the "malignant deities" feared and worshiped by "heathen people", a demon, a malignant being of superhuman powers; figuratively "devil" may be applied to a wicked person, or playfully to a rogue or rascal, or in empathy often accompanied by the word "poor" to a person—"poor devil". Baháʼí Faith In the Baháʼí Faith, a malevolent, superhuman entity such as a devil or satan is not believed to exist. However, these terms do appear in the Baháʼí writings, where they are used as metaphors for the lower nature of man. Human beings are seen to have free will, and are thus able to turn towards God and develop spiritual qualities or turn away from God and become immersed in their self-centered desires. Individuals who follow the temptations of the self and do not develop spiritual virtues are often described in the Baháʼí writings with the word satanic. Christianity (1847) by Alexandre Cabanel]] In Christianity, the devil or Satan is a fallen angel who is the primary opponent of God. Some Christians also considered the Roman and Greek deities to be devils. and shall be condemned, together with the fallen angels who follow him, to eternal fire at the Last Judgment. Detail of a 16th-century painting by Jacob de Backer in the National Museum in Warsaw.]] Old Testament The Devil is identified with several figures in the Bible including the serpent in the Garden of Eden, Lucifer, Satan, the tempter of the Gospels, Leviathan, and the dragon in the Book of Revelation. Some parts of the Bible, which do not refer to an evil spirit or Satan at the time of the composition of the texts, are interpreted as references to the Devil in Christian tradition. Genesis 3 mentions the serpent in the Garden of Eden, which tempts Adam and Eve into eating the forbidden fruit from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, thus causing their expulsion from the Garden. The Babylonian myth of a rising star, as the embodiment of a heavenly being who is thrown down for his attempt to ascend into the higher planes of the gods, is also found in the Bible and interpreted as a fallen angel (Isaiah 14:12–15). Ezekiel's cherub in Eden is thought to be a description of the major characteristic of the Devil, that he was created good, as a high ranking angel and lived in Eden, later turning evil on his own accord: The Hebrew term () was originally a common noun meaning "accuser" or "adversary" and derived from a verb meaning primarily "to obstruct, oppose". Satan is conceptualized as a heavenly being hostile to humans and a personification of evil 18 times in Job 1–2 and Zechariah 3. In the Book of Job, Job is a righteous man favored by God. Job 1:6–8 describes the "sons of God" () presenting themselves before God. Satan thinks Job only loves God because he has been blessed, so he requests that God tests the sincerity of Job's love for God through suffering, expecting Job to abandon his faith. God consents; Satan destroys Job's family, health, servants and flocks, yet Job refuses to condemn God. New Testament The Devil figures much more prominently in the New Testament and in Christian theology than in the Old Testament. The Devil is a unique entity throughout the New Testament, neither identical to the demons nor the fallen angels, the tempter and perhaps rules over the kingdoms of earth. In the temptation of Christ (Matthew 4:8–9 and Luke 4:6–7), the devil offers all kingdoms of the earth to Jesus, implying they belong to him. Since Jesus does not dispute this offer, it may indicate that the authors of those gospels believed this to be true. This event is described in all three synoptic gospels, (Matthew 4:1–11, Mark 1:12–13 and Luke 4:1–13). Some Church Fathers, such as Irenaeus, reject that the Devil holds such power, arguing that, since the devil was a liar since the beginning, he also lied here and that all kingdoms belong to God, referring to Proverbs 21. Adversaries of Jesus are suggested to be under the influence of the Devil. speaks about the Pharisees as the "offspring of the devil". John 13:2 states that the devil entered Judas Iscariot before Judas' betrayal (Luke 22:3). In all three synoptic gospels (Matthew 9:22–29, Mark 3:22–30 and Luke 11:14–20), Jesus himself is also accused of serving the Devil. Jesus' adversaries claim that he receives the power to cast out demons from Beelzebub, the Devil. In response, Jesus says that a house divided against itself will fall, and that there would be no reason for the devil to allow one to defeat the devil's works with his own power. According to the First Epistle of Peter, "Like a roaring lion your adversary the devil prowls around, looking for someone to devour" (1 Peter 5:8). The authors of the Second Epistle of Peter and the Epistle of Jude believe that God prepares judgment for the devil and his fellow fallen angels, who are bound in darkness until the Divine retribution. In the Epistle to the Romans, the inspirer of sin is also implied to be the author of death. In the Second Epistle to the Corinthians, Paul the Apostle warns that Satan is often disguised as an angel of light. Many scholars explain the Devil's fall from God's grace in Neoplatonic fashion. According to Origen, God created rational creatures first then the material world. The rational creatures are divided into angels and humans, both endowed with free will, and the material world is a result of their evil choices. Therefore, the Devil is considered most remote from the presence of God, and those who adhere to the Devil's will follow the Devil's removal from God's presence. Similar, Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite considers evil as a deficiency having no real ontological existence. Thus the Devil is conceptualized as the entity most remote from God. Dante Alighieri's Inferno follows a similar portrayal of the Devil by placing him at the bottom of hell where he becomes the center of the material and sinful world to which all sinfulness is drawn. From the beginning of the early modern period (around the 1400s), Christians started to imagine the Devil as an increasingly powerful entity, actively leading people into falsehood. For Martin Luther the Devil was not a deficit of good, but a real, personal and powerful entity, with a presumptuous will against God, his word and his creation. Luther lists several hosts of greater and lesser devils. Greater devils would incite to greater sins, like unbelief and heresy, while lesser devils to minor sins like greed and fornication. Among these devils also appears Asmodeus known from the Book of Tobit.}} These anthropomorphic devils are used as stylistic devices for his audience, although Luther regards them as different manifestations of one spirit (i.e. the Devil).}} Others rejected that the Devil has any independent reality on his own. David Joris was the first of the Anabaptists to suggest the Devil was only an allegory (); this view found a small but persistent following in the Netherlands. The Devil as a fallen angel symbolized Adam's fall from God's grace and Satan represented a power within man. Gnostic religions 's ''L'antiquité expliquée et représentée en figures may be a depiction of the Demiurge.]] Gnostic and Gnostic-influenced religions postulate the idea that the material world is inherently evil. The One true God is remote, beyond the material universe; therefore, this universe must be governed by an inferior imposter deity. This deity was identified with the deity of the Old Testament by some sects, such as the Sethians and the Marcions. Tertullian accuses Marcion of Sinope, that he John Arendzen (1909) in the Catholic Encyclopedia (1913) mentions that Eusebius accused Apelles, the 2nd-century AD Gnostic, of considering the Inspirer of Old Testament prophecies to be not a god, but an evil angel. These writings commonly refer to the Creator of the material world as "a demiurgus" Catharism In the 12th century in Europe the Cathars, who were rooted in Gnosticism, dealt with the problem of evil, and developed ideas of dualism and demonology. The Cathars were seen as a serious potential challenge to the Catholic church of the time. The Cathars split into two camps. The first is absolute dualism, which held that evil was completely separate from the good God, and that God and the devil each had power. The second camp is mitigated dualism, which considers Lucifer to be a son of God and a brother to Christ. To explain this, they used the parable of the prodigal son, with Christ as the good son, and Lucifer as the son that strayed into evilness. The Catholic Church responded to dualism in AD 1215 in the Fourth Lateran Council, saying that God created everything from nothing, and the devil was good when he was created, but he made himself bad by his own free will. In the Gospel of the Secret Supper, Lucifer, just as in prior Gnostic systems, appears as a demiurge, who created the material world. Islam (top right on the picture) refuses to prostrate before the newly created Adam from a Persian miniature.]] In Islam, the principle of evil is expressed by two terms referring to the same entity: Shaitan (meaning astray, distant or devil) and Iblis. Iblis is the proper name of the devil representing the characteristics of evil. Iblis is mentioned in the Quranic narrative about the creation of humanity. When God created Adam, he ordered the angels to prostrate themselves before him. Out of pride, Iblis refused and claimed to be superior to Adam. Therefore, pride but also envy became a sign of "unbelief" in Islam. knowing the righteous would resist Iblis' attempts to misguide them. In Islam, both good and evil are ultimately created by God. But since God's will is good, the evil in the world must be part of God's plan. Actually, God allowed the devil to seduce humanity. Evil and suffering are regarded as a test or a chance to prove confidence in God. Muslims hold that the pre-Islamic jinn, tutelary deities, became subject under Islam to the judgment of God, and that those who did not submit to the law of God are devils. Although Iblis is often compared to the devil in Christian theology, Islam rejects the idea that Satan is an opponent of God and the implied struggle between God and the devil. Iblis might either be regarded as the most monotheistic or the greatest sinner, but remains only a creature of God. Iblis did not become an unbeliever due to his disobedience, but because of attributing injustice to God; that is, by asserting that the command to prostrate himself before Adam was inappropriate. There is no reference to angelic revolt in the Quran and no mention of Iblis trying to take God's throne, and Iblis's sin could be forgiven at any time by God. According to the Quran, Iblis's disobedience was due to his disdain for humanity, a narrative already occurring in early New Testament apocrypha. As in Christianity, Iblis was once a pious creature of God but later cast out of Heaven due to his pride. However, to maintain God's absolute sovereignty, Islam matches the line taken by Irenaeus instead of the later Christian consensus that the devil did not rebel against God but against humanity. he plays a less significant role as the personification of evil than in Christianity. Iblis is merely a tempter, notable for inciting humans into sin by whispering into humans minds (waswās), akin to the Jewish idea of the devil as yetzer hara. On the other hand, Shaitan refers unilaterally to forces of evil, including the devil Iblis who causes mischief. Shaitan is also linked to humans' psychological nature, appearing in dreams, causing anger, or interrupting the mental preparation for prayer. In Muslim culture, devils are believed to be hermaphrodite creatures created from hell-fire, with one male and one female thigh, and able to procreate without a mate. It is generally believed that devils can harm the souls of humans through their whisperings. While whisperings tempt humans to sin, the devils might enter the hearth (qalb) of an individual. If the devils take over the soul of a person, this would render them aggressive or insane. In extreme cases, the alterings of the soul are believed to have effect on the body, matching its spiritual qualities. In Sufism and mysticism In contrast to Occidental philosophy, the Sufi idea of seeing "Many as One" and considering the creation in its essence as the Absolute, leads to the idea of the dissolution of any dualism between the ego substance and the "external" substantial objects. The rebellion against God, mentioned in the Quran, takes place on the level of the psyche that must be trained and disciplined for its union with the spirit that is pure. Since psyche drives the body, flesh is not the obstacle to humans but rather an unawareness that allows the impulsive forces to cause rebellion against God on the level of the psyche. Yet it is not a dualism between body, psyche and spirit, since the spirit embraces both psyche and corporeal aspects of humanity. Since the world is held to be the mirror in which God's attributes are reflected, participation in worldly affairs is not necessarily seen as opposed to God. Thus, it is the I that is regarded as evil, and both Iblis and Pharao are present as symbols for uttering "I" in ones own behavior. Therefore, it is recommended to use the term I as little as possible. It is only God who has the right to say "I", since it is only God who is self-subsistent. Uttering "I" is therefore a way to compare oneself to God, regarded as shirk. Islamist movements Many Salafi strands emphasize a dualistic worldview between believers and unbelievers, The unbelievers are considered to be under the domain of the Devil and are the enemies of the faithful. The former are credited with tempting the latter to sin and away from God's path. The Devil will ultimately be defeated by the power of God, but remains until then a serious threat for the believer. The notion of a substantial reality of evil (or a form of dualism between God and the Devil) has no precedence in the Quran or earlier Muslim traditions. Neither in the writings of ibn Sina, Ghazali, nor ibn Taimiyya, has evil any positive existence, but is described as the absence of good. Accordingly, infidelity among humans, civilizations, and empires are not described evil or devilish in Classical Islamic sources. This is in stark contrast to Islamists, such as Osama bin Laden, who justifies his violence against the infidels by contrary assertions. While in classical hadiths, devils (shayāṭīn) and jinn are responsible for ritual impurity, many Salafis substitute local demons by an omnipresent threat through the Devil himself. Only through remembrance of God and ritual purity, the devil can be kept away. As such, the Devil becomes an increasinly powerful entity who is believed to interfer with both personal and political life. For example, many Salafis blame the Devil for Western emancipation. Judaism Yahweh, the god in pre-exilic Judaism, created both good and evil, as stated in Isaiah 45:7: "I form the light, and create darkness: I make peace, and create evil: I the Lord do all these things." The devil does not exist in Jewish scriptures. However, the influence of Zoroastrianism during the Achaemenid Empire introduced evil as a separate principle into the Jewish belief system, which gradually externalized the opposition until the Hebrew term satan developed into a specific type of supernatural entity, changing the monistic view of Judaism into a dualistic one. Later, Rabbinic Judaism rejected the Enochian books (written during the Second Temple period under Persian influence), which depicted the devil as an independent force of evil besides God. After the apocalyptic period, references to Satan in the Tanakh are thought to be allegorical. Mandaeism In Mandaean mythology, Ruha fell apart from the World of Light and became the queen of the World of Darkness, also referred to as Sheol. She is considered evil and a liar, sorcerer and seductress.She gives birth to Ur, also referred to as Leviathan. He is portrayed as a large, ferocious dragon or snake and is considered the king of the World of Darkness. Prominent infernal beings found in the World of Darkness include lilith, nalai (vampire), niuli (hobgoblin), latabi (devil), gadalta (ghost), satani (Satan) and various other demons and evil spirits. At the end, the devil and his followers will be sealed forever and the kingdom of light and the kingdom of darkness will continue to co-exist eternally, never to commingle again. Hegemonius (4th century CE) accuses that the Persian prophet Mani, founder of the Manichaean sect in the 3rd century CE, identified Jehovah as "the devil god which created the world" and said that "he who spoke with Moses, the Jews, and the priests … is the [Prince] of Darkness, … not the god of truth." Tengrism Among the Tengristic myths of central Asia, Erlik refers to a devil-like figure as the ruler of Tamag (Hell), who was also the first human. According to one narrative, Erlik and God swam together over the primordial waters. When God was about to create the Earth, he sent Erlik to dive into the waters and collect some mud. Erlik hid some inside his mouth to later create his own world. But when God commanded the Earth to expand, Erlik got troubled by the mud in his mouth. God aided Erlik to spit it out. The mud carried by Erlik gave place to the unpleasant areas of the world. Because of his sin, he was assigned to evil. In another variant, the creator-god is identified with Ulgen. Again, Erlik appears to be the first human. He desired to create a human just as Ulgen did, thereupon Ulgen reacted by punishing Erlik, casting him into the Underworld where he becomes its ruler. According to Tengrism, there is no death, meaning that, when life comes to an end, it is merely a transition into the invisible world. As the ruler of Hell, Erlik enslaves the souls, who are damned to Hell. Further, he lurks on the souls of those humans living on Earth by causing death, disease and illnesses. At the time of birth, Erlik sends a Kormos to seize the soul of the newborn, following him for the rest of his life in an attempt to seize his soul by hampering, misguiding, and injuring him. When Erlik succeeds in destroying a human's body, the Kormos sent by Erlik will try take him down into the Underworld. However a good soul will be brought to Paradise by a Yayutshi sent by Ulgen. Some shamans also made sacrifices to Erlik, for gaining a higher rank in the Underworld, if they should be damned to Hell. Yazidism According to Yazidism there is no entity that represents evil in opposition to God; such dualism is rejected by Yazidis, and evil is regarded as nonexistent. Yazidis adhere to strict monism and are prohibited from uttering the word "devil" and from speaking of anything related to Hell. Zoroastrianism ]] Zoroastrianism probably introduced the first idea of the devil; a principle of evil independently existing apart from God. In Zoroastrianism, good and evil derive from two ultimately opposed forces. The force of good is called Ahura Mazda and the "destructive spirit" in the Avestan language is called Angra Mainyu. The Middle Persian equivalent is Ahriman. They are in eternal struggle and neither is all-powerful, especially Angra Mainyu is limited to space and time: in the end of time, he will be finally defeated. While Ahura Mazda creates what is good, Angra Mainyu is responsible for every evil and suffering in the world, such as toads and scorpions. However, if the devil is the opposite of God, the devil would consist of Nothingness, which does not exist. Evil or immoral behaviour in humans, such as anger, hate, envy, and all things for which the devil is blamed for could be explained without the proposal of a devil. The devil must have known his sin would lead to doom, thus the devil was not knowing, or the devil did not know his sin will lead to doom, thus the devil would not have been a rational being. Spinoza deducts a strict determinism in which moral agency as a free choice, cannot exist. Kant further argues that a (spiritual) devil would be a contradiction. If the devil would be defined by doing evil, the devil had no free choice in the first place. But if the devil had no free-choice, the devil could not have been held accountable for his actions, since he had no free will but was only following his nature. Titles Honorifics or styles of address used to indicate devil-figures. * Ash-Shaytan "Satan", the attributive Arabic term referring to the devil * Angra Mainyu, Ahriman: "malign spirit", "unholy spirit" * Dark lord * Der Leibhaftige [Teufel] (German): "[the devil] in the flesh, corporeal" * Diabolus, Diabolos'' (Greek: Διάβολος) * The Evil One * The Father of Lies (John 8:44), in contrast to Jesus ("I am the truth"). * Iblis, name of the devil in Islam * The Lord of the Underworld / Lord of Hell / Lord of this world * Lucifer / the Morning Star (Greek and Roman): the bringer of light, illuminator; the planet Venus, often portrayed as Satan's name in Christianity * Kölski (Iceland) * Mephistopheles * Old Scratch, the Stranger, Old Nick: a colloquialism for the devil, as indicated by the name of the character in the short story "The Devil and Tom Walker" * Prince of darkness, the devil in Manichaeism * Ruprecht (German form of Robert), a common name for the Devil in Germany (see Knecht Ruprecht (Knight Robert)) * Satan / the Adversary, Accuser, Prosecutor; in Christianity, the devil * (The ancient/old/crooked/coiling) Serpent * Voland (fictional character in The Master and Margarita) Contemporary belief Opinion polls show that belief in the devil in Western countries is more common in the United States ... {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Belief in the devil in 1982 \|- ! Country !! U.S. !! U.K. !!France \|- \| Percentage \|\| ~60 \|\| 21 \|\| 17 \|- \|} where it is more common among the religious, regular church goers, political conservatives, and the older and less well educated, ... but has declined in recent decades. {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Belief in the devil in the U.S. \|- ! Year surveyed !! 2001!! 2004!! 2000!! 2016!! 2023 \|- \| Percentage believing\|\|68 \|\| 70 \|\| 70 \|\| 61 \|\|58 \|} See also<!-- Please respect alphabetical order. --> * Deal with the Devil * Devil in popular culture * Hades, Underworld * Krampus, in the Tyrolean area also Tuifl * Non-physical entity * Theistic Satanism Notes References Sources* * * * * * * * * * * * * * External links * * * * * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04764a.htm Entry] from the New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia * [https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/1093498/jewish/Can-You-Sell-Your-Soul-to-the-Devil.htm Can you sell your soul to the Devil?] A Jewish view on the Devil Notes Category:Book of Jubilees Category:Fallen angels Category:Religious philosophical concepts	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devil	2025-04-05T18:28:40.277852
8540	Diesel engine	}} film showing the development of the diesel engine from 1877]] The diesel engine, named after the German engineer Rudolf Diesel, is an internal combustion engine in which ignition of diesel fuel is caused by the elevated temperature of the air in the cylinder due to mechanical compression; thus, the diesel engine is called a compression-ignition engine (CI engine). This contrasts with engines using spark plug-ignition of the air-fuel mixture, such as a petrol engine (gasoline engine) or a gas engine (using a gaseous fuel like natural gas or liquefied petroleum gas). Introduction Diesel engines work by compressing only air, or air combined with residual combustion gases from the exhaust (known as exhaust gas recirculation, "EGR"). Air is inducted into the chamber during the intake stroke, and compressed during the compression stroke. This increases air temperature inside the cylinder so that atomised diesel fuel injected into the combustion chamber ignites. The torque a diesel engine produces is controlled by manipulating the air-fuel ratio (λ); instead of throttling the intake air, the diesel engine relies on altering the amount of fuel that is injected, and thus the air-fuel ratio is usually high. The diesel engine has the highest thermal efficiency (see engine efficiency) of any practical internal or external combustion engine due to its very high expansion ratio and inherent lean burn, which enables heat dissipation by excess air. A small efficiency loss is also avoided compared with non-direct-injection gasoline engines, as unburned fuel is not present during valve overlap, and therefore no fuel goes directly from the intake/injection to the exhaust. Low-speed diesel engines (as used in ships and other applications where overall engine weight is relatively unimportant) can reach effective efficiencies of up to 55%. According to Konrad Reif (2012), the EU average for diesel cars at the time accounted for half of newly registered cars. Though aviation has traditionally avoided using diesel engines, aircraft diesel engines have become increasingly available in the 21st century. Since the late 1990s, for various reasons—including diesel's inherent advantages over gasoline engines, but also for recent issues peculiar to aviation—development and production of diesel engines for aircraft has surged, with over 5,000 such engines delivered worldwide between 2002 and 2018, particularly for light airplanes and unmanned aerial vehicles. History Diesel's idea 's 1893 patent on a rational heat motor]] In 1878, Rudolf Diesel, who was a student at the "Polytechnikum" in Munich, attended the lectures of Carl von Linde. Linde explained that steam engines are capable of converting just 6–10% of the heat energy into work, but that the Carnot cycle allows conversion of much more of the heat energy into work by means of isothermal change in condition. According to Diesel, this ignited the idea of creating a highly efficient engine that could work on the Carnot cycle. After several years of working on his ideas, Diesel published them in 1893 in the essay Theory and Construction of a Rational Heat Motor. France (No. 243,531) and Belgium (No. 113,139) in December 1894, and in Germany (No. 86,633) in 1895 and the United States (No. 608,845) in 1898. 1960s , one of the first direct injected Mercedes-Benz diesel engines. It was introduced in 1963, but mass production only started in summer 1964. * 1978: Daimler-Benz produces the first passenger car diesel engine with a turbocharger (Mercedes-Benz OM617 engine). * 1985: December, road testing of a common rail injection system for lorries using a modified 6VD 12,5/12 GRF-E engine in an IFA W50 takes place. 1990s * 1992: 1 July, the Euro 1 emission standard comes into effect. and the lack of intake air restrictions (i.e. throttle valves). Theoretically, the highest possible efficiency for a diesel engine is 75%. Emissions Diesel engines are combustion engines and, therefore, emit combustion products in their exhaust gas. Due to incomplete combustion, Road vehicle diesel engines have no sulfur dioxide emissions, because motor vehicle diesel fuel has been sulfur-free since 2003. Helmut Tschöke argues that particulate matter emitted from motor vehicles has negative impacts on human health. The particulate matter in diesel exhaust emissions is sometimes classified as a carcinogen or "probable carcinogen" and is known to increase the risk of heart and respiratory diseases. Electrical system In principle, a diesel engine does not require any sort of electrical system. However, most modern diesel engines are equipped with an electrical fuel pump, and an electronic engine control unit. However, there is no high-voltage electrical ignition system present in a diesel engine. This eliminates a source of radio frequency emissions (which can interfere with navigation and communication equipment), which is why only diesel-powered vehicles are allowed in some parts of the American National Radio Quiet Zone. The power output of medium-speed diesel engines can be as high as 21,870 kW, The cost effectiveness (and proportion of added weight) of these technologies has less of an impact on larger, more expensive engines, while engines intended for shipping or stationary use can be run at a single speed for long periods. Fuel injection The fuel is injected at high pressure into either the combustion chamber, "swirl chamber" or "pre-chamber," Unit injectors are operated by a cam and the quantity of fuel injected is controlled either mechanically (by a rack or lever) or electronically. Due to increased performance requirements, unit injectors have been largely replaced by common rail injection systems. Engine runaway (uncontrollable overspeeding) See diesel engine runaway. Applications The characteristics of diesel have different advantages for different applications. Passenger cars Diesel engines have long been popular in bigger cars and have been used in smaller cars such as superminis in Europe since the 1980s. They were popular in larger cars earlier, as the weight and cost penalties were less noticeable. Smooth operation as well as high low-end torque are deemed important for passenger cars and small commercial vehicles. The introduction of electronically controlled fuel injection significantly improved the smooth torque generation, and starting in the early 1990s, car manufacturers began offering their high-end luxury vehicles with diesel engines. Passenger car diesel engines usually have between three and twelve cylinders, and a displacement ranging from 0.8 to 6.0 litres. Modern powerplants are usually turbocharged and have direct injection. or in several Junkers aircraft, which had Jumo 205 engines installed. and in the first successful demonstration of ground-to-air radiophone communications (voice radio having been previously unintelligible in aircraft equipped with spark-ignition engines, due to electromagnetic interference). However, noxious exhaust fumes, cold-start and vibration problems, engine structural failures, the death of its developer, and the industrial economic contraction of the Great Depression, combined to kill the program. However, with the 1970s energy crisis and environmental movement, and resulting pressures for greater fuel economy, reduced carbon and lead in the atmosphere, and other issues, there was a resurgence of interest in diesel engines for aircraft. High-compression piston aircraft engines that run on aviation gasoline ("avgas") generally require the addition of toxic Tetraethyl lead to avgas, to avoid engine pre-ignition and detonation; but diesel engines do not require leaded fuel. Also, biodiesel can, theoretically, provide a net reduction in atmospheric carbon compared to avgas. For these reasons, the general aviation community has begun to fear the possible banning or discontinuance of leaded avgas. Additionally, avgas is a specialty fuel in very low (and declining) demand, compared to other fuels, and its makers are susceptible to costly aviation-crash lawsuits, reducing refiners' interest in producing it. Outside the United States, avgas has already become increasingly difficult to find at airports (and generally), than less-expensive, diesel-compatible fuels like Jet-A and other jet fuels. First successful application of the Theilerts to production aircraft was in the Diamond DA42 Twin Star light twin, which exhibited exceptional fuel efficiency surpassing anything in its class, and its single-seat predecessor, the Diamond DA40 Diamond Star. The United States' Federal Aviation Administration has reported that "by 2007, various jet-fueled piston aircraft had logged well over 600,000 hours of service". By late 2022, Continental was reporting that its "Jet-A" fueled engines had exceeded "2,000... in operation today," with over "9 million hours," and were being "specified by major OEMs" for Cessna, Piper, Diamond, Mooney, Tecnam, Glasair and Robin aircraft.Non-road diesel enginesNon-road diesel engines are commonly used for construction equipment and agricultural machinery. Fuel efficiency, reliability and ease of maintenance are very important for such engines, whilst high power output and quiet operation are negligible. Therefore, mechanically controlled fuel injection and air-cooling are still very common. The common power outputs of non-road diesel engines vary a lot, with the smallest units starting at 3 kW, and the most powerful engines being heavy duty lorry engines.Low heat rejection enginesA special class of prototype internal combustion piston engines has been developed over several decades with the goal of improving efficiency by reducing heat loss. ;Bosch 1993 ;Böge 2017 ;Braess 2012 ;BMW 1985 ;Bryzik 1993 ;Cole 2014 ;Cummins ;Daimler 2009 ;Danielson 1993 ;Diehl 2013 ;Diesel ;Dubbel 1981 ;Dubbel 2018 ;Egger 2002 ;EPA 2004 ;Hawks 1939 ;Von Fersen ;Flatz 1946 ;Fleet Owner 1964 ;Hemmerlein 1991 ;Kamo 1996 ;Karim 2015 ;Kremser 1942 ;List 1939 ;MAN 1991 ;Mau 1984 ;Merker 2014 ;Moon 1974 ;Nanlin 1993 ;Von Philippovich 1939 ;Pischinger 2016 ;Reif ;Schreiner 2014 ;Stan 2017 ;SAE 2017 ;Sass 1962 ;Schwarz 1993 ;Schwarz 2012 ;Sittauer 1990 ;Soimar2000 ;Speck 2005 ;Tschöke 2018 ;Tucker-Jones 2015 ;Vogler 2016 ;Waibel 2016 ;Zhao 2009 ;Misc. <!-- Unused (but not unloved) --> }} External links * * * * Patents * [http://pdfpiw.uspto.gov/.piw?docid00542846&SectionNum2&IDKey1BB1E16A8D0F&HomeUrlhttp://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1PTO1%2526Sect2HITOFF%2526dPALL%2526p1%2526u%25252Fnetahtml%25252FPTO%25252Fsrchnum.htm%2526r1%2526fG%2526l50%2526s10542846.PN.%2526OSPN/0542846%2526RSPN/0542846 Method of and Apparatus for Converting Heat into Work. # 542846 filed 1892] * [http://pdfpiw.uspto.gov/.piw?Docid00608845&homeurlhttp%3A%2F%2Fpatft.uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1%3DPTO1%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526d%3DPALL%2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnetahtml%25252FPTO%25252Fsrchnum.htm%2526r%3D1%2526f%3DG%2526l%3D50%2526s1%3D0608845.PN.%2526OS%3DPN%2F0608845%2526RS%3DPN%2F0608845&PageNum&Rtype&SectionNum&idkeyNONE&Input=View+first+page Internal Combustion Engine #608845 filed 1895] Category:Internal combustion piston engines Category:1893 introductions Category:1893 in Germany Category:German inventions	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_engine	2025-04-05T18:28:40.370642
8541	Dark Star	Dark Star or Darkstar may refer to: Astronomy Dark star (Newtonian mechanics), a star that has a gravitational pull strong enough to trap light under Newtonian gravity Dark star (dark matter), a star heated by annihilation of dark matter particles within it Dark-energy star, an object composed of dark energy that outwardly resembles a black hole Media and entertainment Film The Dark Star (1919 film), a lost 1919 silent film The Dark Star (1955 film), a 1955 West German drama film Dark Star (film), a 1974 science fiction comedy film directed by John Carpenter Dark Star, a 1978 film distributed by David Grant Dark Star: H. R. Giger's World, a 2014 Swiss documentary "Darkstar", a fictional military aircraft in the 2022 film Top Gun: Maverick Television Darkstar (Ben 10), or Michael Morningstar, a character in the Ben 10 franchise Literature Comics Darkstar (Marvel Comics), a Marvel Comics superhero Darkstars, a DC Comics superhero team Darkstar Comics, a fictional comic book company in the TV series Spaced Dark Star, an issue of the comics series The Transformers Books The Dark Star, a 1917 novel by Robert W. Chambers Dark Star, a 1929 novel by Lorna Moon The Dark Star, a 1939 novel by Margaret Mackie Morrison, writing as March Cost Dark Star, a 1969 novel by Norma K. Hemming, writing as Nerina Hilliard Dark Star, a novelization of the 1974 film, by Alan Dean Foster Dark Star, a 1985 biography about John Gilbert written by his daughter Leatrice Joy-Gilbert Dark Star, a 1989 novel by Marcia Muller Dark Star: The Roy Orbison Story, a 1990 book by Ellis Amburn Dark Star, a 1991 Night Soldiers novel by Alan Furst Dark Star, a 2008 Stony Man novel by Nick Pollotta, writing as Don Pendleton Darkstar, a 2011 novella by Christopher R. Howard Dark Star, a 2020 book by Jane Holland, an omnibus of the Stella Penhaligon series Music Performers Dark Star (band), an English psychedelic rock band, 1998–2001 Darkstar (band), an English electronic duo, formed 2007 Dark Star Orchestra, a Grateful Dead tribute band Darkstar, a progressive metal band co-founded by Dan Rock of Psychotic Waltz Albums Dark Star (soundtrack), by John Carpenter, 1980 Dark Star, by Deine Lakaien, 1991 Dark Star, by The Supernaturals, 1993 Dark Star: The Music of the Grateful Dead, by the David Murray Octet, 1996 Dark Star (album), by the Grateful Dead and featuring their song "Dark Star", 2012 Dark Star, by Jaymes Young, 2013 Songs "Dark Star" (song), by the Grateful Dead "Dark Star", by Beck from The Information "Dark Star", by Cinema Bizarre from ToyZ "Dark Star", by Crosby, Stills & Nash from CSN "Dark Star", by Delerium from Faces, Forms & Illusions "Dark Star", by Hypnogaja from Truth Decay "Dark Star", by I Am Kloot from Natural History "Dark Star", by Mike Oldfield from Tubular Bells II "Dark Star", by Poliça from Give You the Ghost "Dark Star", by Tarja Turunen from What Lies Beneath "Dark Star", by Jaymes Young from his album of the same name Video games DarkStar One, a 2006 video game Darkstar: The Interactive Movie, a 2010 video game Dark Star (No More Heroes), a character in the video game No More Heroes Dark Star, a malevolent artifact in the video game Mario & Luigi: Bowser's Inside Story Dark Star (1984 video game), a 3D space shoot 'em up for the ZX Spectrum written by Simon Brattel for Design Design Software Darkstar, special weapon in a Sci-Fi MMOFPS PlanetSide 2 Technology Lockheed Martin RQ-3 DarkStar, an unmanned aerial vehicle Project Darkstar, a framework for creating massively multiplayer online games Tesla Roadster (2008), codenamed DarkStar, an electric sports car Other uses Dark Star Brewery, West Sussex, England Dark Star (cave), a cave system in Uzbekistan Dark Star (horse), an American Thoroughbred racehorse See also Black Star (disambiguation) Black Sun (disambiguation) Dark Sun (disambiguation) Dark (disambiguation) Star (disambiguation)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_Star	2025-04-05T18:28:40.380078
8544	Drawing	thumb\|Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Man () Accademia, Venice Drawing is a visual art that uses an instrument to mark paper or another two-dimensional surface. The instruments used to make a drawing are pencils, crayons, pens with inks, brushes with paints, or combinations of these, and in more modern times, computer styluses with graphics tablets or gamepads in VR drawing software. A drawing instrument releases a small amount of material onto a surface, leaving a visible mark. The most common support for drawing is paper, although other materials, such as cardboard, vellum, wood, plastic, leather, canvas, and board, have been used. Temporary drawings may be made on a blackboard or whiteboard. Drawing has been a popular and fundamental means of public expression throughout human history. It is one of the simplest and most efficient means of communicating ideas. The wide availability of drawing instruments makes drawing one of the most common artistic activities. In addition to its more artistic forms, drawing is frequently used in commercial illustration, animation, architecture, engineering, and technical drawing. A quick, freehand drawing, usually not intended as a finished work, is sometimes called a sketch. An artist who practices or works in technical drawing may be called a drafter, draftsman, or draughtsman. Overview thumb\|upright\|Madame Palmyre with Her Dog, 1897. Henri de Toulouse-LautrecDrawing is one of the oldest forms of human expression within the visual arts. It is generally concerned with the marking of lines and areas of tone onto paper/other material, where the accurate representation of the visual world is expressed upon a plane surface. Traditional drawings were monochrome, or at least had little colour, while modern colored-pencil drawings may approach or cross a boundary between drawing and painting. In Western terminology, drawing is distinct from painting, even though similar media often are employed in both tasks. Dry media, normally associated with drawing, such as chalk, may be used in pastel paintings. Drawing may be done with a liquid medium, applied with brushes or pens. Using a brush for drawing is very widespread and here it is more the process of using lines and hatching, that characterises something as a drawing. Similar supports likewise can serve both: painting generally involves the application of liquid paint onto prepared canvas or panels, but sometimes an underdrawing is drawn first on that same support. Drawing is often exploratory, with considerable emphasis on observation, problem-solving and composition. Drawing is also regularly used in preparation for a painting, further obfuscating their distinction. Drawings created for these purposes are called sketches. There are several categories of drawing, including figure drawing, cartooning, doodling, and freehand. There are also many drawing methods, such as line drawing, stippling, shading, the surrealist method of entopic graphomania (in which dots are made at the sites of impurities in a blank sheet of paper, and lines are then made between the dots), and tracing (drawing on a translucent paper, such as tracing paper, around the outline of preexisting shapes that show through the paper). A quick, unrefined drawing may be called a sketch. In fields outside art, technical drawings or plans of buildings, machinery, circuitry and other things are often called "drawings" even when they have been transferred to another medium by printing. History In communication Drawing is one of the oldest forms of human expression, with evidence for its existence preceding that of written communication. It is believed that drawing was used as a specialised form of communication before the invention of the written language, demonstrated by the production of cave and rock paintings around 30,000 years ago (Art of the Upper Paleolithic). These drawings, known as pictograms, depicted objects and abstract concepts. The sketches and paintings produced by Neolithic times were eventually stylised and simplified in to symbol systems (proto-writing) and eventually into early writing systems. In manuscripts Before the widespread availability of paper in Europe, monks in European monasteries used drawings, either as underdrawings for illuminated manuscripts on vellum or parchment, or as the final image. Drawing has also been used extensively in the field of science, as a method of discovery, understanding and explanation. In science thumb\|upright=0.7\|Galileo Galilei, Phases of the Moon, 1609 or 1610, brown ink and wash on paper. 208 × 142 mm. National Central Library (Florence), Gal. 48, fol. 28rDrawing diagrams of observations is an important part of scientific study. In 1609, astronomer Galileo Galilei explained the changing phases of Venus and also the sunspots through his observational telescopic drawings. Initially, artists used and reused wooden tablets for the production of their drawings. Following the widespread availability of paper in the 14th century, the use of drawing in the arts increased. At this point, drawing was commonly used as a tool for thought and investigation, acting as a study medium whilst artists were preparing for their final pieces of work. The Renaissance brought about a great sophistication in drawing techniques, enabling artists to represent things more realistically than before, and revealing an interest in geometry and philosophy. The invention of the first widely available form of photography led to a shift in the hierarchy of the arts. Photography offered an alternative to drawing as a method for accurately representing visual phenomena, and traditional drawing practice was given less emphasis as an essential skill for artists, particularly so in Western society. Notable artists and draftsmen Drawing became significant as an art form around the late 15th century, with artists and master engravers such as Albrecht Dürer and Martin Schongauer (–1491), the first Northern engraver known by name. Schongauer came from Alsace, and was born into a family of goldsmiths. Albrecht Dürer, a master of the next generation, was also the son of a goldsmith. Old Master Drawings often reflect the history of the country in which they were produced, and the fundamental characteristics of a nation at that time. In 17th-century Holland, a Protestant country, there were almost no religious artworks, and, with no King or court, most art was bought privately. Drawings of landscapes or genre scenes were often viewed not as sketches but as highly finished works of art. Italian drawings, however, show the influence of Catholicism and the Church, which played a major role in artistic patronage. The same is often true of French drawings, although in the 17th century the disciplines of French Classicism meant drawings were less Baroque than the more free Italian counterparts, which conveyed a greater sense of movement. In the 20th century Modernism encouraged "imaginative originality" and some artists' approach to drawing became less literal, more abstract. World-renowned artists such as Pablo Picasso, Andy Warhol and Jean-Michel Basquiat helped challenge the status quo, with drawing being very much at the centre of their practice, and often re-interpreting traditional technique. Basquiat's drawings were produced in many different mediums, most commonly ink, pencil, felt-tip or marker, and oil-stick, and he drew on any surface that came to hand, such as doors, clothing, refrigerators, walls and baseball helmets. The centuries have produced a canon of notable artists and draftsmen, each with their own distinct language of drawing, including: 14th, 15th and 16th: Leonardo da Vinci • Albrecht Dürer • Hans Holbein the Younger • Michelangelo • Pisanello • Raphael 17th: Claude • Jacques de Gheyn II • Guercino • Nicolas Poussin • Rembrandt • Peter Paul Rubens • Pieter Saenredam 18th: François Boucher • Jean-Honoré Fragonard • Giovanni Battista Tiepolo • Antoine Watteau 19th: Aubrey Beardsley • Paul Cézanne • Jacques-Louis David • Honoré Daumier • Edgar Degas • Théodore Géricault • Francisco Goya • Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres • Pierre-Paul Prud'hon • Odilon Redon • John Ruskin • Georges Seurat • Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec • Vincent van Gogh 20th: Max Beckmann • Jean Dubuffet • M. C. Escher • Arshile Gorky • George Grosz • Paul Klee • Oskar Kokoschka • Käthe Kollwitz • Alfred Kubin • André Masson • Alphonse Mucha • Jules Pascin • Pablo Picasso • Egon Schiele • Jean-Michel Basquiat • Andy Warhol Materials The medium is the means by which ink, pigment, or color are delivered onto the drawing surface. Most drawing media either are dry (e.g. graphite, charcoal, pastels, Conté, silverpoint), or use a fluid solvent or carrier (marker, pen and ink). Watercolor pencils can be used dry like ordinary pencils, then moistened with a wet brush to get various painterly effects. Very rarely, artists have drawn with (usually decoded) invisible ink. Metalpoint drawing usually employs either silver or lead. More rarely used are gold, platinum, copper, brass, bronze, and tinpoint. Paper comes in a variety of different sizes and qualities, ranging from newspaper grade up to high quality and relatively expensive paper sold as individual sheets. Papers vary in texture, hue, acidity, and strength when wet. Smooth paper is good for rendering fine detail, but a more "toothy" paper holds the drawing material better. Thus a coarser material is useful for producing deeper contrast. Newsprint and typing paper may be useful for practice and rough sketches. Tracing paper is used to experiment over a half-finished drawing, and to transfer a design from one sheet to another. Cartridge paper is the basic type of drawing paper sold in pads. Bristol board and even heavier acid-free boards, frequently with smooth finishes, are used for drawing fine detail and do not distort when wet media (ink, washes) are applied. Vellum is extremely smooth and suitable for very fine detail. Coldpressed watercolor paper may be favored for ink drawing due to its texture. Acid-free, archival quality paper keeps its color and texture far longer than wood pulp based paper such as newsprint, which turns yellow and becomes brittle much sooner. The basic tools are a drawing board or table, pencil sharpener and eraser, and for ink drawing, blotting paper. Other tools used are circle compass, ruler, and set square. Fixative is used to prevent pencil and crayon marks from smudging. Drafting tape is used to secure paper to drawing surface, and also to mask an area to keep it free of accidental marks, such as sprayed or spattered materials and washes. An easel or slanted table is used to keep the drawing surface in a suitable position, which is generally more horizontal than the position used in painting. Technique thumb\|left\|Antoine Watteau, trois crayons technique Almost all draftsmen use their hands and fingers to apply the media, with the exception of some disabled individuals who draw with their mouth or feet. Prior to working on an image, the artist typically explores how various media work. They may try different drawing implements on practice sheets to determine value and texture, and how to apply the implement to produce various effects. thumb\|upright\|Raphael, study for what became the Alba Madonna, with other sketches The artist's choice of drawing strokes affects the appearance of the image. Pen and ink drawings often use hatching – groups of parallel lines. Cross-hatching uses hatching in two or more different directions to create a darker tone. Broken hatching, or lines with intermittent breaks, form lighter tones – and controlling the density of the breaks achieves a gradation of tone. Stippling uses dots to produce tone, texture and shade. Different textures can be achieved depending on the method used to build tone. Drawings in dry media often use similar techniques, though pencils and drawing sticks can achieve continuous variations in tone. Typically a drawing is filled in based on which hand the artist favors. A right-handed artist draws from left to right to avoid smearing the image. Erasers can remove unwanted lines, lighten tones, and clean up stray marks. In a sketch or outline drawing, lines drawn often follow the contour of the subject, creating depth by looking like shadows cast from a light in the artist's position. Sometimes the artist leaves a section of the image untouched while filling in the remainder. The shape of the area to preserve can be painted with masking fluid or cut out of a frisket and applied to the drawing surface, protecting the surface from stray marks until the mask is removed. Another method to preserve a section of the image is to apply a spray-on fixative to the surface. This holds loose material more firmly to the sheet and prevents it from smearing. However the fixative spray typically uses chemicals that can harm the respiratory system, so it should be employed in a well-ventilated area such as outdoors. Another technique is subtractive drawing in which the drawing surface is covered with graphite or charcoal and then erased to make the image. Tone thumb\|upright=.8\|A pencil portrait by Henry Macbeth-Raeburn, with hatching and shading (1909) Shading is the technique of varying the tonal values on the paper to represent the shade of the material as well as the placement of the shadows. Careful attention to reflected light, shadows and highlights can result in a very realistic rendition of the image. Blending uses an implement to soften or spread the original drawing strokes. Blending is most easily done with a medium that does not immediately fix itself, such as graphite, chalk, or charcoal, although freshly applied ink can be smudged, wet or dry, for some effects. For shading and blending, the artist can use a blending stump, tissue, a kneaded eraser, a fingertip, or any combination of them. A piece of chamois is useful for creating smooth textures, and for removing material to lighten the tone. Continuous tone can be achieved with graphite on a smooth surface without blending, but the technique is laborious, involving small circular or oval strokes with a somewhat blunt point. Shading techniques that also introduce texture to the drawing include hatching and stippling. A number of other methods produce texture. In addition to the choice of paper, drawing material and technique affect texture. Texture can be made to appear more realistic when it is drawn next to a contrasting texture; a coarse texture is more obvious when placed next to a smoothly blended area. A similar effect can be achieved by drawing different tones close together. A light edge next to a dark background stands out to the eye, and almost appears to float above the surface. The direction and quality of light play a crucial role in shading, influencing the depth and dimension of a drawing. Understanding how light interacts with different surfaces helps artists create a sense of realism, whether rendering smooth, reflective materials or rough, matte textures. Observing real-world lighting conditions and practicing from life can enhance an artist’s ability to depict convincing shadows and highlights. Additionally, advanced shading techniques, such as cross-hatching and scumbling, allow for greater control over tonal transitions and surface detail. Cross-hatching involves layering intersecting lines to build depth and tone, while scumbling uses circular or scribbled strokes to create soft, organic shading. These methods, when combined with careful blending and texture application, provide artists with a versatile toolkit for achieving a range of effects, from soft gradients to bold, high-contrast compositions. Form and proportion thumb\|left\|Proportions of the human body Measuring the dimensions of a subject while blocking in the drawing is an important step in producing a realistic rendition of the subject. Tools such as a compass can be used to measure the angles of different sides. These angles can be reproduced on the drawing surface and then rechecked to make sure they are accurate. Another form of measurement is to compare the relative sizes of different parts of the subject with each other. A finger placed at a point along the drawing implement can be used to compare that dimension with other parts of the image. A ruler can be used both as a straightedge and a device to compute proportions. thumb\|upright=.4\|Variation of proportion with age When attempting to draw a complicated shape such as a human figure, it is helpful at first to represent the form with a set of primitive volumes. Almost any form can be represented by some combination of the cube, sphere, cylinder, and cone. Once these basic volumes have been assembled into a likeness, then the drawing can be refined into a more accurate and polished form. The lines of the primitive volumes are removed and replaced by the final likeness. Drawing the underlying construction is a fundamental skill for representational art, and is taught in many books and schools. Its correct application resolves most uncertainties about smaller details, and makes the final image look consistent. A more refined art of figure drawing relies upon the artist possessing a deep understanding of anatomy and the human proportions. A trained artist is familiar with the skeleton structure, joint location, muscle placement, tendon movement, and how the different parts work together during movement. This allows the artist to render more natural poses that do not appear artificially stiff. The artist is also familiar with how the proportions vary depending on the age of the subject, particularly when drawing a portrait. Perspective thumb\|left\|Two-point perspective drawing Linear perspective is a method of portraying objects on a flat surface so that the dimensions shrink with distance. Each set of parallel, straight edges of any object, whether a building or a table, follows lines that eventually converge at a vanishing point. Typically this convergence point is somewhere along the horizon, as buildings are built level with the flat surface. When multiple structures are aligned with each other, such as buildings along a street, the horizontal tops and bottoms of the structures typically converge at a vanishing point. When both the fronts and sides of a building are drawn, then the parallel lines forming a side converge at a second point along the horizon (which may be off the drawing paper.) This is a two-point perspective. Converging the vertical lines to a third point above or below the horizon then produces a three-point perspective. right\|thumb\|upright\|An artist drawing a figure from worm's-eye perspective Depth can also be portrayed by several techniques in addition to the perspective approach above. Objects of similar size should appear ever smaller the further they are from the viewer. Thus the back wheel of a cart appears slightly smaller than the front wheel. Depth can be portrayed through the use of texture. As the texture of an object gets further away it becomes more compressed and busy, taking on an entirely different character than if it was close. Depth can also be portrayed by reducing the contrast in more distant objects, and by making their colors less saturated. This reproduces the effect of atmospheric haze, and cause the eye to focus primarily on objects drawn in the foreground. Composition left\|thumb\|upright\|Study drawing with white highlights by William-Adolphe Bouguereau The composition of the image is an important element in producing an interesting work of artistic merit. The artist plans element placement in the art to communicate ideas and feelings with the viewer. The composition can determine the focus of the art, and result in a harmonious whole that is aesthetically appealing and stimulating. The illumination of the subject is also a key element in creating an artistic piece, and the interplay of light and shadow is a valuable method in the artist's toolbox. The placement of the light sources can make a considerable difference in the type of message that is being presented. Multiple light sources can wash out any wrinkles in a person's face, for instance, and give a more youthful appearance. In contrast, a single light source, such as harsh daylight, can serve to highlight any texture or interesting features. When drawing an object or figure, the skilled artist pays attention to both the area within the silhouette and what lies outside. The exterior is termed the negative space, and can be as important in the representation as the figure. Objects placed in the background of the figure should appear properly placed wherever they can be viewed. A study is a draft drawing that is made in preparation for a planned final image. Studies can be used to determine the appearances of specific parts of the completed image, or for experimenting with the best approach for accomplishing the end goal. However a well-crafted study can be a piece of art in its own right, and many hours of careful work can go into completing a study. Process thumb\|A young woman drawing the Barberini Faun in MunichIndividuals display differences in their ability to produce visually accurate drawings, when a visually accurate drawing is "recognized as a particular object at a particular time and in a particular space, rendered with little addition of visual detail that can not be seen in the object represented or with little deletion of visual detail." Investigative studies have aimed to explain the reasons why some individuals draw better than others. One study posited four key abilities in the drawing process: motor skills required for mark-making, the drawer's own perception of their drawing, perception of objects being drawn, and the ability to make good representational decisions. It has been suggested that motor control plays a role in drawing ability, though its effects are not significant. This evidence acted as the basis of Betty Edwards' how-to-draw book, Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain. Edwards aimed to teach her readers how to draw, based on the development of the reader's perceptual abilities. Furthermore, the influential artist and art critic John Ruskin emphasised the importance of perception in the drawing process in his book The Elements of Drawing. He stated, "For I am nearly convinced, that once we see keenly enough, there is very little difficult in drawing what we see." Visual memory This has also been shown to influence one's ability to create visually accurate drawings. Short-term memory plays an important part in drawing as one's gaze shifts between the object they are drawing and the drawing itself. Decision-making Some studies comparing artists to non-artists have found that artists spend more time thinking strategically while drawing. In particular, artists spend more time on 'metacognitive' activities such as considering different hypothetical plans for how they might progress with a drawing. See also Academy figure Architectural drawing Composition Contour drawing Diagram Digital illustration Engineering drawing Figure drawing Geometric drawing Graphic design Illustration Landscape painting Negro (lead pencil) Painting Plumbago drawing Sketch (drawing) Subtractive drawing Technical drawing Visual arts Image References Further reading Brommer, Gerald F. (1988). Exploring Drawing. Worcester, Massachusetts: Davis Publications. Bodley Gallery, New York (1971). Modern Master Drawings. . Edwards, Betty (2001). The New Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain, 3rd. Rev. Ed. HarperCollins Publishers. . Hillberry, J. D. (1999). Drawing Realistic Textures in Pencil. North Light Books. . Landa, Robin (2011). Take a Line for a Walk: A Creativity Journal. Boston: Wadsworth. . Lohan, Frank (1978). Pen & Ink Techniques. Contemporary Books. . Ruskin, J. (1857). The Elements of Drawing. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications. . Spears, Heather (2007). The Creative Eye. London: Arcturus. . Treib, Marc, ed. (2008). Drawing/Thinking: Confronting an Electronic Age. . World Book, Inc. (1988). The World Book Encyclopedia Volume 5. . External links Timeline of Drawing Development in Children On Drawing, an essay about the craft of drawing, by artist Norman Nason. Archived from the original on April 25, 2012. Leonardo da Vinci: anatomical drawings from the Royal Library, Windsor Castle, exhibition catalog fully online as PDF from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (a great drawing resource). Leonardo da Vinci, Master Draftsman, exhibition catalog fully online as PDF from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (a great drawing resource). Drawing in the Middle Ages A summary of how drawing was used as part of the artistic process in the Middle Ages. Ganesh drawing is a popular drawing technique used in India that usually involves drawing a full-body illustration of Ganesh drawing is often practiced in the presence of Ganesh statues and devotees.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drawing	2025-04-05T18:28:40.416098
8545	Dedham, Massachusetts	\|subdivision_type = Country \|subdivision_name = United States \|subdivision_type1 = State \|subdivision_type2 = County \|subdivision_name1 = Massachusetts \|subdivision_name2 = Norfolk \|established_title = Settled \|established_date = 1635 \|established_title2 = Incorporated \|established_date2 = 1636 \|established_title3 \|established_date3 \| named_for = Dedham, Essex \|government_type = Representative town meeting \|leader_title = Town<br /> Manager \|leader_name = Leon Goodwin \|leader_title1 = Select Board \|leader_name1 <br />Dennis J. Teehan, Jr., Chair<br />Erin Boles Welsh, Vice Chair<br />James A. MacDonald<br />Dimitria Sullivan<br /> \|unit_pref = Imperial \|area_total_km2 = 27.6 \|area_total_sq_mi = 10.6 \|area_land_km2 = 27.1 \|area_land_sq_mi = 10.5 \|area_water_km2 = 0.5 \|area_water_sq_mi = 0.2 \|elevation_m = 37 \|elevation_ft = 120 \|population_total 25,364 \|population_as_of = 2020 \|population_density_km2 = 935.94 \|population_density_sq_mi = 2,415.62 \|postal_code_type = ZIP Codes \|postal_code = 02026 (02027 for P.O. Boxes) \|area_code = 781 / 339 \|imagesize = 200px \|timezone = Eastern \|utc_offset = −5 \|timezone_DST = Eastern \|utc_offset_DST = −4 \|blank_name = FIPS code \|blank_info = 25-16495 \|blank1_name = GNIS feature ID \|blank1_info = 0618318 \| demographics_type1 Ethnicity \| demographics1_title1 = White alone \| demographics1_title2 = Black or African American alone \| demographics1_title3 = American Indian and Alaska Native alone \| demographics1_title4 = Asian \| demographics1_title5 = Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander alone \| demographics1_title6 = Some Other Race alone \| demographics1_title7 = Two or more races \| demographics1_info1 = 79.4% \| demographics1_info2 = 6.24% \| demographics1_info3 = 0.23% \| demographics1_info4 = 3.79% \| demographics1_info5 = 0.02% \| demographics1_info6 = 0.3% \| demographics1_info7 = 6.45% \| demographics_type2 Hispanic or Latino \| demographics2_title1 = Hispanic or Latino \| demographics2_title2 = Not Hispanic or Latino \| demographics2_info1 = 8.38% \| demographics2_info2 = 91.62% \|website = \|footnotes = }} Dedham ( ) is a town in, and the county seat of, Norfolk County, Massachusetts, United States. Located on Boston's southwestern border, the population was 25,364 at the 2020 census. First settled by English colonists in 1635 and incorporated in 1636, Dedham established the first public school in America in 1643. Dedham is home to the Fairbanks House, the oldest surviving timber-frame house in the United States. On January 1, 1643, by unanimous vote, Dedham <!--freeman (freemen, surely?) --> authorized the first taxpayer-funded public school, "the seed of American education." The first man-made canal in North America, Mother Brook, was created in Dedham in 1639. The town took an active part in the American Revolution and was home to the Dedham Liberty Pole in the late 18th century. When a split occurred at the First Church and Parish in Dedham, the resulting lawsuit became known as The Dedham Case, an important landmark in the separation of church and state. In 1921, the historic Sacco and Vanzetti trial was held in the Norfolk County Courthouse. Dedham is sometimes called the "mother of towns" because 14 present-day communities were included within its original broad borders. Dedham is governed by a representative town meeting, a select board which appoints the town manager, and various other boards and committees. The town is served by the MBTA commuter rail and bus service. The Dedham Public Schools operates seven schools, and a number of private schools also operate within the town. History 17th century Settled in 1635 by people from Roxbury and Watertown, Dedham was incorporated in 1636. It became the county seat of Norfolk County when the county was formed from parts of Suffolk County on March 26, 1793. When the Town was originally incorporated, the residents wanted to name it "Contentment." The Massachusetts General Court overruled them and named the town after Dedham, Essex in England, where some of the original inhabitants were born. The boundaries of the town at the time stretched to the Rhode Island border. At the first public meeting on August 15, 1636, eighteen men signed the town covenant. They swore that they would "in the fear and reverence of our Almighty God, mutually and severally promise amongst ourselves and each to profess and practice one truth according to that most perfect rule, the foundation whereof is ever lasting love." They also agreed that "we shall by all means labor to keep off from us all such as are contrary minded, and receive only such unto us as may be probably of one heart with us, [and such] as that we either know or may well and truly be informed to walk in a peaceable conversation with all meekness of spirit, [this] for the edification of each other in the knowledge and faith of the Lord Jesus…" The covenant also stipulated that if differences were to arise between townsmen, they would seek arbitration for resolution and each would pay his fair share for the common good. Dedham is home to the Fairbanks House, the oldest surviving timber-frame house in the United States, scientifically dated to 1637. On January 1, 1643, by unanimous vote, Dedham <!--freeman (freemen, surely?) --> authorized the first taxpayer-funded public school, "the seed of American education." is now a peninsula at 91 Common Street. *Highland Street, near Lowder Street, runs up Earwicker's Hill. Ashcroft is the neighborhood between Cedar Street and Sprague Street. It includes Paul Park and the Capen School. *The undeveloped strip of land between Beech Street and Turner Street is known as Ogden's Woods. Fairbanks is the neighborhood between East Street and Wigwam Pond. Climate Dedham has a warm-summer humid continental climate (Dfb under the Köppen climate classification system), with high humidity and precipitation year-round. Demographics As of the census Town Meeting is to consist of no less than 270 members, but not more than necessary to achieve an equal number coming from each precinct. There are currently seven districts, but could be as few as six or as many as nine, with lines drawn by the Select Board and the Registrars of Voters every ten years. Votes are by voice unless members call for a standing or roll call vote, either of which can be called for by the Moderator. All Town officers are required to attend Town Meeting and multiple member bodies must send at least one representative who have all the privileges of a Member except the right to vote. If 5% of Town voters petition the Select Board within 14 days of Town Meeting, any action taken may be submitted to voters. The final result is to be determined by majority vote, but Town Meeting can not be overruled unless 20% of registered voters participate. Town Meeting sets its own rules and keeps a journal of proceedings. The Town Meeting may establish various ad-hoc and standing committees on which any Town Meeting Member or voter may serve. Before each Spring Annual Town Meeting, the Public Service Recognition Award is given to recognize citizens who have performed outstanding acts of service to the community. The Board of Library Trustees has five members, each of whom serves three-year terms, and has care of the Town's [http://www.dedhamlibrary.org public library at the Endicott Branch and Main Branch]. The Board develops policies to dictate how the library functions and operates. The Board is responsible for the library's buildings, including library hours and building use outside of regular operating hours. The Board also reviews the Director's budget request, makes recommendations, and officially adopts the operating budget. The current chair is Tom Turner, with Brian Keaney serving as Vice Chair. Crystal Power serves as Clerk. Annette Raphel and Rita Chapdelaine also serve as members. The five elected members of the Planning Board make studies and prepare plans concerning the resources, possibilities, and needs of the town. It also prepares the Master Plan. Currently the board is chaired by Michael A. Podolski, Esq., with Jessica Porter serving as Vice Chair. James E. O'Brien IV serves as Clerk. John Bethoney and James F. McGrail, Esq. are also members. Andrew Pepoli serves as an unelected Associate. There are five elected members of the Parks & Recreation Commission. [https://ecode360.com/15734642 Section 3-10 of the Town Charter] states that the goal of the commission is to promote physical education, play, recreation, sport and other programs for people of all ages. The commission is currently chaired by Lisa Farnham, with Jon Briggs serving as Vice Chair. Lisa Moran, Chuck Dello Iacono, and Ryan O'Toole are also members. There are five elected Commissioners of Trust Funds who manage and control all funds left, given, bequeathed, or devised to the town, and distribute the income in accordance with the terms of the respective trusts. The commission's Chair is Emily Reynolds, with Nicole P Munchbach serving as Vice Chair and Salvatore A Spada as Clerk. Robert Desmond and Dan Jon Oneil Jr. are also members. There are five members of the Housing Authority Board. Four are elected by the Town and one is appointed by the Commonwealth Commissioner of Community Affairs. As members of the Board, they have all of the powers and duties which are given to housing authorities under the constitution and laws of the Commonwealth. The current chair is Donna M. Brown Rego and Margaret Matthews serves as the Assistant Chair & State Appointee. Skye Kessler serves as Treasurer, John B. Kane as Assistant Treasurer, and John Wagner as a member. Politics <!-- PresRow should be --> Dedham has shown a consistent trend of support for the Democratic Party in recent presential elections. From 1996 to 2024, Dedham's voting patterns have leaned heavily Democratic, with the party consistently winning the majority of votes. In the 2024 presidential election, Democrat Kamala Harris secured 63.27% of the vote, making a slight decrease from the 67.81% that Democrat Joe Biden received in 2020. In the 1980 election, the Republican Ronald Reagan notably received 46.81% of the vote, marking a significant challenge to the Democrats during that period. Prior to that, Dedham displayed a more competitive political landscape, with Republicans achieving over 50% of the vote in several elections, such as 1956 (61.84%) and 1948 (63.17%). The mid-20th century was characterized by a stronger Republican presence, with the party frequently outperforming Democrats in the early decades of the century. Dedham's modern political identity aligns with broader statewide trends in Massachusetts, where Democratic candidates typically secure a commanding share of the vote. Despite shifts in national political dynamics, Dedham's electoral results indicate a stable commitment to Democratic candidates, reflecting its position within a predominantly Democratic region. Third-party candidates have historically gained minimal support, though certain elections, such as 1992 and 1980, saw relatively higher percentages of third-party votes, reaching up to 22.38% and 15.91%, respectively. <div style="width:auto; overflow:scroll"> {\| class"wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style"font-size:95%;" \|+ U.S. Senate election results \|- style="background:lightgrey;" ! Year ! Republican ! Democratic ! Twelve Visions ! Libertarian ! Constitution ! Timesizing Not Downsizing ! Conservative ! Natural Law ! LaRouche Was Right ! Socialist Workers ! U.S. Labor Party ! Prohibition ! Independent ! Write-in votes \|- \| style"text-align:center;" \|2020 Education Public education The Dedham Public Schools operates seven schools and is known for the first implementation of a tax supported, free public school system, now used nationally. * Dedham High School * Dedham Middle School * Avery Elementary School * Oakdale Elementary School * Greenlodge Elementary School * Riverdale Elementary School * Dr. Thomas J. Curren Early Childhood Education Center Private education In addition, there are several private schools in the town, including: * Noble and Greenough School, a private, co-educational day and boarding school for students in grades 7–12 * Dedham Country Day School, a private, co-educational, day school for students in pre-kindergarten to eighth grade * Ursuline Academy, an independent college preparatory day school for young women in grades 7–12. * The Rashi School, a Reform Jewish elementary and middle school. * Little Sprouts Early Education and Childcare, a preschool and kindergarten. * Regina Caeli Academy, based at St. Mary's Church. Former schools * Ames School, a former public elementary school named after distinguished Dedham resident Fisher Ames. * Charles J. Capen School, operated from 1931 to 1981. * St. Mary of the Assumption School, a former Catholic elementary school that operated as a part of St. Mary of the Assumption Parish until 1975. * The Quincy School, a former public elementary school that operated until 1982. * The Dexter School, a former public elementary school now operating as a private preschool and kindergarten, Little Sprouts Early Education and Childcare, Dedham location. Higher education * Queen of Apostles Seminary, a former Catholic minor seminary run by the Society of African Missions, closed in the late 1960s * Northeastern University Dedham Campus, a satellite campus located in the Queen of Apostles Seminary's former building Places of worship {\| class="wikitable" !Place of worship !Denomination ! Size ! Founded \|- \|First Church and Parish in Dedham \|Unitarian Universalist \| \| 1638 (Split in 1818) \|- \|Allin Congregational Church \|United Church of Christ \| \| 1638 (Split in 1818) \|- \|St. Paul's Episcopal Church \|The Episcopal Church \| \| 1758 \|- \|Fellowship Bible Church \|Nondenominational \| \| 1843 \|- \|St. Mary of the Assumption Church \|Roman Catholic \| 2,329 families Endicott Estate Fairbanks House MIT Endicott House Norfolk County Correctional Center, situated in the median of Route 128. ** Old Norfolk County Jail * Cemeteries Baby Cemetery Brookdale Cemetery Fairview Cemetery Old Village Cemetery ** Boston United Hand in Hand Cemetery is located on Lower East Street straddling the West Roxbury line. Dating back to 1875, the original plot was full by 1896 but subsequently expanded a number of times. There are graves as recent as 1980 in the West Roxbury portion; the Dedham portion is still active. Chestnut Hill's Congregation Mishka Tefila currently owns the property. * Samuel Dexter, U.S. Representative, Secretary of War, Secretary of the Treasury, administered oath of office to Chief Justice John Marshall * Tommy Vietor, National Security Council spokesperson, podcast host of Pod Save America }} Works cited * * * * * * * * * * * Further reading * * Cremin, Lawrence A., "American Education: The Colonial Experience 1607–1783", First Edition, New York, Harper & Row, Publishers, 1970. * Hanson, Robert Brand, "Dedham, Massachusetts, 1635–1890", published by Dedham Historical Society, 1976 External links * [http://www.dedham-ma.gov Dedham's official website] * [http://yourtown.boston.com/dedham Boston.com's Dedham news page] Category:Towns in Norfolk County, Massachusetts Category:County seats in Massachusetts Category:Towns in Massachusetts Category:Populated places established in 1635 Category:1635 establishments in the Massachusetts Bay Colony	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dedham,_Massachusetts	2025-04-05T18:28:40.510264
8546	Death Factory	Death factory is a colloquial name for extermination camps. Death Factory may also refer to: Death Factory (2002 film) Death Factory (2014 film), aka The Butchers See also Death on a Factory Farm, 2009 television documentary film	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_Factory	2025-04-05T18:28:40.512682
8547	Book of Deuteronomy	, dating to , contains part of a Greek translation (Septuagint) of Deuteronomy.]] Deuteronomy (; ) is the fifth book of the Torah (in Judaism), where it is called (\|Dəḇārīm\|[the] words [of Moses]}}) and the fifth book of the Hebrew Bible and Christian Old Testament. Chapters 1–30 of the book consist of three sermons or speeches delivered to the Israelites by Moses on the Plains of Moab, shortly before they enter the Promised Land. The first sermon recounts the forty years of wilderness wanderings which had led to that moment and ends with an exhortation to observe the law. The second sermon reminds the Israelites of the need to follow Yahweh and the laws (or teachings) he has given them, on which their possession of the land depends. The third sermon offers the comfort that, even should the nation of Israel prove unfaithful and so lose the land, with repentance all can be restored. The final four chapters (31–34) contain the Song of Moses, the Blessing of Moses, and the narratives recounting the passing of the mantle of leadership from Moses to Joshua and, finally, the death of Moses on Mount Nebo. One of its most significant verses is Deuteronomy 6:4, the Shema Yisrael, which has been described as the definitive statement of Jewish identity for theistic Jews: "Hear, O Israel: the our God, the is one." Verses 6:4–5 were also quoted by Jesus in Mark 12:28–34 as the Great Commandment. Traditionally, it was believed that God dictated the Torah to Moses, but most modern scholars date Deuteronomy to the 7th-5th centuries BCE.StructurePatrick D. Miller in his commentary on Deuteronomy suggests that different views of the structure of the book will lead to different views on what it is about. The structure is often described as a series of three speeches or sermons (chapters 1:1–4:43, 4:44–29:1, 29:2–30:20) followed by a number of short appendices or some kind of epilogue (31:1–34:12), consist of commission of Joshua, the song of Moses and the death of Moses. Other scholars have compared the structure of Deuteronomy with Hittite treaties or other ancient Near Eastern treaty texts. But it is clear that Deuteronomy is not in itself simply the text of a treaty, as Deuteronomy is more than simply applying the secular model of treaty to Israel's relationship with God. The Ten Commandments (Decalogue) in chapter 5 serve as a blueprint for the rest of the book, as chapters 12–26 are the exposition of the Decalogue, thus the expanded Decalogue.)'' Chapters 1–4: The journey through the wilderness from Horeb (Sinai) to Kadesh and then to Moab is recalled. Chapters 4–11: After a second introduction at 4:44–49 the events at Mount Horeb are recalled, with the giving of the Ten Commandments. Heads of families are urged to instruct those under their care in the law, warnings are made against serving gods other than Yahweh, the land promised to Israel is praised, and the people are urged to obedience. Chapters 12–26, the Deuteronomic Code: Laws governing Israel's worship (chapters 12–16a), the appointment and regulation of community and religious leaders (16b–18), social regulation (19–25), and confession of identity and loyalty (26). Chapters 27–28: Blessings and curses for those who keep and break the law. Chapters 29–30: Concluding discourse on the covenant in the land of Moab, including all the laws in the Deuteronomic Code (chapters 12–26) after those given at Horeb; Israel is again exhorted to obedience. Chapters 31–34: Joshua is installed as Moses's successor, Moses delivers the law to the Levites (a priestly caste), and ascends Mount Nebo or Pisgah, where he dies and is buried by God. The narrative of these events is interrupted by two poems, the Song of Moses and the Blessing of Moses. The final verses, Deuteronomy 34:10–12, "never again did there arise in Israel a prophet like Moses," make a claim for the authoritative Deuteronomistic view of theology and its insistence that the worship of Yahweh as the sole deity of Israel was the only permissible religion, having been sealed by the greatest of prophets. Deuteronomic Code Deuteronomy 12–26, the Deuteronomic Code, is the oldest part of the book and the core around which the rest developed. It is a series of mitzvot (commands) to the Israelites regarding how they should conduct themselves in the Promised Land.Composition)]]Composition historyMosaic authorship of the Torah, the belief that the five books of the Torah – including the Book of Deuteronomy – were dictated by God to Moses on Mount Sinai, is an ancient Jewish tradition that was codified by Maimonides (1135–1204 AD) as the 8th of the 13 Jewish principles of faith. Virtually all modern secular scholars, and most Christian and Jewish scholars, reject the Mosaic authorship of the Book of Deuteronomy and date the book much later, between the 7th and 5th centuries BC. Its authors were probably the Levite caste, collectively referred to as the Deuteronomist, whose economic needs and social status the book reflects. The historical background to the book's composition is currently viewed in the following general terms: * In the late 8th century BC both Judah and Israel were vassals of Assyria. Israel rebelled and was destroyed circa 722 BC. Refugees fleeing from Israel to Judah brought with them a number of traditions that were new to Judah. One of these was that the god Yahweh, already known and worshiped in Judah, was not merely the most important of the gods, but the only god who should be served. This outlook influenced the Judahite landowning ruling class, which became extremely powerful in court circles after placing the eight-year-old Josiah on the throne following the murder of his father, Amon of Judah. * By the eighteenth year of Josiah's reign, Assyrian power was in rapid decline, and a pro-independence movement was gathering strength in the Kingdom of Judah. One manifestation of this movement was a state theology of loyalty to Yahweh as the sole god of the Kingdom of Judah. According to 2 Kings 22:1–23:30, at this time Hilkiah (the High Priest and father of the prophet Jeremiah) discovered the "book of the law" – which many scholars believe to be the Deuteronomic Code (the set of laws at chapters 12–26 which form the original core of the Book of Deuteronomy) – in the temple. Josiah subsequently launched a full-scale reform of worship based on this "book of the law", which takes the form of a covenant between Judah and Yahweh to replace the decades-old vassal treaty between King Esarhaddon of Assyria and King Manasseh of Judah. * The next stage took place during the Babylonian captivity. The destruction of the Kingdom of Judah by Babylon in 586 BC and the end of kingship was the occasion of much reflection and theological speculation among the Deuteronomistic elite, now in exile in the city of Babylon. The disaster was supposedly Yahweh's punishment of their failure to follow the law, and so they created a history of Israel (the books of Joshua through Kings) to illustrate this. * At the end of the Exile, when the Persians agreed that the Jews could return and rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem, chapters 1–4 and 29–30 were added and Deuteronomy was made the introductory book to this history, so that a story about a people about to enter the Promised Land became a story about a people about to return to the land. The legal sections of chapters 19–25 were expanded to meet new situations that had arisen, and chapters 31–34 were added as a new conclusion. Chapters 12–26, containing the Deuteronomic Code, are the earliest section. Since the idea was first put forward by W. M. L. de Wette in 1805, most scholars have accepted that this portion of the book was composed in Jerusalem in the 7th century BC in the context of religious reforms advanced by King Hezekiah (reigned c. 716–687 BC), although some have argued for other dates, such as during the reign of his successor Manasseh (687–643 BC) or even much later, such as during the exilic or postexilic periods (597–332 BC). The second prologue (Ch. 5–11) was the next section to be composed, and then the first prologue (Ch. 1–4); the chapters following 26 are similarly layered. Israel–Judah division The prophet Isaiah, active in Jerusalem about a century before Josiah, makes no mention of the Exodus, covenants with God, or disobedience to God's laws. In contrast, Isaiah's contemporary Hosea, active in the northern kingdom of Israel, makes frequent references to the Exodus, the wilderness wanderings, a covenant, the danger of foreign gods and the need to worship Yahweh alone. This discrepancy has led scholars to conclude that these traditions behind Deuteronomy have a northern origin. Whether the Deuteronomic Code was written in Josiah's time (late 7th century BC) or earlier is subject to debate, but many of the individual laws are older than the collection itself. The two poems at chapters 32–33 – the Song of Moses and the Blessing of Moses were probably originally independent. Position in the Hebrew Bible Deuteronomy occupies a puzzling position in the Bible, linking the story of the Israelites' wanderings in the wilderness to the story of their history in Canaan without quite belonging totally to either. The wilderness story could end quite easily with Numbers, and the story of Joshua's conquests could exist without it, at least at the level of the plot. But in both cases there would be a thematic (theological) element missing. Scholars have given various answers to the problem. The Deuteronomistic history theory is currently the most popular. Deuteronomy was originally just the law code and covenant, written to cement the religious reforms of Josiah, and later expanded to stand as the introduction to the full history. But there is an older theory, which sees Deuteronomy as belonging to Numbers, and Joshua as a sort of supplement to it. This idea still has supporters, but the mainstream understanding is that Deuteronomy, after becoming the introduction to the history, was later detached from it and included with Genesis–Exodus–Leviticus–Numbers because it already had Moses as its central character. According to this hypothesis, the death of Moses was originally the ending of Numbers, and was simply moved from there to the end of Deuteronomy. Its many themes can be organised around the three poles of Israel, Yahweh, and the covenant which binds them together.IsraelThe themes of Deuteronomy in relation to Israel are election, faithfulness, obedience, and Yahweh's promise of blessings, all expressed through the covenant: "obedience is not primarily a duty imposed by one party on another, but an expression of covenantal relationship." Yahweh has elected Israel as his special property (Deuteronomy 7:6 and elsewhere), and Moses stresses to the Israelites the need for obedience to God and covenant, and the consequences of unfaithfulness and disobedience. Yet the first several chapters of Deuteronomy are a long retelling of Israel's past disobedience – but also God's gracious care, leading to a long call to Israel to choose life over death and blessing over curse (chapters 7–11).Yahweh Deuteronomy's concept of God changed over time. The earliest 7th century layer is monolatrous; not denying the reality of other gods but enforcing only the worship of Yahweh in Jerusalem. In the later, Exilic layers from the mid-6th century, especially chapter 4, this becomes monotheism, the idea that only one god exists. God is simultaneously present in the Temple and in heaven – an important and innovative concept called "name theology." After the review of Israel's history in chapters 1 to 4, there is a restatement of the Ten Commandments in chapter 5. This arrangement of material highlights God's sovereign relationship with Israel prior to the giving of establishment of the Law. Covenant The core of Deuteronomy is the covenant that binds Yahweh and Israel by oaths of fidelity and obedience. God will give Israel blessings of the land, fertility, and prosperity so long as Israel is faithful to God's teaching; disobedience will lead to curses and punishment. But, according to the Deuteronomists, Israel's prime sin is lack of faith, apostasy: contrary to the first and fundamental commandment ("Thou shalt have no other gods before me") the people have entered into relations with other gods. Dillard and Longman in their Introduction to the Old Testament stress the living nature of the covenant between Yahweh and Israel as a nation: The people of Israel are addressed by Moses as a unity, and their allegiance to the covenant is not one of obeisance, but comes out of a pre-existing relationship between God and Israel, established with Abraham and attested to by the Exodus event, so that the laws of Deuteronomy set the nation of Israel apart, signaling the unique status of the Jewish nation. The land is God's gift to Israel, and many of the laws, festivals and instructions in Deuteronomy are given in the light of Israel's occupation of the land. Dillard and Longman note that "In 131 of the 167 times the verb "give" occurs in the book, the subject of the action is Yahweh." Deuteronomy makes the Torah the ultimate authority for Israel, one to which even the king is subject. Judaism's weekly Torah portions in the Book of Deuteronomy Devarim, on Deuteronomy 1–3: Chiefs, scouts, Edom, Ammonites, Sihon, Og, land for two and a half tribes ''Va'etchanan, on Deuteronomy 3–7: Cities of refuge, Ten Commandments, Shema, exhortation, conquest instructions Eikev'', on Deuteronomy 7–11: Obedience, taking the land, golden calf, Aaron's death, Levites' duties ''Re'eh, on Deuteronomy 11–16: Centralized worship, diet, tithes, sabbatical year, pilgrim festivals Shofetim, on Deuteronomy 16–21: Basic societal structure for the Israelites Ki Teitzei, on Deuteronomy 21–25: Miscellaneous laws on civil and domestic life Ki Tavo, on Deuteronomy 26–29: First fruits, tithes, blessings and curses, exhortation Nitzavim, on Deuteronomy 29–30: covenant, violation, choose blessing and curse Vayelech, on Deuteronomy 31: Encouragement, reading and writing the law Haazinu, on Deuteronomy 32: Punishment, punishment restrained, parting words V'Zot HaBerachah, on Deuteronomy 33–34: Farewell blessing and death of Moses Influence on Judaism and Christianity Judaism Deuteronomy 6:4–5: "Hear, O Israel (shema Yisra'el''), the is our God, the is one!" has become the basic credo of Judaism, the Shema Yisrael, and its twice-daily recitation is a mitzvah (religious commandment). It continues, "Thou shalt love the thy God with all thy heart and all thy soul and all thy might"; it has therefore also become identified with the central Jewish concept of the love of God, and the rewards that come as a result. Christianity In the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus cited Deuteronomy 6:5 as a Great Commandment. The earliest Christian authors interpreted Deuteronomy's prophecy of the restoration of Israel as having been fulfilled (or superseded) in Jesus Christ and the establishment of the Christian Church (Luke 1–2, Acts 2–5), and Jesus was interpreted to be the "one (i.e., prophet) like me" predicted by Moses in Deuteronomy 18:15 (Acts 3:22–23). While the exact position of Paul the Apostle and Judaism is still debated, a common view is that in place of mitzvah set out in Deuteronomy, Paul the Apostle, drawing on Deuteronomy 30:11–14, claimed that the keeping of the Mosaic covenant was superseded by faith in Jesus and the gospel (the New Covenant). See also 613 commandments * Documentary hypothesis * Hebrew Bible * Kashrut * Mosaic authorship * Papyrus Rylands 458 – the oldest Greek manuscript of Deuteronomy Citations General and cited references Translations * [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?searchDeuteronomy+1&versionNIV Deuteronomy in NIV] * [https://www.sefaria.org/Deuteronomy.1?langbi&aliyot0 Deuteronomy in Tanakh (Hebrew Bible)] Commentaries * * * * Plaut, W. Gunther (1981). The Torah: A Modern Commentary. * General* * * * * * * * Clements, Ronald (1968). ''God's Chosen People: A Theological Interpretation of the Book of Deuteronomy. In series, Religious Book Club, 182. London: S.C.M. Press. * * Gottwald, Norman, review of [https://web.archive.org/web/20060518122526/http://www.interpretation.org/reviews/apr-06/index.htm Stephen L. Cook, The Social Roots of Biblical Yahwism'', Society of Biblical Literature, 2004] * * [https://www.academia.edu/38405785/Kugler_Moses_died_and_the_people_moved_on_-_a_hidden_narrative_in_Deuteronomy.pdf Gili Kugler, Kugler, Moses died and the people moved on - a hidden narrative in Deuteronomy] * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * External links * [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?searchDeuteronomy+1&versionNIV Deuteronomy] at Bible Gateway * * * Jewish translations: [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et0501.htm Deuteronomy at Mechon-Mamre] (modified Jewish Publication Society translation) [http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTIONdisplaypage&BOOK5&CHAPTER1 Deuteronomy (The Living Torah)] Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan's translation and commentary at Ort.org [http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?AID=8164 Devarim – Deuteronomy (Judaica Press)] translation [with Rashi's commentary] at Chabad.org [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0501.htm דְּבָרִים Devarim – Deuteronomy] (Hebrew – English at Mechon-Mamre.org) * Christian translations: [http://www.gospelhall.org/bible/bible.php?passage=Deut+1 Online Bible at GospelHall.org] (King James Version) [http://bible.oremus.org/?ql=56784112 oremus Bible Browser] (New Revised Standard Version) [http://bible.oremus.org/?ql=56784148 oremus Bible Browser] (Anglicized New Revised Standard Version) Deuteronomy at Wikisource (Authorized King James Version) ** Various versions Deuteronomy Category:7th-century BC books Category:6th-century BC books Category:Phoenicians in the Hebrew Bible Category:The Exodus 5	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Deuteronomy	2025-04-05T18:28:40.550042
8550	Down	Down most often refers to: Down, the relative direction opposed to up Down (gridiron football), in North American/gridiron football, a period when one play takes place Down feather, a soft bird feather used in bedding and clothing Downland, a type of hill Down may also refer to: Places County Down, Northern Ireland, UK County Down (Parliament of Ireland constituency), abolished 1800 Down (Northern Ireland Parliament constituencies) Down (Northern Ireland Parliament constituency), 1921–1929 Down (UK Parliament constituency), 1801–1885 and 1922–1950 Down (civil parish) Down county football team, Gaelic football Down, County Westmeath, Ireland Downe, Greater London, England, formerly called "Down" People Down (surname) John Langdon Down (1828–1896), British physician best known for his description of Down syndrome Down AKA Kilo (born 1985), American rapper Film and television Down (film), a 2001 English remake of the film "Down" (Breaking Bad), an episode of the second season of Breaking Bad "Down" (Into the Dark), an episode of the first season of Into the Dark Literature Down (comics), a comic book published by Top Cow Productions Down (novel), a 1997 Bernice Summerfield novel by Lawrence Miles Music Down (band), an American heavy metal supergroup Down (The Jesus Lizard album), 1994 Down (Sentenced album), 1996 Songs "Down" (311 song), 1996 "Down" (Blink-182 song), 2003 "Down" (Fifth Harmony song), 2017 "Down" (Jay Sean song), 2009 "Down" (Jessi song), 2018 "Down" (The Kooks song), 2014 "Down" (Marian Hill song), 2016 "Down" (Motograter song), 2003 "Down" (R.K.M & Ken-Y song), 2006 "Down" (Stone Temple Pilots song), 1999 "Down", by Blackbear from Anonymous, 2019 "Down", by Breaking Benjamin from Ember "Down", by Brymo from Merchants, Dealers & Slaves "Down", by Chris Brown from Exclusive "Down", by Dave Gahan from Hourglass "Down", by Davido from "Down", by Earshot from Two "Down", by Five for Fighting from Bookmarks "Down", by Gravity Kills from Gravity Kills "Down", by Harry Nilsson from Nilsson Schmilsson "Down", by Headswim from Flood "Down", by Hot Chip from Freakout/Release "Down", by Juelz Santana from From Me to U "Down", by Kutless from Kutless "Down", by Lindisfarne from Nicely Out of Tune "Down", by Mat Kearney from Young Love "Down", by Miles Davis from Birdland 1951 "Down", by Modern Day Zero "Down", by Pearl Jam from Lost Dogs "Down", by Pitchshifter from PSI "Down", by the Prom Kings from The Prom Kings "Down", by Seether from Holding Onto Strings Better Left to Fray "Down", by Widespread Panic from Don't Tell the Band "Down", by Yelawolf from Shady XV Other uses Down (game theory), a standard position in mathematical game theory Rail directions, where down and up have locally significant meanings DOWN (app), social networking and online dating app See also "Down Down", a 1975 song by Status Quo Down GAA, responsible for the administration of Gaelic games in County Down, Northern Ireland Down quark, an elementary constituent of matter Down payment, a term used in the context of the purchase of items Down syndrome, a genetic disorder DN (disambiguation) Downe (disambiguation) Downhill (disambiguation) Downs (disambiguation) Downstairs (disambiguation) Downtown (disambiguation) Down Down Down (disambiguation)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Down	2025-04-05T18:28:40.556252
8551	David	}}}} \| title \| image King David, the King of Israel.jpg \| caption = King David Playing the Harp (1622)<br/>by Gerard van Honthorst \| reign controversial; between 10th century BCE and 9th century BCE \| succession = King of Israel \| predecessor Ish-bosheth \| successor = Solomon \| queen = \| consort \| issue \| royal house = House of David \| father = Jesse \| mother = Nitzevet (Talmud) }} David (; \|Dāwīḏ}}, "beloved one") <small>(traditional spelling)</small>, , Dāwūd; ; ; , Dawit; , Dawitʿ; , Davidŭ; possibly meaning "beloved one".}} was a king of ancient Israel and Judah and the third<!--Please do not change this to "second"--> king of the United Monarchy, according to the Hebrew Bible and Old Testament. The Tel Dan stele, an Aramaic-inscribed stone erected by a king of Aram-Damascus in the late 9th/early 8th centuries BCE to commemorate a victory over two enemy kings, contains the phrase (), which is translated as "House of David" by most scholars. The Mesha Stele, erected by King Mesha of Moab in the 9th century BCE, may also refer to the "House of David", although this is disputed. According to Jewish works such as the Seder Olam Rabbah, Seder Olam Zutta, and Sefer ha-Qabbalah (all written over a thousand years later), David ascended the throne as the king of Judah in 885 BCE. Apart from this, all that is known of David comes from biblical literature, the historicity of which has been extensively challenged, and there is little detail about David that is concrete and undisputed. Debates persist over several controversial issues: the exact timeframe of David's reign and the geographical boundaries of his kingdom; whether the story serves as a political defense of David's dynasty against accusations of tyranny, murder and regicide; the homoerotic relationship between David and Jonathan; whether the text is a Homer-like heroic tale adopting elements from its Ancient Near East parallels; and whether elements of the text date as late as the Hasmonean period. In the biblical narrative of the Books of Samuel, David is described as a young shepherd and harpist whose heart is devoted to Yahweh, the one true God. He gains fame and becomes a hero by killing Goliath. He becomes a favorite of Saul, the first king of Israel, but is forced to go into hiding when Saul suspects David of plotting to take his throne. After Saul and his son Jonathan are killed in battle, David is anointed king by the tribe of Judah and eventually all the tribes of Israel. He conquers Jerusalem, makes it the capital of a united Israel, and brings the Ark of the Covenant to the city. He commits adultery with Bathsheba and arranges the death of her husband, Uriah the Hittite. David's son Absalom later tries to overthrow him, but David returns to Jerusalem after Absalom's death to continue his reign. David desires to build a temple to Yahweh, but is denied because of the bloodshed of his reign. He dies at age 70 and chooses Solomon, his son with Bathsheba, as his successor instead of his eldest son Adonijah. David is honored as an ideal king and the forefather of the future Hebrew Messiah in Jewish prophetic literature, and many psalms are attributed to him. David is also richly represented in post-biblical Jewish written and oral tradition and referenced in the New Testament. Early Christians interpreted the life of Jesus of Nazareth in light of references to the Hebrew Messiah and to David; Jesus is described as being directly descended from David in the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke. In the Quran and hadith, David is described as an Israelite king as well as a prophet of Allah. The biblical David has inspired many interpretations in art and literature over the centuries. Biblical account Family .]] 's illustration (1866), colorized and published in Josephine Pollard's Sweet stories of God (1899).]] The First Book of Samuel and the First Book of Chronicles both identify David as the son of Jesse, the Bethlehemite, the youngest of eight sons. He also had at least two sisters: Zeruiah, whose sons all went on to serve in David's army, and Abigail, whose son Amasa served in Absalom's army, Absalom being one of David's younger sons. While the Bible does not name his mother, the Talmud identifies her as Nitzevet, a daughter of a man named Adael, and the Book of Ruth claims him as the great-grandson of Ruth, the Moabite, by Boaz. David is described as cementing his relations with various political and national groups through marriage.}} According to 1 Samuel 17:25, King Saul said that he would make whoever killed Goliath a very wealthy man, give his daughter to him and declare his father's family exempt from taxes in Israel. Saul offered David his oldest daughter, Merab, a marriage David respectfully declined. Saul then gave Merab in marriage to Adriel the Meholathite. Having been told that his younger daughter Michal was in love with David, Saul gave her in marriage to David upon David's payment in Philistine foreskins (ancient Jewish historian Josephus lists the dowry as 100 Philistine heads). Saul became jealous of David and tried to have him killed. David escaped. Then Saul sent Michal to Galim to marry Palti, son of Laish. David then took wives in Hebron, according to 2 Samuel 3; they were Ahinoam the Yizre'elite; Abigail, the widow of Nabal the Carmelite; Maacah, the daughter of Talmay, king of Geshur; Haggith; Abital; and Eglah. Later, David wanted Michal back and Abner, Ish-bosheth's army commander, delivered her to him, causing Palti great grief. The Book of Chronicles lists his sons with his various wives and concubines. In Hebron, David had six sons: Amnon, by Ahinoam; Daniel, by Abigail; Absalom, by Maachah; Adonijah, by Haggith; Shephatiah, by Abital; and Ithream, by Eglah. By Bathsheba, his sons were Shammua, Shobab, Nathan, and Solomon. David's sons born in Jerusalem of his other wives included Ibhar, Elishua, Eliphelet, Nogah, Nepheg, Japhia, Elishama and Eliada. Jerimoth, who is not mentioned in any of the genealogies, is mentioned as another of his sons in 2 Chronicles 11:18. His daughter Tamar, by Maachah, is raped by her half-brother Amnon. David fails to bring Amnon to justice for his violation of Tamar, because he is his firstborn and he loves him, and so Absalom (her full brother) kills Amnon to avenge Tamar. Despite the great sins they had committed, David showed grief at his sons' deaths, weeping twice for Amnon (2 Samuel 13:31–26) and seven times for Absalom.Narrative , Dura-Europos synagogue, now in Syria, 3rd century CE]] God is angered when Saul, Israel's king, unlawfully offers a sacrifice and later disobeys a divine command both to kill all of the Amalekites and to destroy their confiscated property. Consequently, God sends the prophet Samuel to anoint a shepherd, David, the youngest son of Jesse of Bethlehem, to be king instead. After God sends an evil spirit to torment Saul, his servants recommend that he send for a man skilled in playing the lyre. A servant proposes David, whom the servant describes as "skillful in playing, a man of valor, a warrior, prudent in speech, and a man of good presence; and the Lord is with him." David enters Saul's service as one of the royal armour-bearers and plays the lyre to soothe the king. War comes between Israel and the Philistines, and the giant Goliath challenges the Israelites to send out a champion to face him in single combat. David, sent by his father to bring provisions to his brothers serving in Saul's army, declares that he can defeat Goliath. Refusing the king's offer of the royal armour, he kills Goliath with his sling. Saul inquires the name of the young hero's father. Saul sets David over his army. All Israel loves David, but his popularity causes Saul to fear him ("What else can he wish but the kingdom?"). Saul plots his death, but Saul's son Jonathan, who loves David, warns him of his father's schemes and David flees. He goes first to Nob, where he is fed by the priest Ahimelech and given Goliath's sword, and then to Gath, the Philistine city of Goliath, intending to seek refuge with King Achish there. Achish's servants or officials question his loyalty, and David sees that he is in danger there. He goes next to the cave of Adullam, where his family joins him. From there he goes to seek refuge with the king of Moab, but the prophet Gad advises him to leave and he goes to the Forest of Hereth, and then to Keilah, where he is involved in a further battle with the Philistines. Saul plans to besiege Keilah so that he can capture David, so David leaves the city in order to protect its inhabitants. From there he takes refuge in the mountainous Wilderness of Ziph. ]] Jonathan meets with David again and confirms his loyalty to David as the future king. After the people of Ziph notify Saul that David is taking refuge in their territory, Saul seeks confirmation and plans to capture David in the Wilderness of Maon, but his attention is diverted by a renewed Philistine invasion and David is able to secure some respite at Ein Gedi. Returning from battle with the Philistines, Saul heads to Ein Gedi in pursuit of David. Needing privacy "to attend to his needs", Saul enters the cave where, as it happens, David and his supporters are hiding. David realises he has an opportunity to kill Saul, but instead, he secretly cuts off a piece of Saul's robe. When Saul leaves the cave, David comes out to pay homage to the king, and to demonstrate using the piece of robe that he holds no malice towards him. The two are thus reconciled and Saul recognises David as his successor. A similar passage occurs in 1 Samuel 26, when David is able to infiltrate Saul's camp on the hill of Hachilah and remove his spear and a jug of water from his side while he and his guards lie asleep. In this account, David is advised by Abishai that this is his opportunity to kill Saul, but David declines, saying he will not "stretch out [his] hand against the Lord's anointed". In the morning, David once again demonstrates to Saul that, despite ample opportunity, he did not deign to harm him. Saul, despite having already reconciled with David, confesses that he has been wrong to pursue David, and blesses him. In 1 Samuel 27:1–4, David begins to doubt Saul's sincerity, and reasons that the king will eventually make another attempt on his life. David appeals to king Achish of Gath to grant him and his family sanctuary. Achish agrees, and upon hearing that David has fled to Philistia, Saul ceases to pursue him, though no such pursuit seemed to be in progress at the time. Achish permits David to reside in Ziklag, close to the border between Philistia and Judah. To further ingratiate himself to Achish and the Philistines, David and his men raid the Geshurites, the Girzites, and the Amalekites, but lead the royal court to believe they are attacking the Israelites, the Jerahmeelites, and the Kenites. While Achish comes to believe that David had become a loyal vassal, the princes (or lords) of Gath remain unconvinced, and at their request, Achish instructs David to remain behind to guard the camp when the Philistines march against Saul. David returns to Ziklag and saves his wives and the citizens from an Amalekite raid. Jonathan and Saul are killed in battle with the Philistines, and after hearing of their deaths, David travels to Hebron, where he is anointed king over Judah. In the north, Saul's son Ish-Bosheth is anointed king of Israel, and war ensues until Ish-Bosheth is murdered. With the death of Saul's son, the elders of Israel come to Hebron and David is anointed king over all of Israel. He conquers Jerusalem, previously a Jebusite stronghold, and makes it his capital. He brings the Ark of the Covenant to the city, intending to build a temple for God, but the prophet Nathan forbids it, prophesying that the temple would be built by one of David's sons. Nathan also prophesies that God has made a covenant with the house of David stating, "your throne shall be established forever". David wins additional victories over the Philistines, Moabites, Edomites, Amalekites, Ammonites and king Hadadezer of Aram-Zobah, after which they become tributaries. His fame increases as a result, earning the praise of figures like King Toi of Hamath, Hadadezer's rival. , 1866–1931 (Mayfair Gallery, London)]] During a siege of the Ammonite capital of Rabbah, David remains in Jerusalem. He spies a woman, Bathsheba, bathing and summons her; she becomes pregnant. The text in the Bible does not explicitly state whether Bathsheba consented to sex with David. David calls her husband, Uriah the Hittite, back from the battle to rest, hoping that he will go home to have sex with his wife and the child will be presumed to be his. Uriah does not visit his wife, however, so David conspires to have him killed in the heat of battle. David then marries the widowed Bathsheba. In response, Nathan, after trapping the king in his guilt with a parable that actually described his sin in analogy, prophesies the punishment that will fall upon him, stating "the sword shall never depart from your house." When David acknowledges that he has sinned, Nathan advises him that his sin is forgiven and he will not die, but the child will. In fulfillment of Nathan's words, the child born of the union between David and Bathsheba dies, and another of David's sons, Absalom, fueled by vengeance and lust for power, rebels. Thanks to Hushai, a friend of David who was ordered to infiltrate Absalom's court to successfully sabotage his plans, Absalom's forces are routed at the battle of the Wood of Ephraim, and he is caught by his long hair in the branches of a tree where, contrary to David's order, he is killed by Joab, the commander of David's army. David laments the death of his favourite son: "O my son Absalom, my son, my son Absalom! Would I had died instead of you, O Absalom, my son, my son!" until Joab persuades him to recover from "the extravagance of his grief" and to fulfill his duty to his people. David returns to Gilgal and is escorted across the River Jordan and back to Jerusalem by the tribes of Judah and Benjamin. When David is old and bedridden, Adonijah, his eldest surviving son and natural heir, declares himself king. Bathsheba and Nathan go to David and obtain his agreement to crown Bathsheba's son Solomon as king, according to David's earlier promise, and the revolt of Adonijah is put down. David dies at the age of 70 after reigning for 40 years, and on his deathbed counsels Solomon to walk in the ways of God and to take revenge on his enemies. Psalms , 10th century]] The Book of Samuel calls David a skillful harp (lyre) player and "the sweet psalmist of Israel." Yet, while almost half of the Psalms are headed "A Psalm of David" (also translated as "to David" or "for David") and tradition identifies several with specific events in David's life (e.g., Psalms 3, 7, 18, 34, 51, 52, 54, 56, 57, 59, 60, 63 and 142), the headings are late additions and no psalm can be attributed to David with certainty. Psalm 34 is attributed to David on the occasion of his escape from Abimelech (or King Achish) by pretending to be insane. According to the parallel narrative in 1 Samuel 21, instead of killing the man who had exacted so many casualties from him, Abimelech allows David to leave, exclaiming, "Am I so short of madmen that you have to bring this fellow here to carry on like this in front of me? Must this man come into my house?" Interpretation in Abrahamic tradition Rabbinic Judaism David is an important figure in Rabbinic Judaism, with many legends about him. According to one tradition, David was raised as the son of his father Jesse and spent his early years herding his father's sheep in the wilderness while his brothers were in school. David's adultery with Bathsheba is interpreted as an opportunity to demonstrate the power of repentance, and the Talmud says it was not adultery at all, citing a Jewish practice of divorce on the eve of battle. Furthermore, according to Talmudic sources, Uriah's death was not murder, because Uriah had committed a capital offense by refusing to obey a direct command from the King. However, in tractate Sanhedrin, David expressed remorse over his transgressions and sought forgiveness. God ultimately forgave David and Bathsheba but would not remove their sins from Scripture. In Jewish legend, David's sin with Bathsheba is the punishment for David's excessive self-consciousness. He had besought God to lead him into temptation so that he might give proof of his constancy like Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, who successfully passed the test and whose names later were united with God's, while David failed through the temptation of a woman. Also, according to the Talmud Yerushalmi, David was born and died on the Jewish holiday of Shavuot (Feast of Weeks). His piety was said to be so great that his prayers could bring down things from Heaven.Christianity <br/>Oriental Orthodoxy \| image = 5201-king-david-in-prayer-pieter-de-grebber.jpg \| imagesize = 250px \| caption = King David in Prayer, by Pieter de Grebber () \| birth_place \| death_place \| titles = Holy Monarch, Prophet, Reformer, Spiritual Poet and Musician, Vicegerent of God, Psalm-Receiver \| beatified_date \| beatified_place \| beatified_by \| canonized_date \| canonized_place \| canonized_by \| attributes = Psalms, Harp, Head of Goliath \| patronage \| suppressed_date \| issues \| prayer \| prayer_attrib = }} The Messiah concept is fundamental in Christianity. Originally an earthly king ruling by divine appointment ("the anointed one", as the title Messiah had it), in the last two centuries BCE the "son of David" became the apocalyptic and heavenly one who would deliver Israel and usher in a new kingdom. This was the background to the concept of Messiahship in early Christianity, which interpreted the career of Jesus "by means of the titles and functions assigned to David in the mysticism of the Zion cult, in which he served as priest-king and in which he was the mediator between God and man". The early Church believed that "the life of David foreshadowed the life of Christ; Bethlehem is the birthplace of both; the shepherd life of David points out Christ, the Good Shepherd; the five stones chosen to slay Goliath are typical of the five wounds; the betrayal by his trusted counsellor, Ahitophel, and the passage over the Cedron remind us of Christ's Sacred Passion. Many of the Davidic Psalms, as we learn from the New Testament, are clearly typical of the future Messiah." In the Middle Ages, "Charlemagne thought of himself, and was viewed by his court scholars, as a 'new David'. [This was] not in itself a new idea, but [one whose] content and significance were greatly enlarged by him". Western Rite churches (Lutheran, Roman Catholic) celebrate David's feast day on 29 December or 6 October, Eastern-rite on 19 December. The Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches celebrate the feast day of the "Holy Righteous Prophet and King David" on the Sunday of the Holy Forefathers (two Sundays before the Great Feast of the Nativity of the Lord) and on the Sunday of the Holy Fathers (Sunday before the Nativity), when he is commemorated together with other ancestors of Jesus. He is also commemorated on the Sunday after the Nativity, together with Joseph and James, the Brother of the Lord and on 26 December (Synaxis of the Mother of God).Middle Agesto King David by mediaeval heralds. (Identical to the arms of Ireland)]] In European Christian culture of the Middle Ages, David was made a member of the Nine Worthies, a group of heroes encapsulating all the ideal qualities of chivalry. His life was thus proposed as a valuable subject for study by those aspiring to chivalric status. This aspect of David in the Nine Worthies was popularised first through literature, and thereafter adopted as a frequent subject for painters and sculptors. David was considered a model ruler and a symbol of divinely ordained monarchy throughout medieval Western Europe and Eastern Christendom. He was perceived as the biblical predecessor to Christian Roman and Byzantine emperors and the name "New David" was used as an honorific reference to these rulers. The Georgian Bagratids and the Solomonic dynasty of Ethiopia claimed direct biological descent from him. Likewise, kings of the Frankish Carolingian dynasty frequently connected themselves to David; Charlemagne himself occasionally used "David" his pseudonym. God also instructed David in the art of fashioning chain mail out of iron (Q21:80); this knowledge gave David a major advantage over his bronze and cast iron-armed opponents, not to mention the cultural and economic impact. Together with Solomon, David gave judgment in a case of damage to the fields (Q21:78) and David judged the matter between two disputants in his prayer chamber (Q38:21–23). Since there is no mention in the Quran of the wrong David did to Uriah nor any reference to Bathsheba, Muslims reject this narrative. Muslim tradition and the hadith stress David's zeal in daily prayer as well as in fasting. Quran commentators, historians and compilers of the numerous Stories of the Prophets elaborate upon David's concise quranic narratives and specifically mention David's gift in singing his Psalms, his beautiful recitation, and his vocal talents. His voice is described as having a captivating power, weaving its influence not only over man but over all beasts and nature, who would unite with him to praise God. Historicity Literary analysisthumb\|upright0.8\|Statue of David (1609–1612) by Nicolas Cordier Biblical literature and archaeological finds are the only sources that attest to David's life. Some scholars have concluded that this was likely compiled from contemporary records of the 11th and 10th centuries BCE, but that there is no clear historical basis for determining the exact date of compilation. Other scholars believe that the Books of Samuel were substantially composed during the time of Josiah, king of Judah, at the end of the 7th century BCE, extended during the Babylonian captivity and substantially complete by about 550 BCE. Old Testament scholar A. Graeme Auld contends that further editing was done even after then—the silver quarter-shekel Saul's servant offers to Samuel in "almost certainly fixes the date of the story in the Persian or Hellenistic period" because a quarter-shekel was known to exist in Hasmonean times. The authors and editors of Samuel drew on many earlier sources, including, for their history of David, the "history of David's rise" and the "succession narrative". The Books of Chronicles, which tells the story from a different point of view, was probably composed in the period 350–300 BCE, and uses Samuel and Kings as its source. Biblical evidence indicates that David's Judah was something less than a full-fledged monarchy: it often calls him (; ) rather than (); David sets up none of the complex bureaucracy that a kingdom needs. His army is made up of volunteers and his followers are largely relations or from his home region of Hebron. Beyond this, the full range of possible interpretations is available. A number of scholars consider the David story to be a heroic tale similar to the legend of King Arthur or the epics of Homer, while others find such comparisons questionable. One theme paralleled with other Near Eastern literature is the homoerotic nature of the relationship between David and Jonathan. The instance in the Book of Jashar, excerpted in 2 Samuel 1:26, where David "proclaims that Jonathan's love was sweeter to him than the love of a woman", has been compared to Achilles' comparison of Patroclus to a girl and Gilgamesh's love for Enkidu "as a woman". Others hold that the David story is a political apology—an answer to contemporary charges against him, of his involvement in murders and regicide. The authors and editors of Samuel and Chronicles aimed not to record history but to promote David's reign as inevitable and desirable, and for this reason there is little about David that is concrete and undisputed. Other scholars argue that, notwithstanding the apologetic tenor of the story, the authors of Samuel were also critical of David in several respects, suggesting that the text presents a complex portrait of him rather than a purely propagandistic one. Some other studies of David have been written: Baruch Halpern has pictured him as a brutal tyrant, a murderer, and a lifelong vassal of Achish, the Philistine king of Gath; Steven McKenzie argues that David came from a wealthy family, and was an "ambitious and ruthless" tyrant who murdered his opponents, including his sons.Archaeological findings ]] The Tel Dan stele, discovered in 1993, is an inscribed stone erected by Hazael, a king of Damascus in the late 9th/early 8th centuries BCE. It commemorates the king's victory over two enemy kings, and contains the phrase , , which most scholars translate as "House of David". Other scholars have challenged this reading, but this is likely a reference to a dynasty of the Kingdom of Judah which traced its ancestry to a founder named David. Two epigraphers, André Lemaire and Émile Puech, hypothesised in 1994 that the Mesha Stele from Moab, dating from the 9th century, also contain the words "House of David" at the end of Line 31, although this was considered as less certain than the mention in the Tel Dan inscription. In May 2019, Israel Finkelstein, Nadav Na'aman, and Thomas Römer concluded from the new images that the ruler's name contained three consonants and started with a bet, which excludes the reading "House of David" and, in conjunction with the monarch's city of residence "Horonaim" in Moab, makes it likely that the one mentioned is King Balak, a name also known from the Hebrew Bible. Replying to Langlois, Na'aman argued that the "House of David" reading is unacceptable because the resulting sentence structure is extremely rare in West Semitic royal inscriptions. near the Bubastite Portal at Karnak, depicting the god Amun-Re receiving a list of cities and villages conquered by the king in his Near Eastern military campaigns.]] Besides the two steles, Bible scholar and Egyptologist Kenneth Kitchen suggests that David's name also appears in a relief of the pharaoh Shoshenq I, who is usually identified with Shishak in the Bible. The relief claims that Shoshenq raided places in Palestine in 925 BCE, and Kitchen interprets one place as "Heights of David", which was in southern Judah and the Negev where the Bible says David took refuge from Saul. The relief is damaged and interpretation is uncertain. This echoed the 1995 conclusion of Amélie Kuhrt, who noted that "there are no royal inscriptions from the time of the united monarchy (indeed very little written material altogether), and not a single contemporary reference to either David or Solomon," while noting, "against this must be set the evidence for substantial development and growth at several sites, which is plausibly related to the tenth century." In 2007, Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman stated that the archaeological evidence shows that Judah was sparsely inhabited and Jerusalem no more than a small village. The evidence suggested that David ruled only as a chieftain over an area which cannot be described as a state or as a kingdom, but more as a chiefdom, much smaller and always overshadowed by the older and more powerful kingdom of Israel to the north. They posited that Israel and Judah were not monotheistic at the time and that later 7th-century redactors sought to portray a past golden age of a united, monotheistic monarchy in order to serve contemporary needs. They noted a lack of archeological evidence for David's military campaigns and a relative underdevelopment of Jerusalem, the capital of Judah, compared to a more developed and urbanized Samaria, capital of Israel during the 9th century BCE. In 2010, Amihai Mazar wrote that the United Monarchy of the 10th century BCE can be described as a "state in development". He compared David to Labaya, a Caananite warlord living during the time of Pharaoh Akhenaten. While Mazar believes that David reigned over Israel during the 11th century BCE, he argues that much of the Biblical text is of "literary-legendary nature". According to William G. Dever, the reigns of Saul, David and Solomon are reasonably well attested, but "most archeologists today would argue that the United Monarchy was not much more than a kind of hill-country chiefdom". Avraham Faust and Zev Farber argue that David managed to establish a mini-empire through multiple conquests which are archaeologically attested in destruction layers of many urban centers dating to his time. Lester L. Grabbe wrote in 2017: "The main question is what kind of settlement Jerusalem was in Iron IIA: was it a minor settlement, perhaps a large village or possibly a citadel but not a city, or was it the capital of a flourishing—or at least an emerging—state? Assessments differ considerably". Isaac Kalimi wrote in 2018, "No contemporaneous extra-biblical source offers any account of the political situation in Israel and Judah during the tenth century BCE, and as we have seen, the archaeological remains themselves cannot provide any unambiguous evidence of events." Mazar proposed that these two structures may have been architecturally linked as one unit and that they date to the time of King David. Mazar supports this dating with a number of artifacts, including pottery, two Phoenician-style ivory inlays, a black-and-red jug, and a radiocarbon-dated bone, estimated to be from the 10th century. Dever, Amihai Mazar, Avraham Faust, and Nadav Na'aman have argued in favour of the 10th-century BCE dating and responded to challenges to it. In 2010, Eilat Mazar announced the discovery of part of the ancient city walls around the City of David, which she believes date to the 10th century BCE. According to Mazar, this would prove that an organized state did exist in the 10th century. Scholars such as Israel Finkelstein, Lily Singer-Avitz, Ze'ev Herzog and David Ussishkin do not accept these conclusions. Finkelstein does not accept the dating of these structures to the 10th century BCE, based in part on the fact that later structures on the site penetrated deep into underlying layers, that the entire area had been excavated in the early 20th century and then backfilled, that pottery from later periods was found below earlier strata, and that consequently the finds collected by E. Mazar cannot necessarily be considered as retrieved in situ. Aren Maeir said in 2010 that he has seen no evidence that these structures are from the 10th century BCE and that proof of the existence of a strong, centralized kingdom at that time remains "tenuous." Excavations at Khirbet Qeiyafa by archaeologists Yosef Garfinkel and Saar Ganor found an urbanized settlement radiocarbon dated to the 10th century, which supports the existence of an urbanised kingdom. The Israel Antiquities Authority stated: "The excavations at Khirbat Qeiyafa clearly reveal an urban society that existed in Judah already in the late eleventh century BCE. It can no longer be argued that the Kingdom of Judah developed only in the late eighth century BCE or at some other later date." But other scholars have criticized the techniques and interpretations to reach some conclusions related to Khirbet Qeiyafa, such as Israel Finkelstein and Alexander Fantalkin of Tel Aviv University, who have instead proposed that the city is to be identified as part of a northern Israelite polity. In 2018, Avraham Faust and Yair Sapir stated that a Canaanite site at Tel Eton, about 30 miles from Jerusalem, was taken over by a Judahite community by peaceful assimilation and transformed from a village into a central town at some point in the late 11th or early 10th century BCE. This transformation used some ashlar blocks in construction, which they argued supports the United Monarchy theory. Popular culture Literature Literary works about David include: 1517 The Davidiad is a Neo-Latin epic poem by the Croatian national poet, Roman Catholic priest, and Renaissance humanist Marko Marulić (whose name is sometimes Latinized as "Marcus Marulus"). In addition to the small portions that attempt to recall the epics of Homer, The Davidiad is heavily modeled upon Virgil's Aeneid. This is so much the case that Marulić's contemporaries called him the "Christian Virgil from Split." The philologist Miroslav Marcovich also detects, "the influence of Ovid, Lucan, and Statius" in the work. 1681–82 Dryden's long poem Absalom and Achitophel is an allegory that uses the story of the rebellion of Absalom against King David as the basis for his satire of the contemporary political situation, including events such as the Monmouth Rebellion (1685), the Popish Plot (1678) and the Exclusion Crisis. 1893 Sir Arthur Conan Doyle may have used the story of David and Bathsheba as a foundation for the Sherlock Holmes story The Adventure of the Crooked Man. Holmes mentions "the small affair of Uriah and Bathsheba" at the end of the story. 1928 Elmer Davis's novel Giant Killer retells and embellishes the biblical story of David, casting David as primarily a poet who managed always to find others to do the "dirty work" of heroism and kingship. In the novel, Elhanan in fact killed Goliath but David claimed the credit; and Joab, David's cousin and general, took it upon himself to make many of the difficult decisions of war and statecraft when David vacillated or wrote poetry instead. 1936 William Faulkner's Absalom, Absalom! refers to the story of Absalom, David's son; his rebellion against his father and his death at the hands of David's general, Joab. In addition it parallels Absalom's vengeance for the rape of his sister Tamar by his half-brother, Amnon. 1946 Gladys Schmitt's novel David the King was a richly embellished biography of David's entire life. The book took a risk, especially for its time, in portraying David's relationship with Jonathan as overtly homoerotic, but was ultimately panned by critics as a bland rendition of the title character. 1966 Juan Bosch, a Dominican political leader and writer, wrote David: Biography of a King, as a realistic portrayal of David's life and political career. 1970 Dan Jacobson's The Rape of Tamar is an imagined account, by one of David's courtiers Yonadab, of the rape of Tamar by Amnon. 1972 Stefan Heym wrote The King David Report in which the historian Ethan compiles upon King Solomon's orders "a true and authoritative report on the life of David, Son of Jesse"—the East German writer's wry depiction of a court historian writing an "authorized" history, many incidents clearly intended as satirical references to the writer's own time. 1974 In Thomas Burnett Swann's biblical fantasy novel How are the Mighty Fallen, David and Jonathan are explicitly stated to be lovers. Moreover, Jonathan is a member of a winged semi-human race (possibly nephilim), one of several such races coexisting with humanity but often persecuted by it. 1980 Malachi Martin's factional novel King of Kings: A Novel of the Life of David relates the life of David, Adonai's champion in his battle with the Philistine deity Dagon. 1984 Joseph Heller wrote a novel based on David called God Knows, published by Simon & Schuster. Told from the perspective of an aging David, the humanity—rather than the heroism—of various biblical characters is emphasized. The portrayal of David as a man of flaws such as greed, lust, selfishness, and his alienation from God, the falling apart of his family is a distinctly 20th-century interpretation of the events told in the Bible. 1993 Madeleine L'Engle's novel Certain Women explores family, the Christian faith, and the nature of God through the story of King David's family and an analogous modern family's saga. 1995 Allan Massie wrote King David, a novel about David's career that portrays the king's relationship to Jonathan as sexual. 2015 Geraldine Brooks wrote a novel about David, The Secret Chord, told from the point of view of the prophet Nathan. 2020 Michael Arditti wrote The Anointed, a novel about David told by three of his wives, Michal, Abigail and Bathsheba.Paintings 1599 Caravaggio David and Goliath Caravaggio David with the Head of Goliath 1616 Peter Paul Rubens David Slaying Goliath Sculptures 1440? Donatello, David 1473–1475 Verrocchio, David 1501–1504 Michelangelo, David 1623–1624 Gian Lorenzo Bernini, David Film David has been depicted several times in films; these are some of the best-known: 1951 David and Bathsheba, directed by Henry King, with Gregory Peck in the role of David. 1959 Solomon and Sheba, directed by King Vidor, with Finlay Currie in the role of an aged King David. 1961 A Story of David, directed by Bob McNaught, with Jeff Chandler in the role of David. 1985 King David, directed by Bruce Beresford, with Richard Gere in the role of David. 1996 Dave and the Giant Pickle Television 1976 The Story of David, a made-for-TV film with Timothy Bottoms and Keith Michell as King David at different ages. 1997 David, a TV-film with Nathaniel Parker as King David and Leonard Nimoy as the Prophet Samuel. 1997 Solomon, a sequel to David, with Max von Sydow playing an older King David. 2009 Kings, a re-imagining loosely based on the biblical story, with David played by Christopher Egan. King David is the focus of the second episode of History Channel's Battles BC documentary, which detailed all of his military exploits in the bible. 2012 Rei Davi, a Brazilian miniseries with Leonardo Brício as David. 2013 The Bible, a miniseries with Langley Kirkwood in the role of David. 2016 Of Kings and Prophets in which David is played by Olly Rix. Music ]] The traditional birthday song Las Mañanitas mentions King David as the original singer in its lyrics. 1622 Thomas Tomkins's choral anthem "When David Heard", about David's response to the death of his son Absalom, is published in the anthology Songs of 1622. 1738 George Frideric Handel's oratorio Saul features David as one of its main characters. 1921 Arthur Honegger's oratorio Le Roi David with a libretto by René Morax, instantly became a staple of the choral repertoire. 1954 Darius Milhaud's opera David premieres in Jerusalem in celebration of the 3,000th anniversary of the establishment of that city by David. 1964 Bob Dylan alludes to David in the last line of his song "When The Ship Comes In" ("And like Goliath, they'll be conquered"). 1965 Leonard Bernstein described the second movement of his Chichester Psalms, which features a setting of Psalm 23, sung by a boy soloist accompanied by a harp, as a "musical evocation of King David, the shepherd-psalmist". 1983 Bob Dylan refers to David in his song "Jokerman" ("Michelangelo indeed could've carved out your features"). 1984 Leonard Cohen's song "Hallelujah" has references to David ("there was a secret chord that David played and it pleased the Lord", "The baffled king composing Hallelujah") and Bathsheba ("you saw her bathing on the roof") in its opening verses. 1990 The song "One of the Broken" by Paddy McAloon, performed by Prefab Sprout on the album Jordan: The Comeback, has a reference to David ("I remember King David, with his harp and his beautiful, beautiful songs, I answered his prayers, and showed him a place where his music belongs"). 1991 "Mad About You", a song on Sting's album The Soul Cages, explores David's obsession with Bathsheba from David's perspective. 2000 The song "Gimme a Stone" appears on the Little Feat album Chinese Work Songs chronicles the duel with Goliath and contains a lament to Absalom as a bridge.Musical theater1997 King David, sometimes described as a modern oratorio, with a book and lyrics by Tim Rice and music by Alan Menken.Radio1962 Twilight of a Hero, an Australian radio play that sold to the BBCPlaying cardsFor a considerable period, starting in the 15th century and continuing until the 19th, French playing card manufacturers assigned to each of the court cards names taken from history or mythology. In this context, the King of spades was often known as "David". Image gallery : Saul and David. \| File:Monheim Town Hall 1.JPG \| King David playing the harp, ceiling fresco from Monheim Town Hall, home of a wealthy Jewish merchant. \| File:Study of King David, by Julia Margaret Cameron.jpg \| Study of King David, by Julia Margaret Cameron. Depicts Sir Henry Taylor, 1866. \| File:The Ark Brought to Jerusalem.jpg \| The Ark is brought to Jerusalem (1896 Bible card illustration by the Providence Lithograph Company) \| File:Arnold Zadikow Young David.jpg \| Arnold Zadikow, 1930: The Young David displayed in the entrance of Berlin's Jewish Museum from 1933 until its loss during the Second World War. \| File:PikiWiki Israel 69694 tower of david.jpg \| Replica of Verrocchio's David in the Tower of David, Jerusalem \| File:King David on Zion.jpg \| King David Monument on Mount Zion }} See also David and Jonathan David's Mighty Warriors David's Tomb City of David Tower of David Kings of Israel and Judah Large Stone Structure Midrash Shmuel (aggadah) Sons of David Notes References Sources * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Further reading * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * External links [http://www.complete-bible-genealogy.com/names/david_593.htm Complete Bible Genealogy]—David's family tree [http://www.colecciondeverda.com/search/label/Personajes%20Antiguo%20Testamento%20(David) David engravings from the De Verda collection] [http://www.christianiconography.info/david.html King David] at the [http://www.christianiconography.info Christian Iconography web site] [http://www.christianiconography.info/goldenLegend/david.htm The History of David], by William Caxton *"[https://www.bibleodyssey.org:443/people/main-articles/david David]" by Kent Harold Richards at [https://www.bibleodyssey.org:443/people/main-articles/david Bible Odyssey] }} Category:11th-century BC monarchs Category:11th-century BCE Hebrew people Category:Kings of Israel (united monarchy) Category:10th-century BC monarchs Category:10th-century BCE Hebrew people Category:Ancient history of Jerusalem Category:Angelic visionaries Category:Anglican saints Category:Biblical murderers Category:Characters in the Divine Comedy Category:Christian saints from the Old Testament Category:Family of Solomon Category:Harpists Category:Jewish royalty Category:Jewish poets Category:People from Bethlehem Category:Shepherds Category:Tribe of Judah Category:Warlords Category:Heroes in mythology and legend	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David	2025-04-05T18:28:40.621758
8556	Diablo II	Classic Mac OS<br />OS X<br /> \| genre Action role-playing, hack and slash \| modes = Single-player, multiplayer \| platforms = Microsoft Windows, Classic Mac OS, OS X }} Diablo II is a 2000 action role-playing game developed by Blizzard North and published by Blizzard Entertainment for Microsoft Windows, Classic Mac OS, and OS X. The game, with its dark fantasy and horror themes, was conceptualized and designed by David Brevik and Erich Schaefer, who, with Max Schaefer, acted as project leads on the game. The producers were Matthew Householder and Bill Roper. The game was developed over a three-year period, with a crunch time of a year and a half. Set shortly after the events of Diablo, the player controls a new hero, attempting to stop the destruction unleashed by Diablo's return. The game's four acts feature a variety of locations and settings to explore and battle in, as well as an increased cast of characters to play as and interact with. Building on the success of its predecessor, Diablo (1997), and improving the gameplay, both in terms of updated character progression and a better-developed story, Diablo II was one of the most popular games of 2000 and has been cited as one of the greatest games of all time. Major factors that contributed to the game's success include its continuation of popular fantasy themes from the previous game and its access to Blizzard's free online play service, Battle.net. An expansion to the game, Diablo II: Lord of Destruction, was released in 2001. Diablo III, the sequel to Diablo II, was released on May 15, 2012. Diablo II: Resurrected, a remastered version of Diablo II which also includes the Lord of Destruction expansion, was released on September 23, 2021. Gameplay <!--Please note: There are only FOUR acts in the original Diablo II, the fifth is added in the Lord of Destruction expansion pack. Act V will only be briefly mentioned here, full details will be found on the LOD expansion page. --> Diablo IIs storyline progresses through four chapters or "acts". Each act follows a predetermined path, but the wilderness and dungeons between key areas are randomly generated. The player progresses through the story by completing a series of quests within each act, while there are also optional side dungeons for extra monsters and experience. In contrast to the first Diablo, whose levels consisted of descending deeper and deeper into a Gothic-themed dungeon and Hell, Diablo IIs environments are much more varied. Act I is similar to the original Diablo; the Rogue Encampment is a simple palisade fort, with plains and boreal forests making up the wilderness area, and the Monastery resembles the typical medieval fortress. Act II mimics Ancient Egypt's desert and tombs; Lut Gholein resembles a Middle Eastern city and palace during the Crusades. Act III is supposedly based on the Central American jungles; Kurast is inspired by the lost Mayan civilization. Act IV takes place in Hell and is the shortest, with just three quests compared to the other Acts that have six. The Lord of Destruction expansion adds the fifth chapter Act V which continues the story where Act IV left off. Act V's style is mainly mountainous as the player ascends Mount Arreat, with alpine plateaus and icy tunnels and caverns. Occasional portals can take the player to dungeons in Hell (seen in Act IV) for extra monsters and experience. After reaching the summit of Arreat, the player gains access to the Worldstone Keep. In addition to the acts, there are three sequential difficulty levels: Normal, Nightmare, and Hell; completing the game (four Acts in the original or five Acts in the expansion) on a difficulty setting will open up the next level. On higher difficulties, monsters are more varied, stronger, and may be resistant or immune to an element or physical damage; experience is penalized on dying, and the player's resistances are handicapped. However, better items are rewarded to players as they go through higher difficulties. A character retains all abilities and items between difficulties and may return to a lower difficulty at any time, albeit it is not possible to replay the quests that are already completed. Players can create a hardcore character. In normal mode, the player can resurrect their character if killed and resume playing, while a hardcore character has only one life. If killed, the character is permanently dead and unplayable. In addition, all items and equipment on that character will be lost unless another friendly character has the "loot" icon checked. Standard and hardcore characters play on separate online channels; as such a hardcore player can never appear in the same game session as a standard player. Item system Diablo II uses a system of randomly generated equipment similar to the original Diablo, but more complicated. Weapons and armor are divided into several quality levels: normal, magical, set, rare, and unique. Normal quality items are base items with a fixed set of basic properties, such as attribute requirements, maximum durability, armor rating (on armor), block chance (on shields), damage, and attack speed (on weapons). Magical quality items have blue names and one or two randomly selected bonuses, such as bonuses attributes, skills, or damage, indicated by a prefix or suffix. Rare quality items have randomly generated yellow names and 2 to 6 random properties. Unique items have fixed names in gold text, and instead of randomized properties, they have a set of 3 to 8 preselected properties. Green-named set items have fixed names and preselected properties like unique items, and belong to specifically named sets of 2 to 6 items. Additional properties known as set bonuses are activated by equipping multiple or all items from the same set. These are themed on individuals, like Civerb's cudgel, shield, and amulet, each of which provides individual bonuses which are enhanced if two or more of the items are used to equip a character. It is unusual to encounter more than one item from a set in a single playthrough of the game, so collectors need to play the game many times to accumulate all items from a set or purchase them online from other players who possess them but do not need them. Additionally, items can possess sockets, which can be used to upgrade items by adding gems for various bonuses. Diablo II includes an item crafting system. An item called the Horadric Cube is used to combine two or more items to create a new item. For example, three identical lower-quality gems can be combined to create a single higher-quality gem, and three small rejuvenation potions can be combined to create a single, more powerful rejuvenation potion.Character classes Diablo II allows the player to choose between five different character classes: Amazon, Necromancer, Barbarian, Sorceress, and Paladin. Each character has different strengths, weaknesses, and sets of skills to choose from, as well as varying beginning attributes. The maximum level that any character can obtain is level 99. * The Amazon hails from the islands of the Twin Seas, near the border of the Great Ocean. The Amazon is akin to the Rogue of Diablo: both primarily use bows and both make equal use of strength and magic but the Amazon can also use javelins and spears. As such, her clan is a rival to the Sisters of the Sightless Eye (also known as Rogues). Many of her defensive skills are passive in nature, especially Dodge, Avoid, and Evade. The Amazon is voiced by Jessica Straus. * The Necromancer is a versatile death-themed spell caster. Necromancers are the priests of the Cult of Rathma from the Eastern jungles. His Summoning skills allow him to raise skeletons, create golems and resurrect dead monsters to fight alongside him. The Necromancer possesses powerful poison spells, which rapidly drain life from afflicted monsters. He also has "Bone" skills, which directly damage enemies while bypassing most resistances. His Curses also afflict the enemy with debilitating status ailments, sowing confusion and chaos in their ranks. The Necromancer is voiced by Michael McConnohie. The Barbarian is voiced by David Thomas. The Sorceress is voiced by Liana Young. The Paladin is voiced by Larry B. Scott. Typically, players choose a hireling that provides something missing from their character class; for instance, the melee-focused Paladin may choose an Iron Wolf for ranged magical support. In Heroes of the Storm (2015), playable characters Cassia and Xul represent the Amazon and the Necromancer classes, respectively. Multiplayer Diablo II can be played multiplayer on a local area network (LAN) or the Blizzard's Battle.net online service. Unlike the original Diablo, Diablo II was made specifically with online gaming in mind. Several spells (such as auras or war cries) multiply their effectiveness if they are cast within a party, and although dungeons still exist, they were largely replaced by open spaces. Battle.net is divided into "Open" and "Closed" realms. Single-player characters may be played on open realms; only Battle.net characters that are stored on Blizzard's servers may be played on closed realms as a measure against cheating, where they must be played at least once every 90 days to avoid expiration. Open games are subject to many abuses as the characters are stored on the players' own hard drives. Many cheats that were used on closed realms do not exist or work any longer. Hacks, bots, and programs which allow the player to run multiple instances of the game at the same time are not allowed by Blizzard. They are rarely used anymore. Blizzard cracked down on spambots which advertise sites selling Diablo II's virtual items for real-world currency. As the game can be played cooperatively (Players vs. Environment, PvE), groups of players with specific sets of complementary skills can finish some of the game's climactic battles in a matter of seconds, providing strong incentives for party-oriented character builds. Up to eight players can be in one game; they can either unite as a single party, play as individuals, or form multiple opposing parties. Experience gained, monsters' hit points and damage, and the number of items dropped are all increased as more players join a game, though not in a strictly proportional manner. Players are allowed to duel each other with all damage being reduced in player vs player (PvP). The bounty for a successful kill in PvP is a portion of the gold and the "ear" of the defeated player (with the previous owner's name and level at the time of the kill). The Ladder System is reset at various intervals by Blizzard to allow for all players to start fresh with new characters on an equal footing. Ladder seasons have lasted from as short as six months to over a year. When a ladder season ends, all ladder characters are transferred to the non-ladder population. Certain rare items are available only within ladder games, although they can be traded for and exchanged on non-ladder after the season has ended. The game has been patched extensively; the precise number of patches is impossible to determine as Battle.net has the capability of making minor server-side patches to address urgent bugs. , the game is in version 1.14d. Through the patch history, several exploits and bugs such as item duplication have been addressed, as well as major revamps to the game's balance (such as the ability to redo skills and attributes). Not all patches have affected Diablo II directly, as several were designed to address aspects of the expansion to the game and had minimal effects on Diablo II. Plot Diablo II takes place after the end of the previous game, Diablo, in the world of Sanctuary. In Diablo, an unnamed warrior defeated Diablo and attempted to contain the Lord of Terror's essence within his own body. Since then, the hero has become corrupted by the demon's spirit, causing demons to enter the world around him and wreak havoc. A band of adventurers who pass through the Rogue Encampment hear these stories of destruction and attempt to find out the cause of the evil, starting with this corrupted "Dark Wanderer." As the story develops, the truth behind this corruption is revealed: the soulstones were originally intended to imprison the Prime Evils after they were banished to the mortal realm by the Lesser Evils. With the corruption of Diablo's soulstone, the demon is able to control the Dark Wanderer and is attempting to free his two brothers, Mephisto and Baal. Baal, united with the mage Tal-Rasha, is imprisoned in a tomb near Lut Gholein. Mephisto is imprisoned in the eastern temple city of Kurast. As the story progresses, cut scenes show the Dark Wanderer's journey as a drifter named Marius follows him. Marius, now in an asylum, narrates the events to a hooded visitor, whom he initially believes to be the Archangel Tyrael. The player realizes that the Dark Wanderer's mission is to reunite with the other prime evils, Baal and Mephisto. The story is divided up into four acts: :Act I – The adventurers rescue Deckard Cain, who is imprisoned in Tristram, and then begin following the Dark Wanderer. The Dark Wanderer has one of the lesser evils, Andariel, corrupt the Sisters of the Sightless Eye (Rogues) and take over their Monastery. The adventurers overcome Andariel and then follow the Wanderer east. :Act II – While the adventurers search the eastern desert for Tal-Rasha's tomb, the Dark Wanderer gets there first. Marius is tricked into removing Baal's soulstone from Tal-Rasha and Tyrael charges Marius with taking the soulstone to Hell to destroy it. :Act III – The Dark Wanderer and Baal look for Mephisto in the Temple of Kurast. Still imprisoned in the dungeon below the temple, Mephisto was able to corrupt the High Council of Zakarum and take over the region. While the adventurers fight their way to the temple, Mephisto is rejoined by his brothers; the three open a portal to Hell, the Dark Wanderer sheds his human form, becomes the demon Diablo, and goes through the portal. The adventurers arrive later, defeat Mephisto, who was left guarding the entrance, and take his soulstone. :Act IV – The adventurers slay Diablo in Hell and destroy the soulstones of Mephisto and Diablo on the Hellforge, preventing their return. In the epilogue, Marius indicates he was too weak to enter Hell, and that he fears the stone's effects on him. He gives the soulstone to his visitor. The visitor reveals himself to actually be Baal, the last surviving Prime Evil now in possession of his own soulstone. He then kills Marius and sets the asylum on fire. The story continues with Act V, in the expansion Diablo II: Lord of Destruction where Baal attempts to corrupt the mythical Worldstone on Mount Arreat. Upon returning to the Pandemonium Fortress after defeating Diablo, Tyrael opens a portal to send the adventurers to Arreat. Development Diablo II was announced by Blizzard in 1997, with a planned launch in the first quarter of 1998. According to designer and project lead Erich Schaefer, "Diablo II never had an official, complete design document... for the most part we just started making up new stuff." Lead developer David Brevik wanted to fix all of the outstanding issues from the first Diablo, including improved multiplayer, more distinction between the character classes, and building the game more horizontally across a large virtual space of land rather than the vertical, multilevel dungeon of Diablo. The game was slated to have two years of development work, but it took Blizzard North over three years to finish. Part of this delay was attributed to Brevik's focus on gameplay from Ultima Online, and trying to improve on features from that game for Diablo. Brevik also brought in concepts from games like Civilization and Master of Orion, which led to the creation of the character skill tree. The team was given creative freedom to come up with further ideas, often spending time playing video games for inspiration, but this haphazard development path led to the game's delay. After missing a key deadline in 1998, Blizzard North entered crunch during 1999 to assure the game would release by 2000. Diablo II, despite having less than one percent of the original code from Diablo and having much of its content and internal coding done from scratch, was seen by the testers as "more of the same." The game was meant to be released simultaneously both in North America and internationally. This allowed the marketing and PR department for Blizzard North to focus their efforts in building up excitement in players worldwide for the first week of sales, contributing to the game's success. Over 70 people worked on the game. A second expansion beyond Lord of Destruction had been in the design stages of development at Blizzard, according to David Brevik, but never reached the production stage. In addition to adding new classes, areas, monsters, and items, the expansion would have brought in more elements of a massively multiplayer online (MMO) game featuring elements like guild halls, what Brevik considered an "ARPG+MMO". Brevik said the expansion was shelved when most of the Blizzard North staff left the company around June 2003. Music The score was composed by Matt Uelmen and integrates creepy ambience with melodic pieces. The style of the score is ambient industrial and experimental. It was recorded in Redwood City, Oakland, and San Mateo, California, from April 1997 to March 2000. Some tracks were created by reusing the tracks from the original game, while others by rearranging tracks that were out-takes. Other scores are combinations of parts that were created more than a year after the first game's release. A single track usually integrates recorded samples from sound libraries, live recorded instrument interpretation samples specially meant for the game (guitar, flute, oriental percussion), and electronic instruments also, making the tracks difficult for later live interpretations. While the player visits the town, the game recreates the peaceful atmosphere from the first Diablo game, so for that the theme from Act I called "Rogue" comes back with the same chords of the original piece, reproducing only a part of the original Diablo town theme. For Act II Mustafa Waiz, a percussionist, and Scott Petersen, the game's sound designer, worked on the drum samples. Waiz played on the dumbek, djembe, and finger cymbals which gave Matt Uelmen a base upon which to build tracks around. The town theme from Act II, "Toru", makes strong statement of departure from the world of Act I while also maintaining a thematic connection to what had come before. It is the first time in the series to be used some radically different elements than the guitars and choral sounds that dominate both the original Diablo and the opening quarter of Diablo II. The foundation of the "Toru" piece is found in exciting dynamics of a Chinese wind gong. The instrument radically changes color from a steady mysterious drone to a harsh, fearsome noise, which gives exotic feeling and at the same time the pacing of the second town. In all sequences of Act II with deserts and valleys, Arabic percussion sounds dominate. The composer was impressed by two of the Spectrasonics music libraries, Symphony of Voices and Heart of Asia. He used samples from Heart of Asia in the Harem piece from Act II. The "Crypt" track uses a sample from Symphony of Voices; the choral phrase Miserere. Voice samples from Heart of Asia, Heart of Africa, and Symphony of Voices by Spectrasonics. The "Harem" track samples from Heart of Asia the Sanskrit Female 1 samples. Release The game was released in ''Collector's Edition'' format, containing bonus collector's material, a copy of the Diablo Dungeons & Dragons pen-and-paper campaign setting, and promotional movies for other Blizzard games. In 2000, the Diablo II: Exclusive Gift Set similarly contained exclusive collector's material and promotional videos, as well as a copy of the official strategy guide. The 2000 released Diablo Gift Pack contained copies of Diablo and Diablo II, but no expansions. The 2001 Diablo: Battle Chest version contained copies of Diablo II, Diablo II: Lord of Destruction, the official strategy guide, and the original Diablo. Recently however , the Battle Chest edition no longer contains the original Diablo. Diablo II was released in Japan through Capcom. Support and legacy Until 2016, Blizzard provided limited support for Diablo II, including occasional patches. Although the original CD retail release worked on Windows 95/98/Me/NT4SP5, the current version downloadable from Battle.net requires at least Windows 2000/XP. Around 2008, the announcement of Diablo III renewed the interest in its predecessor and brought more attention to the many mods available for the game. In 2015, an unofficial port for the ARM architecture-based Pandora handheld became available by static recompilation and reverse engineering of the original x86 version. On March 11, 2016, Blizzard released the 1.14a Patch, which added support for Windows 7 and newer, a macOS installer and support for OS X 10.10 and 10.11. Diablo II is not supported on macOS 10.15, due to Apple completely dropping compatibility with 32-bit binaries in this version. Diablo II: Resurrected A remaster of the original and expansion, entitled Diablo II: Resurrected, was released in 2021 for Windows, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox One, Xbox Series X and Series S, and Nintendo Switch. The remaster includes updated graphics, smoother gameplay and re-rendering of the game's cutscenes, and supports cross-progression between the different platforms. The remastered version supports online features for players within the same console family, but not local co-op. Cross-platform play was not available upon release, although there is a possibility of it being included in a future update. The game also features quality-of-life improvements that Blizzard can implement by taking advantage of modern computers and consoles, including support for controllers on all systems, easier means of item identification, and shared stashes of items between all of a player's characters. But the designers also forego elements such as quest markers that are common in modern games, preserving as much of the original experience as possible, and making the re-master almost completely unchanged from the original Diablo II.ReceptionCritical reviews Diablo II has a positive reception. The PC version of the game achieves an overall score of 88/100 on Metacritic and 89% at GameRankings. GameSpy awarded the game an 86 out of 100, and GameSpot awarded the game an 8.5 out of 10. Greg Vederman reviewed the PC version of the game for Next Generation, rating it five stars out of five, and stated that "Diablo II is a must-have PC title. That's all there is to it." Awards Diablo II earned GameSpot's 2000 runner-up Reader's Choice Award for role-playing game of the year. Diablo II was awarded with "PC Role-Playing Game of the Year", "PC Game of the Year", and "Game of the Year" from the Academy of Interactive Arts and Sciences during the 4th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards. In August 2016, Diablo II placed 21st on Time's The 50 Best Video Games of All Time list. It was placed at No. 8 on Game Informer's "Top 100 RPGs Of All Time" list. Sales On its debut day, Diablo II sold 184,000 units. The game's global sales reached 1 million copies after two weeks, and 2 million after one and a half months. It was awarded a spot in the Guinness Book of World Records 2000 edition for being the fastest selling computer game ever, with more than 1 million units sold in the first two weeks of availability. Its sales during 2000 alone reached 2.75 million globally; 33% of these copies were sold outside the United States, with South Korea making up the largest international market. Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos, World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade, World of Warcraft: Wrath of the Lich King, World of Warcraft: Cataclysm and Diablo III have since surpassed Diablo IIs record to become fastest-selling computer games ever at their times of release, according to Blizzard. In the United States, PC Data tracked 308,923 sales for Diablo II during the June 25–July 1 period, including sales of its Collector's Edition. This drew revenues of $17.2 million. Domestic sales reached 790,285 units ($41.05 million) by the end of October 2000, according to PC Data. Another $4.47 million were earned in the region by that date via sales of the ''Collector's Edition''. Diablo II finished 2000 with 970,131 sales in the United States, for a gross of $48.2 million. Diablo IIs success continued in 2001: from February to the first week of November, it totaled sales of 306,422 units in the United States. It was ultimately the country's eighth best-selling computer title of 2001, with sales of 517,037 units and revenues of $19.3 million. Its lifetime domestic sales climbed to 1.7 million units, for $67.1 million in revenue, by August 2006. At this time, this led Edge to declare it the United States' second-largest computer game hit released since January 2000. It received a "Gold" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 200,000 copies in the United Kingdom. Diablo II became a major hit in the German market and debuted at #1 on Media Control's computer game sales chart for June 2000. Speaking with Havas Interactive's public relations director, PC Players Udo Hoffman noted that the representative "had to make an effort on the phone to avoid singing and jubilating" over the game's commercial performance. The Verband der Unterhaltungssoftware Deutschland (VUD) presented Diablo II with a "Gold" award after three weeks of availability, indicating sales of at least 100,000 units across Germany, Austria and Switzerland. It maintained first place for July and rose to "Platinum" status (200,000 sales) by the end of the month. The game proceeded to place in Media Control's top 10 through October, peaking at #2 in August, By the end of 2000, roughly 350,000 units had been sold in the German market. That April, the VUD presented the game with a "Double-Platinum" certification, for 400,000 sales. This made it one of the region's best-selling computer games ever at that time. As of June 29, 2001, Diablo II has sold 4 million copies worldwide. Copies of Diablo: Battle Chest continue to be sold in retail stores, appearing on the NPD Group's top 10 PC games sales list as recently as 2010. Even more remarkably, the Diablo: Battle Chest was the 19th best-selling PC game of 2008 – a full eight years after the game's initial release – and 11 million users still played Diablo II and StarCraft over Battle.net in 2010. See also * List of PC titles * List of PC exclusive titles Further reading Printed analyses * Discusses the development of Diablo (I) and the origins of the Blizzard Entertainment game development studio. * Discusses the development of Diablo II specifically. * Examines various game design patterns (especially randomization and level progression) used in Diablo II and compares with other action-RPGs to understand why Diablo II was particularly engaging, relative to its competitors. Backstab #21ReferencesExternal links Category:2000 video games Category:Action role-playing video games Category:Blizzard games Category:Classic Mac OS games Category:Dark fantasy role-playing video games Category:Diablo (series) video games Category:Hack and slash role-playing games Category:Impact of the Columbine High School massacre Category:MacOS games Category:Multiplayer and single-player video games Category:Multiplayer online games Category:Role-playing video games Category:Video game sequels Category:Video games about demons Category:Video games developed in the United States Category:Video games featuring female protagonists Category:Video games scored by Matt Uelmen Category:Video games set in hell Category:Video games with isometric graphics Category:Video games using procedural generation Category:Windows games	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diablo_II	2025-04-05T18:28:40.656440
8560	Design	}} ABW30 wall clock designed by Dieter Rams and (early 1980s)]] Swiss Army knife]] designed by architect and designer Zaha Hadid (2007). The slightly oblique end part of the fork and the spoons, as well as the knife handle, are examples of designing for both aesthetic form and practical function.]] , considered to be the father of safe driving and safety tests, preparing for safety development, which is a core part of the designing process]] A design is the concept of or proposal for an object, process, or system. The word design refers to something that is or has been intentionally created by a thinking agent, and is sometimes used to refer to the inherent nature of something – its design. The verb to design expresses the process of developing a design. In some cases, the direct construction of an object without an explicit prior plan may also be considered to be a design (such as in arts and crafts). A design is expected to have a purpose within a specific context, typically aiming to satisfy certain goals and constraints while taking into account aesthetic, functional and experiential considerations. Traditional examples of designs include architectural and engineering drawings, circuit diagrams, sewing patterns, and less tangible artefacts such as business process models. Designing People who produce designs are called designers. The term 'designer' usually refers to someone who works professionally in one of the various design areas. Within the professions, the word 'designer' is generally qualified by the area of practice (for example: a fashion designer, a product designer, a web designer, or an interior designer), but it can also designate other practitioners such as architects and engineers (see below: Types of designing). A designer's sequence of activities to produce a design is called a design process, with some employing designated processes such as design thinking and design methods. The process of creating a design can be brief (a quick sketch) or lengthy and complicated, involving considerable research, negotiation, reflection, modeling, interactive adjustment, and re-design. Designing is also a widespread activity outside of the professions of those formally recognized as designers. In his influential book The Sciences of the Artificial, the interdisciplinary scientist Herbert A. Simon proposed that, "Everyone designs who devises courses of action aimed at changing existing situations into preferred ones." According to the design researcher Nigel Cross, "Everyone can – and does – design," and "Design ability is something that everyone has, to some extent, because it is embedded in our brains as a natural cognitive function."History of design The study of design history is complicated by varying interpretations of what constitutes 'designing'. Many design historians, such as John Heskett, look to the Industrial Revolution and the development of mass production. Others subscribe to conceptions of design that include pre-industrial objects and artefacts, beginning their narratives of design in prehistoric times. Early influential design historians include German-British art historian Nikolaus Pevsner and Swiss historian and architecture critic Sigfried Giedion. Design education In Western Europe, institutions for design education date back to the nineteenth century. The Norwegian National Academy of Craft and Art Industry was founded in 1818, followed by the United Kingdom's Government School of Design (1837), and Konstfack in Sweden (1844). The Rhode Island School of Design was founded in the United States in 1877. The German art and design school Bauhaus, founded in 1919, greatly influenced modern design education. Design education covers the teaching of theory, knowledge, and values in the design of products, services, and environments, with a focus on the development of both particular and general skills for designing. Traditionally, its primary orientation has been to prepare students for professional design practice, based on project work and studio, or atelier, teaching methods. There are also broader forms of higher education in design studies and design thinking. Design is also a part of general education, for example within the curriculum topic, Design and Technology. The development of design in general education in the 1970s created a need to identify fundamental aspects of 'designerly' ways of knowing, thinking, and acting, which resulted in establishing design as a distinct discipline of study. Design process Substantial disagreement exists concerning how designers in many fields, whether amateur or professional, alone or in teams, produce designs. Design researchers Dorst and Dijkhuis acknowledged that "there are many ways of describing design processes," and compare and contrast two dominant but different views of the design process: as a rational problem-solving process and as a process of reflection-in-action. They suggested that these two paradigms "represent two fundamentally different ways of looking at the world positivism and constructionism." The paradigms may reflect differing views of how designing should be done and how it actually is done, and both have a variety of names. The problem-solving view has been called "the rational model," an American scientist, and two German engineering design theorists, Gerhard Pahl and Wolfgang Beitz. It posits that: # Designers attempt to optimize a design candidate for known constraints and objectives. # The design process is plan-driven. # The design process is understood in terms of a discrete sequence of stages. The rational model is based on a rationalist philosophy According to the rationalist philosophy, design is informed by research and knowledge in a predictable and controlled manner. Typical stages consistent with the rational model include the following: * Pre-production design Design brief – initial statement of intended outcome. Analysis – analysis of design goals. Research – investigating similar designs in the field or related topics. Specification – specifying requirements of a design for a product (product design specification) or service. Problem solving – conceptualizing and documenting designs. Presentation – presenting designs. * Design during production. Development – continuation and improvement of a design. Product testing – in situ testing of a design. * Post-production design feedback for future designs. Implementation – introducing the design into the environment. Evaluation and conclusion – summary of process and results, including constructive criticism and suggestions for future improvements. * Redesign – any or all stages in the design process repeated (with corrections made) at any time before, during, or after production. Each stage has many associated best practices. Criticism of the rational model The rational model has been widely criticized on two primary grounds: # Designers do not work this way – extensive empirical evidence has demonstrated that designers do not act as the rational model suggests.Action-centric modelThe action-centric perspective is a label given to a collection of interrelated concepts, which are antithetical to the rational model. At least two views of design activity are consistent with the action-centric perspective. Both involve these three basic activities: * In the reflection-in-action paradigm, designers alternate between "framing", "making moves", and "evaluating moves". "Framing" refers to conceptualizing the problem, i.e., defining goals and objectives. A "move" is a tentative design decision. The evaluation process may lead to further moves in the design. which may start with the thinking of an idea, then expressing it by the use of visual or verbal means of communication (design tools), the sharing and perceiving of the expressed idea, and finally starting a new cycle with the critical rethinking of the perceived idea. Anderson points out that this concept emphasizes the importance of the means of expression, which at the same time are means of perception of any design ideas. Philosophies Philosophy of design is the study of definitions, assumptions, foundations, and implications of design. There are also many informal 'philosophies' for guiding design such as personal values or preferred approaches. Approaches to design Some of these values and approaches include: * Critical design uses designed artefacts as an embodied critique or commentary on existing values, morals, and practices in a culture. Critical design can make aspects of the future physically present to provoke a reaction. * Ecological design is a design approach that prioritizes the consideration of the environmental impacts of a product or service, over its whole lifecycle. Ecodesign research focuses primarily on barriers to implementation, ecodesign tools and methods, and the intersection of ecodesign with other research disciplines. * Participatory design (originally co-operative design, now often co-design) is the practice of collective creativity to design, attempting to actively involve all stakeholders (e.g. employees, partners, customers, citizens, end-users) in the design process to help ensure the result meets their needs and is usable. Recent research suggests that designers create more innovative concepts and ideas when working within a co-design environment with others than they do when creating ideas on their own. * Scientific design refers to industrialised design based on scientific knowledge. Science can be used to study the effects and need for a potential or existing product in general and to design products that are based on scientific knowledge. For instance, a scientific design of face masks for COVID-19 mitigation may be based on investigations of filtration performance, mitigation performance, thermal comfort, biodegradability and flow resistance. * Service design is a term that is used for designing or organizing the experience around a product and the service associated with a product's use. The purpose of service design methodologies is to establish the most effective practices for designing services, according to both the needs of users and the competencies and capabilities of service providers. * Sociotechnical system design, a philosophy and tools for participative designing of work arrangements and supporting processes – for organizational purpose, quality, safety, economics, and customer requirements in core work processes, the quality of peoples experience at work, and the needs of society. * Transgenerational design, the practice of making products and environments compatible with those physical and sensory impairments associated with human aging and which limit major activities of daily living. * User-centered design, which focuses on the needs, wants, and limitations of the end-user of the designed artefact. One aspect of user-centered design is ergonomics. Relationship with the arts radiogram designed by Achille and Pier Giacomo Castiglioni]] The boundaries between art and design are blurry, largely due to a range of applications both for the term 'art' and the term 'design'. Applied arts can include industrial design, graphic design, fashion design, and the decorative arts which traditionally includes craft objects. In graphic arts (2D image making that ranges from photography to illustration), the distinction is often made between fine art and commercial art, based on the context within which the work is produced and how it is traded. Types of designing See also References Further reading * Margolin, Victor. [https://books.google.com/books?id=A5EKMQAACAAJ World History of Design]. New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015. (2 vols) . * Raizman, David Seth (12 November 2003). [https://books.google.com/books?id=fkZJAQAAIAAJ The History of Modern Design]. Pearson. . <!--Categories--> Category:Design studies Category:Aesthetics Category:Structure Category:Human activities Category:Engineering disciplines	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design	2025-04-05T18:28:40.695402
8561	Denormalization	Denormalization is a strategy used on a previously-normalized database to increase performance. In computing, denormalization is the process of trying to improve the read performance of a database, at the expense of losing some write performance, by adding redundant copies of data or by grouping data. It is often motivated by performance or scalability in relational database software needing to carry out very large numbers of read operations. Denormalization differs from the unnormalized form in that denormalization benefits can only be fully realized on a data model that is otherwise normalized. Implementation A normalized design will often "store" different but related pieces of information in separate logical tables (called relations). If these relations are stored physically as separate disk files, completing a database query that draws information from several relations (a join operation) can be slow. If many relations are joined, it may be prohibitively slow. There are two strategies for dealing with this by denormalization: "DBMS support": The database management system stores redundant copies in the background, which are kept consistent by the DBMS software "DBA implementation": The database administrator (or designer) design around the problem by denormalizing the logical data design DBMS support With this approach, database administrators can keep the logical design normalized, but allow the database management system (DBMS) to store additional redundant information on disk to optimize query response. In this case it is the DBMS software's responsibility to ensure that any redundant copies are kept consistent. This method is often implemented in SQL as indexed views (Microsoft SQL Server) or materialized views (Oracle, PostgreSQL). A view may, among other factors, represent information in a format convenient for querying, and the index ensures that queries against the view are optimized physically. DBA implementation With this approach, a database administrator or designer has to denormalize the logical data design. With care this can achieve a similar improvement in query response, but at a cost — it is now the database designer's responsibility to ensure that the denormalized database does not become inconsistent. This is done by creating rules in the database called constraints, that specify how the redundant copies of information must be kept synchronized, which may easily make the de-normalization procedure pointless. It is the increase in logical complexity of the database design and the added complexity of the additional constraints that make this approach hazardous. Moreover, constraints introduce a trade-off, speeding up reads (SELECT in SQL) while slowing down writes (INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE). This means a denormalized database under heavy write load may offer worse performance than its functionally equivalent normalized counterpart. Denormalization versus not normalized data A denormalized data model is not the same as a data model that has not been normalized, and denormalization should only take place after a satisfactory level of normalization has taken place and that any required constraints and/or rules have been created to deal with the inherent anomalies in the design. For example, all the relations are in third normal form and any relations with join dependencies and multi-valued dependencies are handled appropriately. Examples of denormalization techniques include: "Storing" the count of the "many" elements in a one-to-many relationship as an attribute of the "one" relation Adding attributes to a relation from another relation with which it will be joined Star schemas, which are also known as fact-dimension models and have been extended to snowflake schemas Prebuilt summarization or OLAP cubes With the continued dramatic increase in all three of storage, processing power and bandwidth, on all levels, denormalization in databases has moved from being an unusual or extension technique, to the commonplace, or even the norm. For example, one specific downside of denormalization was, simply, that it "uses more storage" (that is to say, literally more columns in a database). With the exception of truly enormous systems, increased storage requirements is considered a relatively small problem in the 2020s. See also Cache (computing) Normalization Scalability References	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denormalization	2025-04-05T18:28:40.697798
8562	Differential topology	In mathematics, differential topology is the field dealing with the topological properties and smooth properties of smooth manifolds. In this sense differential topology is distinct from the closely related field of differential geometry, which concerns the geometric properties of smooth manifolds, including notions of size, distance, and rigid shape. By comparison differential topology is concerned with coarser properties, such as the number of holes in a manifold, its homotopy type, or the structure of its diffeomorphism group. Because many of these coarser properties may be captured algebraically, differential topology has strong links to algebraic topology. thumb\|right\|The Morse theory of the height function on a torus can describe its homotopy type. The central goal of the field of differential topology is the classification of all smooth manifolds up to diffeomorphism. Since dimension is an invariant of smooth manifolds up to diffeomorphism type, this classification is often studied by classifying the (connected) manifolds in each dimension separately: In dimension 1, the only smooth manifolds up to diffeomorphism are the circle, the real number line, and allowing a boundary, the half-closed interval [0,1) and fully closed interval [0,1]. In dimension 2, every closed surface is classified up to diffeomorphism by its genus, the number of holes (or equivalently its Euler characteristic), and whether or not it is orientable. This is the famous classification of closed surfaces. Already in dimension two the classification of non-compact surfaces becomes difficult, due to the existence of exotic spaces such as Jacob's ladder. In dimension 3, William Thurston's geometrization conjecture, proven by Grigori Perelman, gives a partial classification of compact three-manifolds. Included in this theorem is the Poincaré conjecture, which states that any closed, simply connected three-manifold is homeomorphic (and in fact diffeomorphic) to the 3-sphere. thumb\|A cobordism (W; M, N), which generalises the notion of a diffeomorphism. Beginning in dimension 4, the classification becomes much more difficult for two reasons. Firstly, every finitely presented group appears as the fundamental group of some 4-manifold, and since the fundamental group is a diffeomorphism invariant, this makes the classification of 4-manifolds at least as difficult as the classification of finitely presented groups. By the word problem for groups, which is equivalent to the halting problem, it is impossible to classify such groups, so a full topological classification is impossible. Secondly, beginning in dimension four it is possible to have smooth manifolds that are homeomorphic, but with distinct, non-diffeomorphic smooth structures. This is true even for the Euclidean space \mathbb{R}^4, which admits many exotic \mathbb{R}^4 structures. This means that the study of differential topology in dimensions 4 and higher must use tools genuinely outside the realm of the regular continuous topology of topological manifolds. One of the central open problems in differential topology is the four-dimensional smooth Poincaré conjecture, which asks if every smooth 4-manifold that is homeomorphic to the 4-sphere, is also diffeomorphic to it. That is, does the 4-sphere admit only one smooth structure? This conjecture is true in dimensions 1, 2, and 3, by the above classification results, but is known to be false in dimension 7 due to the Milnor spheres. Important tools in studying the differential topology of smooth manifolds include the construction of smooth topological invariants of such manifolds, such as de Rham cohomology or the intersection form, as well as smoothable topological constructions, such as smooth surgery theory or the construction of cobordisms. Morse theory is an important tool which studies smooth manifolds by considering the critical points of differentiable functions on the manifold, demonstrating how the smooth structure of the manifold enters into the set of tools available. Oftentimes more geometric or analytical techniques may be used, by equipping a smooth manifold with a Riemannian metric or by studying a differential equation on it. Care must be taken to ensure that the resulting information is insensitive to this choice of extra structure, and so genuinely reflects only the topological properties of the underlying smooth manifold. For example, the Hodge theorem provides a geometric and analytical interpretation of the de Rham cohomology, and gauge theory was used by Simon Donaldson to prove facts about the intersection form of simply connected 4-manifolds. In some cases techniques from contemporary physics may appear, such as topological quantum field theory, which can be used to compute topological invariants of smooth spaces. Famous theorems in differential topology include the Whitney embedding theorem, the hairy ball theorem, the Hopf theorem, the Poincaré–Hopf theorem, Donaldson's theorem, and the Poincaré conjecture. Description Differential topology considers the properties and structures that require only a smooth structure on a manifold to be defined. Smooth manifolds are 'softer' than manifolds with extra geometric structures, which can act as obstructions to certain types of equivalences and deformations that exist in differential topology. For instance, volume and Riemannian curvature are invariants that can distinguish different geometric structures on the same smooth manifold—that is, one can smoothly "flatten out" certain manifolds, but it might require distorting the space and affecting the curvature or volume. On the other hand, smooth manifolds are more rigid than the topological manifolds. John Milnor discovered that some spheres have more than one smooth structure—see Exotic sphere and Donaldson's theorem. Michel Kervaire exhibited topological manifolds with no smooth structure at all. Some constructions of smooth manifold theory, such as the existence of tangent bundles, can be done in the topological setting with much more work, and others cannot. One of the main topics in differential topology is the study of special kinds of smooth mappings between manifolds, namely immersions and submersions, and the intersections of submanifolds via transversality. More generally one is interested in properties and invariants of smooth manifolds that are carried over by diffeomorphisms, another special kind of smooth mapping. Morse theory is another branch of differential topology, in which topological information about a manifold is deduced from changes in the rank of the Jacobian of a function. For a list of differential topology topics, see the following reference: List of differential geometry topics. Differential topology versus differential geometry Differential topology and differential geometry are first characterized by their similarity. They both study primarily the properties of differentiable manifolds, sometimes with a variety of structures imposed on them. thumb\|Animation of a coffee cup transforming into a donut shape One major difference lies in the nature of the problems that each subject tries to address. In one view, differential topology distinguishes itself from differential geometry by studying primarily those problems that are inherently global. Consider the example of a coffee cup and a donut. From the point of view of differential topology, the donut and the coffee cup are the same (in a sense). This is an inherently global view, though, because there is no way for the differential topologist to tell whether the two objects are the same (in this sense) by looking at just a tiny (local) piece of either of them. They must have access to each entire (global) object. From the point of view of differential geometry, the coffee cup and the donut are different because it is impossible to rotate the coffee cup in such a way that its configuration matches that of the donut. This is also a global way of thinking about the problem. But an important distinction is that the geometer does not need the entire object to decide this. By looking, for instance, at just a tiny piece of the handle, they can decide that the coffee cup is different from the donut because the handle is thinner (or more curved) than any piece of the donut. To put it succinctly, differential topology studies structures on manifolds that, in a sense, have no interesting local structure. Differential geometry studies structures on manifolds that do have an interesting local (or sometimes even infinitesimal) structure. More mathematically, for example, the problem of constructing a diffeomorphism between two manifolds of the same dimension is inherently global since locally two such manifolds are always diffeomorphic. Likewise, the problem of computing a quantity on a manifold that is invariant under differentiable mappings is inherently global, since any local invariant will be trivial in the sense that it is already exhibited in the topology of \R^n. Moreover, differential topology does not restrict itself necessarily to the study of diffeomorphism. For example, symplectic topology—a subbranch of differential topology—studies global properties of symplectic manifolds. Differential geometry concerns itself with problems—which may be local or global—that always have some non-trivial local properties. Thus differential geometry may study differentiable manifolds equipped with a connection, a metric (which may be Riemannian, pseudo-Riemannian, or Finsler), a special sort of distribution (such as a CR structure), and so on. This distinction between differential geometry and differential topology is blurred, however, in questions specifically pertaining to local diffeomorphism invariants such as the tangent space at a point. Differential topology also deals with questions like these, which specifically pertain to the properties of differentiable mappings on \R^n (for example the tangent bundle, jet bundles, the Whitney extension theorem, and so forth). The distinction is concise in abstract terms: Differential topology is the study of the (infinitesimal, local, and global) properties of structures on manifolds that have only trivial local moduli. Differential geometry is such a study of structures on manifolds that have one or more non-trivial local moduli. See also List of differential geometry topics Glossary of differential geometry and topology Important publications in differential geometry Important publications in differential topology Basic introduction to the mathematics of curved spacetime Notes References External links	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_topology	2025-04-05T18:28:40.706319
8564	Diffeomorphism	In mathematics, a diffeomorphism is an isomorphism of differentiable manifolds. It is an invertible function that maps one differentiable manifold to another such that both the function and its inverse are continuously differentiable. right\|thumb\|The image of a rectangular grid on a square under a diffeomorphism from the square onto itself. Definition Given two differentiable manifolds M and N, a differentiable map f \colon M \rightarrow N is a diffeomorphism if it is a bijection and its inverse f^{-1} \colon N \rightarrow M is differentiable as well. If these functions are r times continuously differentiable, f is called a C^r-diffeomorphism. Two manifolds M and N are diffeomorphic (usually denoted M \simeq N) if there is a diffeomorphism f from M to N. Two C^r-differentiable manifolds are C^r-diffeomorphic if there is an r times continuously differentiable bijective map between them whose inverse is also r times continuously differentiable. Diffeomorphisms of subsets of manifolds Given a subset X of a manifold M and a subset Y of a manifold N, a function f:X\to Y is said to be smooth if for all p in X there is a neighborhood U\subset M of p and a smooth function g:U\to N such that the restrictions agree: g_{\|U \cap X} = f_{\|U \cap X} (note that g is an extension of f). The function f is said to be a diffeomorphism if it is bijective, smooth and its inverse is smooth. Local description Testing whether a differentiable map is a diffeomorphism can be made locally under some mild restrictions. This is the Hadamard-Caccioppoli theorem: If U, V are connected open subsets of \R^n such that V is simply connected, a differentiable map f:U\to V is a diffeomorphism if it is proper and if the differential Df_x:\R^n\to\R^n is bijective (and hence a linear isomorphism) at each point x in U. Some remarks: It is essential for V to be simply connected for the function f to be globally invertible (under the sole condition that its derivative be a bijective map at each point). For example, consider the "realification" of the complex square function \begin{cases} f : \R^2 \setminus \{(0,0)\} \to \R^2 \setminus \{(0,0)\} \\ (x,y)\mapsto(x^2-y^2,2xy). \end{cases} Then f is surjective and it satisfies \det Df_x = 4(x^2+y^2) \neq 0. Thus, though Df_x is bijective at each point, f is not invertible because it fails to be injective (e.g. f(1,0)(1,0)f(-1,0)). Since the differential at a point (for a differentiable function) Df_x : T_xU \to T_{f(x)}V is a linear map, it has a well-defined inverse if and only if Df_x is a bijection. The matrix representation of Df_x is the n\times n matrix of first-order partial derivatives whose entry in the i-th row and j-th column is \partial f_i / \partial x_j. This so-called Jacobian matrix is often used for explicit computations. Diffeomorphisms are necessarily between manifolds of the same dimension. Imagine f going from dimension n to dimension k. If n then Df_x could never be surjective, and if n>k then Df_x could never be injective. In both cases, therefore, Df_x fails to be a bijection. If Df_x is a bijection at x then f is said to be a local diffeomorphism (since, by continuity, Df_y will also be bijective for all y sufficiently close to x). Given a smooth map from dimension n to dimension k, if Df (or, locally, Df_x) is surjective, f is said to be a submersion (or, locally, a "local submersion"); and if Df (or, locally, Df_x) is injective, f is said to be an immersion (or, locally, a "local immersion"). A differentiable bijection is not necessarily a diffeomorphism. f(x)=x^3, for example, is not a diffeomorphism from \R to itself because its derivative vanishes at 0 (and hence its inverse is not differentiable at 0). This is an example of a homeomorphism that is not a diffeomorphism. When f is a map between differentiable manifolds, a diffeomorphic f is a stronger condition than a homeomorphic f. For a diffeomorphism, f and its inverse need to be differentiable; for a homeomorphism, f and its inverse need only be continuous. Every diffeomorphism is a homeomorphism, but not every homeomorphism is a diffeomorphism. f:M\to N is a diffeomorphism if, in coordinate charts, it satisfies the definition above. More precisely: Pick any cover of M by compatible coordinate charts and do the same for N. Let \phi and \psi be charts on, respectively, M and N, with U and V as, respectively, the images of \phi and \psi. The map \psi f\phi^{-1}:U\to V is then a diffeomorphism as in the definition above, whenever f(\phi^{-1}(U))\subseteq\psi^{-1}(V). Examples Since any manifold can be locally parametrised, we can consider some explicit maps from \R^2 into \R^2. Let f(x,y) = \left (x^2 + y^3, x^2 - y^3 \right ). We can calculate the Jacobian matrix: J_f = \begin{pmatrix} 2x & 3y^2 \\ 2x & -3y^2 \end{pmatrix} . The Jacobian matrix has zero determinant if and only if xy0. We see that f could only be a diffeomorphism away from the x-axis and the y-axis. However, f is not bijective since f(x,y)f(-x,y), and thus it cannot be a diffeomorphism. Let g(x,y) = \left (a_0 + a_{1,0}x + a_{0,1}y + \cdots, \ b_0 + b_{1,0}x + b_{0,1}y + \cdots \right ) where the a_{i,j} and b_{i,j} are arbitrary real numbers, and the omitted terms are of degree at least two in x and y. We can calculate the Jacobian matrix at 0: J_g(0,0) = \begin{pmatrix} a_{1,0} & a_{0,1} \\ b_{1,0} & b_{0,1} \end{pmatrix}. We see that g is a local diffeomorphism at 0 if, and only if, a_{1,0}b_{0,1} - a_{0,1}b_{1,0} \neq 0, i.e. the linear terms in the components of g are linearly independent as polynomials. Let h(x,y) = \left (\sin(x^2 + y^2), \cos(x^2 + y^2) \right ). We can calculate the Jacobian matrix: J_h = \begin{pmatrix} 2x\cos(x^2 + y^2) & 2y\cos(x^2 + y^2) \\ -2x\sin(x^2+y^2) & -2y\sin(x^2 + y^2) \end{pmatrix} . The Jacobian matrix has zero determinant everywhere! In fact we see that the image of h is the unit circle. Surface deformations In mechanics, a stress-induced transformation is called a deformation and may be described by a diffeomorphism. A diffeomorphism f:U\to V between two surfaces U and V has a Jacobian matrix Df that is an invertible matrix. In fact, it is required that for p in U, there is a neighborhood of p in which the Jacobian Df stays non-singular. Suppose that in a chart of the surface, f(x,y) = (u,v). The total differential of u is du = \frac{\partial u}{\partial x} dx + \frac{\partial u}{\partial y} dy, and similarly for v. Then the image (du, dv) = (dx, dy) Df is a linear transformation, fixing the origin, and expressible as the action of a complex number of a particular type. When (dx, dy) is also interpreted as that type of complex number, the action is of complex multiplication in the appropriate complex number plane. As such, there is a type of angle (Euclidean, hyperbolic, or slope) that is preserved in such a multiplication. Due to Df being invertible, the type of complex number is uniform over the surface. Consequently, a surface deformation or diffeomorphism of surfaces has the conformal property of preserving (the appropriate type of) angles. Diffeomorphism group Let M be a differentiable manifold that is second-countable and Hausdorff. The diffeomorphism group of M is the group of all C^r diffeomorphisms of M to itself, denoted by \text{Diff}^r(M) or, when r is understood, \text{Diff}(M). This is a "large" group, in the sense that—provided M is not zero-dimensional—it is not locally compact. Topology The diffeomorphism group has two natural topologies: weak and strong . When the manifold is compact, these two topologies agree. The weak topology is always metrizable. When the manifold is not compact, the strong topology captures the behavior of functions "at infinity" and is not metrizable. It is, however, still Baire. Fixing a Riemannian metric on M, the weak topology is the topology induced by the family of metrics d_K(f,g) = \sup\nolimits_{x\in K} d(f(x),g(x)) + \sum\nolimits_{1\le p\le r} \sup\nolimits_{x\in K} \left \\|D^pf(x) - D^pg(x) \right \\| as K varies over compact subsets of M. Indeed, since M is \sigma-compact, there is a sequence of compact subsets K_n whose union is M. Then: d(f,g) = \sum\nolimits_n 2^{-n}\frac{d_{K_n}(f,g)}{1+d_{K_n}(f,g)}. The diffeomorphism group equipped with its weak topology is locally homeomorphic to the space of C^r vector fields . Over a compact subset of M, this follows by fixing a Riemannian metric on M and using the exponential map for that metric. If r is finite and the manifold is compact, the space of vector fields is a Banach space. Moreover, the transition maps from one chart of this atlas to another are smooth, making the diffeomorphism group into a Banach manifold with smooth right translations; left translations and inversion are only continuous. If r=\infty, the space of vector fields is a Fréchet space. Moreover, the transition maps are smooth, making the diffeomorphism group into a Fréchet manifold and even into a regular Fréchet Lie group. If the manifold is \sigma-compact and not compact the full diffeomorphism group is not locally contractible for any of the two topologies. One has to restrict the group by controlling the deviation from the identity near infinity to obtain a diffeomorphism group which is a manifold; see . Lie algebra The Lie algebra of the diffeomorphism group of M consists of all vector fields on M equipped with the Lie bracket of vector fields. Somewhat formally, this is seen by making a small change to the coordinate x at each point in space: x^{\mu} \mapsto x^{\mu} + \varepsilon h^{\mu}(x) so the infinitesimal generators are the vector fields L_{h} = h^{\mu}(x)\frac{\partial}{\partial x^\mu}. Examples When M=G is a Lie group, there is a natural inclusion of G in its own diffeomorphism group via left-translation. Let \text{Diff}(G) denote the diffeomorphism group of G, then there is a splitting \text{Diff}(G)\simeq G\times\text{Diff}(G,e), where \text{Diff}(G,e) is the subgroup of \text{Diff}(G) that fixes the identity element of the group. The diffeomorphism group of Euclidean space \R^n consists of two components, consisting of the orientation-preserving and orientation-reversing diffeomorphisms. In fact, the general linear group is a deformation retract of the subgroup \text{Diff}(\R^n,0) of diffeomorphisms fixing the origin under the map f(x)\to f(tx)/t, t\in(0,1]. In particular, the general linear group is also a deformation retract of the full diffeomorphism group. For a finite set of points, the diffeomorphism group is simply the symmetric group. Similarly, if M is any manifold there is a group extension 0\to\text{Diff}_0(M)\to\text{Diff}(M)\to\Sigma(\pi_0(M)). Here \text{Diff}_0(M) is the subgroup of \text{Diff}(M) that preserves all the components of M, and \Sigma(\pi_0(M)) is the permutation group of the set \pi_0(M) (the components of M). Moreover, the image of the map \text{Diff}(M)\to\Sigma(\pi_0(M)) is the bijections of \pi_0(M) that preserve diffeomorphism classes. Transitivity For a connected manifold M, the diffeomorphism group acts transitively on M. More generally, the diffeomorphism group acts transitively on the configuration space C_k M. If M is at least two-dimensional, the diffeomorphism group acts transitively on the configuration space F_k M and the action on M is multiply transitive . Extensions of diffeomorphisms In 1926, Tibor Radó asked whether the harmonic extension of any homeomorphism or diffeomorphism of the unit circle to the unit disc yields a diffeomorphism on the open disc. An elegant proof was provided shortly afterwards by Hellmuth Kneser. In 1945, Gustave Choquet, apparently unaware of this result, produced a completely different proof. The (orientation-preserving) diffeomorphism group of the circle is pathwise connected. This can be seen by noting that any such diffeomorphism can be lifted to a diffeomorphism f of the reals satisfying [f(x+1)=f(x)+1]; this space is convex and hence path-connected. A smooth, eventually constant path to the identity gives a second more elementary way of extending a diffeomorphism from the circle to the open unit disc (a special case of the Alexander trick). Moreover, the diffeomorphism group of the circle has the homotopy-type of the orthogonal group O(2). The corresponding extension problem for diffeomorphisms of higher-dimensional spheres S^{n-1} was much studied in the 1950s and 1960s, with notable contributions from René Thom, John Milnor and Stephen Smale. An obstruction to such extensions is given by the finite abelian group \Gamma_n, the "group of twisted spheres", defined as the quotient of the abelian component group of the diffeomorphism group by the subgroup of classes extending to diffeomorphisms of the ball B^n. Connectedness For manifolds, the diffeomorphism group is usually not connected. Its component group is called the mapping class group. In dimension 2 (i.e. surfaces), the mapping class group is a finitely presented group generated by Dehn twists; this has been proved by Max Dehn, W. B. R. Lickorish, and Allen Hatcher). Max Dehn and Jakob Nielsen showed that it can be identified with the outer automorphism group of the fundamental group of the surface. William Thurston refined this analysis by classifying elements of the mapping class group into three types: those equivalent to a periodic diffeomorphism; those equivalent to a diffeomorphism leaving a simple closed curve invariant; and those equivalent to pseudo-Anosov diffeomorphisms. In the case of the torus S^1\times S^1=\R^2/\Z^2, the mapping class group is simply the modular group \text{SL}(2,\Z) and the classification becomes classical in terms of elliptic, parabolic and hyperbolic matrices. Thurston accomplished his classification by observing that the mapping class group acted naturally on a compactification of Teichmüller space; as this enlarged space was homeomorphic to a closed ball, the Brouwer fixed-point theorem became applicable. Smale conjectured that if M is an oriented smooth closed manifold, the identity component of the group of orientation-preserving diffeomorphisms is simple. This had first been proved for a product of circles by Michel Herman; it was proved in full generality by Thurston. Homotopy types The diffeomorphism group of S^2 has the homotopy-type of the subgroup O(3). This was proven by Steve Smale. The diffeomorphism group of the torus has the homotopy-type of its linear automorphisms: S^1\times S^1\times\text{GL}(2,\Z). The diffeomorphism groups of orientable surfaces of genus g>1 have the homotopy-type of their mapping class groups (i.e. the components are contractible). The homotopy-type of the diffeomorphism groups of 3-manifolds are fairly well understood via the work of Ivanov, Hatcher, Gabai and Rubinstein, although there are a few outstanding open cases (primarily 3-manifolds with finite fundamental groups). The homotopy-type of diffeomorphism groups of n-manifolds for n>3 are poorly understood. For example, it is an open problem whether or not \text{Diff}(S^4) has more than two components. Via Milnor, Kahn and Antonelli, however, it is known that provided n>6, \text{Diff}(S^n) does not have the homotopy-type of a finite CW-complex. Homeomorphism and diffeomorphism Since every diffeomorphism is a homeomorphism, given a pair of manifolds which are diffeomorphic to each other they are in particular homeomorphic to each other. The converse is not true in general. While it is easy to find homeomorphisms that are not diffeomorphisms, it is more difficult to find a pair of homeomorphic manifolds that are not diffeomorphic. In dimensions 1, 2 and 3, any pair of homeomorphic smooth manifolds are diffeomorphic. In dimension 4 or greater, examples of homeomorphic but not diffeomorphic pairs exist. The first such example was constructed by John Milnor in dimension 7. He constructed a smooth 7-dimensional manifold (called now Milnor's sphere) that is homeomorphic to the standard 7-sphere but not diffeomorphic to it. There are, in fact, 28 oriented diffeomorphism classes of manifolds homeomorphic to the 7-sphere (each of them is the total space of a fiber bundle over the 4-sphere with the 3-sphere as the fiber). More unusual phenomena occur for 4-manifolds. In the early 1980s, a combination of results due to Simon Donaldson and Michael Freedman led to the discovery of exotic \R^4: there are uncountably many pairwise non-diffeomorphic open subsets of \R^4 each of which is homeomorphic to \R^4, and also there are uncountably many pairwise non-diffeomorphic differentiable manifolds homeomorphic to \R^4 that do not embed smoothly in \R^4. See also Anosov diffeomorphism such as Arnold's cat map Diffeo anomaly also known as a gravitational anomaly, a type anomaly in quantum mechanics Diffeology, smooth parameterizations on a set, which makes a diffeological space Diffeomorphometry, metric study of shape and form in computational anatomy Étale morphism Large diffeomorphism Local diffeomorphism Superdiffeomorphism Notes References Category:Mathematical physics	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffeomorphism	2025-04-05T18:28:40.737497
8567	Dune Messiah	\| illustrator \| cover_artist Jack Gaughan \| country = United States \| language = English \| series = Dune \| genre = Science fiction \| published = 1969 \| publisher = Putnam Publishing \| media_type = Print (hardcover & paperback) \| pages = 256 \| isbn = <!-- The 1st edition had no ISBN, as cataloged by the Library of Congress: https://lccn.loc.gov/77091815. Printings issued soon afterward probably had SBNs added, as this was right at the beginning of that era. --> \| oclc = 32595 \| preceded_by = Dune \| followed_by = Children of Dune \| congress = PZ4.H5356 Du PS3558.E63 \| dewey = 813/.5/4 }} Dune Messiah is a 1969 science fiction novel by American writer Frank Herbert, the second in his Dune series of six novels. A sequel to Dune (1965), it was originally serialized in Galaxy magazine in 1969, and then published by Putnam the same year. Dune Messiah and its own sequel Children of Dune (1976) were collectively adapted by the Sci-Fi Channel in 2003 into a miniseries entitled ''Frank Herbert's Children of Dune. A feature film adaptation of the novel is in early development from filmmaker Denis Villeneuve to serve as a sequel to his films Dune (2021) and Dune: Part Two'' (2024). Plot Paul "Muad'Dib" Atreides has ruled as Emperor for 12 years. By accepting the role of messiah to the Fremen, he has unleashed a jihad which has conquered most of the known universe, but is powerless to stop the lethal excesses of the religious juggernaut he has created. Although 61 billion people have perished, Paul's prescient visions indicate this is far from the worst possible outcome for humanity. Motivated by this knowledge, Paul hopes to set humanity on a course that will not inevitably lead to stagnation and destruction, while at the same time acting as ruler of the empire and focal point of the Fremen religion. The Bene Gesserit, Spacing Guild, and Tleilaxu conspire to dethrone Paul, with the Guild Navigator Edric using his prescience to shield their meetings with the Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother Mohiam and Tleilaxu Face Dancer Scytale, from Paul's visions. Mohiam enlists Princess Irulan, daughter of the deposed Padishah Emperor Shaddam IV, who is wed to Paul for political purposes. Paul has refused to father a child with Irulan, but he and his Fremen concubine Chani have also failed to produce an heir, causing tension within his monarchy. Desperate both to secure her place in the Atreides dynasty and to preserve the bloodline for the Bene Gesserit breeding program, Irulan has secretly been giving contraceptives to Chani. Paul is aware of this fact, but has foreseen that the birth of his heir will bring Chani's death, and does not want to lose her. Edric gifts Paul a ghola named Hayt, a reanimated being of Tleilaxu-make in the image of the deceased Duncan Idaho, Paul's childhood teacher and friend. The conspirators hope the presence of the ghola will weaken Paul's ability to rule by both disconcerting him and appealing to his emotional vulnerability. Furthermore, Paul's acceptance of the gift weakens his support among the Fremen, who see the Tleilaxu and their tools as unclean. Chani, taking matters into her own hands, switches to a traditional Fremen fertility diet, preventing Irulan from tampering with her food, and soon becomes pregnant. However, Chani's extended consumption of Irulan's contraceptive has weakened her, endangering the pregnancy. Paul learns of a Fremen conspiracy against him, but sees the strands of a Tleilaxu plot. As Paul's soldiers target the conspirators, an atomic weapon sourced from the Tleilaxu called a stone burner destroys the area. Many soldiers are maimed or killed, but crucially, Paul is blinded by the attack. By tradition, all blind Fremen exile themselves in the desert, but Paul shocks the Fremen by proving he can still see despite his condition. His oracular powers have become so developed that he can foresee everything, so by moving through his life in lockstep with his visions, he can see even the slightest details of the world around him. Posing as a dwarf servant to Paul, the Tleilaxu agent Bijaz implants a command in Hayt, compelling him to kill Paul if triggered. During childbirth, Chani's weakened body succumbs to the pain and she dies. Paul's reaction to her death triggers the command in Hayt to kill Paul, however, Hayt's ghola body resists, and the trauma forces Duncan's full consciousness to be recovered, simultaneously making him independent of Tleilaxu control. Before her death, Chani gives birth to twins who, like Paul, have full access to both their male and female ancestral memories. The son is a total surprise for Paul, who had only foreseen the birth of their daughter. Scytale offers to revive Chani as a ghola, revealing the full purpose behind Hayt's presence and the restoration of his memories. Paul refuses, considering the possibility that the Tleilaxu might program a Chani ghola in some diabolical way. Scytale threatens the infants with a knife, demanding all of Paul's CHOAM holdings in return for his children's lives. By successfully escaping the oracular trap and setting the universe on a new path, Paul has been rendered completely blind, yet he is able to kill Scytale with a dagger to the eye due to a psychic vision from his son's perspective. Now prophetically and physically blind, Paul chooses to embrace the Fremen tradition and walks alone into the desert, winning the fealty of the Fremen for his children, who will inherit his empire. Paul leaves his sister Alia, herself worshipped by the Fremen and now romantically involved with Duncan, as regent for the twins, whom he has named Leto and Ghanima. Alia orders Stilgar to execute Edric, Mohiam, and others involved in the plot against her brother, going against his wish that none of them should be harmed. Alia spares Irulan, who in grief for Paul has renounced her loyalty to the Bene Gesserit and vowed to dedicate her life as a teacher to Paul's children. Duncan notes the irony that Chani's death and Paul's nullification have enabled them to triumph against their enemies: the Spacing Guild and the Bene Tleilaxu have been discredited, Irulan's defection from the Bene Gesserit removes the sisterhood's last lever against the Atreides, and Paul has escaped deification by walking into the desert as a man, while guaranteeing Fremen support for the Atreides line. Publication history Parts of Dune Messiah (and its sequel Children of Dune) were written prior to the completion of Dune itself. The novel appeared initially as a five part serial in Galaxy Science Fiction magazine published from June (cover dated July) to October (cover dated November) 1969 with illustrations by Jack Gaughan. A Putnam hardback edition also appeared in October 1969. The American and British editions contain different prologues which summarized the events of Dune. Dune Messiah and Children of Dune were published in a single volume by the Science Fiction Book Club in 2002, and in 1979 by Gollancz with Dune as The Great Dune Trilogy.AnalysisHerbert likened the initial trilogy of novels (Dune, Dune Messiah, and Children of Dune) to a fugue, and while Dune was a heroic melody, Dune Messiah was its inversion. Paul rises to power in Dune by seizing control of the single critical resource in the universe, melange. His enemies are dead or overthrown, and he is set to take the reins of power and bring a hard but enlightened peace to the universe. Herbert chose in the books that followed to undermine Paul's triumph with a string of failures and philosophical paradoxes.Critical receptionGalaxy Science Fiction called Dune Messiah "Brilliant ... It was all that Dune was, and maybe a little more." Spider Robinson enjoyed the book "even as [he] was driving a truck through the holes in its logic, because it had the same majestic rolling grandeur of the previous book." Challenging Destiny called the novel "The perfect companion piece to Dune ... Fascinating." Dune Messiah and its sequel Children of Dune (1976) were collectively adapted by the Sci-Fi Channel in 2003 into a miniseries entitled ''Frank Herbert's Children of Dune. The first installment of the three part, six-hour miniseries covers the bulk of the plot of Dune Messiah. The second and third installments adapt Children of Dune''. Prior to the release of his 2021 theatrical adaptation Dune, director Denis Villeneuve confirmed at the 2021 Venice Film Festival that a film based on Dune Messiah was planned, and it would serve as the third film in a trilogy. After Dune: Part Two (covering the second half of the first novel) was officially greenlit in October 2021, Villeneuve reiterated his hope to continue the series with a third film focusing on Dune Messiah. Screenwriter Jon Spaihts confirmed in March 2022 that Villeneuve still planned on a third film, and TV series spin-offs to continue the Dune saga. Villeneuve began writing a script for a Dune Messiah film in 2023. In February 2024, Villeneuve said the script was "almost finished" but also wanted to take time to ensure his satisfaction, citing Hollywood's tendency of focusing on release dates over a film's overall quality. Composer Hans Zimmer had already begun working on the film's score to assist Villeneuve in creating the film. In April 2024, following the critical and commercial success of Dune: Part Two, Legendary Pictures confirmed that Dune Messiah was in development with Villeneuve returning as director. Filming is expected to begin in July/August 2025 with a scheduled release in 2026.References Further reading * * External links * * [https://archive.org/details/dunemessiahdunec00fran Dune Messiah] Category:1969 American novels Category:1969 science fiction novels Category:Novels by Frank Herbert Category:Sequel novels Category:Dune (franchise) novels Category:Novels set in deserts Category:Novels first published in serial form Category:Works originally published in Galaxy Science Fiction	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dune_Messiah	2025-04-05T18:28:40.748905
8569	Duke Nukem 3D	\| Lion Entertainment \| General Arcade \| Gearbox Software, Nerve Software }} \| publisher \| MacSoft \| U.S. Gold \| Eidos Interactive \| GT Interactive \| King Records \| Sega \| TecToy \| Piko Interactive \| Microsoft Game Studios \| MachineWorks Northwest \| Devolver Digital \| Gearbox Publishing \| Jordan Freeman Group \| 2K Games }} \| director \| producer Greg Malone \| designer = \| programmer = Todd Replogle \| artist \| writer \| composer = \| engine = Build \| series = Duke Nukem \| platforms \|Android\|Game.com\|iOS\|Classic Mac OS\|Microsoft Windows\|Nintendo 64\|macOS\|PlayStation\|PlayStation 3\|PlayStation Vita\|Mega Drive/Genesis\|Sega Saturn\|Xbox 360\|PlayStation 4\|Xbox One\|Nintendo Switch}} \| released \|MS-DOSGame.comMac OSSega SaturnNintendo 64PlayStationMega Drive/GenesisXbox 360iOSAndroidMegaton Edition\|Microsoft Windows, OS XLinuxPlayStation 3, PlayStation Vita20th Anniversary World Tour\|Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, Xbox One\|Nintendo Switch}} \| genre = First-person shooter \| modes = Single-player, multiplayer }} Duke Nukem 3D is a 1996 first-person shooter game developed by 3D Realms and published by FormGen for MS-DOS. It is a sequel to the platform games Duke Nukem and Duke Nukem II, published by 3D Realms. Duke Nukem 3D features the adventures of the titular Duke Nukem, voiced by Jon St. John, who fights against an alien invasion on Earth. Along with Wolfenstein 3D and Doom, Duke Nukem 3D is considered to be responsible for popularizing first-person shooters, and was released to major critical acclaim. Reviewers praised the interactivity of the environments, gameplay, level design, and unique risqué humor, a mix of pop-culture satire and lampooning of over-the-top Hollywood action heroes. However, it also incited controversy due to its violence, erotic elements, and portrayal of women. The shareware version of the game was originally released on January 29, 1996, while the full version of the game was released on April 19, 1996. The Plutonium PAK, an expansion pack which updated the game to version 1.4 and added a fourth eleven-level episode, was released on October 21, 1996. The Atomic Edition, a standalone version of the game that included the content from the Plutonium PAK and updated the game to version 1.5, was released on December 11, 1996. An official fifth episode was released on October 11, 2016, with 20th Anniversary World Tour published by Gearbox Software. A direct sequel titled Duke Nukem Forever was released in 2011, after fifteen years in development hell. Gameplay As a first-person shooter whose gameplay is similar to Doom, the gameplay of Duke Nukem 3D involves moving through levels presented from the protagonist's point of view, shooting enemies on the way. The environments in Duke Nukem 3D are highly destructible and interactive; most props can be destroyed by the player. Full Metal Jacket, and released on June 6, 1997, in Minneapolis, being shipped by MacSoft. As of 2020, it includes Duke It Out In D.C., ''Duke Caribbean: Life's a Beach, Duke: Nuclear Winter, Duke Nukem's Penthouse Paradise, Duke!ZONE and Duke!ZONE II. Since 2022, it also includes Duke - It's Zero Hour. As of 2024, ZOOM Platform is the only digital store where the Atomic Edition is available. Expansion packs * Nuke It: This is an expansion pack developed by Micro Star in 1996, consisting of 300 custom made levels. Although it was made with the Build Editor, Micro Star was charged by FormGen and 3D Realms of copyright infringement for unauthorized sales of the pack. Ultimately Micro Star lost their case. * Duke It Out In D.C.: This is an authorized add-on developed by Sunstorm Interactive and published by WizardWorks; it was released in March 1997. President Bill Clinton is captured by alien forces, and Duke must save him. This expansion pack featured 10 new levels that were based on real-world locations, such as: the White House, the FBI headquarters, the Smithsonian museum, the Washington Monument, and other areas in Washington, D.C. The add-on was also included as part of an official compilation called Duke Nukem: Kill-A-Ton Collection through business deals with 3D Realms. Charlie Wiederhold created levels for this add-on. * '''Duke Caribbean: Life's a Beach''''': This is an authorized add-on developed by Sunstorm Interactive and published by WizardWorks; it was released in January 1998. Duke is relaxing on a tropical island when he discovers that the aliens are having their own "vacation". This add-on includes a sunny Caribbean theme with 12 new levels that take place on beaches and vacation hotels. The add-on also reskins Duke's weapons with a summer theme, such as water guns. Charlie Wiederhold created several levels for this add-on. Wiederhold was later hired by 3D Realms to work on the sequel Duke Nukem Forever. * Duke: Nuclear Winter: This is an authorized add-on developed by Simply Silly Software and published by WizardWorks; it was released in January 1998. It contains all three original episodes, plus an exclusive fourth episode, ''Plug 'n' Pray, which includes six new levels and a secret level. The secret level was also included in the PC version of Duke Nukem 3D. The new episode features several new enemies, including three new types of Pig Cops, and a new final boss, the CyberKeef. This version also features remixed music, some rearranged from the PC version, and some original, in streaming XA-Audio made by Mark Knight. port. Note its level design changes and that some sprites were replaced with polygonal models.]] * Duke Nukem 64 is a port released on November 14, 1997, for the Nintendo 64 and features a split screen 4-player mode. It was developed by Eurocom. In-game music was removed due to limited storage capacity, many items were renamed to avoid drug and sex references, and new lines of dialogue were recorded specifically for this version to remove profanity. Several levels were altered to include areas from the Atomic Edition, such as a Duke Burger outlet in the second level which was not in the original PC version. Levels are played sequentially instead of as separate episodes. Other changes include the addition of Rumble Pak support, * Duke Nukem 3D (Mega Drive/Genesis) was released in 1998 by Tec Toy. The visuals were drastically simplified, being closer to early shooters like Wolfenstein 3D. It consisted solely of Lunar Apocalypse'', the second from the original game's three episodes, which was heavily modified to suit the game engine. This version was initially released in South America only. Sales Duke Nukem 3D was a commercial hit, selling about 3.5 million copies. reported 1.25 million units sold of Duke Nukem 3D by December 2002. Source ports Following the release of the Doom source code in 1997, players wanted a similar source code release from 3D Realms. The last major game to make use of the Duke Nukem 3D source code was TNT Team's World War II GI in 1999. Its programmer, Matthew Saettler, obtained permission from 3D Realms to expand the gameplay enhancements done on WWII GI to Duke Nukem 3D. EDuke was a semi-official branch of Duke Nukem 3D that was released as a patch as Duke Nukem 3D v2.0 for Atomic Edition users on July 28, 2000. It included a demo mod made by several beta testers. \| EGM 7.5/10 (SAT)<br>8.0/10 (N64) \| Fam 21/40 (PS1)<br>4.8/10 (PS1) \| IGN 8/10 (N64)<br>7/10 (PS1) \| N64 86% (N64) \| NGen (PC, MAC) \| rev3 = Computer Game Review \| rev3Score 94/100 }} All versions of the game have earned a positive aggregate score on GameRankings and Metacritic. The original release on MS-DOS holds an aggregate score of 89% on GameRankings and a score of 89/100 on Metacritic. The Saturn version also received generally positive reviews, with critics particularly praising the use of real-world settings for the levels However, some complained at the limitations of this version's multiplayer. Dan Hsu of Electronic Gaming Monthly said it was unfortunate that it supports only two players instead of four, GamePro opined that the censoring of sexual content from the port stripped the game of all uniqueness, but the vast majority of critics held that the censorship, though unfortunate, was not extensive enough to eliminate or even reduce Duke's distinctive personality. Both also complained that the control configuration only provides three presets, with no option for custom configuration. The editors of PC Game ranked it as the 12th top game of all time in 2001 citing the game's humor and pop-culture references, }} External links * (archived) * Category:1996 video games Category:3D Realms games Category:Aardvark Software games Category:Action-adventure games Category:Video games about alien invasions Category:Android (operating system) games Category:Build (game engine) games Category:Censored video games Category:Christmas video games Category:Classic Mac OS games Category:Commercial video games with freely available source code Category:Cooperative video games Category:Devolver Digital games Category:DOS games ported to Windows Category:DOS games Category:Duke Nukem Category:Eurocom games Category:First-person shooters Category:FormGen games Category:Game.com games Category:Games commercially released with DOSBox Category:Gearbox Software games Category:GP2X games Category:GT Interactive games Category:IOS games Category:Lion Entertainment games Category:Lobotomy Software games Category:MacOS games Category:MacSoft games Category:Microsoft games Category:Multiplayer and single-player video games Category:Multiplayer null modem games Category:Multiplayer online games Category:Nintendo 64 games Category:Nintendo Switch games Category:Obscenity controversies in video games Category:Piko Interactive games Category:PlayStation (console) games Category:PlayStation 3 games Category:PlayStation 4 games Category:PlayStation Network games Category:PlayStation Vita games Category:Satirical video games Category:Science fiction video games Category:Sega Genesis games Category:Sega Saturn games Category:Sega video games Category:Shareware games Category:Split-screen multiplayer games Category:Sprite-based first-person shooters Category:Tectoy games Category:Tiger Electronics handheld games Category:U.S. Gold games Category:Video games about size change Category:Video games developed in the United States Category:Video games scored by Bobby Prince Category:Video games scored by Lee Jackson (composer) Category:Video games scored by Mark Knight Category:Video games set in Alaska Category:Video games set in Egypt Category:Video games set in London Category:Video games set in Los Angeles Category:Video games set in Moscow Category:Video games set in Nevada Category:Video games set in Paris Category:Video games set in Rome Category:Video games set in San Francisco Category:Video games set in the 2000s Category:Video games set in the Arctic Category:Video games set in the Caribbean Category:Video games set in the Netherlands Category:Video games set in the United States Category:Video games set in Washington, D.C. Category:Video games set on the Moon Category:Video games with 2.5D graphics Category:Video games with commentaries Category:Video games with digitized sprites Category:Video games with Steam Workshop support Category:Windows games Category:Xbox 360 Live Arcade games Category:Xbox One games	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_Nukem_3D	2025-04-05T18:28:40.795710
8574	Tao Te Ching	from Mawangdui (2nd century BC) \| orig_lang_code = zh \| author Laozi (trad.) \| country = China \| release_date = 4th century BC \| language = Classical Chinese \| english_pub_date = 1868 \| native_wikisource = 道德經 \| wikisource = Tao Te Ching \| subject = Philosophy \| module \|p=Dào Dé Jīng \|bpmf=ㄉㄠˋ ㄉㄜˊ ㄐㄧㄥ \|mi= \|myr=Dàu Dé Jīng \|j=Dou6 Dak1 Ging1 \|ci= \|y=Douh Dāk Gīng \|h=Tau4 Dêd5 Gin1 \|wuu=Dau Teh Cin \|poj=Tō Tek Keng \|tl=Tō Tik King \|oc-b92=&ast; \|oc-bs=&ast; \|l="Classic of the Way and Virtue" \|mc=Dɑu<sup>X</sup> Tək̚ Keŋ \|c2=老子 \|l2="The Old Master" \|p2=Lǎozǐ \|w2=Lao3 Tzŭ3 \|mi2= \|bpmf2=ㄌㄠˇㄗˇ \|myr2=Lǎudž \|suz2=Lâ-tsỳ \|j2=Lou5zi2 \|y2=Lóuhjí \|ci2= \|poj2=Ló-chú \|tl2=Ló-tsú \|oc-bs2=&ast; \|t3=道德真經 \|s3=道德真经 \|p3=Dàodé Zhēnjīng \|w3=Tao4> Tê2 Chên1 Ching1 \|bpmf3= \|mi3= \|myr3=Dàudé Jēnjīng \|oc-bs3=&ast; \|l3="Sutra of the Way and Its Power" }} }} The Tao Te Ching; in English often , ;Less common romanisations include Tao-te-king, and .}} () or Laozi is a Chinese classic text and foundational work of Taoism traditionally credited to the sage Laozi, though the text's authorship and date of composition and compilation are debated. The oldest excavated portion dates to the late 4th century BC. Terminology originating within the text has been reinterpreted and elaborated upon by Legalist thinkers, Confucianists, and particularly Chinese Buddhists, which had been introduced to China significantly after the initial solidification of Taoist thought. The text is well known in the West, and is one of the most translated texts in world literature. Title In English, the title is commonly rendered Tao Te Ching, following the Wade–Giles romanisation, or as Daodejing, following pinyin. It can be translated as The Classic of the Way and its Power, The Book of the Tao and Its Virtue, The Book of the Way and of Virtue, The Tao and its Characteristics, Other titles for the work include the honorific Sutra of the Way and Its Power () and the descriptive Five Thousand Character Classic (). Textual history Principal versions Among the many transmitted editions of the Tao Te Ching text, the three primary ones are named after early commentaries. The "Yan Zun Version", which is only extant for the Te Ching, derives from a commentary attributed to Han dynasty scholar Yan Zun (, 10 AD}}). The "Heshang Gong" version is named after the legendary Heshang Gong ('legendary sage'), who supposedly lived during the reign of Emperor Wen of Han (180–157 BC). This commentary has a preface written by Ge Xuan (164–244 AD), granduncle of Ge Hong, and scholarship dates this version to . The origins of the "Wang Bi" version have greater verification than either of the above. Wang Bi (226–249 AD) was a Three Kingdoms-period philosopher and commentator on the Tao Te Ching and I Ching. Archaeologically recovered manuscripts Tao Te Ching scholarship has advanced from archaeological discoveries of manuscripts, some of which are older than any of the received texts. Beginning in the 1920s and 1930s, Marc Aurel Stein and others found thousands of scrolls in the Mogao Caves near Dunhuang. They included more than 50 partial and complete manuscripts. Another partial manuscript has the ''Xiang'er commentary, which had previously been lost. In 1973, archaeologists discovered copies of early Chinese books, known as the Mawangdui Silk Texts, in a tomb dated to 168 BC. In 1993, the oldest known version of the text, written on bamboo slips, was found in a tomb near the town of Guodian () in Jingmen, Hubei, and dated prior to 300 BC. Chronological theories Although debated more in early scholarship, early modern scholars like Feng Youlan and Herrlee G. Creel still considered the work a compilation, and most modern scholarship holds the text to be a compilation, as typical for long-form early Chinese texts. Linguistic studies of the Tao Te Ching''s vocabulary and rime scheme point to a date of composition after the Classic of Poetry (or Book of Songs), but before the Zhuangzi, and would generally be taken as preceding the Zhuangzi. This is the traditional "before Zhuangzi’ theory". Although the Book of Songs is a diverse work, they do not appear to bare any especial resemblance. Based on Sima Qian, the text would traditionally be taken as preceding Shen Buhai. Creel proposed that Shen Buhai may have preceded it as well, but Shen Buhai does bare a "striking" resemblance to Laozi. Although not enough to eliminate a late dating, the discovery of the early Mawangdui silk texts and Guodian Chu Slips again made a dating before the third-century more probable. Essentially the dating of A.C. Graham, the Stanford Encyclopedia supposes compilation of the current text as dating back to , drawing on a wide range of versions further dating back a century or two. Benjamin I. Schwartz still considered the Tao te Ching remarkably unified by the time of the Mawangdui, even if these versions swap the two halves of the text. Termed the "After Zhuangzi" theory, representative of Ch'ien Mu and Graham, a lack of early references contributes to Graham's late dating. While the Zhuangzi is the first reference for the Tao te Ching, it's Inner Chapters do not demonstrate familiar with it. Thus, an early stratum representative of the ''Zhuangzi's core Inner Chapters may have preceded it. Listed in the Outer Zhuangzi's history before Laozi and Zhuangzi, Shen Dao also shares content with the Inner Zhuangzi''. Less technically complex than Shen Buhai, Shen Dao's current may even precede him, as espoused by Ban Gu. However, Shen Dao can also be directly compared with the Tao te Ching. Sinologist Chad Hansen does not consider the Outer Zhuangzi entirely accurate chronologically, but still recalls it as part of a theoretical framework for the Stanford Encyclopedia of Daoism, positioning Shen Dao as "Pre-Laozi Daoist Theory". Discussing concepts of names and realities in its opening, Feng Youlan proposed the school of names as preceding the Tao Te Ching. But while some may have, it does not demonstrate school of names influence the way the Zhuangzi does. The Tao te Ching is not as paradoxical, it tries to demonstrate that the way or dao is not constant. Although differing, Mohism and Confucianism also discuss concepts of names and realities. Authorship The Tao Te Ching was traditionally ascribed to Laozi, whose historical existence has been a matter of scholarly debate. His name, which means "Old Master", has only fuelled controversy on this issue. Legends claim variously that Laozi was "born old" and that he lived for 996 years, with twelve previous incarnations starting around the time of the Three Sovereigns before the thirteenth as Laozi. Some scholars have expressed doubts over Laozi's historicity. ]] The first biographical reference to Laozi is in the Records of the Grand Historian, by Chinese historian Sima Qian (), which combines three stories. In the first, Laozi was a contemporary of Confucius (551–479 BC). His surname was Li (), and his personal name was Er () or Dan (). He was an official in the imperial archives, and wrote a book in two parts before departing to the West; at the request of the keeper of the Han-ku Pass, Yinxi, Laozi composed the Tao Te Ching. In the second story, Laozi, also a contemporary of Confucius, was Lao Laizi (), who wrote a book in 15 parts. Third, Laozi was the grand historian and astrologer Lao Dan (), who lived during the reign of Duke Xian of Qin (). Contents Themes Internal structure The Tao Te Ching is a text of around 5,162 to 5,450 Chinese characters in 81 brief chapters or sections (). There is some evidence that the chapter divisions were later additions—for commentary, or as aids to rote memorisation—and that the original text was more fluidly organised. It has two parts, the Tao Ching (; chapters 1–37) and the Te Ching (; chapters 38–81), which may have been edited together into the received text, possibly reversed from an original Te Tao Ching. The written style is laconic, and has few grammatical particles. While the ideas are singular, the style is poetic, combining two major strategies: short, declarative statements, and intentional contradictions, encouraging varied, contradictory interpretations. The first of these strategies creates memorable phrases, while the second forces the reader to reconcile supposed contradictions. The Chinese characters in the earliest versions were written in seal script, while later versions were written in clerical script and regular script styles. Translation The Tao Te Ching has been translated into Western languages over 250 times, mostly to English, German, and French. According to Holmes Welch, "It is a famous puzzle which everyone would like to feel he had solved." The first English translation of the Tao Te Ching was produced in 1868 by the Scottish Protestant missionary John Chalmers, entitled The Speculations on Metaphysics, Polity, and Morality of the "Old Philosopher" Lau-tsze. It was heavily indebted to Julien's French translation and dedicated to James Legge, Russell Kirkland goes further to argue that these versions are based on Western Orientalist fantasies and represent the colonial appropriation of Chinese culture. Other Taoism scholars, such as Michael LaFargue and Jonathan Herman, argue that while they do not pretend to scholarship, they meet a real spiritual need in the West. These Westernized versions aim to make the wisdom of the Tao Te Ching more accessible to modern English-speaking readers by, typically, employing more familiar cultural and temporal references. Challenges in translation The Tao Te Ching is written in Classical Chinese, which generally poses a number of challenges for interpreters and translators. As Holmes Welch notes, the written language "has no active or passive, no singular or plural, no case, no person, no tense, no mood." Moreover, the received text lacks many grammatical particles which are preserved in the older Mawangdui and Beida texts, which permit the text to be more precise. Lastly, many passages of the Tao Te Ching are deliberately ambiguous. Since there is very little punctuation in Classical Chinese, determining the precise boundaries between words and sentences is not always trivial. Deciding where these phrasal boundaries are must be done by the interpreter. linked with silk threads—that it is impossible to understand some passages without some transposition of characters. Notable translations <!-- In chronological order --> * \|display-authors0 \|translator-lastJulien \|translator-firstStanislas \|translator-link=Stanislas Julien}} * \|display-authors0 \|translator-lastChalmers \|translator-firstJohn \|translator-link=John Chalmers (missionary)}} * \|display-authors0 \|editor-linkMax Müller \|translator-lastLegge \|translator-firstJames \|translator-linkJames Legge \|viaProject Gutenberg}}. * \|display-authors0 \|editor2-lastCranmer-Byng \|editor2-firstS. A. \|editor3-lastKapadia \|editor-link=Lionel Giles}} * \|display-authors0 \|editor2-lastCarus \|editor2-firstPaul \|editor1-linkD. T. Suzuki}}. * \|display-authors0 \|translator-lastWieger \|translator-firstLéon \|translator-link=Léon Wieger}} * * * * * Houang, François and Leyris, Pierre (1979), La Voie et sa vertu: Tao-tê-king (in French), Paris: Éditions du Seuil * . * * }} * \|display-authors0 \|translator-lastMair \|translator-firstVictor H. \|translator-link=Victor H. Mair}}. * \|display-authors0 \|translator-lastBryce \|translator-firstDerek \|translator-last2Wieger \|translator-first2Léon \|display-translators=1}} * Addiss, Stephen and Lombardo, Stanley (1991) Tao Te Ching, Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company. * Ursula K. Le Guin . * David Hinton, . * Chad Hansen, Laozi: Tao Te Ching on The Art of Harmony, Duncan Baird Publications, 2009 * Red Pine, * Sinedino, Giorgio (2015), Dao De Jing (in Portuguese), São Paulo: Editora Unesp See also * Bogar * Ecclesiastes * Huahujing * Huainanzi * Huangdi Yinfujing * Qingjing Jing * Sanhuangjing * Straw dog * Taiping Jing * Xishengjing * Four Books and Five Classics Notes References Citations Sources <!-- Alphabetical order by surname --> * * * . * . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * \|lastLaFargue \|firstMichael}} * \|last2Pas \|first2=Julian}} * * * * ** * * * \|last2Ivanhoe \|first2Philip J. \|author-link2Philip J. Ivanhoe}} * * * External links * * * * [http://www.yellowbridge.com/onlinelit/daodejing.php Legge, Suzuki, and Goddard's translations side-by-side, along with the original text] Category:Chinese classic texts Category:Ancient Chinese philosophical literature Category:Philosophy books Category:Taoist texts Category:Works of unknown authorship Category:Laozi	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tao_Te_Ching	2025-04-05T18:28:40.847003
8577	Detroit Lions	\| first_season = 1930 \| city = Ford Field<br/>Detroit, Michigan \| misc = Headquartered in Allen Park, Michigan \| uniform \| colors Honolulu blue, silver, black, white<br/> \| coach = Dan Campbell \| owner Sheila Ford Hamp \| chairman = Sheila Ford Hamp \| president = Rod Wood \| general manager = Brad Holmes \| song = Gridiron Heroes \| mascot = Roary the Lion \| website = \| hist_yr = 1934 \| hist_misc = * Portsmouth Spartans (1928–1933) \| NFL_start_yr = 1930 \| division_hist = * Western Division (1933–1949) * National Conference (1950–1952) * Western Conference (1953–1969) ** Central Division (1967–1969) * National Football Conference (1970–present) NFC Central (1970–2001) NFC North (2002–present) \| no_league_champs = 4 \| no_conf_champs = 4 \| no_div_champs = 6 \| league_champs = * NFL championships (pre–1970 AFL–NFL merger) (4)<br/>1935, 1952, 1953, 1957 \| conf_champs = * NFL National: 1952 * NFL Western: 1953, 1954, 1957 \| div_champs = * NFL Western: 1935 * NFC Central: 1983, 1991, 1993 * NFC North: 2023, 2024 \| playoff_appearances = * NFL: 1932, 1935, 1952, 1953, 1954, 1957, 1970, 1982, 1983, 1991, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 1999, 2011, 2014, 2016, 2023, 2024 \| no_playoff_appearances = 20 \| stadium_years = * Universal Stadium () * University of Detroit Stadium (, ) * Tiger Stadium (, ) * Pontiac Silverdome () * Ford Field (–present) \| team_owners = * Harry N. Snyder (1930–1934) * George A. Richards (1934–1940) * Fred L. Mandel Jr. (1940–1948) * Detroit Football Company (1948–1964) * William Clay Ford Sr. (1964–2014) * Martha Firestone Ford (2014–2020) * Sheila Ford Hamp (2020–present) }} The Detroit Lions are a professional American football team based in Detroit. The Lions compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member of the National Football Conference (NFC) North division. The team plays their home games at Ford Field in Downtown Detroit. The franchise was founded in Portsmouth, Ohio, as the Portsmouth Spartans in 1928 and joined the NFL on July 12, 1930. Amid financial struggles, the franchise was relocated to Detroit in 1934 and renamed the Lions in reference to the city's Major League Baseball (MLB) franchise, the Detroit Tigers. The Lions won four NFL Championship Games between 1935 and 1957. Following the 1957 championship, the franchise did not win a playoff game until the 1991 season and did not win another until the 2023 season. They are the only franchise operational for the entirety of the Super Bowl era to not appear in the Super Bowl. History Logos and uniforms (No. 20) rushing the ball against the Los Angeles Rams on September 7, 1980]] Aside from a brief change to scarlet and black from 1948 to 1950 instituted by then head coach Bo McMillin, which was influenced by his years as coach at Indiana, the Lions' uniforms have basically remained the same since they moved to Detroit in 1934–silver helmets, silver pants, and either blue or white jerseys. Glenn Presnell, the then last surviving member of the 1934 Lions, recalled that after the Portsmouth Spartans relocated to Detroit, team owner George A. Richards asked him and his wife to pick the Lions' colors from combinations that included red and white, orange and black, and blue and silver. The Presnells liked blue and silver the best, so Richards selected it. The blue used by the Lions is officially known as "Honolulu blue", which is inspired by the color of the waves off the coast of Hawaii. There have been minor changes to the uniform design throughout the years, such as changing the silver stripe patterns on the jersey sleeves, and changing the colors of the jersey numbers. "TV numbers", which are auxiliary uniform numbers to help TV broadcasters identify players from the line of scrimmage, were added to the jersey sleeves in 1956. In 1999, the "TV numbers" on the sleeves were moved to the shoulders. In 1994, every NFL team wore throwback jerseys, and the Lions' were similar to the jerseys worn during their 1935 championship season. The helmets and pants were solid silver, the jerseys Honolulu blue with silver numbers and the jersey did not have "TV numbers" on the sleeves. The team wore solid blue socks and black cleats. The helmets also did not have logos, as helmets were simple leather back then. In 2003, the team added black trim to their logo and jerseys. The facemasks on the helmet changed from blue to black with the introduction of the new color. In 2005, the team introduced an alternate black jersey. For 2008, the team dropped the black jersey in favor of a throwback uniform to commemorate the franchise's 75th anniversary. The throwback uniform became the team's permanent alternate jersey in 2009, replacing the former black alternate. The Lions officially unveiled a new logo and uniforms on April 20, 2009. The logo was given a flowing mane and fangs, while the typeface featured a modern font. On February 1, 2017, the Lions announced a new typeface, logo, and the complete removal of the color black from the team identity. While the previous logo was retained, the border was changed from black to silver. The Lions also added the initials "WCF" to the left sleeve as a permanent tribute to William Clay Ford, who owned the team from 1963 until his death in 2014. The sleeve addition replaced the black "WCF" patch on the left breast that was added after Ford's death. On September 20, 2021, the Lions wore white pants with their road white uniforms against the Green Bay Packers. The white pants, which lacked striping, were previously worn during the "scarlet and black" era in the 1948 and 1949 seasons. On April 12, 2023, the Lions announced they would celebrate their 90th season in franchise history during the 2023 season with a commemorative logo and jersey patch. The inspiration for the patch is an homage to their logo from 1961 to 1969, which is also honored in the WCF memorial logo and the 60th commemorative season logo. On June 21, 2023, the Lions unveiled an alternate blue helmet. The helmet, which features the 1960s logo, was paired with the grey uniform. This was the first time the Lions wore a blue helmet since 1955. On April 18, 2024, the Lions unveiled a new jersey set. The home jersey, referred to as "One Pride", features a redefined Honolulu blue with white block numbers trimmed in silver and sleeves striped in silver with white accents. The home jersey is paired with silver pants with Honolulu blue stripes with white accents or solid Honolulu blue pants. The road white jersey, referred to as "the 313", features Honolulu blue block numbers, stripes trimmed in silver, and a Honolulu blue "Detroit" wordmark on the front. The road jersey is paired with solid Honolulu blue or solid white pants. The primary silver helmet with a Honolulu blue face mask and Honolulu blue stripes with white accents is worn with the home and road jerseys. The black alternate jersey, referred to as "Motor City Muscle", features Honolulu blue numbers and stripes trimmed in silver along with a "Lions" wordmark on the front. It is worn with the alternate Honolulu blue helmet featuring black stripes with silver accents and the leaping lion logo in black with silver accents. The black jersey is paired with solid black or solid Honolulu blue pants. The throwback jersey was retained and updated with the refreshed Honolulu blue. The throwback jersey is paired with a silver helmet that is worn with a silver or a Honolulu blue face mask. The William Clay Ford (WCF) memorial decal has been placed on the back of the primary and alternate helmets. Throughout the 2024 season, the silver pants were only worn once (a Week 2 defeat against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers), and the throwbacks were not worn at all. Instead, they mainly wore either the all-blue or all-white uniforms, with the Lions winning all of their regular season games in either combination. The throwback uniforms were initially scheduled to wear in Week 18 against the Minnesota Vikings, but the Lions decided to wear their all-black alternate uniforms instead. Detroit went 2–1 in the all-black uniforms. Thanksgiving Day tradition , have played on Thanksgiving since 1934 with the exception of the years during World War II.]] In 1934, then team owner George A. Richards, who also was the owner of a major radio affiliate of the NBC Blue Network, WJR in Detroit, the forerunner to today's ABC, negotiated an agreement with NBC to carry his Thanksgiving game live across all of the network's stations. Excluding the years of 1939–1944, due to World War II, the Lions have played on Thanksgiving ever since.Players of noteCurrent roster ]] ]] ]] ]] ]] ]] Retired numbers {\| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:center" \| colspan"5" style""\|Detroit Lions retired numbers \|- ! width40px style""\|No. ! width150px style""\|Player ! width100px style""\|Position ! width100px style""\|Tenure ! width170px style""\|Retired \|- \| 7 \|\| Dutch Clark \|\| B \|\| 1931–1932<br/>1934–1938 \|\| October 15, 1939 \|- \| rowspan3\| 20 \|\| Lem Barney \|\| CB \|\| 1967–1977 \|\| rowspan3\| November 25, 2004 \|- \| Billy Sims \|\| RB \|\| 1980–1984 \|- \| Barry Sanders \|\| RB \|\| 1989–1998 \|- \| 22 \|\| Bobby Layne \|\| QB, K \|\| 1950–1958 \|\| \|- \| 56 \|\| Joe Schmidt <sup>1</sup> \|\| LB \|\| 1953–1965 \|\| * <sup>2</sup> Posthumous. Hughes died of a heart attack during a game on October 24, 1971, and his No. 85 was withdrawn from circulation. Over the years, however, the number would return to circulation. Special cases * The Lions retired No. 93 for the 2009 season after Corey Smith disappeared, presumed dead, when a boat he was fishing in with friends capsized off the Florida coast. The Lions also wore 93 decals on their helmets that season. The number was assigned to Kyle Vanden Bosch in 2010. Pro Football Hall of Fame members Pride of the Lions 75th Season All-Time Team On November 9, 2008, the Lions honored the 75th Season All-Time Team during halftime against the Jacksonville Jaguars. The team was chosen via an online fan poll and selection committee. Bold indicates those elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame. {\| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:center" \| colspan"5" style""\|Lions All-Time Team \|- ! width60px style""\|No. ! width170px style""\|Player ! width100px style""\|Position ! width100px style""\|Tenure \|- \| 60 \|\| Al Baker \|\| DE \|\| 1978–1982 \|- \| 20 \|\| Lem Barney \|\| CB \|\| 1967–1977 \|- \| 36 \|\| Bennie Blades \|\| DB \|\| 1988–1996 \|- \| 75 \|\| Lomas Brown \|\| T \|\| 1985–1995 \|- \| 76 \|\| Roger Brown \|\| DT \|\| 1960–1966 \|- \| 19, 24 \|\| Jack Christiansen \|\| DB \|\| 1951–1958 \|- \| 7, 12, 19 \|\| Dutch Clark \|\| QB \|\| 1931–1932 <br/>1934–1938 \|- \| 89 \|\| Gail Cogdill \|\| WR \|\| 1960–1968 \|- \| 76 \|\| Lou Creekmur \|\| G/T \|\| 1950–1959 \|- \| 25 \|\| Jim David \|\| DB \|\| 1952–1959 \|- \| 44 \|\| Don Doll \|\| DB \|\| 1949–1952 \|- \| 7, 20, 56 \|\| Ox Emerson \|\| G, C, LB \|\| 1931–1937 \|- \| 78 \|\| Doug English \|\| DT \|\| 1975–1985 \|- \| 54 \|\| Ed Flanagan \|\| C \|\| 1965–1974 \|- \| 53 \|\| Kevin Glover \|\| C \|\| 1985–1997 \|- \| 23 \|\| Mel Gray \|\| KR/PR \|\| 1989–1994 \|- \| 4 \|\| Jason Hanson \|\| K \|\| 1992–2012 \|- \| 81 \|\| Calvin Johnson \|\| WR \|\| 2007–2015 \|- \| 71 \|\| Alex Karras \|\| DT \|\| 1958–1962 <br/> 1964–1970 \|- \| 81 \|\| Dick "Night Train" Lane \|\| CB \|\|1960–1965 \|- \| 28 \|\| Yale Lary \|\| DB, P \|\|1952–1953<br/>1956–1964 \|- \| 22 \|\| Bobby Layne \|\| QB \|\| 1950–1958 \|- \| 24, 44 \|\| Dick LeBeau \|\| DB \|\| 1959–1972 \|- \| 53 \|\| Mike Lucci \|\| LB \|\| 1965–1973 \|- \| 84 \|\| Herman Moore \|\| WR \|\| 1991–2001 \|- \| 48 \|\| Don Muhlbach <sup>1</sup> \|\| LS \|\| 2004–2020 \|- \| 33 \|\| Nick Pietrosante \|\| FB \|\| 1959–1965 \|- \| 91 \|\| Robert Porcher \|\| DE \|\| 1992–2003 \|- \| 20 \|\| Barry Sanders \|\| RB \|\| 1989–1998 \|- \| 88 \|\| Charlie Sanders \|\| TE \|\| 1968–1977 \|- \| 30 \|\| Cory Schlesinger \|\| FB \|\| 1995–2006 \|- \| 56 \|\| Joe Schmidt \|\| LB \|\| 1953–1965 \|- \| 66 \|\| Harley Sewell \|\| OG \|\| 1953–1962 \|- \| 20 \|\| Billy Sims \|\| RB \|\| 1980–1984 \|- \| 54 \|\| Chris Spielman \|\| LB \|\| 1988–1995 \|- \| 9 \|\| Matthew Stafford <sup>1</sup> \|\| QB \|\| 2009–2020 \|- \| 63 \|\| Dick Stanfel \|\| OG \|\| 1952–1955 \|- \| 37 \|\| Doak Walker \|\| HB \|\| 1950–1955 \|- \| 30, 50 \|\| Alex Wojciechowicz \|\| C, LB \|\| 1938–1946 \|- \|} Note: * <sup>1</sup> Stafford and Muhlbach were active at the time of the selection. The current head coach of the Lions is Dan Campbell, who was hired on January 20, 2021.Offensive coordinators{\| class"wikitable" style="text-align:center" \|- ! style";"\|Name !! style";"\|Tenure \|- \| No offensive coordinator \|\|1934–1966 \|- \| Bill McPeak \|\|1967–1972 \|- \| No offensive coordinator \|\| 1973–1975 \|- \| Ken Shipp \|\| 1976 \|- \| Ed Hughes \|\| 1977 \|- \| Bob Schnelker \|\| 1978–1981 \|- \| Ted Marchibroda \|\| 1982–1983 \|- \| Bill Nelsen \|\| 1984 \|- \| Bob Baker \|\| 1985–1988 \|- \| Dave Levy \|\| 1991 \|- \| Dan Henning \|\| 1992–1993 \|- \| Dave Levy \|\| 1994 \|- \| Tom Moore \|\| 1994–1996 \|- \| Sylvester Croom \|\| 1997–2000 \|- \| Gary Moeller \|\| 2000 \|- \| Maurice Carthon \|\| 2001–2002 \|- \| Sherman Lewis \|\| 2003–2004 \|- \| Ted Tollner \|\| 2005 \|- \| Mike Martz \|\| 2006–2007 \|- \| Jim Colletto \|\| 2008 \|- \| Scott Linehan \|\| 2009–2013 \|- \| Joe Lombardi \|\| 2014–2015 \|- \| Jim Bob Cooter \|\| 2015–2018 \|- \| Darrell Bevell \|\| 2019–2020 \|- \| Anthony Lynn \|\| 2021 \|- \| Ben Johnson \|\| 2022–2024 \|- \|John Morton \|2025–present \|} Defensive coordinators {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" \|- ! style";"\|Name !! style";"\|Tenure \|- \| No defensive coordinator \|\| 1934–1951 \|- \| Buster Ramsey \|\|1952–1959 \|- \| No defensive coordinator \|\| 1960 \|- \| Don Shula \|\| 1961–1962 \|- \| No defensive coordinator \|\| 1963–1966 \|- \| Jim David \|\| 1967–1972 \|- \| No defensive coordinator \|\| 1973–1976 \|- \| Fritz Shurmur \|\| 1977 \|- \| No defensive coordinator \|\|1978–1979 \|- \| Maxie Baughan \|\|1980–1982 \|- \| Ed Beard \|\|1983–1984 \|- \| Wayne Fontes \|\|1985–1988 \|- \| Woody Widenhofer \|\|1989–1992 \|- \| Hank Bullough \|\|1993 \|- \| Herb Paterra \|\|1994–1995 \|- \| Jim Eddy \|\|1996 \|- \| Larry Peccatiello \|\|1997–2000 \|- \| Vince Tobin \|\|2001 \|- \| Kurt Schottenheimer \|\|2002–2003 \|- \| Dick Jauron \|\|2004–2005 \|- \| Donnie Henderson \|\|2006 \|- \| Joe Barry \|\|2007–2008 \|- \| Gunther Cunningham \|\|2009–2013 \|- \| Teryl Austin \|\|2014–2017 \|- \| Paul Pasqualoni \|\|2018–2019 \|- \| Cory Undlin \|\|2020 \|- \| Aaron Glenn \|\|2021–2024 \|- \|Kelvin Sheppard \|2025–present \|} Special teams coordinators {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" \|- ! style";"\|Name !! style";"\|Tenure \|- \| John Bonamego \|\|2019 \|- \| Brayden Coombs \|\|2020 \|- \| Dave Fipp \|\|2021–present \|} Rivalries Divisional Chicago Bears The Lions and Chicago Bears first met in 1930 when the Lions were known as the Portsmouth Spartans. The Bears and Lions have been division rivals since 1933. As of the 2024 season, the Bears lead the series 105–80–5.Green Bay Packers The Lions and Green Bay Packers first met in 1929 when the Lions were known as the Portsmouth Spartans. The Lions and Packers have been division rivals since 1933. As of the 2024 season, the Packers lead the series 106–78–7.Minnesota Vikings The Lions and Minnesota Vikings have played twice annually since the Vikings entered the NFL in 1961, excluding 1982 due to the strike that occurred that season. As of the 2024 season, the Vikings lead the all-time series 80–45–2. Former Tampa Bay Buccaneers The Lions and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers were also division opponents in the NFC Central from 1977 to 2001. As of the 2024 season, the Lions lead the all-time series 33–30.HistoricCleveland Browns The Lions also share a rivalry with the Cleveland Browns, which began in the 1950s when the Browns and Lions played each other in four NFL Championship Games. The Lions won three of those championships, while the Browns won one. This was one of the NFL's best rivalries in the 1950s. Since the AFL–NFL merger of 1970, the teams have met much less frequently due to the Browns' move to the American Football Conference (AFC). From 2002 to 2014, the two teams played an annual preseason game known as the "Great Lakes Classic". As of the 2024 season, the Lions lead the all-time series 19–6, with three of those wins coming in postseason play. Los Angeles Rams The Lions have played the Rams more than any other non-divisional team with 89 total matchups over the years dating back to 1937. In the 2023–24 playoffs, the Rams and Lions met for their first postseason matchup since 1952. The Lions won 24–23 in Matthew Stafford's first game back in Detroit since being traded to the Rams. As of the 2024 season, the Rams lead the all-time series 45–43–1. Radio and television Radio The Lions' flagship radio station is WXYT-FM. Dan Miller does play-by-play, Lomas Brown does color commentary, and T. J. Lang is the sideline reporter. In 2015, the team announced that they were moving from WXYT-FM to WJR for the 2016 NFL season, ending a 20-year relationship with CBS Radio. The decision to part with WXYT was reportedly instigated by a demand by the team for the station to fire on-air personality Mike Valenti, who has had a history of making critical comments about the Lions during his drivetime show, as a condition of any future renewal. A CBS Radio spokesperson stated that their refusal was meant to maintain the station's integrity. The Lions' flagship station returned to WXYT-FM starting with the 2021 season. TV Preseason In 2015, WJBK took over from WXYZ-TV as the flagship station for Lions preseason games. In 2024, the announcers were Jason Ross Jr. with play-by-play, Golden Tate with color commentary, and Dannie Rogers with sideline reports. Games are produced by FanDuel Sports Network Detroit.Regular seasonRegular season games are broadcast regionally on Fox, except when the Lions play an AFC team in Detroit, in which case the game airs regionally on CBS; however, since 2014, with the institution of the NFL's "cross flex" broadcast rules, any Lions game slated to air on Fox can be moved to CBS. The Thanksgiving Day game in Detroit is always televised nationally, alternating between Fox in odd years and CBS in even years. Blackouts The Lions' winless performance in 2008 and 2–14 season in 2009, coupled with the effects of the Great Recession in Michigan, led to several local broadcast blackouts, as local fans did not purchase enough tickets by the 72-hour blackout deadline. The first blackout in the then seven-year history of Ford Field was on October 26, 2008, against the Washington Redskins. The previous 50 regular season home games had been sellouts. The second home game of the 2009 season in which the Lions broke the losing streak, also against the Redskins, was blacked out locally, as well as the comeback victory over the Cleveland Browns. The Lions had only one blackout in 2010, yet another Redskins game, which the Lions won 37–25. However, in 2015, the NFL suspended its blackout policies, meaning that all Lions games will be shown on local TV, regardless of tickets sold. Games were also often blacked out at the Lions' previous home, the 80,000-seat Pontiac Silverdome, despite winning seasons and the success and popularity of star players such as Barry Sanders. Lions cheerleaders On June 13, 2016, the Lions announced the addition of cheerleaders to the organization. The team also announced that Rebecca Girard-Smoker, formerly the director of the Detroit Pistons dance team, would be the coach of the cheerleading squad. It marked the first time in over 40 years the team had an official cheerleading squad. The cheerleading squad is a part of the entertainment during football games, and active at community events. See also * NFL on Thanksgiving Day * Portsmouth Spartans References Notes Bibliography * External links * * [https://www.nfl.com/teams/detroit-lions/ Detroit Lions] at the National Football League official website * [https://www.pro-football-reference.com/teams/det/index.htm Franchise Encyclopedia] at Pro Football Reference \|list = }} Category:1934 establishments in Michigan Category:American football teams established in 1934 Lions Category:American football teams in Michigan Category:Culture of Detroit Category:NFL teams Category:Sports in Pontiac, Michigan	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit_Lions	2025-04-05T18:28:40.909028
8578	Dyne	\| units3 = British Gravitational System \| inunits3 }} The dyne (symbol: dyn; ()\|power, force}}) is a derived unit of force specified in the centimetre–gram–second (CGS) system of units, a predecessor of the modern SI. History The name dyne was first proposed as a CGS unit of force in 1873 by a Committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science.DefinitionThe dyne is defined as "the force required to accelerate a mass of one gram at a rate of one centimetre per second squared". An equivalent definition of the dyne is "that force which, acting for one second, will produce a change of velocity of one centimetre per second in a mass of one gram". One dyne is equal to 10 micronewtons, 10<sup>−5</sup> N or to 10 nsn (nanosthenes) in the old metre–tonne–second system of units. * 1 dyn 1 g⋅cm/s<sup>2</sup> 10<sup>−5</sup> kg⋅m/s<sup>2</sup> = 10<sup>−5</sup> N * 1 N 1 kg⋅m/s<sup>2</sup> 10<sup>5</sup> g⋅cm/s<sup>2</sup> = 10<sup>5</sup> dyn Use The dyne per centimetre is a unit traditionally used to measure surface tension. For example, the surface tension of distilled water is 71.99 dyn/cm at 25 °C (77 °F). (In SI units this is or .)See also * Centimetre–gram–second system of units * Erg References Category:Centimetre–gram–second system of units	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyne	2025-04-05T18:28:40.913059
8579	Detroit Tigers	\| colors Navy blue, orange, white<br /> \| y3 = 1901 \| nicknames The Bengals The Motor City Kitties The Gritty Tigs \| pastnames \| ballpark Comerica Park \| y4 = 2000 \| pastparks = * Tiger Stadium (–) * Burns Park (–) * Bennett Park (–) * Boulevard Park (–) \| WS = (4) \| WORLD CHAMPIONS = \| \| \| }} \| LEAGUE = AL \| P = (11) \| PENNANTS = \| \| }} \| misc1 \| OTHER PENNANTS \| DIV = AL Central \| DV = (4) \| Division Champs = \| misc5 = AL East Division titles (3) \| OTHER DIV CHAMPS = \| WC = (2) \| Wild Card = \| misc6 \| owner Ilitch Holdings \| manager = A. J. Hinch \| gm = Jeff Greenberg \| presbo = Scott Harris \| website = }} The Detroit Tigers are an American professional baseball team based in Detroit. The Tigers compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the American League (AL) Central Division. One of the AL's eight charter franchises, the club was founded in Detroit as a member of the minor league Western League in 1894 and is the only Western League team still in its original city. They are also the oldest continuous one name, one city franchise in the AL. Ty Cobb, who played his first season with Detroit in 1905, later became the first Tiger to be inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1936. Since their establishment as a major league franchise in 1901, the Tigers have won four World Series championships (, , , and ), 11 AL pennants (1907, 1908, 1909, 1934, 1935, 1940, 1945, 1968, , , ), and four AL Central division championships (2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014). They also won division titles in 1972, 1984, and 1987 as a member of the AL East. Since 2000, the Tigers have played their home games at Comerica Park in Downtown Detroit. The Tigers constructed Bennett Park at the corner of Michigan Avenue and Trumbull Avenue in Corktown just west of Downtown Detroit and began playing there in 1896. In 1912, the team moved into Navin Field, which was built on the same location. It was expanded in 1938 and renamed Briggs Stadium. It was renamed Tiger Stadium in 1961 and the Tigers played there until 1999. From 1901 to 2024, the Tigers' overall win–loss record is (). The franchise's best winning percentage was in 1934, while its worst was in 2003. History Western League beginnings (1894–1900) The franchise was founded as a member of the reorganized Western League in 1894. They originally played at Boulevard Park, sometimes called League Park. It was located on East Lafayette, then called Champlain Street, between Helen and East Grand Boulevard, near Belle Isle. In 1895, owner George Vanderbeck decided to build Bennett Park at the corner of Michigan and Trumbull Avenues, which would remain the team's base of operations for the next 104 seasons. The first game at The Corner was an exhibition on April 13, 1896. The team, now occasionally called the "Tigers," beat a local semi-pro team, known as the Athletics, by a score of 30–3. When the Western League renamed itself the American League for 1900, it was still a minor league, but the next year, it broke from the National Agreement and declared itself a major league, openly competing with the National League for players and for fans in four contested cities. For a while, there were rumors of the team relocating to Pittsburgh. However, these rumors were put to rest when the two leagues made peace in 1903 when they signed a new National Agreement.First Major League season (1901)The Tigers were established as a charter member of the now major league American League in 1901. They played their first game as a major league team at home against the Milwaukee Brewers on April 25, 1901, with an estimated 10,000 fans at Bennett Park. After entering the ninth inning behind 13–4, the team staged a dramatic comeback to win 14–13. That initial season they were the first major league team to have a mascot—a red tiger on a dark background—on their ballcap. It was replaced by the letter "D" in 1903, and their iconic Olde English-style letterform appeared the following year. The Cobb era (1905–1926) 1905 in 1913]] In 1905, the team acquired 18-year-old Ty Cobb, a fearless player who came to be regarded as one of the greatest players of all time. The addition of Cobb to an already talented team that included Sam Crawford, Hughie Jennings, Bill Donovan and George Mullin quickly yielded results. 1907 American League Champions Behind the hitting of outfielders Ty Cobb (.350) and Sam Crawford (.323), and the pitching of Bill Donovan and Ed Killian (25 wins each), the Tigers went 92–58 to win the AL pennant in 1907 by 1.5 games over the Philadelphia Athletics. They moved on to their first World Series appearance against the Chicago Cubs. Game 1 ended in a rare 3–3 tie, called due to darkness after 12 innings. Cobb hit .324, while Sam Crawford hit .311 with 7 home runs, which was enough to lead the league in the "dead ball" era. The Cubs, however, would defeat the Tigers again in the 1908 World Series, this time in five games. This would be the Cubs' last World Championship until 2016. 1909 American League Champions In 1909, Detroit posted a 98–54 season, winning the AL pennant by 3.5 games over the Athletics. Ty Cobb won the batting triple crown in 1909, hitting .377 with 9 home runs (all inside-the-park) and 107 RBIs. He also led the league with 76 stolen bases. Mullin's 11–0 start in 1909 was a Tigers record for 104 years, finally being broken by Max Scherzer's 13–0 start in 2013. It was hoped that a new opponent in the 1909 Series, the Pittsburgh Pirates, would yield different results. The Tigers performed better in the Fall Classic, taking Pittsburgh to seven games, but they were blown out 8–0 in the decisive game at Bennett Park.1910–1914The Tigers dropped to third place in the American League in 1910 with an 86–68 record. They posted 89 wins in 1911 to finish second, but were still well behind a powerhouse Philadelphia Athletics team that won 101 games. The team sunk to a dismal sixth place in both the 1912 and 1913 seasons. A bright spot in 1912 was George Mullin pitching the franchise's first no-hitter in a 7–0 win over the St. Louis Browns on July 4, his 32nd birthday. Cobb went into the stands in a May 15, 1912, game to attack a fan that was abusing him, and was suspended. Three days later, the Tigers protested the suspension by fielding a team of replacement players against the Philadelphia Athletics. They lost 24–2. During this five-season stretch, Cobb posted batting averages of .383, .420, .409, .390 and .368, winning the batting title every year.1915 In 1915, the Tigers won a then-club record 100 games, but narrowly lost the AL pennant to the Boston Red Sox, who won 101 games. The 1915 Tigers were led by an outfield consisting of Ty Cobb, Sam Crawford, and Bobby Veach that finished #1, #2, and #3 in RBIs and total bases. Cobb also set a stolen base record with 96 steals in 1915 that stood until 1962, when it was broken by Maury Wills. Baseball historian Bill James has ranked the 1915 Tigers outfield as the greatest in the history of baseball. 1916–1920 The Tigers dropped to third place in 1916 with an 87–67 record, and would remain mired in the middle of the AL standings the rest of the decade, never winning more than 80 games. In the late teens and into the 1920s, Cobb continued to be the marquee player, though he was pushed by budding star outfielder Harry Heilmann, who went on to hit .342 for his career. Hughie Jennings left the Tigers after the 1920 season, having accumulated 1,131 wins as a manager. This stood as a Tiger record until 1992, when it was broken by Sparky Anderson. Cobb himself took over managerial duties in 1921, but during his six years at the helm, the Tigers topped out at 86 wins and never won a pennant. 1921 In 1921, the Tigers amassed 1,724 hits and a team batting average of .316, the highest team hit total and batting average in AL history. That year, outfielders Harry Heilmann and Ty Cobb finished #1 and #2 in the American League batting race with batting averages of .394 and .389, respectively. The downfall of the 1921 Tigers, however, was the absence of good pitching. The team ERA was 4.40. Without pitching to support the offense, the 1921 Tigers finished in sixth place in the American League at 71–82, 27 games behind the New York Yankees. On August 19, 1921, Cobb collected his 3,000th career hit off Elmer Myers of the Boston Red Sox. Aged 34 at the time, he is still the youngest player to reach that milestone, also reaching it in the fewest at-bats (8,093).1922–1926The Tigers continued to field good teams during Ty Cobb's tenure as player-manager, finishing as high as second in 1923, but lack of quality pitching kept them from winning a pennant. Harry Heilmann hit .403 in 1923, becoming the last AL player to top .400 until Ted Williams hit .406 in 1941. In 1925, Heilmann collected six hits in a season-ending doubleheader to win the batting title, finishing at .393 to Tris Speaker's .389. Cobb announced his retirement in November 1926 after 22 seasons with the Tigers, though he would return to play two more seasons with the Philadelphia Athletics. In 1927, Harry Heilmann flirted with a .400 batting average all year, eventually finishing at .398 and winning his fourth AL batting title. Following the 1933 season, the Tigers added perhaps the final piece of the puzzle, acquiring catcher Mickey Cochrane from the Philadelphia Athletics to serve as player-manager. Schoolboy Rowe led a strong pitching staff, winning 16 straight decisions at one point of the season and finishing with a 24–8 record. The Tigers would fall in the 1934 World Series in seven games to the "Gashouse Gang" St. Louis Cardinals. After winning a tight battle in Game 5 with a 3–1 decision over Dizzy Dean, Detroit took a 3–2 series lead, but would lose the next two games at Navin Field (Tiger Stadium). The final game was marred by an ugly incident. After spiking Tigers third baseman Marv Owen in the sixth inning, Cardinals left fielder Joe Medwick had to be removed from the game for his own safety by Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis after being pelted with debris from angry fans in the large temporary bleacher section in left field. Although they did not challenge the 1934 team's 101 wins, their 93–58 record was good enough to give them the AL pennant by three games over the New York Yankees. Greenberg was named AL MVP after hitting .328 and leading the league in home runs (36), extra-base hits (98) and RBIs (168). Incredibly, Greenberg's RBI total was 48 higher than the next closest player (Lou Gehrig, with 120). The Tigers finally won their first World Series, defeating the Chicago Cubs, 4–2. Game 6 concluded with Goslin's dramatic walk-off RBI single, scoring Cochrane for a 4–3 victory.1936–1939Despite being forecast to win the American League pennant again in 1936, the Tigers fell to a distant second place behind the New York Yankees both that season and in 1937. The team fell further down the standings with an 84–70 record in 1938 and an 81–73 record in 1939. Hank Greenberg nevertheless provided some excitement for Tigers fans in 1938 by challenging the single-season home run record held by Babe Ruth (60). He went into the season's final weekend against the Cleveland Indians with 58 home runs, tied with Jimmie Foxx for the most by a right-handed batter at the time, but he failed to homer. During the final week of the 1938 season, the Tigers presciently held out doubts about a pennant in 1939, but figured that 1940 would be their year. 1940 American League Champions In a tight three-team race, the 90–64 Tigers won the 1940 AL pennant by one game over the Cleveland Indians and two games over the New York Yankees. Prior to the season, first baseman Hank Greenberg was persuaded to move to left field to make room for Rudy York, whom the Tigers had deemed no longer suitable to be their catcher. The move proved successful. York hit .316 with 33 home runs and 134 RBIs. Greenberg batted .340 and slammed 41 home runs while driving in 150. Greenberg won his second AL MVP award, becoming the first major leaguer to win the award at two different positions. The Tigers lost the 1940 World Series to the Cincinnati Reds in seven games. Despite a heroic effort by Bobo Newsom, the Tigers came up short in the deciding game, losing 2–1. They finished no higher than fifth place in 1941–1943, but did manage a second-place finish in 1944, largely on the strength of pitchers Hal Newhouser and Dizzy Trout, who won 29 and 27 games, respectively. Newhouser, who was 29–9 with a 2.22 ERA, won the first of his two consecutive AL MVP awards this season. The Tigers were in first place as late as September 18, but would finish one game behind the St. Louis Browns for the AL pennant. 1945 World Series Champions With the end of World War II and the timely return of Hank Greenberg and others from the military, the Tigers won the AL pennant by just 1.5 games over the Washington Senators with an 88–65 record. Virgil Trucks returned from the U.S. Navy in time to pitch innings of 1-run ball in the pennant-clinching game, with starter Hal Newhouser pitching the final innings in relief. Newhouser won the pitching triple crown, leading the AL in wins (25), ERA (1.81) and strikeouts (212). He became the first pitcher in the history of the AL, and still the only pitcher as of 2024, to win the MVP Award in two consecutive seasons. With Newhouser, Trucks and Dizzy Trout on the mound and Greenberg leading the offense, Detroit responded in a World Series Game 7 for the first time, staking Newhouser to a 5–0 lead before he threw a pitch en route to a 9–3 victory over the Cubs. Because many stars had not yet returned from the military, some baseball scholars have deemed the 1945 World Series to be among the worst-played contests in World Series history. For example, prior to the World Series, Chicago sportswriter Warren Brown was asked who he liked, and he answered, "I don't think either one of them can win." A long drought (1946–1967) 1946–1950 Following their World Series win in 1945, the Tigers continued to have winning records for the remainder of the decade, finishing second in the AL three times, but never winning the pennant. Hal Newhouser had another outstanding season in 1946, again leading the league in wins (26) and ERA (1.94) while striking out a career-high 275 batters. He nearly won his third straight AL MVP award, finishing second to Ted Williams, who had led the Boston Red Sox to 104 wins (12 games ahead of the second-place Tigers). Also in 1946, the Tigers acquired George Kell, a third baseman who would become a 10-time all-star and Hall of Famer. He batted over .300 in eight straight seasons (1946–53), and finished with a career .306 average. The 1950 season was particularly frustrating, as the Tigers posted a 95–59 record for a .617 winning percentage, the fourth-best in team history at the time. However, they finished that season three games behind a strong New York Yankees team that went on to sweep the Philadelphia Phillies in the World Series.1951–1960 Over the next 10 years, the Tigers sank to the middle and lower ranks of the American League. The team had only three winning records over this span and never finished higher than fourth place. The last place 1952 team went 50–104 (.325), which was the worst season in Tigers history until the 2003 team lost 119 games. Despite the dismal season, starter Virgil Trucks threw two no-hitters in 1952, becoming only the third pitcher in major league history to accomplish this feat. 1952 also saw Tiger first baseman Walt Dropo get a hit in 12 consecutive plate appearances over a three-game stretch from July 14 to 15, tying a major league record set by Johnny Kling in 1902. Team owner Walter Briggs Sr. died in 1952. His son Walter Briggs Jr. inherited the team, but he was forced to sell it in 1956 to broadcast media owners John Fetzer and Fred Knorr. Notwithstanding Detroit's fall in the standings, the decade saw the debut of outfielder Al Kaline in 1953. One of the few major league players who never played a day in the minor leagues, he would hit over .300 nine times in his career. He also made 15 All-Star teams, won 10 Gold Gloves, and featured one of the league's best arms in right field. In 1955, the 20-year-old Kaline hit .340 to become the youngest-ever batting champion in major league history. 1958 saw the Tigers become the second to last team to integrate their roster when Dominican player Ozzie Virgil Sr. joined the team. Only the Boston Red Sox trailed the Tigers in integrating their roster. 1961 As the American League expanded from 8 to 10 teams, Detroit began its slow ascent back to success with an outstanding 1961 campaign. The Tigers led the majors in runs scored and won 101 games, a whopping 30-game improvement over the 71–83 1960 team, but still finished eight games behind the Yankees. This marked one of the few times in major league history that a team failed to reach the postseason despite winning 100 or more games, though it had happened once before to the Tigers in 1915. Cash never hit over .286 before or after the 1961 season, and would later say of the accomplishment: "It was a freak. Even at the time, I realized that." Cash's plate heroics, which also included 41 home runs and 132 RBI, might have earned him MVP honors were it not for New York's Roger Maris bashing a then record 61 homers the same season. The 1961 club featured two non-white starters, Bill Bruton and Jake Wood, and later in the 1960s, black players such as Willie Horton, Earl Wilson, and Gates Brown would contribute to Detroit's rise in the standings. 1962–1966 , nicknamed "Mr. Tiger" (1953–1974), was an 18× All-Star]] As a strong nucleus developed, Detroit repeatedly posted winning records throughout the 1960s. In 1963, pitchers Mickey Lolich and Denny McLain entered the rotation. Outfielders Willie Horton (1963), Mickey Stanley (1964) and Jim Northrup (1964) would also come aboard around this time. The team managed a third-place finish during a bizarre 1966 season, in which manager Chuck Dressen and acting manager Bob Swift were both forced to resign their posts because of health problems. Thereafter, Frank Skaff took over the managerial reins until the end of the season. Both Dressen and Swift died during the year; Dressen died of a heart attack in August, while Swift died of lung cancer in October. 1967 In 1967, the Tigers were involved in one of the closest pennant races in history. Because of rainouts, the Tigers were forced to play back-to-back doubleheaders against the California Angels over the final two days of the season. They needed to sweep the doubleheader on the last day of the season to force a one-game playoff with the Boston Red Sox. Starter Earl Wilson, acquired the previous season from the Red Sox, led the Tigers (and the major leagues) with 22 wins and would form a strong 1–2–3 combination with Denny McLain and Mickey Lolich over the next few years. 1968–1972 Glory in '68: 1968 World Series Champions The Tigers finally returned to the World Series in 1968. The team grabbed first place from the Baltimore Orioles on May 10 and would not relinquish the position, clinching the pennant on September 17 and finishing with a 103–59 record. In a year that was marked by dominant pitching, starter Denny McLain went 31–6 (with a 1.96 ERA), the first time a pitcher had won 30 or more games in a season since Dizzy Dean accomplished the feat in 1934; no pitcher has accomplished it since. McLain won the AL MVP and Cy Young Award for his efforts.1968 World Series ]] In the 1968 World Series, the Tigers met the defending World Series champion St. Louis Cardinals, led by starter Bob Gibson, who had posted a modern-era record 1.12 ERA during the regular season, and speedy outfielder Lou Brock. This was the first time the Tigers and Cardinals had met in the World Series since 1934. The series was predicated with a bold decision by manager Mayo Smith to play center fielder Mickey Stanley at shortstop, replacing the slick fielding but weak hitting of Ray Oyler. Stanley had never played shortstop before, but was a Gold Glover in the outfield and an excellent athlete. However, due in no small part to pitcher Mickey Lolich's victories in Games 2 and 5, the Tigers climbed back into the World Series. Many fans believe the turning point came in the fifth inning of Game 5, with the Tigers down three games to one, and trailing in the game, 3–2. Left fielder Willie Horton made a perfect throw to home plate to nail Lou Brock, who tried to score from second base standing up, as catcher Bill Freehan blocked the plate with his foot. The Tigers came back with three runs in the seventh to win that game, 5–3, and stay alive. That year, Detroit failed to defend its title, despite Denny McLain having another outstanding season with a 24–9 campaign, earning him his second straight Cy Young Award (co-winner with Baltimore's Mike Cuellar). The Tigers' 90 wins placed them a distant second in the division to a very strong Baltimore Orioles team, which had won 109 games. The Tigers suffered a disappointing 1970 season, finishing fourth in the AL East with a 79–83 record. Following the season, Mayo Smith was let go and was replaced by Billy Martin. In a playing career that was primarily spent with the New York Yankees, Martin played his final games with the Minnesota Twins and stayed in that organization after his retirement. Also during the offseason, Denny McLain, who had been suspended three times and had a 3–5 record, was part of an eight-player deal with the Washington Senators in what would turn out to be a heist for Detroit. The Tigers acquired pitcher Joe Coleman, shortstop Eddie Brinkman and third baseman Aurelio Rodríguez. The season was highlighted by Mickey Lolich's 308 strikeouts, which led the AL and is still the single-season record in franchise history. Coleman paid immediate dividends for Detroit, winning 20 games,1972 AL East Champions Joe Coleman, Eddie Brinkman and Aurelio Rodríguez all played critical roles in 1972, when the Tigers captured their first AL East division title. Oddities of the schedule due to an early season strike allowed the 86–70 Tigers to win the division by just game. Brinkman was named Tiger of the Year by the Detroit Baseball Writers, despite a .203 batting average, as he committed just 7 errors in 728 chances (.990 fielding percentage). He also had a streak of 72 games and 331 chances without an error during the season, both AL records for a shortstop. Mickey Lolich was his steady self for the Tigers, winning 22 games with a sparkling 2.50 ERA, while Coleman won 19 and had a 2.80 ERA. Fryman was also the winning pitcher in the division-clinching game against the Boston Red Sox, a 3–1 victory on October 3.1972 ALCS In the 1972 American League Championship Series, Detroit faced the American League West division champion Oakland Athletics, who had become steadily competitive ever since the 1969 realignment. In Game 1 of the ALCS in Oakland, Mickey Lolich, the hero of '68, took the hill and allowed just one run over nine innings. The Athletics' ace, Catfish Hunter, matched Lolich, surrendering only a solo home run to Norm Cash, and the game went into extra innings. Game 4 was another pitchers' duel between Hunter and Lolich, resulting again in a 1–1 tie at the end of nine innings. Oakland scored two runs in the top of the 10th and put the Tigers down to their last three outs. Joe Coleman posted another 23 wins, but the other Tiger starters had subpar seasons. Willie Horton hit .316, but injuries limited him to just 111 games. Third base coach Joe Schultz served as interim manager for the remainder of the season. Hiller's saves total would stand as a Tiger record until 2000, when it was broken by Todd Jones' 42 saves (Jones' record would later be broken by José Valverde's 49 saves in 2011). After the season, the Tigers hired Ralph Houk to be their new manager. Houk served in that capacity for five full seasons, through the end of the 1978 season. The roster of players who played under Houk were mostly aging veterans from the 1960s, whose performance had slipped from their peak years. The Tigers did not have a winning season from 1974 to 1977, and their 57 wins in the 1975 season was the team's lowest since 1952. Perhaps the biggest signal of decline for the Tigers was the retirement of Kaline following the 1974 season, after he notched his 3,000th career hit. Kaline finished with 3,007 hits and was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in his first year of eligibility in 1980.1976: The Year of The Bird , 1976 AL Rookie of the Year]] Tiger fans were provided a glimmer of hope when 21-year-old rookie Mark Fidrych made his debut in 1976. Fidrych, known as "The Bird", was a colorful character known for talking to the baseball and other eccentricities. Fidrych entered the All-Star break at 9–2 with a 1.78 ERA, and was the starting pitcher for the American League in the All-Star Game played that year in Philadelphia to celebrate the American Bicentennial. 1977–1978 Injuries to his knee, and later his arm, drastically limited Fidrych's appearances in 1977–78.The "Bless You Boys" era (1979–1987)Houk's immediate successor as Tigers manager in 1979 was Les Moss, but Moss would only last until June of that year. From June 14, 1979, until the end of the 1995 season, the team was managed by George "Sparky" Anderson, one of baseball's winningest managers and winner of two World Series rings as manager of the Cincinnati Reds during their peak as The Big Red Machine. When Anderson joined the Tigers in 1979 and assessed the team's young talent, he boldly predicted that it would be a pennant winner within five years. Acerbic Detroit TV sports anchor Al Ackerman initiated the phrase "Bless You Boys". Originally used as a sarcastic remark, Ackerman's phrase would take on a new meaning in 1984.The Roar of '84: 1984 World Series Champions was the manager of the Tigers from 1979 to 1995]] As in 1968, the Tigers' next World Series season would be preceded by a disappointing second-place finish, as the 1983 Tigers won 92 games to finish six games behind the Baltimore Orioles in the AL East. The first major news of the 1984 season actually came in late 1983, when broadcasting magnate John Fetzer, who had owned the Tigers since 1957, sold the team to Domino's Pizza founder and CEO Tom Monaghan for $53 million. The 1984 team got off to a 9–0 start highlighted by Jack Morris tossing a nationally televised no-hitter against Chicago in the fourth game of the season. They stayed hot for most of the year, posting a 35–5 record over their first forty games and cruising to a franchise-record 104 victories. The Tigers led the division from opening day until the end of the regular season and finished a staggering 15 games ahead of the second-place Toronto Blue Jays. 1984 ALCS The Tigers faced the Kansas City Royals in the American League Championship Series. In Game 1, Alan Trammell, Lance Parrish and Larry Herndon went deep to crush the Royals 8–1 at Royals Stadium (now Kauffman Stadium). In Game 2, the Tigers scored twice in the 11th inning when Johnny Grubb doubled off Royals closer Dan Quisenberry en route to a 5–3 victory. The Tigers completed the sweep at Tiger Stadium in Game 3. Marty Castillo's third-inning RBI fielder's choice would be all the help Detroit would need. Milt Wilcox outdueled Charlie Leibrandt, and after Hernandez got Darryl Motley to pop out to preserve the 1–0 win, the Tigers were returning to the World Series.1984 World Series In the NLCS, the San Diego Padres rallied from losing the first two games to overcome the Chicago Cubs and prevent a fifth Cubs-Tigers series. The Tigers would open the 1984 World Series on the road in San Diego. In Game 1, Larry Herndon hit a two-run home run that gave the Tigers a 3–2 lead. Jack Morris pitched a complete game with 2 runs on 8 hits, and Detroit drew first blood. The Padres evened the series the next night despite pitcher Ed Whitson being chased after pitching of an inning and giving up three runs on five Tiger hits. Tigers starter Dan Petry exited the game after innings when Kurt Bevacqua's three-run homer gave San Diego a 5–3 lead they would not relinquish. The Padres never recovered, losing 5–2. , a Michigan State alumni, hit the clinching home run in Game 5 of the 1984 World Series]] In Game 5, Kirk Gibson's two-run shot in the first inning would be the beginning of another early end for the Padres' starter Mark Thurmond. Although the Padres would pull back even at 3–3, chasing Petry in the fourth inning in the process, the Tigers retook the lead on a Rusty Kuntz sacrifice fly (actually a pop-out to retreating second baseman Alan Wiggins that the speedy Gibson was able to score on), and then went up 5–3 on a solo homer by Parrish. As Anderson had suspected, Gossage threw a 1–0 fastball on the inside corner, and Gibson was ready. He launched the pitch into Tiger Stadium's right field upper deck for a three-run homer, giving the Tigers a four-run lead and effectively clinching the game and the series. Aurelio López pitched innings of relief and retired all seven batters he faced, earning the win. Despite allowing a rare run in the top of the 8th inning, Willie Hernández got the save as Tony Gwynn flew out to Larry Herndon to end the game, sending Detroit into a wild victory celebration. With the win, Anderson became the first manager to win the World Series in both leagues.1987 AL East Champions After a pair of third-place finishes in 1985 and 1986, the 1987 Tigers faced lowered expectations – which seemed to be confirmed by an 11–19 start to the season. However, the team hit its stride thereafter and gradually gained ground on its AL East rivals. Despite the Tigers' great season, they entered September neck-and-neck with the Toronto Blue Jays. The two teams would square off in seven hard-fought games during the final two weeks of the season. All seven games were decided by one run, and in the first six of the seven games, the winning run was scored in the final inning of play. At Exhibition Stadium, the Tigers dropped three in a row to the Blue Jays before winning a dramatic extra-inning showdown. In what would prove to be their last postseason appearance until 2006, the Tigers were upset in the 1987 American League Championship Series by the 85–77 Minnesota Twins (who in turn won the World Series that year) 4–1. The Twins clinched the series in Game 5 at Tiger Stadium, 9–5. A new approach (1988–1995) Despite their 1987 division title victory, the Tigers proved unable to build on their success. The team lost Kirk Gibson to free agency in the offseason, but still spent much of 1988 in first place in the AL East. A late season slump left the team in second place at 88–74, one game behind the Boston Red Sox. in 1996]] In 1989, the team collapsed to a 59–103 record, worst in the majors. The franchise then attempted to rebuild using a power-hitting approach, with sluggers Cecil Fielder, Rob Deer and Mickey Tettleton joining Trammell and Whitaker in the lineup (fitting for the team with the most 200+ home run seasons in baseball history). In 1990, Fielder led the American League with 51 home runs (becoming the first player to hit 50 since George Foster in 1977, and the first AL player since Roger Maris and Mickey Mantle in 1961), and finished second in the voting for AL MVP. He hit 44 home runs and collected 132 RBI in 1991, again finishing second in the AL MVP balloting. Behind the hitting of Fielder and others, the Tigers improved by 20 wins in 1990 (79–83), and posted a winning record in 1991 (84–78). However, the team lacked quality pitching, despite Bill Gullickson's 20 wins in 1991, and its core of key players began to age, setting the franchise up for decline. Their minor league system was largely barren of talent as well, producing only a few everyday players during the 1990s. Adding insult to injury, the Tigers and radio station WJR announced in December 1990 that they were not renewing the contract of long-time Hall of Fame play-by play announcer Ernie Harwell, and that the 1991 season would be Harwell's last with the team. The announcement was met with resounding protests from fans, both in Michigan and around the baseball world. 1992 saw the Tigers win only 75 games, with Fielder being one of the few bright spots as he won the AL RBI title for a third straight season (124). In August 1992, the franchise was sold to Mike Ilitch, the President and CEO of Little Caesars Pizza who also owned the Detroit Red Wings. One of Ilitch's first moves as the new owner was to rehire Ernie Harwell. Late in the season, Sparky Anderson won his 1,132nd game as a Tiger manager, passing Hughie Jennings for the most all-time wins in franchise history. On October 2, 1995, manager Sparky Anderson chose to not only end his career with the Tigers, but retire from baseball altogether.Randy Smith era (1996–2002)From 1994 to 2005, the Tigers did not post a winning record, the longest sub-.500 stretch in franchise history. In 1996, the Tigers lost a then-team record 109 games, under new general manager Randy Smith. The only team in the majors to have a longer stretch without a winning season during this time were the Pittsburgh Pirates, who did not have a winning record in the years spanning 1993 to 2012. The Tigers' best record over this span was 79–83, recorded in 1997 and 2000. In 2000, the team left Tiger Stadium in favor of Comerica Park. Soon after it opened, Comerica Park drew criticism for its deep dimensions, which made it difficult to hit home runs; the distance to left-center field (395 ft), in particular, was seen as unfair to hitters. This led to the nickname "Comerica National Park." The team made a successful bid to bring in slugger Juan González from the Texas Rangers for the inaugural season at Comerica Park. After four consecutive seasons of no fewer than 39 home runs, González only hit 22 homers in 2000. He cited Comerica Park's dimensions as a major reason why he turned down a multiyear contract extension. In 2003, the franchise largely quieted the criticism by moving in the left-center fence to , taking the flagpole in that area out of play, a feature carried over from Tiger Stadium. In 2005, the team moved the bullpens to the vacant area beyond the left field fence and filled the previous location with seats. In late 2001, Dave Dombrowski, former general manager of the 1997 World Series champion Florida Marlins, was hired as team president. In 2002, the Tigers started the season 0–6, prompting Dombrowski to fire the unpopular Smith, as well as manager Phil Garner. Dombrowski then took over as general manager and named bench coach Luis Pujols to finish the season as interim manager. The team finished 55–106. After the season was over, Pujols was let go. Most losses in franchise history (2003) Dave Dombrowski hired popular former shortstop Alan Trammell to manage the team in 2003. With fellow 1984 teammates Kirk Gibson and Lance Parrish on the coaching staff, the rebuilding process began. They avoided tying the 1962 Mets' then modern MLB record of 120 losses only by winning five of their last six games of the season, including three out of four against the Minnesota Twins, who had already clinched the AL Central and were resting their stars. Mike Maroth went 9–21, becoming the first pitcher to lose 20 games since Brian Kingman lost 20 for the Oakland Athletics in 1980. Maroth, Jeremy Bonderman (6–19), and Nate Cornejo (6–17) were the top three pitchers in losses in the entire major leagues, the first time in history that this had occurred. The Tigers finished 43–119, the worst record in franchise history. which was later surpassed by the 2024 Chicago White Sox. While the 2003 Tigers rank as the fourth worst team in major league history based on total losses, Under Dave Dombrowski, the franchise demonstrated a willingness to sign marquee free agents. In 2004, the team signed or traded for several talented but high-risk veterans, such as Fernando Viña, Rondell White, Iván Rodríguez, Ugueth Urbina, and Carlos Guillén, and the gamble paid off. The 2004 Tigers finished 72–90, a 29-game improvement over the previous season. This was the largest improvement in the AL since the Baltimore Orioles had a 33-game improvement from 1988 to 1989. On June 8, 2005, the Tigers traded pitcher Ugueth Urbina and infielder Ramón Martínez to the Philadelphia Phillies for Plácido Polanco. The Tigers stayed on the fringes of contention for the AL wild card for the first four months of the season, but then faded badly, finishing 71–91. The collapse was perceived as being due both to injuries and to a lack of player unity; Rodríguez in particular was disgruntled, taking a leave of absence during the season to deal with a difficult divorce. Trammell, though popular with the fans, took part of the blame for the poor clubhouse atmosphere and lack of continued improvement, and he was fired at the end of the season. In the Home Run Derby, Rodríguez finished second, losing to the Phillies' Bobby Abreu. In October 2005, Jim Leyland, who managed Dombrowski's 1997 World Series champion Florida Marlins, replaced Trammell as manager; two months later, in response to Troy Percival's arm problems, closer Todd Jones, who had spent five seasons in Detroit (1997–2001), signed a two-year deal to return to the Tigers. Veteran left-hander Kenny Rogers also joined the Tigers from the Texas Rangers in late 2005. On September 24, the Tigers beat the Kansas City Royals 11–4 to clinch their first playoff berth since 1987. A division title seemed inevitable. All that was required was one win in the final five games of the season, which included three games against the Royals, whom the Tigers had manhandled much of the season. However, the Tigers lost all five games to finish 95–67, and the division title went to the 96–66 Minnesota Twins. The Tigers instead settled for the AL wild card. The playoffs saw the Tigers beat the heavily favored New York Yankees 3–1 in the ALDS and sweep the Oakland Athletics in the 2006 ALCS, thanks to a walk-off home run in Game 4 by right fielder Magglio Ordóñez. They advanced to the World Series, where they lost to the underdog St. Louis Cardinals in five games. Falling short (2007–2010) in 2007]] 2007 During the offseason, the Tigers traded for outfielder Gary Sheffield, who had been a part of the 1997 World Series champion Florida Marlins managed by Jim Leyland. In addition to acquisitions, Dombrowski developed a productive farm system. Justin Verlander and Joel Zumaya, the most notable rookie contributors to the 2006 team, were followed by Andrew Miller, who was drafted in 2006 and called up early in the 2007 campaign, and minor leaguer Cameron Maybin, an athletic five-tool outfielder ranked #6 in Baseball America's 2007 Top 100 Prospects. On June 12, Verlander threw the Tigers' first no-hitter since 1984 (Jack Morris) and the first in Comerica Park history, in a 4–0 win over the Milwaukee Brewers. The Tigers had the best record in baseball in late July, but lost a few players to injuries and started to play poorly in the second half. The Tigers were officially eliminated from playoff competition on September 26, 2007, when the New York Yankees clinched a wild card berth. The Tigers, at 88–74, finished second in the AL Central. Magglio Ordóñez captured the AL batting title in 2007 with a .363 average, becoming the first Tiger to win it since Norm Cash did so in 1961. 2008 , June 2008]] Going into the 2008 season, the franchise traded for prominent talent in Édgar Rentería (from the Atlanta Braves) and Miguel Cabrera and Dontrelle Willis (from the Florida Marlins). However, the Tigers, who now boasted the second-highest team payroll in the majors at over $138 million, began the regular season by losing seven straight games. The Tigers climbed back, and at the midway point of the season, they were 42–40. In the end, the team finished miserably, slumping to a 74–88 record. Justin Verlander finished with his worst season as a pro, as he went 11–17 with a 4.84 ERA. The Tigers also lost closer Todd Jones to retirement on September 25, 2008. Despite the disappointing season, the team set an attendance record in 2008, drawing 3,202,654 customers to Comerica Park. 2009 Going into the 2009 season, the Tigers acquired starter Edwin Jackson from the 2008 AL Champion Tampa Bay Rays, and called up rookie and former #1 draft pick Rick Porcello. Jackson was outstanding in the first half, making his first All-Star team, while Porcello was solid most of the year, posting a 14–9 record with a 3.96 ERA and displaying grit and maturity beyond his 20 years of age. Justin Verlander bounced back from an off 2008 to win 19 games. He posted a 3.45 ERA and led the AL in strikeouts (269) to finish third in the AL Cy Young balloting. Fernando Rodney assumed the closer role in spring training, replacing the retired Todd Jones. Rodney responded with 37 saves in 38 tries, while Bobby Seay, Fu-Te Ni, Brandon Lyon, and Ryan Perry shored up the middle relief that plagued the team in 2007 and 2008. Despite the improvements, the Tigers once again found themselves struggling to hold a lead in the AL Central. The team entered September with a 7-game lead in the division, but wound up tied with the Minnesota Twins at 86 wins by the final day of the regular season. The season ended on October 6 with a 6–5 loss in 12 innings to the Twins in the tie-breaker game, leaving the Tigers with an 86–77 record. The Tigers spent 146 days of the 2009 season in first place, but became the first team in Major League history to lose a three-game lead with four games left to play.2010 , March 2010]] Entering 2010, the Tigers parted ways with Curtis Granderson and Edwin Jackson as part of a three-way trade with the New York Yankees and Arizona Diamondbacks; in return they picked up outfield prospect Austin Jackson and pitchers Phil Coke, Max Scherzer and Daniel Schlereth. Jackson made the Tigers opening day roster, and was American League Rookie of the Month for April. 2010 also saw the debut of Brennan Boesch, who was named the AL Rookie of the Month for May and June. At the All-Star break, the Tigers were a half-game out of first place in the AL Central, behind the Chicago White Sox. However, a slow start after the break and injuries to three key players sent the Tigers into yet another second half tailspin. The Tigers finished the season in third place with an 81–81 record, 13 games back of the division-winning Minnesota Twins. While playing outstanding baseball at home, the Tigers were just 29–52 on the road. Among the season highlights were Miguel Cabrera hitting .328 with 38 home runs and an AL-best 126 RBI, earning the AL Silver Slugger Award at first base and finishing second in the AL MVP race (earning 5 of 28 first-place votes). Jackson (.293 average, 103 runs, 181 hits, 27 stolen bases) finished second in the AL Rookie of the Year voting. Justin Verlander enjoyed another strong season (18–9 record, 3.37 ERA, 219 strikeouts). A tearful Joyce later said, "I just cost that kid a perfect game. I thought he beat the throw. I was convinced he beat the throw, until I saw the replay." Despite nationwide support for overturning the call, which included supportive statements from the Governor of Michigan and the White House, commissioner Bud Selig let the call stand. However, he said he would look into expanding instant replay in the future.Division winners (2011–2014)2011: First AL Central Championship The Tigers returned much of their roster from 2010, while adding relief pitcher Joaquín Benoit, catcher/DH Victor Martinez, and starting pitcher Brad Penny. On May 7, Verlander took a perfect game against the Toronto Blue Jays into the 8th inning. After a walk to J. P. Arencibia, Verlander coaxed a double-play grounder and went on to the 9th inning to complete his second career no-hitter by facing the minimum 27 batters. It was the seventh no-hitter in Tigers history. On August 27, Verlander defeated the Minnesota Twins, 6–4, to become the first Tiger since Bill Gullickson in 1991 to win 20 games in a season. Verlander also became the first major league pitcher since Curt Schilling in 2002 to reach 20 wins before the end of August. In May, the Tigers were as many as eight games back of the first place Cleveland Indians. However, they would start to play better. The Tigers sent five players to the 2011 All-Star Game. Catcher Alex Avila was voted in as a starter, while Justin Verlander, José Valverde and Miguel Cabrera were added as reserves. Shortstop Jhonny Peralta was later added to the All-Star team when the Yankees' Derek Jeter was unable to play due to injury. As a three-way battle for the division title developed between the Tigers, Indians, and Chicago White Sox, the Tigers put together an 18–10 record in August to begin to pull away. Starter Doug Fister, who was acquired at the trade deadline, provided an immediate spark, going 8–1 over the final two months of the season with a sparkling 1.79 ERA. After a loss on September 1, the Tigers reeled off a 12-game winning streak to put any thoughts of another late-season collapse to rest. The streak consisted of four consecutive three-game sweeps over their AL Central Division rivals. It was the Tigers' longest winning streak since the 1934 team won 14 straight. On September 16, the Tigers clinched the AL Central Division title with a 3–1 win over the Oakland Athletics. It was their first AL Central title since joining the division in 1998, and first division title of any kind since 1987. In a much closer vote six days later, Verlander also won AL MVP, becoming the first pitcher to do so since Dennis Eckersley in 1992. Valverde was the AL saves leader with 49 (in 49 save opportunities), winning the 2011 MLB Delivery Man of the Year Award. The Tigers beat the New York Yankees by a score of 3–2 in Game 5 of the ALDS, winning the series 3–2. They advanced to the ALCS, but they lost to the defending AL Champion Texas Rangers, 4–2. 2012: American League Champions became the first Major League player to win the Triple Crown in 45 years.]] (left) and Prince Fielder (right) in 2012]] In 2012, the Tigers looked to defend their 2011 AL Central Division title, with the hopes of earning a second consecutive playoff appearance. On January 24, the Tigers signed free agent All-Star first baseman Prince Fielder to a 9-year, $214 million contract. The move came shortly after the Tigers learned that Víctor Martínez had torn his anterior cruciate ligament during offseason training in Lakeland, Florida, and would likely miss the entire 2012 season. Miguel Cabrera moved back to his original position of third base, leading to the eventual release of veteran Brandon Inge on April 26. On July 23, the Tigers acquired veteran second baseman Omar Infante, who played for Detroit in 2003–07, and starting pitcher Aníbal Sánchez from the Miami Marlins in exchange for starting pitcher Jacob Turner and two other minor leaguers. At the midway point of the 2012 season, the Tigers were three games under .500 (39–42). The team played much better in the second half and, after a fierce battle down the stretch with the Chicago White Sox, the Tigers clinched the AL Central division title on October 1 with a 6–3 win against the Kansas City Royals. Coupled with the Tigers' division title in 2011, it marked the first back-to-back divisional titles in team history, and first back-to-back postseason appearances since 1934–35. The Tigers concluded the season with an 88–74 record. On the final day of the season, Cabrera earned the Triple Crown in batting, leading the AL in batting average (.330), home runs (44), and runs batted in (139). No player had accomplished this feat since Carl Yastrzemski in 1967. On the mound, starters Justin Verlander and Max Scherzer finished first and second among the American League strikeout leaders, with 239 and 231, respectively. Verlander (17–8, 2.64 ERA) finished second in the Cy Young Award balloting to David Price of the Tampa Bay Rays. In the American League Division Series, the Tigers defeated the Oakland Athletics, 3–2, earning their second straight trip to the American League Championship Series. The Tigers completed a four-game sweep of the New York Yankees in the ALCS to win their 11th AL pennant and earn a trip to the World Series. In the World Series, the Tigers were swept by the San Francisco Giants. On November 15, 2012, Cabrera was named AL MVP.2013: American League title defense The Tigers entered the 2013 season looking to defend their 2012 AL pennant. Key acquisitions in the offseason included signing free agent outfielder Torii Hunter to a two-year, $26 million contract, while also signing their 2012 trade deadline acquisition, pitcher Aníbal Sánchez, to a five-year, $80 million deal. The Tigers also signed free agent catcher Brayan Peña to a one-year contract. Moreover, ace starter Justin Verlander signed a $180 million contract extension. The Tigers placed six players on the 2013 American League All-Star team: Miguel Cabrera, Prince Fielder, Jhonny Peralta, Torii Hunter, Max Scherzer and Justin Verlander. On September 25, the Tigers clinched their third consecutive AL Central Division title. Tigers pitchers struck out 1,428 batters during the regular season, breaking the record of 1,404 held by the 2003 Chicago Cubs. Cabrera (.348 average, 44 HR, 139 RBI) was voted the AL MVP for the second straight season, while Scherzer (21–3, 2.90 ERA, 240 strikeouts) won the AL Cy Young Award. The Tigers played the Oakland Athletics for the second straight year in the ALDS, and defeated the A's, 3–2. The Tigers set a record by striking out 57 Oakland batters in the ALDS. With his Game 5 gem, Verlander ran his postseason scoreless streak against Oakland to 30 innings. The Tigers advanced to their third straight ALCS, where they played the Boston Red Sox for the first ever time in the postseason. The Tigers would be defeated in six games. 2014: Changes at the top , manager from 2006 to 2013]] Jim Leyland stepped down from his managerial position after eight years with Detroit, and the Tigers hired Brad Ausmus as Leyland's successor. On November 20, 2013, the Tigers traded Prince Fielder to the Texas Rangers for three time All-Star second baseman Ian Kinsler plus cash considerations with regard to Fielder's remaining contract amount. The Tigers later traded starting pitcher Doug Fister to the Washington Nationals for infielder Steve Lombardozzi Jr. and pitchers Ian Krol and Robbie Ray. In an effort to improve a bullpen that often struggled in 2013, the Tigers signed veteran closer Joe Nathan to a two-year, $20 million contract, with a club option for 2016, and later signed Joba Chamberlain to a one-year, $2.5 million deal. On May 2, 2014, a month into the season, with the bullpen having a combined 5.37 ERA, which was 29th out of 30 in MLB, the Tigers signed free agent reliever Joel Hanrahan to a one-year contract. However, he never came off the disabled list to pitch for the team. The team further bolstered the bullpen near the MLB trading deadline, dealing pitchers Corey Knebel and Jake Thompson to the Texas Rangers in exchange for former All-Star closer Joakim Soria on July 23. On July 31, with just hours left before the end of the non-waiver trade deadline, the Tigers traded pitcher Drew Smyly and shortstop Willy Adames to the Tampa Bay Rays, and Austin Jackson to the Seattle Mariners in a three-team deal to acquire pitcher David Price from the Rays. With the acquisition of Price, the Tigers became the first team in major league history with three consecutive Cy Young Award winners in its starting rotation. On September 28, the last day of the regular season, Price pitched a 3–0 gem against the Minnesota Twins, and the Tigers clinched their fourth consecutive AL Central Division title. The 90–72 Tigers finished one game ahead of the Kansas City Royals. The Tigers faced the Baltimore Orioles in the 2014 American League Division Series, where they were swept, 3–0. J. D. Martinez became the first player in franchise history to hit home runs in his first two career postseason games. Both were part of back-to-back homers, with Víctor Martínez and Nick Castellanos in Games 1 and 2, respectively. 2015: Mid-season Reboot Brad Ausmus continued to manage the Tigers for a second season. Free agents Max Scherzer and Torii Hunter left for other teams at the end of the year, while Rick Porcello, Eugenio Suárez, Robbie Ray, and prospect Devon Travis were all lost through trades. On the receiving end, the Tigers traded for slugger Yoenis Céspedes, relief pitcher Alex Wilson, speedy outfielder Anthony Gose and starting pitchers Alfredo Simón and Shane Greene. After winning the first six games of the year in record-breaking fashion, the season slowly went downhill for the Tigers. Inconsistent pitching, division rivals outperforming expectations, and injuries to multiple players, including Joe Nathan, who only appeared in one game, Victor Martínez, and career first stints on the disabled list for Justin Verlander and Miguel Cabrera, sent the team below the .500 mark as the trade deadline came and the decision was made to "reboot" the team. Within a two-day span in late July, the Tigers traded David Price, Joakim Soria and Cespedes, receiving six well regarded prospects in return, including Daniel Norris and Michael Fulmer. On August 4, longtime general manager Dave Dombrowski was released by the team, with assistant GM Al Avila being promoted to general manager and president of baseball operations. Despite difficulties, the Tigers still ended up sending four players to the 2015 MLB All-Star Game: Miguel Cabrera received his 10th career All-Star selection and the starting nod, but could not play due to injury; David Price received his 5th career selection as well as the credit for the win for the American League; and J.D. Martinez and Jose Iglesias both received their first career All-Star selections. The Tigers ended the season in last place in the AL Central Division with a record of 74–87. The pitching staff was one of the worst in MLB, ending 27th in ERA, 28th in FIP, and 27th in WHIP. However, the team also ended with a team batting average of .270, the best in MLB, while Miguel Cabrera finished with the highest player batting average in the AL and MLB (.338), earning his fourth batting title in five years. 2016 Brad Ausmus and the Tigers entered the 2016 season with new pitching coach Rich Dubee and 9 out of 25 members of the 2015 roster being replaced through trades and free agency. Prominent additions included two highly sought free agents, starting pitcher Jordan Zimmermann and outfielder Justin Upton, as well as players acquired through trades: outfielder Cameron Maybin, and the veteran closer Francisco Rodriguez, who led a totally revamped bullpen. The Tigers lost two 2016 draft picks due to free agent compensation but, because of their bottom-ten finish in 2015, they kept their first round pick. Key veteran losses include catcher Alex Avila and outfielder Rajai Davis, who both signed free agent deals with other teams in the division. The Tigers finished the season with a record of 86–75, eight games behind the first place Cleveland Indians. Detroit was the final team to fall out of contention for a wild card spot, losing Saturday and Sunday games to the Atlanta Braves, while the two teams they were chasing, Baltimore and Toronto, got needed wins. Pitcher Michael Fulmer, acquired from the New York Mets organization in 2015, won the 2016 AL Rookie of the Year Award. Rebuilding (2017–2023) 2017 Mike Ilitch, the Tigers owner since 1992, died at the age of 87 on February 10, 2017. The team remains in an Ilitch family trust, under the leadership of Mike's son, Christopher Ilitch. Like the Detroit Red Wings, the Tigers honored their owner in multiple ways, the most prominent being a "Mr. I" uniform patch. After a disappointing record through the All-Star break, the Tigers began committing to a rebuild, trading J. D. Martinez, Alex Avila and Justin Wilson in July, plus Justin Upton and Justin Verlander in August. On September 22, the Tigers announced that the team would not extend manager Brad Ausmus' contract past the 2017 season, ending his four-year tenure as manager. Under the management of Ausmus, the Tigers had a record of 314–332 (.486 winning percentage) and won one AL Central division title in 2014. The Tigers went 6–24 in September, ending the season in a tie for the worst record in MLB with the San Francisco Giants. However, due to a tiebreaker, the Tigers were awarded the number one overall pick in the 2018 MLB Draft. 2018 On October 20, 2017, the Tigers announced that Ron Gardenhire and the team had reached a three-year agreement for the former Minnesota Twins skipper to succeed Brad Ausmus as the team's manager. While rebuilding with young players, the team also lost slugger Miguel Cabrera and expected ace pitcher Michael Fulmer to extensive stints on the disabled list. This led the team to the same 64–98 record as the previous year, the fifth worst record in MLB, but still good for third place in a very weak AL Central division.2019 Significant changes to the 2019 season opening roster include the departure of José Iglesias, and the one-year signings of the middle infield tandem of Jordy Mercer and Josh Harrison, both formerly of the Pittsburgh Pirates. On March 19, it was announced that Michael Fulmer would undergo Tommy John surgery and miss the 2019 season. The Tigers finished the season with a 47–114 record, the worst in all of Major League Baseball, and their second worst season in franchise history after their 43–119 record in 2003. The 2019 Tigers tied the 1939 St. Louis Browns for the most home losses (59) during a season in the modern era. 2020 On April 6, Al Kaline died at the age of 85. Kaline had been affiliated with the team for 67 years, most recently as an executive. The Tigers wore a No. 6 patch to honor him. In the shortened 60-game season due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the Tigers remained in playoff contention heading into September. On September 19, manager Ron Gardenhire announced his retirement from baseball effective immediately, citing health concerns. Bench coach Lloyd McClendon was named interim manager for the remainder of the season. The Tigers ultimately faded down the stretch, finishing with a 23–35 record.2021 On October 30, 2020, the Tigers hired A. J. Hinch as manager. On May 18, 2021, Spencer Turnbull pitched the eighth no-hitter in Tigers history against the Seattle Mariners. Turnbull became the first Tigers player to throw a no-hitter since Justin Verlander on May 7, 2011. The Tigers finished the season with a 77–85 record. This outperformed preseason predictions for the team, most of which said the Tigers would finish last. 2022 On August 10, 2022, the Tigers fired Al Avila as general manager. On September 19, 2022, the Tigers hired Scott Harris as president of baseball operations. The Tigers finished the season with a 66–96 record and had one of the worst offense in the league. On October 25, 2022, the Tigers hired Rob Metzler as vice president and assistant general manager. 2023 On September 21, 2023, the Tigers hired Jeff Greenberg as general manager. The Tigers finished the season with a 78–84 record, and in second place in the division. This was the final season for long-time Tigers slugger Miguel Cabrera, who announced he would retire from playing. Following his retirement, he joined the Tigers' front office as a special assistant to Scott Harris.Return to the playoffs (2024)2024 2024 was expected to be another quiet year for the Tigers. That appeared to be the case for much of the season as the team was 55–63 on August 10. The Tigers then went 31–11 to clinch a playoff berth for the first time since 2014 on September 27. They finished the season with a 86–76 record. In the American League Wild Card Series, the Tigers swept the Houston Astros 2–0, securing their first postseason series win since 2013. In the American League Division Series, the Tigers were defeated by the Cleveland Guardians in five games.Best seasons in Detroit Tigers history{\| cellpadding"10" \|- style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" \| \| {\| cellpadding"1" style"width:550px; font-size:90%; border:1px solid gray;" \|- style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" \| colspan"6" style";"\|Best seasons in Detroit Tigers history \|- style=";" \| Rank \|\| Year \|\| Wins \|\| Losses \|\| Win % \|\| Finish \|- \| 1 \| 1934 \| 101 \| 53 \| \| Lost 1934 World Series to Cardinals \|- \| 2 \| 1915 \| 100 \| 54 \| \| 2nd in AL behind Red Sox \|- \| 3 \| 1909 \| 98 \| 54 \| \| Lost 1909 World Series to Pirates \|- \| 4 \| 1984 \| 104 \| 58 \| \| Won 1984 World Series over Padres \|- \| 5 \| 1968 \| 103 \| 59 \| \| Won 1968 World Series over Cardinals \|- \| 6 \| 1961 \| 101 \| 61 \| \| 2nd in AL behind Yankees \|- \| 7 \| 1950 \| 95 \| 59 \| \| 2nd in AL behind Yankees \|- \| 8 \| 1935 \| 93 \| 58 \| \| Won 1935 World Series over Cubs \|- \| 9 \| 1907 \| 92 \| 58 \| \| Lost 1907 World Series to Cubs \|- \| 10 \| 1987 \| 98 \| 64 \| \| Lost 1987 ALCS to Twins \|} \|} Worst seasons in Detroit Tigers history {\| cellpadding="10" \|- style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" \| \| {\| cellpadding"1" style"width:300px; font-size:90%; border:1px solid gray;" \|- style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" \| colspan5 style";"\|Worst seasons in Detroit Tigers history \|- style=";" \| Rank \|\| Year \|\| Wins \|\| Losses \|\| Win % \|- \| 1 \| 2003 \| 43 \| 119 \| \|- \|2 \|2019 \|47 \|114 \| \|- \| 3 \| 1952 \| 50 \| 104 \| \|- \| 4 \| 1996 \| 53 \| 109 \| \|- \| 5 \| 2002 \| 55 \| 106 \| \|- \| 6 \| 1975 \| 57 \| 102 \| \|- \| 7 \| 1989 \| 59 \| 103 \| \|- \| 8 \| 1902 \| 52 \| 83 \| \|- \| 9 \| 1953 \| 60 \| 94 \| \|- \| 10 \| 2017 and 2018 \| 64 \| 98 \| \|} \|} Payroll {\| cellpadding="10" \|- style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" \| \| {\| cellpadding"1" style"width:300px; font-size:90%; border:1px solid gray;" \|- style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" \| colspan2 style";"\|Total team payroll \|- style=";" \| Year \|\| Amount \|- \| 2007 \| $93,880,369 \|- \| 2008 \| $137,685,196 \|- \| 2009 \| $115,085,145 \|- \| 2010 \| $122,864,928 \|- \| 2011 \| $105,700,231 \|- \| 2012 \| $138,800,000 \|- \| 2013 \| $151,420,000 \|- \| 2014 \| $172,571,526 \|- \| 2015 \| $172,282,250 \|- \| 2016 \| $180,855,981 \|- \| 2017 \| $180,250,600 \|- \| 2018 \| $111,286,000 \|- \| 2019 \| $104,581,900 \|- \| 2020 \| $43,164,880 (60-game season) \|- \| 2021 \| $85,648,945 \|} \|} Nickname , home of the Tigers from 1912 to 1999, at the corner of Michigan and Trumbull Avenues in the Corktown district of Detroit]] The team was referred to as the Wolverines and Creams in their inaugural season in 1894 before they became the Tigers. There are various legends about how they got their nickname. One involves the striped socks they wore. George Stallings, the team's manager, took credit for the name. However, the earliest known use of it appeared in the Detroit Free Press on April 16, 1895, a year prior to Stallings joining the team. Despite playing one another for over 2,200 games, both teams have yet to meet in the postseason. Divisional The Tigers also maintain divisional rivalries with the Cleveland Guardians, the Kansas City Royals, and the Minnesota Twins. The rivalry with Cleveland came to a head when the Tigers played at Progressive Field on August 7, 2013, with the teams first and second in the AL Central standings. Many Tigers fans who made the short trip to Cleveland started several "Let's go Tigers!" chants while the game was tied in the 9th inning. Cleveland fans countered with a "Detroit's bankrupt!" chant, in reference to the city's 2013 bankruptcy. Footage of the game from SportsTime Ohio that had the chants clearly audible quickly went viral, with many baseball fans on social media criticizing Cleveland fans for the chant due to the circumstances of Detroit's financial situation. The Tigers ended up defeating Cleveland 6–5 in 14 innings. The teams met in the postseason for the first time in the 2024 American League Division Series, where the Guardians won the series 3–2. Additionally, the Tigers have had some rivalries with NL teams that they have faced repeatedly in the World Series, such as the Chicago Cubs (four times) and St. Louis Cardinals (three times). In interleague play, the Pittsburgh Pirates are the Tigers' "natural rival." Fanbase There are numerous Tigers fans along the Lake Erie region throughout the state of Michigan, northwestern Ohio, southwestern Ontario, as well as a small fan base in and around the Erie, Pennsylvania area, due in part to Detroit's proximity to these regions as well as the presence of the Tigers' Double-A affiliate Erie SeaWolves in northwestern Pennsylvania. The Tigers have their Triple-A affiliate Toledo Mud Hens in Toledo, Ohio in addition to their Double-A affiliate in Erie. The cities of Windsor and Sarnia, Ontario, have large fan bases of loyal Tigers fans. \|- style=;" \| Year \|\| Total attendance \|\| Game average \|\| League rank \|- \| 2000 \| 2,438,617 \| 30,106 \| 7th \|- \| 2001 \| 1,921,305 \| 23,720 \| 9th \|- \| 2002 \| 1,503,623 \| 18,795 \| 12th \|- \| 2003 \| 1,368,245 \| 16,892 \| 13th \|- \| 2004 \| 1,917,004 \| 23,667 \| 9th \|- \| 2005 \| 2,024,431 \| 24,993 \| 10th \|- \| 2006 \| 2,595,937 \| 32,049 \| 5th \|- \| 2007 \| 3,047,133 \| 32,719 \| 3rd \|- \| 2008 \| 3,202,645 \| 39,539 \| 3rd \|- \| 2009 \| 2,567,165 \| 31,693 \| 4th \|- \| 2010 \| 2,461,237 \| 30,386 \| 6th \|- \| 2011 \| 2,642,045 \| 32,618 \| 6th \|- \| 2012 \| 3,028,033 \| 37,383 \| 5th \|- \| 2013 \| 3,083,397 \| 38,067 \| 3rd \|- \| 2014 \| 2,917,209 \| 36,015 \| 4th \|- \| 2015 \| 2,726,048 \| 33,655 \| 5th \|- \| 2016 \| 2,493,859 \| 31,173 \| 7th \|- \| 2017 \| 2,321,599 \| 28,662 \| 7th \|- \| 2018 \| 1,856,970 \| 22,926 \| 10th \|- \| 2019 \| 1,501,430 \| 18,536 \| 12th \|- \| 2020 \| N/A (COVID-19 pandemic) \| N/A \| N/A \|- \| 2021 \| 1,102,623 \| 13,612 \| 11th \|- \| 2022 \| 1,575,544 \| 19,214 \| 10th \|- \| 2023 \| 1,612,876 \| 19,912 \| 12th \|- \| 2024 \| 1,858,295 \| 22,942 \| 11th \|} Rally cry During the 1968 season, the team was cheered on by the phrase, "Go Get 'Em, Tigers", which was made popular by a song of the same name written and recorded by Artie Fields. "Sock it to 'em, Tigers!" was also a popular phrase during this time. During the 1984 World Series championship run, the team was cheered on to the cry, "Bless You Boys," a phrase coined by sportscaster Al Ackerman. In 2005, the team began using the phrase "Who's Your Tiger?" as its slogan. During the 2006 season, a rally cry caught on in the Tigers' dugout. In a June game against the New York Yankees, Tigers pitcher Nate Robertson was featured in an in-game interview with FSN Detroit. During the interview, Robertson began to stuff Big League Chew bubble gum into his mouth. The Tigers would spark a rally, in which they came back to tie the game. As a result, the phrase "Gum Time" became popular. Additionally, the chant of a local man, the late James Van Horn, who patrolled the streets around Comerica Park yelling out "Eat 'Em Up Tigers! Eat 'Em Up!", was very popular. In 2009, the team used the phrase "Always a Tiger" as its slogan. In 2011, the slogan was switched back to "Who's Your Tiger?" Uniforms and logos wearing the traditional Tigers home uniform with navy blue piping down the front and an Old English "D" on the left chest]] The Tigers have worn essentially the same home uniform since 1934 — solid white jersey with navy blue piping down the front and an Old English "D" on the left chest, white pants, navy blue hat with a white letter D in the blackletter or textur/textualis typeface associated with Middle and Early Modern English and popularly referred to as "Old English" even though it was not used for that language. On the Tigers' road uniforms, the D on their hats is orange and a script "Detroit" appears across the jersey. The script "Detroit" design was first used as part of their road jersey in 1930, and would remain so until 1959, when they changed it to a block lettering style. The Tigers used to have different versions of the Old English D on the cap and jersey. In 2018, the Tigers changed the classic curved logo on their home uniforms to match that of the sharp-cornered hat logo; additionally, the logo on the cap was enlarged. In 2019, the Tigers reverted to the smaller logo on the cap, but kept the cap sharp-cornered 'D' on the home jerseys. In 2023, the Tigers entered into a uniform sponsorship deal with Meijer, the state's major discount store chain based in Grand Rapids and a longtime team sponsor. The uniform patch's logo (attached to the sleeve of the player's dominant hand) is rendered solely in navy blue on white for the home uniform, and white text on a black background for the road jersey with an orange outline. Unique characteristics of the Tigers uniforms: * The Tigers are the only team in Major League Baseball to have a color on their road uniforms that is not on their home uniforms (orange). The Tigers first added orange to their road uniform in 1903, but it was not until 1972 that the Tigers made orange an accent color on their road uniforms full-time. The Tigers also wore the "orange D" navy caps at home during the late 1940s through the 1950s. * The Tigers' uniforms have more belt loops than those of any other team, as their uniform pants do not feature the wide "tunnel" loops that appear on most baseball pants. Alternate jerseys: In 1995, the Tigers introduced a solid navy blue alternate jersey, which featured the team's primary logo at the time, a tiger stepping through the D, on the chest. It was worn for one home game. The Tigers wear the throwback jerseys of the Detroit Stars for their annual Negro Leagues Tribute Game in order to pay tribute to the Negro leagues players and their contributions to the game of baseball. The Tigers wear a white and navy blue home jersey with "Tigres" across the chest for their annual "¡Fiesta Tigres!" game to recognize and honor the contributions of Hispanic and Latino players and coaches to the game of baseball. Like all of MLB, the Tigers wore a highly stylized and brightly colored jersey for Players Weekend. In the inaugural games from August 25–27, 2017, their away jerseys were grey with bright orange with "Tigers" on the chest, the orange cap had a tiger instead of the Old English "D" on it. Players were also encouraged to use nicknames on the back of their jerseys. In the 2018 season, the Tigers wore a blue jersey with orange sleeves that said "Tigers" on the chest, with an orange cap that had a tiger on it. In 2024, the Tigers unveiled their first City Connect jersey, which is a nod to Detroit's automobile industry. The primarily navy blue jersey with electric blue tire tread patterns has the "Motor City" nickname emblazoned in front along with racing stripes on the sleeves and pants. The sleeve patch features the diamond highway shield for the Michigan State Trunkline Highway System and alludes to Comerica Park's location on Woodward Avenue, otherwise known as M-1, with the team's "D" logo replacing the "block M"; when shown in a different light, it shows Detroit's 313 area code, with the 3's rendered in a reflective text. Along the jock tag is the illustration of a tiger's eyes below the team name. The cap is navy blue with "Detroit" emblazoned in front, and the right side features a faux vehicle identification number tag, "1901354566884", referencing the Tigers' first American League season of 1901 and its four World Series championships mentioned by the year in two digits.Baseball Hall of Famers Michigan Sports Hall of Fame ]] ]] ]] ]] ]] ]] {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" \| colspan"5" style";"\|Detroit Tigers in the Michigan Sports Hall of Fame \|- ! style=";"\|No. ! style=";"\|Name ! style=";"\|Position ! style=";"\|Tenure ! style=";"\|Notes \|- \| — \|\| Frank Navin \|\| Owner \|\| 1908–1935 \|\| Born in Adrian. \|- \| — \|\| Walter Briggs Sr. \|\| Owner \|\| 1919–1935 \|\| Born in Ypsilanti. \|- \| — \|\| John Fetzer \|\| Owner \|\| 1961–1983 \|\| \|- \| — \|\| Mike Ilitch \|\| Owner \|\| 1992–2017 \|\| Born and raised in Detroit. \|- \| — \|\| Marian Ilitch \|\| Owner \|\| 1992 \|\| Born and raised in Dearborn. \|- \| — \|\| Jim Campbell \|\| Executive \|\| 1962–1983<br />1978–1990<br />1990–1992 \|\| \|- \| — \|\| Ty Tyson \|\| Broadcaster \|\| 1927-1942 \|\| \|- \| — \|\| Paul Carey \|\| Broadcaster \|\| 1973–1991 \|\| Born and raised in Mount Pleasant. \|- \| — \|\| Ernie Harwell \|\| Broadcaster \|\| 1960–1991<br />1993–2002 \|\| \|- \| — \|\| Van Patrick \|\| Broadcaster \|\| 1949, 1952–1959 \|\| \|- \| — \|\| Ray Lane \|\| Broadcaster \|\| 1967–1972, 1999-2003 \|\| \|- \| — \|\| Frank Beckmann \|\| Broadcaster \|\| 1995-2003 \|\| \|- \| — \|\| Ty Cobb \|\| CF<br />Manager \|\| 1905–1926<br />1921–1926 \|\| \|- \| — \|\| Sam Crawford \|\| OF \|\| 1903–1917 \|\| \|- \| — \|\| Wish Egan \|\| P \|\| 1902 \|\| Born and raised in Evart. \|- \| — \|\| Harry Heilmann \|\| RF/1B<br />Broadcaster \|\| 1914<br />1916–1929 \|\| \|- \| — \|\| Hughie Jennings \|\| IF<br />Manager \|\| 1907, 1909–1910, 1912, 1918<br />1907–1920 \|\| \|- \| — \|\| Heinie Manush \|\| LF \|\| 1923–1927 \|\| \|- \| — \|\| George Mullin \|\| P \|\| 1902–1913 \|\| \|- \| 1 \|\| Lou Whitaker \|\| 2B \|\| 1977–1995 \|\| \|- \| 2 \|\| Charlie Gehringer \|\| 2B<br />GM \|\| 1924–1942<br />1951–1953 \|\| Grew up near Fowlerville. Attended the University of Michigan. \|- \| 3 \|\| Mickey Cochrane \|\| C<br />Manager \|\| 1934–1937<br />1934–1938 \|\| \|- \| 3 \|\| Dick McAuliffe \|\| 2B/SS \|\| 1960–1973 \|\| \|- \| 3 \|\| Alan Trammell \|\| SS<br />Coach<br />Manager \|\| 1977–1996<br />1999<br />2003–2005 \|\| \|- \| 4 \|\| Goose Goslin \|\| LF \|\| 1934–1937 \|\| \|- \| 4 \|\| Rudy York \|\| 1B \|\| 1934, 1937–1945 \|\| \|- \| 4 \|\| Charlie Maxwell \|\| LF \|\| 1955–1962 \|\| Born in Lawton. Attended Western Michigan University. \|- \| 5 \|\| Hank Greenberg \|\| 1B \|\| 1930, 1933–1941<br />1945–1946 \|\| \|- \| 5, 20 \|\| Vic Wertz \|\| RF/1B \|\| 1947–1952<br />1961–1963 \|\| \|- \| 5 \|\| Jim Northrup \|\| OF \|\| 1964–1974 \|\| Born in Breckenridge. Attended Alma College. \|- \| 6 \|\| Al Kaline \|\| RF<br />Broadcaster \|\| 1953–1974 \|\| \|- \| 7 \|\| Billy Rogell \|\| SS \|\| 1930–1939 \|\| \|- \| 7, 26 \|\| Harvey Kuenn \|\| OF/SS \|\| 1952–1959 \|\| \|- \| 7 \|\| Rick Leach \|\| OF/1B \|\| 1981–1983 \|\| Born in Ann Arbor. Attended the University of Michigan. \|- \| 10 \|\| Tommy Bridges \|\| P \|\| 1930–1943<br />1945–1946 \|\| \|- \| 10 \|\| Jim Leyland \|\| Manager \|\| 2006–2013 \|\| \|- \| 11 \|\| Sparky Anderson \|\| Manager \|\| 1979–1995 \|\| \|- \| 11 \|\| Bill Freehan \|\| C \|\| 1961, 1963–1976 \|\| Born and raised in Detroit. Attended the University of Michigan. \|- \| 13 \|\| Lance Parrish \|\| C \|\| 1977–1986 \|\| \|- \| 14 \|\| Schoolboy Rowe \|\| P \|\| 1933–1942 \|\| \|- \| 14, 15 \|\| Jim Bunning \|\| P \|\| 1955–1963 \|\| Elected mainly for his performance with Philadelphia Phillies. \|- \| 15, 21 \|\| George Kell \|\| 3B<br />Broadcaster \|\|\| 1946–1952<br />1959–1963<br />1965–1996 \|\| \|- \| 16 \|\| Hal Newhouser \|\| P \|\| 1939–1953 \|\| Born and raised in Detroit. \|- \| 17 \|\| Denny McLain \|\| P \|\| 1963–1970 \|\| \|- \| 18 \|\| John Hiller \|\| P \|\| 1965–1970<br />1972–1980 \|\| \|- \| 20 \|\| Billy Pierce \|\| P \|\| 1945, 1948 \|\| Elected mainly for his performance with Chicago White Sox. Born in Detroit and grew up in Highland Park. \|- \| 21 \|\| Barney McCosky \|\| OF \|\| 1939–1942, 1946 \|\| Grew up in Detroit. \|- \| 21, 30 \|\| Don Lund \|\| OF \|\| 1949, 1952–1954 \|\| Born and raised in Detroit. Attended the University of Michigan. \|- \| 21 \|\| Willie Hernández \|\| P \|\| 1984–1989 \|\| \|- \| 22 \|\| Virgil Trucks \|\| P \|\| 1941–1952, 1956 \|\| \|- \| 23 \|\| Willie Horton \|\| LF/DH \|\| 1963–1977 \|\| Born and raised in Detroit. Attended Detroit Northwestern High School. \|- \| 23 \|\| Kirk Gibson \|\| OF<br />Coach<br />Broadcaster \|\| 1979–1987<br />1993–1995<br />2003–2005 \|\| Born in Pontiac. Grew up in Waterford and attended Michigan State University. \|- \| 24 \|\| Mickey Stanley \|\| CF \|\| 1964–1978 \|\| Grew up in Grand Rapids. \|- \| 25 \|\| Norm Cash \|\| 1B<br />Broadcaster \|\| 1960–1974 \|\| \|- \| 26 \|\| Gates Brown \|\| LF<br />Coach \|\| 1963–1975<br />1978–1984 \|\| \|- \| 26 \|\| Frank Tanana \|\| P \|\| 1985–1992 \|\| Grew up in Detroit. \|- \| 29 \|\| Mickey Lolich \|\| P \|\| 1963–1975 \|\| \|- \| 47 \|\| Jack Morris \|\| P<br />Broadcaster \|\| 1977–1990 \|\| \|} Retired numbers and honorees <!--Add picture of 10 (Jim) Leyland--> This is how the retired numbers and honored names are displayed on the outfield walls at Comerica Park: In left field: }} In right field: George Kell was also a play-by-play announcer for the Tigers from 1959 to 1963 and again from 1965 to 1996. * Jackie Robinson's No. 42 was retired throughout Major League Baseball in 1997. National Avenue, which runs behind the third-base stands at the Tigers' previous home Tiger Stadium, was renamed Cochrane Street for Mickey Cochrane. Cherry Street, which runs behind the left-field stands at Tiger Stadium, was renamed Kaline Drive for Al Kaline. The Tigers retired Jim Leyland's No. 10 on August 3, 2024.Team captains* Bill Coughlin 1907–1908 * Germany Schaefer 1907–1909 * George Moriarty 1911–1916 * Brad Ausmus 1999 * Doug Brocail 1999 {\| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable" \|- !scope"col" style""\|Class !scope"col" style""\|Team !scope"col" style""\|League !scope"col" style""\|Location !scope"col" style""\|Ballpark !scope"col" style""\|Affiliated \|- \| Triple-A !scope="row"\| Toledo Mud Hens \| International League \| Toledo, Ohio \| Fifth Third Field \| align="right"\| 1987 \|- \| Double-A !scope="row"\| Erie SeaWolves \| Eastern League \| Erie, Pennsylvania \| UPMC Park \| align="right"\| 2001 \|- \| High-A !scope="row"\| West Michigan Whitecaps \| Midwest League \| Comstock Park, Michigan \| LMCU Ballpark \| align="right"\| 1997 \|- \| Single-A !scope="row"\| Lakeland Flying Tigers \| Florida State League \| Lakeland, Florida \| Publix Field at Joker Marchant Stadium \| align="right"\| 1963 \|- \| rowspan=3\| Rookie !scope="row"\| FCL Tigers \| Florida Complex League \| Lakeland, Florida \| Publix Field at Joker Marchant Stadium \| align="right"\| 1995 \|- !scope="row"\| DSL Tigers 1 \| rowspan=2\|Dominican Summer League \| rowspan=2\|San Pedro de Macorís, San Pedro de Macorís \| rowspan=2\|Detroit Tigers Academy \| align="right"\| 1992 \|- !scope="row"\| DSL Tigers 2 \| align="right"\| 2022 \|} Broadcasters served as a broadcaster for the Tigers from 1960 to 1991, 1993 to 2002]] Radio The Tigers' current flagship radio station is WXYT-FM (97.1 FM). Dan Dickerson does play-by-play with Bobby Scales, Dan Petry, and Andy Dirks rotating on color commentary. On games where Dickerson is assigned to work on television, Greg Gania, the radio voice of the Erie SeaWolves, the Tigers' Double-A affiliate, serves as an alternate. Games are syndicated throughout Michigan, Toledo and Archbold, Ohio. The Tigers renewed in 2008, over a bid from a rival regional sports channel by Dish Network and AT&T's U-verse. During the 2016 season, the Tigers averaged a 7.56 rating and 138,000 viewers on primetime TV broadcasts. Through 25 games in 2017, their games have averaged a 5.57 rating, which was fifth in the major league.FormerFranchise recordsFacilitiesThe team maintains a training center in the Dominican Republic. See also * List of Detroit Tigers seasons * Detroit Tigers all-time roster * List of Detroit Tigers owners and executives Notes References Further reading * * * * * External links * * [https://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/DET/ Detroit Tigers at Baseball Reference] * [http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/al/detroit/tigers.html Sports E-Cyclopedia Detroit Tigers Page] }} ;\|list1= }} ;\|list1= }} Category:1894 establishments in Michigan Category:Baseball teams established in 1894 Category:Culture of Detroit Category:Grapefruit League Category:Major League Baseball teams Category:Michigan culture Category:Olympia Entertainment Category:Professional baseball teams in Michigan	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit_Tigers	2025-04-05T18:28:41.179958
8580	Diocletian	\| succession = Roman emperor \| reign = \| reign-type = \| predecessor Carinus\|group="Note"}} \| successor = \| regent = Maximian (in the West) \| reg-type = \| birth_name = Diocles \| birth_date 22 December c. 242–243 \| birth_place = Salona, Dalmatia, Roman Empire \| death_date = 3 December 311/312 (aged ) \| death_place = Aspalathos, Dalmatia, Roman Empire \| burial_place = Diocletian's Palace \| spouse = Prisca \| issue = Galeria Valeria \| full name = \| regnal name = Imperator Caesar Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus Augustus \| religion = Pontifex maximus of the Roman civil cult }} Diocletian ( ; ; ; 242/245 – 311/312), nicknamed Jovius, was Roman emperor from 284 until his abdication in 305. He was born Diocles to a family of low status in the Roman province of Dalmatia. Diocles rose through the ranks of the military early in his career, eventually becoming a cavalry commander for the army of Emperor Carus. After the deaths of Carus and his son Numerian on a campaign in Persia, Diocles was proclaimed emperor by the troops, taking the name Diocletianus. The title was also claimed by Carus's surviving son, Carinus, but Diocletian defeated him in the Battle of the Margus. Diocletian's reign stabilized the empire and ended the Crisis of the Third Century. He initiated the process of the Roman Empire split and appointed fellow officer Maximian as Augustus, co-emperor, in 286. Diocletian reigned in the Eastern Empire, and Maximian reigned in the Western Empire. Diocletian delegated further on 1 March 293, appointing Galerius and Constantius as junior colleagues (each with the title Caesar), under himself and Maximian respectively. Under the Tetrarchy, or "rule of four", each tetrarch would rule over a quarter-division of the empire. Diocletian secured the empire's borders and purged it of all threats to his power. He defeated the Sarmatians and Carpi during several campaigns between 285 and 299, the Alamanni in 288, and usurpers in Egypt between 297 and 298. Galerius, aided by Diocletian, campaigned successfully against Persia, the empire's traditional enemy, and in 299, he sacked their capital, Ctesiphon. Diocletian led the subsequent negotiations and achieved a lasting and favorable peace. Diocletian separated and enlarged the empire's civil and military services and reorganized the empire's provincial divisions, establishing the largest and most bureaucratic government in the history of the empire. He established new administrative centers in Nicomedia, Mediolanum, Sirmium, and Trevorum, closer to the empire's frontiers than the traditional capital at Rome. Building on third-century trends towards absolutism, he styled himself an autocrat, elevating himself above the empire's masses with imposing forms of court ceremonies and architecture. Bureaucratic and military growth, constant campaigning, and construction projects increased the state's expenditures and necessitated a comprehensive tax reform. From at least 297 on, imperial taxation was standardized, made more equitable, and levied at generally higher rates. Not all of Diocletian's plans were successful: the Edict on Maximum Prices (301), his attempt to curb inflation via price controls, was counterproductive and quickly ignored. Although effective while he ruled, Diocletian's tetrarchic system collapsed after his abdication under the competing dynastic claims of Maxentius and Constantine, sons of Maximian and Constantius respectively. The Diocletianic Persecution (303–312), the empire's last, largest, and bloodiest official persecution of Christianity, failed to eliminate Christianity in the empire. After 324, Christianity became the empire's preferred religion under Constantine. Despite these failures and challenges, Diocletian's reforms fundamentally changed the structure of the Roman imperial government and helped stabilize the empire economically and militarily, enabling the empire to remain essentially intact for another 150 years despite being near the brink of collapse in Diocletian's youth. Weakened by illness, Diocletian left the imperial office on 1 May 305, becoming the first Roman emperor to abdicate the position voluntarily. He lived out his retirement in his palace on the Dalmatian coast, tending to his vegetable gardens. His palace eventually became the core of the modern-day city of Split in Croatia. Early life ]] Diocletian was born in Dalmatia, probably at or near the town of Salona (modern Solin, Croatia), to which he retired later in life. His original name was Diocles (in full, Gaius Valerius Diocles), possibly derived from Dioclea, the name of both his mother and her supposed place of birth. Diocletian's official birthday was 22 December, and his year of birth has been estimated at between 242 and 245 based on a statement that he was aged 68 at death (alongside other evidence). His parents were of low status; Eutropius records "that he is said by most writers to have been the son of a scribe, but by some to have been a freedman of a senator called Anulinus." The first forty years of his life are mostly obscure. Diocletian was considered an Illyricianus (Illyrian) who had been schooled and promoted by Aurelian. The 12th-century Byzantine chronicler Joannes Zonaras states that he was Dux Moesiae, a commander of forces on the lower Danube. The often-unreliable Historia Augusta states that he served in Gaul, but this is not corroborated by other sources and is ignored by modern historians. The first time Diocletian's whereabouts are accurately established was in 282 when the Emperor Carus made him commander of the Protectores domestici, the elite cavalry force directly attached to the Imperial household. This post earned him the honor of a consulship in 283. Death of Numerian Carus's death, amid a successful war with Persia and in mysterious circumstances – he was believed to have been struck by lightning or killed by Persian soldiers – left his sons Numerian and Carinus as the new Augusti. Carinus quickly made his way to Rome from his post in Gaul and arrived there by January 284, becoming the legitimate Emperor in the West. Numerian lingered in the East. The Roman withdrawal from Persia was orderly and unopposed. The Sassanid king Bahram II could not field an army against them as he was still struggling to establish his authority. By March 284, Numerian had only reached Emesa (Homs) in Syria; by November, only Asia Minor. In Emesa he was apparently still alive and in good health: he issued the only extant rescript in his name there,\|group"Note"}} but after he left the city, his staff, including the prefect Aper (Numerian's father-in-law and the dominant influence in his entourage), reported that he suffered from an inflammation of the eyes. He traveled in a closed coach from then on. When the army reached Bithynia, some of the soldiers smelled an odor emanating from the coach. They opened its curtains and found Numerian dead. Both Eutropius and Aurelius Victor describe Numerian's death as an assassination. Aper officially broke the news in Nicomedia (İzmit) in November. Numerian's generals and tribunes called a council for the succession, and chose Diocles as Emperor, in spite of Aper's attempts to garner support. On 20 November 284, the army of the east gathered on a hill outside Nicomedia. The army unanimously saluted Diocles as their new Augustus, and he accepted the purple imperial vestments. He raised his sword to the light of the sun and swore an oath disclaiming responsibility for Numerian's death. He asserted that Aper had killed Numerian and concealed it. In full view of the army, Diocles drew his sword and killed Aper. Soon after Aper's death, Diocles changed his name to the more Latinate "Diocletianus" – in full, Gaius Valerius Diocletianus. but some modern historians state that Diocletian avoided the city, to demonstrate that the city and its Senate were no longer politically relevant to the affairs of the empire. Diocletian dated his reign from his elevation by the army, not his ratification by the Senate, following the practice established by Carus, who had declared the Senate's ratification a useless formality. Diocletian offered proof of his deference towards the Senate by retaining Aristobulus as ordinary consul and colleague for 285 (one of the few instances during the Late Empire in which an emperor admitted a privatus as his colleague) and by creating senior senators Vettius Aquilinus and Junius Maximus ordinary consuls for the following year – for Maximus, it was his second consulship. If Diocletian did enter Rome shortly after his accession, he did not stay long; he is attested back in the Balkans by 2 November 285, on campaign against the Sarmatians. ]] Diocletian replaced the prefect of Rome with his consular colleague Bassus. Most officials who had served under Carinus retained their offices under Diocletian. In an act of clementia denoted by the epitomator of Aurelius Victor as unusual, Diocletian did not kill or depose Carinus's traitorous praetorian prefect and consul Aristobulus, but confirmed him in both roles. He later gave him the proconsulate of Africa and the post of urban prefect for 295. The other figures who retained their offices might have also betrayed Carinus.Maximian made CaesarThe assassinations of Aurelian and Probus demonstrated that sole rulership was dangerous to the stability of the empire. Conflict boiled in every province, from Gaul to Syria, Egypt to the lower Danube. It was too much for one person to control, and Diocletian needed a lieutenant. According to Eutropius, Diocletian raised his fellow-officer Maximian to the office of Caesar, making him his heir and effective co-ruler. The concept of dual rulership was not new to the Roman Empire. Augustus, the first emperor, had nominally shared power with his colleagues, and a formal office of co-emperor (co-Augustus) had existed from Marcus Aurelius onward. Most recently, Emperor Carus and his sons had ruled together, albeit unsuccessfully. Diocletian was in a less comfortable position than most of his predecessors, as he had a daughter, Valeria, but no sons. His co-ruler had to be from outside his family, raising the question of trust. Some historians state that Diocletian adopted Maximian as his filius Augusti, his "Augustan son", upon his appointment to the throne, following the precedent of some previous Emperors. This argument has not been universally accepted. Diocletian and Maximian added each other's nomina (their family name, "Valerius" and "Aurelius", respectively) to their own, thus creating an artificial family link and becoming part of the "Aurelius Valerius" family. In the Balkans during the autumn of 285, he encountered a tribe of Sarmatians who demanded assistance. The Sarmatians requested that Diocletian either help them recover their lost lands or grant them pasturage rights within the empire. Diocletian refused and fought a battle with them, but was unable to secure a complete victory. The nomadic pressures of the European Plain remained and could not be solved by a single war; soon the Sarmatians would have to be fought again. Diocletian wintered in Nicomedia.\|group"Note"}} There may have been a revolt in the eastern provinces at this time, as he brought settlers from Asia to populate emptied farmlands in Thrace. He visited Syria Palaestina the following spring, The Jewish Midrash suggests that Diocletian resided at Panias (present-day Banias) in the northern Golan Heights.\|group"Note"}} His stay in the East saw diplomatic success in the conflict with Persia: in 287, Bahram II granted him precious gifts, declared open friendship with the Empire, and invited Diocletian to visit him. Roman sources insist that the act was entirely voluntary. Around the same time, perhaps in 287, Persia relinquished claims on Armenia and recognized Roman authority over territory to the west and south of the Tigris. The western portion of Armenia was incorporated into the empire and made a province. Tiridates III, the Arsacid claimant to the Armenian throne and a Roman client, had been disinherited and forced to take refuge in the empire after the Persian conquest of 252–53. In 287, he returned to lay claim to the eastern half of his ancestral domain and encountered no opposition. Diocletian was hailed as the "founder of eternal peace". The events might have represented a formal end to Carus's eastern campaign, which probably ended without an acknowledged peace. At the conclusion of discussions with the Persians, Diocletian re-organized the Mesopotamian frontier and fortified the city of Circesium (Buseire, Syria) on the Euphrates.Maximian made AugustusMaximian's campaigns were not proceeding as smoothly. The Bagaudae had been easily suppressed, but Carausius, the man he had put in charge of operations against Saxon and Frankish pirates on the Saxon Shore, had, according to literary sources, begun keeping the goods seized from the pirates for himself. Maximian issued a death warrant for his larcenous subordinate. Carausius fled the Continent, proclaimed himself emperor, and agitated Britain and northwestern Gaul into open revolt against Maximian and Diocletian. Far more probable, according to the archaeological evidence, is that Carausius had held some important military post in Britain, already had a firm basis of power in Britain and Northern Gaul, and profited from the lack of legitimacy of the central government. Carausius strove to have his legitimacy as a junior emperor acknowledged by Diocletian: in his coinage, he extolled the "concord" between him and the central power. One bronze piece from 290 read PAX AVGGG, "the Peace of the three Augusti"; on the other side, it showed Carausius together with Diocletian and Maximian, with the caption CARAVSIVS ET FRATRES SVI, "Carausius & his brothers". Diocletian could not allow a breakaway regional usurper following in Postumus's footprints to enter, of his own accord, the imperial college. Spurred by the crisis, on 1 April 286, Some argue that Maximian was appointed Augustus without ever holding the office of Caesar. 39.17}} 1 April 286, the date given by the 5th-century [https://archive.org/details/chronicaminorasa09momm/page/229/mode/1up Consularia Constantinopolitana], is the most common date used in modern histories for Maximian's dies imperii. A document dated 31 March 286 already shows Diocletian and Maximian as joint emperors. The CAH dates the assumption of the Augustan title to 1 March 286. According to a recent view, Maximian was appointed Augustus (without ever being Caesar) on or around 13 December 285.\|group"Note"}} Maximian took up the title of Augustus (emperor). Unusually, Diocletian could not have been present to witness it. It has even been suggested that Maximian usurped the title and was only later recognized by Diocletian in hopes of avoiding civil war. This suggestion is unpopular, as it is clear that Diocletian meant for Maximian to act with a certain amount of independence. It may be posited that Diocletian felt the need to bind Maximian closer to him, by making him his empowered associate, to avoid the possibility of him striking some sort of deal with Carausius. . Most of the evidence for Carausius's reign comes from his coinage, which was of generally fine quality.]] Maximian realized that he could not immediately suppress the rogue commander, so in 287 he campaigned against tribes beyond the Rhine instead. As Carausius was allied to the Franks, Maximian's campaigns could be seen as an effort to deny him a basis of support on the mainland. The following spring, as Maximian prepared a fleet for an expedition against Carausius, Diocletian returned from the East to meet Maximian. The two emperors agreed on a joint campaign against the Alamanni. Diocletian invaded Germania through Raetia while Maximian progressed from Mainz. Each burned crops and food supplies as he went, destroying the Germans' means of sustenance. The two men added territory to the empire and allowed Maximian to continue preparations against Carausius without further disturbance. On his return to the East, Diocletian managed what was probably another rapid campaign against the resurgent Sarmatians. No details survive, but surviving inscriptions indicate that Diocletian took the title Sarmaticus Maximus after 289. In the East, Diocletian engaged in diplomacy with desert tribes in the regions between Rome and Persia. He might have been attempting to persuade them to ally themselves with Rome, thus reviving the old, Rome-friendly, Palmyrene sphere of influence, or to reduce the frequency of their incursions. No details survive for these events. Some of the princes of these states were Persian client kings, a disturbing fact for the Romans in light of increasing tensions with the Sassanids. In the West, Maximian lost the fleet built in 288 and 289, probably in the early spring of 290. The panegyrist who refers to the loss suggests that its cause was a storm, but this might have been an attempt to conceal an embarrassing military defeat. Diocletian broke off his tour of the Eastern provinces soon thereafter. He returned with haste to the West, reaching Emesa by 10 May 290, and Sirmium on the Danube by 1 July 290. Diocletian met Maximian in Milan either in late December 290 or January 291. The meeting was undertaken with a sense of solemn pageantry. The emperors spent most of their time in public appearances. It has been surmised that the ceremonies were arranged to demonstrate Diocletian's continuing support for his faltering colleague. A deputation from the Roman Senate met with the emperors, renewing its infrequent contact with the Imperial office. The choice of Milan over Rome further snubbed the capital's pride. But then it was already a long-established practice that Rome itself was only a ceremonial capital, as the actual seat of the Imperial administration was determined by the needs of defense. Long before Diocletian, Gallienus (r. 253–68) had chosen Milan for his headquarters. If the panegyric detailing the ceremony implied that the true center of the empire was not Rome, but where the emperor sat ("...the capital of the empire appeared to be there, where the two emperors met"), it simply echoed what had already been stated by the historian Herodian in the early third century: "Rome is where the emperor is". During the meeting, decisions on matters of politics and war were probably made in secret. The Augusti would not meet again until 303.TetrarchyFoundation of the Tetrarchy and the four tetrarchs' zones of influence.]] , Tunisia]] Some time after his return, and before 293, Diocletian transferred command of the war against Carausius from Maximian to Flavius Constantius, who concluded it successfully in 296. Constantius was a former governor of Dalmatia and a man of military experience stretching back to Aurelian's campaigns against Zenobia (272–73). He was Maximian's praetorian prefect in Gaul, and the husband to Maximian's daughter, Theodora. On 1 March 293 at Milan, Maximian gave Constantius the office of Caesar. The same day, in either Philippopolis (Plovdiv, Bulgaria) or Sirmium, Diocletian did the same for Galerius, husband to Diocletian's daughter Valeria, and perhaps Diocletian's praetorian prefect. while the 7th-century Chronicon Paschale gives 21 May. Still, not all authors agree on the exact date.\|group"Note"}} Constantius was assigned Gaul and Britain. Galerius was initially assigned Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and responsibility for the eastern borderlands. This arrangement is called the Tetrarchy, from a Greek term meaning "rulership by four". The Tetrarchs were more or less sovereign in their own lands, and they travelled with their own imperial courts, administrators, secretaries, and armies. They were joined by blood and marriage; Diocletian and Maximian now styled themselves as brothers, and formally adopted Galerius and Constantius as sons. These relationships implied a line of succession. Galerius and Constantius would become Augusti after the departure of Diocletian and Maximian. Maximian's son Maxentius and Constantius's son Constantine would then become Caesars. In preparation for their future roles, Constantine and Maxentius were taken to Diocletian's court in Nicomedia. Conflict in the Balkans and Egypt ic temple on the island of Philae, the newly established border between the Nobatae and Blemmyes and Roman Egypt]] Diocletian spent the spring of 293 travelling with Galerius from Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia) to Byzantium (Istanbul, Turkey). Diocletian then returned to Sirmium, where he remained for the following winter and spring. He campaigned successfully against the Sarmatians in 294, probably in the autumn. The Sarmatians' defeat kept them from the Danube provinces for a long time. Meanwhile, Diocletian built forts north of the Danube, part of a new defensive line called the Ripa Sarmatica, at Aquincum (Budapest, Hungary), Bononia (Vidin, Bulgaria), Ulcisia Vetera, Castra Florentium, Intercisa (Dunaújváros, Hungary), and Onagrinum (Begeč, Serbia). In 295 and 296 Diocletian campaigned in the region again, and won a victory over the Carpi in the summer of 296. Later during both 299 and 302, as Diocletian was residing in the East, it was Galerius's turn to campaign victoriously on the Danube. By the end of his reign, Diocletian had secured the entire length of the Danube, provided it with forts, bridgeheads, highways, and walled towns, and sent fifteen or more legions to patrol the region; an inscription at Sexaginta Prista on the Lower Danube extolled restored tranquility to the region. The defense came at a heavy cost but was a significant achievement in an area difficult to defend. imperial cult chamber. It depicts senior military officers gathered around Diocletian's throne, circa 280.]] Galerius, meanwhile, was engaged during 291–293 in disputes in Upper Egypt, where he suppressed a regional uprising. He returned to Syria in 295 to fight the revanchist Persian empire. Diocletian's attempts to bring the Egyptian tax system in line with Imperial standards stirred discontent, and a revolt swept the region after Galerius's departure. The usurper Domitius Domitianus declared himself Augustus in July or August 297. Much of Egypt, including Alexandria, recognized his rule. Diocletian moved into Egypt to suppress him, first putting down rebels in the Thebaid in the autumn of 297, then moving on to besiege Alexandria. Domitianus died in December 297, by which time Diocletian had secured control of the Egyptian countryside. Alexandria, whose defense was organized under Domitianus's former corrector Aurelius Achilleus, held out probably until March 298. Later in 298, the triumphal column now known as Pompey's Pillar was erected in Alexandria to honor Diocletian. Bureaucratic affairs were completed during Diocletian's stay: a census took place, and Alexandria, in punishment for its rebellion, lost the ability to mint independently. Diocletian's reforms in the region, combined with those of Septimius Severus, brought Egyptian administrative practices much closer to Roman standards. Diocletian travelled south along the Nile the following summer, where he visited Oxyrhynchus and Elephantine. In Nubia, he made peace with the Nobatae and Blemmyes tribes. Under the terms of the peace treaty Rome's borders moved north to Philae and the two tribes received an annual gold stipend. Diocletian left Africa quickly after the treaty, moving from Upper Egypt in September 298 to Syria in February 299. He met with Galerius in Mesopotamia. War with Persia Invasion, counterinvasion In 294, Narseh, a son of Shapur who had been passed over for the Sassanid succession, came to power in Persia. In early 294, Narseh sent Diocletian the customary package of gifts between the empires, and Diocletian responded with an exchange of ambassadors. Within Persia, Narseh was destroying every trace of his immediate predecessors from public monuments. He sought to identify himself with the warlike kings Ardashir I (r. 226–241) and Shapur I (r. 241–272), who had defeated and imprisoned Emperor Valerian (r. 253–260) following his failed invasion of the Sasanian Empire. Narseh declared war on Rome in 295 or 296. He appears to have first invaded western Armenia, where he seized the lands delivered to Tiridates in the peace of 287. He moved south into Roman Mesopotamia in 297, where he inflicted a severe defeat on Galerius in the region between Carrhae (Harran, Turkey) and Callinicum (Raqqa, Syria), suggested by the historian Fergus Millar to have been somewhere on the Balikh River. Diocletian may or may not have been present at the battle, but he quickly divested himself of all responsibility. In a public ceremony at Antioch, the official version of events was clear: Galerius was responsible for the defeat; Diocletian was not. Diocletian publicly humiliated Galerius, forcing him to walk for a mile at the head of the Imperial caravan, still clad in the purple robes of the Emperor.\|group"Note"}} attacking Narseh on the Arch of Galerius at Thessaloniki, Greece, the city where Galerius carried out most of his administrative actions]] Galerius was reinforced, probably in the spring of 298, by a new contingent collected from the empire's Danubian holdings. Narseh did not advance from Armenia and Mesopotamia, leaving Galerius to lead the offensive in 298 with an attack on northern Mesopotamia via Armenia.\|group"Note"}} It is unclear if Diocletian was present to assist the campaign; he might have returned to Egypt or Syria. but Southern, dating Diocletian's African campaigns one year earlier than Barnes, places Diocletian on Galerius's southern flank.\|group"Note"}} Narseh retreated to Armenia to fight Galerius's force, putting himself at a disadvantage; the rugged Armenian terrain was favorable to Roman infantry, but not to Sassanid cavalry. In two battles, Galerius won major victories over Narseh. During the second encounter, Roman forces seized Narseh's camp, his treasury, his harem, and his wife. Galerius continued down the Tigris, and took the Persian capital Ctesiphon before returning to Roman territory along the Euphrates.Peace negotiationsNarseh sent an ambassador to Galerius to plead for the return of his wives and children in the course of the war, but Galerius dismissed him. Serious peace negotiations began in the spring of 299. The magister memoriae (secretary) of Diocletian and Galerius, Sicorius Probus, was sent to Narseh to present terms. The conditions of the resulting Peace of Nisibis were heavy: Armenia returned to Roman domination, with the fort of Ziatha as its border; Caucasian Iberia would pay allegiance to Rome under a Roman appointee; Nisibis, now under Roman rule, would become the sole conduit for trade between Persia and Rome; and Rome would exercise control over the five satrapies between the Tigris and Armenia: Ingilene, Sophanene (Sophene), Arzanene (Aghdznik), Corduene (Carduene), and Zabdicene (near modern Hakkâri, Turkey). These regions included the passage of the Tigris through the Anti-Taurus range; the Bitlis pass, the quickest southerly route into Persian Armenia; and access to the Tur Abdin plateau. A stretch of land containing the later strategic strongholds of Amida (Diyarbakır, Turkey) and Bezabde came under firm Roman military occupation. With these territories, Rome would have an advance station north of Ctesiphon, and would be able to slow any future advance of Persian forces through the region. Many cities east of the Tigris came under Roman control, including Tigranokert, Saird, Martyropolis, Balalesa, Moxos, Daudia, and Arzan – though under what status is unclear. At the conclusion of the peace, Tiridates regained both his throne and the entirety of his ancestral claim. Rome secured a wide zone of cultural influence, which led to a wide diffusion of Syriac Christianity from a center at Nisibis in later decades, and the eventual Christianization of Armenia. To strengthen the defence of the east Diocletian had a fortified road constructed at the southern border, where the empire bordered the Arabs, in the year 300. This road would remain in use for centuries but proved ineffective in defending the border as conventional armies could not operate in the region. Religious persecutions Early persecutions At the conclusion of the Peace of Nisibis, Diocletian and Galerius returned to Antioch. At some time in 299, the emperors took part in a ceremony of sacrifice and divination in an attempt to predict the future. The haruspices were unable to read the entrails of the sacrificed animals and blamed Christians in the Imperial household. The emperors ordered all members of the court to perform a sacrifice to purify the palace. The emperors sent letters to the military command, demanding the entire army perform the required sacrifices or face discharge. Diocletian was conservative in matters of religion, faithful to the traditional Roman pantheon and understanding of demands for religious purification, but Eusebius, Lactantius and Constantine state that it was Galerius, not Diocletian, who was the prime supporter of the purge. Galerius, even more devoted and passionate than Diocletian, saw political advantage in the persecution. He was willing to break with a government policy of inaction on the issue. Antioch was Diocletian's primary residence from 299 to 302, while Galerius swapped places with his Augustus on the Middle and Lower Danube. Diocletian visited Egypt once, over the winter of 301–2, and issued a grain dole in Alexandria. Following some public disputes with Manicheans, Diocletian ordered that the leading followers of Mani be burnt alive along with their scriptures. In a 31 March 302 rescript from Alexandria, he declared that low-status Manicheans must be executed by the blade, and high-status Manicheans must be sent to work in the quarries of Proconnesus (Marmara Island, Turkey) or the mines of Phaeno in southern Palestine. All Manichean property was to be seized and deposited in the imperial treasury. Diocletian found much to be offended by in Manichean religion: its novelty, its alien origins, its perceived corruption of Roman morals, and its inherent opposition to long-standing religious traditions. His reasons for opposing Manichaeanism were also applied to his next target, Christianity.Great Persecution . Christ between Peter and Paul. To the sides are the martyrs Gorgonius, Peter, Marcellinus, Tiburtius.]] Diocletian returned to Antioch in the autumn of 302. He ordered that the deacon Romanus of Caesarea have his tongue removed for defying the order of the courts and interrupting official sacrifices. Romanus was then sent to prison, where he was executed on 17 November 303. Diocletian left the city for Nicomedia in the winter, accompanied by Galerius. According to Lactantius, Diocletian and Galerius argued over imperial policy towards Christians while wintering at Nicomedia in 302. Diocletian believed that forbidding Christians from the bureaucracy and military would be sufficient to appease the gods, but Galerius pushed for extermination. The two men sought the advice of the oracle of Apollo at Didyma. The oracle responded that the impious on Earth hindered Apollo's ability to provide advice. Rhetorically Eusebius records the Oracle as saying "The just on Earth..." These impious, Diocletian was informed by members of the court, could only refer to the Christians of the empire. At the behest of his court, Diocletian acceded to demands for universal persecution. On 23 February 303, Diocletian ordered that the newly built church at Nicomedia be razed. He demanded that its scriptures be burned, and seized its precious stores for the treasury. The next day, Diocletian's first "Edict against the Christians" was published. The edict ordered the destruction of Christian scriptures and places of worship across the empire, and prohibited Christians from assembling for worship. Before the end of February, a fire destroyed part of the Imperial palace. Galerius convinced Diocletian that the culprits were Christians, conspirators who had plotted with the eunuchs of the palace. An investigation was commissioned, but no responsible party was found. Executions followed anyway, and the palace eunuchs Dorotheus and Gorgonius were executed. One individual, Peter Cubicularius, was stripped, raised high, and scourged. Salt and vinegar were poured in his wounds, and he was slowly boiled over an open flame. The executions continued until at least 24 April 303, when six individuals, including the bishop Anthimus, were decapitated. A second fire occurred sixteen days after the first. Galerius left the city for Rome, declaring Nicomedia unsafe. Diocletian would soon follow. Although further persecutory edicts followed, compelling the arrest of the Christian clergy and universal acts of sacrifice, they were ultimately unsuccessful; most Christians escaped punishment, and pagans too were generally unsympathetic to the persecution. The martyrs' sufferings strengthened the resolve of their fellow Christians. Constantius and Maximian did not apply the later edicts, and left the Christians of the West unharmed. Galerius rescinded the edict in 311, announcing that the persecution had failed to bring Christians back to traditional religion. The temporary apostasy of some Christians, and the surrendering of scriptures, during the persecution played a major role in the subsequent Donatist controversy. Within twenty-five years of the persecution's inauguration, the Christian emperor Constantine would rule the empire alone. He would reverse the consequences of the edicts, and return all confiscated property to Christians. Under Constantine's rule, Christianity would become the empire's preferred religion. Diocletian was demonized by his Christian successors: Lactantius intimated that Diocletian's ascendancy heralded the apocalypse. Later life Illness and abdication Diocletian entered the city of Rome in the early winter of 303. On 20 November, he celebrated, with Maximian, the twentieth anniversary of his reign (), the tenth anniversary of the Tetrarchy (decennalia), and a triumph for the war with Persia. Diocletian soon grew impatient with the city, as the Romans acted towards him with what Edward Gibbon, following Lactantius, calls "licentious familiarity". The Roman people did not give enough deference to his supreme authority; they expected him to act the part of an aristocratic ruler, not a monarchic one. On 20 December 303, Diocletian cut short his stay in Rome and left for the north. He did not even perform the ceremonies investing him with his ninth consulate; he did them in Ravenna on 1 January 304 instead. There are suggestions in the Panegyrici Latini and Lactantius's account that Diocletian arranged plans for his and Maximian's future retirement of power in Rome. Maximian, according to these accounts, swore to uphold Diocletian's plan in a ceremony in the Temple of Jupiter. From Ravenna, Diocletian left for the Danube. There, possibly in Galerius's company, he took part in a campaign against the Carpi. He contracted a minor illness while on campaign, but his condition quickly worsened and he chose to travel in a litter. In the late summer, he left for Nicomedia. On 20 November 304, he appeared in public to dedicate the opening of the circus beside his palace. He collapsed soon after the ceremonies. Over the winter of 304–05 he kept within his palace at all times. Rumors spread through the city that Diocletian's death was being kept secret until Galerius could assume power. On 13 December, it was falsely announced that Diocletian had killed himself. The city was sent into mourning from which it recovered after public declarations that Diocletian was still alive. When Diocletian reappeared in public on 1 March 305, he was emaciated and barely recognizable. Galerius arrived in the city later in March. According to Lactantius, he came armed with plans to reconstitute the Tetrarchy, force Diocletian to step down, and fill the Imperial office with men compliant to his will. Through coercion and threats, he eventually convinced Diocletian to comply with his plan. Lactantius also claims that he had done the same to Maximian at Sirmium. Scholars doubt Lactantius' account, since he had a strong bias against Galerius and probably attempted to villainize him. On 1 May 305, Diocletian called an assembly of his generals, traditional companion troops, and representatives from distant legions. They met at the same hill, out of Nicomedia, where Diocletian had been proclaimed emperor. In front of a statue of Jupiter, his patron deity, Diocletian addressed the crowd. With tears in his eyes, he told them of his weakness, his need for rest, and his will to resign. He declared that he needed to pass the duty of empire on to someone stronger. He thus became the first (and arguably only) Roman emperor to voluntarily abdicate his title. Maximian was reluctant to abdicate, and later attempted to usurp power twice. Three more emperors abdicated in the later Eastern Empire: Staurakios (811), Michael I (811–813) and Isaac I (1057–59), but all of them where forced to abdicate by a new emperor.\|group"Note"}} Most in the crowd believed that Constantine and Maxentius, the only adult sons of reigning emperors, who had long been preparing to succeed their fathers, would be granted the title of Caesar. Constantine had travelled through Palestine at the right hand of Diocletian, and was present at the palace in Nicomedia in 303 and 305. It is likely that Maxentius received the same treatment. In Lactantius's account, when Diocletian announced that he was to resign, the entire crowd turned to face Constantine. It was not to be: Severus II and Maximinus II were declared caesars. Maximinus appeared and took Diocletian's robes. On the same day, Severus received his robes from Maximian in Milan. Constantius succeeded Maximian as Augustus of the West, but Constantine and Maxentius were entirely ignored in the transition of power. This did not bode well for the future security of the tetrarchic system. Retirement and death in Diocletian's Palace (Split, Croatia)]] Diocletian retired to his homeland, Dalmatia. He moved into the expansive Diocletian's Palace, a heavily fortified compound located by the small town of Spalatum on the shores of the Adriatic Sea, and near the large provincial administrative center of Salona. The palace is preserved in great part to this day and forms the historic core of Split, modern-day Croatia, where it was designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1979. Maximian retired to villas in Campania or Lucania. Their homes were distant from political life, but Diocletian and Maximian were close enough to remain in regular contact with each other. Galerius assumed the consular fasces in 308 with Diocletian as his colleague. In the autumn of 308, Galerius again conferred with Diocletian at Carnuntum (Petronell-Carnuntum, Austria). Diocletian and Maximian were both present on 11 November 308, to see Galerius appoint Licinius to be Augustus in place of Severus, who had died at the hands of Maxentius. He ordered Maximian, who had attempted to return to power after his retirement, to step down permanently. At Carnuntum people begged Diocletian to return to the throne, to resolve the conflicts that had arisen through Constantine's rise to power and Maxentius's usurpation. Diocletian's reply: "If you could show the cabbage that I planted with my own hands to your emperor, he definitely wouldn't dare suggest that I replace the peace and happiness of this place with the storms of a never-satisfied greed." Diocletian lived for four more years, spending his days in his palace gardens. He saw his tetrarchic system fail, torn apart by the civil wars of his successors. He heard of Maximian's third claim to the throne, his forced suicide, and his damnatio memoriae. In his own palace, statues and portraits of his former companion emperor were torn down and destroyed. After an illness, Diocletian died on 3 December 311, with some proposing that he took his own life in despair.\|group"Note"}} Reforms Tetrarchic and ideological .]] Diocletian saw his work as that of a restorer, a figure of authority whose duty it was to return the empire to peace, to recreate stability and justice where barbarian hordes had destroyed it. He arrogated, regimented and centralized political authority on a massive scale. In his policies, he enforced an Imperial system of values on diverse and often unreceptive provincial audiences. In the Imperial propaganda from the period, recent history was perverted and minimized in the service of the theme of the tetrarchs as "restorers". Aurelian's achievements were ignored, the revolt of Carausius was backdated to the reign of Gallienus, and it was implied that the tetrarchs engineered Aurelian's defeat of the Palmyrenes; the period between Gallienus and Diocletian was effectively erased. The history of the empire before the tetrarchy was portrayed as a time of civil war, savage despotism, and imperial collapse. In those inscriptions that bear their names, Diocletian, the "founder of eternal peace", and his companions are referred to as "restorers of the whole world", men who succeeded in "defeating the nations of the barbarians, and confirming the tranquility of their world". The theme of restoration was conjoined to an emphasis on the uniqueness and accomplishments of the tetrarchs themselves. The cities where emperors lived frequently in this period – Milan, Trier, Arles, Sirmium, Serdica, Thessaloniki, Nicomedia and Antioch – were treated as alternate imperial seats, to the exclusion of Rome and its senatorial elite. A new style of ceremony was developed, emphasizing the distinction of the emperor from all other persons. The quasi-republican ideals of Augustus's primus inter pares were abandoned for all but the tetrarchs themselves. Diocletian took to wearing a gold crown and jewels, and forbade the use of purple cloth to all but the emperors. His subjects were required to prostrate themselves in his presence (adoratio); the most fortunate were allowed the privilege of kissing the hem of his robe (proskynesis, προσκύνησις). Circuses and basilicas were designed to keep the face of the emperor perpetually in view, and always in a seat of authority. The emperor became a figure of transcendent authority, a man beyond the grip of the masses. His every appearance was stage-managed. This style of presentation was not new – many of its elements were first seen in the reigns of Aurelian and Severus – but it was only under the tetrarchs that it was refined into an explicit system. Administrative In keeping with his move from an ideology of republicanism to one of autocracy, Diocletian's council of advisers, his , differed from those of earlier emperors. He destroyed the Augustan illusion of imperial government as a cooperative affair among emperor, army, and senate. In its place he established an effectively autocratic structure, a shift later epitomized in the institution's name: it would be called a , not a council. was already in use for the room where council meetings took place.\|group"Note"}} Diocletian regulated his court by distinguishing separate departments () for different tasks. From this structure came the offices of different , like the ("Master of Offices"), and associated secretariats. These were men suited to dealing with petitions, requests, correspondence, legal affairs, and foreign embassies. Within his court Diocletian maintained a permanent body of legal advisers, men with significant influence on his re-ordering of juridical affairs. There were also two finance ministers, dealing with the separate bodies of the public treasury and the private domains of the emperor, and the praetorian prefect, the most significant person of the whole. Diocletian's reduction of the Praetorian Guards to the level of a simple city garrison for Rome lessened the military powers of the prefect – although a prefect like Asclepiodotus was still a trained general – but the office retained much civil authority. The prefect kept a staff of hundreds and managed affairs in all segments of government: in taxation, administration, jurisprudence, and minor military commands, the praetorian prefect was often second only to the emperor himself. Altogether, Diocletian greatly increased the number of bureaucrats at the government's command; Lactantius claimed that there were now more men using tax money than there were paying it. The historian Warren Treadgold estimates that under Diocletian the number of men in the civil service doubled from 15,000 to 30,000. The classicist Roger S. Bagnall estimates that there was one bureaucrat for every 5–10,000 people in Egypt based on 400 or 800 bureaucrats for 4 million inhabitants.\|group"Note"}} Jones estimated 30,000 bureaucrats, which he remarks is "not an extravagant number" given the size of the empire. He breaks down the bureaucracy as less than 12,000 provincial officials, and roughly 6,000 diocesan officials. For the military, he estimates a modest 300 officials per , and 40 per , for a total of about 5,000 military officials. For the praetorian prefect and urban prefect, he estimates approximately 5,000 clerks. He comments that the expense the empire paid for these was not high, as many lower-level clerks were not paid, and the wage of higher officials was generally modest. To avoid the possibility of local usurpations, to facilitate a more efficient collection of taxes and supplies, and to ease the enforcement of the law, Diocletian doubled the number of provinces from fifty to almost one hundred. The provinces were grouped into twelve dioceses, each governed by an appointed official called a , or "deputy of the praetorian prefects". Some of the provincial divisions required revision, and were modified either soon after 293 or early in the fourth century. Rome herself (including her environs, as defined by a -radius perimeter around the city itself) was not under the authority of the praetorian prefect, as she was to be administered by a city prefect of senatorial rank – the sole prestigious post with actual power reserved exclusively for senators, except for some governors in Italy with the titles of corrector and the proconsuls of Asia and Africa. The dissemination of imperial law to the provinces was facilitated by Diocletian's reform of the Empire's provincial structure, which meant that there were now more governors () ruling over smaller regions and smaller populations. Diocletian's reforms shifted the governors' main function to that of the presiding official in the lower courts: whereas in the early Empire military and judicial functions were the function of the governor, and procurators had supervised taxation, under the new system and governors were responsible for justice and taxation, and a new class of ("dukes"), acting independently of the civil service, had military command. These dukes sometimes administered two or three of the new provinces created by Diocletian, and had forces ranging from two thousand to more than twenty thousand men. In addition to their roles as judges and tax collectors, governors were expected to maintain the postal service () and ensure that town councils fulfilled their duties. This curtailment of governors' powers as the Emperors' representatives may have lessened the political dangers of an all-too-powerful class of Imperial delegates, but it also severely limited governors' ability to oppose local landed elites, especially those of senatorial status, which, although with reduced opportunities for office holding, retained wealth, social prestige, and personal connections, particularly in relatively peaceful regions without a great military presence. On one occasion, Diocletian had to exhort a proconsul of Africa not to fear the consequences of treading on the toes of the local magnates of senatorial rank. If a governor of senatorial rank himself felt these pressures, the difficulties faced by a mere praeses were likely greater. This led to a strained relationship between the central power and local elites: sometime during 303, attempted military sedition in Seleucia Pieria and Antioch prompted Diocletian to extract bloody retribution on both cities by putting to death a number of their council members for failing in their duties of keeping order in their jurisdiction.Legal 's Corpus Juris Civilis (527–534). The Corpus drew on the codices of Gregorius and Hermogenian, drafted and published under Diocletian's reign.]] As with most emperors, much of Diocletian's daily routine rotated around legal affairs – responding to appeals and petitions, and delivering decisions on disputed matters. Rescripts, authoritative interpretations issued by the emperor in response to demands from disputants in both public and private cases, were a common duty of second- and third-century emperors. In the "nomadic" imperial courts of the later Empire, one can track the progress of the imperial retinue through the locations from whence particular rescripts were issued – the presence of the Emperor was what allowed the system to function. Whenever the imperial court would settle in one of the capitals, there was a glut in petitions, as in late 294 in Nicomedia, where Diocletian kept winter quarters. Admittedly, Diocletian's praetorian prefects – Afranius Hannibalianus, Julius Asclepiodotus, and Aurelius Hermogenianus – aided in regulating the flow and presentation of such paperwork, but the deep legalism of Roman culture kept the workload heavy. Emperors in the forty years preceding Diocletian's reign had not managed these duties so effectively, and their output in attested rescripts is low. Diocletian, by contrast, was prodigious in his affairs: there are around 1,200 rescripts in his name still surviving, and these probably represent only a small portion of the total issue. The sharp increase in the number of edicts and rescripts produced under Diocletian's rule has been read as evidence of an ongoing effort to realign the whole Empire on terms dictated by the imperial center. Under the governance of the jurists Gregorius, Aurelius Arcadius Charisius, and Hermogenianus, the imperial government began issuing official books of precedent, collecting and listing all the rescripts that had been issued since the reign of Hadrian (r. 117–138). The Codex Gregorianus includes rescripts up to 292, which the Codex Hermogenianus updated with a comprehensive collection of rescripts issued by Diocletian in 293 and 294. Although the very act of codification was a radical innovation, given the precedent-based design of the Roman legal system, the jurists were generally conservative, and constantly looked to past Roman practice and theory for guidance. They were probably given more free rein over their codes than the later compilers of the Codex Theodosianus (438) and Codex Justinianus (529) would have. Gregorius and Hermogenianus's codices lack the rigid structuring of later codes, and were not published in the name of the emperor, but in the names of their compilers. Their official character was clear in that both collections were acknowledged by courts as authoritative records of imperial legislation up to the date of their publication and regularly updated. After Diocletian's reform of the provinces, governors were called iudex, or judge. The governor became responsible for his decisions first to his immediate superiors, as well as to the more distant office of the emperor. It was most likely at this time that judicial records became verbatim accounts of what was said in trial, making it easier to determine bias or improper conduct on the part of the governor. With these records and the Empire's universal right of appeal, Imperial authorities probably had a great deal of power to enforce behavior standards for their judges. In spite of Diocletian's attempts at reform, the provincial restructuring was far from clear, especially when citizens appealed the decisions of their governors. Proconsuls, for example, were often both judges of first instance and appeal, and the governors of some provinces took appellant cases from their neighbors. It soon became impossible to avoid taking some cases to the emperor for arbitration and judgment. Diocletian's reign marks the end of the classical period of Roman law. Where Diocletian's system of rescripts shows adherence to classical tradition, Constantine's law is full of Greek and eastern influences. Partly in response to economic pressures and in order to protect the vital functions of the state, Diocletian restricted social and professional mobility. Peasants became tied to the land in a way that presaged later systems of land tenure and workers such as bakers, armorers, public entertainers and workers in the mint had their occupations made hereditary. Soldiers' children were also forcibly enrolled, something that followed spontaneous tendencies among the rank-and-file, but also expressed increasing difficulties in recruitment.Military It is archaeologically difficult to distinguish Diocletian's fortifications from those of his successors and predecessors. The Devil's Dykes, for example—the Danubian earthworks traditionally attributed to Diocletian—cannot even be securely dated to a particular century. The most that can be said about built structures under Diocletian's reign is that he rebuilt and strengthened forts at the Upper Rhine frontier (where he followed the works built under Probus along the Lake Constance-Basel and the Rhine–Iller–Danube line), on the Danube (where a new line of forts on the far side of the river, the Ripa Sarmatica, was added to older, rehabilitated fortresses), in Egypt and on the frontier with Persia. Beyond that, much discussion is speculative and reliant on the broad generalizations of written sources. Diocletian and the tetrarchs had no consistent plan for frontier advancement, and records of raids and forts built across the frontier are likely to indicate only temporary claims. The Strata Diocletiana, built after the Persian Wars, which ran from the Euphrates North of Palmyra and South towards northeast Arabia in the general vicinity of Bostra, is the classic Diocletianic frontier system, consisting of an outer road followed by tightly spaced forts – defensible hard-points manned by small garrisons – followed by further fortifications in the rear. His precision has polarized modern historians. Some believe that Lydus found these figures in official documents and that they are therefore broadly accurate; others believe that he fabricated them.\|group"Note"}} Diocletian's expansion of the army and civil service meant that the empire's tax burden grew. Since military upkeep took the largest portion of the imperial budget, any reforms here would be especially costly. The proportion of the adult male population, excluding slaves, serving in the army increased from roughly 1 in 25 to 1 in 15, an increase judged excessive by some modern commentators. Official troop allowances were kept to low levels, and the mass of troops often resorted to extortion or the taking of civilian jobs. Arrears became the norm for most troops. Many were even given payment in kind in place of their salaries. Were he unable to pay for his enlarged army, there would likely be civil conflict, potentially open revolt. Diocletian was led to devise a new system of taxation. Economic Taxation In the early empire (30 BC – AD 235) the Roman government paid for what it needed in gold and silver. The coinage was stable. Requisition, forced purchase, was used to supply armies on the march. During the third-century crisis (235–285), the government resorted to requisition rather than payment in debased coinage, since it could never be sure of the value of money. Requisition was nothing more or less than seizure. Diocletian made requisition into tax. He introduced an extensive new tax system based on heads (capita) and land (iugera) – with one iugerum equal to approximately 0.65 acres – and tied to a new, regular census of the empire's population and wealth. Census officials traveled throughout the empire, assessed the value of labor and land for each landowner, and joined the landowners' totals together to make citywide totals of capita and iuga. The iugum was not a consistent measure of land, but varied according to the type of land and crop, and the amount of labor necessary for sustenance. The caput was not consistent either: women, for instance, were often valued at half a caput, and sometimes at other values. Cities provided animals, money, and manpower in proportion to its capita, and grain in proportion to its iuga.\|group="Note"}} Most taxes were due each year on 1 September, and levied from individual landowners by decuriones (decurions). These decurions, analogous to city councilors, were responsible for paying from their own pocket what they failed to collect. Diocletian's reforms also increased the number of financial officials in the provinces: more rationales and magistri privatae are attested under Diocletian's reign than before. These officials represented the interests of the fisc, which collected taxes in gold, and the Imperial properties. Fluctuations in the value of the currency made collection of taxes in kind the norm, although these could be converted into coin. Rates shifted to take inflation into account. In 296, Diocletian issued an edict reforming census procedures. This edict introduced a general five-year census for the whole empire, replacing prior censuses that had operated at different speeds throughout the empire. The new censuses would keep up with changes in the values of capita and iuga. Italy, which had long been exempt from taxes, was included in the tax system from 290/291 as a diocesis. The city of Rome remained exempt; the "regions" (i.e., provinces) South of Rome (generally called "suburbicarian", as opposed to the Northern, "annonaria" region) seem to have been relatively less taxed, in what probably was a sop offered to the great senatorial families and their landed properties. Diocletian's edicts emphasized the common liability of all taxpayers. Public records of all taxes were made public. The position of decurion, member of the city council, had been an honor sought by wealthy aristocrats and the middle classes who displayed their wealth by paying for city amenities and public works. Decurions were made liable for any shortfall in the amount of tax collected. Many tried to find ways to escape the obligation. By 300, civilians across the empire complained that there were more tax collectors than there were people to pay taxes. Currency and inflation (301), on display in Berlin]] Aurelian's attempt to reform the currency had failed; the denarius was dead. Diocletian restored the three-metal coinage and issued better quality pieces. The new system consisted of five coins: the aureus/solidus, a gold coin weighing, like its predecessors, one-sixtieth of a pound; the argenteus, a coin weighing one ninety-sixth of a pound and containing ninety-five percent pure silver; the follis, sometimes referred to as the laureatus A, which is a copper coin with added silver struck at the rate of thirty-two to the pound; the radiatus, a small copper coin struck at the rate of 108 to the pound, with no added silver; and a coin known today as the laureatus B, a smaller copper coin struck at the rate of 192 to the pound. but the values of new coins continued to be measured in reference to it.\|group"Note"}} Since the nominal values of these new issues were lower than their intrinsic worth as metals, the state was minting these coins at a loss. This practice could be sustained only by requisitioning precious metals from private citizens in exchange for state-minted coin (of a far lower value than the price of the precious metals requisitioned). By 301, the system was in trouble, strained by a new bout of inflation. Diocletian, therefore, issued his Edict on Coinage, an act re-tariffing all debts so that the nummus, the most common coin in circulation, would be worth half as much. In the edict, preserved in an inscription from the city of Aphrodisias in Caria (near Geyre, Turkey), it was declared that all debts contracted before 1 September 301 must be repaid at the old standards, while all debts contracted after that date would be repaid at the new standards. It appears that the edict was made in an attempt to preserve the current price of gold and to keep the Empire's coinage on silver, Rome's traditional metal currency. This edict risked giving further momentum to inflationary trends, as had happened after Aurelian's currency reforms. The government's response was to issue a price freeze. The Edict on Maximum Prices (Edictum De Pretiis Rerum Venalium) was issued two to three months after the coinage edict, somewhere between 20 November and 10 December 301. The best-preserved Latin inscription surviving from the Greek East, the edict survives in many versions, on materials as varied as wood, papyrus, and stone. In the edict, Diocletian declared that the current pricing crisis resulted from the unchecked greed of merchants, and had resulted in turmoil for the mass of common citizens. The language of the edict calls on the people's memory of their benevolent leaders, and exhorts them to enforce the provisions of the edict, thereby restoring perfection to the world. The edict goes on to list in detail over one thousand goods and accompanying retail prices not to be exceeded. Penalties are laid out for various pricing transgressions. In the most basic terms, the edict was ignorant of the law of supply and demand: it ignored the fact that prices might vary from region to region according to product availability, and it ignored the impact of transportation costs in the retail price of goods. In the judgment of the historian David Potter, the edict was "an act of economic lunacy". The fact that the edict began with a long rhetorical preamble betrays at the same time a moralizing stance as well as a weak grasp of economics – perhaps simply the wishful thinking that criminalizing a practice was enough to stop it. There is no consensus about how effectively the edict was enforced. Supposedly, inflation, speculation, and monetary instability continued, and a black market arose to trade in goods forced out of official markets. The edict's penalties were applied unevenly across the empire (some scholars believe they were applied only in Diocletian's domains), widely resisted, and eventually dropped, perhaps within a year of the edict's issue. Lactantius has written of the perverse accompaniments to the edict; of goods withdrawn from the market, of brawls over minute variations in price, of the deaths that came when its provisions were enforced. His account may be true, but it seems to modern historians exaggerated and hyperbolic, and the impact of the law is recorded in no other ancient source. Legacy column shaft of the Diocletianic honorific column in the Serapeum of Alexandria called "Pompey's Pillar" is tall. Built 298–303.]] The historian A.H.M. Jones observed that "It is perhaps Diocletian's greatest achievement that he reigned twenty-one years and then abdicated voluntarily, and spent the remaining years of his life in peaceful retirement." Diocletian was one of the few emperors of the third and fourth centuries to die naturally, and the first in the history of the empire to retire voluntarily. Once he retired, his tetrarchic system collapsed. Without the guiding hand of Diocletian, the empire fell into civil wars. Stability emerged after the defeat of Licinius by Constantine in 324. Under the Christian Constantine, Diocletian was maligned. Constantine's rule demonstrated the benefits of Diocletian's achievements and the autocratic principle he represented: the borders remained secure, in spite of Constantine's large expenditure of forces during his civil wars; the bureaucratic transformation of the Roman government was completed; and Constantine took Diocletian's court ceremonies and made them even more extravagant. Constantine ignored those aspects of Diocletian's reign that did not suit him. Diocletian's policy of preserving a stable silver coinage was abandoned, and the gold solidus became the empire's primary currency instead. Diocletian's persecution of Christians was repudiated and changed to a policy of toleration and then favoritism. Christianity eventually became the official religion in 380. Most importantly, Diocletian's tax system and administrative reforms lasted, with some modifications, until the advent of the Muslims in the 630s. The combination of state autocracy and state religion was instilled in much of Europe, particularly in the lands which adopted Orthodox Christianity. The Era of Martyrs (Latin: anno martyrum or AM), also known as the Diocletian era (Latin: anno Diocletiani), is a method of numbering years used by the Church of Alexandria beginning in the 4th century anno Domini and by the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria from the 5th century to the present. In this system of counting, the beginning of Diocletian's reign in 284 was used as the epoch, making Diocletian's first year in power into the Year 1 of that calendar. Western Christians were aware of this count but did not use it; Dionysius Exiguus replaced the anno Diocletiani era with his anno Domini era because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians. Dukljan, a major villain in Serbian mythology who is presented as the adversary of God, is considered to be a mythological reflection of the historical Diocletian. The Talmud includes several semi-legendary accounts of Diocletian. One of them recounts that Diocletian was originally a swineherd, and that in this part of his life, he was teased and abused by young Jews. When he became the Emperor he called up the leaders of the Jews, who were fearful, saying "We have teased Diocletian the Swineherd but we respect Diocletian the Emperor" – to which Diocletian responded, "You must show respect even to the smallest and lowest of the Romans, because you can never know which one of us will rise to greatness." Notes References Bibliography Ancient sources * }} * }} * }} * }} relevant panegyrics dated 289, 291, 297, 298, and 307. * }}, [https://web.archive.org/web/20220311020340/http://www.roman-emperors.org/epitome.htm translation] (see also ) * }}, [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/home.html translation] * }} * }} Modern sources * * * * * * \|access-date20 December 2022 \|archive-date19 March 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230319114507/https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Cambridge_Ancient_History_Volume_12/MNSyT_PuYVMC \|url-status=live}} * Bruce, Lorne D. “A Note on Christian Libraries during the ‘Great Persecution,’ 303–305 A.D.” The Journal of Library History. 15, no. 2 (1980): 127–137. * * * * * * * * * 2 volumes. * * * * }} * * * * * * * * * * * * * * . * * * * * \|archive-date13 March 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230313225723/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Palace-of-Diocletian \|url-status=live}} External links * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05007b.htm Diocletian] from the Catholic Encyclopedia. * [http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/DLDecArts.AdamRuins Ruins of the Palace of the Emperor Diocletian at Spalatro in Dalmatia] By Robert Adam, 1764. Plates made available by the University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center. (N.B. "Spalatro" was a less used alternative form of "Spalato", the Italian name for Croatian "Split"). Category:3rd-century Roman emperors Category:4th-century Roman emperors Category:240s births Category:311 deaths Category:Crisis of the Third Century Category:Deified Roman emperors Category:Imperial Roman consuls Category:Monarchs who abdicated Category:People from Roman Dalmatia Category:History of Split, Croatia Category:Aurelii Category:Valerii Category:Tetrarchy Category:People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars Category:Imperial Roman slaves and freedmen Category:Roman pharaohs Category:Illyrian emperors	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocletian	2025-04-05T18:28:41.255063
8582	Deism	}} Deism ( or ; derived from the Latin term deus, meaning "god") is the philosophical position and rationalistic theology that generally rejects revelation as a source of divine knowledge and asserts that empirical reason and observation of the natural world are exclusively logical, reliable, and sufficient to determine the existence of a Supreme Being as the creator of the universe. More simply stated, Deism is the belief in the existence of God—often, but not necessarily, an impersonal and incomprehensible God who does not intervene in the universe after creating it, solely based on rational thought without any reliance on revealed religions or religious authority. Such philosophers and theologians were called "Deists", and the philosophical/theological position they advocated is called "Deism". Divinity schools in Islamic theology In the history of Islam, one of the earliest systematic schools of Islamic theology to develop was the Muʿtazila in the mid-8th century CE. Muʿtazilite theologians emphasized the use of reason and rational thought, positing that the injunctions of God are accessible through rational thought and inquiry, and affirmed that the Quran was created (makhlūq) rather than co-eternal with God, an affirmation that would develop into one of the most contentious questions in the history of Islamic theology. Ashʿarītes still taught the use of reason in understanding the Quran, but denied the possibility to deduce moral truths by reasoning. according to its founder, the 10th-century Muslim scholar and theologian Abū Manṣūr al-Māturīdī, human reason is supposed to acknowledge the existence of a creator deity (bāriʾ) solely based on rational thought and independently from divine revelation. Origins of Deism The terms deism and theism are both derived from words meaning "god": the Latin term deus and the Ancient Greek term theós (θεός), respectively. but Deism was generally unknown in the Kingdom of France until the 1690s when Pierre Bayle published his famous Dictionnaire Historique et Critique, which contained an article on Viret. In English, the words deist and theist were originally synonymous, but by the 17th century the terms started to diverge in meaning. The term deist with its current meaning first appears in English in Robert Burton's The Anatomy of Melancholy (1621). Herbert of Cherbury and early English Deism , portrayed by Isaac Oliver (1560–1617)]] The first major statement of Deism in English is Lord Herbert of Cherbury's book De Veritate (1624). Lord Herbert, like his contemporary Descartes, searched for the foundations of knowledge. The first two-thirds of his book De Veritate (On Truth, as It Is Distinguished from Revelation, the Probable, the Possible, and the False) are devoted to an exposition of Herbert's theory of knowledge. Herbert distinguished truths from experience and distinguished reasoning about experience from innate and revealed truths. Innate truths are imprinted on our minds, as evidenced by their universal acceptance. Herbert referred to universally accepted truths as notitiae communes—Common Notions. Herbert believed there were five Common Notions that unify all religious beliefs. # There is one Supreme God. # God ought to be worshipped. # Virtue and piety are the main parts of divine worship. # We ought to be remorseful for our sins and repent. # Divine goodness dispenses rewards and punishments, both in this life and after it. Herbert himself had relatively few followers, and it was not until the 1680s that Herbert found a true successor in Charles Blount (1654 – 1693). The peak of Deism (1696–1801) <!-- This Anchor tag serves to provide a permanent target for incoming section links. Please do not move it out of the section heading, even though it disrupts edit summary generation (you can manually fix the edit summary before saving your changes). Please do not modify it, even if you modify the section title. It is always best to anchor an old section header that has been changed so that links to it won't be broken. See Template:Anchor for details. (This text: Template:Anchor comment) --> The appearance of John Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) marks an important turning-point and new phase in the history of English Deism. Lord Herbert's epistemology was based on the idea of "common notions" (or innate ideas). Locke's Essay was an attack on the foundation of innate ideas. After Locke, deists could no longer appeal to innate ideas as Herbert had done. Instead, deists were forced to turn to arguments based on experience and nature. Under the influence of Newton, they turned to the argument from design as the principal argument for the existence of God. Peter Gay identifies John Toland's Christianity Not Mysterious (1696), and the "vehement response" it provoked, as the beginning of post-Lockian Deism. Among the notable figures, Gay describes Toland and Matthew Tindal as the best known; however, Gay considered them to be talented publicists rather than philosophers or scholars. He regards Conyers Middleton and Anthony Collins as contributing more to the substance of debate, in contrast with fringe writers such as Thomas Chubb and Thomas Woolston. Other English Deists prominent during the period include William Wollaston, Charles Blount, Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke, Especially noteworthy is Matthew Tindal's Christianity as Old as the Creation (1730), which became, very soon after its publication, the focal center of the Deist controversy. Because almost every argument, quotation, and issue raised for decades can be found here, the work is often termed "the Deist's Bible". Following Locke's successful attack on innate ideas, Tindal's "Bible" redefined the foundation of Deist epistemology as knowledge based on experience or human reason. This effectively widened the gap between traditional Christians and what he called "Christian Deists", since this new foundation required that "revealed" truth be validated through human reason. Enlightenment Deism Aspects of Deism in Enlightenment philosophy Enlightenment Deism consisted of two philosophical assertions: (1) reason, along with features of the natural world, is a valid source of religious knowledge, and (2) revelation is not a valid source of religious knowledge. Different Deist philosophers expanded on these two assertions to create what Leslie Stephen later termed the "constructive" and "critical" aspects of Deism. "Constructive" assertions—assertions that deist writers felt were justified by appeals to reason and features of the natural world (or perhaps were intuitively obvious or common notions)—included: * God exists and created the universe. * God gave humans the ability to reason. "Critical" assertions—assertions that followed from the denial of revelation as a valid source of religious knowledge—were much more numerous, and included: * Rejection of all books (including the Quran and the Bible) that claimed to contain divine revelation. * Rejection of the incomprehensible notion of the Trinity and other religious "mysteries". * Rejection of reports of miracles, prophecies, etc. The origins of religion A central premise of Deism was that the religions of their day were corruptions of an original religion that was pure, natural, simple, and rational. Humanity lost this original religion when it was subsequently corrupted by priests who manipulated it for personal gain and for the class interests of the priesthood, and encrusted it with superstitions and "mysteries"—irrational theological doctrines. Deists referred to this manipulation of religious doctrine as "priestcraft", a derogatory term. For deists, this corruption of natural religion was designed to keep laypeople baffled by "mysteries" and dependent on the priesthood for information about the requirements for salvation. This gave the priesthood a great deal of power, which the Deists believed the priesthood worked to maintain and increase. Deists saw it as their mission to strip away "priestcraft" and "mysteries". Tindal, perhaps the most prominent deist writer, claimed that this was the proper, original role of the Christian Church. One implication of this premise was that current-day primitive societies, or societies that existed in the distant past, should have religious beliefs less infused with superstitions and closer to those of natural theology. This position became less and less plausible as thinkers such as David Hume began studying the natural history of religion and suggested that the origin of religion was not in reason but in emotions, such as the fear of the unknown. Immortality of the soul Different Deists had different beliefs about the immortality of the soul, about the existence of Hell and damnation to punish the wicked, and the existence of Heaven to reward the virtuous. Anthony Collins, Bolingbroke, Thomas Chubb, and Peter Annet were materialists and either denied or doubted the immortality of the soul. Benjamin Franklin believed in reincarnation or resurrection. Lord Herbert of Cherbury and William Wollaston held that souls exist, survive death, and in the afterlife are rewarded or punished by God for their behavior in life. Thomas Paine believed in the "probability" of the immortality of the soul. Miracles and divine providence The most natural position for Deists was to reject all forms of supernaturalism, including the miracle stories in the Bible. The problem was that the rejection of miracles also seemed to entail the rejection of divine providence (that is, God taking a hand in human affairs), something that many Deists were inclined to accept. Those who believed in a watch-maker God rejected the possibility of miracles and divine providence. They believed that God, after establishing natural laws and setting the cosmos in motion, stepped away. He did not need to keep tinkering with his creation, and the suggestion that he did was insulting. Others, however, firmly believed in divine providence, and so, were reluctantly forced to accept at least the possibility of miracles. God was, after all, all-powerful and could do whatever he wanted including temporarily suspending his own natural laws. Freedom and necessity Enlightenment philosophers under the influence of Newtonian science tended to view the universe as a vast machine, created and set in motion by a creator being, that continues to operate according to natural law without any divine intervention. This view naturally led to what was then called "necessitarianism" (the modern term is "determinism"): the view that everything in the universe—including human behavior—is completely, causally determined by antecedent circumstances and natural law. (See, for example, La Mettrie's [http://www.cscs.umich.edu/~crshalizi/LaMettrie/Machine/ ''L'Homme machine].) As a consequence, debates about freedom versus "necessity" were a regular feature of Enlightenment religious and philosophical discussions. Reflecting the intellectual climate of the time, there were differences among Deists about freedom and determinism. Some, such as Anthony Collins, were actually necessitarians. David Hume ]] Views differ on whether David Hume was a Deist, an atheist, or something else. Like the Deists, Hume rejected revelation, and his famous essay On Miracles provided a powerful argument against belief in miracles. On the other hand, he did not believe that an appeal to Reason could provide any justification for religion. In the essay Natural History of Religion (1757), he contended that polytheism, not monotheism, was "the first and most ancient religion of mankind" and that the psychological basis of religion is not reason, but fear of the unknown. In Waring's words: Deism in the United States ]] The Thirteen Colonies of North America – which became the United States of America after the American Revolution in 1776 – were part of the British Empire, and Americans, as British subjects, were influenced by and participated in the intellectual life of the Kingdom of Great Britain. English Deism was an important influence on the thinking of Thomas Jefferson and the principles of religious freedom asserted in the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. Other Founding Fathers who were influenced to various degrees by Deism were Ethan Allen, Benjamin Franklin, Cornelius Harnett, Gouverneur Morris, Hugh Williamson, James Madison, and possibly Alexander Hamilton. In the United States, there is a great deal of controversy over whether the Founding Fathers were Christians, Deists, or something in between. Particularly heated is the debate over the beliefs of Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, and George Washington. In his Autobiography, Franklin wrote that as a young man "Some books against Deism fell into my hands; they were said to be the substance of sermons preached at Boyle's lectures. It happened that they wrought an effect on me quite contrary to what was intended by them; for the arguments of the Deists, which were quoted to be refuted, appeared to me much stronger than the refutations; in short, I soon became a thorough Deist." Like some other Deists, Franklin believed that, "The Deity sometimes interferes by his particular Providence, and sets aside the Events which would otherwise have been produc'd in the Course of Nature, or by the Free Agency of Man," and at the Constitutional Convention stated that "the longer I live, the more convincing proofs I see of this truth—that God governs in the affairs of men." Thomas Jefferson is perhaps the Founding Father who most clearly exhibits Deistic tendencies, although he generally referred to himself as a Unitarian rather than a Deist. His excerpts of the canonical gospels (now commonly known as the Jefferson Bible) strip all supernatural and dogmatic references from the narrative on Jesus' life. Like Franklin, Jefferson believed in God's continuing activity in human affairs. Thomas Paine is especially noteworthy both for his contributions to the cause of the American Revolution and for his writings in defense of Deism, alongside the criticism of Abrahamic religions. In The Age of Reason (1793–1794) and other writings, he advocated Deism, promoted reason and freethought, and argued against institutionalized religions in general and the Christian doctrine in particular. The last contributor to American Deism was Elihu Palmer (1764–1806), who wrote the "Bible of American Deism", Principles of Nature, in 1801. Palmer is noteworthy for attempting to bring some organization to Deism by founding the "Deistical Society of New York" and other Deistic societies from Maine to Georgia.Deism in France and continental Europe at age 24, portrayed by Nicolas de Largillière]] France had its own tradition of religious skepticism and natural theology in the works of Montaigne, Pierre Bayle, and Montesquieu. The most famous of the French Deists was Voltaire, who was exposed to Newtonian science and English Deism during his two-year period of exile in England (1726–1728). When he returned to France, he brought both back with him, and exposed the French reading public (i.e., the aristocracy) to them, in a number of books. French Deists also included Maximilien Robespierre and Rousseau. During the French Revolution (1789–1799), the Deistic Cult of the Supreme Being—a direct expression of Robespierre's theological views—was established briefly (just under three months) as the new state religion of France, replacing the deposed Catholic Church and the rival atheistic Cult of Reason. There were over five hundred French Revolutionaries who were deists. These deists do not fit the stereotype of deists because they believed in miracles and often prayed to God. In fact, over seventy of them thought that God miraculously helped the French Revolution win victories over their enemies. Furthermore, over a hundred French Revolutionary deists also wrote prayers and hymns to God. Citizen Devillere was one of the many French Revolutionary deists who believed God did miracles. Devillere said, "God, who conducts our destiny, deigned to concern himself with our dangers. He commanded the spirit of victory to direct the hand of the faithful French, and in a few hours the aristocrats received the attack which we prepared, the wicked ones were destroyed and liberty was avenged." Deism in Germany is not well documented. We know from correspondence with Voltaire that Frederick the Great was a Deist. Immanuel Kant's identification with Deism is controversial. Decline of Enlightenment Deism Peter Gay describes Enlightenment Deism as entering slow decline as a recognizable movement in the 1730s. A number of reasons have been suggested for this decline, including: * The increasing influence of naturalism and materialism. * The writings of David Hume and Immanuel Kant raising questions about the ability of reason to address metaphysical questions. * The violence of the French Revolution. * Christian revivalist movements, such as Pietism and Methodism (which emphasized a personal relationship with God), along with the rise of anti-rationalist and counter-Enlightenment philosophies such as that of Johann Georg Hamann. One of the major activities of the Deists, biblical criticism, evolved into its own highly technical discipline. Deist rejection of revealed religion evolved into, and contributed to, 19th-century liberal British theology and the rise of Unitarianism. Some deists see design in nature and purpose in the universe and in their lives. Others see God and the universe in a co-creative process. Some deists view God in classical terms as observing humanity but not directly intervening in our lives, while others see God as a subtle and persuasive spirit who created the world, and then stepped back to observe. Recent philosophical discussions of Deism In the 1960s, theologian Charles Hartshorne scrupulously examined and rejected both deism and pandeism (as well as pantheism) in favor of a conception of God whose characteristics included "absolute perfection in some respects, relative perfection in all others" or "AR," writing that this theory "is able consistently to embrace all that is positive in either deism or pandeism," concluding that "panentheistic doctrine contains all of deism and pandeism except their arbitrary negations." Charles Taylor, in his 2007 book A Secular Age, showed the historical role of Deism, leading to what he calls an "exclusive humanism". This humanism invokes a moral order whose ontic commitment is wholly intra-human with no reference to transcendence. One of the special achievements of such deism-based humanism is that it discloses new, anthropocentric moral sources by which human beings are motivated and empowered to accomplish acts of mutual benefit. This is the province of a buffered, disengaged self, which is the locus of dignity, freedom, and discipline, and is endowed with a sense of human capability. According to Taylor, by the early 19th century this Deism-mediated exclusive humanism developed as an alternative to Christian faith in a personal God and an order of miracles and mystery. Some critics of Deism have accused adherents of facilitating the rise of nihilism. Deism in Nazi Germany In Nazi Germany, Gottgläubig (literally: "believing in God") was a Nazi religious term for a form of non-denominationalism practised by those German citizens who had officially left Christian churches but professed faith in some higher power or divine creator. The 1943 Philosophical Dictionary defined Gottgläubig as: "official designation for those who profess a specific kind of piety and morality, without being bound to a church denomination, whilst however also rejecting irreligion and godlessness." The Gottgläubigkeit is considered a form of deism, and was "predominantly based on creationist and deistic views". In the 1920 National Socialist Programme of the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP), Adolf Hitler first mentioned the phrase "Positive Christianity". The Nazi Party did not wish to tie itself to a particular Christian denomination, but with Christianity in general, and sought freedom of religion for all denominations "so long as they do not endanger its existence or oppose the moral senses of the Germanic race" (point 24). When Hitler and the NSDAP got into power in 1933, they sought to assert state control over the churches, on the one hand through the Reichskonkordat with the Roman Catholic Church, and the forced merger of the German Evangelical Church Confederation into the Protestant Reich Church on the other. This policy seems to have gone relatively well until late 1936, when a "gradual worsening of relations" between the Nazi Party and the churches saw the rise of Kirchenaustritt ("leaving the Church"). and after the annexation of the mostly Catholic Federal State of Austria and mostly Catholic German-occupied Czechoslovakia into German-occupied Europe, indicates that 54% of the population considered itself Protestant, 41% considered itself Catholic, 3.5% self-identified as Gottgläubig, and 1.5% as "atheist".]] An early April 2018 report of the Turkish Ministry of Education, titled The Youth is Sliding towards Deism, observed that an increasing number of pupils in İmam Hatip schools was repudiating Islam in favour of Deism (irreligious belief in a creator God). The report's publication generated large-scale controversy in the Turkish press and society at large, as well as amongst conservative Islamic sects, Muslim clerics, and Islamist parties in Turkey. Though Deism subsided in the United States post-Enlightenment, it never died out entirely. Thomas Edison, for example, was heavily influenced by Thomas Paine's The Age of Reason. Edison defended Paine's "scientific deism", saying, "He has been called an atheist, but atheist he was not. Paine believed in a supreme intelligence, as representing the idea which other men often express by the name of deity." but according to its founder, Helena Blavatsky, he was not a very active member. In an October 2, 1910, interview in the New York Times Magazine, Edison stated: Edison was labeled an atheist for those remarks, and although he did not allow himself to be drawn into the controversy publicly, he clarified himself in a private letter: * American Enlightenment * Atheism during the Age of Enlightenment * Deism in England and France in the 18th century * Deistic evolution * Great Architect of the Universe * Ietsism * Infinitism * List of deists * Moralistic therapeutic deism * Nicodemite * Non-physical entity * Nontheism * Philosophical theism * Religious affiliations of presidents of the United States * Religious interpretations of the Big Bang theory * Spiritual but not religious * Theistic rationalism * Transcendentalism * Unitarian Universalism References Notes CitationsBibliographyHistories * Betts, C. J. ''Early Deism in France: From the so-called 'deistes' of Lyon (1564) to Voltaire's 'Lettres philosophiques' (1734) (Martinus Nijhoff, 1984) * Craig, William Lane. The Historical Argument for the Resurrection of Jesus During the Deist Controversy (Edwin Mellen, 1985) * Hazard, Paul. European thought in the eighteenth century from Montesquieu to Lessing (1954). pp 393–434. * * Hudson, Wayne. Enlightenment and modernity: The English deists and reform (Routledge, 2015). * Israel, Jonathan I. Enlightenment contested: philosophy, modernity, and the emancipation of man 1670-1752 (Oxford UP, 2006). * Lemay, J. A. Leo, ed.Deism, Masonry, and the Enlightenment. Essays Honoring Alfred Owen Aldridge. (U of Delaware Press, 1987). * Lucci, Diego. Scripture and deism: The biblical criticism of the eighteenth-century British deists (Peter Lang, 2008). * McKee, David Rice. Simon Tyssot de Patot and the Seventeenth-Century Background of Critical Deism (Johns Hopkins Press, 1941) * Orr, John. English Deism: Its Roots and Its Fruits (1934) * Schlereth, Eric R. An Age of Infidels: The Politics of Religious Controversy in the Early United States (U of Pennsylvania Press; 2013) 295 pages; on conflicts between deists and their opponents. * Willey, Basil. The Eighteenth Century Background: Studies on the Idea of Nature in the Thought of the Period (1940) * Yoder, Timothy S. Hume on God: Irony, deism and genuine theism (Bloomsbury, 2008). Primary sources * * * Deism: An Anthology by Peter Gay (Van Nostrand, 1968) * Deism and Natural Religion: A Source Book by E. Graham Waring (Frederick Ungar, 1967) * The American Deists: Voices of Reason & Dissent in the Early Republic'' by Kerry S. Walters (University of Kansas Press, 1992), which includes an extensive bibliographic essay * by Bob Johnson, founder of the World Union of Deists * by Bob Johnson * by Bob Johnson Secondary sources * * * * * * * * * * * * Further reading * * External links * * * }}	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deism	2025-04-05T18:28:41.324457
8584	Dramaturge	A dramaturge or dramaturg (from Ancient Greek δραματουργός – dramatourgós) is a literary adviser or editor in a theatre, opera, or film company who researches, selects, adapts, edits, and interprets scripts, libretti, texts, and printed programmes (or helps others with these tasks), consults authors, and does public relations work. Its modern-day function was originated by the innovations of Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, an 18th-century German playwright, philosopher, and theatre theorist. Responsibilities One of the dramaturge's contributions is to categorise and discuss the various types of plays or operas, their interconnectedness and their styles. The responsibilities of a dramaturge vary from one theatre or opera company to the next. They might include the hiring of actors, the development of a season of plays or operas with a sense of coherence among them, assistance with and editing of new plays or operas by resident or guest playwrights or composers/librettists, the creation of programs or accompanying educational services, and helping the director with rehearsals. At larger theatres or opera houses, the dramaturge works on the historical and cultural research into the play or opera and its setting. In theatre companies, a dramaturge will create a workbook for the director and actors and work extensively with the director prior to the first rehearsal. History thumb\|upright\|Gotthold Ephraim Lessing Gotthold Ephraim Lessing was hired by the Hamburg National Theatre in 1767, to serve as the theatre's critic of plays and acting, a position which would later be named dramaturge. This position grew over time to what it is today, encompassing the wide variety of tasks seen by modern dramaturges. Discrepancies with definition The modern definition of 'dramaturge' is often debated as to what specific tasks this job does, with some defining it as the bridge between the director and the actors, others defining it as one who determines the meaning of plays and shows for the actors, and others claiming that even they don't quite have a complete definition for their job. This discrepancy between dramaturges is likely due to the lack of an official historical definition, and the wide variety of tasks that dramaturges could be asked to work on, depending on the theatre, director, the show being produced, and the actors. Since Lessing did not create an official definition for his own position at the Hamburg National Theatre, modern dramaturges have to infer their tasks based on what Lessing did during his career, and adapt to the current needs of modern theatre. Recent growth Since the year 2000, the number of dramaturges working around the world has increased. In 2000, 400 active dramaturges were recorded in the United States, with that number growing. There are various possible causes of this growth, but some dramaturges attribute the growth to the fact that dramaturgy combines two popular studies for young students: the liberal arts and theatre. Some dramaturges are worried, however, that this growth may slow down, due to a decrease in the number of modern plays being written. References External links "Literary Managers and Dramaturgs of the Americas", official website Category:Dramaturges Category:Theatrical occupations	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dramaturge	2025-04-05T18:28:41.328434
8585	Dispersion	Dispersion may refer to: Economics and finance Dispersion (finance), a measure for the statistical distribution of portfolio returns Price dispersion, a variation in prices across sellers of the same item Wage dispersion, the amount of variation in wages encountered in an economy Dispersed knowledge, notion that any one person is unable to perceive all economic forces Science and mathematics Mathematics Statistical dispersion, a quantifiable variation of measurements of differing members of a population Index of dispersion, a normalized measure of the dispersion of a probability distribution Dispersion point, a point in a topological space the removal of which leaves the space highly disconnected Physics The dependence of wave velocity on frequency or wavelength: Dispersion (optics), for light waves Dispersion (water waves), for water waves Acoustic dispersion, for sound waves Dispersion relation, the mathematical description of dispersion in a system Modal dispersion, spreading of signals in multimode fibers and waveguides by a distortion mechanism Polarization mode dispersion, a form of modal dispersion Dielectric dispersion, the dependence of the permittivity of a dielectric material on the frequency of an applied electric field Dispersion measure, the dispersion of radio signals from pulsars and fast radio bursts Dispersive mass transfer, in fluid dynamics, the spreading of mass from areas of high to low concentration Atmospheric dispersion modeling, mathematical simulation of how air pollutants disperse in the ambient atmosphere London dispersion force, an instantaneous induced dipole-induced dipole Dispersed particle resistance, a measured parameter to characterize battery active materials Other sciences Biological dispersal, the distribution of animals, spores, fruits and their seeds, etc. Dispersion (chemistry), a system in which particles are dispersed in a continuous phase of a different composition Dispersion (geology), a process whereby sodic soil disperses when exposed to water Dispersion (materials science), the fraction of atoms of a material exposed to the surface Dispersion polymerization, a polymerization process Velocity dispersion, the statistical variation of velocities about the mean velocity for a group of astronomical objects Other uses , Jewish communities who lived amongst the gentiles in the first century CE Dispersion (album), the second album by High Rise Dispersion Technology, a scientific instrument manufacturer located in Bedford Hills, New York See also Dispersal (disambiguation) Dispersive (disambiguation) Dispersity, a measure of the heterogeneity of sizes of molecules or particles in a mixture	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispersion	2025-04-05T18:28:41.330546
8586	Dyson sphere	, the first scientist to explore the concept]] A Dyson sphere is a hypothetical megastructure that encompasses a star and captures a large percentage of its power output. The concept is a thought experiment that attempts to imagine how a spacefaring civilization would meet its energy requirements once those requirements exceed what can be generated from the home planet's resources alone. Because only a tiny fraction of a star's energy emissions reaches the surface of any orbiting planet, building structures encircling a star would enable a civilization to harvest far more energy. The first modern imagining of such a structure was by Olaf Stapledon in his science fiction novel Star Maker (1937). The concept was later explored by the physicist Freeman Dyson in his 1960 paper "Search for Artificial Stellar Sources of Infrared Radiation". Dyson speculated that such structures would be the logical consequence of the escalating energy needs of a technological civilization and would be a necessity for its long-term survival. A signature of such spheres detected in astronomical searches would be an indicator of extraterrestrial intelligence. Since Dyson's paper, many variant designs involving an artificial structure or series of structures to encompass a star have been proposed in exploratory engineering or described in science fiction, often under the name "Dyson sphere". Fictional depictions often describe a solid shell of matter enclosing a staran arrangement considered by Dyson himself to be impossible. Origins Inspired by the 1937 science fiction novel Star Maker by Olaf Stapledon, the physicist and mathematician Freeman Dyson was the first to formalize the concept of what became known as the "Dyson sphere" in his 1960 Science paper "Search for Artificial Stellar Sources of Infra-Red Radiation". Dyson theorized that as the energy requirements of an advanced technological civilization increased, there would come a time when it would need to systematically harvest the energy from its local star on a large scale. He speculated that this could be done via a system of structures orbiting the star, designed to intercept and collect its energy. He argued that as the structure would result in the large-scale conversion of starlight into far-infrared radiation, an earth-based search for sources of infrared radiation could identify stars supporting intelligent life. Such a concept has often been referred to as a Dyson swarm; however, in 2013, Dyson said he had come to regret that the concept had been named after him.Search for megastructuresDyson-style energy collectors around a distant star would absorb and re-radiate energy from the star. The wavelengths of such re-radiated energy may be atypical for the star's spectral type, due to the presence of heavy elements not naturally occurring within the star. If the percentage of such atypical wavelengths were to be significant, an alien megastructure could be detected at interstellar distances. SETI has looked for such infrared-heavy spectra from solar analogs, as has Fermilab. Fermilab discovered 17 potential "ambiguous" candidates, of which four were in 2006 called "amusing but still questionable". On 14 October 2015, Planet Hunters' citizen scientists discovered unusual light fluctuations of the star KIC 8462852 raising press speculation that a Dyson sphere may have been discovered. However, subsequent analysis showed that the results were consistent with the presence of dust. A further campaign in 2024 identified seven possible candidates for Dyson-spheres, but further investigation was said to be required.Feasibility and science-based speculationAlthough Dyson sphere systems are theoretically possible, building a stable megastructure around the Sun is currently far beyond humanity's engineering capacity. The number of craft required to obtain, transmit, and maintain a complete Dyson sphere exceeds present-day industrial capabilities. George Dvorsky has advocated the use of self-replicating robots to overcome this limitation in the relatively near term. Some have suggested that Dyson sphere habitats could be built around white dwarfs and even pulsars. Stellar engines are hypothetical megastructures whose purpose is to extract useful energy from a star, sometimes for specific purposes. For example, Matrioshka brains have been proposed to extract energy for computation, while Shkadov thrusters would extract energy for propulsion. Some proposed stellar engine designs are based on the Dyson sphere. From May until June 2024, speculation grew that potential signs of interstellar Dyson spheres had been discovered. The seven objects of interestall located within a thousand light-years of Earthare M-dwarfs, a class of stars that are smaller and less luminous than the Sun. However, the authors of the findings were careful not to make any overblown claims. Despite this, many media outlets picked up on the story. Less fantastical alternative explanations have been made, including a proposal that the infrared from the discoveries was caused by distant dust-obscured galaxies.Fictional examplesA precursor to the concept of Dyson spheres was featured in the 1937 novel Star Maker by Olaf Stapledon, Dyson got his inspiration from this book and suggested that "Stapledon sphere" would be a more apt name for the concept. Fictional Dyson spheres are typically solid structures forming a continuous shell around the star in question, although Dyson himself considered that prospect to be mechanically implausible. Dyson spheres are depicted in the 1975–1983 book series Saga of Cuckoo by Frederik Pohl and Jack Williamson, and one functions as the setting of Bob Shaw's 1975 novel Orbitsville and its sequels. the finds itself trapped in an abandoned Dyson Sphere; in a 2011 interview, Dyson said that he enjoyed the episode, although he considered the sphere depicted to be "nonsense". Michael Jan Friedman who wrote the novelization observed that in the TV episode itself the Dyson sphere was effectively a MacGuffin, with "just nothing about it" in the story, and decided to flesh out the plot element in his novelization. Other science-fiction story examples include Tony Rothman's The World Is Round, Somtow Sucharitkul's Inquisitor series, Timothy Zahn's Spinneret, James White's Federation World, Stephen Baxter's The Time Ships, and Peter F. Hamilton's ''Pandora's Star''. a half sphere in the 2012 novel Bowl of Heaven by Gregory Benford and Niven,<ref name":1" /><ref name":2" /> and nested spheresalso known as a Matrioshka brainin Colin Kapp's 1980s Cageworld series and Brian Stableford's 1979–1990 Asgard trilogy.<ref name"Stableford" /><ref name":2" /> Stableford himself observed that Dyson spheres are usually MacGuffins or largely deep in the backgrounds of stories, giving as examples Fritz Leiber's The Wanderer and Linda Nagata's Deception Well, whereas stories involving space exploration tend to employ the variants like Niven's Ringworld.<ref name"Stableford" />He gives two reasons for this: firstly that Dyson spheres are simply too big to address, which Friedman also alluded to when pointing out that the reason his novelization of "Relics" did not go further into the sphere was that it was only four hundred pages and he had just shy of four weeks to write it; and secondly that, especially for hard science-fiction, Dyson spheres have certain engineering problems that complicate stories.<ref name"Stableford"/><ref name"Ayers2006"/> In particular, since gravitational attraction is in equilibrium inside such a sphere (per the shell theorem), other means such as rotating the sphere have to be employed in order to keep things attached to the interior surface, which then leads to the problem of a gravity gradient that goes to zero at the rotational poles.<ref name"Stableford"/> Authors address this with various modifications of the idea such as the aforementioned Cageworld nesting, Dan Alderson's double sphere idea, and Niven's reduced Ringworld (discussed in "Bigger Than Worlds").<ref name"Stableford"/>See also <!--please maintain alphabetical order--> * * * * References Further reading * * * * * External links [https://www.aleph.se/Nada/dysonFAQ.html Dyson sphere FAQ] [http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/698/2/2075/pdf/0004-637X_698_2_2075.pdf FermiLab: IRAS-based whole sky upper limit on Dyson spheres] with an appendix on Dyson sphere engineering Category:Astronomy projects Category:Energy development Category:Exploratory engineering Category:Freeman Dyson Category:History of science Category:Hypothetical astronomical objects Category:Hypothetical technology Category:Megastructures Category:Philosophy of science Category:Philosophy of technology Category:Proposed space stations Category:Science fiction themes Category:Search for extraterrestrial intelligence Category:Solar power Category:Space colonization Category:Thought experiments	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyson_sphere	2025-04-05T18:28:41.346094
8587	Democide	Democide refers to "the intentional killing of an unarmed or disarmed person by government agents acting in their authoritative capacity and pursuant to government policy or high command." The term, first coined by Holocaust historian and statistics expert R.J. Rummel in his book Death by Government, has been described by renowned Holocaust historian Yehuda Bauer as a better term than genocide to refer to certain types of mass killings. According to Rummel, this definition covers a wide range of deaths, including forced labor and concentration camp victims, extrajudicial summary killings, and mass deaths due to governmental acts of criminal omission and neglect, such as in deliberate famines like the Holodomor, as well as killings by de facto governments, for example, killings during a civil war. Definition Democide is the murder of any person or people by "their" government (normally the one under whose jurisdiction they live), including genocide, politicide, and mass murder. Democide is not necessarily the elimination of entire cultural groups but rather groups within the country that the government feels need to be eradicated for political reasons and due to claimed future threats. In "How Many Did Communist Regimes Murder?", Rummel wrote: First, however, I should clarify the term democide. It means for governments what murder means for an individual under municipal law. It is the premeditated killing of a person in cold blood, or causing the death of a person through reckless and wanton disregard for their life. Thus, a government incarcerating people in a prison under such deadly conditions that they die in a few years is murder by the state—democide—as would parents letting a child die from malnutrition and exposure be murder. So would government forced labor that kills a person within months or a couple of years be murder. So would government created famines that then are ignored or knowingly aggravated by government action be murder of those who starve to death. And obviously, extrajudicial executions, death by torture, government massacres, and all genocidal killing be murder. However, judicial executions for crimes that internationally would be considered capital offenses, such as for murder or treason (as long as it is clear that these are not fabricated for the purpose of executing the accused, as in communist show trials), are not democide. Nor is democide the killing of enemy soldiers in combat or of armed rebels, nor of noncombatants as a result of military action against military targets. In his work and research, Rummel distinguished between colonial, democratic, and authoritarian and totalitarian regimes. He defined totalitarianism as follows: There is much confusion about what is meant by totalitarian in the literature, including the denial that such systems even exist. I define a totalitarian state as one with a system of government that is unlimited constitutionally or by countervailing powers in society (such as by a church, rural gentry, labor unions, or regional powers); is not held responsible to the public by periodic secret and competitive elections; and employs its unlimited power to control all aspects of society, including the family, religion, education, business, private property, and social relationships. Under Stalin, the Soviet Union was thus totalitarian, as was Mao's China, Pol Pot's Cambodia, Hitler's Germany, and U Ne Win's Burma. Totalitarianism is then a political ideology for which a totalitarian government is the agency for realizing its ends. Thus, totalitarianism characterizes such ideologies as state socialism (as in Burma), Marxism-Leninism as in former East Germany, and Nazism. Even revolutionary Moslem Iran since the overthrow of the Shah in 1978–79 has been totalitarian—here totalitarianism was married to Moslem fundamentalism. In short, totalitarianism is the ideology of absolute power. State socialism, communism, Nazism, fascism, and Moslem fundamentalism have been some of its recent raiments. Totalitarian governments have been its agency. The state, with its international legal sovereignty and independence, has been its base. As will be pointed out, mortacracy is the result. Estimates In his estimates, Rudolph Rummel relied mostly on historical accounts, an approach that rarely provides accuracy compared with contemporary academic opinion. In the case of Mexican democide, Rummel wrote that while "these figures amount to little more than informed guesses", he thought "there is enough evidence to at least indict these authoritarian regimes for megamurder." According to Rummel, his research showed that the death toll from democide is far greater than the death toll from war. After studying over 8,000 reports of government-caused deaths, Rummel estimated that there have been 262 million victims of democide in the last century. According to his figures, six times as many people have died from the actions of people working for governments than have died in battle. One of his main findings was that democracies have much less democide than authoritarian regimes. Rummel argued that "concentrated political power is the most dangerous thing on earth." Rummel's estimates, especially about Communist democide, typically included a wide range and cannot be considered determinative. Rummel responded that the 20 million estimate is based on a figure from Robert Conquest's The Great Terror and that Conquest's qualifier "almost certainly too low" is usually forgotten. For Rummell, Conquest's calculations excluded camp deaths before 1936 and after 1950, executions (1939–1953), the forced population transfer in the Soviet Union (1939–1953), the deportation within the Soviet Union of minorities (1941–1944), and those the Soviet Red Army and Cheka (the secret police) executed throughout Eastern Europe after their conquest during the 1944–1945 period. Moreover, the Holodomor that killed 5 million in 1932–1934 (according to Rummel) is also not included. According to Rummel, forced labor, executions, and concentration camps were responsible for over one million deaths in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea from 1948 to 1987. After decades of research in the state archives, most scholars say that Stalin's regime killed between 6 and 9 million, which is considerably less than originally thought, while Nazi Germany killed at least 11 million, which is in line with previous estimates. Application Authoritarian and totalitarian regimes Communist regimes Rummel applied the concept of democide to Communist regimes. In 1987, Rudolph Rummel's book Death by Government Rummel estimated that 148 million were killed by Communist governments from 1917 to 1987. The list of Communist countries with more than 1 million estimated victims included: China at 76,702,000 (1949–1987), the Soviet Union at 61,911,000 (1917–1987), Democratic Kampuchea (1975–1979) at 2,035,000, Vietnam (1945–1987) at 1,670,000, Poland (1945–1987) at 1,585,000, North Korea (1948–1987) at 1,563,000, Yugoslavia (1945–1987) at 1,072,000. Due to additional information about Mao Zedong's culpability in the Great Chinese Famine according to Mao: The Unknown Story, a 2005 book authored by Jon Halliday and Jung Chang, Rummel revised upward his total for Communist democide to about 148 million, using their estimate of 38 million famine deaths. Rummel's figures for Communist governments have been criticized for the methodology which he used to arrive at them, and they have also been criticized for being higher than the figures which have been given by most scholars (for example, The Black Book of Communism estimates the number of those killed in the USSR at 20 million). Right-wing authoritarian, fascist, and feudal regimes Estimates by Rummel for fascist or right-wing authoritarian regimes include: Nazi Germany at 20,946,000 (1933–1945), Nationalist China (1925–1949) and later Taiwan (1949–1987) at 10,214,000, Empire of Japan at 5,964,000 (1900–1945). Estimates for other regime-types include: the Ottoman Empire at 1,883,000 (Armenian genocide and Greek genocide), Pakistan at 1,503,000 (1971 Bangladesh genocide), Porfiriato in Mexico at somewhere between 600,000 and 3,000,000 and closer to 1,417,000 (1900–1920), Democide in Communist and Nationalist China, Nazi Germany, and the Soviet Union are characterized by Rummel as deka-megamurderers (128,168,000), while those in Cambodia, Japan, Pakistan, Poland, Turkey, Vietnam, and Yugoslavia are characterized as the lesser megamurderers (19,178,000), and cases in Mexico, North Korea, and feudal Russia are characterized as suspected megamurderers (4,145,000). Colonial regimes In response to David Stannard's figures about what he terms "the American Holocaust", Rummel estimated that over the centuries of European colonization about 2 million to 15 million American indigenous people were victims of democide, excluding military battles and unintentional deaths in Rummel's definition. Rummel wrote that "[e]ven if these figures are remotely true, then this still make this subjugation of the Americas one of the bloodier, centuries long, democides in world history." Rummel stated that his estimate for those killed by colonialism is 50,000,000 persons in the 20th century; this was revised upwards from his initial estimate of 815,000 dead. Democratic regimes While democratic regimes are considered by Rummel to be the least likely to commit democide and engage in wars per the democratic peace theory, Rummel wrote that "democracies themselves are responsible for some of this democide. Detailed estimates have yet to be made, but preliminarily work suggests that some 2,000,000 foreigners have been killed in cold blood by democracies." Foreign policy and secret services of democratic regimes "may also carry on subversive activities in other states, support deadly coups, and actually encourage or support rebel or military forces that are involved in democidal activities. Such was done, for example, by the American CIA in the 1952 coup against Iran Prime Minister Mossadeq and the 1973 coup against Chile's democratically elected President Allende by General Pinochet. Then there was the secret support given the military in El Salvador and Guatemala although they were slaughtering thousands of presumed communist supporters, and that of the Contras in their war against the Sandinista government of Nicaragua in spite of their atrocities. Particularly reprehensible was the covert support given to the Generals in Indonesia as they murdered hundreds of thousands of communists and others after the alleged attempted communist coup in 1965, and the continued secret support given to General Agha Mohammed Yahya Khan of Pakistan even as he was involved in murdering over a million Bengalis in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh)." According to Rummel, examples of democratic democide would include "those killed in indiscriminate or civilian targeted city bombing, as of Germany and Japan in World War II. It would include the large scale massacres of Filipinos during the bloody American colonization of the Philippines at the beginning of this century, deaths in British concentration camps in South Africa during the Boer War, civilian deaths due to starvation during the British blockade of Germany in and after World War I, the rape and murder of helpless Chinese in and around Peking in 1900, the atrocities committed by Americans in Vietnam, the murder of helpless Algerians during the Algerian War by the French, and the unnatural deaths of German prisoners of war in French and American POW camps after World War II." See also Anti-communist mass killings Classicide Cultural genocide Environmental killings Ethnic cleansing Ethnic conflict Ethnocide Genocide of indigenous peoples Genocides in history List of ethnic cleansing campaigns List of genocides Policide Population cleansing Political cleansing of population Pogrom Lynching Related topics Communal violence Comparison of Nazism and Stalinism Crimes against humanity Crimes against humanity under communist regimes Criticism of communist party rule Cultural conflict Ethnic hatred Ethnic violence Extrajudicial killing Extrajudicial punishment Hate crime Hate group Hate media Hate speech Hate studies Nuclear warfare Police brutality Religious violence Sectarian violence Social cleansing Social murder Terrorism Vigilantism Violence against LGBT people War crime References Further reading Bibliography of genocide studies External links Power Kills – the website of Rudolph Rummel Category:Crimes Category:Genocide Category:Human rights abuses Category:Murder Category:Political neologisms Category:Violence Category:Killings by type Category:Politicides Category:Political and cultural purges	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democide	2025-04-05T18:28:41.370718
8589	December 9	Events Pre-1600 * 536 – Gothic War: The Byzantine general Belisarius enters Rome unopposed; the Gothic garrison flees the capital. * 730 – Battle of Marj Ardabil: The Khazars annihilate an Umayyad army and kill its commander, al-Jarrah ibn Abdallah al-Hakami. 1432 – The first battle between the forces of Švitrigaila and Sigismund Kęstutaitis is fought near the town of Oszmiana (Ashmyany), launching the most active phase of the Lithuanian Civil War. 1531 – The Virgin of Guadalupe first appears to Juan Diego at Tepeyac, Mexico City. 1601–1900 1636 – The Qing dynasty of China, led by Emperor Hong Taiji, invades Joseon. 1688 – Glorious Revolution: Williamite forces defeat Jacobites at Battle of Reading, forcing James II to flee England. (Date is Old Style; the date in the New Style modern calendar is 19 December.) 1775 – American Revolutionary War: British troops and Loyalists, misinformed about Patriot militia strength, lose the Battle of Great Bridge, ending British rule in Virginia. 1822 – French physicist Augustin-Jean Fresnel, in a memoir read to the Academy of Sciences, coins the terms linear polarization, circular polarization, and elliptical polarization, and reports a direct refraction experiment verifying his theory that optical rotation is a form of birefringence. 1824 – Patriot forces led by General Antonio José de Sucre defeat a Royalist army in the Battle of Ayacucho, putting an end to the Peruvian War of Independence. 1835 – Texas Revolution: The Texian Army captures San Antonio following the Siege of Béxar. 1851 – The first YMCA in North America is established in Montreal. 1856 – The Iranian city of Bushehr surrenders to occupying British forces. 1861 – American Civil War: The Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War is established by Congress. 1868 – The first traffic lights are installed, outside the Palace of Westminster in London. Resembling railway signals, they use semaphore arms and are illuminated at night by red and green gas lamps. 1872 – In Louisiana, P. B. S. Pinchback becomes the first African American governor of a U.S. state following the impeachment of Henry C. Warmoth. 1901–present 1905 – In France, a law separating church and state is passed. 1911 – A mine explosion near Briceville, Tennessee, kills 84 miners despite rescue efforts led by the United States Bureau of Mines. 1917 – World War I: Field Marshal Allenby captures Jerusalem from the Ottoman Empire. * 1917 – World War I: The Kingdom of Romania signs the Armistice of Focșani with the Central Powers. 1922 – Gabriel Narutowicz is elected the first president of Poland. 1931 – The Constituent Cortes approves a constitution which establishes the Second Spanish Republic. 1935 – Student protests occur in Beijing's Tiananmen Square, and are subsequently dispersed by government authorities. 1935 – Walter Liggett, an American newspaper editor and muckraker, is killed in a gangland murder. 1937 – Second Sino-Japanese War: Battle of Nanking: Japanese troops under the command of Lt. Gen. Yasuhiko Asaka launch an assault on the Chinese city of Nanking. 1940 – World War II: Operation Compass: British and Indian troops under the command of Major-General Richard O'Connor attack Italian forces near Sidi Barrani in Egypt. 1941 – World War II: China, Cuba, Guatemala, and the Philippine Commonwealth declare war on Germany and Japan. 1941 – World War II: The American 19th Bombardment Group attacks Japanese ships off the coast of Vigan, Luzon. 1946 – The subsequent Nuremberg trials begin with the Doctors' Trial, prosecuting physicians and officers alleged to be involved in Nazi human experimentation and mass murder under the guise of euthanasia. 1946 – The Constituent Assembly of India meets for the first time to write the Constitution of India. 1948 – The Genocide Convention is adopted. 1950 – Cold War: Harry Gold is sentenced to 30 years in jail for helping Klaus Fuchs pass information about the Manhattan Project to the Soviet Union. His testimony is later instrumental in the prosecution of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg. 1953 – Red Scare: General Electric announces that all communist employees will be discharged from the company. 1956 – Trans-Canada Air Lines Flight 810-9, a Canadair North Star, crashes near Hope, British Columbia, Canada, killing all 62 people on board. 1956 – An Aeroflot Lisunov Li-2 crashes near Anadyr, killing all 12 people on board. 1960 – The first episode of Coronation Street, the world's longest-running television soap opera, is broadcast in the United Kingdom. 1961 – Tanganyika becomes independent from Britain. 1965 – Kecksburg UFO incident: A fireball is seen from Michigan to Pennsylvania; with witnesses reporting something crashing in the woods near Pittsburgh. 1968 – Douglas Engelbart gave what became known as "The Mother of All Demos", publicly debuting the computer mouse, hypertext, and the bit-mapped graphical user interface using the oN-Line System (NLS). 1969 – U.S. Secretary of State William P. Rogers proposes his plan for a ceasefire in the War of Attrition; Egypt and Jordan accept it over the objections of the PLO, which leads to civil war in Jordan in September 1970. 1971 – Indo-Pakistani War: The Indian Air Force executes an airdrop of Indian Army units, bypassing Pakistani defences. 1973 – British and Irish authorities sign the Sunningdale Agreement in an attempt to establish a power-sharing Northern Ireland Executive and a cross-border Council of Ireland. 1979 – The eradication of the smallpox virus is certified, making smallpox the first of only two diseases that have been driven to extinction (with rinderpest in 2011 being the other). 1987 – Israeli–Palestinian conflict: The First Intifada begins in the Gaza Strip and West Bank. 1992 – American troops land in Somalia for Operation Restore Hope. 1996 – Gwen Jacob is acquitted of committing an indecent act, giving women the right to be topless in Ontario, Canada. 2003 – A blast in the center of Moscow kills six people and wounds several more. 2006 – Space Shuttle program: Space Shuttle Discovery is launched on STS-116 carrying the P5 truss segment of the International Space Station. 2008 – Governor of Illinois Rod Blagojevich is arrested by federal officials for crimes including attempting to sell the U.S. Senate seat being vacated by President-elect Barack Obama. 2012 – A plane crash in Mexico kills seven people including singer Jenni Rivera. 2013 – At least seven are dead and 63 are injured following a train accident near Bintaro, Indonesia. 2016 – President Park Geun-hye of South Korea is impeached by the country's National Assembly in response to a major political scandal. * 2016 – At least 57 people are killed and a further 177 injured when two schoolgirl suicide bombers attack a market area in Madagali, Adamawa, Nigeria in the Madagali suicide bombings. 2017 – The Marriage Amendment Bill receives royal assent and comes into effect, making Australia the 26th country to legalize same-sex marriage. 2019 – A volcano on Whakaari / White Island, New Zealand, kills 22 people after it erupts. * 2021 – Fifty-five people are killed and more than 100 injured when a truck with 160 migrants from Central America overturned in Chiapas, Mexico.BirthsPre-1600 1392 – Peter, Duke of Coimbra (d. 1449) 1447 – Chenghua Emperor of China (d. 1487) 1482 – Frederick II, Elector Palatine (d. 1556) 1493 – Íñigo López de Mendoza, 4th Duke of the Infantado (d. 1566) 1508 – Gemma Frisius, Dutch mathematician and cartographer (d. 1555) 1561 – Edwin Sandys, English lawyer and politician (d. 1629) 1571 – Metius, Dutch mathematician and astronomer (d. 1635) 1579 – Martin de Porres, Peruvian saint (d. 1639) 1594 – Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden (d. 1632)1601–1900 1608 – John Milton, English poet and philosopher (d. 1674) 1610 – Baldassare Ferri, Italian singer and actor (d. 1680) 1617 – Richard Lovelace, English poet (d. 1657) 1652 – Augustus Quirinus Rivinus, German physician and botanist (d. 1723) 1667 – William Whiston, English mathematician, historian, and theologian (d. 1752) 1717 – Johann Joachim Winckelmann, German archaeologist and historian (d. 1768) 1721 – Peter Pelham, English-American organist and composer (d. 1805) 1728 – Pietro Alessandro Guglielmi, Italian composer (d. 1804) 1742 – Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Swedish Pomeranian and German pharmaceutical chemist (d. 1786) 1745 – Maddalena Laura Sirmen, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1818) 1748 – Claude Louis Berthollet, French chemist and academic (d. 1822) 1752 – Antoine Étienne de Tousard, French general and engineer (d. 1813) 1768 – Joseph Desha, American politician (d. 1842) 1787 – John Dobson, English architect, designed Eldon Square and Lilburn Tower (d. 1865) 1779 – Tabitha Babbitt, American tool maker and inventor (d. 1853) 1806 – Jean-Olivier Chénier, Canadian physician (d. 1838) 1813 – Thomas Andrews, Irish chemist and physicist (d. 1885) 1837 – Émile Waldteufel, French pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1915) 1842 – Peter Kropotkin, Russian zoologist, economist, geographer, and philosopher (d. 1921) 1845 – Joel Chandler Harris, American journalist and author (d. 1908) 1850 – Emma Abbott, American soprano and actress (d. 1891) 1861 – Hélène Smith, French psychic and occultist (d. 1929) 1867 – Gregorios Xenopoulos, Greek journalist and author (d. 1951) 1868 – Fritz Haber, Polish-German chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1934) 1870 – Ida S. Scudder, Indian physician and missionary (d. 1960) * 1870 – Francisco S. Carvajal, Mexican lawyer and politician, president 1914 (d. 1932) 1871 – Joe Kelley, American baseball player and manager (d. 1943) 1873 – George Blewett, Canadian philosopher, author, and academic (d. 1912) 1875 – Harry Miller, American engineer (d. 1943) 1876 – Berton Churchill, Canadian-American actor and singer (d. 1940) 1882 – Elmer Booth, American actor (d. 1915) 1882 – Joaquín Turina, Spanish-French composer, critic, and educator (d. 1949) 1883 – Nikolai Luzin, Russian mathematician, theorist, and academic (d. 1950) 1883 – Alexander Papagos, Greek general and politician, 152nd Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1955) * 1883 – Joseph Pilates, German-American fitness expert, developed Pilates (d. 1967) 1886 – Clarence Birdseye, American businessman, founded Birds Eye (d. 1956) 1887 – Tim Moore, American actor (d. 1958) 1889 – Hannes Kolehmainen, Finnish-American runner (d. 1966) 1890 – Laura Salverson, Canadian author (d. 1970) 1891 – Maksim Bahdanovič, Belarusian poet and critic (d. 1917) 1892 – André Randall, French actor (d. 1974) 1895 – Dolores Ibárruri, Spanish activist, journalist and politician (d. 1989) 1895 – Conchita Supervía, Spanish soprano and actress (d. 1936) 1897 – Hermione Gingold, English actress and singer (d. 1987)<!-- never became a US citizen --> 1898 – Irene Greenwood, Australian radio broadcaster and feminist and peace activist (d. 1992) * 1898 – Emmett Kelly, American clown and actor (d. 1979) 1899 – Jean de Brunhoff, French author and illustrator (d. 1937) 1900 – Margaret Brundage, American illustrator, known for illustrating pulp magazine Weird Tales (d. 1976) * 1900 – Albert Weisbord, American activist, founded the Communist League of Struggle (d. 1977) 1901–present 1901 – Jean Mermoz, French pilot and politician (d. 1936) 1901 – Ödön von Horváth, Hungarian-German author and playwright (d. 1938) 1902 – Margaret Hamilton, American schoolteacher, actress and voice artist (d. 1985) 1904 – Robert Livingston, American actor and singer (d. 1988) 1905 – Dalton Trumbo, American author, screenwriter, and blacklistee (d. 1976) 1906 – Freddy Martin, American bandleader and tenor saxophonist (d. 1983) 1909 – Douglas Fairbanks Jr., American captain, actor, and producer (d. 2000) 1910 – Vere Bird, first Prime Minister of Antigua and Barbuda (d. 1999) 1911 – Broderick Crawford, American actor (d. 1986) 1911 – Ryūzō Sejima, Japanese colonel and businessman (d. 2007) 1912 – Tip O'Neill, American lawyer and politician, 55th Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (d. 1994) 1915 – Elisabeth Schwarzkopf, German-Austrian soprano and actress (d. 2006) 1916 – Jerome Beatty Jr., American soldier, journalist, and author (d. 2002) 1916 – Kirk Douglas, American actor, singer, and producer (d. 2020) * 1931 – William Reynolds, American actor (d. 2022) * 1931 – Ladislav Smoljak, Czech actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2010) 1932 – Donald Byrd, American trumpet player and academic (d. 2013) 1932 – Bill Hartack, American jockey (d. 2007) * 1932 – Billy Edd Wheeler, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and playwright (d. 2024) 1933 – Ashleigh Brilliant, English-American author and illustrator 1933 – Milt Campbell, American decathlete and football player (d. 2012) * 1933 – Morton Downey Jr., American actor and talk show host (d. 2001) * 1933 – Orville Moody, American golfer (d. 2008) 1934 – Judi Dench, English actress 1934 – Alan Ridout, English composer and teacher (d. 1996) * 1934 – Junior Wells, American blues singer-songwriter and harmonica player (d. 1998) 1935 – David Houston, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1993) 1938 – Deacon Jones, American football player, sportscaster, and actor (d. 2013) 1943 – Pit Martin, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2008) 1943 – Joanna Trollope, English author, playwright, and director * 1943 – Kenny Vance, American singer-songwriter and music producer 1944 – Neil Innes, English singer-songwriter (d. 2019) 1944 – Ki Longfellow, American author, playwright, and producer (d. 2022) * 1944 – Bob O'Connor, American businessman and politician, 57th Mayor of Pittsburgh (d. 2006) 1945 – Michael Nouri, American actor 1964 – Michael Foster, American drummer * 1964 – Ross Harrington, Australian rugby league player * 1964 – Hape Kerkeling, German actor and singer * 1964 – Johannes B. Kerner, German journalist and sportscaster * 1964 – Les Kiss, Australian rugby league player * 1964 – Paul Landers, German guitarist 1965 – Joe Ausanio, American baseball player and coach 1966 – Kirsten Gillibrand, American lawyer and politician * 1966 – Dave Harold, English snooker player * 1966 – Gideon Sa'ar, Israeli lawyer and politician, 24th Israeli Minister of Internal Affairs * 1966 – Martin Taylor, English footballer and coach 1967 – Joshua Bell, American violinist and conductor 1967 – Jason Dozzell, English footballer and manager 1968 – Kurt Angle, American freestyle and professional wrestler 1968 – Brian Bell, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1969 – Bixente Lizarazu, French footballer * 1969 – Raphaël Rouquier, French mathematician and academic * 1969 – Allison Smith, American actress 1973 – Stacey Abrams, American politician and activist 1973 – Fabio Artico, Italian footballer * 1973 – Vénuste Niyongabo, Burundian runner * 1973 – Bárbara Padilla, Mexican-American soprano 1974 – David Akers, American football player 1974 – Canibus, Jamaican-American rapper 1976 – Mona Hanna-Attisha, American pediatrician, professor, and public health advocate 1977 – Shayne Graham, American football player * 1977 – Imogen Heap, English singer-songwriter and keyboard player * 1982 – Bastian Swillims, German sprinter 1983 – Jermaine Beckford, English-Jamaican footballer 1983 – Neslihan Demir Darnel, Turkish volleyball player * 1983 – Dariusz Dudka, Polish footballer * 1983 – Jolene Purdy, American actress 1987 – Kostas Giannoulis, Greek footballer 1987 – Gerald Henderson Jr., American basketball player * 1987 – Mat Latos, American baseball player * 1987 – Hikaru Nakamura, Japanese-American chess player * 1987 – Jeff Petry, American ice hockey player * 1987 – Joshua Sasse, English actor 1990 – Ashleigh Brewer, Australian actress 1991 – Choi Min-ho, South Korean singer and actor 1993 – Cem Ince, German politician 1993 – Mark McMorris, Canadian snowboarder * 1993 – Laura Smulders, Dutch cyclist * 1994 – Ryan Lomberg, Canadian ice hockey player 1995 – Simone Fontecchio, Italian basketball player 1995 – McKayla Maroney, American gymnast 1996 – Mackenzie Blackwood, Canadian ice hockey player 1996 – Kyle Connor, American ice hockey player * 1996 – MyKayla Skinner, American gymnast 1997 – Harvey Barnes, English footballer 2000 – Diāna Ņikitina, Latvian figure skater 2005 – Ni-Ki, Japanese singer <!--Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not rely on "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.--> Deaths Pre-1600 638 – Sergius I of Constantinople * 730 – Al-Jarrah ibn Abdallah, Arab general * 748 – Nasr ibn Sayyar, Umayyad general and politician (b. 663) * 933 – Li Congrong, prince of Later Tang 1117 – Gertrude of Brunswick, Markgräfin of Meißen 1165 – Malcolm IV of Scotland (b. 1141) 1242 – Richard le Gras, Lord Keeper of England and Abbot of Evesham 1268 – Vaišvilkas, Prince of Black Ruthenia, Grand Duke of Lithuania 1299 – Bohemond I, Archbishop of Trier 1437 – Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1368) 1544 – Teofilo Folengo, Italian poet (b. 1491) 1565 – Pope Pius IV (b. 1499)1601–1900 1603 – William Watson, English priest (b. 1559) 1625 – Ubbo Emmius, Dutch historian and geographer (b. 1547) 1636 – Fabian Birkowski, Polish preacher and author (b. 1566) 1641 – Anthony van Dyck, Belgian-English painter and illustrator (b. 1599) 1669 – Pope Clement IX (b. 1600) 1674 – Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, English historian and politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (b. 1609) 1706 – Peter II of Portugal (b. 1648) 1718 – Vincenzo Coronelli, Italian monk and cartographer (b. 1650) * 1761 – Tarabai, Queen of Chatrapati Rajaram (b. 1675) 1793 – Yolande de Polastron, French-Austrian educator (b. 1749) 1798 – Johann Reinhold Forster, German pastor, botanist, and ornithologist (b. 1729) 1830 – Heinrich Christian Friedrich Schumacher, Danish surgeon, botanist, and academic (b. 1757) 1851 – William Thornhill, English army officer (b. 1768) 1854 – Almeida Garrett, Portuguese journalist and author (b. 1799) 1858 – Robert Baldwin, Canadian lawyer and politician, 3rd Premier of Canada West (b. 1804) 1887 – Mahmadu Lamine, Senegalese religious leader 1901–present 1906 – Ferdinand Brunetière, French author and critic (b. 1849) 1907 – Eva Nansen, Norwegian mezzo-soprano singer and pioneer on women skiing (b. 1858) 1916 – Natsume Sōseki, Japanese author and poet (b. 1867) 1924 – Bernard Zweers, Dutch composer and educator (b. 1854) 1930 – Rube Foster, American baseball player and manager (b. 1879) 1932 – Karl Blossfeldt, German photographer, sculptor, and educator (b. 1865) 1932 – Begum Rokeya, Bangladeshi social worker and author (b. 1880) 1935 – Walter Liggett, American journalist and activist (b. 1886) 1937 – Lilias Armstrong, English phonetician (b. 1882) * 1937 – Gustaf Dalén, Swedish physicist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1869) 1941 – Dmitry Merezhkovsky, Russian author, poet, and philosopher (b. 1865) 1943 – Georges Dufrénoy, French painter (b. 1870) 1944 – Laird Cregar, American actor (b. 1913) 1945 – Yun Chi-ho, South Korean activist and politician (b. 1864) 1957 – Ali İhsan Sâbis, Turkish general (b. 1882) 1963 – Daniel O. Fagunwa, Nigerian author and educator (b. 1903) * 1963 – Perry Miller, American historian, author, and academic (b. 1905) 1964 – Edith Sitwell, English poet and critic (b. 1887) 1965 – Branch Rickey, American baseball player and manager (b. 1884) 1967 – Charles Léon Hammes, Luxembourgish lawyer and judge, 3rd President of the European Court of Justice (b. 1898) 1968 – Enoch L. Johnson, American mob boss (b. 1883) 1970 – Artem Mikoyan, Armenian-Russian engineer and businessman, co-founded the Mikoyan-Gurevich Design Bureau (b. 1905) 1970 – Feroz Khan Noon, Pakistani politician, 7th Prime Minister of Pakistan (b. 1893) 1971 – Ralph Bunche, American political scientist, academic, and diplomat, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1904) 1971 – Sergey Konenkov, Russian sculptor and painter (b. 1874) * 1971 – Rev. Aeneas Francon Williams, Church of Scotland Minister, Missionary in India and China, writer and poet (b. 1886) 1972 – Louella Parsons, American writer and columnist (b. 1881) 1975 – William A. Wellman, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1896) 1979 – Fulton J. Sheen, American archbishop (b. 1895) 1982 – Leon Jaworski, American lawyer and politician (b. 1905) * 1982 – Marguerite Henry, Australian zoologist (b. 1895) 1991 – Berenice Abbott, American photographer (b. 1898) 1992 – Vincent Gardenia, American actor (b. 1922) 1993 – Danny Blanchflower, Northern Irish footballer and manager (b. 1926) 1995 – Toni Cade Bambara, American author and academic (b. 1939) * 1995 – Douglas Corrigan, American pilot (b. 1907) 1996 – Patty Donahue, American singer-songwriter (b. 1956) 1996 – Mary Leakey, English archaeologist and anthropologist (b. 1913) * 1996 – Alain Poher, French lawyer and politician (b. 1909) * 1996 – Diana Morgan, Welsh playwright and screenwriter (b. 1908) 1998 – Shaughnessy Cohen, Canadian lawyer and politician (b. 1948) 1998 – Archie Moore, American boxer and actor (b. 1913) 2001 – Michael Carver, Baron Carver, English field marshal (b. 1915) 2002 – Mary Hansen, Australian singer and guitarist (b. 1966) * 2002 – Ian Hornak, American painter and sculptor (b. 1944) * 2002 – Stan Rice, American painter and poet (b. 1942) 2003 – Norm Sloan, American basketball player and coach (b. 1926) 2003 – Paul Simon, American soldier, journalist, and politician, 39th Lieutenant Governor of Illinois (b. 1928) 2005 – György Sándor, Hungarian-American pianist and educator (b. 1912) 2005 – Robert Sheckley, American author (b. 1928) 2006 – Georgia Gibbs, American singer (b. 1919) 2007 – Rafael Sperafico, Brazilian race car driver (b. 1981) * 2007 – Gordon Zahn, American sociologist, author, and academic (b. 1918) 2008 – Ibrahim Dossey, Ghanaian footballer (b. 1972) 2008 – Yury Glazkov, Russian general, pilot, and astronaut (b. 1939) 2009 – Gene Barry, American actor (b. 1919) 2010 – James Moody, American saxophonist, flute player, and composer (b. 1925) * 2010 – Dov Shilansky, Lithuanian-Israeli lawyer and politician, 10th Speaker of the Knesset (b. 1924) 2012 – Béla Nagy Abodi, Hungarian painter and academic (b. 1918) 2012 – Patrick Moore, English lieutenant, astronomer, and educator (b. 1923) * 2012 – Alex Moulton, English engineer and businessman, founded the Moulton Bicycle Company (b. 1920) * 2012 – Jenni Rivera, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress (b. 1969) * 2012 – Charles Rosen, American pianist and musicologist (b. 1927) * 2012 – Riccardo Schicchi, Italian director and producer, co-founded Diva Futura (b. 1953) * 2012 – Norman Joseph Woodland, American inventor, co-created the bar code (b. 1921) 2013 – Hristu Cândroveanu, Romanian editor, literary critic and writer (b. 1928) 2013 – John Gabbert, American soldier, lawyer, and judge (b. 1909) * 2013 – Barbara Hesse-Bukowska, Polish pianist and educator (b. 1930) * 2013 – Eleanor Parker, American actress (b. 1922) * 2013 – John Wilbur, American football player (b. 1943) 2014 – Sacvan Bercovitch, Canadian-American author, critic, and academic (b. 1933) 2014 – Jane Freilicher, American painter and poet (b. 1924) * 2014 – Jorge María Mejía, Argentinian cardinal (b. 1923) * 2014 – Mary Ann Mobley, American model and actress, Miss America 1959 (b. 1937) * 2014 – Blagoje Paunović, Serbian footballer and manager (b. 1947) * 2014 – Jože Toporišič, Slovenian linguist and author (b. 1926) 2015 – Soshana Afroyim, Austrian painter (b. 1927) 2015 – Norman Breslow, American statistician and academic (b. 1941) * 2015 – Juvenal Juvêncio, Brazilian lawyer and politician (b. 1934) * 2015 – Julio Terrazas Sandoval, Bolivian cardinal (b. 1936) 2021 – Speedy Duncan, American football player (b. 1942) 2021 – Demaryius Thomas, American football player (b. 1987) 2022 – Jovit Baldivino, Filipino singer and actor (b. 1993) 2024 – Nikki Giovanni, American poet, writer and activist (b. 1943) <!--Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not rely on "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.--> Holidays and observances Anna's Day, marks the day to start the preparation process of the lutefisk to be consumed on Christmas Eve, as well as a Swedish name day, celebrating all people named Anna. (Sweden and Finland) Armed Forces Day (Peru) Christian feast day: Feast of the Conception of the Most Holy Theotokos by St. Anne (Eastern Orthodox Church) Hannah (biblical figure) (Eastern Orthodox Church) Juan Diego Leocadia Nectarius of Auvergne Peter Fourier December 9 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Fatherland's Heroes Day (Russia) Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Tanganyika from Britain in 1961. (Tanzania) International Anti-Corruption Day (United Nations) National Heroes Day, formerly V.C. Bird Day. (Antigua and Barbuda) Navy Day (Sri Lanka) References External links * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/9 BBC: On This Day] * * [https://www.onthisday.com/events/december/9 Historical Events on December 9] Category:Days of December	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_9	2025-04-05T18:28:41.424634
8591	Diaspora studies	Diaspora studies is an academic field established in the late 20th century to study dispersed ethnic populations, which are often termed diaspora peoples. The usage of the term diaspora carries the connotation of forced resettlement, due to expulsion, coercion, slavery, racism, or war, especially nationalist conflicts. Academic institutes The International Institute for Diasporic and Transcultural Studies (IIDTS) — a transnational institute incorporating Jean Moulin University (Lyons, France), the University of Cyprus, Sun Yat-sen University (Guangzhou, China) and Liverpool Hope University (UK) — is a dedicated research network operating in a transdisciplinary logic and focused on cultural representation (and auto-representation) of diasporic communities throughout the world. The institute sponsors the trilingual publication Transtext(e)s-Transcultures: A Journal of Global Cultural Studies. Nehru University's School of International Studies, www.jnu.ac.in has a strong research programme, DIMP (Diaspora and International Programme) and its faculty run a network www.odi.in (Organisation for Diaspora Initiatives), an international network of higher academic researchers focused on studying Diaspora from International Perspective and examining diaspora as a resource in international relations. ODI publishes a research journal www.tandfonline/rdst with Routledge, London. Golong Gilig Institute of Javanese Diaspora Studies, Indonesia. Select Bibliography Hall, Stuart (1990). "Cultural Identity and Diaspora." From Jonathan Rutherford, e.d, Identity: Community, Culture, and Difference (Lawrence & Wishart), pp. 222-37. Available online. (Also available here .) See also Diaspora politics References Category:Ethnology Category:Anthropology	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diaspora_studies	2025-04-05T18:28:41.444446
8592	Domitian	\| predecessor = Titus \| successor = Nerva \| birth_name Titus Flavius Domitianus \| birth_date = 24 October 51 \| birth_place = Rome, Italy, Roman Empire \| death_date \| death_place = Rome, Italy \| burial_place = Rome \| spouse = Domitia Longina () \| issue \|Vespasian Minor (possibly adopted)}} \| full name Caesar Domitianus (69–81) He had an older sister, Domitilla the Younger, and brother, also named Titus Flavius Vespasianus. Decades of civil war during the 1st century BC had contributed greatly to the demise of the old aristocracy of Rome, which a new Italian nobility gradually replaced in prominence during the early part of the 1st century. One such family, the Flavians, or Flavia gens, rose from relative obscurity to prominence in just four generations, acquiring wealth and status under the emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Sabinus himself amassed further wealth and possible equestrian status through his services as tax collector in Asia and banker in Helvetia (modern Switzerland). By marrying Vespasia Polla he allied the Flavian family to the more prestigious gens Vespasia, ensuring the elevation of his sons Titus Flavius Sabinus and Vespasian to senatorial rank. Nevertheless, ancient sources allege poverty for the Flavian family at the time of Domitian's upbringing, even claiming Vespasian had fallen into disrepute under the emperors Caligula (37–41) and Nero (54–68). Modern history has refuted these claims, suggesting these stories later circulated under Flavian rule as part of a propaganda campaign to diminish success under the less reputable Emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and to maximize achievements under Emperor Claudius (41–54) and his son Britannicus. By all appearances, the Flavians enjoyed high imperial favour throughout the 40s and 60s. While Titus received a court education in the company of Britannicus, Vespasian pursued a successful political and military career. Following a prolonged period of retirement during the 50s, he returned to public office under Nero, serving as proconsul of the Africa Province in 63, and accompanying the emperor Nero during an official tour of Greece in 66. That same year Jews from the Province of Judaea revolted against the Roman Empire, sparking what is now known as the First Jewish–Roman War. Vespasian was assigned to lead the Roman army against the insurgents, with Titus—who had completed his military education by this time—in charge of a legion. Youth and character Of the three Flavian emperors, Domitian would rule the longest, despite the fact that his youth and early career were largely spent in the shadow of his older brother. Titus had gained military renown during the First Jewish–Roman War. After their father Vespasian became emperor in 69 following the civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors, Titus held a great many offices, while Domitian received honours, but no responsibilities. By the time he was 16 years old, Domitian's mother and sister had long since died, while his father and brother were continuously active in the Roman military, commanding armies in Germania and Judaea. For Domitian, this meant that a significant part of his adolescence was spent in the absence of his near relatives. During the Jewish–Roman wars, he was likely taken under the care of his uncle Titus Flavius Sabinus II, at the time serving as city prefect of Rome; or possibly even Marcus Cocceius Nerva, a loyal friend of the Flavians and the future successor to Domitian. He received the education of a young man of the privileged senatorial class, studying rhetoric and literature. In his biography in the Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Suetonius attests to Domitian's ability to quote the important poets and writers such as Homer or Virgil on appropriate occasions, and describes him as a learned and educated adolescent, with elegant conversation. Among his first published works were poetry, as well as writings on law and administration. A detailed description of Domitian's appearance and character is provided by Suetonius, who devotes a substantial part of his biography to his personality: Domitian was allegedly extremely sensitive regarding his baldness, which he disguised in later life by wearing wigs. According to Suetonius, he even wrote a book on the subject of hair care. With regard to Domitian's personality, however, the account of Suetonius alternates sharply between portraying Domitian as the emperor-tyrant, a man both physically and intellectually lazy, and the intelligent, refined personality drawn elsewhere. Historian Brian Jones concludes in The Emperor Domitian that assessing the true nature of Domitian's personality is inherently complicated by the bias of the surviving sources. and often communicated in cryptic ways. This ambiguity of character was further exacerbated by his remoteness, and as he grew older, he increasingly displayed a preference for solitude, which may have stemmed from his isolated upbringing. Rise of the Flavians Year of the Four Emperors (69); Blue areas indicate provinces loyal to Vespasian and Gaius Licinius Mucianus; Green areas indicate provinces loyal to Vitellius]] On 9 June 68, amid growing opposition of the Senate and the army, Nero committed suicide and with him the Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end. Chaos ensued, leading to a year of brutal civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors, during which the four most influential generals in the Roman Empire—Galba, Otho, Vitellius and Vespasian—successively vied for imperial power. News of Nero's death reached Vespasian as he was preparing to besiege the city of Jerusalem. Almost simultaneously the Senate had declared Galba, then governor of Hispania Tarraconensis (modern northern Spain), as Emperor of Rome. Rather than continue his campaign, Vespasian decided to await further orders and send Titus to greet the new Emperor. Otho and Vitellius realized the potential threat posed by the Flavian faction. With four legions at his disposal, Vespasian commanded a strength of nearly 80,000 soldiers. His position in Judaea further granted him the advantage of being nearest to the vital province of Egypt, which controlled the grain supply to Rome. His brother Titus Flavius Sabinus II, as city prefect, commanded the entire city garrison of Rome. When Otho was defeated by Vitellius at the First Battle of Bedriacum, the armies in Judaea and Egypt took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian emperor on 1 July 69. Vespasian accepted and entered an alliance with Gaius Licinius Mucianus, the governor of Syria, against Vitellius. In Rome, Domitian was placed under house arrest by Vitellius, as a safeguard against Flavian aggression. In despair, Vitellius attempted to negotiate a surrender. Terms of peace, including a voluntary abdication, were agreed upon with Titus Flavius Sabinus II but the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard—the imperial bodyguard—considered such a resignation disgraceful and prevented Vitellius from carrying out the treaty. On the morning of 18 December, the emperor appeared to deposit the imperial insignia at the Temple of Concord but at the last minute retraced his steps to the Imperial palace. In the confusion, the leading men of the state gathered at Sabinus' house, proclaiming Vespasian as Emperor, but the multitude dispersed when Vitellian cohorts clashed with the armed escort of Sabinus, who was forced to retreat to the Capitoline Hill. During the night, he was joined by his relatives, including Domitian. The armies of Mucianus were nearing Rome but the besieged Flavian party did not hold out for longer than a day. On 19 December, Vitellianists burst onto the Capitol and in a skirmish, Sabinus was captured and executed. Domitian managed to escape by disguising himself as a worshipper of Isis and spent the night in safety with one of his father's supporters, Cornelius Primus. Aftermath of the war (detail), by Rembrandt (1661). During the Batavian rebellion, Domitian eagerly sought the opportunity to attain military glory, but was denied command of a legion by superior officers.]] Although the war had officially ended, a state of anarchy and lawlessness pervaded in the first days following the demise of Vitellius. Order was properly restored by Mucianus in early 70 but Vespasian did not enter Rome until September of that year. The ancient historian Tacitus describes Domitian's first speech in the Senate as brief and measured, at the same time noting his ability to elude awkward questions. Domitian's authority was merely nominal, foreshadowing what was to be his role for at least ten more years. By all accounts, Mucianus held the real power in Vespasian's absence and he was careful to ensure that Domitian, still only eighteen years old, did not overstep the boundaries of his function. When news arrived of Cerialis' victory over Civilis, Mucianus tactfully dissuaded Domitian from pursuing further military endeavours. Marriage (Louvre)]] Where his political and military career had ended in disappointment, Domitian's private affairs were more successful. In 70 Vespasian attempted to arrange a dynastic marriage between his youngest son and the daughter of Titus, Julia Flavia, but Domitian was adamant in his love for Domitia Longina, going so far as to persuade her husband, Lucius Aelius Lamia Plautius Aelianus, to divorce her so that Domitian could marry her himself. In 80, Domitia and Domitian's only attested son was born. It is not known what the boy's name was, but he died in childhood in 83. Shortly following his accession as emperor, Domitian bestowed the honorific title of Augusta upon Domitia, while their son was deified, appearing as such on the reverse of coin types from this period. Nevertheless, the marriage appears to have faced a significant crisis in 83. For reasons unknown, Domitian briefly exiled Domitia, and then soon recalled her, either out of love or due to rumours that he was carrying on a relationship with his niece Julia Flavia. Jones argues that most likely he did so for her failure to produce an heir. where she lived for the remainder of Domitian's reign without incident. Little is known of Domitia's activities as empress, or how much influence she wielded in Domitian's government, but it seems her role was limited. From Suetonius, we know that she at least accompanied the Emperor to the amphitheatre, while the Jewish writer Josephus speaks of benefits he received from her. It is not known whether Domitian had other children, but he did not marry again. Despite allegations by Roman sources of adultery and divorce, the marriage appears to have been happy. Ceremonial heir (71–81) (1885), depicting the Flavian family during the triumphal procession of 71. Vespasian proceeds at the head of the family, dressed as pontifex maximus, followed by Domitian with Domitia Longina, and finally Titus, also dressed in religious regalia. An exchange of glances between Titus and Domitia suggests an affair upon which historians have speculated.]] Before becoming Emperor, Domitian's role in the Flavian government was largely ceremonial. In June 71, Titus returned triumphant from the war in Judaea. Ultimately, the rebellion had claimed the lives of tens of thousands, perhaps hundreds of thousands, a majority of whom were Jewish. The city and temple of Jerusalem were completely destroyed, its most valuable treasures carried off by the Roman army, and nearly 100,000 people were captured and enslaved. For his victory, the Senate awarded Titus a Roman triumph. On the day of the festivities, the Flavian family rode into the capital, preceded by a lavish parade that displayed the spoils of the war. The family procession was headed by Vespasian and Titus, while Domitian, riding a magnificent white horse, followed with the remaining Flavian relatives. Leaders of the Jewish resistance were executed in the Forum Romanum, after which the procession closed with religious sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter. Yet the return of Titus further highlighted the comparative insignificance of Domitian, both militarily and politically. As the eldest and most experienced of Vespasian's sons, Titus shared tribunician power with his father, received seven consulships, the censorship, and was given command of the Praetorian Guard; powers that left no doubt he was the designated heir to the Empire. As a second son, Domitian held honorary titles, such as Caesar or Princeps Iuventutis, and several priesthoods, including those of augur, pontifex, frater arvalis, magister frater arvalium, and sacerdos collegiorum omnium, Under Vespasian and Titus, non-Flavians were virtually excluded from the important public offices. Mucianus himself all but disappeared from historical records during this time, and it is believed he died sometime between 75 and 77. Real power was unmistakably concentrated in the hands of the Flavian faction; the weakened Senate only maintained the facade of democracy. Because Titus effectively acted as co-emperor with his father, no abrupt change in Flavian policy occurred when Vespasian died on 24 June 79. Titus assured Domitian that full partnership in the government would soon be his, but neither tribunician power nor imperium of any kind was conferred upon him during Titus' brief reign. Two major disasters struck during 79 and 80. In October/November 79, Mount Vesuvius erupted, burying the surrounding cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum under metres of ash and lava; the following year, a fire broke out in Rome that lasted three days and destroyed a number of important public buildings. Consequently, Titus spent much of his reign coordinating relief efforts and restoring damaged property. On 13 September 81, after barely two years in office, he unexpectedly died of fever during a trip to the Sabine territories. or implying he left the ailing Titus for dead, even alleging that during his lifetime, Domitian was openly plotting against his brother. the Senate confirmed Domitian's powers, granting tribunician power, the office of pontifex maximus, and the titles of Augustus ("venerable"), and Pater Patriae ("father of the country"). Emperor (81–96) Rule As emperor, Domitian quickly dispensed with the republican facade his father and brother had maintained during their reign. By moving the centre of government to the imperial court, Domitian openly rendered the Senate's powers obsolete. According to Pliny the Younger, Domitian believed that the Roman Empire was to be governed as a divine monarchy with himself as the benevolent despot at its head. In addition to exercising absolute political power, Domitian believed the emperor's role encompassed every aspect of daily life, guiding the Roman people as a cultural and moral authority. To usher in the new era, he embarked on ambitious economic, military, and cultural programs with the intention of restoring the Empire to the splendour it had seen under the Emperor Augustus. Despite these grand designs, Domitian was determined to govern the Empire conscientiously and scrupulously. He became personally involved in all branches of the administration: edicts were issued governing the smallest details of everyday life and law, while taxation and public morals were rigidly enforced. According to Suetonius, the imperial bureaucracy never ran more efficiently than under Domitian, whose exacting standards and suspicious nature maintained historically low corruption among provincial governors and elected officials. Although he made no pretence regarding the significance of the Senate under his absolute rule, those senators he deemed unworthy were expelled from the Senate, and in the distribution of public offices he rarely favoured family members, a policy that stood in contrast to the nepotism practiced by Vespasian and Titus. Above all, however, Domitian valued loyalty and malleability in those he assigned to strategic posts, qualities he found more often in men of the equestrian order than in members of the Senate or his own family, whom he regarded with suspicion, and promptly removed from office if they disagreed with imperial policy. The reality of Domitian's autocracy was further highlighted by the fact that, more than any emperor since Tiberius, he spent significant periods of time away from the capital. Building Program At the time of Domitian's accession the city was still suffering from the damage caused by the civil war of 69 and the fire in 80. Among the most important new structures were the Stadium of Domitian (today occupied by the Piazza Navona) and the neighbouring Odeon of Domitian, Rome's first permanent venues for Greek-style athletics and artistic competitions which he reintroduced with the Capitoline Games. The most important building Domitian restored was the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline Hill, said to have been covered with a gilded roof: His expansive and sumptuous palace on the Palatine Hill known as the Flavian Palace was designed by Domitian's master architect Rabirius. Among buildings he completed were the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, the Arch of Titus and the Colosseum, to which he added a fourth level and finished the interior seating area. Palaces and villas For his personal use, he was active in constructing many monumental buildings, including the Villa of Domitian, a vast and sumptuous palace situated 20 km outside Rome in the Alban Hills. In Rome itself, he built the sumptuous Palace of Domitian on the Palatine Hill. Seven other villa-palaces are linked with Domitian at Tusculum, Antium, Sabaudia, Vicarello, Caieta, Terracina and Baiae. Only those at Sabaudia and Vicarello have been positively identified. Economy by 12%. This coin commemorates the deification of Domitian's son.]] Domitian's tendency towards micromanagement was nowhere more evident than in his financial policy. The question of whether Domitian left the Roman Empire in debt or with a surplus at the time of his death has been fiercely debated. The evidence points to a balanced economy for the greater part of Domitian's reign. Upon his accession he revalued the Roman currency dramatically. He increased the silver purity of the denarius from 90% to 98% – the actual silver weight increasing from 2.87 grams to 3.26 grams. A financial crisis in 85 forced a devaluation of the silver purity and weight to 93.5% and 3.04 grams respectively. Nevertheless, the new values were still higher than the levels that Vespasian and Titus had maintained during their reigns. Domitian's rigorous taxation policy ensured that this standard was sustained for the following eleven years. The Emperor also revived the practice of public banquets, which had been reduced to a simple distribution of food under Nero, while he invested large sums on entertainment and games. In 86 he founded the Capitoline Games in his stadium, a quadrennial contest comprising athletic displays, chariot racing, and competitions for oratory, music and acting. Military campaigns , Azerbaijan (then Caucasian Albania), mentioning Domitian and Legio XII Fulminata]] The military campaigns undertaken during Domitian's reign were generally defensive in nature, as the Emperor rejected the idea of expansionist warfare. Nevertheless, several important wars were fought in Gaul, against the Chatti, and across the Danube frontier against the Suebi, the Sarmatians, and the Dacians. the rock inscription near Boyukdash mountain, in present-day Azerbaijan. As judged by the carved titles of Caesar, Augustus and Germanicus, the related march took place between 84 and 96 AD. Domitian's administration of the Roman army was characterized by the same fastidious involvement he exhibited in other branches of the government. His competence as a military strategist was criticized by his contemporaries however. Although he claimed several triumphs, these were largely propaganda manoeuvres. Tacitus derided Domitian's victory against the Chatti as a "mock triumph", and criticized his decision to retreat in Britain following the conquests of Agricola. Nevertheless, Domitian appears to have been very popular among the soldiers, spending an estimated three years of his reign among the army on campaigns—more than any emperor since Augustus—and raising their pay by one-third. While the army command may have disapproved of his tactical and strategic decisions, the loyalty of the common soldier was unquestioned. Campaign against the Chatti Once Emperor, Domitian immediately sought to attain his long delayed military glory. As early as 82, or possibly 83, he went to Gaul, ostensibly to conduct a census, and suddenly ordered an attack on the Chatti. For this purpose, a new legion was founded, Legio I Minervia, which constructed some 75 kilometres (46 mi) of roads through Chattan territory to uncover the enemy's hiding places. Although little information survives of the battles fought, enough early victories were apparently achieved for Domitian to be back in Rome by the end of 83, where he celebrated an elaborate triumph and conferred upon himself the title of Germanicus. Domitian's supposed victory was much scorned by ancient authors, who described the campaign as "uncalled for", and a "mock triumph". He fortified the coast facing Ireland, and Tacitus recalls that his father-in-law often claimed the island could be conquered with a single legion and a few auxiliaries. He had given refuge to an exiled Irish king whom he hoped he might use as the excuse for conquest. This conquest never happened, but some historians believe that the crossing referred to was in fact a small-scale exploratory or punitive expedition to Ireland. Turning his attention from Ireland, the following year Agricola raised a fleet and pushed beyond the River Forth into Caledonia. To aid the advance, a large legionary fortress was constructed at Inchtuthil. Although the Romans inflicted heavy losses on the enemy, two-thirds of the Caledonian army escaped and hid in the Scottish marshes and Highlands, ultimately preventing Agricola from bringing the entire British island under his control. Not long after Agricola's recall from Britain, the Roman Empire entered into war with the Kingdom of Dacia in the East. Reinforcements were needed, and in 87 or 88, Domitian ordered a large-scale strategic withdrawal of troops in the British province. The fortress at Inchtuthil was dismantled and the Caledonian forts and watchtowers abandoned, moving the Roman frontier some 120 kilometres (75 mi) further south. The army command may have resented Domitian's decision to retreat, but to him the Caledonian territories never represented anything more than a loss to the Roman treasury. Domitian quickly launched a counteroffensive, personally travelling to the region accompanied by a large force commanded by his praetorian prefect Cornelius Fuscus. Fuscus successfully drove the Dacians back across the border in mid-85, prompting Domitian to return to Rome and celebrate his second triumph. The victory proved short-lived, however: as early in 86 Fuscus embarked on an ill-fated expedition into Dacia. Fuscus was killed, and the battle standard of the Praetorian Guard was lost. An attack on the Dacian capital Sarmizegetusa was forestalled when new troubles arose on the German frontier in 89. In order to avert having to conduct a war on two fronts, Domitian agreed to terms of peace with Decebalus, negotiating free access of Roman troops through the Dacian region while granting Decebalus an annual subsidy of 8 million sesterces. For the remainder of Domitian's reign Dacia remained a relatively peaceful client kingdom, but Decebalus used the Roman money to fortify his defenses. Eventually the Romans achieved a decisive victory against Decebalus in 106. Again, the Roman army sustained heavy losses, but Trajan succeeded in capturing Sarmizegetusa and, importantly, annexed the Dacian gold and silver mines.Religious policy of Domitian with the aegis and a cornucopia, marble statue, Capitoline Museums, Rome]] Domitian firmly believed in the traditional Roman religion, and personally saw to it that ancient customs and morals were observed throughout his reign. In order to justify the divine nature of the Flavian rule, Domitian emphasized connections with the chief deity Jupiter, The goddess he worshipped the most zealously, however, was Minerva. Not only did he keep a personal shrine dedicated to her in his bedroom, she regularly appeared on his coinage—in four different attested reverse types—and he founded a legion, Legio I Minervia, in her name. Domitian also revived the practice of the imperial cult, which had fallen somewhat out of use under Vespasian. Significantly, his first act as emperor was the deification of his brother Titus. Upon their deaths, his infant son, and niece, Julia Flavia, were likewise enrolled among the gods. With regards to the emperor himself as a religious figure, both Suetonius and Cassius Dio allege that Domitian officially gave himself the title of Dominus et Deus ("Lord and God"). However, not only did he reject the title of Dominus'' during his reign, but since he issued no official documentation or coinage to this effect, historians such as Brian Jones contend that such phrases were addressed to Domitian by flatterers who wished to earn favors from him. and completed the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, a shrine dedicated to the worship of his deified father and brother. Once again, Domitian acquitted himself of this task dutifully, and with care. He renewed the Lex Iulia de Adulteriis Coercendis, under which adultery was punishable by exile. From the list of jurors he struck an equestrian who had divorced his wife and taken her back, while an ex-quaestor was expelled from the Senate for acting and dancing. and wanted to ban the eunuchs themselves. Subsequent emperors made similar prohibitions, but Domitian may have been the first to do so. Despite his moralizing, Domitian had his own favorite eunuch boy, Earinus, who was commemorated by the contemporary court poets Martial and Statius. Domitian also heavily prosecuted corruption among public officials, removing jurors if they accepted bribes and rescinding legislation when a conflict of interest was suspected. Consequently, he forbade mimes from appearing on stage in public. Philosophers did not fare much better. Epictetus, who had set himself up in Rome as a professor of philosophy, remarked that philosophers were able to "look tyrants steadily in the face", and it was Domitian's decree of 94, expelling all philosophers from Rome, that caused Epictetus to shift his base to the recently founded Roman city of Nicopolis, in Epirus, Greece, where he lived simply, worked safely and died of old age. of Ahin Posh, dedicated under the Kushan Empire in 150–160, in modern Afghanistan.]] Foreign religions were tolerated insofar as they did not interfere with public order, or could be assimilated with the traditional Roman religion. The worship of Egyptian deities in particular flourished under the Flavian dynasty, to an extent not seen again until the reign of Commodus. Veneration of Serapis and Isis, who were identified with Jupiter and Minerva respectively, was especially prominent. The Book of Revelation and First Epistle of Clement are thought by some to have been written during this period, the latter making mention of "sudden and repeated misfortunes", which are assumed to refer to persecutions under Domitian. Although Jews were heavily taxed, no contemporary authors give specific details of trials or executions based on religious offenses other than those within the Roman religion. Suetonius mentions having seen in his youth a nonagenarian being stripped by a procurator to see if he was circumcised. Opposition Revolt of Governor Saturninus (89) , Rome]] On 1 January 89, the governor of Germania Superior, Lucius Antonius Saturninus, and his two legions at Mainz, Legio XIV Gemina and Legio XXI Rapax, revolted against the Roman Empire with the aid of the Germanic Chatti people. At any rate, the uprising was strictly confined to Saturninus' province, and quickly detected once the rumour spread across the neighbouring provinces. The governor of Germania Inferior, Aulus Bucius Lappius Maximus, moved to the region at once, assisted by Titus Flavius Norbanus, the procurator of Rhaetia. From Spain, Trajan was summoned, while Domitian himself came from Rome with the Praetorian Guard. By a stroke of luck, a thaw prevented the Chatti from crossing the Rhine and coming to Saturninus' aid. Lappius Maximus received the governorship of the province of Syria, a second consulship in May 95, and finally a priesthood, which he still held in 102. Titus Flavius Norbanus may have been appointed to the prefecture of Egypt, but almost certainly became prefect of the Praetorian Guard by 94, with Titus Petronius Secundus as his colleague. Domitian opened the year following the revolt by sharing the consulship with Marcus Cocceius Nerva, suggesting the latter had played a part in uncovering the conspiracy, perhaps in a fashion similar to the one he played during the Pisonian conspiracy under Nero. Although little is known about the life and career of Nerva before his accession as Emperor in 96, he appears to have been a highly adaptable diplomat, surviving multiple regime changes and emerging as one of the Flavians' most trusted advisors. The revolt had been suppressed and the Empire returned to order.Relationship with the Senate with decorative reliefs, from Vaison-la-Romaine, France]] Since the fall of the Republic, the authority of the Roman Senate had largely eroded under the quasi-monarchical system of government established by Augustus, known as the Principate. The Principate allowed the existence of a de facto dictatorial regime, while maintaining the formal framework of the Roman Republic. Most Emperors upheld the public facade of democracy, and in return the Senate implicitly acknowledged the Emperor's status as a de facto monarch. Some rulers handled this arrangement with less subtlety than others. Domitian was not so subtle, often coming to the Senate as a triumpher and conqueror to show his disdain for them. From the outset of his reign, he stressed the reality of his autocracy. The dislike was mutual. After Domitian's assassination, the senators of Rome rushed to the Senate house, where they immediately passed a motion condemning his memory to oblivion. Under the rulers of the Nervan-Antonian dynasty, senatorial authors published histories that elaborated on the view of Domitian as a tyrant. Whether this was a genuine attempt to reconcile with hostile factions in the Senate cannot be ascertained. By offering the consulship to potential opponents, Domitian may have wanted to compromise these senators in the eyes of their supporters. When their conduct proved unsatisfactory, they were almost invariably brought to trial and exiled or executed, and their property was confiscated. At least twenty senatorial opponents were executed, including Domitia Longina's former husband Lucius Aelius Lamia Plautius Aelianus and three of Domitian's own family members, Titus Flavius Sabinus, Titus Flavius Clemens and Marcus Arrecinus Clemens. Flavius Clemens was a cousin of Domitian, and the emperor had even designated Clemens' two young sons as his successors, calling them as "Vespasian" and "Domitian". Some of these men were executed as early as 83 or 85, however, lending little credit to Tacitus' notion of a "reign of terror" late in Domitian's reign. According to Suetonius, some were convicted for corruption or treason, others on trivial charges, which Domitian justified through his suspicion: Jones compares the executions of Domitian to those under Emperor Claudius (41–54), noting that Claudius executed around 35 senators and 300 equestrians, and yet was still deified by the Senate and regarded as one of the good Emperors of history. Domitian was apparently unable to gain support among the aristocracy, despite attempts to appease hostile factions with consular appointments. His autocratic style of government accentuated the Senate's loss of power, while his policy of treating patricians and even family members as equals to all Romans earned him their contempt. A highly detailed account of the plot and the assassination is provided by Suetonius. He alleges that Domitian's chamberlain Parthenius played the main role in the plot, and historian John Grainger cites Parthenius' likely fear over Domitian's recent execution of Nero's former secretary Epaphroditus as a possible motive. The act itself was carried out by a freedman of Parthenius named Maximus, and a steward of Domitian's niece Flavia Domitilla, named Stephanus. According to Suetonius, a number of omens had foretold Domitian's death. According to an auspice he had received, the Emperor believed that his death would be at midday. As a result, he was always restless around that time. On the day of the assassination, Domitian was distressed and repeatedly asked a servant to tell him what time it was. The servant, who was himself one of the plotters, lied to the emperor, telling him that it was already late in the afternoon.}} During the attack, Stephanus and Domitian had struggled on the floor. Dio Cassius states that Stephanus was killed when those who were not part of the assassination rushed upon him. Domitian's body was carried away on a common bier and unceremoniously cremated by his nurse Phyllis. Later, she took the emperor's ashes to the Flavian Temple and mingled them with those of his niece, Julia. He was 44 years old. As had been foretold, his death came at midday. Cassius Dio, writing nearly a hundred years later, suggests that the assassination was improvised, while Suetonius implies it was a well-organized conspiracy, citing Stephanus' feigned injury and claiming that the doors to the servants' quarters had been locked prior to the attack and that a sword Domitian kept concealed beneath his pillow as a last line of personal protection against a would-be assassin, had also been removed beforehand. Dio included Domitia Longina among the conspirators, but in light of her attested devotion to Domitian—even years after her husband had died—her involvement in the plot seems highly unlikely. Despite his political experience, this was a remarkable choice. Nerva was old and childless, and had spent much of his career out of the public light, prompting both ancient and modern authors to speculate on his involvement in Domitian's assassination. According to Cassius Dio, the conspirators approached Nerva as a potential successor prior to the assassination, suggesting that he was at least aware of the plot. He does not appear in Suetonius' version of the events, but this may be understandable, since his works were published under Nerva's direct descendants Trajan and Hadrian. To suggest the dynasty owed its accession to murder would have been less than sensitive. but modern historians believe Nerva was proclaimed Emperor solely on the initiative of the Senate, within hours after the news of the assassination broke. The Senate nonetheless rejoiced at the death of Domitian, and immediately following Nerva's accession as Emperor, passed damnatio memoriae on Domitian's memory; his coins and statues were melted, his arches were torn down and his name was erased from all public records. Domitian and, over a century later, Publius Septimius Geta were the only emperors known to have officially received a damnatio memoriae, though others may have received de facto ones. In many instances, existing portraits of Domitian, such as those found on the Cancelleria Reliefs, were simply recarved to fit the likeness of Nerva, which allowed quick production of new images and recycling of previous material. Yet the order of the Senate was only partially executed in Rome, and wholly disregarded in most of the provinces outside Italy. As a compensation measure, the Praetorian Guard demanded the execution of Domitian's assassins, which Nerva refused. Instead he merely dismissed Titus Petronius Secundus, and replaced him with a former commander, Casperius Aelianus. Dissatisfaction with this state of affairs continued to loom over Nerva's reign, and ultimately erupted into a crisis in October 97, when members of the Praetorian Guard, led by Casperius Aelianus, laid siege to the Imperial Palace and took Nerva hostage. He was forced to submit to their demands, agreeing to hand over those responsible for Domitian's death and even giving a speech thanking the rebellious Praetorians.Flavian family treeLegacyAncient sources ), likely recut from a statue of Nero]] The classic view of Domitian is usually negative, since most of the antique sources were related to the Senatorial or aristocratic class, with which Domitian had notoriously difficult relations. The most extensive account of the life of Domitian to survive was written by the historian Suetonius, who was born during the reign of Vespasian, and published his works under Emperor Hadrian (117–138). His De vita Caesarum is the source of much of what is known of Domitian. Although his text is predominantly negative, it neither exclusively condemns nor praises Domitian, and asserts that his rule started well, but gradually declined into terror. The biography is problematic, however, in that it appears to contradict itself with regards to Domitian's rule and personality, at the same time presenting him as a conscientious, moderate man, and as a decadent libertine. Modern historians consider this highly implausible however, noting that malicious rumours such as those concerning Domitia's alleged infidelity were eagerly repeated by post-Domitianic authors, and used to highlight the hypocrisy of a ruler publicly preaching a return to Augustan morals, while privately indulging in excesses and presiding over a corrupt court. Nevertheless, the account of Suetonius has dominated imperial historiography for centuries. Although Tacitus is usually considered to be the most reliable author of this era, his views on Domitian are complicated by the fact that his father-in-law, Gnaeus Julius Agricola, may have been a personal enemy of the Emperor. In his biographical work Agricola, Tacitus maintains that Agricola was forced into retirement because his triumph over the Caledonians highlighted Domitian's own inadequacy as a military commander. Several modern authors such as Dorey have argued the opposite: that Agricola was in fact a close friend of Domitian, and that Tacitus merely sought to distance his family from the fallen dynasty once Nerva was in power. Tacitus' major historical works, including The Histories and Agricola's biography, were all written and published under Domitian's successors, Nerva (96–98) and Trajan (98–117). Unfortunately, the part of Tacitus' Histories dealing with the reign of the Flavian dynasty is almost entirely lost. His views on Domitian survive through brief comments in its first five books, and the short but highly negative characterization in Agricola in which he severely criticizes Domitian's military endeavours. Nevertheless, Tacitus admits his debt to the Flavians with regard to his own public career. Other influential 2nd century authors include Juvenal and Pliny the Younger, the latter of whom was a friend of Tacitus and in 100 delivered his famous Panegyricus Traiani before Trajan and the Roman Senate, exalting the new era of restored freedom while condemning Domitian as a tyrant. Juvenal savagely satirized the Domitianic court in his Satires, depicting the Emperor and his entourage as corrupt, violent and unjust. As a consequence, the anti-Domitianic tradition was already well established by the end of the 2nd century, and by the 3rd century, even expanded upon by early Church historians, who identified Domitian as an early persecutor of Christians, such as in the Acts of John. Modern revisionism , from the Palazzo Massimo alle Terme, Rome]] Over the course of the 20th century, Domitian's military, administrative and economic policies were re-evaluated. Hostile views of Domitian had been propagated until archeological and numismatic advances brought renewed attention to his reign, and necessitated a revision of the literary tradition established by Tacitus and Pliny. It would be nearly a hundred years after Stéphane Gsell's 1894 ''Essai sur le règne de l'empereur Domitien'' however, before any new, book-length studies were published. For the majority of his reign, there was no widespread dissatisfaction with his policies. His harshness was limited to a highly vocal minority, who exaggerated his despotism in favor of the Nervan-Antonian dynasty that followed. In 1930, Ronald Syme argued for a complete reassessment of Domitian's financial policy, which had been largely viewed as a disaster. His economic program, which was rigorously efficient, maintained the Roman currency at a standard it would never again achieve. Domitian's government nonetheless exhibited totalitarian characteristics. As Emperor, he saw himself as the new Augustus, an enlightened despot destined to guide the Roman Empire into a new era of Flavian renaissance. He became personally involved in all branches of the government and successfully prosecuted corruption among public officials. The dark side of his censorial power involved a restriction in freedom of speech, and an increasingly oppressive attitude toward the Roman Senate. He punished libel with exile or death and, due to his suspicious nature, increasingly accepted information from informers to bring false charges of treason if necessary. Despite his vilification by contemporary historians, Domitian's administration provided the foundation for the Principate of the peaceful 2nd century. His successors Nerva and Trajan were less restrictive, but in reality their policies differed little from his. Much more than a "gloomy coda to the...1st century", the Roman Empire prospered between 81 and 96, in a reign that Theodor Mommsen described as a somber but intelligent despotism. See also * Cultural depictions of Domitian * List of Roman emperors Notes References Citations Bibliography * * * * * * * * * * * * Further reading * * * * Minaud, Gérard, ''Les vies de 12 femmes d'empereur romain – Devoirs, Intrigues & Voluptés'', Paris, L'Harmattan, 2012, ch. 5, La vie de Domitia Longina, femme de Domitien, pp. 121–146. . * Primary sources * Cassius Dio, [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/67.html Roman History Book 67], English translation Suetonius, [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Domitian.html The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Domitian], Latin text with English translation Tacitus, Agricola, English translation * Tacitus, Histories, English translation External links * * [http://www.forumancientcoins.com/gallery/thumbnails.php?album=1193 A private collection] of coins minted by Domitian Category:51 births Category:96 deaths Category:1st-century clergy Category:1st-century murdered monarchs Category:1st-century Roman emperors Category:1st-century Roman poets Category:Augurs of the Roman Empire Category:Deaths by stabbing in ancient Rome Category:Eponymous archons Category:Flavian dynasty Category:Flavii Category:1st-century Roman consuls Category:Imperial Roman praetors Category:Murdered Roman emperors Category:Roman emperors to suffer posthumous denigration or damnatio memoriae Category:Roman pharaohs Category:Sons of Roman emperors Category:Assassinated heads of state in Europe	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domitian	2025-04-05T18:28:41.482281
8593	Damascus steel	Damascus steel (Arabic: فولاذ دمشقي) refers to the high carbon crucible steel of the blades of historical swords forged using the wootz process in the Near East, characterized by distinctive patterns of banding and mottling reminiscent of flowing water, sometimes in a "ladder" or "rose" pattern. "Damascus steel" developed a high reputation for being tough, resistant to shattering, and capable of being honed to a sharp, resilient edge. The term "Damascus steel" traces its roots to the medieval city of Damascus, Syria, perhaps as an early example of branding. However, there is now a general agreement that many of the swords, or at least the steel ingots from which they were forged, were imported from elsewhere. Originally, they came from either Southern India, where the steel-making techniques used were first developed, or from Khorasan, Iran. The methods used to create medieval Damascus steel died out by the late 19th century. Modern steelmakers and metallurgists have studied it extensively, developing theories on how it was produced, and significant advances have been made. While the exact pattern of medieval Damascus steel has not been reproduced, many similar versions have been made, using similar techniques of lamination, banding, and patterning. These modern reproductions have also been called Damascus steel or "Modern Damascus". Naming The origin of the name "Damascus Steel" is contentious. Islamic scholars al-Kindi (full name Abu Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi, circa 800 CE – 873 CE) and al-Biruni (full name Abu al-Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni, circa 973 CE – 1048 CE) both wrote about swords and steel made for swords, based on their surface appearance, geographical location of production or forging, or the name of the smith, and each mentions "damascene" or "damascus" swords to some extent. Drawing from al-Kindi and al-Biruni, there are three potential sources for the term "Damascus" in the context of steel: # Al-Kindi called swords produced and forged in Damascus as Damascene but these swords were not described as having a pattern in the steel. # Al-Biruni mentions a sword-smith called Damasqui who made swords of crucible steel. The most common explanation is that steel is named after Damascus, the capital city of Syria and one of the largest cities in the ancient Levant. In Damascus, where many of these swords were sold, there is no evidence of local production of crucible steel, though there is evidence of imported steel being forged into swords in Damascus. got their name. History Damascus blades were first manufactured in the Near East from ingots of wootz steel that were imported from Southern India (present-day Telangana Tamil Nadu and Kerala). Al Kindi states that crucible steel was also made in Khorasan in addition to steel that was imported. In addition to being made into blades in India (particularly Golconda) and Sri Lanka, wootz / ukku was exported as ingots to various production centers, including Khorasan, and Isfahan, where the steel was used to produce blades, as well as across the Middle East. The Arabs introduced the wootz steel to Damascus, where a weapons industry thrived. From the 3rd century to the 17th century, steel ingots were being shipped to the Middle East from South India. \|Li Shizhen}}Cultural significanceThe reputation and history of Damascus steel has given rise to many legends, such as the ability to cut through a rifle barrel or to cut a hair falling across the blade. Although many types of modern steel outperform ancient Damascus alloys, chemical reactions in the production process made the blades extraordinary for their time, as Damascus steel was very flexible and very hard at the same time. In fact, extant examples of patterned crucible steel swords were often tempered in such a way as to retain a bend after being flexed past their elastic limit. The blade that Beowulf used to kill Grendel's mother in the story Beowulf was described in some Modern English translations as "damascened". It was previously incorrectly believed that the steel was hardened by thrusting it six times in the back and thighs of a slave. The misconception originated in an article in the November 4, 1894 issue of the Chicago Tribune titled Tempering Damascus Blades. The note asserts that a certain "Prof. von Eulenspiegel" found a scroll "among the ruins of ancient Tyre"; "Eulenspiegel" is the name of a legendary prankster of medieval Germany. Material and mechanical properties Verhoeven, Peterson, and Baker completed mechanical characterization of a Damascus sword, performing tensile testing as well as hardness testing. They found that the Damascus steel was somewhat comparable to hot-rolled steel bars with 1.0 wt% carbon with regards to mechanical properties. The average yield strength of 740 MPa was higher than the hot-rolled steel yield strength of 550 MPa, and the average tensile strength of 1070 MPa was higher than the hot-rolled steel tensile strength of 965 MPa. These results are likely due to the finer pearlite spacing in the Damascus steel, refining the microstructure. The elongation and reduction in area were also slightly higher than the hot-rolled steel averages. Rockwell hardness measurements of the Damascus steel ranged from 62 to 67. These mechanical properties were consistent with the expected properties from the constituent steels of the material, falling between the upper and lower bounds created by the original steels. Folding Another study investigated the properties of Damascus steel produced from 1075 steel and 15N20 steel, which have approximately equal amounts of carbon, but the 15N20 steel notably has 2 wt% nickel. The 1075 steel is known for high strength, but low toughness, with a pearlitic microstructure, and the 15N20 steel is known for high toughness with a ferritic microstructure. The mechanical properties of the resultant laminate Damascus steel were characterized, in samples with 54 folds in production as well as samples with 250 folds. Charpy V-notch impact tests showed that the 54-fold samples had an impact toughness of 4.36 J/cm<sup>2</sup>, while the 250-fold samples had an impact toughness of 5.49 J/cm<sup>2</sup>. Tensile testing showed that yield strengths and elongations for both samples were similar, at around 475 MPa and 3.2% respectively. However, the maximum strength of the 54-fold samples was notably lower than that of the 250-fold samples (750 MPa vs. 860 MPa). This study showed that the folding process has a significant impact on the mechanical properties of the steel, with increasing toughness as fold numbers increase. They also compare mechanical properties of the Damascus to the original materials, finding that the properties of the Damascus steel lie in between those of the two constituent steels, which is consistent with composite material properties.Lamination and bandingThe processing and design of the laminations and bands can have a significant effect on mechanical properties as well. Regardless of tempering temperature and the liquid the steel is quenched in, the impact strength of Damascus steel where the impact is perpendicular to the band orientation is significantly higher than the impact strength where the impact is parallel to the band orientation. This is due to the failure and fracture mechanisms in Damascus steel, where cracks propagate fastest along the interfaces between the two constituent steels. When impact is directed parallel to the bands, cracks are able to propagate easily along the lamination interfaces. When impact is directed perpendicular to the bands, the lamination interfaces are effectively protected, deflecting the cracks and increasing the energy required for cracks to propagate through the material. Band orientation should be chosen to protect against deformation and increase toughness. Metallurgical process Identification of crucible "Damascus" steel based on metallurgical structures is difficult, as crucible steel cannot be reliably distinguished from other types of steel by just one criterion, so the following distinguishing characteristics of crucible steel must be taken into consideration: * The crucible steel was liquid, leading to a relatively homogeneous steel content with virtually no slag * The formation of dendrites is a typical characteristic * The segregation of elements into dendritic and interdendritic regions throughout the sample By these definitions, modern recreations suggesting how the nanotubes were formed in the steel. Some experts expect to discover such nanotubes in more relics as they are analyzed more closely. both of which were forms of either high- and low-carbon bloomery iron, or low-carbon bloom with cast iron. In such a crucible recipe, no added plant material is necessary to provide the required carbon content, and as such any nanowires of cementite or carbon nanotubes would not have been the result of plant fibers. Modern research A research team in Germany published a report in 2006 revealing nanowires and carbon nanotubes in a blade forged from Damascus steel, although John Verhoeven of Iowa State University in Ames suggests that the research team which reported nanowires in crucible steel was seeing cementite, which can itself exist as rods, so there might not be any carbon nanotubes in the rod-like structure. Loss of the technique Production of these patterned swords gradually declined, ceasing by around 1900, with the last account being from 1903 in Sri Lanka documented by Coomaraswamy. Modern conjecture The discovery of alleged carbon nanotubes in the Damascus steel's composition, if true, could support the hypothesis that wootz production was halted due to a loss of ore sources or technical knowledge, since the precipitation of carbon nanotubes probably resulted from a specific process that may be difficult to replicate should the production technique or raw materials used be significantly altered. The claim that carbon nanowires were found has not been confirmed by further studies, and there is contention among academics about whether the nanowires observed are actually stretched rafts or rods formed out of cementite spheroids. Modern reproduction Jimmy Fikes]] Jimmy Fikes]] Recreating Damascus steel has been attempted by archaeologists using experimental archaeology. Many have attempted to discover or reverse-engineer the process by which it was made. Moran: billet welding Since the well-known technique of pattern welding—the forge-welding of a blade from several differing pieces—produced surface patterns similar to those found on Damascus blades, some modern blacksmiths were erroneously led to believe that the original Damascus blades were made using this technique. However today, the difference between wootz steel and pattern welding is fully documented and well understood. Pattern-welded steel has been referred to as "Damascus steel" since 1973 when Bladesmith William F. Moran unveiled his "Damascus knives" at the Knifemakers' Guild Show. This "Modern Damascus" is made from several types of steel and iron slices welded together to form a billet, and currently, the term "Damascus" (although technically incorrect) is widely accepted to describe modern pattern-welded steel blades in the trade. The patterns vary depending on how the smith works the billet. Verhoeven and Pendray: crucible J. D. Verhoeven and A. H. Pendray published an article on their attempts to reproduce the elemental, structural, and visual characteristics of Damascus steel. They found that certain carbide forming elements, one of which was vanadium, did not disperse until the steel reached higher temperatures than those needed to dissolve the carbides. Therefore, a high heat treatment could remove the visual evidence of patterning associated with carbides but did not remove the underlying patterning of the carbide forming elements. A subsequent lower-temperature heat treatment, at a temperature at which the carbides were again stable, could recover the structure by the binding of carbon by those elements and causing the segregation of cementite spheroids to those locations. Thermal cycling after forging allows for the aggregation of carbon onto these carbide formers, as carbon migrates much more rapidly than the carbide formers. Progressive thermal cycling leads to the coarsening of the cementite spheroids via Ostwald ripening. Anosov, Wadsworth and Sherby: bulat In Russia, chronicles record the use of a material known as bulat steel to make highly valued weapons, including swords, knives, and axes. Tsar Michael of Russia reportedly had a bulat helmet made for him in 1621. The exact origin or the manufacturing process of the bulat is unknown, but it was likely imported to Russia via Persia and Turkestan, and it was similar and possibly the same as Damascus steel. Pavel Petrovich Anosov successfully reproduced the process in the mid-19th century. Wadsworth and Sherby also researched the reproduction of bulat steel and published their results in 1980. Additional research A team of researchers based at the Technical University of Dresden that used x-rays and electron microscopy to examine Damascus steel discovered the presence of cementite nanowires and carbon nanotubes. German researchers have investigated the possibility of manufacturing high-strength Damascus steel through laser additive manufacturing techniques as opposed to the traditional folding and forging. The resulting samples exhibited superior mechanical properties to ancient Damascus steels, with a tensile strength of 1300 MPa and 10% elongation. In gun making Prior to the early 20th century, all shotgun barrels were forged by heating narrow strips of iron and steel and shaping them around a mandrel. This process was referred to as "laminating" or "Damascus". See also Toledo steel Crucible steel Wootz steel Noric steel Bulat steel Tamahagane steel Mokume-gane Laminated steel blade References Sources * External links [http://www.tf.uni-kiel.de/matwis/amat/def_en/kap_5/advanced/t5_1_1.html "Damascene Technique in Metal Working"] [https://web.archive.org/web/20180811042707/https://www.mse.iastate.edu/news/john-verhoeven/ John Verhoeven: Mystery of Damascus Steel Swords Unveiled] * Category:Steels Category:Steelmaking Category:History of Damascus Category:Metalworking Category:Lost inventions Category:Arab inventions	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascus_steel	2025-04-05T18:28:41.502284
8594	Stab-in-the-back myth	stabbing a German Army soldier in the back with a dagger. The capitulation of the Central Powers was blamed on communists, Bolsheviks, and the Weimar Republic, but in particular on Jews.]] The stab-in-the-back myth (, , ) was an antisemitic and anti-communist conspiracy theory that was widely believed and promulgated in Germany after 1918. It maintained that the Imperial German Army did not lose World War I on the battlefield, but was instead betrayed by certain citizens on the home front – especially Jews, revolutionary socialists who fomented strikes and labour unrest, and republican politicians who had overthrown the House of Hohenzollern in the German Revolution of 1918–1919. Advocates of the myth denounced the German government leaders who had signed the Armistice of 11 November 1918 as the "November criminals" (). When Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party rose to power in 1933, they made the conspiracy theory an integral part of their official history of the 1920s, portraying the Weimar Republic as the work of the "November criminals" who had "stabbed the nation in the back" in order to seize power. Nazi propaganda depicted Weimar Germany as "a morass of corruption, degeneracy, national humiliation, ruthless persecution of the honest 'national opposition'fourteen years of rule by Jews, Marxists, and 'cultural Bolsheviks', who had at last been swept away by the National Socialist movement under Hitler and the victory of the 'national revolution' of 1933". Historians inside and outside of Germany, whilst recognising that economic and morale collapse on the home front was a factor in German defeat, unanimously reject the myth. Historians and military theorists point to lack of further Imperial German Army reserves, the danger of invasion from the south, and the overwhelming of German forces on the western front by more numerous Allied forces particularly after the entrance of the United States into the war, as evidence that Germany had already lost the war militarily by late 1918. Background In the later part of World War I, the Supreme High Command (Oberste Heeresleitung, OHL) controlled not only the military but also a large part of the economy through the Auxiliary Services Act of December 1916, which under the Hindenburg Programme aimed at a total mobilisation of the economy for war production. In order to implement the Act, however, Generalfeldmarschall Paul von Hindenburg and his Chief-of-Staff, First Quartermaster General Erich Ludendorff had to make significant concessions to labour unions and the Reichstag. Hindenburg and Ludendorff threatened to resign in July 1917 if the Emperor did not remove Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg. He had lost his usefulness to them when he lost the confidence of the Reichstag after it passed the Reichstag Peace Resolution calling for a negotiated peace without annexations. Bethmann Hollweg resigned and was replaced by Georg Michaelis, whose appointment was supported by the OHL. After only 100 days in office, however, he became the first chancellor to be ousted by the Reichstag. After years of fighting and having incurred millions of casualties, Britain and France were wary about an invasion of Germany with its unknown consequences. However the Allies had been amply resupplied by the United States, which had fresh armies ready for combat. On the Western Front, although the Hindenburg Line had been penetrated and German forces were in retreat, the Allied armies had only crossed the 1914 German frontier in a few places in Alsace-Lorraine (see below map). Meanwhile, on the Eastern Front, Germany had already won its war against Russia, concluded with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. In the West, Germany had successes with the Spring Offensive of 1918 but the attack had run out of momentum, the Allies had regrouped and in the Hundred Days Offensive retaken lost ground with no sign of stopping. Contributing to the Dolchstoßlegende, the overall failure of the German offensive was blamed on strikes in the arms industry at a critical moment, leaving soldiers without an adequate supply of materiel. The strikes were seen as having been instigated by treasonous elements, with the Jews taking most of the blame. On 30 October the Ottoman Empire capitulated at Mudros.}}</blockquote> In this way, Ludendorff was setting up the republican politicians – many of them Socialists – who would be brought into the government, and would become the parties that negotiated the armistice with the Allies, as the scapegoats to take the blame for losing the war, instead of himself and Hindenburg. Normally, during wartime an armistice is negotiated between the military commanders of the hostile forces, but Hindenburg and Ludendorff had instead handed this task to the new civilian government. The attitude of the military was "[T]he parties of the left have to take on the odium of this peace. The storm of anger will then turn against them," after which the military could step in again to ensure that things would once again be run "in the old way". On 5 October, the German Chancellor, Prince Maximilian of Baden, contacted U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, indicating that Germany was willing to accept his Fourteen Points as a basis for discussions. Wilson's response insisted that Germany institute parliamentary democracy, give up the territory it had gained to that point in the war, and significantly disarm, including giving up the German High Seas Fleet. On 26 October, Ludendorff was dismissed from his post by the Emperor and replaced by Lieutenant General Wilhelm Groener, who started to prepare the withdrawal and demobilisation of the army. On 11 November 1918, the representatives of the newly formed Weimar Republic – created after the Revolution of 1918–1919 forced the abdication of the Kaiser – signed the armistice that ended hostilities. The military commanders had arranged it so that they would not be blamed for suing for peace, but the republican politicians associated with the armistice would: the signature on the armistice document was of Matthias Erzberger, who was later murdered for his alleged treason. In his autobiography, Ludendorff's successor Groener stated, "It suited me just fine when the army and the Supreme Command remained as guiltless as possible in these wretched truce negotiations, from which nothing good could be expected". Given that the heavily censored German press had carried nothing but news of victories throughout the war, and that Germany itself was unoccupied while occupying a great deal of foreign territory, it was no wonder that the German public was mystified by the request for an armistice, especially as they did not know that their military leaders had asked for it, nor did they know that the German Army had been in full retreat after their last offensive had failed. Thus the conditions were set for the "stab-in-the-back myth", in which Hindenburg and Ludendorff were held to be blameless, the German Army was seen as undefeated on the battlefield, and the republican politicians – especially the Socialists – were accused of betraying Germany. Further blame was laid at their feet after they signed the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, which led to territorial losses and serious financial pain for the shaky new republic, including a crippling schedule of reparation payments. Conservatives, nationalists, and ex-military leaders began to speak critically about the peace and Weimar politicians, socialists, communists, and Jews. Even Catholics were viewed with suspicion by some due to supposed fealty to the Pope and their presumed lack of national loyalty and patriotism. It was claimed that these groups had not sufficiently supported the war and had played a role in selling out Germany to its enemies. These November Criminals, or those who seemed to benefit from the newly formed Weimar Republic, were seen to have "stabbed them in the back" on the home front, by either criticising German nationalism, instigating unrest and mounting strikes in the critical military industries, or by profiteering. These actions were believed to have deprived Germany of almost certain victory at the eleventh hour. Assessments of Germany's situation in late 1918 , Château-Salins, and Marieulles in Alsace-Lorraine.]] Contemporary When consulted on terms for an armistice in October 1918, Douglas Haig, commander of the British and Commonwealth forces on the western front, stated that "Germany is not broken in the military sense. During the last weeks her forces have withdrawn fighting very bravely and in excellent order". Ferdinand Foch, Supreme Allied Commander, agreed with this assessment, stating that "the German army could undoubtedly take up a new position, and we could not prevent it". When asked about how long he believed it would take for German forces to be pushed across the Rhine, Foch responded "Maybe three, maybe four or five months, who knows?". In private correspondence Haig was more sanguine. In a mid-October letter to his wife he stated that "I think we have their army beaten now". Aerial reconnaissance also highlighted the lack of any prepared fortified positions beyond the Hindenburg line.</blockquote> Geiss further linked this threat to Germany's borders with the fact that the German revolutionary movement emerged first in the lands that were most threatened by the new invasion threatBavaria and Saxony. In Geiss's account, this led to the two competing movements for peaceone "from above" of establishment figures that wished to use the peace to preserve the status quo, and one "from below" that wished to use the peace to establish a socialist, democratic state.</blockquote> Although Roskill also balanced this by saying that what he characterised as "the triumph of unarmed forces" (i.e., pressure from the German civilian population for peace under the influence of the Allied blockade) was a factor in Allied victory alongside that of armed forces including naval, land, and air forces. German scholar Boris Barth, in contrast to Steigmann-Gall, implies that Doehring did not actually use the term, but spoke only of 'betrayal'. Barth traces the first documented use to a centrist political meeting in the Munich Löwenbräukeller on 2 November 1918, in which Ernst Müller-Meiningen, a member of the Progressive People's Party in the Reichstag, used the term to exhort his listeners to hold out after Kurt Eisner of the radical left Independent Social Democratic Party had predicted an imminent revolution: <blockquote>As long as the front holds, we damned well have the duty to hold out in the homeland. We would have to be ashamed of ourselves in front of our children and grandchildren if we attacked the battle front from the rear and gave it a dagger-stab (wenn wir der Front in den Rücken fielen und ihr den Dolchstoß versetzten).</blockquote> However, the widespread dissemination and acceptance of the "stab-in-the-back" myth came about through its use by Germany's highest military echelon. In Spring 1919, Max Bauer – an army colonel who had been the primary adviser to Ludendorff on politics and economics – published Could We Have Avoided, Won, or Broken Off the War?, in which he wrote that "[The war] was lost only and exclusively through the failure of the homeland." The birth of the specific term "stab-in-the-back" itself can possibly be dated to the autumn of 1919, when Ludendorff was dining with the head of the British Military Mission in Berlin, British general Sir Neill Malcolm. Malcolm asked Ludendorff why he thought Germany lost the war. Ludendorff replied with his list of excuses, including that the home front failed the army. contributed to the myth when he told returning veterans that "No enemy has vanquished you."]] <blockquote>Malcolm asked him: "Do you mean, General, that you were stabbed in the back?" Ludendorff's eyes lit up and he leapt upon the phrase like a dog on a bone. "Stabbed in the back?" he repeated. "Yes, that's it, exactly, we were stabbed in the back". And thus was born a legend which has never entirely perished.</blockquote> The phrase was to Ludendorff's liking, and he let it be known among the general staff that this was the "official" version, which led to it being spread throughout German society. It was picked up by right-wing political factions, and was even used by Kaiser Wilhelm II in the memoirs he wrote in the 1920s. Right-wing groups used it as a form of attack against the early Weimar Republic government, led by the Social Democratic Party (SPD), which had come to power with the abdication of the Kaiser. However, even the SPD had a part in furthering the myth when Reichspräsident Friedrich Ebert, the party leader, told troops returning to Berlin on 10 November 1918 that "No enemy has vanquished you," (kein Feind hat euch überwunden!) and "they returned undefeated from the battlefield" (sie sind vom Schlachtfeld unbesiegt zurückgekehrt). The latter quote was shortened to im Felde unbesiegt (undefeated on the battlefield) as a semi-official slogan of the Reichswehr. Ebert had meant these sayings as a tribute to the German soldier, but it only contributed to the prevailing feeling. Further "proof" of the myth's validity was found in British general Frederick Barton Maurice's book The Last Four Months, published in 1919. German reviews of the book misrepresented it as proving that the German Army had been betrayed on the home front by being "dagger-stabbed from behind by the civilian populace" (von der Zivilbevölkerung von hinten erdolcht), an interpretation that Maurice disavowed in the German press, to no effect. According to William L. Shirer, Ludendorff used the reviews of the book to convince Hindenburg about the validity of the myth. On 18 November 1919, Ludendorff and Hindenburg appeared before the Committee of Inquiry into Guilt for World War I () of the newly elected Weimar National Assembly, which was investigating the causes of the war and Germany's defeat. The two generals appeared in civilian clothing, explaining publicly that to wear their uniforms would show too much respect to the commission. Hindenburg refused to answer questions from the chairman, and instead read a statement that had been written by Ludendorff. In his testimony he cited what Maurice was purported to have written, which provided his testimony's most memorable part. Hindenburg declared at the end of his – or Ludendorff's – speech: "As an English general has very truly said, the German Army was 'stabbed in the back'".</blockquote>Hindenburg, Chief of the German General Staff at the time of the Ludendorff Offensive, also mentioned this event in a statement explaining the Kaiser's abdication:<blockquote>The conclusion of the armistice was directly impending. At moment of the highest military tension revolution broke out in Germany, the insurgents seized the Rhine bridges, important arsenals, and traffic centres in the rear of the army, thereby endangering the supply of ammunition and provisions, while the supplies in the hands of the troops were only enough to last for a few days. The troops on the lines of communication and the reserves disbanded themselves, and unfavourable reports arrived concerning the reliability of the field army proper.</blockquote>It was particularly this testimony of Hindenburg that led to the widespread acceptance of the Dolchstoßlegende in post-World War I Germany.Antisemitic aspects was one of many on the far-right who spread the stab-in-the-back myth.]] The antisemitic instincts of the German Army were revealed well before the stab-in-the-back myth became the military's excuse for losing the war. In October 1916, in the middle of the war, the army ordered a Jewish census of the troops, with the intent to show that Jews were under-represented in the Heer (army), and that they were over-represented in non-fighting positions. Instead, the census showed just the opposite, that Jews were over-represented both in the army as a whole and in fighting positions at the front. The Imperial German Army then suppressed the results of the census. Charges of a Jewish conspiratorial element in Germany's defeat drew heavily upon figures such as Kurt Eisner, a Berlin-born German Jew who lived in Munich. He had written about the illegal nature of the war from 1916 onward, and he also had a large hand in the Munich revolution until he was assassinated in February 1919. The Weimar Republic under Friedrich Ebert violently suppressed workers' uprisings with the help of Gustav Noske and Reichswehr general Wilhelm Groener, and tolerated the paramilitary Freikorps forming all across Germany. In spite of such tolerance, the Republic's legitimacy was constantly attacked with claims such as the stab-in-the-back. Many of its representatives such as Matthias Erzberger and Walther Rathenau were assassinated, and the leaders were branded as "criminals" and Jews by the right-wing press dominated by Alfred Hugenberg. Anti-Jewish sentiment was intensified by the Bavarian Soviet Republic (6 April – 3 May 1919), a communist government which briefly ruled the city of Munich before being crushed by the Freikorps. Many of the Bavarian Soviet Republic's leaders were Jewish, allowing antisemitic propagandists to connect Jews with communism, and thus treason. , the German Social Democratic politician who proclaimed the Weimar Republic and was its second chancellor, and Matthias Erzberger, an anti-war politician from the Centre Party, who ended World War I by signing the armistice with the Allied Powers, as stabbing the German Army in the back]]In 1919, Deutschvölkischer Schutz und Trutzbund (German Nationalist Protection and Defiance Federation) leader Alfred Roth, writing under the pseudonym "Otto Arnim", published the book The Jew in the Army which he said was based on evidence gathered during his participation on the Judenzählung, a military census which had in fact shown that German Jews had served in the front lines proportionately to their numbers. Roth's work claimed that most Jews involved in the war were only taking part as profiteers and spies, while he also blamed Jewish officers for fostering a defeatist mentality which impacted negatively on their soldiers. As such, the book offered one of the earliest published versions of the stab-in-the-back legend. A version of the stab-in-the-back myth was publicised in 1922 by the anti-Semitic Nazi theorist Alfred Rosenberg in his primary contribution to Nazi theory on Zionism, Der Staatsfeindliche Zionismus (Zionism, the Enemy of the State). Rosenberg accused German Zionists of working for a German defeat and supporting Britain and the implementation of the Balfour Declaration. Nicosia: "Rosenberg argues that the Jews had planned the Great War in order to secure a state in Palestine. In other words, he suggested that they generated violence and war among the gentiles in order to secure their own, exclusively Jewish, interests. In fact, the title of one of those works, Der Staatsfeindliche Zionismus ("Zionism, the Enemy of the State"), published in 1922, conveys the gist of Rosenberg's approach to the question, an approach that Hitler had been taking in some of his speeches since 1920. Rosenberg writes: 'The Zionist Organization in Germany is nothing more than an Organization that perpetrates the legal subversion of the German state.' He further accuses the Zionists of betraying Germany during World War I by supporting Great Britain and its Balfour Declaration, working for a German defeat and the implementation of the Balfour Declaration, supporting the Versailles settlement, and embracing the Jewish National Home in postwar, British-controlled Palestine."}} Aftermath The Dolchstoß was a central image in propaganda produced by the many right-wing and traditionally conservative political parties that sprang up in the early days of the Weimar Republic, including Adolf Hitler's Nazi Party. For Hitler himself, this explanatory model for World War I was of crucial personal importance. He had learned of Germany's defeat while being treated for temporary blindness following a gas attack on the front.</blockquote> Wagnerian allusions takes aim at Siegfried's back with a spear in an 1847 painting by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld of a scene from the epic poem Nibelungenlied ("Song of the Nibelungs") – which was the basis for Richard Wagner's opera Götterdämmerung. ]] To some Germans, the idea of a "stab in the back" was evocative of Richard Wagner's 1876 opera Götterdämmerung, in which Hagen murders his enemy Siegfried – the hero of the story – with a spear in his back. In Hindenburg's memoirs, he compared the collapse of the German Army to Siegfried's death. Psychology of belief Historian Richard McMasters Hunt argues in a 1958 article that the myth was an irrational belief which commanded the force of irrefutable emotional convictions for millions of Germans. He suggests that behind these myths was a sense of communal shame, not for causing the war, but for losing it. Hunt argues that it was not the guilt of wickedness, but the shame of weakness that seized Germany's national psychology, and "served as a solvent of the Weimar democracy and also as an ideological cement of Hitler's dictatorship".Equivalents in other countriesUnited States Parallel interpretations of national trauma after military defeat appear in other countries. For example, it was applied to the United States' involvement in the Vietnam War and in the mythology of the Lost Cause of the Confederacy.See also * Austria victim theory * Causes of World War II * Centre for the Study of the Causes of the War * Defeatism * Genocide justification * German Revolution of 1918–19 * Holocaust inversion * Jewish war conspiracy theory * More German than the Germans, a contrasting trope about German Jewry * Secondary antisemitism * Spa Conferences (First World War) * Spa Conference (29 September 1918) References Informational notes Citations Bibliography * * * * * pp. [https://archive.org/details/realwar191419180000unse/page/383/mode/1up 383], [https://archive.org/details/realwar191419180000unse/page/384/mode/1up 384], [https://archive.org/details/realwar191419180000unse/page/385/mode/1up 385], [https://archive.org/details/realwar191419180000unse/page/386/mode/1up 386] * * Further reading * * * * External links * [http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005175 Antisemitism] on the Florida Holocaust Museum website * [http://www.germanjewishsoldiers.com/introduction.php Die Judischen Gefallenen] A Roll of Honor Commemorating the 12,000 German Jews Who Died for their Fatherland in World War I. * [http://www.history.ucsb.edu/faculty/marcuse/publications/reviews/BarthRev069.htm#ill Book review by Harold Marcuse, with 15 "stab-in-the-back" illustrations, 1918–1942] Category:Aftermath of World War I in Germany Category:Antisemitic tropes Category:Antisemitism in Germany Category:Conspiracy theories in Germany Category:Conspiracy theories involving communism Category:Conspiracy theories involving Jews Category:Proto-Nazism Category:German Revolution of 1918–1919 Category:Historical negationism in Germany Category:Historiography of World War I Category:Military and warfare conspiracy theories Category:Military history of Germany during World War II Category:Propaganda legends Category:Right-wing antisemitism Category:Victimology Category:Weimar Republic	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stab-in-the-back_myth	2025-04-05T18:28:41.524200
8599	Davenport, Iowa	\| image_flag = Flag of Davenport, Iowa.svg \| flag_size = 122px \| image_seal = Davenport, Iowa seal.png \| seal_alt = <!-- Maps --> \| image_map = \| zoom = 10 \| type = shape \| marker = city \| stroke-width = 2 \| stroke-color = #0096FF \| fill = #0096FF \| id2 = Q26887 \| type2 = shape-inverse \| stroke-width2 = 2 \| stroke-color2 = #5F5F5F \| stroke-opacity2 = 0 \| fill2 = #000000 \| fill-opacity2 = 0 }} \| map_caption = Interactive map of Davenport \| pushpin_map = Iowa#USA#North America \| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Iowa##Location in the United States##Location in North America \| pushpin_label = Davenport \| pushpin_relief = 1 <!-- Location -->\| coordinates_footnotes \| coordinates \| subdivision_type = Country \| subdivision_name = United States \| subdivision_type1 = State \| subdivision_name1 = Iowa \| subdivision_type2 = County \| subdivision_name2 = Scott <!-- Established -->\| established_title = Settled \| established_date = May 14, 1836 \| established_title1 = Incorporated \| established_date1 = January 25, 1839 \| named_for = George Davenport <!-- Government -->\| government_footnotes \| government_type Mayor–council \| leader_title = Mayor \| leader_name = Mike Matson <!-- Area -->\| area_footnotes \| area_total_km2 = 170.73 \| area_total_sq_mi = 65.92 \| area_land_km2 = 165.23 \| area_land_sq_mi = 63.80 \| area_water_km2 = 5.50 \| area_water_sq_mi = 2.12 \| unit_pref = Imperial <!-- Elevation -->\| elevation_footnotes \| elevation_ft 580 <!-- Population -->\| population_total = 101724 \| population_as_of = 2020 \| population_footnotes \| population_density_km2 615.65 \| population_density_sq_mi = 1594.55 \| population_est \| pop_est_as_of \| pop_est_footnotes \| population_urban 285,211 (US: 142nd) \| population_density_urban_km2 = 816.6 \| population_density_urban_sq_mi = 2,114.9 \| population_metro = 384,324 (US: 147th) \| population_blank1_title = CSA \| population_blank1 = 474,019 (US: 90th) \| population_rank = 3rd in Iowa<br/>(US: 296th) \| population_demonym = Davenporter <!-- General information -->\| timezone = CST \| utc_offset = −6 \| timezone_DST = CDT \| utc_offset_DST = −5 \| postal_code_type = ZIP Codes \| postal_code = 52801–52809 \| area_code_type = Area code \| area_code = 563 \| blank_name = FIPS code \| blank_info = 19-19000 \| blank1_name = GNIS ID \| blank1_info = 455799 \| website = }} Davenport ( ) is a city in Scott County, Iowa, United States, and its county seat. It is situated along the Mississippi River on the eastern border of the state. Davenport had a population of 101,724 as of the 2020 census, making it Iowa's third-most populous city, after Des Moines and Cedar Rapids. Davenport was founded on May 14, 1836, by Antoine Le Claire and named for his friend, George Davenport. From 1860 until 1980, Davenport enjoyed a long period of industrial and population growth, averaging yearly increases of about 760 people. Over that period, Davenport industries were diverse, from manufacturing locomotives, a major meat-packing plant, a Caterpillar loader plant, a historic movie-projector plant, to car and truck wheel manufacture. These and other industries left, and since 1980, population growth has been flat, hovering around 100,000 over the past 40 years. The city is prone to frequent flooding due to its location on the Mississippi River and the city's resistance to building a modern levee, unlike its sister cities. Davenport's flood wall dates from the 1919, while Rock Island's higher flood wall dates from 1970 and Bettendorf's from the 1980s. The latter two protected their respective downtowns during the 2019 flood. The history and historical costs of proposed levee projects were summarized in 2023 by the local paper after Davenport received national media attention for the 2019 flood. There are two main universities: St. Ambrose University and Palmer College of Chiropractic, where the first chiropractic adjustment took place. Several annual music festivals take place in Davenport, including the Mississippi Valley Blues Festival, the Mississippi Valley Fair, and the Bix Beiderbecke Memorial Jazz Festival. An internationally known foot race, called the Bix 7, is run during the festival. The city has a Class A minor-league baseball team, the Quad Cities River Bandits. Davenport has 50 plus parks and facilities, as well as more than of recreational paths for biking or walking. Three interstates (80, 74 and 280) and two major United States Highways serve the city. Davenport has seen steady population growth since its incorporation. National economic difficulties in the 1980s resulted in job and population losses. History The land was originally inhabited by the Sauk, Meskwaki (Fox), and Ho-Chunk (Winnebago) Native American tribes. France laid claim to this territory as part of its New France and Illinois Country in the 18th century. Its traders and missionaries came to the area from Canada (Quebec), but it did not have many settlers here. After losing to Great Britain in the Seven Years' War, France ceded its territory east of the Mississippi River to the British, and transferred the lands to the west to Spain. In 1803, France regained and sold its holdings in North America west of the Mississippi River to the United States under the Louisiana Purchase. Lieutenant Zebulon Pike was the first United States representative to officially visit the Upper Mississippi River area. On August 27, 1805, Pike camped on the present-day site of Davenport. In 1832, a group of Sauk, Meskwaki, and Kickapoo people were defeated by the United States in the Black Hawk War. The United States government concluded the Black Hawk Purchase, sometimes called the Forty-Mile Strip or Scott's Purchase, by which the US acquired lands in what is now eastern Iowa. The purchase was made for $640,000 on September 21, 1832, and contained an area of some , at a price equivalent to 11 cents/acre ($26/km). Although named after the defeated chief Black Hawk, he was being held prisoner by the US. Sauk chief Keokuk, who had remained neutral in the war, signed off on the purchase. It was made on the site of present-day Davenport. Army General Winfield Scott and Governor of Illinois, John Reynolds, acted on behalf of the United States, with Antoine Le Claire, a mixed-race (Métis) man, serving as translator. He later was credited with founding Davenport. Chief Keokuk gave a generous portion of land to Antoine Le Claire's wife, Marguerite, the granddaughter of a Sauk chief. Le Claire built their home on the exact spot where the agreement was signed, as stipulated by Keokuk, or he would have forfeited the land. Le Claire finished the 'Treaty House' in the spring of 1833. He founded Davenport on May 14, 1836, naming it for his friend Colonel George Davenport, who was stationed at Fort Armstrong during the war. The city was incorporated on January 25, 1839. The area was successively governed by the legislatures of the Michigan Territory, the Wisconsin Territory, Iowa Territory and finally Iowa. Scott County was formed by an act of the Wisconsin Territorial legislature in 1837. Both Davenport and its neighbor Rockingham campaigned to become the county seat. The city with the most votes from Scott County citizens in the February 1838 election would become the county seat. On the eve of the election, Davenport citizens acquired the temporary service of Dubuque laborers so they could vote in the election. Davenport won the election with the help of the laborers. Rockingham supporters protested the elections to the territorial governor, on the grounds the laborers from Dubuque were not Scott County residents. The governor refused to certify the results of the election. A second election was held the following August. To avoid another import of voters, the governor set a 60-day residency requirement for all voters. Davenport won by two votes. Because the margin of victory was so close, a third election was held in the summer of 1840. As the August election drew nearer, Rockingham residents grew tired of the county seat cause. Davenport easily won the third election. Consequently, to avoid questions about the county seat, Davenport quickly built the first county courthouse. The Rock Island Railroad built the first railroad bridge across the Mississippi River in 1856. It connected Davenport to Rock Island, Illinois. This railway connection resulted in significant improvements to transportation and commerce with Chicago, a booming 19th-century city. The addition of new railroad lines to Muscatine and Iowa City, and the acquisition of other lines by the Rock Island Railroad, resulted in Davenport becoming a commercial railroad hub. was constructed by George L. Davenport, son of Colonel George Davenport, in 1832 or 1833. It is believed to be the oldest structure in the city.]] Prior to the start of the Civil War, Governor Samuel J. Kirkwood declared Davenport to be Iowa's first military headquarters; five military camps were set up in the city to aid the Union. The Davenport City Hall was built in 1895 for price of $100,000 ($}} in dollars). Architectural journals of the time poked fun at the project due to the small amount of money budgeted. The skyline began forming in the 1920s with the construction of the Kahl Building, the Parker Building, and the Capitol Theatre during a period of economic and building expansion. '', which appears in the Seal of Iowa.]] By 1932, thousands of Davenport residents were on public relief, due to the Great Depression. A shantytown of the poor developed in the west end of the city, along the Mississippi River. Sickness, hunger, and unsanitary living conditions plagued the area. The situation would soon change, as many citizens went to work for the Works Progress Administration. Davenport had an economic boom during and after World War II, driven by wartime industry and peacetime demand. As Davenport grew, it absorbed smaller surrounding communities, annexing Rockingham, Nahant, Probstei, East Davenport, Oakdale, Cawiezeel, Blackhawk, Mt. Joy, Green Tree, and others. Oscar Mayer, Ralston Purina, and other companies built plants in west Davenport. The Interstate highway network reached Davenport in 1956, improving transportation in the area. By 1959, more than 1,000 homes a year were being constructed. By the late 1970s, the good times were over for both downtown and local businesses and industries. Railroad restructuring in the mid-20th century had caused a loss of jobs in the industry. The farm crisis of the 1980s negatively affected Davenport and the rest of the Quad Cities, where a total of 35,000 workers lost their jobs throughout the entire Quad Cities area. In the early 21st century, many renovations and building additions have occurred to revitalize the downtown area, including repairing Modern Woodmen Park, the building of the Skybridge and the Figge Art Museum. In 2011, the Gold Coast and Hamburg Historic District was named as a 2011 "America's Great Place" by the American Planning Association.Geography of Davenport from a letter-head dating to 1868]] According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water. Davenport is located approximately west of Chicago and east of the Iowa state capital of Des Moines. The city is located about north of St. Louis, Missouri, and southeast of Minneapolis, Minnesota. Farmland surrounds Davenport, outside the Quad Cities area. Davenport is located on the banks of the Mississippi River. At this point the river has a maximum depth of around and is wide where the Centennial Bridge crosses it. The river flows from east to west in this area, as opposed to its usual north to south direction. From the river the city starts to slope north up a hill, which is steep at some points. The streets of the city, especially downtown and in the central part of the town, follow a grid design. Davenport often makes national headlines when it suffers seasonal flooding by the Mississippi River. Davenport residents prefer to maintain open access to the river for parks and vistas rather than have it cut off by dikes and levees. Davenport has adopted ordinances requiring any new construction in the floodplain to be elevated above the 100-year-flood level, or protected with walls. As a result, former mayor Phil Yerington said that if they "let Mother Nature take her course, we'll all be better off". An example of a Davenport building that is elevated or flood-proofed is the Figge Art Museum. Climate should be. The picture was taken from the Skybridge.]] Under the Köppen climate classification, Davenport is considered to have a humid continental climate (Dfa). Summers are very warm to hot with high levels of humidity. Winters have cold temperatures and often high winds, with snow likely from November through February. Average snowfall in Davenport is per year. January is on average the coldest month, while July is the warmest. The highest temperature recorded in Davenport was on July 12, 1936. The lowest temperature, , was recorded on January 18, 2009. Substantial weather changes frequently occur at three- to four-day intervals as a result of mid-latitude storm tracks, which is where low and high pressure extratropical disturbances occur. During the summers, farmers experience difficulties while farming such as shallow soil, the humidity, and cold damp winds Although several minor tornadoes have occurred, no devastating tornado has ever touched down in Davenport. Flooding, however, is often a problem in Davenport due to the lack of a flood wall. During the Great Flood of 1993, the water crested at on July 9. This is nearly above the flood stage. Major flooding in Davenport causes many problems. Roads in and around the downtown area, including U.S. Route 67, are closed and cause increased traffic on other city roads. The effects of major flooding can be long-lasting. For example, during the 2008 flooding, Credit Island in the city's southwest corner remained closed for 5½ months while crews worked on cleaning up damage and removing river debris. Duck Creek, a stream situated in Bettendorf and Davenport, is also vulnerable to flash flooding. Severe thunderstorms on June 16, 1990, created heavy flash flooding in Bettendorf and Davenport that killed four people. Another major flood happened on June 12, 2008, when severe thunderstorms caused Duck Creek to overflow its banks and flood properties and nearby streets (see Iowa flood of 2008). The Mississippi river flooded again in 2019 and 2023. Neighborhoods , is full of small specialty shops.]] Davenport has several neighborhoods dating back to the 1840s. The original city plot was around current day Ripley and 5th Streets, where Antoine Le Claire had built his house. The city can be divided into five areas: downtown, central, east end, near north and northwest, and west end. Many architectural designs are found throughout the city including Victorian, Queen Anne, Tudor Revival, and others. Many of the original neighborhoods were inhabited by German settlers. Lindsay Park, in The Village of East Davenport, was used as parade grounds for Civil War soldiers from Camp McClellan. Housing was mostly one and a half to two-story front gable American Foursquare and simplified Queen Anne style. The central Hamburg neighborhood, now known as the Hamburg Historic District, contains the most architecturally significant residences in the old German neighborhoods. Also in central Davenport, the Vander Veer Park Historic District is a neighborhood anchored by Vander Veer Park, a large park with a botanical garden and a fountain. The park was modeled after New York City's Central Park and originally shared its name. Vander Veer is surrounded by large Queen Anne and Tudor Revival style houses that were built between 1895 and 1915. Development of the Vander Veer Park was one of the first major beautification efforts. Other tall buildings include the 11-story Hotel Blackhawk, the 150-foot Kahl Building and the Davenport City Hall.Demographics {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center;" \|+Davenport, Iowa – Racial and ethnic composition<br><small></small> !Race / Ethnicity <small>(NH = Non-Hispanic)</small> !Pop 2000 !Pop 2010 ! !% 2000 !% 2010 ! \|- \|White alone (NH) \|79,972 \|76,404 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|72,246 \|81.3% \|76.65% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|71.02% \|- \|Black or African American alone (NH) \|8,917 \|10,465 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|11,833 \|9.1% \|10.50% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|11.63% \|- \|Native American or Alaska Native alone (NH) \|303 \|270 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|223 \|0.3% \|0.27% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|0.22% \|- \|Asian alone (NH) \|1,947 \|2,140 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|2,224 \|2.0% \|2.15% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|2.19% \|- \|Pacific Islander alone (NH) \|21 \|36 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|35 \|0.02% \|0.04% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|0.03% \|- \|Other race alone (NH) \|138 \|128 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|292 \|0.1% \|0.13% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|0.29% \|- \|Mixed race or Multiracial (NH) \|1,793 \|2,987 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|5,890 \|1.8% \|3.00% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|5.79% \|- \|Hispanic or Latino (any race) \|5,268 \|7,255 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|8,981 \|5.4% \|7.28% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|8.83% \|- \|Total \|98,359 \|99,685 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|101,724 \|100.00% \|100.00% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|100.00% \|} As of the census of 2020, the population was 101,724. The population density was . There were 46,964 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 74.1% White, 12.0% Black or African American, 2.2% Asian, 0.4% Native American, 2.6% from other races, and 8.7% from two or more races. Ethnically, the population was 8.8% Hispanic or Latino of any race.2010 censusAccording to the 2010 United States Census estimate, the city population grew to 99,685 and the Quad Cities metropolitan area grew to 379,690. 2000 census As of the 2000 census, there were 98,359 people, 39,124 households, and 24,804 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 41,350 housing units at an average density of . Davenport's population density was 30 times the average density of Iowa and 20 times the average density of the United States. The racial makeup of the area was 83.7% White (410,861), 11.43% Black or African American (27,757), 0.4% American Indian and Alaskan Native (1,255), 2.0% Asian (6,624), 0.03% Pacific Islander (156), and 2.0% from two or more races (11,929). 7.1% of the population was Hispanic or Latino of any race (37,070). There were 39,124 households, out of which 31.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.0% were married couples living together, 13.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.6% were non-families. Of all households, 29.5% were made up of individuals, and 9.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 3.03.EconomyDavenport's biggest labor industry is manufacturing, with over 7,600 jobs in the sector. John Deere is the second largest employer in the Quad Cities, after the Rock Island Arsenal as a whole. Deere, however, is the largest single employer, employing 7,200 workers in the Quad Cities and 948 on its north side Davenport plant. John Deere World Headquarters is located in Moline. Other large employers in Davenport and the Quad Cities include, Genesis Health System with 5,125 employees and 4,900 in Davenport, Trinity Regional Health System with 3,333, regional grocery store Hy-Vee with 3,138 and the Davenport Community School District with 2,237 employees. Davenport is also the headquarters of Lee Enterprises, which publishes fifty daily newspapers and more than 300 weekly newspapers, shoppers, and specialty publications, along with online sites in 23 states. As of September 2009, the unemployment rate in Davenport and the rest of the Quad Cities, had risen to 8.4%. The median income for a household in the city was $40,378, with families earning $51,445. Males had a median income of $41,853 versus $30,002 for females. KONE, Inc and Alcoa.Arts and cultureLandmarks was originally the longtime home of the Petersen Harned Von Maur flagship store and is now home of the River Music Experience.]] ]] Downtown Davenport has many points of interest including the Davenport Public Library, the Davenport Skybridge, Figge Art Museum, River Music Experience, Putnam Museum, the RiverCenter/Adler Theater, Modern Woodmen Park which is home of the Quad City River Bandits baseball team and the Centennial Bridge. The former Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Freight House, now known as The Freight House, is home to several small businesses featuring locally grown items, such as a deli, a grocery hub, and a tap room for a local brewery. Davenport's cultural and educational institutions include the Figge Art Museum, which houses The National Center for Midwest Art and Design, and was founded in 1925 as the Davenport Municipal Art Gallery. The Putnam Museum, which was founded in 1867 and was one of the first museums west of the Mississippi River. The Quad City Symphony Orchestra, headquartered in downtown Davenport, was founded in 1915. The Davenport Public Library was opened in 1839. The German American Heritage Center is located at the foot of the Centennial Bridge. Uptown features a few historic landmarks such as the Iowa Soldiers' Orphans' Home which took in homeless children from all of Iowa's ninety-nine counties following the Civil War and Ambrose Hall which was the original building of St. Ambrose University. Aside from landmarks, uptown contains some entertainment venues too, such as the Great Mississippi Valley Fairgrounds, which hosts fairs, stock car racing, and many other events. NorthPark Mall is the city's main shopping mall and has 160 stores. Its companion, SouthPark Mall, is located in Moline. Brady Street Stadium is home to Davenport high school and Saint Ambrose University football games. Davenport has a number of parks, including Credit Island park which has a bike path, baseball diamonds, tennis courts, and fishing along the Mississippi River. Vander Veer Botanical Park has a small botanical garden and also features a walking path, a lagoon, and a large fountain. The Stampe Lilac Garden is located in Duck Creek Park, on Locust St.Events and festivals Bix Fest is a three-day music festival with many traditional jazz bands held in tribute to internationally renowned jazz cornetist, pianist, composer, and Davenport native Bix Beiderbecke. The festival was started in August 1971 and the Bix Beiderbecke Memorial Society was founded one year later to organize and sponsor it. 2009 was the 39th consecutive festival. In addition to the Bix Fest, the Wells Fargo Street Fest features live music, food, and vendors. The annual Bix 7 is a road race held in late July in Davenport. The race was founded in 1975 by John A. Hudetz a resident of Bettendorf, Iowa, who wanted to bring to the Quad Cities some of the excitement he felt when he ran his first Boston Marathon. In late July or early August the six-day Great Mississippi Valley Fair features major grandstand concerts, carnival rides, attractions, and food vendors. Sturgis on the River is a large annual gathering of motorcycles which includes bands and food vendors. Other local expositions include River Roots Live, Beaux Arts Fair and many others. Livability Award Davenport (along with neighboring Rock Island, Illinois), won the 2007 City Livability Award in the small-city category from the U.S. Conference of Mayors. Tom Cochran, executive director of the Conference, stated that the award "gives the Conference a chance to highlight mayoral leadership in making urban areas safer, cleaner and more livable." The award acknowledges achievements from the RiverVision plan of Davenport and Rock Island. Sports Davenport and the Quad Cities are home to many sports teams. The Quad Cities River Bandits baseball team play games at Downtown Davenport's Modern Woodmen Park. The TaxSlayer Center in Moline is home the Quad City Steamwheelers indoor football team and the Quad City Storm hockey team. Davenport high schools are in the Mississippi Athletic Conference for sports. Parks and recreation Davenport has over fifty parks or recreational trails. Bands for the Bix Fest play in the park each July. Vander Veer Botanical Park welcomes approximately 25,000 visitors to continuous floral shows. Plans are being discussed to connect the two trails in Riverdale. Three public golf courses are offered in the city. For river-related activities, The Channel Cat boat offers rides across the river and has two stops in Iowa and three stops in Illinois and connects the bike paths that each state has on its river front.Government was built in 1895 at the price of $100,000.]] Davenport uses a mayor–council form of local government. , city government consists of mayor Mike Matson and a ten-person council. One person is elected from each of the eight wards and two at-large aldermen are elected to represent the whole city. Nonpartisan elections are held in odd-numbered years. The mayor is the top elected individual for the city and presides over city council meetings, voting in case of a tie. The mayor appoints city board members. The city council's job is to make laws and set the city budget. The city administrator, currently Corrin Spiegel, is appointed by the mayor with confirmation by two-thirds of the council. Citywide goals through 2012 include having a financially responsible government, having a growing economy, revitalizing neighborhoods, and upgrading city infrastructure and public facilities. The establishment of Davenport as a political and government unit came in 1839, three years after the city was settled. The city was incorporated as a result of a resolution by Iowa Representative Jonathan W. Parker by special charter in the Iowa Territory on January 25, 1839. After 1900, each mayor brought new agendas for city improvement. Waldo Becker encouraged new railroads for the city. He also promised a more business-like government, in terms of financial responsibility and to depoliticize the police department. In the mid-1920s the city established the first zoning ordinances, electrical traffic signals and street lighting. The city also expanded with the incorporation of the city of Rockingham and the establishment of the Davenport Municipal Airport. The city's general fund receives the largest amount of funds from property taxes, followed by service fees such as solid waste collection and swimming pool or golf course admission and 80% of its expenses go to personnel costs. , the 41st senate district covers the eastern third of the city and all of Bettendorf, Riverdale, and Panorama Park. It is more conservative than other Davenport districts being represented by a Republican since the 1970s. The district is slightly moving more liberal with an increase of 3,000 Democrats between 2006 and 2010. The district is represented by Republican Senator Roby Smith. The 42nd district covers the western third of the city along with all of Scott County that is not in Davenport, Bettendorf, Riverdale, or Panorama Park as well as western and southern rural Clinton County and is represented by Republican Senator Shawn Hamerlinck. The 43rd senate district covers the central third of the city and is represented by Democrat Joe Seng. The 81st house district covers the eastern third of the city along with small western portion of Bettendorf. The district shares the same western boundaries as the forty-first senate district. The district is represented by Democrat Phyllis Thede. The 84th district covers the western third of the city, and has the same eastern boundary as Senate district forty-two and is represented by Republican Ross Paustian. The 85th and 86th districts are made up of the same area as the forty-third senate district. The 85th district covers the north and west-central area while the 86th district covers southern and eastern part of the senate district. Both are represented by Democrats with Jim Lykam representing the 85th and Cindy Winckler representing the 86th. Davenport has a Federal Court House for the United States District Court for the Southern District of Iowa. {\| class="wikitable" \|+ US House of Representatives \|- ! Name ! Congressional District !Party \|- \| Mariannette Miller-Meeks \| 1st District \| \| Republican \|- \|} {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Iowa Senate \|- ! Name ! District !Party \|- \| Jim Lykam \| District 45 \| \| Democratic \|- \| Mark S. Lofgren \| District 46 \| \| Republican \|- \| Roby Smith \| District 47 \| \| Republican \|- \|} {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Iowa House of Representatives \|- ! Name ! District !Party \|- \| Monica Kurth \| District 89 \| \| Democratic \|- \| Cindy Winckler \| District 90 \| \| Democratic \|- \| Ross Paustian \| District 92 \| \| Republican \|- \| Phyllis Thede \| District 93 \| \| Democratic \|- \| Gary Mohr \| District 94 \| \| Republican \|- \|} Education , established in 1882, is the oldest of the two universities in Davenport.]] Davenport public schools serve nearly 14,500 students in the communities of Davenport, Blue Grass, Buffalo, and Walcott. The Davenport Community School District is the fourth-largest school district in Iowa. Davenport has four public high schools: Central, West, Mid City and North and one private high school: Assumption. There are six public intermediate schools and 23 public elementary schools. Sudlow, one of the intermediate schools, was named after Phebe Sudlow, the first female public school superintendent in the United States. She was superintendent for Davenport schools from 1874 to 1878. Marycrest International University was a university in Davenport from 1939 to 2002, when it closed. The campus was renovated and adapted to senior citizen housing. Media building was the first television station in Davenport.]] There are two major daily newspapers in Davenport. The Quad-City Times is based out of Davenport and The Dispatch/Rock Island Argus is based out of Moline. An alternative free newspaper, the ''River Cities' Reader'', is published in Davenport. All four major television networks have stations in the area, including KWQC (NBC) and KLJB (Fox) in Davenport. WHBF (CBS) is located in Rock Island and WQAD (ABC) is in Moline. The Quad Cities ranks as the 97th largest market for television and the 147th largest market for radio. Radio station WOC made its local broadcasting debut on February 18, 1922. It was the second licensed station on the air. In 1933, WOC hired future president Ronald Reagan as a staff announcer. In October 2010, a $230 million federal fund was announced that will bring Amtrak service to the Quad Cities, with a new line running from Moline to Chicago. They had hoped to have the line completed in 2015, and offer two round trips daily to Chicago. Currently the Moline station does not have any Amtrak service. Greyhound Lines/Burlington Trailways bus service has a station in Davenport. The building is shared with the local Davenport Citibus. The bridge, or rather three bridges, is a set of railroad bridges that cross over north and southbound U.S. Route 61 and another street. Every year an average of 12 semi trucks hit the bridge, usually causing massive damage to the trucks. The authority at first provided monetary support to Davenport City Lines Bus Company, which was a privately owned company. After a few years the city purchased the Davenport City Lines and placed the operation of public transportation under the jurisdiction of the city's Department of Municipal Transportation. Today, CitiBus is a division of the Department of Public Works. CitiBus has a total of 20 vehicles and covers approximately of the city. CitiBus connects with both Bettendorf Transit and the Illinois Quad Cities mass transit system, MetroLINK. Utilities Electricity to Davenport, and the rest of the Iowa Quad Cities, is provided by MidAmerican Energy Company. Water is provided by the Mississippi River and is treated by the Iowa American Water Company. The water treatment facility is located in southeast Davenport. Health care Davenport is served by two hospitals: Genesis Medical Center East – Rusholme Street and Genesis Medical Center – West Central Park Avenue part of the Genesis Health System. Together the facilities, along with two other facilities outside Davenport have 665 beds. The hospitals employ more than 600 physicians and 5,000 staff members. Fewer than three percent of hospitals receive this honor. The artist Isabel Bloom was raised in Davenport; she is the creator of decorative concrete figurines that bear her name. Guitarist and vocalist John Kadlecik, who founded The Dark Star Orchestra and toured with the members of The Grateful Dead in the band Furthur, also grew up in Davenport, as well as rapper Dave Blunts. Sports figures born in Davenport include former middleweight and super-middle champion of the world in boxing Michael Nunn, NFL running back Roger Craig, NFL offensive lineman Julian Vandervelde, former NBA guard Ricky Davis, former NBA G-League guard Marlon Stewart, UFC welterweight champion Robbie Lawler, NFL wide receiver Kenny Shedd and professional wrestler Seth Rollins. Other natives include the aviation pioneer Samuel Cody, actors Stuart Margolin, Lara Flynn Boyle, Sue Lyon, Linnea Quigley, and Greg Stolze. Otto Frederick Rohwedder, the inventor of mass-produced sliced bread, and actor Jock Mahoney, grew up in Davenport. The former mayor of St. Louis, Lyda Krewson, was born in Davenport. Film, theater, and literary references * Bix Beiderbecke recorded a song in 1925 called "Davenport Blues". * In the bed department scene of the Marx Brothers 1941 movie "The Big Store" Groucho tells a man to "Just press that button over by the davenport.". The man replies "Where is the davenport?" and Groucho replies "It's in Iowa."''. * The 1958 Johnny Cash song, "Big River", also later recorded by Bill Monroe and other artists, mentions "cavortin' in Davenport." * Davenport is one of eight cities listed in the song "Iowa Stubborn" from the 1957 musical The Music Man. * In the film Tommy Boy, Richard Hayden attempts to get directions to a business appointment in Davenport from a service station 22 miles away on the Illinois side of the river, but the employee tells him to get a new map. Sister cities Davenport's sister cities are: * Kaiserslautern, Germany (1960) * Ilhéus, Brazil (2005) * County Carlow, Ireland (2006) Friendship cities Davenport has friendly relations with: * Langfang, China (2018) * Colón, Mexico See also * African Americans in Davenport, Iowa * Bucktown, Davenport * List of tallest buildings in the Quad Cities Notes References Citations Sources * Further reading Plan and Zoning Commission, Historic Preservation in Davenport, Iowa for Inclusion in the Davenport Comprehensive Plan, Davenport (1985) Svendsen, Marlys, Davenport A Pictorial History, (1987) Davenport: G. Bradley Publishing, Inc., Svendsen, Marlys, Davenport Historical Survey Report : A Thematic History of Davenport, Iowa, 1836–1940 with reference to buildings, structures & sites, (1980) Davenport, External links [https://www.davenportiowa.com/ City of Davenport] Category:Cities in Iowa Category:Cities in the Quad Cities Category:County seats in Iowa Category:Iowa populated places on the Mississippi River Category:Quad Cities Category:Cities in Scott County, Iowa Category:1836 establishments in Michigan Territory	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davenport,_Iowa	2025-04-05T18:28:41.595793
8603	Diffraction	thumb\|A diffraction pattern of a red laser beam projected onto a plate after passing through a small circular aperture in another plate Diffraction is the deviation of waves from straight-line propagation without any change in their energy due to an obstacle or through an aperture. The diffracting object or aperture effectively becomes a secondary source of the propagating wave. Diffraction is the same physical effect as interference, but interference is typically applied to superposition of a few waves and the term diffraction is used when many waves are superposed. The characteristic pattern is most pronounced when a wave from a coherent source (such as a laser) encounters a slit/aperture that is comparable in size to its wavelength, as shown in the inserted image. This is due to the addition, or interference, of different points on the wavefront (or, equivalently, each wavelet) that travel by paths of different lengths to the registering surface. If there are multiple closely spaced openings, a complex pattern of varying intensity can result. These effects also occur when a light wave travels through a medium with a varying refractive index, or when a sound wave travels through a medium with varying acoustic impedance – all waves diffract, including gravitational waves, water waves, and other electromagnetic waves such as X-rays and radio waves. Furthermore, quantum mechanics also demonstrates that matter possesses wave-like properties and, therefore, undergoes diffraction (which is measurable at subatomic to molecular levels). History right\|thumb\|Thomas Young's sketch of two-slit diffraction for water ripple tank from his 1807 Lectures The effects of diffraction of light were first carefully observed and characterized by Francesco Maria Grimaldi, who also coined the term diffraction, from the Latin diffringere, 'to break into pieces', referring to light breaking up into different directions. The results of Grimaldi's observations were published posthumously in 1665. Isaac Newton studied these effects and attributed them to inflexion of light rays. James Gregory (1638–1675) observed the diffraction patterns caused by a bird feather, which was effectively the first diffraction grating to be discovered. Thomas Young performed a celebrated experiment in 1803 demonstrating interference from two closely spaced slits. Explaining his results by interference of the waves emanating from the two different slits, he deduced that light must propagate as waves. In 1818, supporters of the corpuscular theory of light proposed that the Paris Academy prize question address diffraction, expecting to see the wave theory defeated. However, Augustin-Jean Fresnel took the prize with his new theory wave propagation, combining the ideas of Christiaan Huygens with Young's interference concept. Siméon Denis Poisson challenged the Fresnel theory by showing that it predicted light in the shadow behind a circular obstruction; Dominique-François-Jean Arago proceeded to demonstrate experimentally that such light is visible, confirming Fresnel's diffraction model. Mechanism thumb\|left\|Single-slit diffraction in a circular ripple tank In classical physics diffraction arises because of how waves propagate; this is described by the Huygens–Fresnel principle and the principle of superposition of waves. The propagation of a wave can be visualized by considering every particle of the transmitted medium on a wavefront as a point source for a secondary spherical wave. The wave displacement at any subsequent point is the sum of these secondary waves. When waves are added together, their sum is determined by the relative phases as well as the amplitudes of the individual waves so that the summed amplitude of the waves can have any value between zero and the sum of the individual amplitudes. Hence, diffraction patterns usually have a series of maxima and minima. In the modern quantum mechanical understanding of light propagation through a slit (or slits) every photon is described by its wavefunction that determines the probability distribution for the photon: the light and dark bands are the areas where the photons are more or less likely to be detected. The wavefunction is determined by the physical surroundings such as slit geometry, screen distance, and initial conditions when the photon is created. The wave nature of individual photons (as opposed to wave properties only arising from the interactions between multitudes of photons) was implied by a low-intensity double-slit experiment first performed by G. I. Taylor in 1909. The quantum approach has some striking similarities to the Huygens-Fresnel principle; based on that principle, as light travels through slits and boundaries, secondary point light sources are created near or along these obstacles, and the resulting diffraction pattern is going to be the intensity profile based on the collective interference of all these light sources that have different optical paths. In the quantum formalism, that is similar to considering the limited regions around the slits and boundaries from which photons are more likely to originate, and calculating the probability distribution (that is proportional to the resulting intensity of classical formalism). There are various analytical models for photons which allow the diffracted field to be calculated, including the Kirchhoff diffraction equation (derived from the wave equation), the Fraunhofer diffraction approximation of the Kirchhoff equation (applicable to the far field), the Fresnel diffraction approximation (applicable to the near field) and the Feynman path integral formulation. Most configurations cannot be solved analytically, but can yield numerical solutions through finite element and boundary element methods. In many cases it is assumed that there is only one scattering event, what is called kinematical diffraction, with an Ewald's sphere construction used to represent that there is no change in energy during the diffraction process. For matter waves a similar but slightly different approach is used based upon a relativistically corrected form of the Schrödinger equation, as first detailed by Hans Bethe. The Fraunhofer and Fresnel limits exist for these as well, although they correspond more to approximations for the matter wave Green's function (propagator) for the Schrödinger equation. More common is full multiple scattering models particular in electron diffraction; in some cases similar dynamical diffraction models are also used for X-rays. It is possible to obtain a qualitative understanding of many diffraction phenomena by considering how the relative phases of the individual secondary wave sources vary, and, in particular, the conditions in which the phase difference equals half a cycle in which case waves will cancel one another out. The simplest descriptions of diffraction are those in which the situation can be reduced to a two-dimensional problem. For water waves, this is already the case; water waves propagate only on the surface of the water. For light, we can often neglect one direction if the diffracting object extends in that direction over a distance far greater than the wavelength. In the case of light shining through small circular holes, we will have to take into account the full three-dimensional nature of the problem. File:Square diffraction.jpg\|Computer-generated intensity pattern formed on a screen by diffraction from a square aperture File:Two-Slit Diffraction.png\|Generation of an interference pattern from two-slit diffraction File:Doubleslit.gif\|Computational model of an interference pattern from two-slit diffraction File:Optical diffraction pattern ( laser), (analogous to X-ray crystallography).JPG\|Optical diffraction pattern (laser, analogous to X-ray diffraction) File:Diffraction pattern in spiderweb.JPG\|Colors seen in a spider web are partially due to diffraction, according to some analyses. Examples The effects of diffraction are often seen in everyday life. The most striking examples of diffraction are those that involve light; for example, the closely spaced tracks on a CD or DVD act as a diffraction grating to form the familiar rainbow pattern seen when looking at a disc. This principle can be extended to engineer a grating with a structure such that it will produce any diffraction pattern desired; the hologram on a credit card is an example. Diffraction in the atmosphere by small particles can cause a corona - a bright disc and rings around a bright light source like the sun or the moon. At the opposite point one may also observe glory - bright rings around the shadow of the observer. In contrast to the corona, glory requires the particles to be transparent spheres (like fog droplets), since the backscattering of the light that forms the glory involves refraction and internal reflection within the droplet. A shadow of a solid object, using light from a compact source, shows small fringes near its edges. thumb\|center\|The bright spot (Arago spot) seen in the center of the shadow of a circular obstacle is due to diffraction Diffraction spikes are diffraction patterns caused due to non-circular aperture in camera or support struts in telescope; In normal vision, diffraction through eyelashes may produce such spikes. thumb\|center\|View from the end of Millennium Bridge; Moon rising above the Southwark Bridge. Street lights are reflecting in the Thames. thumb\|center\|Simulated diffraction spikes in hexagonal telescope mirrors The speckle pattern which is observed when laser light falls on an optically rough surface is also a diffraction phenomenon. When deli meat appears to be iridescent, that is diffraction off the meat fibers. All these effects are a consequence of the fact that light propagates as a wave. Diffraction can occur with any kind of wave. Ocean waves diffract around jetties and other obstacles. thumb\|center\|Circular waves generated by diffraction from the narrow entrance of a flooded coastal quarry Sound waves can diffract around objects, which is why one can still hear someone calling even when hiding behind a tree. Diffraction can also be a concern in some technical applications; it sets a fundamental limit to the resolution of a camera, telescope, or microscope. Other examples of diffraction are considered below. Single-slit diffraction thumb\|2D Single-slit diffraction with width changing animation right\|thumb\|Numerical approximation of diffraction pattern from a slit of width four wavelengths with an incident plane wave. The main central beam, nulls, and phase reversals are apparent. right\|thumb\|Graph and image of single-slit diffraction A long slit of infinitesimal width which is illuminated by light diffracts the light into a series of circular waves and the wavefront which emerges from the slit is a cylindrical wave of uniform intensity, in accordance with the Huygens–Fresnel principle. An illuminated slit that is wider than a wavelength produces interference effects in the space downstream of the slit. Assuming that the slit behaves as though it has a large number of point sources spaced evenly across the width of the slit interference effects can be calculated. The analysis of this system is simplified if we consider light of a single wavelength. If the incident light is coherent, these sources all have the same phase. Light incident at a given point in the space downstream of the slit is made up of contributions from each of these point sources and if the relative phases of these contributions vary by 2\pi or more, we may expect to find minima and maxima in the diffracted light. Such phase differences are caused by differences in the path lengths over which contributing rays reach the point from the slit. We can find the angle at which a first minimum is obtained in the diffracted light by the following reasoning. The light from a source located at the top edge of the slit interferes destructively with a source located at the middle of the slit, when the path difference between them is equal to Similarly, the source just below the top of the slit will interfere destructively with the source located just below the middle of the slit at the same angle. We can continue this reasoning along the entire height of the slit to conclude that the condition for destructive interference for the entire slit is the same as the condition for destructive interference between two narrow slits a distance apart that is half the width of the slit. The path difference is approximately \frac{d \sin(\theta)}{2} so that the minimum intensity occurs at an angle \theta_\text{min} given by d\,\sin\theta_\text{min} = \lambda, where d is the width of the slit, \theta_\text{min} is the angle of incidence at which the minimum intensity occurs, and \lambda is the wavelength of the light. A similar argument can be used to show that if we imagine the slit to be divided into four, six, eight parts, etc., minima are obtained at angles \theta_{n} given by d\,\sin\theta_{n} = n \lambda, where n is an integer other than zero. There is no such simple argument to enable us to find the maxima of the diffraction pattern. The intensity profile can be calculated using the Fraunhofer diffraction equation as I(\theta) = I_0 \, \operatorname{sinc}^2 \left( \frac{d \pi}{\lambda} \sin\theta \right), where I(\theta) is the intensity at a given angle, I_0 is the intensity at the central maximum which is also a normalization factor of the intensity profile that can be determined by an integration from \theta -\frac{\pi}{2} to \theta \frac{\pi}{2} and conservation of energy, and which is the unnormalized sinc function. This analysis applies only to the far field (Fraunhofer diffraction), that is, at a distance much larger than the width of the slit. From the intensity profile above, if the intensity will have little dependency on hence the wavefront emerging from the slit would resemble a cylindrical wave with azimuthal symmetry; If only \theta \approx 0 would have appreciable intensity, hence the wavefront emerging from the slit would resemble that of geometrical optics. When the incident angle \theta_\text{i} of the light onto the slit is non-zero (which causes a change in the path length), the intensity profile in the Fraunhofer regime (i.e. far field) becomes: I(\theta) = I_0 \, \operatorname{sinc}^2 \left[ \frac{d \pi}{\lambda} (\sin\theta \pm \sin\theta_\text{i})\right] The choice of plus/minus sign depends on the definition of the incident angle right\|thumb\|2-slit (top) and 5-slit diffraction of red laser light thumb\|left\|Diffraction of a red laser using a diffraction grating right\|thumb\|A diffraction pattern of a 633 nm laser through a grid of 150 slits Diffraction grating thumb\|Diffraction grating A diffraction grating is an optical component with a regular pattern. The form of the light diffracted by a grating depends on the structure of the elements and the number of elements present, but all gratings have intensity maxima at angles θm which are given by the grating equation d \left( \sin{\theta_m} \pm \sin{\theta_i} \right) = m \lambda, where \theta_{i} is the angle at which the light is incident, d is the separation of grating elements, and m is an integer which can be positive or negative. The light diffracted by a grating is found by summing the light diffracted from each of the elements, and is essentially a convolution of diffraction and interference patterns. The figure shows the light diffracted by 2-element and 5-element gratings where the grating spacings are the same; it can be seen that the maxima are in the same position, but the detailed structures of the intensities are different. Circular aperture thumb\|A computer-generated image of an Airy disk thumb\|Diffraction pattern from a circular aperture at various distances The far-field diffraction of a plane wave incident on a circular aperture is often referred to as the Airy disk. The variation in intensity with angle is given by I(\theta) = I_0 \left ( \frac{2 J_1(ka \sin \theta)}{ka \sin \theta} \right )^2 , where a is the radius of the circular aperture, k is equal to 2\pi/\lambda and J_1 is a Bessel function. The smaller the aperture, the larger the spot size at a given distance, and the greater the divergence of the diffracted beams. General aperture The wave that emerges from a point source has amplitude \psi at location \mathbf r that is given by the solution of the frequency domain wave equation for a point source (the Helmholtz equation), \nabla^2 \psi + k^2 \psi = \delta(\mathbf r), where \delta(\mathbf r) is the 3-dimensional delta function. The delta function has only radial dependence, so the Laplace operator (a.k.a. scalar Laplacian) in the spherical coordinate system simplifies to \nabla ^2\psi = \frac{1}{r} \frac {\partial ^2}{\partial r^2} (r \psi) . (See del in cylindrical and spherical coordinates.) By direct substitution, the solution to this equation can be readily shown to be the scalar Green's function, which in the spherical coordinate system (and using the physics time convention e^{-i \omega t}) is \psi(r) = \frac{e^{ikr}}{4 \pi r}. This solution assumes that the delta function source is located at the origin. If the source is located at an arbitrary source point, denoted by the vector \mathbf r' and the field point is located at the point \mathbf r, then we may represent the scalar Green's function (for arbitrary source location) as \psi(\mathbf r \| \mathbf r') = \frac{e^{ik \| \mathbf r - \mathbf r' \| }}{4 \pi \| \mathbf r - \mathbf r' \|}. Therefore, if an electric field E_\mathrm{inc}(x, y) is incident on the aperture, the field produced by this aperture distribution is given by the surface integral \Psi(r)\propto \iint\limits_\mathrm{aperture} \!\! E_\mathrm{inc}(x',y') ~ \frac{e^{ik \| \mathbf r - \mathbf r'\|}}{4 \pi \| \mathbf r - \mathbf r' \|} \,dx'\, dy', upright=1.4\|thumb\|On the calculation of Fraunhofer region fields where the source point in the aperture is given by the vector \mathbf{r}' = x' \mathbf{\hat{x}} + y' \mathbf{\hat{y}}. In the far field, wherein the parallel rays approximation can be employed, the Green's function, \psi(\mathbf r \| \mathbf r') = \frac{e^{ik \| \mathbf r - \mathbf r' \|} }{4 \pi \| \mathbf r - \mathbf r' \|}, simplifies to \psi(\mathbf{r} \| \mathbf{r}') = \frac{e^{ik r}}{4 \pi r} e^{-ik ( \mathbf{r}' \cdot \mathbf{\hat{r}})} as can be seen in the adjacent figure. The expression for the far-zone (Fraunhofer region) field becomes \Psi(r)\propto \frac{e^{ik r}}{4 \pi r} \iint\limits_\mathrm{aperture} \!\! E_\mathrm{inc}(x',y') e^{-ik ( \mathbf{r}' \cdot \mathbf{\hat{r}} ) } \, dx' \,dy'. Now, since \mathbf{r}' = x' \mathbf{\hat{x}} + y' \mathbf{\hat{y}} and \mathbf{\hat{r}} = \sin \theta \cos \phi \mathbf{\hat{x}} + \sin \theta ~ \sin \phi ~ \mathbf{\hat{y}} + \cos \theta \mathbf{\hat{z}}, the expression for the Fraunhofer region field from a planar aperture now becomes \Psi(r) \propto \frac{e^{ik r}}{4 \pi r} \iint\limits_\mathrm{aperture} \!\! E_\mathrm{inc}(x',y') e^{-ik \sin \theta (\cos \phi x' + \sin \phi y')} \, dx' \, dy'. Letting k_x = k \sin \theta \cos \phi and k_y = k \sin \theta \sin \phi \,, the Fraunhofer region field of the planar aperture assumes the form of a Fourier transform \Psi(r)\propto \frac{e^{ik r}}{4 \pi r} \iint\limits_\mathrm{aperture} \!\! E_\mathrm{inc}(x',y') e^{-i (k_x x' + k_y y') } \, dx' \, dy' , In the far-field / Fraunhofer region, this becomes the spatial Fourier transform of the aperture distribution. Huygens' principle when applied to an aperture simply says that the far-field diffraction pattern is the spatial Fourier transform of the aperture shape, and this is a direct by-product of using the parallel-rays approximation, which is identical to doing a plane wave decomposition of the aperture plane fields (see Fourier optics). Propagation of a laser beam The way in which the beam profile of a laser beam changes as it propagates is determined by diffraction. When the entire emitted beam has a planar, spatially coherent wave front, it approximates Gaussian beam profile and has the lowest divergence for a given diameter. The smaller the output beam, the quicker it diverges. It is possible to reduce the divergence of a laser beam by first expanding it with one convex lens, and then collimating it with a second convex lens whose focal point is coincident with that of the first lens. The resulting beam has a larger diameter, and hence a lower divergence. Divergence of a laser beam may be reduced below the diffraction of a Gaussian beam or even reversed to convergence if the refractive index of the propagation media increases with the light intensity. This may result in a self-focusing effect. When the wave front of the emitted beam has perturbations, only the transverse coherence length (where the wave front perturbation is less than 1/4 of the wavelength) should be considered as a Gaussian beam diameter when determining the divergence of the laser beam. If the transverse coherence length in the vertical direction is higher than in horizontal, the laser beam divergence will be lower in the vertical direction than in the horizontal. Diffraction-limited imaging frame\|The Airy disk around each of the stars from the 2.56 m telescope aperture can be seen in this lucky image of the binary star zeta Boötis. The ability of an imaging system to resolve detail is ultimately limited by diffraction. This is because a plane wave incident on a circular lens or mirror is diffracted as described above. The light is not focused to a point but forms an Airy disk having a central spot in the focal plane whose radius (as measured to the first null) is \Delta x = 1.22 \lambda N , where \lambda is the wavelength of the light and N is the f-number (focal length f divided by aperture diameter D) of the imaging optics; this is strictly accurate for N \gg 1 (paraxial case). In object space, the corresponding angular resolution is \theta \approx \sin \theta = 1.22 \frac{\lambda}{D}, where D is the diameter of the entrance pupil of the imaging lens (e.g., of a telescope's main mirror). Two point sources will each produce an Airy pattern – see the photo of a binary star. As the point sources move closer together, the patterns will start to overlap, and ultimately they will merge to form a single pattern, in which case the two point sources cannot be resolved in the image. The Rayleigh criterion specifies that two point sources are considered "resolved" if the separation of the two images is at least the radius of the Airy disk, i.e. if the first minimum of one coincides with the maximum of the other. Thus, the larger the aperture of the lens compared to the wavelength, the finer the resolution of an imaging system. This is one reason astronomical telescopes require large objectives, and why microscope objectives require a large numerical aperture (large aperture diameter compared to working distance) in order to obtain the highest possible resolution. Speckle patterns The speckle pattern seen when using a laser pointer is another diffraction phenomenon. It is a result of the superposition of many waves with different phases, which are produced when a laser beam illuminates a rough surface. They add together to give a resultant wave whose amplitude, and therefore intensity, varies randomly. Babinet's principle Babinet's principle is a useful theorem stating that the diffraction pattern from an opaque body is identical to that from a hole of the same size and shape, but with differing intensities. This means that the interference conditions of a single obstruction would be the same as that of a single slit. "Knife edge" The knife-edge effect or knife-edge diffraction is a truncation of a portion of the incident radiation that strikes a sharp well-defined obstacle, such as a mountain range or the wall of a building. The knife-edge effect is explained by the Huygens–Fresnel principle, which states that a well-defined obstruction to an electromagnetic wave acts as a secondary source, and creates a new wavefront. This new wavefront propagates into the geometric shadow area of the obstacle. Knife-edge diffraction is an outgrowth of the "half-plane problem", originally solved by Arnold Sommerfeld using a plane wave spectrum formulation. A generalization of the half-plane problem is the "wedge problem", solvable as a boundary value problem in cylindrical coordinates. The solution in cylindrical coordinates was then extended to the optical regime by Joseph B. Keller, who introduced the notion of diffraction coefficients through his geometrical theory of diffraction (GTD). In 1974, Prabhakar Pathak and Robert Kouyoumjian extended the (singular) Keller coefficients via the uniform theory of diffraction (UTD). File:Diffraction sharp edge.gif\|Diffraction on a sharp metallic edge File:Diffraction softest edge.gif\|Diffraction on a soft aperture, with a gradient of conductivity over the image width Patterns thumb\|The upper half of this image shows a diffraction pattern of He-Ne laser beam on an elliptic aperture. The lower half is its 2D Fourier transform approximately reconstructing the shape of the aperture. Several qualitative observations can be made of diffraction in general: The angular spacing of the features in the diffraction pattern is inversely proportional to the dimensions of the object causing the diffraction. In other words: The smaller the diffracting object, the 'wider' the resulting diffraction pattern, and vice versa. (More precisely, this is true of the sines of the angles.) The diffraction angles are invariant under scaling; that is, they depend only on the ratio of the wavelength to the size of the diffracting object. When the diffracting object has a periodic structure, for example in a diffraction grating, the features generally become sharper. The third figure, for example, shows a comparison of a double-slit pattern with a pattern formed by five slits, both sets of slits having the same spacing, between the center of one slit and the next. Matter wave diffraction According to quantum theory every particle exhibits wave properties and can therefore diffract. Diffraction of electrons and neutrons is one of the powerful arguments in favor of quantum mechanics. The wavelength associated with a non-relativistic particle is the de Broglie wavelength \lambda=\frac{h}{p} \, , where h is the Planck constant and p is the momentum of the particle (mass × velocity for slow-moving particles). For example, a sodium atom traveling at about 300 m/s would have a de Broglie wavelength of about 50 picometres. Diffraction of matter waves has been observed for small particles, like electrons, neutrons, atoms, and even large molecules. The short wavelength of these matter waves makes them ideally suited to study the atomic structure of solids, molecules and proteins. Bragg diffraction thumb\|Following Bragg's law, each dot (or reflection) in this diffraction pattern forms from the constructive interference of X-rays passing through a crystal. The data can be used to determine the crystal's atomic structure. Diffraction from a large three-dimensional periodic structure such as many thousands of atoms in a crystal is called Bragg diffraction. It is similar to what occurs when waves are scattered from a diffraction grating. Bragg diffraction is a consequence of interference between waves reflecting from many different crystal planes. The condition of constructive interference is given by Bragg's law: m \lambda = 2 d \sin \theta , where \lambda is the wavelength, d is the distance between crystal planes, \theta is the angle of the diffracted wave, and m is an integer known as the order of the diffracted beam. Bragg diffraction may be carried out using either electromagnetic radiation of very short wavelength like X-rays or matter waves like neutrons (and electrons) whose wavelength is on the order of (or much smaller than) the atomic spacing. The pattern produced gives information of the separations of crystallographic planes d, allowing one to deduce the crystal structure. For completeness, Bragg diffraction is a limit for a large number of atoms with X-rays or neutrons, and is rarely valid for electron diffraction or with solid particles in the size range of less than 50 nanometers. The length over which the phase in a beam of light is correlated is called the coherence length. In order for interference to occur, the path length difference must be smaller than the coherence length. This is sometimes referred to as spectral coherence, as it is related to the presence of different frequency components in the wave. In the case of light emitted by an atomic transition, the coherence length is related to the lifetime of the excited state from which the atom made its transition. If waves are emitted from an extended source, this can lead to incoherence in the transversal direction. When looking at a cross section of a beam of light, the length over which the phase is correlated is called the transverse coherence length. In the case of Young's double-slit experiment, this would mean that if the transverse coherence length is smaller than the spacing between the two slits, the resulting pattern on a screen would look like two single-slit diffraction patterns. Applications Diffraction before destruction A new way to image single biological particles has emerged since the 2010s, utilising the bright X-rays generated by X-ray free-electron lasers. These femtosecond-duration pulses will allow for the (potential) imaging of single biological macromolecules. Due to these short pulses, radiation damage can be outrun, and diffraction patterns of single biological macromolecules will be able to be obtained. See also Angle-sensitive pixel Atmospheric diffraction Brocken spectre Cloud iridescence Coherent diffraction imaging Diffraction from slits Diffraction spike Diffraction vs. interference Diffractive solar sail Diffractometer Dynamical theory of diffraction Electron diffraction Fraunhofer diffraction Fresnel imager Fresnel number Fresnel zone Point spread function Powder diffraction Quasioptics Refraction Reflection Schaefer–Bergmann diffraction Thinned-array curse X-ray diffraction References External links The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol. I Ch. 30: Diffraction Using a cd as a diffraction grating at YouTube Category:Physical phenomena	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffraction	2025-04-05T18:28:41.647139
8605	Stephen Donaldson (activist)	\| birth_place = Norfolk, Virginia, United States \| other_names = Donny the Punk, Bob Martin \| death_date \| death_place = New York, New York \| education = Columbia University (BA- Political Science, PhD- Religion) \| occupation = Political activist }} Stephen Donaldson (July 27, 1946 – July 18, 1996), born Robert Anthony Martin Jr. and also known by the pseudonym Donny the Punk, was an American bisexual rights activist, and political activist. He is best known for his pioneering activism in LGBT rights and prison reform, and for his writing about punk rock and subculture. At Columbia University, he founded the first LGBT college group in the United States, called the Student Homophile League (SHL) (now the Columbia Queer Alliance). He coined the term 'protective pairing'. Childhood and adolescence (1946–1965) The son of a career naval officer, Donaldson spent his early childhood in different seaport cities in the eastern United States and in Germany. Donaldson later described his father Robert, the son of Italian and German immigrants, as a man who "frowned on display of emotion" and his mother Lois as "an English, Scottish Texan, artistic, free-spirited, emotional, impulsive." After his parents' divorce in 1953, when he was seven years old, Donaldson's mother suffered from acute porphyria (a rare genetic disease), and his father gained custody of Robert and his two brothers. His father remarried several years later. At age 12, Donaldson was expelled from Boy Scouts for engaging in sexual behavior with other boys (who, as recipients, were not punished). "The disgrace triggered a family crisis, resolved by sending the boy to live in Germany, where he could be watched over by his stepmother's relatives." He attended a boys boarding school and continued homosexual activity, hiding it from adults. In the summer of 1966, Donaldson began a relationship with gay activist Frank Kameny, who had a great influence on him. Donaldson later wrote: This group adopted by consensus the "Ithaca Statement on Bisexuality". }} After a series of meetings, the Committee of Friends on Bisexuality was formed, with Donaldson (using the name Bob Martin) as its chair until he left the Quakers in 1977. Donaldson was involved in the New York bisexual movement in the mid-1970s, for example appearing in 1974 on a New York Gay Activists Alliance panel with Kate Millett. Donaldson propounded the belief that ultimately bisexuality would be perceived as much more threatening to the prevailing sexual order than homosexuality, because it potentially subverted everyone's identity (the idea that everyone is potentially bisexual was widespread) and could not, unlike exclusive homosexuality, be confined to a segregated, stigmatized and therefore manageable ghetto.Washington jail experiences and aftermath (1973)Demonstrations and incarcerationsAfter being discharged from the Navy in 1972, Donaldson moved to Washington, D.C., where he "worked as Pentagon correspondent for the Overseas Weekly, a privately owned newspaper distributed to American servicemen stationed in Europe". On August 14 Donaldson was one of 66 demonstrators (including Daniel Berrigan) who took part in a CCNV-sponsored pray-in at the White House protesting the bombing of Cambodia, where he was again arrested. Donaldson again refused to post bail. In a 1974 account under the pseudonym Donald Tucker, he explained: Donaldson wrote that he was aided in his sexual recovery by an understanding woman who helped him regain his confidence. After a year and a half, he returned to his prior level of sexual activity.Subsequent arrests and incarcerations (1976–1990)Acceptance of "punk" role (1976) While traveling to Florida for his mother's funeral in late 1976, Donaldson was arrested after urinating in a motel parking lot, then was charged with possession after the police searched his hotel room and found cannabis. He was placed in a small cell block with four white and eight black prisoners, most of them Marines from a nearby base, who demanded sexual services. Donaldson later wrote: Donaldson became president of Stop Prisoner Rape, Inc. (SPR), which he and Cahill incorporated in the mid-1990s from POSRIP. The organization (since 2008 known as Just Detention International) helps prisoners deal with the psychological and physical trauma of rape, and works to prevent rape from happening. Donaldson was perhaps the first activist against male rape in the United States to gain significant media attention. Writing on behalf of SPR, he appeared on the Op-Ed page of The New York Times, as well as in other major media. He testified on behalf of the American Civil Liberties Union in its case ACLU et al. v. Reno, which went to the U.S. Supreme Court.Activism and writing As "Donny the Punk", Donaldson was already a respected writer and personality in the punk and anti-racist skinhead subcultures. He had published in punk zines such as Maximumrocknroll, Flipside and J.D.s. In the mid-1980s, Donny was the chief organizer of The Alternative Press & Radio Council (APRC), which brought together members of the punk community (such as fanzine editors and college radio DJs) from New York City, New Jersey, and Connecticut. This co-operative group met on Sundays before the weekly CBGB Sunday hardcore matinees and organized several benefit concerts. The group published a newsletter, and released a compilation LP on Mystic Records in 1986, which was entitled Mutiny On The Bowery. The compilation featured live recordings from the group's benefit concerts. Among other active members of the APRC were WFMU-FM DJ Pat Duncan, Maximumrocknroll columnist Mykel Board and Jersey Beat editor Jim Testa. Donaldson was associate editor of the Encyclopedia of Homosexuality (Garland Publishing, 1990). He was editor-in-chief of a concise edition of the encyclopedia, which remains unpublished. Legacy and honors Donaldson died of a bronchial infection in 1996 at the age of 49. He was HIV-positive at the time. After Donaldson's death, the Columbia Queer Alliance renamed its student lounge in his honor. SPR continued to work for prisoners' rights. It contributed to gaining the passage of the first US law against rape in prison Prison Rape Elimination Act of 2003. The issue of rape and prisoners' rights continues to receive national and state attention. See also Sexual orientation and the United States military T. J. Parsell Footnotes External links [http://www.justdetention.org Stop Prisoner Rape, Inc. is now Just Detention International] [https://web.archive.org/web/20150703170740/http://www.justdetention.org/en/stephendonaldson/stephendonaldson.aspx Writings by and about Stephen Donaldson at Just Detention International website (previously SPR.org)] [http://archives.nypl.org/mss/824 Stephen Donaldson papers] at the New York Public Library (pdf) * Category:1946 births Category:1996 deaths Category:American LGBTQ military personnel Category:American HIV/AIDS activists Category:AIDS-related deaths in New York (state) Category:American people convicted of assault Category:American military personnel discharged for homosexuality Category:American Christian pacifists Category:American Quakers Category:Bisexual male writers Category:Bisexual rights activists Category:Bisexual military personnel Category:Columbia College (New York) alumni Category:Place of death missing Category:Converts to Quakerism Category:American LGBTQ rights activists Category:People from West Long Branch, New Jersey Category:American prison reformers Category:LGBTQ Quakers Category:LGBTQ people from New York (state) Category:American people of German descent Category:American people of Italian descent Category:Sexual abuse victim advocates Category:American bisexual writers Category:American expatriates in Germany Category:20th-century prisoners and detainees of the United States federal government Category:20th-century Quakers Category:20th-century American LGBTQ people Category:Bisexual Christians	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Donaldson_(activist)	2025-04-05T18:28:41.668717
8608	Dolmen	DYSS}} , the Burren, County Clare, Ireland]] , Andhra Pradesh, India]] A dolmen, () or portal tomb, is a type of single-chamber megalithic tomb, usually consisting of two or more upright megaliths supporting a large flat horizontal capstone or "table". Most date from the Late Neolithic period (40003000 BCE) and were sometimes covered with earth or smaller stones to form a tumulus (burial mound). Small pad-stones may be wedged between the cap and supporting stones to achieve a level appearance. In many instances, the covering has eroded away, leaving only the stone "skeleton". In Sumba (Indonesia), dolmens are still commonly built (about 100 dolmens each year) for collective graves according to lineage. The traditional village of Wainyapu has some 1,400 dolmens. Etymology Celtic or French The word dolmen entered archaeology when Théophile Corret de la Tour d'Auvergne used it to describe megalithic tombs in his (1796) using the spelling dolmin (the current spelling was introduced about a decade later and had become standard in French by about 1885). Some sources indicate that dolmen is Breton, although the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) describes its origin as "Modern French" and argues that de la Tour d'Auvergne used the Cornish word for a cromlech, tolmên, but misspelled it as dolmin, and other sources refer to dolmen as a "continental term." Whatever the origin, dolmen has replaced cromlech as the usual English term in archaeology, when the more technical and descriptive alternatives are not used. The later Cornish term was quoit – an English-language word for an object with a hole through the middle preserving the original Cornish language term of – the name of another dolmen-like monument is Mên-an-Tol 'stone with hole' (Standard Written Form: Men An Toll.) In Irish Gaelic, dolmens are called . Germanic Dolmens are known by a variety of names in other languages, including Galician and , , , Afrikaans and , , Abkhaz: , Adyghe: Danish and , , , and . Granja is used in Portugal, Galicia, and some parts of Spain. The rarer forms anta and ganda also appear. In Catalan-speaking areas, they are known simply as , but also by a variety of folk names, including ('cave'), ('crate' or 'coffin'), ('table'), ('chest'), ('rock') or ('stone'), usually combined with a second part such as ('of the Arab'), ('of the thief'), ('of the devil'), ('of Roland'). Early in the 20th century, before the advent of scientific dating, Harold Peake proposed that the dolmens of western Europe were evidence of cultural diffusion from the eastern Mediterranean. This "prospector theory" surmised that Aegean-origin prospectors had moved westward in search of metal ores, starting before 2200 BCE, and had carried with them the concept of megalithic architecture. Middle East Dolmens can be found in the Levant, some along the Jordan Rift Valley (Upper Galilee in Israel, the Golan Heights, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and southeast Turkey. Dolmens in the Levant belong to a different, unrelated tradition to that of Europe, although they are often treated "as part of a trans-regional phenomenon that spanned the Taurus Mountains to the Arabian Peninsula." In 2000, (See Gochang, Hwasun and Ganghwa Dolmen Sites.) They are mainly distributed along the West Sea coastal area and on large rivers from the Liaoning region of China (the Liaodong Peninsula) to Jeollanam-do. In North Korea, they are concentrated around the Taedong and Jaeryeong Rivers. In South Korea, they are found in dense concentrations in river basins, such as the Han and Nakdong Rivers, and in the west coast area (Boryeong in South Chungcheong Province, Buan in North Jeolla Province, and Jeollanam-do.<ref name":0" /> They are mainly found on sedimentary plains, where they are grouped in rows parallel to the direction of the river or stream.<ref name":0" /> Those found in hilly areas are grouped in the direction of the hill.<ref name":0" /> India Marayoor, Kerala Also called Muniyaras, these dolmens belong to the Iron Age. These dolmenoids were burial chambers made of four stones placed on edge and covered by a fifth stone called the cap stone. Some of these Dolmenoids contain several burial chambers, while others have a quadrangle scooped out in laterite and lined on the sides with granite slabs. These are also covered with cap stones. Dozens of dolmens around the area of old Siva temple (Thenkasinathan Temple) at Kovilkadavu on the banks of the River Pambar and also around the area called Pius nagar, and rock paintings on the south-western slope of the plateau overlooking the river have attracted visitors. Apart from the dolmens of Stone Age, several dolmens of Iron Age exist in this region especially on the left side of river Pambar as is evident from the usage of neatly dressed granite slabs for the dolmens. At least one of them has a perfectly circular hole of 28 cm diameter inside the underground chamber. This region has several types of dolmens. Large number of them are overground with about 70–90 cm height. Another type has a height 140–170 cm. There is an overground dolmen with double length up to 350 cm. Fragments of burial urns are also available in the region near the dolmens. This indicates that the dolmens with 70–90 cm height were used for burial of the remains of people of high social status. Burial urns were used for the burial of the remains of commoners. The dolmens with raised roofs might have been used for habitation of people. Why some people lived in the cemeteries has not been satisfactorily explained. Types * * * * * <gallery widths"150" heights"100" class="center"> File:Trethevy Quoit from the South - geograph.org.uk - 362250.jpg\|Trethevy Quoit – one of the best-preserved in Cornwall, UK dated to around 3500–2500 BCE File:Chûn Quoit (small).jpg\|Chûn Quoit in Cornwall, UK, about 2400 BCE File:Lanyon Quoit 05.jpg\|Lanyon Quoit in Cornwall, UK, 3500–2500 BCE File:MarayoorDolmen.JPG\|A dolmen erected by Neolithic people in Marayur, Kerala, India. File:Muniyara.jpg\|Dolmens of Marayoor, India. File:Example of a southern-style dolmen at Ganghwa Island.jpg\|A southern-style dolmen at Ganghwa Island, South Korea File:Korea-Hwasun Dolmen sites03.jpg\|The biggest dolmen near Hwasun, South Korea File:Dolmen Roch-Feutet.JPG\|The dolmen Er-Roc'h-Feutet in Carnac, Brittany, France File:Crucuno dolmen.jpg\|Crucuno dolmen in Plouharnel, Brittany, France File:KilclooneyDolmen1986.jpg\|Kilclooney More dolmen near Ardara, County Donegal, Ireland File:LG Dolmen1.JPG\|Lancken-Granitz dolmen, Germany File:Hunebed-d27.jpg\|T-shaped Hunebed D27 in Borger-Odoorn, Netherlands File:Antadaaboboreira.jpg\|Dólmen da Aboboreira, Baião, Portugal File:Dolmen di Avola.JPG\|Dolmen of Avola, Sicily File:Bisceglie dolmen della chianca 5.JPG\|Dolmen of Bisceglie, Apulia File:12i dolmen di Montalbano.jpg\|Dolmen of Fasano, Apulia File:Tinkinswood burial chamber (4787).jpg\|Tinkinswood, Vale of Glamorgan, Wales, around 3000 BCE File:Dolmen de Axeitos.jpg\|Dolmen of Oleiros, Galicia File:Mores02.jpg\|Dolmen Sa Coveccada, Mores, Sardinia File:Dolmen Russia Kavkaz Jane 1.jpg\|Russia File:Долмен Начови чаири.jpg\|Bulgaria File:Dolmen-Keriaval.jpg\|Keriaval Dolmen, Carnac, Brittany, France </gallery> See also * Irish megalithic tombs * List of dolmens * List of megalithic sites * Megalithic art * Neolithic Europe * Nordic megalith architecture * Stupa References Works cited * Further reading * * * * External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070324210503/http://www.heritage.go.kr/eng/her/her_08.jsp World heritage site of dolmen in Korea] * [https://www.google.com/maps/d/viewer?mid=1KaV195j0kPMHJfm2Qa9U5a461eA The Megalith Map] * [http://www.megalithic.co.uk/ The Megalithic Portal and Megalith Map] * on UNESCO's World Heritage List. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080116083508/http://www.jerseyheritagetrust.org/sites/hougue%20bie/hougue.html Jersey Heritage Trust] * [https://www.ringingcedarsofrussia.org/dolmens/ Dolmens of Russia] * [https://rgdn.info/en/dolmeny._chast_2._kak_stroilis_i_zachem_gipotezy Dolmens. Part 2. How and for which purpose were they built? Hypotheses] Category:Burial monuments and structures Category:Megalithic monuments Category:Types of monuments and memorials Category:Stone monuments and memorials Category:Stones Category:Death customs Category:Megalithic monuments in the Middle East Category:Stone Age Europe Category:4th-millennium BC architecture	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolmen	2025-04-05T18:28:41.679679
8612	Declination	In astronomy, declination (abbreviated dec; symbol δ) is one of the two angles that locate a point on the celestial sphere in the equatorial coordinate system, the other being hour angle. The declination angle is measured north (positive) or south (negative) of the celestial equator, along the hour circle passing through the point in question. right\|thumb\|350px\| Right ascension and declination as seen on the inside of the celestial sphere. The primary direction of the system is the vernal equinox, the ascending node of the ecliptic (red) on the celestial equator (blue). Declination is measured northward or southward from the celestial equator, along the hour circle passing through the point in question. The root of the word declination (Latin, declinatio) means "a bending away" or "a bending down". It comes from the same root as the words incline ("bend forward") and recline ("bend backward"). In some 18th and 19th century astronomical texts, declination is given as North Pole Distance (N.P.D.), which is equivalent to 90 – (declination). For instance an object marked as declination −5 would have an N.P.D. of 95, and a declination of −90 (the south celestial pole) would have an N.P.D. of 180. Explanation Declination in astronomy is comparable to geographic latitude, projected onto the celestial sphere, and right ascension is likewise comparable to longitude. Points north of the celestial equator have positive declinations, while those south have negative declinations. Any units of angular measure can be used for declination, but it is customarily measured in the degrees (°), minutes (′), and seconds (″) of sexagesimal measure, with 90° equivalent to a quarter circle. Declinations with magnitudes greater than 90° do not occur, because the poles are the northernmost and southernmost points of the celestial sphere. An object at the celestial equator has a declination of 0° north celestial pole has a declination of +90° south celestial pole has a declination of −90° The sign is customarily included whether positive or negative. Effects of precession thumb\|300px\|Right ascension (blue) and declination (green) as seen from outside the celestial sphere. The Earth's axis rotates slowly westward about the poles of the ecliptic, completing one circuit in about 26,000 years. This effect, known as precession, causes the coordinates of stationary celestial objects to change continuously, if rather slowly. Therefore, equatorial coordinates (including declination) are inherently relative to the year of their observation, and astronomers specify them with reference to a particular year, known as an epoch. Coordinates from different epochs must be mathematically rotated to match each other, or to match a standard epoch. The currently used standard epoch is J2000.0, which is January 1, 2000 at 12:00 TT. The prefix "J" indicates that it is a Julian epoch. Prior to J2000.0, astronomers used the successive Besselian Epochs B1875.0, B1900.0, and B1950.0. Stars A star's direction remains nearly fixed due to its vast distance, but its right ascension and declination do change gradually due to precession of the equinoxes and proper motion, and cyclically due to annual parallax. The declinations of Solar System objects change very rapidly compared to those of stars, due to orbital motion and close proximity. As seen from locations in the Earth's Northern Hemisphere, celestial objects with declinations greater than 90° − (where = observer's latitude) appear to circle daily around the celestial pole without dipping below the horizon, and are therefore called circumpolar stars. This similarly occurs in the Southern Hemisphere for objects with declinations less (i.e. more negative) than −90° − (where is always a negative number for southern latitudes). An extreme example is the pole star which has a declination near to +90°, so is circumpolar as seen from anywhere in the Northern Hemisphere except very close to the equator. Circumpolar stars never dip below the horizon. Conversely, there are other stars that never rise above the horizon, as seen from any given point on the Earth's surface (except extremely close to the equator. Upon flat terrain, the distance has to be within approximately 2 km, although this varies based upon the observer's altitude and surrounding terrain). Generally, if a star whose declination is is circumpolar for some observer (where is either positive or negative), then a star whose declination is − never rises above the horizon, as seen by the same observer. (This neglects the effect of atmospheric refraction.) Likewise, if a star is circumpolar for an observer at latitude , then it never rises above the horizon as seen by an observer at latitude −. Neglecting atmospheric refraction, for an observer at the equator, declination is always 0° at east and west points of the horizon. At the north point, it is 90° − \|\|, and at the south point, −90° + \|\|. From the poles, declination is uniform around the entire horizon, approximately 0°. + Stars visible by latitudeObserver's latitude (°) Declinationof circumpolar stars (°)of non-circumpolar stars (°)of stars not visible (°) + for north latitude, − for south − for north latitude, + for south 90 (Pole) 90 to 0 0 to 90 66.5 (Arctic/Antarctic Circle) 90 to 23.5 +23.5 to −23.5 23.5 to 90 45 (midpoint) 90 to 45 +45 to −45 45 to 90 23.5 (Tropic of Cancer/Capricorn) 90 to 66.5 +66.5 to −66.5 66.5 to 90 0 (Equator) +90 to −90 Non-circumpolar stars are visible only during certain days or seasons of the year. thumb\|600px\|center\|The night sky, divided into two halves. Declination (green) begins at the equator (green) and is positive northward (towards the top), negative southward (towards the bottom). The lines of right ascension (blue) divide the sky into great circles, here 1 hour apart. Sun The Sun's declination varies with the seasons. As seen from arctic or antarctic latitudes, the Sun is circumpolar near the local summer solstice, leading to the phenomenon of it being above the horizon at midnight, which is called midnight sun. Likewise, near the local winter solstice, the Sun remains below the horizon all day, which is called polar night. Relation to latitude When an object is directly overhead its declination is almost always within 0.01 degrees of the observer's latitude; it would be exactly equal except for two complications. The first complication applies to all celestial objects: the object's declination equals the observer's astronomical latitude, but the term "latitude" ordinarily means geodetic latitude, which is the latitude on maps and GPS devices. In the continental United States and surrounding area, the difference (the vertical deflection) is typically a few arcseconds (1 arcsecond = of a degree) but can be as great as 41 arcseconds. The second complication is that, assuming no deflection of the vertical, "overhead" means perpendicular to the ellipsoid at observer's location, but the perpendicular line does not pass through the center of the Earth; almanacs provide declinations measured at the center of the Earth. (An ellipsoid is an approximation to sea level that is mathematically manageable). See also Celestial coordinate system Ecliptic Equatorial coordinate system Geographic coordinate system Lunar standstill Position of the Sun Right ascension Setting circles Notes and references External links MEASURING THE SKY A Quick Guide to the Celestial Sphere James B. Kaler, University of Illinois Celestial Equatorial Coordinate System University of Nebraska-Lincoln Celestial Equatorial Coordinate Explorers University of Nebraska-Lincoln Sidereal pointer (Torquetum) – to determine RA/DEC. Category:Astronomical coordinate systems Category:Angle Category:Technical factors of astrology	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declination	2025-04-05T18:28:41.693158
8613	Diaspora	has the world's largest annual out-migration. Pictured at Ricoh Coliseum, in Toronto, Canada, on April 15, 2015]] is the world's second-largest; pictured is Mexican day celebrations in Germany.]] A diaspora ( ) is a population that is scattered across regions which are separate from its geographic place of origin. The word is used in reference to people who identify with a specific geographic location, but currently reside elsewhere. Notable diasporic populations include the Jewish diaspora formed after the Babylonian exile; Assyrian diaspora following the Assyrian genocide; Greeks that fled or were displaced following the fall of Constantinople and the later Greek genocide as well as the Istanbul pogroms; the emigration of Anglo-Saxons (primarily to the Byzantine Empire) after the Norman Conquest of England; the southern Chinese and South Asians who left their homelands during the 19th and 20th centuries; the Irish diaspora after the Great Famine; the Scottish diaspora that developed on a large scale after the Highland and Lowland Clearances; Romani from the Indian subcontinent; the Italian diaspora and the Mexican diaspora; Circassians in the aftermath of the Circassian genocide; the Palestinian diaspora (shatat) due to Palestinian migration and displacement; the Armenian diaspora following the Armenian genocide;<!-- --> the Lebanese diaspora due to the Lebanese civil war; and Syrians due to the Syrian civil war; The Iranian diaspora, which grew from half a million to 3.8 million between the 1979 revolution and 2019, mostly live in United States, Canada and Turkey. According to a 2019 United Nations report, the Indian diaspora is the world's largest diaspora, with a population of 17.5 million, followed by the Mexican diaspora, with a population of 11.8 million, and the Chinese diaspora, with a population of 10.7 million. Etymology The term "diaspora" is derived from the Ancient Greek verb (), "I scatter", "I spread about" which in turn is composed of (), "between, through, across" and the verb (), "I sow, I scatter". The term () hence meant "scattering". following the Great Famine]] There is confusion over the exact process of derivation from these Ancient Greek verbs to the concept of diaspora. Many cite Thucydides (5th century BC) as the first to use the word. However, sociologist Stéphane Dufoix remarks "not only is the noun diaspora quite absent from the Greek original [Thucydides' Peloponnesian War, II, 27)], but the original does not include the verb diaspeírô either. The verb used is the verb speírô (seed) conjugated in the passive aorist." The passage in Thucydides reads: <blockquote>, translated to mean 'Those of the Aeginetans who did not settle here were scattered over the rest of Hellas.'</blockquote> Dufoix further notes, "Of all the occurrences of diaspora in the Thesaurus Linguae Graecae (TLG), which draws upon almost the entire written corpus in the Greek language . . . none refer to colonisation." Dufoix surmises that the confusion may stem from a comment by Jewish historian Simon Dubnow, who wrote an entry on diaspora for the influential Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences. His entry, published in 1931, includes the following remark: "In a sense Magna Graecia constituted a Greek diaspora in the ancient Roman Empire."}} "Magna Graecia" refers to ancient Greek colonies established along the Italian coast, which lost their independence following the Second Punic War and their integration into the Roman Empire. The first recorded use of the word "diaspora" is found in the Septuagint, first in: * Deuteronomy 28:25, in the phrase , , translated to mean 'thou shalt be a dispersion in all kingdoms of the earth' and secondly in: * Psalms 146(147).2, in the phrase , , translated to mean 'The Lord doth build up Jerusalem: he gathereth together the outcasts of Israel'. When the Bible was translated into Greek, the word diaspora was applied in reference to the Kingdom of Samaria which was exiled from Israel by the Assyrians between 740 and 722 BC, as well as Jews, Benjaminites, and Levites who were exiled from the Kingdom of Judah by the Babylonians in 587 BC, and Jews who were exiled from Roman Judea by the Roman Empire in 70 AD. It subsequently came to be used in reference to the historical movements and settlement patterns of the Jews. In English, capitalized, and without modifiers, the term can refer specifically to the Jewish diaspora. The wider application of diaspora evolved from the Assyrian two-way mass deportation policy of conquered populations to deny future territorial claims on their part. Definition from Kobanî in a refugee camp, on the Turkish side of the Syria–Turkey border.]] The oldest known use of the word "diaspora" in English is in 1594 in John Stockwood's translation of Lambert Daneau's commentary on the Twelve Prophets. Daneau writes: <blockquote>This scattering abrode of the Iewes, as it were an heauenly sowing, fell out after their returne from the captiuitie of Babylon. Wherevpon both Acts. 2. and also 1. Pet. 1. and 1. Iam. ver. 1. [sic] they are called Diaspora, that is, a scattering or sowing abrode.</blockquote> However, the current entry on "diaspora" in the Oxford English Dictionary Online dates the first recorded use a century later to 1694, in a work on ordination by the Welsh theologian James Owen. Owen wanted to prove that there is no difference in the Bible between Presbyters and Bishops; he cited the example of the Jews in exile: <blockquote>The Presbyters of the Jewish Diaspora, to whom St. Peter wrote, are requir'd ποιμαίνειν ϗ̀ ἐπισκοπείν, to feed or rule the Flock, and to perform the office and work of Bishops among them.</blockquote> The OED records a usage of "diaspora" in 1876, which refers to "extensive diaspora work (as it is termed) of evangelizing among the National Protestant Churches on the continent". The term became more widely assimilated into English by the mid 1950s, with long-term expatriates in significant numbers from other particular countries or regions also being referred to as a diaspora. An academic field, diaspora studies, has become established relating to this sense of the word. Scholarly work and expanding definition is the world's third largest; Paifang (torna) gateway at Sydney Chinatown in Australia.]]William Safran in an article published in 1991, set out six rules to distinguish diasporas from migrant communities. These included criteria that the group maintains a myth or collective memory of their homeland; they regard their ancestral homeland as their true home, to which they will eventually return; being committed to the restoration or maintenance of that homeland, and they relate "personally or vicariously" to the homeland to a point where it shapes their identity. Safran's definitions were influenced by the idea of the Jewish diaspora. Safran also included a criterion of having been forced into exile by political or economic factors, followed by a long period of settlement in the new host culture. In 1997, Robin Cohen argued that a diasporic group could leave its homeland voluntarily, and assimilate deeply into host cultures. Rogers Brubaker (2005) more inclusively applied three basic definitional criteria: First, geographic dispersion (voluntary or forced) of a people; second, "the orientation to a real or imagined 'homeland' as an authoritative source of value, identity and loyalty"; and third, maintenance of a social boundary corresponding to the conservation of a distinctive diasporic identity which differs from the host culture. Brubaker also noted that the use of the term diaspora has been widening. He suggests that one element of this expansion in use "involves the application of the term diaspora to an ever-broadening set of cases: essentially to any and every nameable population category that is to some extent dispersed in space". Brubaker used the WorldCat database to show that 17 out of the 18 books on diaspora published between 1900 and 1910 were on the Jewish diaspora. The majority of works in the 1960s were also about the Jewish diaspora, but in 2002 only two out of 20 books sampled (out of a total of 253) were about the Jewish case, with a total of eight different diasporas covered. Brubaker outlined the original use of the term diaspora as follows: dancers in New York City]] Some observers have labeled evacuation from New Orleans and the Gulf Coast in the wake of Hurricane Katrina the New Orleans diaspora, since a significant number of evacuees have not been able to return, yet maintain aspirations to do so. Agnieszka Weinar (2010) notes the widening use of the term, arguing that recently, "a growing body of literature succeeded in reformulating the definition, framing diaspora as almost any population on the move and no longer referring to the specific context of their existence". It has even been noted that as charismatic Christianity becomes increasingly globalized, many Christians conceive of themselves as a diaspora, and form a bond that mimics salient features of some ethnic diasporas. Professional communities of individuals no longer in their homeland can also be considered diaspora. For example, science diasporas are communities of scientists who conduct their research away from their homeland and trading diasporas are communities of merchant aliens. In an article published in 1996, Khachig Tölölyan argues that the media have used the term corporate diaspora in a rather arbitrary and inaccurate fashion, for example as applied to "mid-level, mid-career executives who have been forced to find new places at a time of corporate upheaval" (10) The use of corporate diaspora reflects the increasing popularity of the diaspora notion to describe a wide range of phenomena related to contemporary migration, displacement and transnational mobility. While corporate diaspora seems to avoid or contradict connotations of violence, coercion, and unnatural uprooting historically associated with the notion of diaspora, its scholarly use may heuristically describe the ways in which corporations function alongside diasporas. In this way, corporate diaspora might foreground the racial histories of diasporic formations without losing sight of the cultural logic of late capitalism in which corporations orchestrate the transnational circulation of people, images, ideologies and capital. In contemporary times, scholars have classified the different kinds of diasporas based on their causes, such as colonialism, trade/labour migrations, or the social coherence which exists within the diaspora communities and their ties to the ancestral lands. With greater migration flows through the world in modern times, the concept of a secondary diaspora (a new diaspora branching out of a previous diaspora) or sub-diaspora groupings has started being studied. Some diaspora communities maintain strong cultural and political ties to their homelands. Other qualities that may be typical of many diasporas are thoughts of return to the ancestral lands, maintaining any form of ties with the region of origin as well as relationships with other communities in the diaspora, and lack of full integration into the new host countries. Diasporas often maintain ties to the country of their historical affiliation and usually influence their current host country's policies towards their homeland. "Diaspora management" is a term that Harris Mylonas has "re-conceptualized to describe both the policies that states follow in order to build links with their diaspora abroad and the policies designed to help with the incorporation and integration of diasporic communities when they 'return' home". African diasporas The diaspora of Africans during the Atlantic slave trade is one of the most notorious modern diasporas. 10.7 million people from West Africa survived transportation to arrive in the Americas as slaves starting in the late 16th century CE and continuing into the 19th. Outside of the Atlantic slave trade, however, African diasporic communities have existed for millennia. While some communities were slave-based, other groups emigrated for various reasons. From the 8th through the 19th centuries, the Arab slave trade dispersed millions of Africans to Asia and the islands of the Indian Ocean. The Islamic slave trade also has resulted in the creation of communities of African descent in India, most notably the Siddi, Makrani and Sri Lanka Kaffirs. Beginning as early as the 2nd century AD, the kingdom of Aksum (modern-day Ethiopia) created colonies on the Arabian Peninsula. During the 4th century, Aksum formally adopted Christianity as a state religion, becoming the first to do so along with Armenia. In the 6th century, Kaleb of Axum invaded Himyar (modern-day Yemen) to aid and defend Christians under religious persecution. During these campaigns, several groups of soldiers chose not to return to Aksum. These groups are estimated to have ranged in size from the 600s to mid 3000s. Previously, migrant Africans with national African passports could only enter thirteen African countries without advanced visas. In pursuing a unified future, the African Union (AU) launched an African Union Passport in July 2016, allowing people with a passport from one of the 55 member states of the AU to move freely between these countries under this visa free passport and encourage migrants with national African passports to return to Africa.Asian diasporas<!--linked--> , Sabah, Malaysia.]] in Samarkand, present-day Uzbekistan, ]] The largest Asian diaspora in the world is the Indian diaspora. The overseas Indian community, estimated to number over 17.5 million, is spread across many regions of the world, on every continent. It is a global community which is diverse, heterogeneous and eclectic and its members represent different regions, languages, cultures, and faiths (see Desi). Similarly, the Romani, numbering roughly 12 million in Europe trace their origins to the Indian subcontinent, and their presence in Europe is first attested to in the Middle Ages. The South Asian diaspora as a whole has over 44 million people. The earliest known Asian diaspora of note is the Jewish diaspora. With roots in the Babylonian Captivity and later migrations under Hellenism, the majority of the diaspora can be attributed to the Roman conquest, expulsion, and enslavement of the Jewish population of Judea, whose descendants became the Ashkenazim, Sephardim, and Mizrahim of today, roughly numbering 15 million of which 8 million still live in the diaspora, though the number was much higher before Zionist aliyah (immigration to Israel) and the murder of 6 million Jews in the Holocaust. Chinese emigration (also known as the Chinese Diaspora; see also Overseas Chinese) first occurred thousands of years ago. The mass emigration that occurred from the 19th century to 1949 was caused mainly by wars and starvation in mainland China, as well as political corruption. Most migrants were illiterate or poorly educated peasants, called by the now-recognized racial slur coolies (), who migrated to developing countries in need of labor, such as the Americas, Australia, South Africa, Southeast Asia, Malaya and other places. The Pakistani diaspora is the third largest diaspora in Asia with approximately 10 million Pakistanis living abroad mostly in Middle East, North America and Europe. At least three waves of Nepalese diaspora can be identified. The earliest wave dates back hundreds of years as early marriage and high birthrates propelled Hindu settlement eastward across Nepal, then into Sikkim and Bhutan. A backlash developed in the 1980s as Bhutan's political elites realized that Bhutanese Buddhists were at risk of becoming a minority in their own country. At least 60,000 ethnic Nepalese from Bhutan have been resettled in the United States. A second wave was driven by British recruitment of mercenary soldiers beginning around 1815 and resettlement after retirement in the British Isles and Southeast Asia. The third wave began in the 1970s as land shortages intensified and the pool of educated labor greatly exceeded job openings in Nepal. Job-related emigration created Nepalese enclaves in India, the wealthier countries of the Middle East, Europe, and North America. Current estimates of the number of Nepalese living outside Nepal range well up into the millions. In Siam, regional power struggles among several kingdoms in the region led to a large diaspora of ethnic Lao between the 1700s–1800s by Siamese rulers to settle large areas of the Siamese kingdom's northeast region, where Lao ethnicity is still a major factor in 2012. During this period, Siam decimated the Lao capital, capturing, torturing, and killing the Lao king Anuwongse, who led the Lao rebellion in the 19th century. European diasporas European history contains numerous diaspora-causing events. In ancient times, the trading and colonising activities of the Greek tribes from the Balkans and Asia Minor spread people of Greek culture, religion and language around the Mediterranean and Black Sea basins, establishing Greek city-states in southern Italy (the so-called "Magna Graecia"), northern Libya, eastern Spain, the south of France, and the Black Sea coasts. Greeks founded more than 400 colonies. Tyre and Carthage also colonised the Mediterranean. during the Archaic period (750–550 BC)]] Alexander the Great's conquest of the Achaemenid Empire marked the beginning of the Hellenistic period, characterized by a new wave of Greek colonization in Asia and Africa, with Greek ruling classes established in Egypt, southwest Asia and northwest India. Subsequent waves of colonization and migration during the Middle Ages added to the older settlements or created new ones, thus replenishing the Greek diaspora and making it one of the most long-standing and widespread in the world. The Romans also established numerous colonies and settlements outside of Rome and throughout the Roman empire. The Migration Period relocations, which included several phases, are just one set of many in history. The first phase Migration-Period displacement (between 300 and 500 AD) included relocation of the Goths (Ostrogoths and Visigoths), Vandals, Franks, various other Germanic peoples (Burgundians, Lombards, Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Suebi and Alemanni), Alans and numerous Slavic tribes. The second phase, between 500 and 900 AD, saw Slavic, Turkic, and other tribes on the move, resettling in Eastern Europe and gradually leaving it predominantly Slavic, and affecting Anatolia and the Caucasus as the first Turkic tribes (Avars, Huns, Khazars, Pechenegs), as well as Bulgars, and possibly Magyars arrived. The last phase of the migrations saw the coming of the Hungarian Magyars. The Viking expansion out of Scandinavia into southern and eastern Europe, Iceland, the British Isles and Greenland. The recent application of the word "diaspora" to the Viking lexicon highlights their cultural profile distinct from their predatory reputation in the regions they settled, especially in the North Atlantic. The more positive connotations associated with the social science term help to view the movement of the Scandinavian peoples in the Viking Age in a new way. Such colonizing migrations cannot be considered indefinitely as diasporas; over very long periods, eventually, the migrants assimilate into the settled area so completely that it becomes their new mental homeland. Thus the modern Magyars of Hungary do not feel that they belong in the Western Siberia that the Hungarian Magyars left 12 centuries ago; and the English descendants of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes do not yearn to reoccupy the plains of Northwest Germany. leads an expedition to the New World, 1492. His voyages are celebrated as the discovery of the Americas from a European perspective, and they opened a new era in the history of humankind and sustained contact between the two worlds.]] In 1492 a Spanish-financed expedition headed by Christopher Columbus arrived in the Americas, after which European exploration and colonization rapidly expanded. Historian James Axtell estimates that 240,000 people left Europe for the Americas in the 16th century. Emigration continued. In the 19th century alone over 50 million Europeans migrated to North and South America. Other Europeans moved to Siberia, Africa, and Australasia. The properly Spanish emigrants were mainly from several parts of Spain, but not only the impoverished ones (i.e., Basques in Chile), and the destination varied also along the time. As an example, the Galicians moved first to the American colonies during the XVII-XX (mainly but not only Mexico, Cuba, Argentine and Venezuela, as many writers during the Francoist exile), later to Europe (France, Switzerland) and finally within Spain (to Madrid, Catalonia or the Basque Country). A specific 19th-century example is the Irish diaspora, beginning in the mid-19th century and brought about by or "the Great Hunger" of the Irish Famine. An estimated 45% to 85% of Ireland's population emigrated to areas including Britain, the United States, Canada, Argentina, Australia, and New Zealand. The size of the Irish diaspora is demonstrated by the number of people around the world who claim Irish ancestry; some sources put the figure at 80 to 100 million. From the 1860s, the Circassian people, originally from Europe, were dispersed through Anatolia, Australia, the Balkans, the Levant, North America, and West Europe, leaving less than 10% of their population in the homeland – parts of historical Circassia (in the modern-day Russian portion of the Caucasus). The Scottish Diaspora includes large populations of Highlanders moving to the United States and Canada after the Highland Clearances; as well as the Lowlanders, becoming the Ulster Scots in Ireland and the Scotch-Irish in America. during the opening parade of the XXXIV Immigrant's Festival. About 60% of Argentina's population has Italian ancestry.]] There were two major Italian diasporas in Italian history. The first diaspora began around 1880, two decades after the Unification of Italy, and ended in the 1920s to the early 1940s with the rise of Fascist Italy. Poverty was the main reason for emigration, specifically the lack of land as mezzadria sharecropping flourished in Italy, especially in the South, and property became subdivided over generations. Especially in Southern Italy, conditions were harsh. Another factor was related to the overpopulation of Southern Italy as a result of the improvements in socioeconomic conditions after Unification. That created a demographic boom and forced the new generations to emigrate en masse in the late 19th century and the early 20th century, mostly to the Americas. The new migration of capital created millions of unskilled jobs around the world and was responsible for the simultaneous mass migration of Italians searching for "work and bread". The second diaspora started after the end of World War II and concluded roughly in the 1970s. Between 1880 and 1980, about 15,000,000 Italians left the country permanently. By 1980, it was estimated that about 25,000,000 Italians were residing outside Italy. Internal diasporas , made in the Russian Empire period, between 1890 and 1907]] In the United States of America, approximately 4.3 million people moved outside their home states in 2010, according to IRS tax-exemption data. In a 2011 TEDx presentation, Detroit native Garlin Gilchrist referenced the formation of distinct "Detroit diaspora" communities in Seattle and in Washington, DC, while layoffs in the auto industry also led to substantial blue-collar migration from Michigan to Wyoming 2005. In response to a statewide exodus of talent, the State of Michigan continues to host "MichAGAIN" career-recruiting events in places throughout the United States with significant Michigan-diaspora populations. In the People's Republic of China, millions of migrant workers have sought greater opportunity in the country's booming coastal metropolises, though this trend has slowed with the further development of China's interior. Migrant social structures in Chinese megacities are often based on place of origin, such as a shared hometown or province, and recruiters and foremen commonly select entire work-crews from the same village. In two separate June 2011 incidents, Sichuanese migrant workers organized violent protests against alleged police misconduct and migrant-labor abuse near the southern manufacturing hub of Guangzhou. Much of Siberia's population has its origins in internal migration – voluntary or otherwise – from European Russia since the 16th century. The vast majority of the Siberian population (over 85%) is Slavic and other Indo-European ethnicities, mainly the Russians (including their subethnic group Siberians), Ukrainians, and Germans. Most non-Slavic groups are Turkic. Smaller linguistic groups include Mongolic (ca. 600,000 speakers), Uralic (Samoyedic, Ugric; roughly 100,000 speakers), Manchu-Tungus (ca. 40,000 speakers), Chukotko-Kamchatkan (ca. 25,000 speakers), Eskimo–Aleut (some 2,000 speakers), Yukaghir (highly endangered), and languages isolates Ket (but see below) and Nivkh. Canada , ]] In Canada, internal migration has occurred for a number of different factors over the course of Canadian history. An example is the migration of workers from Atlantic Canada (particularly Newfoundland and Labrador) to Alberta, driven in part by the cod collapse in the early 1990s and the 1992 moratorium on cod fishing. Fishing had previously been a major driver of the economies of the Atlantic provinces, and this loss of work proved catastrophic for many families. As a result, beginning in the early 1990s and into the late 2000s, thousands of people from the Atlantic provinces were driven out-of-province to find work elsewhere in the country, especially in the Alberta oil sands during the oil boom of the mid-2000s. This systemic export of labour is explored by author Kate Beaton in her 2022 graphic memoir Ducks, which details her experience working in the Athabasca oil sands.Brazil Internal migration in Brazil occurs mainly for economic reasons and ecological disasters. Internal migration involves the movement of people within the same territory, which can be between regions, states or municipalities. It does not affect the total number of inhabitants in a country, but it does change the regions involved in this process. In Brazil, economic factors exert the greatest influence on migratory flows, as the capitalist production model creates privileged areas for industries, forcing people to move from one place to another in search of better living conditions and jobs to meet their basic survival needs. Some examples of internal migration in Brazil occurred in the 1960s, when the droughts devastated the Northeast of Brazil, leading thousands of people to abandon their homes in the Brazilian hinterland due to the lack of agricultural alternatives and social policies in the region. At the end of the 19th century, northeasterners migrated to the North of Brazil because of the rubber cycle. In the 1970s, migrants from the Northeast and the South left in search of a better life in the Southeast, Brazil's only industrial center at the time.Italy , Enna, Sicily]] in Sesto San Giovanni, in Lombardy, Italy]] The oldest internal migration in Italy goes back to the 11th century when soldiers and settlers from Northern Italy (at the time collectively called "Lombardy"), settled the central and eastern part of Sicily during the Norman conquest of southern Italy. After the marriage between the Norman king Roger I of Sicily with Adelaide del Vasto, member of Aleramici family, many Lombard colonisers left their homeland, in the Aleramici's possessions in Piedmont and Liguria, to settle on the island of Sicily. The migration of people from Northern Italy to Sicily continued until the end of the 13th century. In the same period people from Northern Italy also emigrated to Basilicata. It is believed that the population of Northern Italy who immigrated to Sicily during these centuries was altogether about 200,000 people. Their descendants, who are still present in Sicily today, are called Lombards of Sicily. Following these ancient migrations, in some municipalities of Sicily and Basilicata, dialects of northern origin are still spoken today, the Gallo-Italic of Sicily and the Gallo-Italic of Basilicata. With the fall of Fascist regime in 1943, and the end of World War II in 1945, a large internal migratory flow began from one Italian region to another. This internal emigration was sustained and constantly increased by the economic growth that Italy experienced between the 1950s and 1960s. Given that this economic growth mostly concerned Northwest Italy, which was involved in the birth of many industrial activities, migratory phenomena affected the peasants of the Triveneto and southern Italy, who began to move in large numbers. The rural population of the aforementioned areas began to emigrate to the large industrial centers of the north-west, especially in the so-called "industrial triangle, or the area corresponding to the three-sided polygon with vertices in the cities of Turin, Milan and Genoa. Even some cities in central and southern Italy (such as Rome, which was the object of immigration due to employment in the administrative and tertiary sectors) experienced a conspicuous immigration flow. and from the Iron Curtain regimes established as World War II ended. Hundreds of thousands of these anti-Soviet political refugees and displaced persons ended up in western Europe, Australia, Canada, and the United States of America. After World War II, the Soviet Union and communist-controlled Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Yugoslavia expelled millions of ethnic Germans, most of them were the descendants of immigrants who had settled in those areas centuries ago. This expulsion was allegedly carried out in reaction to Nazi Germany's invasions and pan-German attempts to annex Eastern European territory. Most of the refugees moved to the West, including western Europe, and with tens of thousands seeking refuge in the United States. leave Pola in 1947 during the Istrian-Dalmatian exodus]] The Istrian–Dalmatian exodus was the post-World War II exodus and departure of local ethnic Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians) as well as ethnic Slovenes, Croats, and Istro-Romanians from the Yugoslav territory of Istria, Kvarner, the Julian March as well as Dalmatia, towards Italy, and in smaller numbers, towards the Americas, Australia, and South Africa. These regions were ethnically mixed, with long-established historic Croatian, Italian, and Slovene communities. According to various sources, the exodus is estimated to have amounted to between 230,000 and 350,000 Italians (the others being ethnic Slovenes, Croats, and Istro-Romanians, who chose to maintain Italian citizenship) leaving the areas in the aftermath of the conflict. Hundreds or perhaps tens of thousands of local ethnic Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians) were killed or summarily executed during World War II by Yugoslav Partisans and OZNA during the first years of the exodus, in what became known as the foibe massacres. From 1947, after the war, Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians were subject by Yugoslav authorities to less violent forms of intimidation, such as nationalization, expropriation, and discriminatory taxation, which gave them little option other than emigration. In 1953, there were 36,000 declared Italians in Yugoslavia, just about 16% of the original Italian population before World War II. According to the census organized in Croatia in 2001 and that organized in Slovenia in 2002, the Italians who remained in the former Yugoslavia amounted to 21,894 people (2,258 in Slovenia and 19,636 in Croatia). Spain sent many political activists into exile during the rule of Franco's military regime from 1936 until his death in 1975. Prior to World War II and the re-establishment of Israel in 1948, a series of anti-Jewish pogroms broke out in the Arab world and caused many to flee, mostly to Palestine/Israel. The 1947–1949 Palestine war likewise saw at least 750,000 Palestinians expelled or forced to flee from the newly forming Israel. Many Palestinians continue to live in refugee camps in the Middle East, while others have resettled in other countries. The 1947 Partition in the Indian subcontinent resulted in the migration of millions of people between India, Pakistan, and present-day Bangladesh. Many were murdered in the religious violence of the period, with estimates of fatalities up to 2 million people. Thousands of former subjects of the British Raj went to the UK from the Indian subcontinent after India and Pakistan became independent in 1947. From the late 19th century, and formally from 1910, Japan made Korea a Japanese colony. Millions of Chinese fled to western provinces not occupied by Japan (that is, in particular, Sichuan and Yunnan in the Southwest and Shaanxi and Gansu in the Northwest) and to Southeast Asia. More than 100,000 Koreans moved across the Amur River into the Russian Far East (and later into the Soviet Union) away from the Japanese.The Cold War and the formation of post-colonial states " awaiting rescue.]] Both during and after the Cold War-era, huge populations of refugees migrated from countries which experienced conflicts, especially from then-developing countries. Upheavals in the Middle East and Central Asia, some of which were related to power struggles between the United States and the Soviet Union, produced new refugee populations that developed into global diasporas. * In Southeast Asia, many Vietnamese people emigrated to France and later millions of other Vietnamese people migrated to the United States, Australia and Canada after the Cold War-related Vietnam War of 1955–1975. Later, 30,000 French colons from Cambodia were displaced after they were expelled by the 1975–1979 Khmer Rouge regime under Pol Pot. A small, predominantly Muslim ethnic group, the Cham people, long residing in Cambodia, were nearly eradicated. The mass exodus of Vietnamese people from Vietnam from 1975 onwards led to the popularisation of the term "boat people". * In Southwestern China, many Tibetan people emigrated to India, following the 14th Dalai Lama after the failure of his 1959 Tibetan uprising. This wave lasted until the 1960s, and another wave followed when Tibet opened up to trade and tourism in the 1980s. It is estimated that about 200,000 Tibetans live now dispersed worldwide, half of them in India, Nepal and Bhutan. In lieu of lost citizenship papers, the Central Tibetan Administration offers Green Book identity documents to Tibetan refugees. * by the Sri Lankan Tamil community in Paris, France]]Sri Lankan Tamils have historically migrated to find work, notably, during the British colonial period (1796–1948). Since the beginning of the Sri Lankan Civil War in 1983, more than 800,000 Tamils have been displaced within Sri Lanka as a local diaspora, and over a half-million Tamils have emigrated as the Tamil diaspora to destinations such as India, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the UK, and Europe. * The Afghan diaspora resulted from the 1979 invasion of Afghanistan by the former Soviet Union, resulting in the creation of the second-largest refugee population in the world (2.6 million in 2018). * Many Iranians fled from the 1979 Iranian Revolution which culminated in the fall of the USA/British-ensconced Shah. * In Africa, a new series of diasporas was formed after the end of colonial rule. In some cases, as countries became independent, numerous minority descendants of Europeans emigrated; others stayed. * Uganda expelled 80,000 South Asians in 1972 and took over their businesses and properties. * The 1990–1994 Rwandan Civil War between rival social/ethnic groups (Hutu and Tutsi) turned deadly and produced a mass efflux of refugees. * In Latin America, following the 1959 Cuban Revolution and the introduction of communism, over a million people have left Cuba. * A new Jamaican diaspora formed around the start of the 21st century. More than 1 million Dominicans live abroad, a majority living in the US. * A million Colombian refugees have left Colombia since 1965 to escape violence and civil wars. * Thousands of Argentine and Uruguay refugees fled to Europe during periods of military rule in the 1970s and 1980s. * In Central America, Nicaraguans, Salvadorans, Guatemalans, and Hondurans have fled conflict and poor economic conditions. * Hundreds of thousands of people fled from the Rwandan genocide in 1994 and moved into neighboring countries. * Between 4 and 6 million have emigrated from Zimbabwe beginning in the 1990s especially since 2000, greatly increasing the Zimbabwean diaspora due to a protracted socioeconomic crisis, forming large communities in South Africa, the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, and smaller communities in the United States, New Zealand and Ireland. The long war in Congo, in which numerous nations have been involved, has also result in millions of displaced refugees. * A South Korean diaspora movement during the 1990s caused the homeland fertility rate to drop when a large amount of the middle class emigrated, as the rest of the population continued to age. To counteract the change in these demographics, the South Korean government initiated a diaspora-engagement policy in 1997. 21st century Middle East from Turkey to the Greek island of Lesbos during the 2015 European migrant crisis]] The 2015 European migrant crisis was a period of significantly increased movement of refugees and migrants into Europe, namely from the Middle East. An estimated 1.3 million people came to the continent to request asylum, the most in a single year since World War II. They were mostly Syrians, but also included a significant number of people from Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iraq, Nigeria, Eritrea, and the Balkans. The increase in asylum seekers has been attributed to factors such as the escalation of various wars in the Middle East and ISIL's territorial and military dominance in the region due to the Arab Winter, as well as Lebanon, Jordan, and Egypt ceasing to accept Syrian asylum seekers. The EU attempted to enact some measures to address the problem, including distributing refugees among member countries, tackling root causes of emigration in the home countries of migrants, and simplifying deportation processes. However, due to a lack of political coordination at the European level, the distribution of countries was unequal, with some countries taking in many more refugees than others. The initial responses of national governments varied greatly. Political polarization increased, confidence in the European Union fell, and many countries tightened their asylum laws. Right-wing populist parties capitalized on public anxiety and became significantly more popular in many countries. There was an increase in protests regarding immigration and the circulation of the white nationalist conspiracy theory of the Great Replacement. Nonetheless, despite the political consequences, a 2023 study leveraging quantified economic metrics (such as chained GDP and the inflation rate) concluded that the events ultimately resulted in a “low but positive impact” to the German economy.Venezuelan refugee crisis in 2018]] The Venezuelan refugee crisis, the largest recorded refugee crisis in the Americas, refers to the emigration of millions of Venezuelans from their native country during the presidencies of Hugo Chávez and Nicolás Maduro since the Bolivarian Revolution. The revolution was an attempt by Chávez and later Maduro to establish a cultural and political hegemony, which culminated in the crisis in Venezuela. The resulting refugee crisis has been compared to those faced by Cuban exiles, Syrian refugees and those affected by the European migrant crisis. The Bolivarian government has denied any migratory crisis, stating that the United Nations and others are attempting to justify foreign intervention within Venezuela. Newsweek described the "Bolivarian diaspora" as "a reversal of fortune on a massive scale", where the reversal refers to Venezuela's high immigration rate during the 20th century. This has caused a brain drain that affects the nation, due to the large number of emigrants who are educated or skilled. During the crisis, Venezuelans have been asked about their desire to leave their native country; over 30 percent of respondents to a December 2015 survey said that they planned to permanently leave Venezuela. The percentage nearly doubled the following September as, according to Datincorp, 57 percent of respondents wanted to leave the country. By mid-2019, over four million Venezuelans had emigrated since the revolution began in 1999. leading Venezuelan refugees from San Antonio del Táchira, Venezuela, toward Villa del Rosario, Norte de Santander, Colombia.]] The United Nations predicted that by the end of 2019, there would have been over 5 million recorded emigrants during the Venezuelan crisis, over 15% of the population. A late-2018 study by the Brookings Institution suggested that emigration would reach 6 million – approximately 20% of Venezuela's 2017 population – by the end of 2019, with a mid-2019 poll by Consultares 21 estimating that up to 6 million Venezuelans had fled the country by this point; estimates going into 2020 suggested that the number of Venezuelan migrants and refugees was overtaking the 6 million figure, Estimates had risen to 7.1 million by October 2022, over 20 percent of the country's population. The Norwegian Refugee Council, the Brookings Institution and the Organization of American States commissioner for the Venezuelan refugee crisis, David Smolansky, have estimated that the crisis is also one of the most underfunded refugee crisis in modern history. According to the UNHCR, more than 7.7 million people have emigrated from Venezuela in the years corresponding to Maduro's rise to power and the consolidation of Chavismo. The organization's calculation method is based on asylum requests and refugee registrations in each country, which might exclude those in irregular situations. The location-based networking features of mobile applications such as China's WeChat have also created online diaspora communities when used outside of their home markets. Now, large companies from the emerging countries are looking at leveraging diaspora communities to enter the more mature market. Diaspora languages is co-official in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil]] The term diaspora language, coined in the 1980s, is a sociolinguistic idea referring to a variety of languages spoken by peoples with common roots who have dispersed, under various pressures and often globally. The emergence and evolution of a diaspora language is usually part of a larger attempt to retain cultural identity. Examples are Yiddish, African American Vernacular English, Yoruba, Molise Slavic, Istro-Romanian, Griko, Gallo-Italic of Sicily, Talian, Cocoliche, Lunfardo and Arbëresh. In popular culture Gran Torino, a 2008 drama starring Clint Eastwood, was the first mainstream American film to feature the Hmong American diaspora.See also <!--These should be links to articles not otherwise mentioned in the text, but connected to the subject area of the article--> * List of diasporas * List of sovereign states by immigrant and emigrant population * Diaspora politics * Diaspora politics in the United States * Human migration * Integration of immigrants * Population transfer ** Population transfer in the Soviet Union Specific diasporas * Kurdish refugees * Anti-Romani sentiment History of the Romani people * Romani Holocaust * Rural exodus Religious diasporas * Ummah * Jewish history Antisemitism * Persecution of Jews ** History of the Jews during World War II * The Holocaust Expulsions and exoduses of Jews ** The Exodus * Jewish exodus from the Muslim world ** Yom HaAliyah Country-specific diasporas * Exodusters (African American) * Great Migration (African American) * History of immigration to the United States Forced migration * Forced displacement * Expulsion of Poles by Nazi Germany * Expulsion of the Acadians * Expulsion of the Moriscos * Forced settlements in the Soviet Union * List of expulsions of African Americans * Long Walk of the Navajo * Trail of Tears Conflicts and genocides * Ethnic cleansing * List of ethnic cleansing campaigns * Late Ottoman genocides Armenian genocide Assyrian genocide Great Famine of Mount Lebanon Greek genocide * Myanmar conflict Persecution of Muslims in Myanmar * Rohingya conflict **** Rohingya genocide * Partition of India * Xinjiang conflict ** Persecution of Uyghurs in China * World War II evacuation and expulsion * Persecution of Yazidis ** Yazidi genocide Statelessness * State collapse * Statelessness * Stateless nation References Citations Sources * Barclay, John M. G. (ed.), Negotiating Diaspora: Jewish Strategies in the Roman Empire, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2004 * Baser, B. & Swain, A. Diasporas as Peacemakers: Third Party Mediation in Homeland Conflicts with Ashok Swain. International Journal on World Peace 25 (3), September 2008. * Braziel, Jana Evans. 2008. Diaspora: An Introduction. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell. * * Bueltmann, Tanja, et al. eds. Locating the English Diaspora, 1500–2010 (Liverpool University Press, 2012) * * * Délano Alonso, Alexandra & Mylonas, Harris. 2019. "[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1369183X.2017.1409160 The Microfoundations of Diaspora Politics: Unpacking the State and Disaggregating the Diaspora]", Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, Volume 45, Issue 4: 473–491. * * * Galil, Gershon, & Weinfeld, Moshe, Studies in Historical Geography and Biblical Historiography: Presented to Zekharyah Ḳalai, Brill, 2000 * * Kantor, Mattis, The Jewish Timeline Encyclopedia: A Year-by-year History from Creation to the Present, (new updated edition), Northvalem New Jersey: Jason Aronson, 1992 * * Luciuk, Lubomyr, Searching for Place: Ukrainian Displaced Persons, Canada and the Migration of Memory. University of Toronto Press, 2000. * Mahroum, Sami & De Guchteneire, P. (2007), Transnational Knowledge Through Diaspora Networks-Editorial. International Journal of Multicultural Societies 8 (1), pp. 1–3 * Mahroum, Sami; Eldridge, Cynthia; Daar, Abdallah S. (2006). Transnational diaspora options: How developing countries could benefit from their emigrant populations. International Journal on Multicultural Societies, 2006. * Nesterovych, Volodymyr (2013). "[https://www.academia.edu/36968937/Вплив_етнічних_діаспор_на_прийняття_правових_актів_у_США Impact of ethnic diasporas on the adoption of normative legal acts in the United States]". Viche. 8: pp. 19–23. * Oonk, G., Global Indian Diasporas: trajectories of migration and theory, Amsterdam University Press, 2007 Free download [https://web.archive.org/web/20141205054154/http://dare.uva.nl/aup/en/record/260518 here] * * Shain, Yossi, Kinship and Diasporas in International Politics, Michigan University Press, 2007 * * Weheliye, Alexander G. "My Volk to Come: Peoplehood in Recent Diaspora Discourse and Afro-German Popular Music." Black Europe and the African Diaspora. Ed. Darlene Clark. Hine, Trica Danielle. Keaton, and Stephen Small. Urbana: University of Illinois, 2009. pp. 161–179. * * Xharra, B. & Wählisch, M. ''Beyond Remittances: Public Diplomacy and Kosovo's Diaspora, Foreign Policy Club, Pristina (2012), abstract and free access [https://ssrn.com/abstract=2108317 here]. Further reading * Cohen, Robin, and Carolin Fischer (eds.) Routledge Handbook of Diaspora Studies (2019) * Gewecke, Frauke. [http://www.uni-bielefeld.de/cias/wiki/d_Diaspora.html "Diaspora"] (2012). University Bielefeld – Center for InterAmerican Studies. * Knott, Kim, and Sean McLoughlin, eds. Diasporas: Concepts, Intersections, Identities (2010) * Sheffer, Gabriel. Diaspora Politics: At Home Abroad'' (2006) External links <!--Any links that have not been cited in the article, but related to the article subject area--> <!-- Please be cautious about adding more external links. Wikipedia is not a collection of links and should not be used for advertising. Excessive or inappropriate links will be removed. See Wikipedia:External links and Wikipedia:Spam for details. If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using . --> * [https://www.livius.org/di-dn/diaspora/diaspora.htm Livius.org: Diaspora] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20141205054154/http://dare.uva.nl/aup/en/record/260518 Open access book on Diasporas] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110322051627/http://www.unaoc.org/communities/migrationintegration/ Integration: Building Inclusive Societies (IBIS)] UN Alliance of Civilizations online community on Good Practices of Integration of Migrants across the World * [https://soundcloud.com/chssedinburgh/sets/diasporic-trajectories Diasporic Trajectories: Transnational Cultures in the 21st Century] Podcast playlist of a seminar series held in 2015 at the University of Edinburgh, School of Literatures, Languages, and Cultures Category:Diaspora studies	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diaspora	2025-04-05T18:28:41.773696
8615	List of dog breeds	This list of dog breeds includes both extant and extinct dog breeds, varieties and types. A research article on dog genomics published in Science/AAAS defines modern dog breeds as "a recent invention defined by conformation to a physical ideal and purity of lineage". According to BigThink, over 40% of the world's dog breeds come from the United Kingdom, France and Germany. It states: "Great Britain and France are the ground zero of dog fancying, with 57 registered breeds each. Germany is not far behind, with 47 breeds. These three countries alone represent more than 40% of all dog breeds recognized by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale." Extant breeds, varieties and types A–C * Afghan Hound * Africanis * Aidi * Airedale Terrier * Akbash * Akita * Aksaray Malaklisi * Alano Español * Alapaha Blue Blood Bulldog * Alaskan Husky * Alaskan Klee Kai * Alaskan Malamute * Alopekis * Alpine Dachsbracke * American Bulldog * American Bully * American Cocker Spaniel * American English Coonhound * American Eskimo Dog * American Foxhound * American Hairless Terrier * American Leopard Hound * American Pit Bull Terrier * American Staffordshire Terrier * American Water Spaniel * Andalusian Terrier * Anglo-Français de Petite Vénerie * Appenzeller Sennenhund * Ariège Pointer * Ariégeois * Argentine Pila * Armant * Armenian Gampr * Artois Hound * Australian Cattle Dog * Australian Kelpie * Australian Shepherd * Australian Silky Terrier * Australian Stumpy Tail Cattle Dog * Australian Terrier * Austrian Black and Tan Hound * Austrian Pinscher * Azawakh * Bắc Hà * Bakharwal * Banjara Hound * Bankhar Dog * Barak hound * Barbado da Terceira * Barbet * Basenji * Basque Shepherd Dog * Basset Artésien Normand * Basset Bleu de Gascogne * Basset Fauve de Bretagne * Basset Hound * Bavarian Mountain Hound * Beagle * Beagle-Harrier * Bearded Collie * Beauceron * Bedlington Terrier * Belgian Shepherd * Bergamasco Shepherd * Berger Picard * Bernese Mountain Dog * Bichon Frisé * Biewer Terrier * Billy * Black and Tan Coonhound * Black Norwegian Elkhound * Black Russian Terrier * Black Mouth Cur * Bloodhound * Blue Lacy * Blue Picardy Spaniel * Bluetick Coonhound * Boerboel * Bohemian Shepherd * Bohemian Spotted Dog * Bolognese * Border Collie * Border Terrier * Borzoi * Boston Terrier * Bouvier des Ardennes * Bouvier des Flandres * Boxer * Boykin Spaniel * Bracco Italiano * Braque d'Auvergne * Braque du Bourbonnais * Braque Français * Braque Saint-Germain * Brazilian Terrier * Briard * Briquet de Provence * Briquet Griffon Vendéen * Brittany * Broholmer * Bruno Jura Hound * Bucovina Shepherd Dog * Bulgarian Hound * Bulgarian Scenthound * Bull Arab * Bull Terrier * Bulldog * Bullmastiff * Bully Kutta * Burgos Pointer * Ca Mè Mallorquí * Ca de Bou * Ca Rater Mallorquí * Cairn Terrier * Calupoh * Campeiro Bulldog * Can de Chira * Can de Palleiro * Canaan Dog * Canadian Eskimo Dog * Cane Corso * Cane di Oropa * Cane Paratore * Cantabrian Water Dog * Cão de Gado Transmontano * Cardigan Welsh Corgi * Carea Leonés * Carolina Dog * Carpathian Shepherd Dog * Castro Laboreiro Dog * Catahoula Leopard Dog * Catalan Sheepdog * Caucasian Shepherd Dog * Cavalier King Charles Spaniel * Central Asian Shepherd Dog * Český fousek * Cesky Terrier * Chesapeake Bay Retriever * Chien Français Blanc et Noir * Chien Français Blanc et Orange * Chien Français Tricolore * Chihuahua * Chilean Terrier * Chinese Crested Dog * Chinook * Chippiparai * Chongqing * Chortai * Chow Chow * Chukotka sled dog * Cimarrón Uruguayo * Cirneco dell'Etna * Clumber Spaniel * Colombian Fino Hound * Continental bulldog * Corsican Dog * Coton de Tulear * Cretan Hound * Croatian Sheepdog * Curly-coated Retriever * Czechoslovakian Wolfdog }} D–K * Dalmatian * Dandie Dinmont Terrier * Danish Spitz * Danish–Swedish Farmdog * Denmark Feist * Dikkulak * Dingo}} * Dobermann * Dogo Argentino * Dogo Sardesco * Dogue Brasileiro * Dogue de Bordeaux * Donggyeongi * Drentse Patrijshond * Drever * Dunker * Dutch Shepherd * Dutch Smoushond * East Siberian Laika * East European Shepherd * Ecuadorian Hairless Dog * English Cocker Spaniel * English Foxhound * English Mastiff * English Setter * English Shepherd * English Springer Spaniel * English Toy Terrier (Black & Tan) * Entlebucher Mountain Dog * Erbi Txakur * Estonian Hound * Estrela Mountain Dog * Eurasier * Faroese Sheepdog * Field Spaniel * Fila Brasileiro * Finnish Hound * Finnish Lapphund * Finnish Spitz * Flat-coated Retriever * Florida Brown Dog a/k/a Florida Cracker Cur * French Bulldog * French Spaniel * Galgo Español * Gascon Saintongeois * Gaucho sheepdog * Georgian Shepherd * German Hound * German Longhaired Pointer * German Pinscher * German Roughhaired Pointer * German Shepherd * German Shorthaired Pointer * German Spaniel * German Spitz * German Wirehaired Pointer * Giant Schnauzer * Glen of Imaal Terrier * Golden Retriever * Gończy Polski * Gordon Setter * Grand Anglo-Français Blanc et Noir * Grand Anglo-Français Blanc et Orange * Grand Anglo-Français Tricolore * Grand Basset Griffon Vendéen * Grand Bleu de Gascogne * Grand Griffon Vendéen * Great Dane * Greater Swiss Mountain Dog * Greek Harehound * Greek Shepherd * Greenland Dog * Greyhound * Griffon Bleu de Gascogne * Griffon Bruxellois * Griffon Fauve de Bretagne * Griffon Nivernais * Gull Dong * Gull Terrier * Hällefors Elkhound * Halden Hound * Hamiltonstövare * Hanover Hound * Harrier * Havanese * Himalayan Sheepdog * Hmong bobtail dog * Hokkaido * Hovawart * Huntaway * Hygen Hound * Ibizan Hound * Icelandic Sheepdog * Indian pariah dog * Indian Spitz * Irish Red and White Setter * Irish Setter * Irish Terrier * Irish Water Spaniel * Irish Wolfhound * Istrian Coarse-haired Hound * Istrian Shorthaired Hound * Italian Greyhound * Jack Russell Terrier * Jagdterrier * Jämthund * Japanese Chin * Japanese Spitz * Japanese Terrier * Jeju * Jindo * Jonangi * Kai Ken * Kaikadi * Kamchatka Sled Dog * Kangal Shepherd Dog * Kanni * Karakachan * Karelian Bear Dog * Karelo-Finnish Laika * Kars * Karst Shepherd * Kazakh Tazy * Keeshond * Kerry Beagle * Kerry Blue Terrier * Khala * King Charles Spaniel * King Shepherd * Kintamani * Kishu * Kokoni * Kombai * Komondor * Kooikerhondje * Koolie * Kromfohrländer * Kuchi * Kunming * Kurdish Mastiff * Kuvasz }} L–R * Lagotto Romagnolo * Lài * Lakeland Terrier * Lancashire Heeler * Landseer * Lapponian Herder * Large Münsterländer * Leonberger * Levriero Sardo * Lhasa Apso * Liangshan Dog * Lithuanian Hound * Lobito Herreño * Löwchen * Lucas Terrier * Lupo Italiano * Mackenzie River Husky * Magyar Agár * Mahratta Hound * Majorca Shepherd Dog * Maltese * Manchester Terrier * Maneto * Markiesje * Maremmano-Abruzzese Sheepdog * McNab * Miniature American Shepherd * Miniature Bull Terrier * Miniature Fox Terrier * Miniature Pinscher * Miniature Schnauzer * Molossus of Epirus * Mongrel * Montenegrin Mountain Hound * Moscow Watchdog * Mountain Cur * Mountain Feist * Mudhol Hound * Mudi * Neapolitan Mastiff * Nenets Herding Laika * New Guinea singing dog * New Zealand Heading Dog * Newfoundland * Norfolk Terrier * Norrbottenspets * Northern Inuit Dog * Norwegian Buhund * Norwegian Elkhound * Norwegian Lundehund * Norwich Terrier * Nova Scotia Duck Tolling Retriever * Nureongi * Old Danish Pointer * Old English Sheepdog * Olde English Bulldogge * Otterhound * Pachón Navarro * Pampas Deerhound * Papillon * Parson Russell Terrier * Pastor Garafiano * Pastore della Lessinia e del Lagorai * Patagonian Sheepdog * Patterdale Terrier * Pekingese * Pembroke Welsh Corgi * Perdigueiro Galego * Perro Majorero * Peruvian Hairless Dog * Petit Basset Griffon Vendéen * Petit Bleu de Gascogne * Phalène * Pharaoh Hound * Phu Quoc Ridgeback * Picardy Spaniel * Plummer Terrier * Plott Hound * Podenco Andaluz * Podenco Canario * Podenco Valenciano * Pointer * Poitevin * Polish Greyhound * Polish Hound * Polish Lowland Sheepdog * Pomeranian * Pont-Audemer Spaniel * Poodle * Porcelaine * Portuguese Podengo * Portuguese Pointer * Portuguese Sheepdog * Portuguese Water Dog * Posavac Hound * Pražský Krysařík * Presa Canario * Pudelpointer * Pug * Puli * Pumi * Pungsan * Pyrenean Mastiff * Pyrenean Mountain Dog * Pyrenean Sheepdog * Rafeiro do Alentejo * Rajapalayam * Rampur Greyhound * Rastreador Brasileiro * Rat Terrier * Ratonero Murciano * Redbone Coonhound * Rhodesian Ridgeback * Rize Koyun * Romanian Mioritic Shepherd Dog * Romanian Raven Shepherd Dog * Rottweiler * Rough Collie * Russian Spaniel * Russkiy Toy * Russo-European Laika * Ryukyu }} S–Z * Sabueso Español * Saint Miguel Cattle Dog * Saint-Usuge Spaniel * Sakhalin Husky * Saluki * Samoyed * Sapsali * Sarabi * Sardinian Shepherd Dog * Šarplaninac * Schapendoes * Schillerstövare * Schipperke * Schweizer Laufhund * Schweizerischer Niederlaufhund * Scottish Deerhound * Scottish Terrier * Sealyham Terrier * Segugio dell'Appennino * Segugio Italiano * Segugio Maremmano * Serbian Hound * Serbian Tricolour Hound * Serrano Bulldog * Shar Pei * Shetland Sheepdog * Shiba Inu * Shih Tzu * Shikoku * Shiloh Shepherd * Siberian Husky * Silken Windhound * Sinhala Hound * Skye Terrier * Sloughi * Slovak Rough-haired Pointer * Slovak Cuvac * Slovenský kopov * Smaland Hound * Small Međimurje Dog * Small Münsterländer * Smithfield * Smooth Collie * Smooth Fox Terrier * Soft-coated Wheaten Terrier * South Russian Ovcharka * Spanish Mastiff * Spanish Water Dog * Spino degli Iblei * Spinone Italiano * Sporting Lucas Terrier * St. Bernard * St. Hubert Jura Hound * Stabyhoun * Staffordshire Bull Terrier * Standard Schnauzer * Stephens Stock * Styrian Coarse-haired Hound * Sussex Spaniel * Swedish Lapphund * Swedish Vallhund * Taigan * Taiwan Dog * Tamaskan Dog * Tang Dog * Tarsus çatalburun * Tatra Shepherd Dog * Teddy Roosevelt Terrier * Telomian * Tenterfield Terrier * Thai Bangkaew Dog * Thai Ridgeback * Tibetan Kyi Apso * Tibetan Mastiff * Tibetan spaniel * Tibetan Terrier * Tonya Finosu * Tornjak * Tosa * Toy Fox Terrier * Toy Manchester Terrier * Transylvanian Hound * Treeing Cur * Treeing Feist * Treeing Tennessee Brindle * Treeing Walker Coonhound * Trigg Hound * Tyrolean Hound * Valencian Terrier * Vikhan * Villano de Las Encartaciones * Villanuco de Las Encartaciones * Vizsla * Volkosob * Volpino Italiano * Weimaraner * Welsh Hound * Welsh Sheepdog * Welsh Springer Spaniel * Welsh Terrier * West Country Harrier * West Highland White Terrier * West Siberian Laika * Westphalian Dachsbracke * Wetterhoun * Whippet * White Shepherd * White Swiss Shepherd Dog * Wire Fox Terrier * Wirehaired Pointing Griffon * Wirehaired Vizsla * Xiasi Dog * Xoloitzcuintle * Yakutian Laika * Yorkshire Terrier * Zerdava }} Extinct and critically endangered breeds, varieties and types * Alpine Mastiff * Argentine Polar Dog * Assyrian Mastiff * Belgian Mastiff * Black and Tan Terrier * Braque Dupuy * Buckhound * Bullenbeisser * Chien-gris * Chiribaya Dog * Córdoba fighting dog * Cumberland Sheepdog * Cur * Dalbo * Dogo Cubano * Dumfriesshire hound * English Water Spaniel * English White Terrier * Fuegian * Grand Fauve de Bretagne * Halls Heeler * Hare Indian Dog * Hawaiian Poi Dog * King's White Hound * Kurī * Laconian * Lapponian Shepherd * Limer * Marquesan Dog * Molossus * Moscow Water Dog * Norfolk Spaniel * Norman Hound * North Country Beagle * Old Croatian Sighthound * Old English Bulldog * Old Spanish Pointer * Old Welsh Grey Sheepdog * Paisley Terrier * Polynesian Dog * Rache * Rastreador Brasileiro * Salish Wool Dog * Sleuth hound * Southern Hound * St. John's water dog * Staghound * Tahitian Dog * Tahltan Bear Dog * Talbot * Techichi * Terceira Mastiff * Tesem * Toy Bulldog * Toy Trawler Spaniel * Turnspit * Tweed Water Spaniel * Welsh Hillman }} See also * Dog type * List of dog crossbreeds * List of Italian dog breeds * List of dog breeds from India * List of Tibetan dog breeds Notes References Citations Bibliography * * }} * * * * * * * * * * * * Breeds D	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_dog_breeds	2025-04-05T18:28:41.825895
8617	Daniel Jones (phonetician)	\| birth_place = London, England \| death_date \| death_place = Gerrards Cross, Buckinghamshire, England \| nationality = British \| other_names \| education University of Cambridge \| occupation = Phonetician \| years_active \| known_for The cardinal vowel diagram \| notable_works = The English Pronouncing Dictionary }} Daniel Jones (12 September 1881 – 4 December 1967) was a British phonetician who studied under Paul Passy, professor of phonetics at the École des Hautes Études at the Sorbonne (University of Paris). He was head of the department of phonetics at University College London. Biography In 1900, Jones studied briefly at William Tilly's Marburg Language Institute in Germany, where he was first introduced to phonetics. In 1903, he received his BA degree in mathematics at the University of Cambridge, and by right his MA in 1907. From 1905 to 1906, he studied in Paris under Paul Passy, who was one of the founders of the International Phonetic Association, and in 1911, he married Passy's niece Cyrille Motte. He briefly took private lessons from the British phonetician Henry Sweet. In 1907, he became a part-time lecturer at the University College London and was afterwards appointed to a full-time position. In 1912, he became the head of the Department of Phonetics and was appointed to a chair in 1921, a post he held until his retirement in 1949. From 1906 onwards, Jones was an active member of the International Phonetic Association, and was assistant secretary from 1907 to 1927, secretary from 1927 to 1949, and president from 1950 to 1967. In 1909, Jones wrote the short Pronunciation of English, a book he later radically revised. The resulting work, An Outline of English Phonetics, followed in 1918 and is the first truly comprehensive description of British Received Pronunciation, and the first such description of the standard pronunciation of any language. The year 1917 was a landmark for Jones in many ways. He became the first linguist in the western world to use the term phoneme in its current sense, employing the word in his article "The phonetic structure of the Sechuana Language". Jones had made an earlier notable attempt at a pronunciation dictionary but it was now that he produced the first edition of his famous English Pronouncing Dictionary, a work which in revised form is still in print. It was here that the cardinal vowel diagram made a first appearance. The problem of the phonetic description of vowels is of long standing, going back to the era of the ancient Indian linguists. Three nineteenth-century British phoneticians worked on this topic. Alexander Melville Bell (1867) devised a phonetic alphabet which included an elaborate system for vowels. Alexander John Ellis had also suggested vowel symbols for his phonetic alphabets. Sweet did much work on the systematic description of vowels, producing an elaborate system of vowel description involving a multitude of symbols. Jones however was the one who is generally credited with having gone much of the way towards a practical solution through his scheme of 'cardinal vowels', a relatively simple system of reference vowels which for many years has been taught systematically to students within the British tradition. Much of the inspiration for this scheme can be found in the earlier publications of Passy. vowel trapezium, an application of Jones's work]] In the original form of the cardinal vowels, Jones employed a dual-parameter system of description based on the supposed height of the tongue arch together with the shape of the lips. This he reduced to a simple quadrilateral diagram which could be used to help visualize how vowels are articulated. Tongue height (close vs. open) is represented on the vertical axis and front vs. back on the horizontal axis indicates the portion of the tongue raised on the horizontal axis. Lip-rounding is also built into the system, so that front vowels (such as [i, e, a]) have spread or neutral lip postures, but the back vowels (such as [o, u]) have more marked lip-rounding as vowel height increases. Jones thus arrived at a set of eight "primary Cardinal Vowels", and recorded these on gramophone disc for HMV in 1917. Later modifications to his theory allowed for an additional set of eight "secondary Cardinal Vowels" with reverse lip shapes, permitting the representation of eight secondary cardinal vowels (front rounded and back unrounded). Eventually, Jones also devised symbols for central vowels and positioned these on the vowel diagram. He made two further disc recordings for Linguaphone in 1943 and 1956. With the passing years, the accuracy of many of Jones's statements on vowels has come increasingly under question, and most linguists now consider that the vowel quadrilateral must be viewed as a way of representing auditory space in visual form, rather than the tightly defined articulatory scheme envisaged by Jones. Nevertheless, the International Phonetic Association still uses a version of Jones's model, and includes a Jones-type vowel diagram on its influential International Phonetic Alphabet leaflet contained in the "Handbook of the International Association". Many phoneticians (especially those trained in the British school) resort to it constantly as a quick and convenient form of reference. Although Jones is especially remembered for his work on the phonetics and phonology of English, he ranged far more widely. He produced phonetic/phonological treatments which were masterly for their time on the sound systems of Cantonese, Tswana (Sechuana as it was then known), Sinhalese, and Russian. He was the first phonetician to produce, in his "Sechuana Reader", a competent description of an African tone language, including the concept of downstep. Jones helped develop new alphabets for African languages, and suggested systems of romanisation for Indian languages and Japanese. He also busied himself with support for revised spelling for English through the Simplified Spelling Society. Apart from his own vast array of published work, Jones acted as mentor to numerous scholars who later went on to become famous linguists in their own right. These included such names as Lilias Armstrong, Harold Palmer, Ida C. Ward, Hélène Coustenoble, Arthur Lloyd James, Dennis Fry, A. C. Gimson, Gordon Arnold, J.D. O'Connor, Clive Sansom, and many more. For several decades, his department at University College was pivotal in the development of phonetics and in making its findings known to the wider world. Beverley Collins and Inger M. Mees (1998) speculate that it is Jones, not as is often thought Sweet, who provided George Bernard Shaw with the basis for his fictional character Professor Henry Higgins in Pygmalion. After retirement, Jones worked at his publications almost up to the end of his long life. He died at his home in Gerrards Cross in Buckinghamshire on 4 December 1967. Notes References Asher, R. E. (1994), Encyclopedia of language and linguistics, Oxford: Pergamon Press. Bell, A. Melville (1967), "Visible Speech", London: Simpkin Marshall; rpt in facsimile in B. Collins and I. Mees (2006), "Phonetics of English in the 19th Century", London: Routledge. Collins, B. and I. Mees (1998), The Real Professor Higgins: The Life and Career of Daniel Jones, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. IPA (1999), "Handbook of the International Phonetic Association", Cambridge: CUP. Jones, D. (1909), "The Pronunciation of English", Cambridge: CUP; rpt in facsimile in Jones (2002). Jones, D. (1917a), "An English Pronouncing Dictionary", London: Dent, rpt in facsimile in Jones (2002). 17th edn, P. Roach, J. Hartman and J. Setter (eds), Cambridge: CUP, 2006. Jones, D. (1917b), The phonetic structure of the Sechuana language, Transactions of the Philological Society 1917–20, pp. 99–106; rpt in Jones (2002). Jones, D. (1918), "An Outline of English Phonetics", Leipzig: Teubner; rpt in Jones (2002). Jones, D. and Kwing Tong Woo (1912), "A Cantonese Phonetic Reader", London: University of London Press; rpt in Jones (2002). Jones, D. and S. Plaatje (1916), "A Sechuana Reader", London: ULP; rpt in Jones (2002). Jones, D. and H. S. Perera (1919), "A Colloquial Sinhalese Reader", Manchester: Manchester University Press; rpt in Jones (2002). Jones, D. and M. Trofimov (1923), "The Pronunciation of Russian", Cambridge: CUP; rpt in facsimile in Jones (2002). Jones, Daniel and Dahl, Ivar (1944). Castellano bonaerense, en Fundamentos de escritura fonética. London, University College, págs. 16–17. Jones, D. (2002), Daniel Jones: Selected Works, Vols. 1–8, ed. B. Collins and I.M. Mees, London: Routledge. Michaelis, H. and D. Jones (1913), "A Phonetic Dictionary of the English Language", Hanover-Berlin: Carl Meyer and Gustav Prior; rpt in Jones (2002). External links Ling Links, People, I-M, [https://web.archive.org/web/20080222160456/http://www.ttt.org/linglinks/i_m.html#DJones Section on Daniel Jones] [http://waij.com/oldbooks/phonetics.html Parts of his book An Outline of English Phonetics] "[http://www.yek.me.uk/jonesobit.html The Daniel Jones Legacy]", J. Windsor Lewis "[http://www.yek.me.uk/archive6.html#blog052 Anniversary of the Death of Daniel Jones]", J. Windsor Lewis "[http://www.yek.me.uk/archive13.html#blog130 Daniel Jones b 12th Sept 1881]", J. Windsor Lewis (includes a recording of Jones speaking) Category:1881 births Category:1967 deaths Category:20th-century British linguists Category:Academic staff of the University of Paris Category:Academics of University College London Category:Alumni of King's College, Cambridge Category:British expatriates in France Category:Cantonese language Category:English-language spelling reform advocates Category:Linguists of English Category:Members of the German Academy of Sciences at Berlin Category:People educated at Ludgrove School Category:Phoneticians Category:University of Paris alumni Category:English Theosophists	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Jones_(phonetician)	2025-04-05T18:28:41.829420
8618	David Beckham	\| image = Beckswimbledon.jpg \| caption = Beckham in 2014 \| birth_date \| birth_place = London, England \| occupation = \| organisation UNICEF, Malaria No More \| agent = Simon Fuller (XIX Entertainment) \| height \| spouse = \| children = 4, including Brooklyn and Romeo \| relatives = Nicola Peltz (daughter-in-law) \| website = \| module = }} David Robert Joseph Beckham ( ; born 2 May 1975) is an English former professional footballer, the president and co-owner of Inter Miami CF and co-owner of Salford City. Primarily a right winger and known for his range of passing, crossing ability and free-kick taking, Beckham is considered one of the best midfielders of his generation, as well as one of the best free-kick takers of all time. He won 19 major trophies in his career, and is the first English player to win league titles in four different countries: England, Spain, the United States and France. Beckham's professional club career began with Manchester United, where he made his first-team debut in 1992 at age 17. With United, he won the Premier League title six times, the FA Cup twice, the FA Charity Shield twice, the Intercontinental Cup and the UEFA Champions League in 1999. winning the La Liga title in his final season with the club. In July 2007, Beckham signed a five-year contract with Major League Soccer club LA Galaxy; it was widely cited as a historic transfer for football in America. While a Galaxy player, he spent two loan spells in Italy with AC Milan in 2009 and 2010, and became the first British footballer to play 100 Champions League games. In international football, Beckham made his England debut on 1 September 1996, at the age of 21. He was captain for six years, earning 58 caps during his tenure. He made 115 career appearances in total, appearing at three FIFA World Cups in 1998, 2002 and 2006 as well as two UEFA European Championships in 2000 and 2004. Beckham held the England appearance record for an outfield player until 2016. A global ambassador of football, Beckham is considered a British cultural icon. He has been in a well publicised marriage to Victoria Beckham since 1999 and was consistently ranked among the highest earners in football, in 2013 being listed as the highest-paid player in the world having earned over in the previous twelve months. Beckham was runner-up in the Ballon d'Or in 1999, twice runner-up for FIFA World Player of the Year (1999 and 2001) and in 2004 was named by Pelé in the FIFA 100 list of the world's greatest living players. He was inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame in 2008, and the Premier League Hall of Fame in 2021. He has been a UNICEF ambassador since 2005, and in 2015 he launched 7: The David Beckham UNICEF Fund. In 2014, MLS announced that Beckham and a group of investors would own Inter Miami, which began playing in 2020. Early life, family and education David Robert Joseph Beckham was born on 2 May 1975 at Whipps Cross University Hospital in Leytonstone, London, England. He is the son of Sandra Georgina (née West), a hairdresser, and David Edward Alan "Ted" Beckham, a kitchen fitter; the couple married in 1969 in the London Borough of Hackney. He was given the middle name Robert in honour of Bobby Charlton, his father's favourite footballer. He has an older sister, Lynne Georgina, and a younger sister, Joanne Louise. Beckham's maternal grandfather's maternal grandmother, Elizabeth Lazarus Llewellyn, was Jewish. Beckham has referred to himself as "half Jewish" and wrote in his autobiography "I've probably had more contact with Judaism than with any other religion". In his book Both Feet on the Ground, Beckham states that growing up he attended church every week with his parents, because that was the only way he could play football for their team. His parents were fanatical Manchester United supporters who frequently travelled to Old Trafford from London to attend the team's home matches. David inherited his parents' love of Manchester United, and his main sporting passion was football. In a 2007 interview, Beckham said that, "At school whenever the teachers asked, 'What do you want to do when you're older?' I'd say, 'I want to be a footballer.' And they'd say, 'No, what do you really want to do, for a job?' But that was the only thing I ever wanted to do." Beckham was a late developer and not selected to represent the England Schoolboys' team primarily on account of his small size. He attended one of Bobby Charlton's Soccer Schools in Manchester and won the chance to take part in a training session with Barcelona, as part of a talent competition. He played for a local youth team called Ridgeway Rovers, which was coached by his father, Stuart Underwood, and Steve Kirby. Beckham was a Manchester United mascot for a match against West Ham United in 1986. Young Beckham had trials with his local club Leyton Orient, Norwich City and attended Tottenham Hotspur's school of excellence, though never represented the club in a match. During a two-year period in which Beckham played for Brimsdown Rovers' youth team, he was named Under-15 Player of the Year in 1990. Beckham attended Chingford County High School in Nevin Drive, Chingford. He also attended Bradenton Preparatory Academy, but signed schoolboy forms at Manchester United on his 14th birthday, and subsequently signed a Youth Training Scheme contract on 8 July 1991.Club careerManchester United1991–1994: Youth and early-careerHaving signed for Manchester United as a trainee on 8 July 1991, Beckham was part of a group of young players, including Ryan Giggs, Gary Neville, Phil Neville, Nicky Butt and Paul Scholes, who were coached by Eric Harrison, and helped the club win the FA Youth Cup in May 1992. Beckham scored Manchester United's second goal in the 30th minute of their 3–1 first-leg win of the final against Crystal Palace on 14 April 1992. In the second leg on 15 May, Beckham played a full 90-minutes of the fixture which ended 3–2 in favour of Manchester United and 6–3 on aggregate. Beckham's impact led to a first-team debut on 23 September 1992, as a substitute for Andrei Kanchelskis in a League Cup match against Brighton & Hove Albion. Shortly afterwards, Beckham signed as a professional on 23 January 1993.1994–1995: Loan to Preston North End Beckham then went to Preston North End, on loan for part of the 1994–95 season, to get some first-team experience. He scored two goals in five appearances, notably directly from a corner kick.1995–1996: Return to United and first Championship Beckham returned to Manchester and made his Premier League debut for Manchester United on 2 April 1995 in a goalless draw against Leeds United. He played four times for United in the league that season, as they finished second behind Blackburn Rovers, missing out on a third successive Premier League title by a single point. He was not in the squad for the FA Cup final with Everton on 20 May, which United lost 1–0, leaving the club without a major trophy for the first time since 1989. United manager Sir Alex Ferguson had a great deal of confidence in the club's young players. Beckham was part of a group of young talents Ferguson brought into United in the 1990s (known as "Fergie's Fledglings"), which included Nicky Butt and Gary and Phil Neville. When experienced players Paul Ince, Mark Hughes and Andrei Kanchelskis left the club after the end of the 1994–95 season, his decision to let youth team players replace them instead of buying star players from other clubs (United had been linked with moves for players including Darren Anderton, Marc Overmars and Roberto Baggio, but no major signings were made that summer), drew a great deal of criticism. The criticism increased when United started the season with a 3–1 defeat at Aston Villa, with Beckham scoring United's only goal of the game. However, United recovered from this early-season defeat and the young players performed well. Beckham swiftly established himself as United's right-sided midfielder (rather than a right-winger in the style of his predecessor Andrei Kanchelskis) and helped them to win the Premier League title and FA Cup double that season, scoring the winner in the semi-final against Chelsea and also providing the corner from which Eric Cantona scored in the FA Cup Final. Beckham's first title medal had, for a while, looked like it would not be coming that season, as United were still 10 points adrift of leaders Newcastle United at the turn of the new year, but Beckham and his teammates had overhauled the Tynesiders at the top of the league by mid March and they remained top until the end of the season. Despite playing regularly and to a consistently high standard for Manchester United, Beckham did not break into the England squad before Euro 1996. 1996–1998: First-choice and inheriting No. 7 shirt box against Manchester United's arch rivals Liverpool at Anfield. 1998–1999: Treble during the 1999 FA Cup Final at Wembley Stadium]] In the 1998–99 season, he was part of the United team that won the treble of the Premier League, FA Cup and Champions League, a unique feat in English football until Manchester City's 2022–23 season. To ensure they would win the Premier League title, United needed to win their final league match of the season, at home to Tottenham. There were reports suggesting that the opposition would allow themselves to be beaten to prevent their local rivals Arsenal from retaining the title, but Tottenham took an early lead in the match. Beckham played in central midfield in United's win over Bayern Munich in the 1999 UEFA Champions League Final, as United's first-choice centre-midfielders Paul Scholes and Roy Keane were suspended for the match. United were losing the match 1–0 at the end of normal time, but won the trophy by scoring two goals in injury time. Both of the goals came from corners taken by Beckham. 1999–2000: Another Championship Despite Beckham's achievements in the 1998–99 season, he was still unpopular among some opposition fans and journalists, and he was criticised after being sent off for a deliberate foul in Manchester United's World Club Championship match against Necaxa. It was suggested in the press that his wife was a bad influence on him, and that it might be in United's interests to sell him, but his manager publicly backed him, and he stayed at the club. During the 1999–2000 season, there was a talk of a transfer to Juventus in Italy, but this never happened. Beckham helped United retain the Premier League title in 1999–2000 by an 18-point margin, after being pushed by Arsenal and Leeds United for much of the season. United won their final 11 league games of the season, with Beckham scoring five goals during this run, with his last goal coming from a swerving shot from the edge of the penalty area in their final home game against Tottenham Hotspur. 2000–2001: Troubled relationship with Ferguson By the early-2000s, the relationship between Ferguson and Beckham had begun to deteriorate, possibly as a result of Beckham's fame and commitments away from football. In 2000, Beckham was given permission to miss training to look after his son Brooklyn, who had gastroenteritis, but Ferguson was furious when Victoria Beckham was photographed at a London Fashion Week event on the same night, claiming that Beckham would have been able to train if Victoria had looked after Brooklyn that day. He responded by fining Beckham the maximum amount that was permitted (two weeks' wages – then £50,000) and dropping him for a crucial match against United's rivals Leeds United. He later criticised Beckham for this in his autobiography, claiming he had not been "fair to his teammates" Beckham had a good season for his club, though, and helped United to win the Premier League by a record margin. He was a key player in United's third successive league title in 2000–01, only the fourth time that any club had achieved three league titles in a row. He scored nine Premier League goals, and had the most assists in the league with 12.2001–2002: Contract extensionOn 10 April 2002, Beckham was injured during a Champions League match against Deportivo de La Coruña, breaking the second metatarsal bone in his left foot. There was speculation in the British media that the injury might have been caused deliberately, as the player who had injured Beckham was Argentine Aldo Duscher, and England and Argentina were due to meet in that year's World Cup. The injury prevented Beckham from playing for United for the rest of the season and they missed out on the Premier League title to Arsenal (also being knocked out of the Champions League by Bayer Leverkusen), but he signed a three-year contract in May, following months of negotiations with the club, mostly concerning extra payments for his image rights. The income from his new contract, and his many endorsement deals, made him the highest-paid player in the world at the time. Despite the season being curtailed with injury, 2001–02 was one of Beckham's best seasons as a United player; he scored 16 goals in all competitions, the best of his career. The incident led to a great deal of transfer speculation involving Beckham, with bookmakers offering odds on whether he or Ferguson would be first to leave the club. Although the team had started the season badly, their results improved greatly from December onwards and they won the league, with Beckham managing a total of eleven goals. He was still a first-choice player for England, however, and in the Queen's Birthday Honours List he was appointed an OBE for services to football on 13 June 2003. He also made 81 Champions league appearances, scoring 15 goals. Beckham won six Premier League titles, two FA Cups, two FA Charity Shields, one European Cup, one Intercontinental Cup and one FA Youth Cup in the space of twelve years.}} As the summer 2003 transfer window approached, Manchester United appeared keen to sell Beckham to Barcelona and the two clubs even announced that they reached a deal for Beckham's transfer, but instead he joined reigning Spanish champions Real Madrid for on a four-year contract. Beckham was the latest signing in the Galácticos era of global stars signed by club president Florentino Pérez every summer. The news came as a bitter blow to the newly elected Barcelona president Joan Laporta, who based much of his presidential campaign on signing Beckham. The transfer to Real Madrid was announced in mid-June and formally completed on 1 July 2003, making Beckham the third Englishman to play for the club, after Laurie Cunningham and Steve McManaman, the latter of whom he succeeded in his position. Following a successful medical on 2 July, Beckham was unveiled in front of 500 accredited journalists from 25 countries at the club's basketball facility, where he was handed the famous white shirt by former Real Madrid player Alfredo Di Stéfano. Although Beckham had worn the number seven shirt for Manchester United and England, he was unable to wear it at Madrid as it was assigned to club captain Raúl. Beckham decided to wear number 23 instead, citing his admiration of basketball player Michael Jordan, who also wore number 23. On sales of Beckham-related merchandise following his arrival at Real, an Adidas spokesman stated: "Put Beckham's name on any product and Real Madrid didn't stop selling". Shortly after his transfer to Real, Beckham ended his relationship with agent Tony Stephens of SFX Europe, who had guided him through his career until that point, including helping to engineer Beckham's move from Manchester to Madrid. Beckham signed on with Simon Fuller and his company 19 Entertainment, which already managed the career of Victoria. Beckham appointed close friend Terry Byrne to be his personal manager. In late-August 2003, Real Madrid won the Spanish Super Cup over two legs versus Mallorca, with Beckham scoring the final goal in a 3–0 return leg win at home, thus setting the stage for the start of the league season. Playing in a star-laden team which included three former FIFA World Player of the Year recipients, Zinedine Zidane, Ronaldo and Luís Figo, in addition to Roberto Carlos, Raúl and Iker Casillas, Beckham did not require much time to settle in, scoring five times in his first 16 matches (including a goal less than three minutes into his La Liga debut). Queiroz mostly favoured the adaptable 5–3–2 formation, with two fullbacks Míchel Salgado and Roberto Carlos, often joining the attack down the wings, while Beckham played on the right of the three-man midfield, alongside Zidane and Figo. Real Madrid were runners-up in the Copa del Rey, were knocked out of the UEFA Champions League at the quarter-final stage and finished the league season in fourth place, meaning the team, whose president Pérez expected them to win either the Spanish league or the Champions League each season, did not match expectations. In July 2004, while Beckham was in pre-season training in Spain, an intruder scaled a wall at the Beckham home while carrying a can of petrol. Victoria and their children were home at the time, but security guards apprehended the man before he reached the house.2004–2005: Managerial changesThe league season began with new head coach José Antonio Camacho at the helm, but he ended up lasting only three matches, handing in his resignation as Real dropped to eighth spot in the La Liga standings. Camacho's assistant Mariano García Remón took over on temporary basis as Real's leadership scrambled to find a permanent replacement. Beckham made more headlines on 9 October 2004 when he admitted intentionally fouling Ben Thatcher in an England match against Wales to get himself booked. Beckham was due to receive a one-match suspension for his next caution, and had picked up an injury which he knew would keep him out of England's next match, so he deliberately fouled Thatcher to serve his suspension in a match that he would have had to miss anyway. The Football Association asked Beckham for an explanation of his actions and he admitted that he had "made a mistake" and apologised. He was sent off shortly afterwards, this time in a league match for Real Madrid against Valencia. Having received a yellow card, he was judged to have sarcastically applauded the referee and was given a second yellow card, causing an automatic dismissal, although the suspension was cancelled on appeal. By Christmas 2004, with the team sitting in second position in the league, García Remón was dismissed, and Vanderlei Luxemburgo became the new head coach. However, the well-travelled Brazilian failed to inspire the team to the title as Real again finished the season in second position. On 3 December 2005, Beckham was sent off for the third time that season in a league match against Getafe. A day later Luxemburgo was sacked and was replaced by Juan Ramón López Caro. By the end of that season, Beckham was third in La Liga in number of assists.2005–2006: Outpaced by BarcelonaDuring the season, Beckham established football academies in Los Angeles and east London and was named a judge for the 2006 British Book Awards. Real Madrid finished second to Barcelona in the 2005–06 La Liga, albeit with a large twelve-point gap, and only reached the last 16 in the Champions League after losing to Arsenal. Pérez resigned his post as president in January 2006, with Vicente Boluda named as replacement on an interim basis until the end of the season.2006–2007: Real Madrid exitThe summer 2006 off-season marked a turbulent time as the club's presidential elections were held. Ramón Calderón became the new Real president. As expected, none of the club officials who served under the previous president was kept, including head coach López Caro. Initially out of favour with newly arrived head coach Fabio Capello, Beckham started only a few games at the beginning of the season, as the speedier José Antonio Reyes was normally preferred on the right wing. Of the first nine matches Beckham started, Real lost seven. On 10 January 2007, after prolonged contractual negotiations, Real Madrid's sporting director Predrag Mijatović announced that Beckham would not remain at Real Madrid after the end of the season. However, he later claimed that he was mistranslated and that he actually said that Beckham's contract had not yet been renewed. On 11 January 2007, Beckham announced that he had signed a five-year deal to play for the LA Galaxy, beginning 1 July 2007. On 13 January 2007, Fabio Capello said that Beckham had played his last game for Real Madrid, although he continued to train with the team. A few days later, while speaking to the students at Villanueva University Center in Madrid, Calderón said that Beckham is "going to Hollywood to be half a film star", adding "our technical staff were right not to extend his contract, which has been proved by the fact that no other technical staff in the world wanted him except Los Angeles". About a month later, however, Capello backtracked on his earlier statement, allowing Beckham to rejoin the team for the match against Real Sociedad on 10 February 2007. The player immediately repaid his head coach's trust by scoring the equalising goal from a free kick, as Real Madrid eventually recorded a 2–1 victory. In his final UEFA Champions League appearance for the club, Real Madrid were knocked out of the competition by Bayern Munich at the round-of-16 stage (on the away goals rule) on 7 March 2007. Beckham played a pivotal role in all three Madrid goals in the home game, with Bayern goalkeeper Oliver Kahn describing his performance as "world class". On 17 June 2007, the last day of the La Liga season, Beckham started in his final match for the club, a 3–1 win over Mallorca which saw them clinch the title from Barcelona. With Real down 0–1, Beckham limped off the field and was replaced by José Antonio Reyes, who scored two goals, leading the team to that season's La Liga title, their first since Beckham had signed with them and 30th overall in the club's history. Although Real and Barçelona both finished level on points, Madrid took the title because of their superior head-to-head record, capping a remarkable six-month turnaround for Beckham. Towards the end of the season, as Beckham was getting back into Capello's good books after successfully fighting his way back into the first team, Real Madrid announced they would try to untie his transfer to LA Galaxy, but were ultimately unsuccessful. Several weeks before Beckham's scheduled arrival in the United States, Real's management contacted LA Galaxy's ownership group about reacquiring the player, but were quickly turned down. A month after the conclusion of Beckham's Real career, Forbes magazine reported that he had been the party primarily responsible for the team's huge increase in merchandise sales, a total reported to top during Beckham's four years at the club.LA Galaxy2007: First season in MLS Beckham's involvement with Major League Soccer (MLS) began while he was still a Real Madrid player when it was confirmed on 11 January 2007 that he would be leaving Madrid in six months to join MLS side LA Galaxy. The speculation about his new contract in Madrid was thus put to an end and the following day Beckham's official press conference was held in conjunction with the 2007 MLS SuperDraft. The announcement made global headlines and elevated the league's profile. Though many worldwide media outlets reported the deal to be worth , the astronomical figure was soon revealed to be a PR stunt engineered by Beckham's media handlers (British representative agency 19 Entertainment). To maximise the media effect, in the press release they decided to list the potential sum that Beckham could make over the five-year period from all his revenue sources, which in addition to his Galaxy pay, also include his personal endorsements. Beckham's actual deal with the Galaxy was a five-year contract worth in total or per year. The high-profile acquisition paid immediate financial dividends for Galaxy long before Beckham joined the team. On the strength of the signing and the media frenzy it created, the club was able to pull off a new five-year shirt sponsorship deal with the Herbalife nutrition company worth . The gate revenue peaked as well with 11,000 new season tickets holders and sold-out luxury suites (each one of the 42 inside the team's home stadium, the Home Depot Center). LA Galaxy owners Anschutz Entertainment Group (AEG) also reported an immediate spike in business. Involved on many business fronts worldwide, AEG was already leveraging its Beckham association in places such as Shanghai and Beijing, where the company had been working aggressively for years to receive clearance to build arenas and stadiums. The company's CEO Tim Leiweke put it as follows: "Suddenly, we're known as the company that owns the team that David Beckham is going to play for, so our world changed". In the months following the announcement, the additional terms of Beckham's contract became public knowledge. One unique contract provision was giving him the option of buying an MLS expansion franchise in any market except New York City at the fixed price of whenever he stopped playing in the league – an allowance that the league's owners had never given to a player before. Another provision was the opt-out clause after the 2009 season, meaning that should he decide so, Beckham was free to leave the club after completing year three of his five-year contract. Beckham's contract with LA Galaxy took effect on 11 July, and on 13 July, he was officially unveiled as a Galaxy player at the Home Depot Center, to much fanfare and world media interest, in front of more than 5,000 gathered fans and some 700 accredited media members. Beckham chose to wear number 23. It was announced that Galaxy jersey sales had already reached a record figure of over 250,000 prior to this formal introduction. In parallel, Beckham's handlers at 19 Entertainment succeeded in putting together an unprecedented US media rollout designed to expand his carefully crafted personal brand in America. He made the cover of Sports Illustrated, a few weeks earlier Adidas launched the extensive 13-part ad campaign "Fútbol meets Football" starring Beckham and NFL running back Reggie Bush, and W magazine published a racy photo spread featuring David and wife Victoria photographed by Steven Klein. Meanwhile, ESPN sports network was running a promotional campaign and agreed to air the David Beckham: New Beginnings documentary produced by 19 Entertainment before the friendly match versus Chelsea, which was expected to be Beckham's American debut. In addition to popularising soccer, Beckham's arrival was used as platform for entertainment industry endeavours. Since both Beckham's and his wife's often overlapping careers were handled by 19 Entertainment, which is owned by Simon Fuller, who in turn has a business relationship with the Creative Artists Agency (CAA), one of Hollywood's most powerful talent agencies, it was important for CAA that the Beckhams made as big an impact as possible upon their arrival in the US. On 16 July, CAA had hosted a welcoming bash for David at its new eight-storey, headquarters in Century City, with CAA employees reportedly instructed beforehand to line the staircase and clap for Beckham upon his arrival. That night Victoria's reality show prime-time special Victoria Beckham: Coming to America aired on NBC, drawing negative reviews in the press and poor viewership ratings. On Saturday afternoon, 21 July, despite still nursing the injured left ankle that he picked up a month earlier during the final match of La Liga's season, Beckham made his Galaxy debut, coming on for Alan Gordon in the 78th minute of a 0–1 friendly loss to Chelsea as part of the World Series of Soccer. With a capacity crowd, along with a long Hollywood celebrity list featuring Tom Cruise, Katie Holmes, Eva Longoria, Governor of California Arnold Schwarzenegger and Drew Carey among others, present at the Home Depot Center, the match was broadcast live on ESPN's main network. However, the proceedings on the field of play took a back seat to the Beckham spectacle, and despite the presence of worldwide football stars such as Andriy Shevchenko, Didier Drogba, Michael Ballack and Frank Lampard, the US television cameras were firmly focused on Beckham, who spent most of the match on the bench. The match's added time featured a scare for already injured Beckham when he got tackled by Steve Sidwell, whose cleats struck Beckham's right foot, sending him airborne before he crumpled hard to the ground. Though the existing injury was not aggravated too much, Beckham's recovery process was set back by about a week. ESPN's presentation of Beckham's debut earned a 1.0 TV rating, meaning it was seen in an average of 947,000 television homes in the US – a disappointing figure given the national media buzz and two weeks of constant promotion by ESPN. Beckham missed the next four LA Galaxy matches – three in the North American SuperLiga and an MLS game away at Toronto FC - though he still made the trip with his teammates, sitting on the bench in street clothes. It was in Toronto on 5 August that the team got its first taste of what life would be like on the road with Beckham on the roster. Due to security concerns, it was the first time the team flew on a charter for a road match, rather than flying commercial; MLS normally forbids charter flights for away matches, claiming they provide competitive advantage, but in this case they made an exception due to the frenzy created around Beckham and resulting security issues. Instead of the usual MLS-mandated modest hotels, LA Galaxy stayed at the five-star Le Méridien King Edward in downtown Toronto (an expense paid for by the local Toronto promoter), while the glitz and glamour continued with the velvet rope, red carpet party at the Ultra Supper Club with Beckham as the centerpiece guest. Two weeks after his twelve-minute appearance against Chelsea, Beckham made his league debut as a substitute on 9 August away versus D.C. United in front of the sellout crowd of 46,686 (nearly three times the average D.C. United home crowd) at the RFK Stadium, coming on for Quavas Kirk in the 71st minute. Coming into the nationally televised match on ESPN, played under a heavy downpour with his team down a man and down a goal, Beckham left a mark during the remaining 20-plus minutes. He hit a long free kick that Carlos Pavón failed to finish on for the equaliser, and then in the final minutes Beckham served a weighted through ball into Landon Donovan's path that United's keeper Troy Perkins managed to break up in the last moment – the Galaxy lost 1–0. The next match on the road trip was at New England Revolution and Beckham decided to sit it out, fearing further aggravating his ankle injury on the Gillette Stadium's artificial surface. Beckham returned to the pitch the following week, again facing D.C. United, in the SuperLiga semi-final on 15 August. During this game, he had many firsts with the Galaxy; his first start, first yellow card and first game as team captain. He scored his first goal for the team, from a free kick, and also made his first assist, for Landon Donovan in the second half. These goals gave the team a 2–0 victory, and a place in the North American SuperLiga final versus Pachuca on 29 August. During the SuperLiga final against Pachuca, Beckham injured his right knee, with an MRI scan revealing that he had sprained his medial collateral ligament and would be out for six weeks. He returned to play in the final home match of the season. The Galaxy were eliminated from playoff contention on 21 October, in the final MLS match of the season, a 1–0 loss to the Chicago Fire. Beckham played as a substitute in the match, bringing his season totals to eight matches played (5 league); one goal scored (0 league); and three assists (2 league). 2008 Beckham trained with Arsenal from 4 January 2008 for three weeks, until he returned to the Galaxy for pre-season training. Beckham scored his first league goal with the Galaxy on 3 April, against the San Jose Earthquakes in the ninth minute. On 24 May 2008, the Galaxy defeated the Kansas City Wizards 3–1, giving the Galaxy their first winning record in two years and moving the club into first place in the Western Conference. In the match, Beckham scored an empty-net goal from out. The goal marked the second time in Beckham's career that he had scored from his own half, the other being a 1996-goal from the half-way line against Wimbledon at Selhurst Park. Overall, however, the Galaxy had a disappointing year, failing to qualify for the end-of-season play-offs.2009: Loan to AC Milan in 2009]] In 2008, Beckham's success in the England national team under Fabio Capello led to speculation that he might return to Europe to retain match fitness for the World Cup qualifying matches in 2009. On 30 October 2008, AC Milan announced that Beckham was to join them on loan from 7 January 2009. Despite this and other speculation, Beckham made it clear that the move in no way signalled his intent to leave MLS and announced his intent to return to the Galaxy in time for the start of the 2009 season in March. Many at Milan both within and outside of the club expressed serious reservations about the transfer, with it considered by some players no more than a marketing move. Beckham was unveiled at Milan's training facility by the club's chief executive Adriano Galliani on 20 December 2008. The player chose the number 32 shirt previously worn by Christian Vieri, as both the number 7 and 23 shirts were already used by Alexandre Pato and club vice captain Massimo Ambrosini, respectively. The day after his unveiling, Beckham was brought to the San Siro, where he was introduced to the home fans by walking out on the pitch before the league match versus Udinese and proclaiming "Forza Milan" over the public address system. Afterwards, he and wife Victoria watched from a luxury box as Milan won 5–1. Playing on the squad led by the 26-year-old superstar Kaká, in addition to several other world-class players at or near the peak of their careers – such as 28-year-old Ronaldinho and 29-year-old Andrea Pirlo – as well as club veterans Paolo Maldini, Clarence Seedorf, Massimo Ambrosini, Giuseppe Favalli, Gianluca Zambrotta, Filippo Inzaghi and Andriy Shevchenko, Beckham made his competitive debut for the rossoneri in Serie A as a starter away at Roma on 11 January 2009, playing 89 minutes of the 2–2 draw in front of 53,444 at the Stadio Olimpico. Playing his first competitive match in almost three months, Beckham gave a decent performance in right midfield alongside Pirlo. Though lacking match fitness and occasionally struggling to keep up in a high-tempo match, Beckham put in enough useful crosses and corners to justify the coach Carlo Ancelotti's decision to play him from the start. In Beckham's home debut against Fiorentina a week later, he turned in another understated performance on the right side of midfield before advancing into a more active central role in the second half, thus effectively taking over Seedorf's role after the Dutchman was subbed off. Milan won 1–0 courtesy of Pato, but the 65,000+ San Siro crowd mostly focused on Kaká, imploring him to stay. A noticeably older team, the Ancelotti-coached Milan was proving a good fit for the 33-year-old Englishman. He scored his first goal in Serie A for Milan in a 4–1 victory over Bologna on 25 January, his third appearance for the club. Though Beckham was expected to return to Los Angeles in March, after impressing at the Italian club, scoring two goals in his first four matches and assisting on several more, rumours began to swirl that Beckham would stay in Milan, with the Italian club reportedly offering to pay a multi-million-dollar fee. The rumours were confirmed on 4 February, when Beckham stated that he was seeking a permanent transfer to Milan, in a bid to sustain his England career through the 2010 World Cup. Milan, however, failed to match Galaxy's valuation of Beckham, in the range. Still, negotiations continued during a month of speculation. On 2 March, the Los Angeles Times reported that Beckham's loan had been extended through mid-July. This was later confirmed by Beckham, revealing what was described as a unique "timeshare" deal, in which Beckham would play with LA from mid-July until the end of the 2009 MLS season.2009: Return to GalaxyAfter his return from Milan, many LA fans showed dislike and anger towards him as he missed the first half of the season, and several held up signs saying "Go home fraud", and "Part-time player". The Galaxy, however, had a much more successful season than in previous years, rising from third to first in the Western Conference during Beckham's time with them. He remained a key part of the squad which saw Galaxy win the 2009 Western Conference final after a 2–0 overtime victory over the Houston Dynamo. In the MLS Cup final on 22 November 2009, the Galaxy lost to Real Salt Lake by 5–4 in a penalty shoot-out after a 1–1 draw. Beckham scored in the shootout. 2010: Second loan to Milan In November 2009, after the end of 2009 MLS season, it was confirmed that Beckham would return to Milan for a second loan period, beginning in January 2010. On 6 January 2010, Beckham made a winning return in a Milan shirt, playing 75 minutes of a 5–2 victory over Genoa. On 16 February 2010, Beckham played against Manchester United for the first time since he left the club in 2003. He played 76 minutes of the match at the San Siro – which ended 3–2 to Manchester United – before being substituted for Clarence Seedorf. Beckham returned to Old Trafford for the second leg of the tie on 10 March 2010; he did not start the match, but was brought on for Ignazio Abate in the 64th minute to a positive reception from the Manchester United fans. The score was 3–0 for United at that point and the tie was all but decided. The match was the first time Beckham had played against Manchester United at Old Trafford, and saw him create several scoring opportunities via crosses and corner kicks, but Manchester United dominated Milan and beat them 4–0, winning the tie 7–2. Following the final whistle, he aroused a bit of controversy by draping the green-and-gold scarf around his neck that was given to him by the Manchester United supporters protesting against club owner Malcolm Glazer. As the fan protests against Glazer by the people gathered around Manchester United Supporters' Trust gained steam in 2010, the green-and-gold scarf had come to be seen as an anti-Glazer symbol, and by extension many saw Beckham's decision to publicly put it on as gesture of support. When asked about it later, however, Beckham responded that protests are not his business. In Milan's next game, against Chievo, Beckham suffered a torn left Achilles tendon, causing him to miss the World Cup as well as the MLS season due to the injury, which took him out of action for the next five months. Doctor Sakari Orava performed surgery on Beckham's tendon in Turku, Finland, on 15 March 2010. After the operation, Orava confirmed: "it went quite fine. The prognosis is he needs a rehabilitation for the next few months, and the plaster cast is the next six to eight weeks. I would say that [it will be] maybe four months before he's running, but six months before he's jumping and kicking." 2010: Second return to Galaxy On 11 September 2010, after recovering from his Achilles tendon injury, Beckham returned to the game as a substitute in the 70th minute in the Galaxy's 3–1 win over Columbus Crew. On 4 October, Beckham scored a trademark free kick in a 2–1 win over Chivas USA to mark his first goal in 2010. On 24 October, Beckham scored his second goal of the season in the Galaxy's 2–1 win over FC Dallas which secured them their second successive Western Conference title and first MLS Supporters' Shield since 2002. 2011: MLS Cup champion During January and February 2011, ahead of the 2011 MLS season, Beckham trained with Tottenham Hotspur. Rumours in the media claimed that the club were in talks with the Galaxy to sign the player on loan, but, according to Spurs manager Harry Redknapp, the move was blocked by Galaxy, who wanted a full final season from their number 23. As a result, he ended up only training with the club as he had done with Arsenal three years earlier. With Beckham playing in the centre of midfield, the Galaxy won the 2011 MLS cup. On 9 July, Beckham scored directly from a corner in a 2–1 win over Chicago Fire, repeating a feat he achieved while playing for Preston North End. After having his best season with the Galaxy to date, and finishing second in the league in assists, Beckham finished his fifth MLS season on a high. On 20 November 2011, he joined an elite group of players to have won league titles in three countries, when Los Angeles won their third MLS Cup against the Houston Dynamo, winning 1–0 on a goal by captain Landon Donovan, with assists from Beckham and fellow designated player Robbie Keane.2012: Second successive cup victoryFollowing the 2011 season, in which the Galaxy won their second consecutive Supporters' Shield, having the second most points in MLS history, Beckham's five-year contract with the Galaxy expired on 31 December 2011. Despite being 36, he stated that he did not intend to retire. Beckham was heavily linked with Paris Saint-Germain, but on 18 January 2012, Galaxy announced Beckham had signed a new two-year contract to remain in Los Angeles. In May 2012, Beckham and his victorious teammates were received by President of the United States Barack Obama at the White House. Beckham helped the Galaxy to a fourth-place finish in the Western Conference during the 2012 regular season, with Beckham scoring seven goals and adding nine assists. The Galaxy defeated Vancouver Whitecaps FC, the San Jose Earthquakes and Seattle Sounders FC on their way to the MLS Cup final, where they defeated the Houston Dynamo 3–1 to retain the cup. He was subbed off in the 89th minute for Marcelo Sarvas, and was given a standing ovation at their home venue. Beckham had earlier announced that the 2012 MLS Cup Final would be his final game with the Galaxy, despite having another year remaining on his contract. Paris Saint-Germain On 31 January 2013, ahead of the transfer deadline it was announced that Beckham would be undergoing a medical with Paris Saint-Germain, ahead of a potential move to the Ligue 1 side. Beckham signed a five-month deal with the club later that afternoon, and confirmed that his entire salary during his time in Paris would be donated to a local children's charity. His PSG debut came on 24 February 2013, when he came off the bench in the 76th minute in a Ligue 1 home match against Marseille. This made him the 400th player in the history of the club. On 12 May 2013, Beckham won a fourth different top flight winners' medal, after PSG beat Lyon 1–0 to claim the Ligue 1 title. On 16 May 2013, Beckham announced that he would retire from professional football at the end of that year's French football season. Following his decision to retire at the end of the 2012–13 season, Beckham was given specially designed boots in the colours of the Union Jack to wear in his final game. These boots had the names of his wife and children stitched on them. On 18 May 2013, Beckham was made captain in his final home game against Brest. PSG went on to win the game 3–1.]] On 1 September 1996, Beckham made his first appearance for England on 1 in a FIFA World Cup qualifying match against Moldova. In June 1997, he participated in the Tournoi de France, the friendly international football tournament held in France as a warm-up to the 1998 FIFA World Cup. 1998 FIFA World Cup Beckham played in all of England's qualifying matches for the 1998 FIFA World Cup and was part of the 23-man squad for the finals in France, but the team's manager Glenn Hoddle publicly accused him of not concentrating on the tournament, and he did not start in either of England's first two games. He was picked for the third game against Colombia and scored with a bending free kick in a 2–0 victory, which was his first goal for England. In the second round (last 16) of that competition, he received a red card in England's match against Argentina. Beckham, after having been fouled by Diego Simeone, kicked Simeone while lying on the ground, striking him on the calf. Simeone later admitted to trying to get Beckham sent off by over-reacting to the kick and then, along with other members of his team, urging the referee to send Beckham off. The match finished in a draw, and England were eliminated in a penalty shootout. Many supporters and journalists blamed Beckham for England's elimination and he became the target of criticism and abuse, including the hanging of an effigy outside a London pub, and the Daily Mirror printing a dartboard of him. He received death threats after the World Cup.Euro 2000 and England captaincyThe abuse that Beckham was receiving from English supporters peaked during England's 3–2 defeat by Portugal in Euro 2000, a match where Beckham set up two goals, when a group of England supporters taunted him throughout the match. Beckham responded by raising his middle finger and, while the gesture attracted some criticism, many of the newspapers that had previously encouraged his vilification asked their readers to stop abusing him. curling free-kick against Greece in the 2002 World Cup qualifying game in October 2001.}} On 15 November 2000, following Kevin Keegan's resignation as England manager in October, Beckham was promoted to team captain by the caretaker manager Peter Taylor, and then kept the role under new manager Sven-Göran Eriksson. The final step in Beckham's conversion from villain to national hero happened in England's final qualifying game against Greece on 6 October 2001. England needed to win or draw the match to qualify outright for the World Cup, but were losing 2–1 with little time remaining. When Teddy Sheringham was fouled outside the Greek penalty area, England were awarded a free-kick and Beckham ensured England's qualification with a curling strike of the kind that had become his trademark. 2002 FIFA World Cup and Euro 2004 at the 2002 World Cup]] Beckham was partially fit by the time of the 2002 World Cup held in Japan and South Korea, and played in the first match against Sweden. After the events of four years earlier, Beckham achieved a degree of revenge over Argentina by scoring the winning goal with a penalty. England defeated Denmark in the second round with Beckham providing an assist in a 3–0 win. England were knocked out in the quarter-finals by eventual winners Brazil after Ronaldinho scored the winner; following the match, Beckham was criticised in the media for jumping over a tackle late in the first half, which led to Brazil's equaliser. The following month, at the opening ceremony of the 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester, Beckham escorted Kirsty Howard as she presented the Jubilee Baton to the Queen. Beckham played in all of England's matches at Euro 2004. He had a penalty saved in England's opening 2–1 defeat to France and missed another in a penalty shootout in the quarter-final match against hosts Portugal, following a 2–2 draw. In October 2005, Beckham's sending off against Austria made him the first England captain to be sent off and the first player to be sent off twice while playing for England. He captained England for the 50th time in a friendly international against Argentina the following month. In England's next match, played against Trinidad and Tobago on 15 June 2006, Beckham's cross in the 83rd minute led to a Peter Crouch goal, which put England into the lead 1–0. Beckham gave another assist to Steven Gerrard. In the end they won 2–0. He was named Man of the Match by tournament sponsor Budweiser. During England's second round match against Ecuador, Beckham scored from a free kick in the 59th minute, becoming the first English player to score in three separate World Cups, and giving England a 1–0 victory and a place in the quarter-finals. He was sick before the game and vomited several times as a result of dehydration and illness that he got after having scored the winning goal for England. After his substitution, Beckham was visibly shaken and emotional for not being able to play, being in tears at one point. A day after England were knocked out of the World Cup, an emotional Beckham made a statement in a news conference that he had stepped down as England captain, stating: "It has been an honour and privilege to captain my country but, having been captain for 58 of my 95 games, I feel the time is right to pass on the armband as we enter a new era under Steve McClaren." (Beckham had won 94 caps up to that point.) He was succeeded by Chelsea captain John Terry. Having stepped down as captain after the World Cup, Beckham was dropped completely from the England national team selected by new coach Steve McClaren on 11 August 2006. McClaren said that he was "looking to go in a different direction" with the team, and that Beckham "wasn't included within that". McClaren said Beckham could be recalled in future. Shaun Wright-Phillips, Kieran Richardson and the World Cup alternative to Beckham, Aaron Lennon, were all included, although McClaren eventually opted to employ Steven Gerrard in that role. Post-2006 World Cup from which John Terry scored.]] On 26 May 2007, McClaren announced that Beckham would be recalled to the England squad for the first time since stepping down as their captain. Beckham started against Brazil in England's first match at the new Wembley Stadium and put in a positive performance. In the second half, he set up England's goal converted by captain John Terry. It looked as though England would claim victory over Brazil, but newcomer Diego equalised in the dying seconds. In England's next match, a Euro 2008 qualifier against Estonia, Beckham sent two trademark assists for Michael Owen and Peter Crouch, helping England to prevail 3–0. Beckham had assisted in three of England's four total goals in those two games, and he stated his desire to continue to play for England after his move to Major League Soccer. On 22 August 2007, Beckham played in a friendly for England against Germany, becoming the first to play for England while with a non-European club team. On 21 November 2007, Beckham earned his 99th cap against Croatia, setting up a goal for Peter Crouch to tie the game at 2–2. Following the 2–3 loss, England failed to qualify for the Euro 2008 Finals. Despite this, Beckham said that he had no plans to retire from international football and wanted to continue playing for the national team. After being passed over by new England coach and Beckham's former manager at Real Madrid, Fabio Capello, for a friendly against Switzerland which would have given him his hundredth cap; Beckham admitted that he was not in shape at the time, as he had not played a competitive match in three months.100 England caps, final appearanceOn 20 March 2008, Beckham was recalled to the England squad by Capello for the friendly against France in Paris on 26 March. Beckham became only the fifth Englishman to win 100 caps. Capello had hinted on 25 March 2008 that Beckham had a long-term future in his side, ahead of crucial qualifiers for the 2010 World Cup. On 11 May 2008, Capello included an in-form Beckham in his 31-man England squad to face the United States at Wembley on 28 May before the away fixture with Trinidad and Tobago on 1 June. Beckham – who wore a pair of golden boots to mark the occasion – was honoured before the match by receiving an honorary gold cap representing his 100th cap from Bobby Charlton, and was given a standing ovation from the crowd. He played well and assisted John Terry on the match-winning goal. When substituted at half-time for David Bentley, the pro-Beckham crowd booed the decision. In a surprise move, Capello handed Beckham the captaincy for England's friendly against Trinidad and Tobago on 1 June 2008. The match was the first time since the 2006 World Cup that Beckham had skippered England and marked a dramatic turnaround for Beckham. In two years, he had gone from being dropped completely from the England squad to being reinstated (though temporarily) as England captain. During the 2010 World Cup Qualifier against Belarus, which England won 3–1 in Minsk, Beckham came off the bench in the 87th minute to earn his 107th cap making him England's third-most-capped player in history, overtaking Bobby Charlton in the process. On 11 February 2009, Beckham drew level with Bobby Moore's record of 108 caps for an English outfield player, coming on as a substitute for Stewart Downing in a friendly match against Spain. On 28 March 2009, Beckham surpassed Moore to hold the record outright when he came on as a substitute in a friendly against Slovakia, providing the assist for a goal from Wayne Rooney in the process. Overall, Beckham had made 16 appearances out of a possible 20 for England under Capello until his ruptured Achilles tendon of March 2010 ruled him out of selection for the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa. Beckham remained ten caps short of the record number of 125 caps by goalkeeper Peter Shilton, for a player of any position. He was not included in the final selection by manager Stuart Pearce, while Andy Hunt, the head the British Olympic Association, contacted Beckham's representatives for him to be related to Team GB more broadly.Player profileStyle of playThroughout his career, Beckham was considered one of the best and most recognisable players of his generation, as well as one of the greatest free-kick exponents of all time. As of September 2023, Beckham ranks joint-5th all time (alongside Lionel Messi) in goals scored from direct free kicks with 65. Beckham has been rated by some pundits as one of the greatest wide midfielders of all time. Predominantly right-footed, his range of passing, vision, crossing ability and bending free-kicks enabled him to create chances for teammates or score goals, attributes that saw him excel as a right winger, despite his lack of significant pace. Unlike his Manchester United teammate Ryan Giggs on the opposite wing, Beckham preferred to beat players through his movement and passing, rather than going at opponents directly with the ball. He formed a strong partnership on the right side of the pitch with full-back Gary Neville during his time with the club, due to their understanding, as well as Neville's ability to get forward with his overlapping runs, get on the end of Beckham's passes, and deliver crosses into the box whenever the latter was heavily marked. Although Beckham primarily played on the right flank, he was also used as a central midfielder throughout his career (occasionally with Manchester United, but in particular with Real Madrid and AC Milan), and on rare instances as a deep-lying playmaker, in particular in his later career, to compensate for his physical decline with his advancing age. Beckham felt that his best role was on the right, although he personally preferred playing in the centre. In addition to his passing, crossing, and prowess from set-pieces, Beckham stood out for his stamina and defensive work-rate on the pitch, having played both as an attacking midfielder and as a box-to-box midfielder in his youth; he was occasionally deployed as a wing-back. Moreover, he was also an accurate striker of the ball from distance, as well as being a competent penalty taker. He also drew praise in the media for his ball control and ability to create space for himself on the pitch, as well as his anticipation, composure, determination, athleticism, dedication, and intelligence as a footballer.Approach to training and praise from managers reflected on the dichotomy of Beckham's playing career and his status off the pitch, describing him as "the great paradox of world football", also adding: <blockquote>He is the greatest icon on the planet and the cause of such delirium in the media and on the streets, the greatest catwalk model there is. And yet he has been an anti-diva. He was the most galactic of the galacticos off the pitch, but the greatest of earthlings when he walked on to the field.</blockquote> Regarding Beckham's crossing ability, Rob Smyth of The Guardian said in 2014: "he was a great crosser and perhaps the greatest of all time," also noting that "he was a dead-ball specialist and also a dying-ball specialist: [...] his signature crosses in open play involved a ball that was barely moving, which allowed him to use the same technique as with corners and free-kicks." Nigel Reed of CBC Sports commented on Beckham's career and celebrity status, stating: "His brand is global, his appeal universal. He sparked debate and polarized opinion. But underneath the gloss he was, first and foremost, a very good footballer." He also added that while he felt that "Beckham was not the greatest player of his generation," he believed he had the ability to change games, describing him as "master of his art and a deadly opponent", whose "talent was only topped by his passion." Football-related business activities David Beckham Academy In 2005, Beckham founded the David Beckham Academy football school, operating in London and Los Angeles. It was announced in late 2009 that both would close. Inter Miami On 5 February 2014, MLS announced that Beckham had exercised his option to buy a MLS expansion team for , which he had received as part of the contract he signed with the LA Galaxy in 2007. The team name and crest were revealed on 5 September. Club Internacional de Futbol Miami – more commonly known as, Inter Miami – is represented by a black crest with neon pink trimmings and herons whose legs clasp to form an "M" for Miami. The club made its MLS debut on 1 March 2020 with a 1–0 away loss to Los Angeles.Salford CityIn January 2019, it was announced that Beckham was set to join his Class of '92 teammates as part owner of English non-league club Salford City, taking 10% of the club previously held by Peter Lim, with the deal being subject to Football Association approval. On 31 January, the club announced that the FA had approved him to become a director of the club.Personal life in 2019]] In 1997, Beckham started dating Victoria Adams after she attended a Manchester United match. She was famously known as "Posh Spice" of the pop music group Spice Girls, one of Britain's top pop groups at the time, and his team was also enjoying a great run of success. Their relationship instantly attracted a great deal of media attention. The couple were dubbed "Posh and Becks" by the media. He proposed to her on 24 January 1998 in a restaurant in Cheshunt, England. On 4 July 1999, they married at Luttrellstown Castle in Ireland. Beckham's teammate Gary Neville was the best man, The media were kept away from the ceremony, as the Beckhams had an exclusive deal with OK! Magazine, but newspapers were able to obtain photographs of them sitting on golden thrones. 437 staff were employed for the wedding reception, which was estimated to have cost £500,000. David and Victoria have four children: sons Brooklyn Joseph (born 4 March 1999 in London), Romeo James (born 1 September 2002 in London), Cruz David (born 20 February 2005 in Madrid), and daughter Harper Seven (born 10 July 2011 in Los Angeles). Elton John and David Furnish are reportedly the godparents to Brooklyn and Romeo Beckham; their godmother is Elizabeth Hurley. Cruz and Harper were baptized Catholic at Holy Trinity, Chipping Norton; among their godparents were Eva Longoria and Marc Anthony. Beckham's three sons have all played football in the Arsenal academy. Brooklyn played football for Arsenal U16, Like their father, Brooklyn and Romeo have both done modelling work and been named among GQ's best dressed British men. In his early Manchester United career, Beckham lived in a four-bedroom house in Worsley that he bought directly from the property developer as a 20-year-old in 1995. In 1999, shortly after his wedding, he and Victoria bought a country house set in in Sawbridgeworth, Hertfordshire, which the media nicknamed "Beckingham Palace". They sold the property in 2014. Known by the nickname "Golden Balls", Beckham acquired the name from Victoria, who revealed it on national TV in 2008 while praising him for rebuilding his reputation after the 1998 World Cup. Beckham has obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), which he says makes him "have everything in a straight line or everything has to be in pairs." Victoria claimed: "If you open our fridge, it's all co-ordinated down either side. We've got three fridges – food in one, salad in another and drinks in the third. In the drinks one, everything is symmetrical. If there's three cans, he'll throw one away because it has to be an even number." A staunch monarchist, Beckham queued for 12 hours in September 2022 to see Queen Elizabeth II lying in state at Westminster Hall. <!--Sarah Marbeck redirect points to this section--> In 2004, various newspapers carried claims by Beckham's former personal assistant Rebecca Loos that she and Beckham had engaged in an extramarital affair. A week later, the Malaysian-born Australian model Sarah Marbeck claimed that she had slept with Beckham on two occasions. Beckham dismissed both claims as "ludicrous". A documentary called Beckham was released in 2023 on Netflix, 20 years after the alleged affair with Rebecca Loos took place. In it, Beckham did not deny the affair took place; instead, he stated how hard that general period was on his marriage. David Beckham has been actively involved in beekeeping, animal husbandry and farming since 2020 in the barn they bought in the Cotswolds in 2016.Legal issuesIn September 2010, Beckham announced that he was making a court application against prostitute Irma Nici and several others over claims in the magazine In Touch that he had sex with her. His court application was dismissed under US freedom of speech laws, and the magazine later accepted that the allegations against Beckham were untrue. On 9 May 2019, at Bromley Magistrates Court, Beckham was banned from driving for six months. He previously pleaded guilty to using a mobile phone while driving on 21 November 2018. The court heard he was photographed by a member of the public holding a phone as he drove in "slowly moving" traffic. Beckham received six points on his licence, to add to the six he already had for previous speeding matters. He was also fined £750, and ordered to pay £100 in prosecution costs and a £75 surcharge fee. Tattoos , Beckham has more than 65 tattoos covering a large part of his body, including tattoos on his hands, neck and head. There are names of his sons Romeo, Cruz and Brooklyn, and of his wife Victoria. His wife's name, tattooed on his left forearm, is in the Devanagari script (used for the Hindi and Sanskrit languages, among others) because Beckham thought it would be "tacky" to have it in English. However, this was misspelt as the equivalent of "Vhictoria". In his autobiography David Beckham: My Side, he said that the idea of having tattoos came to him in 1999 after his son Brooklyn was born, following a conversation on the subject of tattoos with Mel B and her then-husband, Jimmy Gulzar. Beckham said: "When you see me, you see the tattoos. You see an expression of how I feel about Victoria and the boys. They're part of me." He has several tattoos that pay tribute to his daughter, Harper, as well as several with religious significance. In 2018, Beckham added to his collection a tattoo of a solar system covering the left side of his scalp. Many of Beckham's tattoos were completed by the Manchester-based tattoo artist Louis Molloy. Leaked emails In 2015, a Portuguese company associated with Beckham's spokesman had their server hacked which contained personal emails from Beckham. Germany's Der Spiegel and France's ''L'Equipe'' published details of the hack, reporting how Beckham was angry at not being granted a knighthood in 2013, and that the Honours Committee was concerned about his tax affairs due to input from UK government department HMRC. Beckham's team stated some of the published emails were doctored, but they confirmed others as genuine. Celebrity status and commercial partnerships , South Africa, in 2009]] Beckham's relationship and marriage to Victoria, famous in her own right as part of the Spice Girls, contributed to his celebrityhood beyond football. Beckham became known as a fashion icon, and together with Victoria, the couple became lucrative spokespeople sought after by clothing designers, health and fitness specialists, fashion magazines, and perfume and cosmetics manufacturers. Early endorsements included the British hair styling brand Brylcreem for £4 million in 1997, which saw him appear in UK commercials. In 2002 he was hailed as the ultimate "metrosexual" by the man who invented the term and has been described as such by numerous other articles since. The various iconic hairstyles he sported throughout his career – including a buzz cut, a Mohawk, and a ponytail – were widely covered in the media. While heterosexual, Beckham actively courted a gay fanbase and openly supported gay media, preferring to give interviews to publications that supported the LGBTQ community. He came to be called a "gay icon" – a term he embraces – for his popularity among the gay community. This honorific has been in dispute, however, since Beckham signed a deal with Qatar (which persecutes LGBT people) to become a brand ambassador for the 2022 FIFA World Cup. In a statement, Beckham said that the World Cup will be "[a platform for] progress, inclusivity and tolerance". The Beckhams were paid in 2007 to launch his fragrance line in the US. In the world of fashion, David has appeared on the covers of many magazines. US covers have included the men's magazine Details, and with Victoria for the August 2007 issue of W. According to Google, "David Beckham" was searched for more than any other sports topic on their site in 2003 and 2004. According to Ask Jeeves, Beckham ranked third among subjects most searched for by British users of that site in the first decade of the 2000s. at the White House, 15 March 2012]] Upon their arrival in Los Angeles on 12 July 2007, the night before Beckham's formal introduction, Los Angeles International Airport was filled with paparazzi and news reporters. On the next night, Victoria appeared on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno to talk about their move to LA and her NBC TV show Victoria Beckham: Coming to America. On 22 July, a private welcoming party was held for the couple at the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles. A-list celebrities attending included Steven Spielberg, Jim Carrey, George Clooney, Tom Cruise, Katie Holmes, Will Smith, Jada Pinkett Smith, and Oprah Winfrey. Beckham's many endorsement deals make him one of the most recognisable athletes throughout the world. Having worn Adidas football boots from the start of his career (notably Adidas Predator), in 2003 he signed a lifetime contract with Adidas, earning nearly half the money upfront, and would continue to earn percentages of profits on all of his branded Adidas products. His 2004 Adidas television commercial "Kicking it", in which he appears with England Rugby World Cup winner Jonny Wilkinson, was voted among the best British commercials of the year, and featured as one of the Great Ads of the 21st Century in Channel 4's 2004 update of The 100 Greatest TV Ads. He had a 10-year collaboration with PepsiCo that expired in 2009. He has also promoted The Walt Disney Company theme parks. In April 2021, he became a global ambassador for Maserati. In 2023, as part of Maserati's new personalisation program, "Fuoriserie Essentials", the brand unveiled its first collection with Beckham. and he was brand ambassador for exercise video game EA Sports Active 2. Beckham featured in EA Sports' FIFA video game series; he was on the cover for the UK edition of FIFA 98. During his playing career (which ended in May 2013), Beckham generated an estimated £1 billion in shirt and boot sales. at the Paris Motor Show 2018]] Beckham played a critical part in bringing the Olympics to London in 2012, travelling with the British delegation to Singapore in 2005 for the host city selection. At the 2008 Beijing Olympics closing ceremony, Beckham, Jimmy Page, and Leona Lewis represented Britain during the handover segment for the 2012 Olympics. Beckham rode a London double-decker bus into the stadium and Page and Lewis performed "Whole Lotta Love". He featured at the 2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony, carrying the Olympic flame to the stadium by speedboat. Beckham visited Afghanistan in May 2010 for a morale-boosting visit to British troops fighting the Taliban insurgency. The appearance of Beckham as well as British Foreign Secretary William Hague and Defence Secretary Liam Fox was believed to have prompted a Taliban attack on Kandahar airfield. Chinese authorities appointed Beckham as global ambassador for Chinese football in March 2013. After numerous officials had been banned for match-fixing, and the Chinese Super League had failed to retain the services of well-known international names, Beckham's role was to help improve the image of the game and raise its profile both in China and abroad. From 14 July 2013, Beckham appeared in adverts for BSkyB, advertising their Sky Sports coverage via the Sky Go app. In January 2014, Beckham appeared on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon on NBC in the U.S., and in March he made a guest appearance in the BBC's Sport Relief special of Only Fools and Horses. He was named one of GQs 50 best dressed British men in 2015. He also has over 80 million Instagram followers, the fifth highest for a footballer, behind Cristiano Ronaldo, Messi, Neymar and Kylian Mbappé, and the second most for a person from the UK, after Dua Lipa. During the 2016 EU referendum, Beckham voiced his opposition to Brexit, stating: "For our children and their children we should be facing the problems of the world together and not alone. For these reasons, I am voting to remain." Beckham was announced as the new Ambassadorial president of the British Fashion Council on 11 May 2018. Prior to the June 2018 vote by FIFA member nations for selecting the hosts of the 2026 FIFA World Cup, Beckham endorsed the North American bid (Canada, Mexico and the United States). Beckham's former club LA Galaxy unveiled a statue of him outside of their stadium in March 2019, the first of its kind in the MLS. In June 2020, Beckham became a minority owner of the London-based esports organisation Guild Esports. In November 2020, EA Sports had an agreement with Beckham to feature him in FIFA 21, in which he would earn £40m from a three-year deal. In June 2021, Beckham bought 10% stake of vehicle electrification firm, Lunaz. In May 2024, during Israel's Rafah offensive in the Gaza Strip, Beckham called for "an immediate ceasefire".PhilanthropyIn 2013, he donated all his £3.4 million salary from Paris Saint-Germain to two children's charities in France. statue – "Golden Paws" – in London, auctioned to raise funds for the NSPCC]] Beckham is a founding member of the Malaria No More UK Leadership Council and helped launch the charity in 2009 with Andy Murray at Wembley Stadium. In November 2014, Beckham designed a Paddington Bear statue, one of fifty created by various celebrities which were located around London prior to the release of the film Paddington. The statues were auctioned to raise funds for the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. Appearances in films Beckham never personally appeared in the 2002 film Bend It Like Beckham, except in archive footage. He and his wife wanted to make cameo appearances, but scheduling proved difficult, so the director used lookalike Andy Harmer instead. Beckham makes a cameo appearance with Zinedine Zidane and Raúl, in the 2005 film Goal!. Harmer doubled for him in the party scene. Beckham himself appears in the sequel, Goal II: Living the Dream, in a larger role, when the film's lead character gets transferred to Real Madrid. The story centres on the Real Madrid team, with other Madrid players also appearing on and off the pitch, alongside the fictional characters. Through the use of stock footage from the 2006 FIFA World Cup, Beckham appeared in Goal III: Taking on the World, released straight to DVD on 15 June 2009. In 2013, British magazine Marketing Week wrote of his "somewhat limited acting skills". and as Trigger in King Arthur: Legend of the Sword. Artist Sam Taylor-Johnson recorded Beckham sleeping in a hotel room in Madrid in January 2004 following a morning's training session with Real Madrid. The film was commissioned by the National Portrait Gallery in London. \|- \| 2023 ! scope"row" \| Beckham \| Himself \| 4 episodes on Netflix \|} Career statistics Club {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" \|+ Appearances and goals by club, season and competition \|- !rowspan="2"\|Club !rowspan="2"\|Season !colspan="3"\|League !colspan="2"\|National cup !colspan="2"\|League cup !colspan="2"\|Continental !colspan="2"\|Other !colspan="2"\|Total \|- !Division!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals \|- \|rowspan"12"\|Manchester United \|1992–93 \|Premier League \|0\|\|0\|\|0\|\|0\|\|1\|\|0\|\|0\|\|0\|\|colspan="2"\|–\|\|1\|\|0 \|- \|1993–94 \|Premier League \|0\|\|0\|\|0\|\|0\|\|0\|\|0\|\|0\|\|0\|\|0\|\|0\|\|0\|\|0 \|- \|1994–95 \|Premier League \|4\|\|0\|\|2\|\|0\|\|3\|\|0\|\|1\|\|1\|\|0\|\|0\|\|10\|\|1 \|- \|1995–96 \|Premier League \|33\|\|7\|\|3\|\|1\|\|2\|\|0\|\|2\|\|0\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|40\|\|8 \|- \|1996–97 \|Premier League \|36\|\|8\|\|2\|\|1\|\|0\|\|0\|\|10\|\|2\|\|1\|\|1\|\|49\|\|12 \|- \|1997–98 \|Premier League \|37\|\|9\|\|4\|\|2\|\|0\|\|0\|\|8\|\|0\|\|1\|\|0\|\|50\|\|11 \|- \|1998–99 \|Premier League \|34\|\|6\|\|7\|\|1\|\|1\|\|0\|\|12\|\|2\|\|1\|\|0\|\|55\|\|9 \|- \|1999–2000 \|Premier League \|31\|\|6\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|0\|\|0\|\|12\|\|2\|\|5\|\|0\|\|48\|\|8 \|- \|2000–01 \|Premier League \|31\|\|9\|\|2\|\|0\|\|0\|\|0\|\|12\|\|0\|\|1\|\|0\|\|46\|\|9 \|- \|2001–02 \|Premier League \|28\|\|11\|\|1\|\|0\|\|0\|\|0\|\|13\|\|5\|\|1\|\|0\|\|43\|\|16 \|- \|2002–03 \|Premier League \|31\|\|6\|\|3\|\|1\|\|5\|\|1\|\|13\|\|3\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|52\|\|11 \|- !colspan="2"\|Total !265!!62!!24!!6!!12!!1!!83!!15!!10!!1!!394!!85 \|- \|Preston North End (loan) \|1994–95 \|Third Division \|5\|\|2\|\|0\|\|0\|\|0\|\|0\|\|colspan="2"\|–\|\|0\|\|0\|\|5\|\|2 \|- \|rowspan="5"\|Real Madrid \|2003–04 \|La Liga \|32\|\|3\|\|4\|\|2\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|7\|\|1\|\|2\|\|1\|\|45\|\|7 \|- \|2004–05 \|La Liga \|30\|\|4\|\|0\|\|0\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|8\|\|0\|\|colspan="2"\|–\|\|38\|\|4 \|- \|2005–06 \|La Liga \|31\|\|3\|\|3\|\|1\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|7\|\|1\|\|colspan="2"\|–\|\|41\|\|5 \|- \|2006–07 \|La Liga \|23\|\|3\|\|2\|\|1\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|6\|\|0\|\|colspan="2"\|–\|\|31\|\|4 \|- !colspan="2"\|Total !116!!13!!9!!4!!colspan="2"\|–!!28!!2!!2!!1!!155!!20 \|- \|rowspan"7"\|LA Galaxy \|2007 \|Major League Soccer \|5\|\|0\|\|0\|\|0\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|2\|\|1\|\|7\|\|1 \|- \|2008 \|Major League Soccer \|25\|\|5\|\|0\|\|0\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|0\|\|0\|\|25\|\|5 \|- \|2009 \|Major League Soccer \|11\|\|2\|\|0\|\|0\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|4\|\|0\|\|15\|\|2 \|- \|2010 \|Major League Soccer \|7\|\|2\|\|0\|\|0\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|3\|\|0\|\|10\|\|2 \|- \|2011 \|Major League Soccer \|26\|\|2\|\|0\|\|0\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|4\|\|0\|\|30\|\|2 \|- \|2012 \|Major League Soccer \|24\|\|7\|\|0\|\|0\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|1\|\|1\|\|6\|\|0\|\|31\|\|8 \|- !colspan="2"\|Total !98!!18!!0!!0!!colspan="2"\|–!!1!!1!!19!!1!!118!!20 \|- \|rowspan=3\|AC Milan (loan) \|2008–09 \|Serie A \|18\|\|2\|\|0\|\|0\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|2\|\|0\|\|colspan="2"\|–\|\|20\|\|2 \|- \|2009–10 \|Serie A \|11\|\|0\|\|0\|\|0\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|2\|\|0\|\|colspan="2"\|–\|\|13\|\|0 \|- !colspan="2"\|Total !29!!2!!0!!0!!colspan"2"\|–!!4!!0!!colspan"2"\|–!!33!!2 \|- \|Paris Saint-Germain \|2012–13 \|Ligue 1 \|10\|\|0\|\|2\|\|0\|\|colspan"2"\|–\|\|2\|\|0\|\|colspan="2"\|–\|\|14\|\|0 \|- !colspan="3"\|Career total !523!!97!!35!!10!!12!!1!!118!!18!!31!!3!!719!!129 \|} International {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" \|+ Appearances and goals by national team and year \|- !National team!!Year!!Apps!!Goals \|- \|rowspan="14"\|England \|1996\|\|3\|\|0 \|- \|1997\|\|9\|\|0 \|- \|1998\|\|8\|\|1 \|- \|1999\|\|7\|\|0 \|- \|2000\|\|10\|\|0 \|- \|2001\|\|10\|\|5 \|- \|2002\|\|9\|\|3 \|- \|2003\|\|9\|\|4 \|- \|2004\|\|12\|\|2 \|- \|2005\|\|9\|\|1 \|- \|2006\|\|8\|\|1 \|- \|2007\|\|5\|\|0 \|- \|2008\|\|8\|\|0 \|- \|2009\|\|8\|\|0 \|- !colspan="2"\|Total!!115!!17 \|} :''Scores and results list England's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Beckham goal''. {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|+ List of international goals scored by David Beckham \|- !scope="col"\|No. !scope="col"\|Date !scope="col"\|Venue !scope="col"\|Cap !scope="col"\|Opponent !scope="col"\|Score !scope="col"\|Result !scope="col"\|Competition \|- \|align="center"\| 1 \| 26 June 1998 \|\| Stade Bollaert-Delelis, Lens, France \|\|align"center"\| 17 \|\| \|\|align"center"\| 2–0 \|\|align="center"\| 2–0 \|\| 1998 FIFA World Cup \|- \|align="center"\| 2 \| 24 March 2001 \|\| Anfield, Liverpool, England \|\|align"center"\| 39 \|\| \|\|align"center"\| 2–1 \|\|align="center"\| 2–1 \|\| 2002 FIFA World Cup qualification \|- \|align="center"\| 3 \| 25 May 2001 \|\| Pride Park, Derby England \|\|align"center"\| 41 \|\| \|\|align"center"\| 3–0 \|\|align="center"\| 4–0 \|\| Friendly \|- \|align="center"\| 4 \| 6 June 2001 \|\| Olympic Stadium, Athens, Greece \|\|align"center"\| 42 \|\| \|\|align"center"\| 2–0 \|\|align="center"\| 2–0 \|\|2002 FIFA World Cup qualification \|- \|align="center"\| 5 \| 6 October 2001 \|\| Old Trafford, Manchester, England \|\|align"center"\| 46 \|\| \|\|align"center"\| 2–2 \|\|align="center"\| 2–2 \|\| 2002 FIFA World Cup qualification \|- \|align="center"\| 6 \| 10 November 2001 \|\| Old Trafford, Manchester, England \|\|align"center"\| 47 \|\| \|\|align"center"\| 1–0 \|\|align="center"\| 1–1 \|\| Friendly \|- \|align="center"\| 7 \| 7 June 2002 \|\| Sapporo Dome, Sapporo, Japan \|\|align"center"\| 51 \|\| \|\|align"center"\| 1–0 \|\|align="center"\| 1–0 \|\| 2002 FIFA World Cup \|- \|align="center"\| 8 \| 12 October 2002 \|\| Tehelné pole, Bratislava, Slovakia \|\|align"center"\| 55 \|\| \|\|align"center"\| 1–1 \|\|align="center"\| 2–1 \|\| UEFA Euro 2004 qualification \|- \|align="center"\| 9 \| 16 October 2002 \|\| St Mary's Stadium, Southampton, England \|\|align"center"\| 56 \|\| \|\|align"center"\| 1–1 \|\|align"center"\| 2–2 \|\| UEFA Euro 2004 qualification \|- \|align="center"\| 10 \| 29 March 2003 \|\| Rheinpark Stadion, Vaduz, Liechtenstein \|\|align"center"\| 58 \|\| \|\|align"center"\| 2–0 \|\|align="center"\| 2–0 \|\| UEFA Euro 2004 qualification \|- \|align="center"\| 11 \| 2 April 2003 \|\| Stadium of Light, Sunderland, England \|\|align"center"\| 59 \|\| \|\|align"center"\| 2–0 \|\|align="center"\| 2–0 \|\| UEFA Euro 2004 qualification \|- \|align="center"\| 12 \| 20 August 2003 \|\| Portman Road, Ipswich, England \|\|align"center"\| 61 \|\| \|\|align"center"\| 1–0 \|\|align="center"\| 3–1 \|\| Friendly \|- \|align="center"\| 13 \| 6 September 2003 \|\| Skopje City Stadium, Skopje, Macedonia \|\|align"center"\| 62 \|\| \|\|align"center"\| 2–1 \|\|align"center"\| 2–1 \|\| UEFA Euro 2004 qualification \|- \|align="center"\| 14 \| 18 August 2004 \|\| St James' Park, Newcastle, England \|\|align"center"\| 73 \|\| \|\|align"center"\| 1–0 \|\|align="center"\| 3–0 \|\| Friendly \|- \|align="center"\| 15 \| 9 October 2004 \|\| Old Trafford, Manchester, England \|\|align"center"\| 76 \|\| \|\|align"center"\| 2–0 \|\|align="center"\| 2–0 \|\| 2006 FIFA World Cup qualification \|- \|align="center"\| 16 \| 30 March 2005 \|\| St James' Park, Newcastle, England \|\|align"center"\| 80 \|\| \|\|align"center"\| 2–0 \|\|align="center"\| 2–0 \|\| 2006 FIFA World Cup qualification \|- \|align="center"\| 17 \| 25 June 2006 \|\| Gottlieb-Daimler-Stadion, Stuttgart, Germany \|\|align"center"\| 93 \|\| \|\|align"center"\| 1–0 \|\|align="center"\| 1–0 \|\| 2006 FIFA World Cup \|} Honours <!--Actual awards only; do not include runners-up.--> Manchester United Premier League: 1995–96, 1996–97, 1998–99, 1999–2000, 2000–01, 2002–03 FA Cup: 1995–96, 1998–99 FA Charity Shield: 1996, 1997 UEFA Champions League: 1998–99 Intercontinental Cup: 1999 Real Madrid Supporters' Shield: 2010, 2011 Paris Saint-Germain FIFA World Player of the Year silver award: 1999, 2001 Most assists in the Premier League: 1997–98, 1999–2000 (shared), 2000–01 Premier League Player of the Month: August 1996 FWA Tribute Award: 2008 Sir Matt Busby Player of the Year: 1996–97 England Player of the Year: 2003 ESM Team of the Year: 1998–99 UEFA Club Footballer of the Year: 1998–99 UEFA Club Midfielder of the Year: 1998–99 Goal of the Decade (vs. Wimbledon, 17 August 1996) BBC Sports Personality of the Year Lifetime Achievement Award: 2010 1997–98 Premier League, 1998–99 Premier League, 1999–2000 Premier League FIFA 100 ESPY Awards: Best Male Soccer Player: 2004 Best MLS Player: 2008, 2012 English Football Hall of Fame: 2008 Premier League Hall of Fame: 2021 MLS Comeback Player of the Year Award: 2011 PFA Team of the Century (1997–2007): 2007 International Federation of Football History & Statistics (IFFHS) Legends UEFA President's Award: 2018 Orders and special awards Officer of the Order of the British Empire by Queen Elizabeth II: 2003 The Celebrity 100, number 15 – Forbes, 2007 Number 1 on the list of the 40 most influential men under the age of 40 in the UK – Arena, 2007 Time 100: 2008 Gold Blue Peter Badge winner, 2001 Do Something Athlete Award, 2011 AC Milan Hall of Fame Records First Englishman to win league titles in four countries (England, Spain, United States, France). Most free-kicks scored in a Premier League season: 5 in 2000-01 See also List of footballers with 100 or more UEFA Champions League appearances * List of men's footballers with 100 or more international caps * Designated Player Rule (Beckham Rule) * List of select Jewish footballers References Books * * * * * * InternetFurther reading* External links * * * [https://www.tiktok.com/@davidbeckham David Beckham] on TikTok * [https://www.facebook.com/Beckham David Beckham] on Facebook * [https://www.manutd.com/en/players-and-staff/detail/david-beckham David Beckham] at ManUtd.com * [http://www.realmadrid.com/en/about-real-madrid/history/football-legends/david-robert-joseph-beckham David Beckham] at RealMadrid.com * * * * * * * }} }} }} Category:1975 births Category:1998 FIFA World Cup players Category:2002 FIFA World Cup players Category:2006 FIFA World Cup players Category:AC Milan players Category:BBC Sports Personality Lifetime Achievement Award recipients Category:BBC Sports Personality of the Year winners Category:Brimsdown Rovers F.C. players Category:Businesspeople from the London Borough of Waltham Forest Category:Designated Players (MLS) Category:English male bloggers Category:England men's international footballers Category:England men's under-21 international footballers Category:England men's youth international footballers Category:English monarchists Category:English expatriate men's footballers Category:English expatriate sportspeople in France Category:English expatriate sportspeople in Italy Category:English expatriate sportspeople in Spain Category:English expatriate sportspeople in the United States Category:English football chairmen and investors Category:English Football Hall of Fame inductees Category:English Football League players Category:English male models Category:English men's footballers Category:English people of Jewish descent Category:English people with disabilities Category:Expatriate men's footballers in France Category:Expatriate men's footballers in Italy Category:Expatriate men's footballers in Spain Category:Expatriate men's soccer players in the United States Category:FIFA 100 Category:FIFA Men's Century Club Category:Footballers from the London Borough of Waltham Forest Category:Footballers from Manchester Category:Inter Miami CF non-playing staff Category:LA Galaxy players Category:La Liga players Category:Ligue 1 players Category:Living people Category:Major League Soccer All-Stars Category:Major League Soccer owners Category:Major League Soccer players Category:Manchester United F.C. players Category:Men's association football midfielders Category:Models from London Category:Officers of the Order of the British Empire Category:Paris Saint-Germain FC players Category:People from Chingford Category:People from Leytonstone Category:People with obsessive–compulsive disorder Category:Philanthropists from London Category:Premier League Hall of Fame inductees Category:Premier League players Category:Preston North End F.C. players Category:Real Madrid CF players Category:Salford City F.C. chairmen and investors Category:Serie A players Category:Tottenham Hotspur F.C. players Category:UEFA Champions League–winning players Category:UEFA Euro 2000 players Category:UEFA Euro 2004 players Category:UEFA Men's Player of the Year Award winners Category:UNICEF Goodwill Ambassadors	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Beckham	2025-04-05T18:28:42.001512
8620	Dianic Wicca	Dianic Wicca, also known as Dianic Witchcraft, is a modern pagan goddess tradition focused on female experience and empowerment. Leadership is by women, who may be ordained as priestesses, or in less formal groups that function as collectives. While some adherents identify as Wiccan, it differs from most traditions of Wicca in that only goddesses are honored (whereas most Wiccan traditions honor both female and male deities). The practice of magic is rooted in the belief that energy or 'life force' can be directed to enact change. However it is important to note that rituals are often improvised to suit individual or group needs and vary from coven to coven. Some Dianic Wiccans eschew manipulative spellwork and hexing because it goes against the Wiccan Rede. However, many other Dianic witches (notably Budapest) do not consider hexing or binding of those who attack women to be wrong, and actively encourage the binding of rapists.}} Sociological studies have shown that there is therapeutic value inherent in Dianic ritual. Healing rituals to overcome personal trauma and raise awareness about violence against women have earned comparisons to the female-centered consciousness-raising groups of the 1960s and 1970s. Some Dianic groups develop rituals specifically to confront gendered personal trauma, such as battery, rape, incest, and partner abuse. In one ethnographic study of such a ritual, women shifted their understanding of power from the hands of their abusers to themselves. It was found that this ritual had improved self-perception in participants in the short-term, and that the results could be sustained with ongoing practice. Dianic Wicca developed from the Women's Liberation Movement and some covens traditionally compare themselves with radical feminism. Dianics pride themselves on the inclusion of lesbian and bisexual members in their groups and leadership. It is a goal within many covens to explore female sexuality and sensuality outside of male control, and many rituals function to affirm lesbian sexuality, making it a popular tradition for lesbians and bisexuals. Some covens exclusively consist of same-sex oriented women and advocate lesbian separatism. Ruth Rhiannon Barrett was ordained by Z Budapest in 1980 and inherited Budapest's Los Angeles ministry. This community continues through Circle of Aradia, a grove of Temple of Diana, Inc. Criticism for transphobia Dianic Wicca has been criticised by elements in the Neopagan community for being transphobic. In February 2011, Zsuzsanna Budapest conducted a ritual with the Circle of Cerridwen at PantheaCon for "genetic women only" from which she barred males}}. This caused a backlash that led many to criticize Dianic Wicca as an inherently transphobic lesbian-separatist movement. The Los Angeles Times wrote that: }} See also * * * * * * * References Works cited * * * * * Further reading * Barrett, Ruth. ''Women's Rites, Women's Mysteries: Intuitive Ritual Creation. Llewellyn Publications; 2007, . Earlier publishing: Women's Rites, Women's Mysteries: Creating Ritual in the Dianic Wiccan Tradition. Authorhouse; 2004, . * Eisler, Riane, The Chalice and the Blade. * Mountainwater, Shekhinah, Ariadne's Thread. * Ochshorn, Judith and Cole, Ellen. Women's Spirituality, Women's Lives. Haworth Press 1995. . pp 122 & 133 referring to Z Budapest and Shekinah Mountainwater, among others, in a discussion of Dianic Witchcraft. * Pond, Gina, et al. [http://st4r.org/main/circle-of-cerridwen/gender-and-transgender-in-modern-paganism-anthology/ Gender and Transgender in Modern Paganism]. Circle of Cerridwen Press, 2012. * [http://www.witchvox.com/va/dt_va.html?ausca&ctrads&id3212 On Starhawk, the Reclaiming Tradition and feminism, M. Macha NightMare] . * Interview with Starhawk in Modern Pagans: An Investigation of Contemporary Pagan Practices'', ed. V. Vale and John Sulak, Re/Search, San Francisco, 2001, . External links [http://dianic.org/ Dianic Wicca, Official Website] [http://www.dianictradition.com/ Dianic Tradition, Official Website] [http://dianicwicca.com/ Dianic Wicca, Website] [http://zbudapest.com/ Z. Budapest] [http://goddess-festival.com/ International Goddess Conference] [http://susanbanthonycoven.com/ Susan B. Anthony Coven, Dianic Wicca Website] [https://www.templeofdiana.org/ Temple of Diana] [http://www.mcfarlanddianic.org/ The McFarland Dianic Tradition] Category:Monotheistic religions Category:Feminist spirituality Category:Modern paganism in the United States Category:Wiccan feminism Category:Diana (mythology) Category:1970s in modern paganism Category:Lesbian separatism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dianic_Wicca	2025-04-05T18:28:42.012738
8622	Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol	}} The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a network management protocol used on Internet Protocol (IP) networks for automatically assigning IP addresses and other communication parameters to devices connected to the network using a client–server architecture. The technology eliminates the need for individually configuring network devices manually, and consists of two network components, a centrally installed network DHCP server and client instances of the protocol stack on each computer or device. When connected to the network, and periodically thereafter, a client requests a set of parameters from the server using DHCP. DHCP can be implemented on networks ranging in size from residential networks to large campus networks and regional ISP networks. Many routers and residential gateways have DHCP server capability. Most residential network routers receive a unique IP address within the ISP network. Within a local network, a DHCP server assigns a local IP address to each device. DHCP services exist for networks running Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4), as well as version 6 (IPv6). The IPv6 version of the DHCP protocol is commonly called DHCPv6. History The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) was defined in 1984 for the configuration of simple devices, such as diskless workstations, with a suitable IP address. Acting in the data link layer, it made implementation difficult on many server platforms. It required that a server be present on each individual network link. RARP was superseded by the Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP) defined in September 1985. This introduced the concept of a relay agent, which allowed the forwarding of BOOTP packets across networks, allowing one central BOOTP server to serve hosts on many IP subnets. DHCP was first defined in October 1993. It is based on BOOTP, but can dynamically allocate IP addresses from a pool and reclaim them when they are no longer in use. It can also be used to deliver a wide range of extra configuration parameters to IP clients, including platform-specific parameters. Four years later, the DHCPINFORM message type (used for WPAD) and other small changes were added. This definition, from 1997, remains the core of the standard for IPv4 networks. DHCPv6 was initially defined in 2003. After updates by many subsequent RFCs, its definition was replaced in 2018, where prefix delegation and stateless address autoconfiguration were now merged. Overview Internet Protocol (IP) defines how devices communicate within and across local networks on the Internet. A DHCP server can manage IP settings for devices on its local network, e.g., by assigning IP addresses to those devices automatically and dynamically. DHCP operates based on the client–server model. When a computer or other device connects to a network, the DHCP client software sends a DHCP broadcast query requesting the necessary information. Any DHCP server on the network may service the request. The DHCP server manages a pool of IP addresses and information about client configuration parameters such as default gateway, domain name, the name servers, and time servers. On receiving a DHCP request, the DHCP server may respond with specific information for each client, as previously configured by an administrator, or with a specific address and any other information valid for the entire network and for the time period for which the allocation (lease) is valid. A DHCP client typically queries this information immediately after booting, and periodically thereafter before the expiration of the information. When a DHCP client refreshes an assignment, it initially requests the same parameter values, but the DHCP server may assign a new address based on the assignment policies set by administrators. On large networks that consist of multiple links, a single DHCP server may service the entire network when aided by DHCP relay agents located on the interconnecting routers. Such agents relay messages between DHCP clients and DHCP servers located on different subnets. Depending on implementation, the DHCP server may have three methods of allocating IP addresses: ;Dynamic allocation: A network administrator reserves a range of IP addresses for DHCP, and each DHCP client on the LAN is configured to request an IP address from the DHCP server during network initialization. The request-and-grant process uses a lease concept with a controllable time period, allowing the DHCP server to reclaim and then reallocate IP addresses that are not renewed. ;Automatic allocation: The DHCP server permanently assigns an IP address to a requesting client from a range defined by an administrator. This is like dynamic allocation, but the DHCP server keeps a table of past IP address assignments, so that it can preferentially assign to a client the same IP address that the client previously had. ;Manual allocation: This method is also variously called static DHCP allocation, fixed address allocation, reservation, and MAC/IP address binding. An administrator maps a unique identifier (a client id or MAC address) for each client to an IP address, which is offered to the requesting client. DHCP servers may be configured to fall back to other methods if this fails. DHCP services are used for Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) and IPv6. The details of the protocol for IPv4 and IPv6 differ sufficiently that they may be considered separate protocols. For the IPv6 operation, devices may alternatively use stateless address autoconfiguration. IPv6 hosts may also use link-local addressing to achieve operations restricted to the local network link.Operation , depending on the DHCP client capabilities.]] The DHCP employs a connectionless service model, using the User Datagram Protocol (UDP). It is implemented with two UDP port numbers for its operations which are the same as for the bootstrap protocol (BOOTP). The server listens on UDP port number 67, and the client listens on UDP port number 68. DHCP operations fall into four phases: server discovery, IP lease offer, IP lease request, and IP lease acknowledgement. These stages are often abbreviated as DORA for discovery, offer, request, and acknowledgement. The DHCP operation begins with clients broadcasting a request. If the client and server are in different Broadcast Domains, a DHCP Helper or DHCP Relay Agent may be used. Clients requesting renewal of an existing lease may communicate directly via UDP unicast, since the client already has an established IP address at that point. Additionally, there is a BROADCAST flag (1 bit in 2 byte flags field, where all other bits are reserved and so are set to 0) the client can use to indicate in which way (broadcast or unicast) it can receive the DHCPOFFER: 0x8000 for broadcast, 0x0000 for unicast. Usually, the DHCPOFFER is sent through unicast. For those hosts which cannot accept unicast packets before IP addresses are configured, this flag can be used to work around this issue. Discovery The DHCP client broadcasts a DHCPDISCOVER message on the network subnet using the destination address (limited broadcast) or the specific subnet broadcast address (directed broadcast). A DHCP client may also request an IP address in the DHCPDISCOVER, which the server may take into account when selecting an address to offer. For example, if HTYPE is set to 1, to specify that the medium used is Ethernet, HLEN is set to 6 because an Ethernet address (MAC address) is 6 octets long. The CHADDR is set to the MAC address used by the client. Some options are set as well. }} \|bits216\|border2bottom\|field2}} }} \|hint10x0800 indicates IPv4\|bits216\|border2bottom\|background2mistyrose\|field2}} UDP\|field3=Header Checksum}} }} }} \|hint1BOOTREQUEST\|field2HTYPE\|value2\|hint2Ethernet\|field3HLEN\|value3\|hint3MAC addresses are 6 octets\|field4HOPS\|value4=}} }} \|field2FLAGS\|value2}} }} }} }} \|hint1A zero GIADDR means client and DHCP server are on the same subnet.}} }} }} : Option 53 (DHCP Message Type) 1 octet (containing DHCPDISCOVER)\|bits28\|background2linen\|border2right\|field2=Second option:}} : Option 50 (Request IP address) 4 octets (containing )}} : Option: 55 (Parameter Request List) 4 octets\|hint10x01: Request Subnet Mask; 0x03: Router; 0x0f: Domain Name\|border1=right}} </small>\|hint20xff Option end mark}} Offer When a DHCP server receives a DHCPDISCOVER message from a client, which is an IP address lease request, the DHCP server reserves an IP address for the client and makes a lease offer by sending a DHCPOFFER message to the client. This message may contain the client's Client ID (Option 61, containing a unique value, traditionally a MAC address), the IP address that the server is offering, the subnet mask, the lease duration, and the IP address of the DHCP server making the offer. The DHCP server may also take notice of the hardware-level MAC address (as specified in the CHADDR field). This field must be used to identify the client, if no Client ID is provided in the DHCP packet. The DHCP server determines the configuration based on the client's hardware address as specified in the CHADDR (client hardware address) field. In the following example the server () specifies the client's IP address in the YIADDR (your IP address) field. }} \|bits216\|border2bottom\|field2}} }} \|hint10x0800 indicates IPv4\|bits216\|border2bottom\|background2mistyrose\|field2}} UDP)\|field3Header Checksum}} )}} )}} )\|hint1BOOTREPLY\|field2HTYPE ()\|field3HLEN ()\|field4=HOPS ()}} )}} )\|field2FLAGS ()}} )}} or )}} or )}} )}} )}} )}} : Option 53 (DHCP Message Type) 1 octet (containing DHCPOFFER)\|bits28\|background2linen\|border2right\|field2=Second option:}} : Option 1 (Subnet mask) 4 octets (containing )}} : Option: 3 (Router) 4 octets (containing )\|border1right}} : Option 51 (Address time) 4 octets (a 86400 second lease time)}} :Option 6 (Domain Server) 14 octets (containing ,,)}} </small>\|hint20xff Option end mark}} Request In response to the DHCP offer, the client replies with a DHCPREQUEST message, broadcast to the server,}} requesting the offered address. A client can receive DHCP offers from multiple servers, but it will accept only one DHCP offer. The client must send the server identification option in the DHCPREQUEST message, indicating the server whose offer the client has selected. When other DHCP servers receive this message, they withdraw any offers that they have made to the client and return their offered IP address to the pool of available addresses. }} \|bits216\|border2bottom\|field2}} \|hint1=Destination MAC (DHCPREQUESTs are broadcast)}} \|hint10x0800 indicates IPv4\|bits216\|border2bottom\|background2mistyrose\|field2}} UDP)\|field3Header Checksum}} )}} )}} )\|hint1BOOTREQUEST\|field2HTYPE ()\|field3HLEN ()\|field4=HOPS ()}} )}} )\|field2FLAGS ()}} )}} )}} or )}} )}} )}} )}} : Option 53 (DHCP Message Type) 1 octet (containing DHCPREQUEST)\|bits28\|background2linen\|border2right\|field2=Second option:}} : Option 50 (Request IP address) 4 octets (containing )\|hint1=Must match YIADDR from the DHCPOFFER packet.}} : Option: 54 (DHCP Server) 4 octets (containing )\|hint1Server Identification: tell which offer you accept.\|border1=right}} </small>\|hint2=0xff Option end mark}} Acknowledgement When the DHCP server receives the DHCPREQUEST message from the client, the configuration process enters its final phase. The acknowledgement phase involves sending a DHCPACK packet to the client. This packet includes the lease duration and any other configuration information that the client might have requested. At this point, the IP configuration process is completed. The protocol expects the DHCP client to configure its network interface with the negotiated parameters. }} \|bits216\|border2bottom\|field2}} \|hint1=Destination MAC (unicast to the client)}} \|hint10x0800 indicates IPv4\|bits216\|border2bottom\|background2mistyrose\|field2}} UDP)\|field3Header Checksum}} )}} )}} )\|hint1BOOTREPLY\|field2HTYPE ()\|field3HLEN ()\|field4=HOPS ()}} )}} )\|field2FLAGS ()}} )}} or )}} or )}} )}} )}} )}} : Option 53 (DHCP Message Type) 1 octet (containing DHCPACK)\|bits28\|background2linen\|border2right\|field2=Second option:}} : Option 1 (Subnet mask) 4 octets (containing )}} : Option: 3 (Router) 4 octets (containing )\|border1right}} : Option 51 (Address time) 4 octets (a 86400 second lease time)}} :Option 6 (Domain Server) 14 octets (containing ,,)}} </small>\|hint20xff Option end mark}} Selecting and configuring IP addresses When the server is reusing an IP address from its pool, it may first check (using ping) to see if it is not taken already. This may happen if a host is configured manually with an IP address that lies within the DHCP scope. Before claiming an IP address, the client should probe the newly received address (e.g. with ARP), in order to find if there is another host present in the network with the proposed IP address. If there is no reply, this address does not conflict with that of another host, so it is free to be used. If this probe finds another computer using that address, the client should broadcast a DHCPDECLINE to the DHCP server(s). Information A DHCP client may request more information than the server sent with the original DHCPOFFER. The client may also request repeat data for a particular application. For example, browsers use DHCP Inform to obtain web proxy settings via WPAD. Releasing The client sends a request to the DHCP server to release the DHCP information and the client deactivates its IP address. As client devices usually do not know when users may unplug them from the network, the protocol does not mandate the sending of DHCP Release. Client configuration parameters A DHCP server can provide optional configuration parameters to the client. RFC 2132 describes the available DHCP options defined by Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) - DHCP and BOOTP PARAMETERS. A DHCP client can select, manipulate and overwrite parameters provided by a DHCP server. In Unix-like systems this client-level refinement typically takes place according to the values in the configuration file /etc/dhclient.conf. Options Options are octet strings of varying length. This is called Type–length–value encoding. The first octet is the option code, the second octet is the number of following octets and the remaining octets are code dependent. For example, the DHCP message-type option for an offer would appear as 0x35, 0x01, 0x02, where 0x35 is code 53 for "DHCP message type", 0x01 means one octet follows and 0x02 is the value of "offer". The following tables list the available DHCP options. RFC 4388, RFC 6926 and RFC 7724. These codes are the value in the DHCP extension 53, shown in the table above. {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|+ DHCP message types \|- ! Code !! Name !! Length !! RFC \|- \| 1 \|\| DHCPDISCOVER \|\| 1 octet \|\| rfc2132 The DHCP server can then augment its DHCPOFFER with an IP address of an Aruba wireless controller in option 43, so the access point knows where to register itself. Setting a VCI by the client allows a DHCP server to differentiate between client machines and process the requests from them appropriately. Other extensions {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|+ Documented DHCP options \|- ! Code !! Name !! Length !! RFC \|- \| 77 \|\| User Class \|\| Minimum of 2 octets \|\| RFC 3004 \|- \| 82 \|\| Relay agent information \|\| Minimum of 2 octets \|\| RFC 3046 \|- \| 85 \|\| Novell Directory Service (NDS) servers \|\| Minimum of 4 octets, multiple of 4 octets \|\| RFC 2241 \|- \| 86 \|\| NDS tree name \|\| Variable \|\| RFC 2241 \|- \| 101 \|\| Time zone, tz database style \|\| Variable \|\| RFC 4833 \|- \| 119 \|\| Domain search \|\| Variable \|\| RFC 3397 \|- \| 121 \|\| Classless static route \|\| Variable \|\| RFC 3442 \|- \| 209 \|\| Configuration File \|\| Variable \|\| RFC 5071 \|- \| 210 \|\| Path Prefix \|\| Variable \|\| RFC 5071 \|} Relaying In small networks, where only one IP subnet is being managed, DHCP clients communicate directly with DHCP servers. However, DHCP servers can also provide IP addresses for multiple subnets. In this case, a DHCP client that has not yet acquired an IP address cannot communicate directly with a DHCP server not on the same subnet, as the client's broadcast can only be received on its own subnet. In order to allow DHCP clients on subnets not directly served by DHCP servers to communicate with DHCP servers, DHCP relay agents can be installed on these subnets. A DHCP relay agent runs on a network device, capable of routing between the client's subnet and the subnet of the DHCP server. The DHCP client broadcasts on the local link; the relay agent receives the broadcast and transmits it to one or more DHCP servers using unicast. The IP addresses of the DHCP servers are manually configured in the relay agent. The relay agent stores its own IP address, from the interface on which it has received the client's broadcast, in the GIADDR field of the DHCP packet. The DHCP server uses the GIADDR-value to determine the subnet, and subsequently the corresponding address pool, from which to allocate an IP address. When the DHCP server replies to the client, it sends the reply to the GIADDR-address, again using unicast. The relay agent then retransmits the response on the local network, using unicast (in most cases) to the newly reserved IP address, in an Ethernet frame directed to the client's MAC address. The client should accept the packet as its own, even when that IP address is not yet set on the interface. Directly after processing the packet, the client sets the IP address on its interface and is ready for regular IP communication, directly thereafter. If the client's implementation of the IP stack does not accept unicast packets when it has no IP address yet, the client may set the broadcast bit in the FLAGS field when sending a DHCPDISCOVER packet. The relay agent will use the broadcast IP address (and the clients MAC address) to inform the client of the server's DHCPOFFER. The communication between the relay agent and the DHCP server typically uses both a source and destination UDP port of 67. Client states A DHCP client can receive these messages from a server: * DHCPOFFER * DHCPACK * DHCPNAK The client moves through DHCP states depending on how the server responds to the messages that the client sends. Reliability The DHCP ensures reliability in several ways: periodic renewal, rebinding, and failover. DHCP clients are allocated leases that last for some period of time. Clients begin to attempt to renew their leases once half the lease interval has expired. They do this by sending a unicast DHCPREQUEST message to the DHCP server that granted the original lease. If that server is down or unreachable, it will fail to respond to the DHCPREQUEST. However, in that case the client repeats the DHCPREQUEST from time to time, so if the DHCP server comes back up or becomes reachable again, the DHCP client will succeed in contacting it and renew the lease. If the DHCP server is unreachable for an extended period of time, the DHCP client will attempt to rebind, by broadcasting its DHCPREQUEST rather than unicasting it. Because it is broadcast, the DHCPREQUEST message will reach all available DHCP servers. If some other DHCP server is able to renew the lease, it will do so at this time. In order for rebinding to work, when the client successfully contacts a backup DHCP server, that server must have accurate information about the client's binding. Maintaining accurate binding information between two servers is a complicated problem; if both servers are able to update the same lease database, there must be a mechanism to avoid conflicts between updates on the independent servers. A proposal for implementing fault-tolerant DHCP servers was submitted to the Internet Engineering Task Force, but never formalized. If rebinding fails, the lease will eventually expire. When the lease expires, the client must stop using the IP address granted to it in its lease. At that time it will restart the DHCP process from the beginning by broadcasting a <code>DHCPDISCOVER</code> message. Since its lease has expired, it will accept any IP address offered to it. Once it has a new IP address (presumably from a different DHCP server) it will once again be able to use the network. However, since its IP address has changed, any ongoing connections will be broken.IPv6 networksThe basic methodology of DHCP was developed for networks based on Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4). Since the development and deployment of IPv6 networks, DHCP has also been used for assigning parameters in such networks, despite the inherent features of IPv6 for stateless address autoconfiguration. The IPv6 version of the protocol is designated as DHCPv6. Security The base DHCP does not include any mechanism for authentication. Because of this, it is vulnerable to a variety of attacks. These attacks fall into three main categories: * Unauthorized DHCP servers providing false information to clients. * Unauthorized clients gaining access to resources. * Resource exhaustion attacks from malicious DHCP clients. Because the client has no way to validate the identity of a DHCP server, unauthorized DHCP servers (commonly called "rogue DHCP") can be operated on networks, providing incorrect information to DHCP clients. or as a man-in-the-middle attack. Because the DHCP server provides the DHCP client with server IP addresses, such as the IP address of one or more DNS servers, an attacker can convince a DHCP client to do its DNS lookups through its own DNS server, and can therefore provide its own answers to DNS queries from the client. This in turn allows the attacker to redirect network traffic through itself, allowing it to eavesdrop on connections between the client and network servers it contacts, or to simply replace those network servers with its own. DHCP does provide some mechanisms for mitigating these problems. The Relay Agent Information Option protocol extension (usually referred to in the industry by its actual number as Option 82) allows network operators to attach tags to DHCP messages as these messages arrive on the network operator's trusted network. This tag is then used as an authorization token to control the client's access to network resources. Because the client has no access to the network upstream of the relay agent, the lack of authentication does not prevent the DHCP server operator from relying on the authorization token. Another extension, Authentication for DHCP Messages (RFC 3118), provides a mechanism for authenticating DHCP messages. As of 2002, this extension had not seen widespread adoption because of the problems of managing keys for large numbers of DHCP clients. A 2007 book about DSL technologies remarked that:<blockquote>[T]here were numerous security vulnerabilities identified against the security measures proposed by RFC 3118. This fact, combined with the introduction of 802.1X, slowed the deployment and take-rate of authenticated DHCP, and it has never been widely deployed.</blockquote> A 2010 book notes that:<blockquote>[T]here have been very few implementations of DHCP Authentication. The challenges of key management and processing delays due to hash computation have been deemed too heavy a price to pay for the perceived benefits.</blockquote> Architectural proposals from 2008 involve authenticating DHCP requests using 802.1X or PANA (both of which transport EAP). An IETF proposal was made for including EAP in DHCP itself, the so-called <abbr>EAPoDHCP</abbr>; this does not appear to have progressed beyond IETF draft level, the last of which dates to 2010. IETF standards documents * , Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol * , DHCP Options and BOOTP Vendor Extensions * , DHCP Relay Agent Information Option * , Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) Domain Search Option * , Reclassifying Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol Version Four (DHCPv4) Options * , Information Refresh Time Option for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol for IPv6 * , Node-specific Client Identifiers for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol Version Four (DHCPv4) * , Detecting Network Attachment in IPv4 (DNAv4) * , Classless Static Route Option for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) version 4 * , DHCP reconfigure extension * , Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) Leasequery * , DHCPv4 Bulk Leasequery * , Active DHCPv4 Lease QuerySee also * Boot Service Discovery Protocol (BSDP) a DHCP extension used by Apple's NetBoot * Comparison of DHCP server software * * Preboot Execution Environment (PXE) * Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) * Rogue DHCP * UDP Helper Address a tool for routing DHCP requests across subnet boundaries * Zeroconf Zero Configuration Networking * Kea – an open-source DHCP server developed by the Internet Systems Consortium Notes References External links * Category:Application layer protocols Category:Internet Standards Category:Network service	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_Host_Configuration_Protocol	2025-04-05T18:28:42.083934
8623	Dava Sobel	\| birth_place = The Bronx, New York City \| death_date \| death_place \| death_cause \| other_names \| known_for \| education Bronx High School of Science \| alma mater = Binghamton University \| occupation \| spouse \| partner \| children \| parents \| relatives \| signature = Dava Sobel signature.svg \| awards = Guggenheim Fellowship for Natural Sciences, US & Canada, Klumpke-Roberts Award \| website = }} Dava Sobel (born June 15, 1947) is an American writer of popular expositions of scientific topics. Her books include Longitude, about English clockmaker John Harrison; ''Galileo's Daughter'', about Galileo's daughter Maria Celeste; and The Glass Universe: How the Ladies of the Harvard Observatory Took the Measure of the Stars about the Harvard Computers. Biography Sobel was born in The Bronx, New York City. She graduated from the Bronx High School of Science and Binghamton University. She wrote Longitude: The True Story of a Lone Genius Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time in 1995. The story was made into a television movie, of the same name by Charles Sturridge and Granada Film in 1999, and was shown in the United States by A&E. Her book ''Galileo's Daughter: A Historical Memoir of Science, Faith, and Love was a finalist for the 2000 Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography. She holds honorary doctor of letters degrees from the University of Bath and Middlebury College, Vermont, both awarded in 2002. Sobel made her first foray into teaching at the University of Chicago as the Vare Writer-in-Residence in the winter of 2006. She taught a one-quarter seminar on writing about science. She served as a judge for the PEN/E. O. Wilson Literary Science Writing Award in 2012. Sobel is the niece of journalist Ruth Gruber and the cousin of epidemiologist David Michaels. Legacy Asteroid 30935 Davasobel, discovered by Carolyn S. Shoemaker and David H. Levy was named after her for her literary work in physics.Publications * * }} * * Longitude: The True Story of a Lone Genius Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time (1995) . – the genius in question was John Harrison, who spent decades trying to convince the British Admiralty of the accuracy of his naval timepieces and their use in determining longitude when at sea in order to win the longitude prize. The book itself won the 1997 British Book of the Year award. * Galileo's Daughter: A Historical Memoir of Science, Faith, and Love (2000) * The Best American Science Writing 2004 (editor) , * The Planets: A discourse on the discovery, science, history and mythology, of the planets in our solar system, with one chapter devoted to each of the celestial spheres. (2005) , * * The Glass Universe: How the Ladies of the Harvard Observatory Took the Measure of the Stars (2016) , * The Elements of Marie Curie: How the Glow of Radium Lit a Path for Women in Science (2024) , Recognition She was named a Fellow of the American Physical Society in 2022 "for outstanding writings covering many centuries of key developments in physics and astronomy and the people central to those developments".ReferencesExternal links * * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120717004843/http://www.cityweekend.com.cn/shanghai/articles/blogs-shanghai/shanghai-book-club/live-blogging-with-dava-sobel-paper-planets-at-the-shanghai-international-book-festival/ Podcast] of Dava Sobel discussing The Origins of Longitude'' at the Shanghai International Literary Festival * Category:1947 births Category:Living people Category:20th-century American non-fiction writers Category:20th-century American women writers Category:21st-century American non-fiction writers Category:21st-century American women writers Category:American science writers Category:American women non-fiction writers Category:Antioch College alumni Category:Binghamton University alumni Category:The Bronx High School of Science alumni Category:Scientific American people Category:American women science writers Category:Fellows of the American Physical Society	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dava_Sobel	2025-04-05T18:28:42.420114
8625	Differential geometry	thumb\|235px\|right\|A triangle immersed in a saddle-shape plane (a hyperbolic paraboloid), as well as two diverging ultraparallel lines Differential geometry is a mathematical discipline that studies the geometry of smooth shapes and smooth spaces, otherwise known as smooth manifolds. It uses the techniques of single variable calculus, vector calculus, linear algebra and multilinear algebra. The field has its origins in the study of spherical geometry as far back as antiquity. It also relates to astronomy, the geodesy of the Earth, and later the study of hyperbolic geometry by Lobachevsky. The simplest examples of smooth spaces are the plane and space curves and surfaces in the three-dimensional Euclidean space, and the study of these shapes formed the basis for development of modern differential geometry during the 18th and 19th centuries. Since the late 19th century, differential geometry has grown into a field concerned more generally with geometric structures on differentiable manifolds. A geometric structure is one which defines some notion of size, distance, shape, volume, or other rigidifying structure. For example, in Riemannian geometry distances and angles are specified, in symplectic geometry volumes may be computed, in conformal geometry only angles are specified, and in gauge theory certain fields are given over the space. Differential geometry is closely related to, and is sometimes taken to include, differential topology, which concerns itself with properties of differentiable manifolds that do not rely on any additional geometric structure (see that article for more discussion on the distinction between the two subjects). Differential geometry is also related to the geometric aspects of the theory of differential equations, otherwise known as geometric analysis. Differential geometry finds applications throughout mathematics and the natural sciences. Most prominently the language of differential geometry was used by Albert Einstein in his theory of general relativity, and subsequently by physicists in the development of quantum field theory and the standard model of particle physics. Outside of physics, differential geometry finds applications in chemistry, economics, engineering, control theory, computer graphics and computer vision, and recently in machine learning. History and development The history and development of differential geometry as a subject begins at least as far back as classical antiquity. It is intimately linked to the development of geometry more generally, of the notion of space and shape, and of topology, especially the study of manifolds. In this section we focus primarily on the history of the application of infinitesimal methods to geometry, and later to the ideas of tangent spaces, and eventually the development of the modern formalism of the subject in terms of tensors and tensor fields. Classical antiquity until the Renaissance (300 BC1600 AD) The study of differential geometry, or at least the study of the geometry of smooth shapes, can be traced back at least to classical antiquity. In particular, much was known about the geometry of the Earth, a spherical geometry, in the time of the ancient Greek mathematicians. Famously, Eratosthenes calculated the circumference of the Earth around 200 BC, and around 150 AD Ptolemy in his Geography introduced the stereographic projection for the purposes of mapping the shape of the Earth. Implicitly throughout this time principles that form the foundation of differential geometry and calculus were used in geodesy, although in a much simplified form. Namely, as far back as Euclid's Elements it was understood that a straight line could be defined by its property of providing the shortest distance between two points, and applying this same principle to the surface of the Earth leads to the conclusion that great circles, which are only locally similar to straight lines in a flat plane, provide the shortest path between two points on the Earth's surface. Indeed, the measurements of distance along such geodesic paths by Eratosthenes and others can be considered a rudimentary measure of arclength of curves, a concept which did not see a rigorous definition in terms of calculus until the 1600s. Around this time there were only minimal overt applications of the theory of infinitesimals to the study of geometry, a precursor to the modern calculus-based study of the subject. In Euclid's Elements the notion of tangency of a line to a circle is discussed, and Archimedes applied the method of exhaustion to compute the areas of smooth shapes such as the circle, and the volumes of smooth three-dimensional solids such as the sphere, cones, and cylinders. In regards to differential geometry, Euler studied the notion of a geodesic on a surface deriving the first analytical geodesic equation, and later introduced the first set of intrinsic coordinate systems on a surface, beginning the theory of intrinsic geometry upon which modern geometric ideas are based. in 1827 Gauss produced the Disquisitiones generales circa superficies curvas detailing the general theory of curved surfaces. In this work and his subsequent papers and unpublished notes on the theory of surfaces, Gauss has been dubbed the inventor of non-Euclidean geometry and the inventor of intrinsic differential geometry. Around this same time János Bolyai and Lobachevsky independently discovered hyperbolic geometry and thus demonstrated the existence of consistent geometries outside Euclid's paradigm. Concrete models of hyperbolic geometry were produced by Eugenio Beltrami later in the 1860s, and Felix Klein coined the term non-Euclidean geometry in 1871, and through the Erlangen program put Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometries on the same footing. Implicitly, the spherical geometry of the Earth that had been studied since antiquity was a non-Euclidean geometry, an elliptic geometry. The development of intrinsic differential geometry in the language of Gauss was spurred on by his student, Bernhard Riemann in his Habilitationsschrift, On the hypotheses which lie at the foundation of geometry. In this work Riemann introduced the notion of a Riemannian metric and the Riemannian curvature tensor for the first time, and began the systematic study of differential geometry in higher dimensions. This intrinsic point of view in terms of the Riemannian metric, denoted by ds^2 by Riemann, was the development of an idea of Gauss's about the linear element ds of a surface. At this time Riemann began to introduce the systematic use of linear algebra and multilinear algebra into the subject, making great use of the theory of quadratic forms in his investigation of metrics and curvature. At this time Riemann did not yet develop the modern notion of a manifold, as even the notion of a topological space had not been encountered, but he did propose that it might be possible to investigate or measure the properties of the metric of spacetime through the analysis of masses within spacetime, linking with the earlier observation of Euler that masses under the effect of no forces would travel along geodesics on surfaces, and predicting Einstein's fundamental observation of the equivalence principle a full 60 years before it appeared in the scientific literature. In 1899 Luigi Bianchi produced his Lectures on differential geometry which studied differential geometry from Riemann's perspective, and a year later Tullio Levi-Civita and Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro produced their textbook systematically developing the theory of absolute differential calculus and tensor calculus. At the start of the 1900s there was a major movement within mathematics to formalise the foundational aspects of the subject to avoid crises of rigour and accuracy, known as Hilbert's program. As part of this broader movement, the notion of a topological space was distilled in by Felix Hausdorff in 1914, and by 1942 there were many different notions of manifold of a combinatorial and differential-geometric nature. Contact geometry Contact geometry deals with certain manifolds of odd dimension. It is close to symplectic geometry and like the latter, it originated in questions of classical mechanics. A contact structure on a -dimensional manifold M is given by a smooth hyperplane field H in the tangent bundle that is as far as possible from being associated with the level sets of a differentiable function on M (the technical term is "completely nonintegrable tangent hyperplane distribution"). Near each point p, a hyperplane distribution is determined by a nowhere vanishing 1-form \alpha, which is unique up to multiplication by a nowhere vanishing function: H_p = \ker\alpha_p\subset T_{p}M. A local 1-form on M is a contact form if the restriction of its exterior derivative to H is a non-degenerate two-form and thus induces a symplectic structure on Hp at each point. If the distribution H can be defined by a global one-form \alpha then this form is contact if and only if the top-dimensional form \alpha\wedge (d\alpha)^n is a volume form on M, i.e. does not vanish anywhere. A contact analogue of the Darboux theorem holds: all contact structures on an odd-dimensional manifold are locally isomorphic and can be brought to a certain local normal form by a suitable choice of the coordinate system. Complex and Kähler geometry Complex differential geometry is the study of complex manifolds. An almost complex manifold is a real manifold M, endowed with a tensor of type (1, 1), i.e. a vector bundle endomorphism (called an almost complex structure) J:TM\rightarrow TM , such that J^2=-1. \, It follows from this definition that an almost complex manifold is even-dimensional. An almost complex manifold is called complex if N_J=0, where N_J is a tensor of type (2, 1) related to J, called the Nijenhuis tensor (or sometimes the torsion). An almost complex manifold is complex if and only if it admits a holomorphic coordinate atlas. An almost Hermitian structure is given by an almost complex structure J, along with a Riemannian metric g, satisfying the compatibility condition g(JX,JY)=g(X,Y). \, An almost Hermitian structure defines naturally a differential two-form \omega_{J,g}(X,Y):=g(JX,Y). \, The following two conditions are equivalent: N_J0\mbox{ and }d\omega0 \, \nabla J=0 \, where \nabla is the Levi-Civita connection of g. In this case, (J, g) is called a Kähler structure, and a Kähler manifold is a manifold endowed with a Kähler structure. In particular, a Kähler manifold is both a complex and a symplectic manifold. A large class of Kähler manifolds (the class of Hodge manifolds) is given by all the smooth complex projective varieties. CR geometry CR geometry is the study of the intrinsic geometry of boundaries of domains in complex manifolds. Conformal geometry Conformal geometry is the study of the set of angle-preserving (conformal) transformations on a space. Differential topology Differential topology is the study of global geometric invariants without a metric or symplectic form. Differential topology starts from the natural operations such as Lie derivative of natural vector bundles and de Rham differential of forms. Beside Lie algebroids, also Courant algebroids start playing a more important role. Lie groups A Lie group is a group in the category of smooth manifolds. Beside the algebraic properties this enjoys also differential geometric properties. The most obvious construction is that of a Lie algebra which is the tangent space at the unit endowed with the Lie bracket between left-invariant vector fields. Beside the structure theory there is also the wide field of representation theory. Geometric analysis Geometric analysis is a mathematical discipline where tools from differential equations, especially elliptic partial differential equations are used to establish new results in differential geometry and differential topology. Gauge theory Gauge theory is the study of connections on vector bundles and principal bundles, and arises out of problems in mathematical physics and physical gauge theories which underpin the standard model of particle physics. Gauge theory is concerned with the study of differential equations for connections on bundles, and the resulting geometric moduli spaces of solutions to these equations as well as the invariants that may be derived from them. These equations often arise as the Euler–Lagrange equations describing the equations of motion of certain physical systems in quantum field theory, and so their study is of considerable interest in physics. Bundles and connections The apparatus of vector bundles, principal bundles, and connections on bundles plays an extraordinarily important role in modern differential geometry. A smooth manifold always carries a natural vector bundle, the tangent bundle. Loosely speaking, this structure by itself is sufficient only for developing analysis on the manifold, while doing geometry requires, in addition, some way to relate the tangent spaces at different points, i.e. a notion of parallel transport. An important example is provided by affine connections. For a surface in R3, tangent planes at different points can be identified using a natural path-wise parallelism induced by the ambient Euclidean space, which has a well-known standard definition of metric and parallelism. In Riemannian geometry, the Levi-Civita connection serves a similar purpose. More generally, differential geometers consider spaces with a vector bundle and an arbitrary affine connection which is not defined in terms of a metric. In physics, the manifold may be spacetime and the bundles and connections are related to various physical fields. Intrinsic versus extrinsic From the beginning and through the middle of the 19th century, differential geometry was studied from the extrinsic point of view: curves and surfaces were considered as lying in a Euclidean space of higher dimension (for example a surface in an ambient space of three dimensions). The simplest results are those in the differential geometry of curves and differential geometry of surfaces. Starting with the work of Riemann, the intrinsic point of view was developed, in which one cannot speak of moving "outside" the geometric object because it is considered to be given in a free-standing way. The fundamental result here is Gauss's theorema egregium, to the effect that Gaussian curvature is an intrinsic invariant. The intrinsic point of view is more flexible. For example, it is useful in relativity where space-time cannot naturally be taken as extrinsic. However, there is a price to pay in technical complexity: the intrinsic definitions of curvature and connections become much less visually intuitive. These two points of view can be reconciled, i.e. the extrinsic geometry can be considered as a structure additional to the intrinsic one. (See the Nash embedding theorem.) In the formalism of geometric calculus both extrinsic and intrinsic geometry of a manifold can be characterized by a single bivector-valued one-form called the shape operator. Applications Below are some examples of how differential geometry is applied to other fields of science and mathematics. In physics, differential geometry has many applications, including: Differential geometry is the language in which Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity is expressed. According to the theory, the universe is a smooth manifold equipped with a pseudo-Riemannian metric, which describes the curvature of spacetime. Understanding this curvature is essential for the positioning of satellites into orbit around the Earth. Differential geometry is also indispensable in the study of gravitational lensing and black holes. Differential forms are used in the study of electromagnetism. Differential geometry has applications to both Lagrangian mechanics and Hamiltonian mechanics. Symplectic manifolds in particular can be used to study Hamiltonian systems. Riemannian geometry and contact geometry have been used to construct the formalism of geometrothermodynamics which has found applications in classical equilibrium thermodynamics. In chemistry and biophysics when modelling cell membrane structure under varying pressure. In economics, differential geometry has applications to the field of econometrics. Geometric modeling (including computer graphics) and computer-aided geometric design draw on ideas from differential geometry. In engineering, differential geometry can be applied to solve problems in digital signal processing. In control theory, differential geometry can be used to analyze nonlinear controllers, particularly geometric control In probability, statistics, and information theory, one can interpret various structures as Riemannian manifolds, which yields the field of information geometry, particularly via the Fisher information metric. In structural geology, differential geometry is used to analyze and describe geologic structures. In computer vision, differential geometry is used to analyze shapes. In image processing, differential geometry is used to process and analyse data on non-flat surfaces. Grigori Perelman's proof of the Poincaré conjecture using the techniques of Ricci flows demonstrated the power of the differential-geometric approach to questions in topology and it highlighted the important role played by its analytic methods. In wireless communications, Grassmannian manifolds are used for beamforming techniques in multiple antenna systems. In geodesy, for calculating distances and angles on the mean sea level surface of the Earth, modelled by an ellipsoid of revolution. See also Affine differential geometry Analysis on fractals Basic introduction to the mathematics of curved spacetime Discrete differential geometry Gauss Glossary of differential geometry and topology Important publications in differential geometry Important publications in differential topology Integral geometry List of differential geometry topics Noncommutative geometry Projective differential geometry Synthetic differential geometry Systolic geometry Gauge theory (mathematics) References Further reading External links B. Conrad. Differential Geometry handouts, Stanford University Michael Murray's online differential geometry course, 1996 A Modern Course on Curves and Surfaces, Richard S Palais, 2003 Richard Palais's 3DXM Surfaces Gallery Balázs Csikós's Notes on Differential Geometry N. J. Hicks, Notes on Differential Geometry, Van Nostrand. MIT OpenCourseWare: Differential Geometry, Fall 2008 Category:Geometry processing	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_geometry	2025-04-05T18:28:42.495028
8626	Dhole	\| image = Dhole in its habitat (cropped).jpg \| image_caption \| image_upright 0.9 \| status = EN \| status_system = IUCN3.1 \| status_ref \| status2 = CITES_A2 \| status2_system = CITES \| status2_ref Cuon alpinus) is a canid native to South, East and Southeast Asia. It is anatomically distinguished from members of the genus Canis in several aspects: its skull is convex rather than concave in profile, it lacks a third lower molar and the upper molars possess only a single cusp as opposed to between two and four. During the Pleistocene, the dhole ranged throughout Asia, with its range also extending into Europe (with a single putative, controversial record also reported from North America) but became restricted to its historical range 12,000–18,000 years ago. It is now extinct in Central Asia, parts of Southeast Asia, and possibly the Korean peninsula and Russia. Genetic evidence indicates that the dhole was the result of reticulate evolution, emerging from the hybridization between a species closely related to genus Canis and from a lineage closely related to the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus). The dhole is a highly social animal, living in large clans without rigid dominance hierarchies and containing multiple breeding females. Such clans usually consist of about 12 individuals, but groups of over 40 are known. It is a diurnal pack hunter which preferentially targets large and medium-sized ungulates. In tropical forests, the dhole competes with the tiger (Panthera tigris) and the leopard (Panthera pardus), targeting somewhat different prey species, but still with substantial dietary overlap. It is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List, as populations are decreasing and estimated to comprise fewer than 2,500 mature individuals. Factors contributing to this decline include habitat loss, loss of prey, competition with other species, persecution due to livestock predation, and disease transfer from domestic dogs. Etymology and naming The etymology of "dhole" is unclear. The possible earliest written use of the word in English occurred in 1808 by soldier Thomas Williamson, who encountered the animal in Ramghur district, India. He stated that dhole was a common local name for the species. In 1827, Charles Hamilton Smith claimed that it was derived from a language spoken in 'various parts of the East'. Two years later, Smith connected this word with 'mad, crazy', and erroneously compared the Turkish word with and (cfr. also ; ), which are in fact from the Proto-Germanic dwalaz 'foolish, stupid'. Richard Lydekker wrote nearly 80 years later that the word was not used by the natives living within the species' range. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary theorises that it may have come from the . Other English names for the species include Asian wild dog, Asiatic wild dog, Indian wild dog, and red wolf.Taxonomy and evolution dating back to the upper Würm period from Cova Negra de Xàtiva, Valencia, Spain]] , one of the first accurate depictions of the species, based on a single skin purchased in the village of Dshare on the Amur is not relevant for taxonomy--> Canis alpinus was the binomial name proposed by Peter Simon Pallas in 1811, who described its range as encompassing the upper levels of Udskoi Ostrog in Amurland, towards the eastern side and in the region of the upper Lena River, around the Yenisei River and occasionally crossing into China. This northern Russian range reported by Pallas during the 18th and 19th centuries is "considerably north" of where this species occurs today. Hodgson later took note of the dhole's physical distinctiveness from the genus Canis and proposed the genus Cuon. The first study on the origins of the species was conducted by paleontologist Erich Thenius, who concluded in 1955 that the dhole was a post-Pleistocene descendant of a golden jackal-like ancestor. The paleontologist Bjorn Kurten wrote in his 1968 book Pleistocene Mammals of Europe that the primitive dhole Canis majori Del Campana 1913 —the remains of which have been found in Villafranchian era Valdarno, Italy and in China—was almost indistinguishable from the genus Canis. In comparison, the modern species has greatly reduced molars and the cusps have developed into sharply trenchant points. During the Early Middle Pleistocene there arose both Canis majori stehlini that was the size of a large wolf, and the early dhole Canis alpinus Pallas 1811 which first appeared at Hundsheim and Mosbach in Germany. In the Late Pleistocene era the European dhole (C. a. europaeus) was modern-looking and the transformation of the lower molar into a single cusped, slicing tooth had been completed; however, its size was comparable with that of a wolf. This subspecies became extinct in Europe at the end of the late Würm period, but the species as a whole still inhabits a large area of Asia. and what is believed to be dhole remains have been found at Riparo Fredian in northern Italy dated 10,800 years old. The vast Pleistocene range of this species also included numerous islands in Asia that this species no longer inhabits, such as Sri Lanka, Borneo and possibly Palawan in the Philippines. Middle Pleistocene dhole fossils have also been found in the Matsukae Cave in northern Kyushu Island in western Japan and in the Lower Kuzuu fauna in Tochigi Prefecture in Honshu Island, east Japan. Dhole fossils from the Late Pleistocene dated to about 10,700 years before present are known from the Luobi Cave or Luobi-Dong cave in Hainan Island in south China where they no longer exist. Additionally, fossils of canidae possibly belonging to dhole have been excavated from Dajia River in Taichung County, Taiwan. A single record of the dhole is known from North America. This consists of a jaw fragment and teeth of Late Pleistocene age found in San Josecito Cave in northeast Mexico, dating to around 27–11,000 years ago. Other researchers have either considered this record as "insufficient" or suggested that further corroboration is required for the definitive taxonomic attribution of these specimens. \|cladogram"></span> \|2=Gray wolf }} }} \|2=Coyote }} \|2=African wolf }} \|2=Golden jackal }} \|2=Ethiopian wolf }} \|2=Dhole }} \|2=African wild dog }} \|2= \|label1=2.6 }} }} }} }} Dholes are also known from the Middle and Late Pleistocene fossil record of Europe. In 2021, the analyses of the mitochondrial genomes extracted from the fossil remains of two extinct European dhole specimens from the Jáchymka cave, Czech Republic dated 35,000–45,000 years old indicate that these were genetically basal to modern dholes and possessed much greater genetic diversity. Subsequent authors, including Juliet Clutton-Brock, noted greater morphological similarities to canids of the genera Canis, Dusicyon and Alopex than to either Speothos or Lycaon, with any resemblance to the latter two being due to convergent evolution. Some authors consider the extinct Canis subgenus Xenocyon as ancestral to both the genus Lycaon and the genus Cuon. This closeness to Canis may have been confirmed in a menagerie in Madras, where according to zoologist Reginald Innes Pocock there is a record of a dhole that interbred with a golden jackal. DNA sequencing of the Sardinian dhole (Cynotherium sardous) an extinct small canine species formerly native to the island of Sardinia in the Mediterranean, and which has often been suggested to have descended from Xenocyon, has found that it is most closely related to the living dhole among canines. Admixture with the African wild dog In 2018, whole genome sequencing was used to compare all members (apart from the black-backed and side-striped jackals) of the genus Canis, along with the dhole and the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus). There was strong evidence of ancient genetic admixture between the dhole and the African wild dog. Today, their ranges are remote from each other; however, during the Pleistocene era the dhole could be found as far west as Europe. The study proposes that the dhole's distribution may have once included the Middle East, from where it may have admixed with the African wild dog in North Africa. However, there is no evidence of the dhole having existed in the Middle East nor North Africa, though the Lycaon was present in Europe during the Early Pleistocene, with its last record in the region dating to 830,000 years ago. Genetic evidence from the Sardinan dhole suggests that both Sardinian and modern dholes (which are estimated to have split from each other around 900,000 years ago) share ancestry from the Lycaon lineage, but this ancestry is significantly higher in modern dholes than in the Sardinian dhole. , seven subspecies are recognised. In the absence of further data, the researchers involved in the study speculated that Javan and Sumatran dholes could have been introduced to the islands by humans. Fossils of dhole from the early Middle Pleistocene have been found in Java. {\| class"wikitable sortable" width90% font=90% \|- bgcolor="#115a6c" !Subspecies !Image !Trinomial authority !Description !Distribution !Synonyms \|---- \|C. a. adjustus Burmese dhole, \|Northeastern India and south of the Ganges River, northern Myanmar The dhole has a wide and massive skull with a well-developed sagittal crest, The rostrum is shorter than that of domestic dogs and most other canids. The upper molars are weak, being one third to one half the size of those of wolves and have only one cusp as opposed to between two and four, as is usual in canids, In appearance, the dhole has been variously described as combining the physical characteristics of the gray wolf and the red fox, but it is now also extinct in South Korea, The current presence of dholes in North Korea and Pakistan is considered uncertain. This was the first record of dholes from the country in almost three decades. It possibly still lives in the Primorsky Krai province in far eastern Russia, where it was considered a rare and endangered species in 2004, with unconfirmed reports in the Pikthsa-Tigrovy Dom protected forest area; no sighting was reported in other areas since the late 1970s. Currently, no other recent reports are confirmed of dholes being present in Russia, so the IUCN considered them to be extinct in Russia. In 2011 to 2013, local government officials and herders reported the presence of several dhole packs at elevations of near Taxkorgan Nature Reserve in the Xinjiang Autonomous Region. Several packs and a female adult with pups were also recorded by camera traps at elevations of around in Yanchiwan National Nature Reserve in the northern Gansu Province in 2013–2014. Dholes have been also reported in the Altyn-Tagh Mountains. In China's Yunnan Province, dholes were recorded in Baima Xueshan Nature Reserve in 2010–2011. Dhole samples were obtained in Jiangxi Province in 2013. Confirmed records by camera-trapping since 2008 have occurred in southern and western Gansu province, southern Shaanxi province, southern Qinghai province, southern and western Yunnan province, western Sichuan province, the southern Xinjiang Autonomous Region and in the Southeastern Tibet Autonomoous Region. There are also historical records of dhole dating to 1521–1935 in Hainan Island, but the species is no longer present and is estimated to have become extinct around 1942. Its presence was confirmed in the Kanchenjunga Conservation Area in 2011 by camera traps. In February 2020, dholes were sighted in the Vansda National Park, with camera traps confirming the presence of two individuals in May of the same year. This was the first confirmed sighting of dholes in Gujarat since 1970. In Bhutan, the dhole is present in Jigme Dorji National Park. In Bangladesh, it inhabits forest reserves in the Sylhet area, as well the Chittagong Hill Tracts in the southeast. Recent camera trap photos in the Chittagong in 2016 showed the continued presence of the dhole. These regions probably do not harbour a viable population, as mostly small groups or solitary individuals were sighted. Its range is highly fragmented in the Malaysian Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Vietnam and Thailand, with the Vietnamese population considered to be possibly extinct. A camera trapping survey in the Khao Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary in Thailand from January 2008 to February 2010 documented one healthy dhole pack. In northern Laos, dholes were studied in Nam Et-Phou Louey National Protected Area. In Vietnam, dholes were sighted only in Pu Mat National Park in 1999, in Yok Don National Park in 2003 and 2004; and in Ninh Thuan Province in 2014. A disjunct dhole population was reported in the area of Trabzon and Rize in northeastern Turkey near the border with Georgia in the 1990s. This report was not considered to be reliable. In August 2015, researchers from the National Museum of Natural History and the Karadeniz Technical University started an expedition to track and document possible Turkish population of dhole. In October 2015, they concluded that two skins of alleged dholes in Turkey probably belonged to dogs, pending DNA analysis of samples from the skins, and, having analysed photos of the skull of alleged dhole in Kabardino-Balkaria Republic of Russia, they concluded it was a grey wolf. Ecology and behaviour Dholes produce whistles resembling the calls of red foxes, sometimes rendered as coo-coo. How this sound is produced is unknown, though it is thought to help in coordinating the pack when travelling through thick brush. When attacking prey, they emit screaming KaKaKaKAA sounds. Other sounds include whines (food soliciting), growls (warning), screams, chatterings (both of which are alarm calls) and yapping cries. In contrast to wolves, dholes do not howl or bark. Social and territorial behaviour Dholes are more social than gray wolves, They live in clans rather than packs, as the latter term refers to a group of animals that always hunt together. In contrast, dhole clans frequently break into small packs of three to five animals, particularly during the spring season, as this is the optimal number for catching fawns. Dominant dholes are hard to identify, as they do not engage in dominance displays as wolves do, though other clan members will show submissive behaviour toward them. Clans typically number 5 to 12 individuals in India, though clans of 40 have been reported. In Thailand, clans rarely exceed three individuals. and domestic dogs. They may defecate in conspicuous places, though a territorial function is unlikely, as faeces are mostly deposited within the clan's territory rather than the periphery. Faeces are often deposited in what appear to be communal latrines. They do not scrape the earth with their feet, as other canids do, to mark their territories. Like African wild dogs and dingoes, dholes will avoid killing prey close to their dens. The gestation period lasts 60–63 days, with litter sizes averaging four to six pups. Pups are suckled at least 58 days. During this time, the pack feeds the mother at the den site. Dholes do not use rendezvous sites to meet their pups as wolves do, though one or more adults will stay with the pups at the den while the rest of the pack hunts. Once weaning begins, the adults of the clan will regurgitate food for the pups until they are old enough to join in hunting. They remain at the den site for 70–80 days. By the age of six months, pups accompany the adults on hunts and will assist in killing large prey such as sambar by the age of eight months. Maximum longevity in captivity is 15–16 years. Dholes are primarily diurnal hunters, hunting in the early hours of the morning. They rarely hunt at night, except on moonlit nights, indicating they greatly rely on sight when hunting. They can chase their prey for many hours. When chasing fleet-footed prey, they run at a pace of . , Bandipur National Park]] Once large prey is caught, one dhole grabs the prey's nose, while the rest of the pack pulls the animal down by the flanks and hindquarters. They do not use a killing bite to the throat. They occasionally blind their prey by attacking the eyes. Serows are among the only ungulate species capable of effectively defending themselves against dhole attacks, due to their thick, protective coats and short, sharp horns capable of easily impaling dholes. Prey weighing less than is usually killed within two minutes, while large stags may take 15 minutes to die. Once prey is secured, dholes tear off pieces of the carcass and eat in seclusion. They give the pups access to a kill. They are generally tolerant of scavengers at their kills. Both mother and young are provided with regurgitated food by other pack members. There is one record of a pack bringing down an Indian elephant calf in Assam, despite desperate defense of the mother, resulting in numerous losses to the pack. Dholes eat fruit and vegetable matter more readily than other canids. In captivity, they eat various kinds of grasses, herbs and leaves, seemingly for pleasure rather than just when ill. In summertime in the Tian Shan Mountains, dholes eat large quantities of mountain rhubarb. Livestock predation by dholes has been a problem in Bhutan since the late 1990s, as domestic animals are often left outside to graze in the forest, sometimes for weeks at a time. Livestock stall-fed at night and grazed near homes are never attacked. Oxen are killed more often than cows, probably because they are given less protection.Enemies and competitors , India]] In some areas, dholes are sympatric to tigers and leopards. Competition between these species is mostly avoided through differences in prey selection, although there is still substantial dietary overlap. Along with leopards, dholes typically target animals in the range (mean weights of for dhole and for leopard), while tigers selected for prey animals heavier than (but their mean prey weight was ). Also, other characteristics of the prey, such as sex, arboreality and aggressiveness, may play a role in prey selection. For example, dholes preferentially select male chital, whereas leopards kill both sexes more evenly (and tigers prefer larger prey altogether), dholes and tigers kill langurs rarely compared to leopards due to the leopards' greater arboreality, while leopards kill wild boar infrequently due to the inability of this relatively light predator to tackle aggressive prey of comparable weight. Tigers are dangerous opponents for dholes, as they have sufficient strength to kill a dhole with a single paw strike. Dhole packs are smaller in areas with higher tiger densities due to tigers directly killing dholes and stealing kills they made. The kleptoparasitism causes dholes to prefer hunting smaller animals because they can eat more of a smaller carcass before a tiger arrives to steal it. Direct predation can lead to lower reproductive and recruitment rates, lower hunting success rates and less food for the pups when a helper is killed, and potentially pack destabilization if one member of the breeding pair is killed. Dhole packs may steal leopard kills, while leopards may kill dholes if they encounter them singly or in pairs. Dholes were once thought to be a major factor in reducing Asiatic cheetah populations, though this is doubtful, as cheetahs live in open areas as opposed to forested areas favoured by dholes. Since leopards are smaller than tigers and are more likely to hunt dholes, dhole packs tend to react more aggressively toward them than they do towards tigers. Dhole packs occasionally attack Asiatic black bears, snow leopards and sloth bears. When attacking bears, dholes will attempt to prevent them from seeking refuge in caves and lacerate their hindquarters. The dhole is also sympatric with the Indian wolf (Canis lupus pallipes) in parts of its range. There is at least one record of a lone wolf associating with a pair of dholes in Debrigarh Wildlife Sanctuary, and two observations in Satpura Tiger Reserve. They infrequently associate in mixed groups with golden jackals. Domestic dogs may kill dholes, though they will feed alongside them on occasion.Diseases and parasitesDholes are vulnerable to a number of different diseases, particularly in areas where they are sympatric with other canid species. Infectious pathogens such as Toxocara canis are present in their faeces. They may suffer from rabies, canine distemper, mange, trypanosomiasis, canine parvovirus and endoparasites such as cestodes and roundworms. Some ethnic groups like the Kuruba and Mon Khmer-speaking tribes will appropriate dhole kills; some Indian villagers welcome the dhole because of this appropriation of dhole kills. The Indochinese dhole population suffers heavily from nonselective hunting techniques such as snaring. The dhole has been protected in Russia since 1974, though it is vulnerable to poison left out for wolves. In China, the animal is listed as a category II protected species under the Chinese wildlife protection act of 1988. In Cambodia, the dhole is protected from all hunting, while conservation laws in Vietnam limit extraction and utilisation.In culture and literature Three dhole-like animals are featured on the coping stone of the Bharhut stupa dating from 100 BC. They are shown waiting by a tree, with a woman or spirit trapped up it, a scene reminiscent of dholes treeing tigers. The animal's fearsome reputation in India is reflected by the number of pejorative names it possesses in Hindi, which variously translate as "red devil", "devil dog", "jungle devil", or "hound of Kali". Dholes appear in Rudyard Kipling's Red Dog, where they are portrayed as aggressive and bloodthirsty animals which descend from the Deccan Plateau into the Seeonee Hills inhabited by Mowgli and his adopted wolf pack to cause carnage among the jungle's denizens. They are described as living in packs numbering hundreds of individuals, and that even Shere Khan and Hathi make way for them when they descend into the jungle. The dholes are despised by the wolves because of their destructiveness, their habit of not living in dens and the hair between their toes. With Mowgli and Kaa's help, the Seeonee wolf pack manages to wipe out the dholes by leading them through bee hives and torrential waters before finishing off the rest in battle. Japanese author Uchida Roan wrote (; A dog's tale) in 1901 as a nationalistic critique of the declining popularity of indigenous dog breeds, which he asserted were descended from the dhole. A fictional version of the dhole, imbued with supernatural abilities, appears in a sixth-season episode of TV series The X-Files, titled "Alpha". In China, the dhole were widely known throughout history and mythology. One notable legendary creature is the Yazi (), which was believed to be a creature that was part-dhole, part-dragon. In modern times, however, the Chinese word for dhole () is often confused with 'jackal' or 'wolf', resulting in many confusions and mistranslations of dholes as jackals or wolves. Dholes also appear as enemies in the video game Far Cry 4, alongside other predators such as the Bengal tiger, honey badger, snow leopard, clouded leopard, Tibetan wolf and Asian black bear. They can be found hunting the player and other NPCs across the map, but are easily killed, being one of the weakest enemies in the game. They once again appear in the video game Far Cry Primal, where they play similar roles as their counterparts in the previous game, but can now also be tamed and used in combat by Takkar, the main protagonist of the game. Tameability Brian Houghton Hodgson kept captured dholes in captivity, and found, with the exception of one animal, they remained shy and vicious even after 10 months. Adult dholes are nearly impossible to tame, though pups are docile and can even be allowed to play with domestic dog pups until they reach early adulthood. See also Wild Dog Diaries Notes References Bibliography * External links [http://www.cuon.net/dholes/ Dhole Home Page] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20170919112743/http://www.cuon.net:80/dholes Archive]) ARKive – [https://web.archive.org/web/20060313170514/http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/mammals/Cuon_alpinus/ images and movies of the dhole] [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/radical-conservation/2015/jun/25/dhole-asia-endangered-tiger-ignored Saving the dhole: The forgotten 'badass' Asian dog more endangered than tigers], The Guardian (25 June 2015) *[https://web.archive.org/web/20110608190250/http://public.fotki.com/msandeep/wild-dogs---bandipur/ Photos of dhole in Bandipur] Category:Canina (subtribe) Category:Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas Category:Mammals described in 1811 Category:Carnivorans of Asia Category:Mammals of South Asia Category:Mammals of Southeast Asia Category:Endangered fauna of Asia Category:Pleistocene mammals of Asia Category:Extant Middle Pleistocene first appearances Category:Species that are or were threatened by habitat fragmentation Category:Endangered Fauna of China	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhole	2025-04-05T18:28:42.583495
8629	Donald Rumsfeld	\| term_start = January 20, 2001 \| term_end = December 18, 2006 \| predecessor = William Cohen \| successor = Robert Gates \| president1 = Gerald Ford \| deputy1 = Bill Clements \| term_start1 = November 20, 1975 \| term_end1 = January 20, 1977 \| predecessor1 = James Schlesinger \| successor1 = Harold Brown \| order2 = 6th \| office2 = White House Chief of Staff \| president2 = Gerald Ford \| term_start2 = September 21, 1974 \| term_end2 = November 20, 1975 \| predecessor2 = Alexander Haig \| successor2 = Dick Cheney \| order3 = 9th \| ambassador_from3 = United States \| country3 = NATO \| president3 = \| term_start3 = February 2, 1973 \| term_end3 = September 21, 1974 \| predecessor3 = David Kennedy \| successor3 = David Bruce \| office4 = Director of the Cost of Living Council \| president4 = Richard Nixon \| term_start4 = October 15, 1971 \| term_end4 = February 2, 1973 \| predecessor4 = Position established \| successor4 = Position abolished \| office5 = Counselor to the President \| president5 = Richard Nixon \| term_start5 = December 11, 1970 \| term_end5 = October 15, 1971 \| alongside5 = Robert Finch \| predecessor5 = \| successor5 = Robert Finch \| order6 = 3rd \| office6 = Director of the Office of Economic Opportunity \| president6 = Richard Nixon \| term_start6 = May 27, 1969 \| term_end6 = December 11, 1970 \| predecessor6 = Bertrand Harding \| successor6 = Frank Carlucci \| state7 = Illinois \| district7 = \| term_start7 = January 3, 1963 \| term_end7 = May 25, 1969 \| predecessor7 = Marguerite Church \| successor7 = Phil Crane \| birth_name = Donald Henry Rumsfeld \| birth_date = \| birth_place = Chicago, Illinois, U.S. \| death_date = \| death_place = Taos, New Mexico, U.S. \| resting_place = Arlington National Cemetery \| party = Republican \| spouse = \| children = 3 \| education = Princeton University (AB)<br />Case Western Reserve University<br />Georgetown University \| signature = Donald Rumsfeld Signature.svg \| website = \| allegiance = <!-- United States; too obvious to list --> \| branch = United States Navy \| branch_label = Branch \| nickname = "Rummy" \| serviceyears = \| rank = Captain \| module }} Donald Henry Rumsfeld (July 9, 1932 – June 29, 2021) was an American politician, government official, and businessman who served as secretary of defense from 1975 to 1977 under President Gerald Ford, and again from 2001 to 2006 under President George W. Bush. He was both the youngest and the oldest secretary of defense. Additionally, Rumsfeld was a four-term U.S. Congressman from Illinois (1963–1969), director of the Office of Economic Opportunity (1969–1970), counselor to the president (1969–1973), the U.S. Representative to NATO (1973–1974), and the White House Chief of Staff (1974–1975). Between his terms as secretary of defense, he served as the CEO and chairman of several companies. Born in Illinois, Rumsfeld attended Princeton University, graduating in 1954 with a degree in political science. After serving in the Navy for three years, he mounted a campaign for Congress in Illinois's 13th Congressional District, winning in 1962 at the age of 30. Rumsfeld accepted an appointment by President Richard Nixon to head the Office of Economic Opportunity in 1969; appointed counsellor by Nixon and entitled to Cabinet-level status, he also headed up the Economic Stabilization Program before being appointed ambassador to NATO. Called back to Washington in August 1974, Rumsfeld was appointed chief of staff by President Ford. Rumsfeld recruited a young one-time staffer of his, Dick Cheney, to succeed him when Ford nominated him to be secretary of defense in 1975. When Ford lost the 1976 election, Rumsfeld returned to private business and financial life, and was named president and CEO of the pharmaceutical corporation G. D. Searle & Company. He was later named CEO of General Instrument from 1990 to 1993 and chairman of Gilead Sciences from 1997 to 2001. Rumsfeld was appointed secretary of defense for a second time in January 2001 by President George W. Bush. As secretary of defense, Rumsfeld played a central role in the 2001 United States invasion of Afghanistan and 2003 invasion of Iraq. Before and during the Iraq War, he claimed that Iraq had an active weapons of mass destruction program; no stockpiles were ever found. A Pentagon Inspector General report found that Rumsfeld's top policy aide "developed, produced, and then disseminated alternative intelligence assessments on the Iraq and al-Qaeda relationship, which included some conclusions that were inconsistent with the consensus of the Intelligence Community, to senior decision-makers". Rumsfeld's tenure was controversial for its use of torture and the Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse scandal. Rumsfeld gradually lost political support and resigned in late 2006. In his retirement years, he published an autobiography, Known and Unknown: A Memoir, as well as ''Rumsfeld's Rules: Leadership Lessons in Business, Politics, War, and Life''. Early life and education ]] Donald Henry Rumsfeld was born at St. Lukes Hospital on July 9, 1932, in Chicago, Illinois, the son of Jeannette Kearsley (née Husted) and George Donald Rumsfeld. His father came from a German family that had emigrated in the 1870s from Weyhe in Lower Saxony, but young Donald was sometimes ribbed about looking like a "tough Swiss". and its Silver Buffalo Award in 2006. Living in Winnetka, his family attended a Congregational church. From 1943 to 1945, Rumsfeld lived in Coronado, California, while his father was stationed on an aircraft carrier in the Pacific in World War II. He was a ranger at Philmont Scout Ranch in 1949. Rumsfeld attended Baker Demonstration School, and later graduated from New Trier High School where he excelled academically as well as in sports. In the band, the young Rumsfeld played drums and also excelled at saxophone. He attended Princeton University on academic and NROTC partial scholarships. He graduated in 1954 with an A.B. <!-- Princeton University uses the Latin form: Artium Baccalaureus -->in politics after completing a senior thesis titled "The Steel Seizure Case of 1952 and Its Effects on Presidential Powers". During his time at Princeton, he was an accomplished amateur wrestler, becoming captain of the varsity wrestling team, and captain of the Lightweight Football team playing defensive back. While at Princeton he was friends with another future Secretary of Defense, Frank Carlucci. Rumsfeld married Joyce P. Pierson on December 27, 1954. They had three children, six grandchildren, and one great-grandchild. He attended Case Western Reserve University School of Law and the Georgetown University Law Center, but did not take a degree from either institution. Naval service Rumsfeld served in the United States Navy from 1954 to 1957, as a naval aviator and flight instructor. His initial training was in the North American SNJ Texan basic trainer after which he transitioned to the T-28 advanced trainer. In 1957, he transferred to the Naval Reserve and continued his naval service in flying and administrative assignments as a drilling reservist. On July 1, 1958, he was assigned to Anti-submarine Squadron 662 at Naval Air Station Anacostia in Washington, D.C., as a selective reservist. Rumsfeld was designated aircraft commander of Anti-submarine Squadron 731 on October 1, 1960, at Naval Air Station Grosse Ile, Michigan, where he flew the S2F Tracker. Career in government (1962–1975) Member of Congress In 1957, during the Dwight D. Eisenhower administration, Rumsfeld served as administrative assistant to David S. Dennison Jr., a Congressman representing the 11th district of Ohio. In 1959, he moved on to become a staff assistant to Congressman Robert P. Griffin of Michigan. Engaging in a two-year stint with an investment banking firm, A. G. Becker & Co., from 1960 to 1962, Rumsfeld then set his sights on becoming a member of Congress. He was elected to the United States House of Representatives for Illinois's 13th congressional district in 1962, at the age of 30, and was re-elected by large majorities in 1964, 1966, and 1968. While in Congress, he served on the Joint Economic Committee, the Committee on Science and Aeronautics, and the Government Operations Committee, as well as on the Subcommittees on Military and Foreign Operations. He was also a co-founder of the Japanese-American Inter-Parliamentary Council in addition to being a leading cosponsor of the Freedom of Information Act. In 1965, following the defeat of Barry Goldwater by Lyndon B. Johnson in the 1964 presidential election, which also led to the Republicans losing many seats in the House of Representatives, Rumsfeld proposed new leadership for the Republicans in the House, suggesting that representative Gerald Ford from Michigan's 5th congressional district was the most suited candidate to replace Charles A. Halleck as Republican leader. Rumsfeld, along with other members of the Republican caucus, then urged Ford to run for Republican leader. Ford eventually defeated Halleck and became House Minority Leader in 1965. The group of Republicans that encouraged Ford to run for the Republican leadership became known as the "Young Turks". Rumsfeld later served during Ford's presidency as his chief of staff in 1974, and was chosen by Ford to succeed James Schlesinger as United States Secretary of Defense in 1975. He later took part in Friedman's PBS series Free to Choose. During his tenure in the House, Rumsfeld voted in favor of the Civil Rights Acts of 1964 and 1968, and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Nixon administration Rumsfeld resigned from Congress in 1969his fourth termto serve in the Nixon administration in a variety of executive branch positions. Nixon appointed Rumsfeld director of the United States Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO), a position with Cabinet rank. Rumsfeld had voted against the creation of OEO when he was in Congress, After much negotiation, he accepted the OEO appointment with Nixon's "assurances that he would be ... also an assistant to the President, with Cabinet-level status and an office in the White House," which "sweetened (the OEO position) with status and responsibility". As director, Rumsfeld sought to reorganize the Office to serve what he later described in his 2011 memoir as "a laboratory for experimental programs". and Dick Cheney to serve under him. He was the subject of one of writer Jack Anderson's columns, alleging that "anti-poverty czar" Rumsfeld had cut programs to aid the poor while spending thousands to redecorate his office. Rumsfeld dictated a four-page response to Anderson, labeling the accusations as falsehoods, and invited Anderson to tour his office. Despite the tour, Anderson did not retract his claims, and only much later admitted that his column was a mistake. When Rumsfeld left OEO in December 1970, Nixon named him Counselor to the President, a general advisory position; in this role, he retained Cabinet status. In February 1973, Rumsfeld left Washington to serve as U.S. Ambassador to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in Brussels, Belgium. He served as the United States' Permanent Representative to the North Atlantic Council and the Defense Planning Committee, and the Nuclear Planning Group. In this capacity, he represented the United States in wide-ranging military and diplomatic matters, and was asked to help mediate a conflict on behalf of the United States between Cyprus and Turkey. Ford administration (right) meet with President Ford, April 1975.]] In August 1974, after Nixon resigned as president in the aftermath of the Watergate scandal, Rumsfeld was called back to Washington to serve as the transition chairman for the new president, Gerald Ford. He had been Ford's confidante since their days in the House, before Ford was House minority leader and was one of the members of the "Young Turks" who played a major role in bringing Ford to Republican leadership in the House of Representatives. Ford named Rumsfeld to succeed Schlesinger as the 13th U.S. Secretary of Defense and George H. W. Bush to become Director of Central Intelligence. According to Bob Woodward's 2002 book Bush at War, a rivalry developed between the two men and "Bush senior was convinced that Rumsfeld was pushing him out to the CIA to end his political career." Rumsfeld's confirmation hearing as Secretary of Defense began on November 12, 1975. During the hearing, Rumsfeld was mostly asked about the administration's defense policy on the Cold War. Rumsfeld stated that the Soviet Union was a "clear and present danger," especially following the end of the Vietnam War, which Rumsfeld described as the USSR's chance to build up its domination. General George S. Brown at a Senate Armed Services Committee hearing on January 15, 1976]] During his tenure as Secretary of Defense, Rumsfeld oversaw the transition to an all-volunteer military. He sought to reverse the gradual decline in the defense budget and to build up U.S. strategic and conventional forces, undermining Secretary of State Henry Kissinger at the SALT talks. He asserted, along with Team B (which he helped to set up), that trends in comparative U.S.-Soviet military strength had not favored the United States for 15 to 20 years and that, if continued, they "would have the effect of injecting a fundamental instability in the world".) and combining certain offices. More than his predecessors, Rumsfeld frequently traveled both within the U.S. and internationally, acting as a key representative for the Defense Department, focusing on the politics of his defense role, to fulfill an imperative goal of budget increase, in order to maintain strategic parity with the Soviet Union. Rumsfeld, who previously was assigned to the House Committee on Science and Astronautics, emphasized the importance of the next stage of the space program following the successful Moon landing in 1969. While serving as Secretary of Defense, Rumsfeld organized a joint-cooperation between the Department of Defense and NASA to develop Skylab. Rumsfeld's first tenure as Secretary of Defense ended on January 20, 1977. He was succeeded by former Secretary of the Air Force Harold Brown. In 1985, Searle was sold to the Monsanto Company. Rumsfeld served as chairman and chief executive officer of General Instrument from 1990 to 1993. A leader in broadband transmission, distribution, and access control technologies for cable, satellite, and terrestrial broadcasting applications, the company pioneered the development of the first all-digital high-definition television (HDTV) technology. After taking the company public and returning it to profitability, Rumsfeld returned to private business in late 1993. From January 1997 until being sworn in as the 21st Secretary of Defense in January 2001, Rumsfeld served as chairman of Gilead Sciences, Inc. Gilead is the developer of Tamiflu (Oseltamivir), which is used in the treatment of bird flu as well as influenza A and influenza B in humans. As a result, Rumsfeld's holdings in the company grew significantly when avian flu became a subject of popular anxiety during his later term as Secretary of Defense. Following standard practice, Rumsfeld recused himself from any decisions involving Gilead, and he directed the Pentagon's general counsel to issue instructions outlining what he could and could not be involved in if there were an avian flu pandemic and the Pentagon had to respond.Part-time public service Ronald Reagan and Secretary of State George Shultz in the Oval Office, White House on November 3, 1983]] During his business career, Rumsfeld continued part-time public service in various posts. In November 1983, Rumsfeld was appointed special envoy to the Middle East by President Ronald Reagan, at a turbulent time in modern Middle Eastern history when Iraq was fighting Iran in the Iran–Iraq War. The United States wished for Iraq to win the conflict, and Rumsfeld was sent to the Middle East to serve as a mediator on behalf of the president. during a visit to Baghdad in December 1983, during the Iran–Iraq War.]] When Rumsfeld visited Baghdad on December 20, 1983, he met Saddam Hussein at Saddam's palace and engaged a 90-minute discussion with him. They largely agreed on opposing Syria's occupation of Lebanon; preventing Syrian and Iranian expansion; and preventing arms sales to Iran. Rumsfeld suggested that if U.S.-Iraq relations could improve the U.S. might support a new oil pipeline across Jordan, which Iraq had opposed but was now willing to reconsider. Rumsfeld also informed Iraqi Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister Tariq Aziz that "Our efforts to assist were inhibited by certain things that made it difficult for us ... citing the use of chemical weapons." In addition to taking the position of Middle East envoy, Rumsfeld served as a member of the President's General Advisory Committee on Arms Control (1982–1986); President Reagan's special envoy on the Law of the Sea Treaty (1982–1983); a senior adviser to President Reagan's Panel on Strategic Systems (1983–1984); a member of the Joint Advisory Commission on U.S./Japan Relations (1983–1984); a member of the National Commission on the Public Service (1987–1990); a member of the National Economic Commission (1988–1989); a member of the board of visitors of the National Defense University (1988–1992); a member of the FCC's High Definition Television Advisory Committee (1992–1993); a member of the U.S. Trade Deficit Review Commission (1999–2000); a member of the Council on Foreign Relations; and chairman of the U.S. Commission to Assess National Security Space Management and Organization (2000). Among his most noteworthy positions was chairman of the nine-member Commission to Assess the Ballistic Missile Threat to the United States from January to July 1998. In its findings, the commission concluded that Iraq, Iran, and North Korea could develop intercontinental ballistic missile capabilities in five to ten years and that U.S. intelligence would have little warning before such systems were deployed. During the 1980s, Rumsfeld became a member of the National Academy of Public Administration, and was named a member of the boards of trustees of the Gerald R. Ford Foundation, the Eisenhower Exchange Fellowships, the Hoover Institution at Stanford University, and the National Park Foundation. He was also a member of the U.S./Russia Business Forum and chairman of the Congressional Leadership's National Security Advisory Group. Rumsfeld was a member of the Project for the New American Century, a think-tank dedicated to maintaining U.S. primacy. In addition, he was asked to serve the U.S. State Department as a foreign policy consultant from 1990 to 1993. Though considered one of the Bush administration's staunchest hard-liners against North Korea, Rumsfeld sat on European engineering giant Asea Brown Boveri's board from 1990 to 2001, a company that sold two light-water nuclear reactors to the Korean Peninsula Energy Development Organization for installation in North Korea, as part of the 1994 agreed framework reached under President Bill Clinton. Rumsfeld's office said that he did not "recall it being brought before the board at any time" though Fortune magazine reported that "board members were informed about this project". The Bush administration repeatedly criticized the 1994 agreement and the former Clinton presidency for its softness towards North Korea, regarding the country as a state sponsor of terrorism, and later designated North Korea as part of the Axis-of-Evil.Presidential and vice-presidential aspirationsDuring the 1976 Republican National Convention, Rumsfeld received one vote for Vice President of the United States, although he did not seek the office, and the nomination was easily won by Ford's choice, Senator Bob Dole. During the 1980 Republican National Convention he again received one vote for vice president. Rumsfeld briefly sought the presidential nomination in 1988, but withdrew from the race before primaries began. During the 1996 election season, he initially formed a presidential exploratory committee, but declined to formally enter the race. He was instead named national chairman for Republican nominee Bob Dole's campaign. Secretary of Defense (2001–2006) David O. Cooke (left), as Joyce Rumsfeld holds the Bible in a ceremony at the Eisenhower Executive Office Building.\|left]] Rumsfeld was named Secretary of Defense soon after President George W. Bush took office in 2001 despite Rumsfeld's past rivalry with the previous President Bush. Bush's first choice, FedEx founder Fred Smith, was unavailable and Vice President-elect Cheney recommended Rumsfeld for the job. Rumsfeld's second tenure as Secretary of Defense cemented him as the most powerful Pentagon chief since Robert McNamara and one of the most influential Cabinet members in the Bush administration. His tenure proved to be a pivotal and rocky one that led the United States military into the 21st century. Following the September 11 attacks, Rumsfeld led the military planning and execution of the 2001 United States invasion of Afghanistan and the subsequent 2003 invasion of Iraq. He pushed hard to send as small a force as soon as possible to both conflicts, a concept codified as the Rumsfeld Doctrine. Throughout his time as defense secretary, Rumsfeld was noted for his candor and quick wit when giving weekly press conferences or speaking with the press. U.S. News & World Report called him "a straight-talking Midwesterner" who "routinely has the press corps doubled over in fits of laughter".September 11, 2001 attacks Tom White, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General Hugh Shelton, and Senators John Warner (R-VA), and Carl Levin (D-MI), the Ranking Member and Chairman of the Senate Armed Services Committee.]] On September 11, 2001, al-Qaeda terrorists hijacked commercial airliners and crashed them in coordinated strikes into both towers of the World Trade Center in Lower Manhattan, New York City, and the Pentagon in Washington, D.C. The fourth plane crashed into a field in Shanksville, Pennsylvania, and its target was likely a prominent building in Washington, D.C., most probably either the U.S. Capitol Building or the White House. Within three hours of the start of the first hijacking and two hours after American Airlines Flight 11 struck the World Trade Center, Rumsfeld raised the defense condition signaling of the United States offensive readiness to DEFCON 3, the highest it had been since the Arab–Israeli war in 1973. Rumsfeld addressed the nation in a press conference at the Pentagon, just eight hours after the attacks and stated, "It's an indication that the United States government is functioning in the face of this terrible act against our country. I should add that the briefing here is taking place in the Pentagon. The Pentagon's functioning. It will be in business tomorrow." Military decisions in the wake of 9/11 speak at the site of the World Trade Center attacks in Lower Manhattan on November 14, 2001.]] On the afternoon of September 11, Rumsfeld issued rapid orders to his aides to look for evidence of possible Iraqi involvement in regard to what had just occurred, according to notes taken by senior policy official Stephen Cambone. "Best info fast. Judge whether good enough hit S.H."meaning Saddam Hussein"at same time. Not only UBL" (Osama bin Laden), Cambone's notes quoted Rumsfeld as saying. "Need to move swiftlyNear term target needsgo massivesweep it all up. Things related and not." In the first emergency meeting of the National Security Council on the day of the attacks, Rumsfeld asked, "Why shouldn't we go against Iraq, not just al-Qaeda?" with his deputy Paul Wolfowitz adding that Iraq was a "brittle, oppressive regime that might break easily—it was doable," and, according to John Kampfner, "from that moment on, he and Wolfowitz used every available opportunity to press the case." President George W. Bush reacted to Rumsfeld's suggestion, "Wait a minute, I didn't hear a word said about him (Saddam Hussein) being responsible for the attack" and the idea was initially rejected at the behest of Secretary of State Colin Powell, but, according to Kampfner, "Undeterred Rumsfeld and Wolfowitz held secret meetings about opening up a second front—against Saddam. Powell was excluded." In such meetings they created a policy that would later be dubbed the Bush Doctrine, centering on "pre-emption" and the war on Iraq, which the PNAC had advocated in their earlier letters. Richard A. Clarke, the White House counter-terrorism coordinator at the time, has revealed details of another National Security Council meeting the day after the attacks, during which officials considered the U.S. response. Already, he said, they were certain al-Qa'ida was to blame and there was no hint of Iraqi involvement. "Rumsfeld was saying we needed to bomb Iraq," according to Clarke. Clarke then stated, "We all said, 'No, no, al-Qa'ida is in Afghanistan. Clarke also revealed that Rumsfeld complained in the meeting, "there aren't any good targets in Afghanistan and there are lots of good targets in Iraq." Rumsfeld even suggested to attack other countries like Libya and Sudan, arguing that if this was to be a truly "global war on terror" then all state sponsors of terrorism should be dealt with. Rumsfeld wrote in Known and Unknown, "Much has been written about the Bush administration's focus on Iraq after 9/11. Commentators have suggested that it was strange or obsessive for the President and his advisers to have raised questions about whether Saddam Hussein was somehow behind the attack. I have never understood the controversy. I had no idea if Iraq was or was not involved, but it would have been irresponsible for any administration not to have asked the question." Rumsfeld rejected Franks's plan, saying "I want men on the ground now!" Franks returned the next day with a plan utilizing U.S. Special Forces. Rumsfeld also stated "the only way to deal with these terrorist threats is to go at them where they exist. You cannot defend at every place at every time against every conceivable, imaginable, even unimaginable terrorist attack. And the only way to deal with it is to take the battle to where they are and to root them out and to starve them out by seeing that those countries and those organizations and those non-governmental organizations and those individuals that are supporting and harboring and facilitating these networks stop doing it and find that there's a penalty for doing it". Rumsfeld announced in November 2001, that he received "authoritative reports" that Al-Qaeda's number three Mohammed Atef, bin Laden's primary military chief and a planner of the September 11 attacks on America, was killed by a U.S. airstrike. "He was very, very senior," Rumsfeld said. "We obviously have been seeking [him] out." On March 15, 2002, in another press conference at the Pentagon, Rumsfeld commented on the mission of Operation Anaconda by stating "Operation Anaconda continues in the area south of Gardez in eastern Afghanistan. The fighting is winding down as you know. Coalition forces are for the most part in an exploitation phase, doing the difficult work of searching caves and clearing areas where the battles and fighting has taken place. Our forces are finding weapons, ammunition, some intelligence information. In the top 25 al Qaeda, we know some are dead and we know some may be dead; we know some are captured and there are a larger number that we don't know. And roughly the same proportions with respect to Taliban". On May 1, 2003, Rumsfeld during a visit to Afghanistan meeting with U.S. troops stationed in Kabul told the press "General Franks and I have been looking at the progress that's being made in this country and have concluded that we are at a point where we clearly have moved from major combat activity to a period of stability and stabilization and reconstruction and activities." "I should underline however, that there are still dangers, there are still pockets of resistance in certain parts of the country and General McNeal and General Franks and their, the cooperation they have with the President Karzai's government and leadership and Marshall Fayheems assistance. We will be continuing as a country to work with the Afghan government and the new Afghan National Army to see that the any areas where there is resistance to this government and to the coalition forces will be dealt with promptly and efficiently." There was also controversy between the Pentagon and the CIA over who had the authority to fire Hellfire missiles from Predator drones. Even though the drones were not ready for deployment until 2002, In December 2005, Rumsfeld again visited Kabul and met with the Afghan defense minister, Rahim Wardak. During the meeting, Rumsfeld expressed doubts about the effectiveness of the Afghan army and attributed the worsening situation in Afghanistan to ineffective governance. He criticized the longstanding plan to expand the Afghan army to 70,000 troops and requested a reduction in the size of the Afghan army to 52,000 at most, claiming that this was necessary to "suit Afghanistan's limited revenues." Shortly after the trip, Rumsfeld also withdrew 3,000 U.S. troops from Afghanistan and canceled the planned deployment of one army brigade headed there. In 2009, three years after Rumsfeld's tenure as Defense secretary ended, the United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations led an investigation into the Battle of Tora Bora in December 2001, during the early phase of the U.S-led coalition war in Afghanistan. They concluded that Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld and General Franks had not committed enough troops during the battle to secure the area around Tora Bora. They believed that Al-Qaeda's number one leader Osama bin Laden had likely been at Tora Bora and his escape prolonged the war in Afghanistan. Rumsfeld and Franks were apparently motivated by fear that a substantial American presence near Tora Bora could incite a rebellion by local Pashtuns, despite the latter's lack of organizational capability at the time and the fierce dissent voiced by many CIA analysts including Charles E. Allen (who warned Franks that "the back door [to Pakistan<nowiki>]</nowiki> was open") and Gary Berntsen (who called for army rangers to "kill this baby in the crib"). Instead of rangers or marines, the U.S. assault on Tora Bora relied on the CIA-backed Afghan militias of Hazrat Ali and Zahir Qadeer, supplemented with B-52 bombardment. The resulting influx of hundreds of al-Qaeda fighters into Pakistan destabilized the country and damaged Pakistan–United States relations. The follow-up Operation Anaconda "witnessed failures of planning and execution, the product of the fractured lines of command," as recounted by Steve Coll. In mid-2002, Rumsfeld announced that "The war is over in Afghanistan," to the disbelief of State Department, CIA, and military officials in the country. As a result, Rumsfeld downplayed the need for an Afghan army of even 70,000 troops, far fewer than the 250,000 envisaged by Karzai.Iraq War and military representatives from the International Security Assistance Force, speaks to the press on March 11, 2002]] (right), commander of United States Central Command, listen to a question at a Pentagon press conference on March 5, 2003]] Before and during the Iraq War, Rumsfeld claimed that Iraq had an active weapons of mass destruction program; in particular during his famous phrase "there are known knowns" in a press conference at the Pentagon on February 12, 2002, no stockpiles were ever found. (right) awards the "Star of Romania" decoration to Secretary of Defense Donald H. Rumsfeld]] After the war in Afghanistan was launched, Rumsfeld participated in a meeting in regard to the review of the Department of Defense's Contingency Plan in the event of a war with Iraq. The plan, as it was then conceived, contemplated troop levels of up to 500,000, which Rumsfeld felt was far too many. Gordon and Trainor wrote: In a press conference at the Pentagon on February 27, 2003, Rumsfeld told reporters after being asked a question that Army Chief of Staff General Eric Shinseki suggested it would take several hundred thousand troops on the ground to secure Iraq and provide stability. Is he wrong?. Rumsfeld replied "the idea that it would take several hundred thousand U.S. forces I think is far from the mark. The reality is that we already have a number of countries that have offered to participate with their forces in stabilization activities, in the event force has to be used." Rumsfeld addressed the nation in a press conference at the Pentagon on March 20, 2003, just hours after the launch of the 2003 Invasion of Iraq, where he announced the first strike of the war to liberate Iraq and that "The days of the Saddam Hussein regime are numbered," and "We continue to feel there is no need for a broader conflict if the Iraqi leaders act to save themselves and act to prevent such a conflict." Rumsfeld's role in directing the Iraq War included a plan that was the Shock and Awe campaign, which resulted in a lightning invasion with 145,000 soldiers on the ground that took Baghdad within three weeks. Many government buildings, plus major museums, electrical generation infrastructure, and even oil equipment were looted and vandalized during the transition from the fall of Saddam Hussein's regime to the establishment of the Coalition Provisional Authority. A violent insurrection began shortly after the military operation started. On March 30, 2003, in an interview with George Stephanopoulos on ABC's This Week program, Rumsfeld answered a question by Stephanopoulos about finding weapons of mass destruction in Iraq, Rumsfeld stated "We know where they are. They're in the area around Tikrit and Baghdad and east, west, south and north somewhat." On April 9, 2003, at a press conference at the Pentagon, Rumsfeld addressed reporters during the Fall of Baghdad, and stated "The scenes of free Iraqis celebrating in the streets, riding American tanks, tearing down the statues of Saddam Hussein in the center of Baghdad are breathtaking." After the Iraq invasion, U.S. troops were criticized for not protecting the historical artifacts and treasures located at the National Museum of Iraq. On April 11, 2003, at a press conference at the Pentagon, when asked at the time why U.S. troops did not actively seek to stop the lawlessness, Rumsfeld replied, "Stuff happens ... and it's untidy and freedom's untidy, and free people are free to make mistakes and commit crimes and do bad things. They're also free to live their lives and do wonderful things. And that's what's going to happen here." He further commented that, "The images you are seeing on television you are seeing over, and over, and over, and it's the same picture of some person walking out of some building with a vase, and you see it 20 times, and you think, "My goodness, were there that many vases?" In October 2003, Rumsfeld approved a secret Pentagon "roadmap" on public relations, calling for "boundaries" between information operations abroad and the news media at home. The Roadmap advances a policy according to which as long as the U.S. government does not intentionally target the American public, it does not matter that psychological operations reach the American public. On December 14, 2003, Rumsfeld in an interview with journalist Lesley Stahl on 60 Minutes after U.S. forces captured Saddam Hussein in Operation Red Dawn, stated, "Here was a man who was photographed hundreds of times shooting off rifles and showing how tough he was, and in fact, he wasn't very tough, he was cowering in a hole in the ground, and had a pistol and didn't use it, and certainly did not put up any fight at all. I think that ... he resulted in the death of an awful lot of Iraqi people, in the last analysis, he seemed not terribly brave." As Secretary of Defense, Rumsfeld was deliberate in crafting the public message from the Department of Defense. People will "rally" to the word "sacrifice", Rumsfeld noted after a meeting. "They are looking for leadership. Sacrifice Victory." In May 2004, Rumsfeld considered whether to redefine the war on terrorism as a fight against "worldwide insurgency". He advised aides "to test what the results could be" if the war on terrorism were renamed. Rumsfeld also ordered specific public Pentagon attacks on and responses to U.S. newspaper columns that reported the negative aspects of the war. During Rumsfeld's tenure, he regularly visited U.S. troops stationed in Iraq. The Australian Broadcasting Corporation reported that though Rumsfeld didn't specify a withdrawal date for troops in Iraq, "He says it would be unrealistic to wait for Iraq to be peaceful before removing U.S. led forces from the country, adding that Iraq had never been peaceful and perfect." On August 2, 2006, at a press conference at the Pentagon, Rumsfeld commented on the sectarian violence in Iraq where he stated "there's sectarian violence; people are being killed. Sunnis are killing Shi'a and Shi'a are killing Sunnis. Kurds seem not to be involved. It's unfortunate, and they need a reconciliation process." On October 26, 2006, at a press conference at the Pentagon after the failure of Operation Together Forward in Iraq, Rumsfeld stated "Would defeat in Iraq be so bad?" Well, the answer is: Yes, it would be. Those who are fighting against the Iraqi government want to seize power so that they can establish a new sanctuary and a base of operations for terrorists and any idea that U.S. military leaders are rigidly refusing to make adjustments in their approaches is just flat wrong. The military is continuing to adapt and to adjust as required. Yes, there are difficulties and problems to be sure." As a result, Rumsfeld stirred controversy as to whether the forces that did invade Iraq were enough in size.}} Rumsfeld told Hume that Franks ultimately decided against such a troop level. Throughout his tenure, Rumsfeld sought to remind the American people of the 9/11 attacks and threats against Americans, noting at one time in a 2006 memo to "[m]ake the American people realize they are surrounded in the world by violent extremists". In a September 2007 interview with The Daily Telegraph, General Mike Jackson, the head of the British army during the invasion, criticized Rumsfeld's plans for the invasion of Iraq as "intellectually bankrupt", adding that Rumsfeld is "one of those most responsible for the current situation in Iraq", and that he felt that "the US approach to combating global terrorism is 'inadequate' and too focused on military might rather than nation building and diplomacy." In December 2004, Rumsfeld was heavily criticized for using a signing machine instead of personally signing over 1000 letters of condolence to the families of soldiers killed in action in Iraq and Afghanistan. He promised to personally sign all letters in the future. Prisoner abuse and torture concerns The Department of Defense's preliminary concerns for holding, housing, and interrogating captured prisoners on the battlefield were raised during the military build-up prior to the Iraq War. Because Saddam Hussein's military forces surrendered when faced with military action, many within the DOD, including Rumsfeld and United States Central Command General Tommy Franks, decided it was in the best interest of all to hand these prisoners over to their respective countries. Additionally, it was determined that maintaining a large holding facility was, at the time, unrealistic. Instead, the use of many facilities such as Abu Ghraib to house prisoners of interest prior to handing them over, and Rumsfeld defended the Bush administration's decision to detain enemy combatants. Because of this, critics, including members of the U.S. Senate Armed Services Committee, held Rumsfeld responsible for the ensuing Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse scandal. Rumsfeld himself said: "These events occurred on my watch as Secretary of Defense. I am accountable for them." He offered his resignation to President Bush in the wake of the scandal, but it was not accepted. , Iraq, on Christmas Eve 2004]] In a memo read by Rumsfeld detailing how Guantanamo Bay detention camp interrogators induced stress in prisoners by forcing them to remain standing in one position for a maximum of four hours, Rumsfeld scrawled a handwritten note on the memo reading: "I stand for 8–10 hours a day. Why is standing [by prisoners] limited to 4 hours? D.R." Various organizations, such as Human Rights Watch, called for investigations of Rumsfeld regarding his involvement in managing the Iraq War and his support of the Bush administration's policies of "enhanced interrogation techniques", which are widely regarded as torture. Legal scholars have argued that Rumsfeld "might be held criminally responsible if [he] would be prosecuted by the ICC". In 2005 the ACLU and Human Rights First filed a lawsuit against Rumsfeld and other top government officials, "on behalf of eight men who they say were subjected to torture and abuse by U.S. forces under the command of Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld". In 2005, a suit was filed against Rumsfeld by several human rights organizations for allegedly violating U.S. and international law that prohibits "torture and cruel, inhuman, or degrading punishment". In 2007, U.S. District Judge Thomas F. Hogan ruled that Rumsfeld could not "be held personally responsible for actions taken in connection with his government job". The ACLU tried to revive the case in 2011 with no success. In 2004, German prosecutor Wolfgang Kaleck filed a criminal complaint charging Rumsfeld and 11 other U.S. officials as war criminals who either ordered the torture of prisoners or drafted laws that legitimated its use. The charges based on breaches of the UN Convention against Torture and the German Code of Crimes against International Law. Rumsfeld's disclosure of the whistleblower's identity during a Senate hearing, despite assurances to Joe Darby of his anonymity led to shunning within the community, harassment and death threats against him and his family, resulting in them being taken into protective custody by the U.S. Army. Darby would come to doubt the unintentionality of his public identification, though Rumsfeld sent him a letter stating there had been no malicious intent, the mention was meant as praise, that Rumsfeld was unaware of Darby's anonymity.Resignation alongside the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General Peter Pace, 2006]] Eight U.S. and other NATO-member retired generals and admirals called for Rumsfeld to resign in early 2006 in what was called the "Generals Revolt", accusing him of "abysmal" military planning and lack of strategic competence. Commentator Pat Buchanan reported at the time that Washington Post columnist David Ignatius, who traveled often to Iraq and supported the war, said the generals "mirror the views of 75 percent of the officers in the field, and probably more". Rumsfeld rebuffed these criticisms, stating, "out of thousands and thousands of admirals and generals, if every time two or three people disagreed we changed the secretary of defense of the United States, it would be like a merry-go-round." Bush defended Rumsfeld throughout and responded by stating that Rumsfeld is "exactly what is needed". On November 1, 2006, Bush stated he would stand by Rumsfeld as defense secretary for the length of his term as president. Rumsfeld wrote a resignation letter dated November 6, 2006, and, per the stamp on the letter, Bush saw it on Election Day, November 7, 2006. In the elections, the House and the Senate shifted to Democratic control. After the elections on November 8, 2006, Bush announced Rumsfeld would resign his position as Secretary of Defense. Many Republicans were unhappy with the delay, believing they would have won more votes if voters had known Rumsfeld was resigning. On December 15, 2006, a farewell ceremony, with an armed forces full honor review and a 19-gun salute, was held at the Pentagon Mall Terrace in honor of the departing Rumsfeld.Retirement and later life (2006–2021) , at a ceremony to unveil his official portrait as Secretary of Defense, June 25, 2010.]] in 2008]] in 2019]] In the months after his resignation, Rumsfeld toured the New York City publishing houses in preparation for a potential memoir. After receiving what one industry source labeled "big bids", he reached an agreement with the Penguin Group to publish the book under its Sentinel HC imprint. Rumsfeld declined to accept an advance for the publication of his memoir, and said he was donating all proceeds from the work to veterans groups. In conjunction with the publication of Known and Unknown, Rumsfeld established "The Rumsfeld Papers", a website with documents "related to the endnotes" of the book and his service during the George W. Bush administration; during the months that followed the book's publication, the website was expanded to include over 4,000 documents from his archive. As of June 2011, the topics included his Congressional voting record, the Nixon administration, documents and memos of meetings while he was part of the Ford, Reagan, and George W. Bush administrations, private sector documents, and NATO documents, among other items. Rumsfeld personally financed the foundation. As of January 2014, the foundation had sponsored over 90 fellows from Central Asia, provided over million in tuition and stipend support for graduate students, awarded over million in microfinance grants, and donated over million to charities for veterans' affairs. Rumsfeld was awarded the "Defender of the Constitution Award" at the 2011 Conservative Political Action Conference in Washington, D.C., on February 10, 2011. After his retirement from government, Rumsfeld criticized former fellow Cabinet member Condoleezza Rice, Secretary of State, in his memoir, asserting that she was basically unfit for office. In 2011, she responded, saying that Rumsfeld "doesn't know what he's talking about. The reader may imagine what can be correct about the conflicted matter." In February 2011, Rumsfeld endorsed the repeal of the military's "Don't ask, don't tell" policy, saying that allowing gays and lesbians to openly serve "is an idea whose time has come". In March 2011, Rumsfeld spoke out on the 2011 military intervention in Libya, telling ABC News Senior White House Correspondent Jake Tapper that the Obama administration should "recognize the mission has to determine the coalition. The coalition ought not determine the mission." Rumsfeld also used the word "confusion" six times to describe the United Nations-backed military effort in Libya. In October 2011, Rumsfeld conducted an interview with Al Jazeera's Washington, D.C., bureau chief Abderrahim Foukara. Foukara asked Rumsfeld whether, in hindsight, the Bush administration had sent enough troops into Iraq to secure the borders of the country, and whether that made the United States culpable in the death of innocent Iraqis. Foukara said people in the Pentagon told Rumsfeld the number of troops sent into Iraq was insufficient. Rumsfeld said, "You keep making assertions which are fundamentally false. No one in the Pentagon said they were not enough." Foukara pressed Rumsfeld repeatedly. Rumsfeld then asked, "Do you want to yell or do you want to have an interview?" Foukara then asked, "Do you think the numbers that you went to Iraq with did absolve you from the responsibility of tens, maybe hundreds of thousands of innocent Iraqis killed by the Coalition and those criminals that you talked about?" Rumsfeld called the question "pejorative" and said Foukara was "not being respectful" (Foukara disagreed) and was "just talking over, and over, and over again". Rumsfeld was the subject of the 2013 Errol Morris documentary The Unknown Known, the title a reference to his response to a question at a February 2002 press conference. In the film Rumsfeld "discusses his career in Washington D.C. from his days as a congressman in the early 1960s to planning the invasion of Iraq in 2003". In January 2016, in partnership with the literary and creative agency Javelin, which handled design and development, Rumsfeld released a mobile app game of solitaire called Churchill Solitaire, emulating a variant of the card game as played by Winston Churchill. Rumsfeld and the Churchill family said that profits from the game would be donated to charity. In June 2016, Rumsfeld announced that he would vote for Donald Trump in the 2016 presidential election. On January 5, 2021, Rumsfeld was one of the ten living former Secretaries of Defense that sent a warning letter in order to warn President Trump not to involve the military in a 2020 presidential election dispute. Death On June 29, 2021, Rumsfeld died from multiple myeloma at his home in Taos, New Mexico. Following a private funeral at Fort Myer, he was buried in Arlington National Cemetery on August 24, 2021.Electoral history , where he served as the grand marshal.]] During the four elections during which he ran to represent Illinois's 13th congressional district, Rumsfeld received shares of the popular vote that ranged from 58% (in 1964) to 76% (in 1966). In 1975 and 2001, Rumsfeld was overwhelmingly confirmed by the U.S. Senate after presidents Gerald Ford and George W. Bush, respectively, appointed him as U.S. Secretary of Defense. Awards Rumsfeld was awarded 11 honorary degrees. Some of his other awards included: * All Navy Wrestling Champion (1956) * Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement (1983) * George C. Marshall Medal by the Association of the U.S. Army (1984) * Woodrow Wilson Medal by Princeton University (1985) * Distinguished Eagle Scout Award by the Boy Scouts of America (1976) * Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Supporting Actor (2004) for his appearance in Fahrenheit 9/11 * Union League of Philadelphia Gold Medal for Citizenship (2006) * Claremont Institute Statesmanship Award (2007) * Victory of Freedom Award from the Richard Nixon Foundation (2010) * Order of Anthony Wayne from Valley Forge Military Academy * National Flag award from Albania's President Bujar Nishani (2013) Honors {\| class"wikitable" ! Ribbon !! Country !! Honour !! Year \|- \| \|\| United States \|\| Presidential Medal of Freedom \|\| 1977 \|- \| \|\| Japan \|\| Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun \|\| 2015 \|- \| \|\| KSA \|\| Grand Cordon of the Order of King Abdulaziz \|\| 2002 \|- \| \|\| Poland \|\| Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland \|\| 2005 \|- \| \|\| Romania \|\| Grand Officer of the Order of the Star of Romania \|\| 2004 \|- \| \|\| Rwanda \|\| Medal of the Royal Order of the Lion \|\| 2007 \|- \| \|\| Taiwan \|\| Grand Cordon of the Order of Brilliant Star \|\| 2011 \|} Legacy and reputation Secretary of State Henry Kissinger described Rumsfeld as "the most ruthless man" he knew. George Packer of The Atlantic named Rumsfeld "the worst secretary of defense in American history" who "lacked the wisdom to change his mind." Bradley Graham, a Washington Post reporter and author of the book titled By His Own Rules: The Ambitions, Successes, and Ultimate Failures of Donald Rumsfeld released on June 23, 2009, stated "Rumsfeld left office as one of the most controversial Defense Secretaries since Robert McNamara and widely criticized for his management of the Iraq war and for his difficult relationships with Congress, administration colleagues, and military officers." Neoconservative commentator Bill Kristol was also critical of Rumsfeld, stating he "breezily dodged responsibility" for planning mistakes made in the Iraq War, including insufficient troop levels. In Jon Meacham's book Destiny and Power: The American Odyssey of George Herbert Walker Bush, published in November 2015, the 41st president George H.W. Bush was critical of Rumsfeld and called Rumsfeld "an arrogant fellow" and "I think he served the president badly," and "I don't like what he did, and I think it hurt the president having his iron-ass view of everything."Affiliation history Institutional affiliations * Center for Security Policy: longtime associate; winner of the CSP's 1998 "Keeper of the Flame" award (5) * Hoover Institution: former member, board of trustees * Project for the New American Century: signed PNAC's founding statement of principles as well as two policy letters on Iraq * Freedom House: former board member * RAND Corporation: former chairman * Committee for the Free World: former chairman * National Park Foundation: former member * Bohemian Club: member * Alfalfa Club: member * National Academy of Public Administration: member * * * See also * Agathidium rumsfeldi * Early association with liberal activist Allard Lowenstein * There are known knowns<!-- 2002 --> * Rumsfeld Doctrine * Known and Unknown: A Memoir by Donald Rumsfeld (2011) Citations General and cited sources * * * Midge Decter. Rumsfeld: A Personal Portrait. (Regan Books, 2003). . * * * * * External links Works * * [http://archive.defense.gov/speeches/ U.S. Department of Defense: Speeches] () * [https://web.archive.org/web/20180524031137/http://www.rumsfeldsrules.com/ Rumsfeld's Rules] advice on government, business and life, January 29, 2001 * [http://www.project-syndicate.org/contributor/722 Donald Rumsfeld's Project Syndicate op/eds] * [http://churchillsolitaire.com/ Churchill Solitaire], an iOS and Android adaptation of Churchill's variant of Solitaire Government service * [https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/government/rumsfeld-bio.html White House Biography] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061115085641/http://www.defenselink.mil/bios/secdef_bio.html Department of Defense Biography] * * <!-- Links formerly displayed via the CongLinks template: * [http://www.worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n93-82884 Works by or about Donald Rumsfeld] in libraries (WorldCat catalog) * [http://www.c-spanvideo.org/donaldrumsfeld Appearances] on C-SPAN programs * [http://www.charlierose.com/guest/view/666 Appearances] on Charlie Rose * [https://www.imdb.com/name/nm1288432 Appearances] at the Internet Movie Database * --> * * * * * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081220094138/http://media.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/nation/pdf/12112008_detaineeabuse.pdf Senate Armed Services Committee Inquiry into the Treatment of Detainees in U.S. Custody] United States Senate Committee on Armed Services, 2008 Documentary videos * * * * * * [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/pentagon/ Rumsfeld's War] PBS Frontline, October 2004 * The Unknown Known – Interview with Rumsfeld by Academy Award-winning documentarian Errol Morris, December 2013 * [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB82/ Video clip of Rumsfeld (as special U.S. envoy to Middle East) meeting Hussein] Articles profiling Rumsfeld <!-- Please limit this article section to links that are profiles/personal histories of Rumsfeld or long-term collections of articles or information about Rumsfeld (e.g. quotations). Don't add news report articles/articles on specific instances/opinion columns/editorials etc. If there are encyclopedically significant news stories about Rumsfeld, these belong in the main text with footnoted sources. Don't use this section just as a dumping ground for links. --> * [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/pentagon/etc/cronfeld.html The Life and Times of Donald Rumsfeld], PBS * [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/liveonline/partners/frontline.htm Washington Post – Rumsfeld's War] archives 2001–04 * [http://www.airforcetimes.com/legacy/new/0-AIRPAPER-1610997.php Rumsfeld revealed], Vivienne Heines. Air Force Times, March 3, 2003 * [https://www.theatlantic.com/issues/2003/11/mann.htm Close-Up: Young Rumsfeld], James Mann, The Atlantic, November 2003 * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/news/bh/rumsfeld.shtml The Donald Rumsfeld Library of Quotations], BBC Radio 4 * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090427201621/http://frontlineclub.com/events/2007/05/insight-with-andrew-cockburn-rumsfeld---the-man-behind-the-us-military-disaster.html Biographer Andrew Cockburn on Rumsfeld] at London Frontline Club May 2007. * [http://www.chicagomag.com/Chicago-Magazine/June-2001/The-Don-A-Look-at-Former-Defense-Secretary-Donald-Rumsfeld/ The Don: A Look at Former Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld], Carol Felsenthal, Chicago magazine. * [http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/76c3f776-3563-11e0-aa6c-00144feabdc0.html Lunch with the FT: Donald Rumsfeld] by Gideon Rachman, Financial Times, February 11, 2011 <!-- Please don't add news report articles/articles on specific instances/opinion columns/editorials etc here. If there are encyclopedically significant news stories about Rumsfeld, they belong in the main text with footnoted sources. Don't use this links section just as a dumping ground for any news article out there about Rumsfeld. --> \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- }} Category:1932 births Category:2021 deaths Category:20th-century Illinois politicians Category:20th-century Presbyterians Category:21st-century American memoirists Category:21st-century Illinois politicians Category:21st-century Presbyterians Category:American chief executives of manufacturing companies Category:American male non-fiction writers Category:American game designers Category:American people of German descent Category:American political writers Category:American Presbyterians Category:Businesspeople from Chicago Category:Businesspeople from Evanston, Illinois Category:American pharmaceutical industry businesspeople Category:Burials at Arlington National Cemetery Category:Candidates in the 1988 United States presidential election Category:The Carlyle Group people Category:Deaths from cancer in New Mexico Category:Deaths from multiple myeloma in the United States Category:Ford administration cabinet members Category:George W. Bush administration cabinet members Category:Georgetown University Law Center alumni Category:Gilead Sciences people Category:Military personnel from Illinois Category:New Trier High School alumni Category:Nixon administration cabinet members Category:People from Taos, New Mexico Category:People from Winnetka, Illinois Category:Permanent Representatives of the United States to NATO Category:Politicians from Chicago Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients Category:Princeton University alumni Category:Recipients of the Order of Brilliant Star Category:Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois Category:Torture in the United States Category:United States congressional aides Category:United States government officials of the Iraq War Category:United States Naval Aviators Category:United States Navy captains Category:United States Navy reservists Category:United States secretaries of defense Category:White House chiefs of staff Category:Writers from Evanston, Illinois Category:20th-century members of the United States House of Representatives	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Rumsfeld	2025-04-05T18:28:42.683871
8630	Diego Garcia	\|location \|archipelago Chagos Archipelago \|area_km2 = 30 \|area_footnotes \|rank \|elevation_m \|country \| country_admin_divisions_title = Territory \| country_admin_divisions = \|country_largest_city \|population 4,239 \|population_as_of = <!--?--> \|density_km2 \|waterbody Indian Ocean \|timezone1 = UTC+6 \|module = \| disputed = no \| country1 = \| country1_admin_divisions_title = Outer Islands \| country1_admin_divisions = Chagos Archipelago }} Diego Garcia is the largest island of the Chagos Archipelago, part of the British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT). It has been used as a joint UK–U.S. military base since the 1970s, following the expulsion of the Chagossians by the UK government. The Chagos Islands have been a British overseas territory, but in early October 2024, the UK engaged in discussions with Mauritius with a view to transfer sovereignty of the islands, while allowing the military base to remain under a 99-year lease, pending a treaty ratification. that includes the Lakshadweep, the Maldives, and the other 60 small islands of the Chagos Archipelago. The island observes UTC+6 year-round. Diego Garcia was discovered by Portuguese sailors in 1512 and remained uninhabited until the French began using it as a leper colony and for coconut plantations in the late 18th century. After the Napoleonic Wars, the island was transferred to British control. It remained part of Mauritius until 1965, when it became part of the newly formed BIOT. In 1966, Diego Garcia had a population of 924, mostly contract workers employed in coconut plantations. However, between 1968 and 1973, the Chagossian inhabitants were forcibly removed to make way for the military base. In 2019, the International Court of Justice ruled that the UK's administration of the Chagos Archipelago was illegal, a decision supported by the United Nations, though the UK has dismissed the ruling as non-binding. Diego Garcia remains the only inhabited island of the BIOT, with its population consisting of military personnel and contractors. It is one of two critical U.S. bomber bases in the Indo-Pacific region, alongside Andersen Air Force Base in Guam. It is nicknamed the "Footprint of Freedom" by the US Navy due to its shape and strategic location in the Indian Ocean.HistoryBefore European arrival (former main settlement)]] No tangible evidence exists of people on Diego Garcia before the arrival of Europeans. There is speculation about visits during the Austronesian diaspora around AD 700, as some say the old Maldivian name for the islands originated from Malagasy. Arabs, who reached Lakshadweep and Maldives around AD 900, may have visited the Chagos. Southern Maldivian oral tradition tells of occasional traders and fishermen marooned on, and later rescued from, Foalhavahi ( ފޯޅަވަހި) Chagos. European arrival The uninhabited islands were discovered by the Portuguese navigator, explorer, and diplomat Pedro Mascarenhas in 1512, first named as Dom Garcia, in honour of his patron, Dom Garcia de Noronha when he was detached from the Portuguese India Armadas during his voyage of 1512–1513. Another Portuguese expedition with a Spanish explorer of Andalusian origin, Diego García de Moguer, rediscovered the island in 1544 and named it after himself. Garcia de Moguer died the same year on the return trip to Portugal in the Indian Ocean, off the South African coast. The misnomer "Diego" could have been made unwittingly by the British ever since, as they copied the Portuguese maps. It is assumed that the island was named after one of its first two discoverers—the one by the name of Garcia, the other with name Diego. Also, a cacography of the saying Deo Gracias (literally 'Thank God') is eligible for the attribution of the atoll. Although the Cantino planisphere (1504) and the Ruysch map (1507) clearly delineate the Maldive Islands, giving them the same names, they do not show any islands to the south which can be identified as the Chagos archipelago. photographed by a US National Geodetic Survey team in 1969]] The Sebastian Cabot map (Antwerp 1544) shows a number of islands to the south which may be the Mascarene Islands. The first map which identifies and names "Los Chagos" (in about the right position) is that of Pierre Desceliers (Dieppe 1550), although Diego Garcia is not named. An island called "Don Garcia" appears on the Theatrum Orbis Terrarum of Abraham Ortelius (Antwerp 1570), together with "Dos Compagnos", slightly to the north. It may be the case that "Don Garcia" was named after Garcia de Noronha, although no evidence exists to support this. The island is also labelled "Don Garcia" on Mercator's Nova et Aucta Orbis Terrae Descriptio ad Usum Navigatium Emendate (Duisburg 1569). However, on the Vera Totius Expeditionis Nauticae Description of Jodocus Hondius (London 1589), "Don Garcia" mysteriously changes its name to "I. de Dio Gratia", while the "I. de Chagues" appears close by. The first map to delineate the island under its present name, Diego Garcia, is the World Map of Edward Wright (London 1599), possibly as a result of misreading Dio (or simply "D.") as Diego, and Gratia as Garcia. The Nova Totius Terrarum Orbis Geographica of Hendrik Hondius II (Antwerp 1630) repeats Wright's use of the name, which is then proliferated on all subsequent Dutch maps of the period, and to the present day. Settlement of the island Diego Garcia and the rest of the Chagos islands were uninhabited until the late 18th century. In 1778, the French Governor of Mauritius granted Monsieur Dupuit de la Faye the island of Diego Garcia, and evidence exists of temporary French visits to collect coconuts and fish. Several Frenchmen living in "a dozen huts" abandoned Diego Garcia when the British East India Company attempted to establish a settlement there in April 1786. Following the departure of the British, the French colony of Mauritius began marooning lepers on the island, Diego Garcia became a colony of the UK after the Napoleonic Wars as part of the Treaty of Paris (1814), and from 1814 to 1965 it was administered from Mauritius; In 1882, the French-financed, Mauritian-based Société Huilière de Diego et de Peros (the "Oilmaking Company of Diego and Peros"), consolidated all the plantations in the Chagos under its control. In 1942, the British opened RAF Station Diego Garcia and established an advanced flying boat unit at the East Point Plantation, staffed and equipped by No. 205 and No. 240 Squadrons, then stationed on Ceylon. Both Catalina and Sunderland aircraft were flown during the course of World War II in search of Japanese and German submarines and surface raiders. At Cannon Point, two 6-inch naval guns were installed by a Royal Marines detachment. In February 1942, the mission was to protect the small Royal Navy base and Royal Air Force station located on the island from Japanese attack. Following the conclusion of hostilities, the station was closed on 30 April 1946. In 1962, the Chagos Agalega Company of the British colony of Seychelles purchased the Société Huilière de Diego et Peros and moved company headquarters to Seychelles. In the early 1960s, the UK was withdrawing its military presence from the Indian Ocean, not including the airfield at RAF Gan to the north of Diego Garcia in the Maldives (which remained open until 1976), and agreed to permit the United States to establish a naval communication station on one of its island territories there. The United States requested an unpopulated island belonging to the UK to avoid political difficulties with newly independent countries, and ultimately the UK and United States agreed that Diego Garcia was a suitable location.Purchase by the United KingdomTo accomplish the UK–US mutual defence strategy, in November 1965, the UK purchased the Chagos Archipelago, which includes Diego Garcia, from the then self-governing colony of Mauritius for £3 million to create the British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT), with the intent of ultimately closing the plantations to provide the uninhabited British territory from which the United States would conduct its military activities in the region. On 30 December 1966, the United States and the UK executed an agreement through an Exchange of Notes which permitted the United States to use the BIOT for defence purposes for 50 years until December 2016, followed by a 20-year extension (to 2036) as long as neither party gave notice of termination in a two-year window (December 2014 – December 2016) and the UK may decide on what additional terms to extend the agreement. No monetary payment was made from the United States to the UK as part of this agreement or any subsequent amendment. Rather, the United Kingdom received a US$14-million discount from the United States on the acquisition of submarine-launched Polaris missiles per a now-declassified addendum to the 1966 agreement. Arrival of the U.S. Navy To the United States, Diego Garcia was a prime territory for setting up a foreign military base. According to Stuart Barber—a civilian working for the US Navy at the Pentagon—Diego Garcia was located far away from any potential threats, it was low in a native population and it was an island that was not sought after by other countries as it lacked economic interest. To Barber, Diego Garcia and other acquired islands would play a key role in maintaining US dominance. Here Barber designed the strategic island concept, where the US would obtain as many less populated islands as possible for military purposes. According to Barber, this was the only way to ensure security for a foreign base. Diego Garcia is often referred to as "Fantasy Island" for its seclusion. , Governor of the Seychelles, oversaw the depopulation of Chagossians from the Chagos Archipelago.]] The key component in obtaining Diego Garcia was the perceived lack of a native population on the island. Uninhabited until the late 18th century, Diego Garcia had no indigenous population. Its only inhabitants were European overseers who managed the coconut plantations for their absentee landowners and contract workers mostly of African, Indian, and Malay ancestry, known as Chagossians, who had lived and worked on the plantations for several generations. Prior to setting up a military base, the United States government was informed by the British government—which owned the island—that Diego Garcia had a population of hundreds. The eventual number of Chagossians numbered around 1,000. Regardless of the size of the population, the Chagossians had to be removed from the island before the base could be constructed. In 1968, the first tactics were implemented to decrease the population of Diego Garcia. Those who left the island—either for vacation or medical purposes—were not allowed to return, and those who stayed could obtain only restricted food and medical supplies. This tactic was in hope that those that stayed would leave "willingly". One of the tactics used was ordering all Chagossian dogs to be killed. In March 1971, United States Naval construction battalions arrived on Diego Garcia to begin the construction of the communications station and an airfield. To satisfy the terms of an agreement between the UK and the United States for an uninhabited island, the plantation on Diego Garcia was closed in October of that year. The plantation workers and their families were relocated to the plantations on Peros Banhos and Salomon atolls to the northwest. The by-then-independent Mauritian government refused to accept the islanders without payment, and in 1974, the UK gave the Mauritian government an additional £650,000 to resettle the islanders. Those who still remained on the island of Diego Garcia between 1971 and 1973 were forced onto cargo ships that were heading to Mauritius and the Seychelles. By 1973, construction of the Naval Communications Station was complete. In the early 1970s, setbacks to United States military capabilities in the region including the fall of Saigon, victory of the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia, the closure of the Peshawar Air Station listening post in Pakistan and Kagnew Station in Eritrea, the Mayaguez incident, and the build-up of Soviet naval presence in Aden and a Soviet airbase at Berbera, Somalia, caused the United States to request, and the UK to approve, permission to build a fleet anchorage and enlarged airfield on Diego Garcia, and the Seabees doubled the number of workers constructing these facilities.21st centuryOn 23 June 2017, the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) voted in favour of referring the territorial dispute between Mauritius and the UK to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in order to clarify the legal status of the Chagos Islands archipelago in the Indian Ocean. The motion was approved by a majority vote with 94 voting for and 15 against. In February 2019, the ICJ in The Hague ruled that the United Kingdom must transfer the islands to Mauritius as they were not legally separated from the latter in 1965. The UK Foreign Office said the ruling is not legally binding. In May 2019, the United Nations General Assembly affirmed the decision of the International Court of Justice and demanded that the United Kingdom withdraw its colonial administration from the Islands and cooperate with Mauritius to facilitate the resettlement of Mauritian nationals in the archipelago. In a written statement, the U.S. government said that neither the Americans nor the British have any plans to discontinue use of the military base on Diego Garcia. The statement said in a footnote: "In 2016, there were discussions between the United Kingdom and the United States concerning the continuing importance of the joint base. Neither party gave notice to terminate and the agreement remains in force until 2036". Chagos Marine Protected Area On 1 April 2010, the Chagos Marine Protected Area (MPA) was declared to cover the waters around the Chagos Archipelago. However, Mauritius objected, stating this was contrary to its legal rights, and on 18 March 2015, in light of the Mauritius v. United Kingdom case, the Permanent Court of Arbitration ruled that the Chagos Marine Protected Area was illegal under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea as Mauritius had legally binding rights to fish in the waters surrounding the Chagos Archipelago, to an eventual return of the Chagos Archipelago, and to the preservation of any minerals or oil discovered in or near the Chagos Archipelago prior to its return. Handover of the island to Mauritius On 3 October 2024, the UK prime minister Keir Starmer announced in a statement with the Mauritian prime minister Pravind Jugnauth that the UK will hand over the Chagos islands to Mauritius. The joint base on the island will stay, with the UK initially taking a 99-year lease of the base from Mauritius. Mauritius will be allowed to begin resettlement on the Chagos Archipelago, but not on Diego Garcia due to the sensitive nature of the base. US president Joe Biden welcomed the agreement, saying that it was a "clear demonstration that through diplomacy and partnership, countries can overcome long-standing historical challenges to reach peaceful and mutually beneficial outcomes". The deal was put on hold following the 2024 United States presidential election to allow consideration from the new incoming administration. Inhabitants Diego Garcia had no permanent inhabitants when discovered by the Spanish explorer Diego García de Moguer in the 16th century, then in the service of Portugal, and this remained the case until it was settled as a French colony in 1793. The Îlois also evolved a French-based Creole dialect now called Chagossian Creole. Throughout their recorded history, the plantations of the Chagos Archipelago had a population of approximately 1,000 individuals, about two-thirds of whom lived on Diego Garcia. A peak population of 1,142 on all islands was recorded in 1953.Expulsion of 1971 All the inhabitants of Diego Garcia were forcibly resettled to other islands in the Chagos Archipelago, Mauritius or Seychelles by 1971 to satisfy the requirements of a UK/United States Exchange of Notes signed in 1966 to depopulate the island when the United States constructed a base upon it. No current agreement exists on how many of the evacuees met the criteria to be an Îlois, and thus be an indigenous person at the time of their removal, but the UK and Mauritian governments agreed in 1972 that 426 families, numbering 1,151 individuals, Fifteen years after the last expulsion, the Chagossians received compensation from the British, totalling $6,000 per person; some Chagossians received nothing. The British expulsion action remains in litigation . Today, Chagossians remain highly impoverished and are living as "marginalised" outsiders on the island of Mauritius and the Seychelles. After 1971 Between 1971 and 2001, the only residents on Diego Garcia were UK and US military personnel and civilian employees of those countries. These included contract employees from the Philippines and Mauritius, including some Îlois. During combat operations from the atoll against Afghanistan (2001–2006) and Iraq (2003–2006), a number of allied militaries were based on the island including Australian, Japanese, and the Republic of Korea. According to David Vine, "Today, at any given time, 3,000 to 5,000 US troops and civilian support staff live on the island." The inhabitants today do not rely on the island and the surrounding waters for sustenance. Although some recreational fishing for consumption is permitted, all other food is shipped in by sea or air. In 2004, US Navy recruitment literature described Diego Garcia as being one of the world's best-kept secrets, boasting great recreational facilities, exquisite natural beauty, and outstanding living conditions. Since October 2021 there have been asylum seekers on Diego Garcia.Politics Diego Garcia is the only inhabited island in the British Indian Ocean Territory, an overseas territory of the United Kingdom, usually abbreviated as "BIOT". The Government of the BIOT consists of a commissioner appointed by King Charles III. The commissioner is based in London, resident in the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO), and is assisted by an administrator and small staff. Originally colonised by the French, Diego Garcia was ceded, along with the rest of the Chagos Archipelago, to the United Kingdom in the Treaty of Paris (1814) at the conclusion of a portion of the Napoleonic Wars. The BIOT administration was moved to Seychelles following the independence of Mauritius in 1968 until the independence of Seychelles in 1976, and to a desk in the Foreign and Commonwealth Office in London since.Military administrationThe UK represents the territory internationally. A local government as normally envisioned does not exist. Rather, the administration is represented in the territory by the officer commanding British Forces on Diego Garcia, the "Brit rep". Laws and regulations are promulgated by the commissioner and enforced in the BIOT by Brit rep. Of major concern to the BIOT administration is the relationship with the United States military forces resident on Diego Garcia. An annual meeting called "The Pol-Mil Talks" (for "political-military") of all concerned is held at the Foreign and Commonwealth Office in London to resolve pertinent issues. These resolutions are formalised by an "Exchange of Letters". It is not publicly known whether nuclear weapons have ever been stored on the island. Noam Chomsky and Peter Sand have observed and emphasised that the US and UK stance is blocking the implementation of the treaty. Transnational political issues There are two transnational political issues which affect Diego Garcia and the BIOT, through the British government. The island state of Mauritius claims the Chagos Archipelago (which is conterminous with the BIOT), including Diego Garcia. A subsidiary issue is the Mauritian opposition to the UK Government's declaration of 1 April 2010 that the BIOT is a marine protected area with fishing and extractive industry (including oil and gas exploration) prohibited. The issue of compensation and repatriation of the former inhabitants, exiled since 1973, continues in litigation and as of August 2010 had been submitted to the European Court of Human Rights by a group of former residents. Some groups allege that Diego Garcia and its territorial waters out to have been restricted from public access without permission of the BIOT Government since 1971. On 3 November 2022, the British Foreign Secretary James Cleverly announced that the UK and Mauritius had decided to begin negotiations on sovereignty over the British Indian Ocean Territory, taking into account international legal proceedings. Both states had agreed to ensure the continued operation of the joint UK/US military base on Diego Garcia. Prison site allegations In 2015, U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell's former chief of staff, Lawrence Wilkerson, said Diego Garcia was used by the CIA for "nefarious activities". He said that he had heard from three US intelligence sources that Diego Garcia was used as "a transit site where people were temporarily housed, let us say, and interrogated from time to time" and, "What I heard was more along the lines of using it as a transit location when perhaps other places were full or other places were deemed too dangerous or insecure, or unavailable at the moment". In June 2004, the British Foreign Secretary Jack Straw stated that United States authorities had repeatedly assured him that no detainees had passed in transit through Diego Garcia or were disembarked there. Diego Garcia was first rumoured to have been one of the locations of the CIA's black sites in 2005. Khalid Sheikh Mohammed is one of the "high-value detainees" suspected to have been held in Diego Garcia. In October 2007, the Foreign Affairs Select Committee of the British Parliament announced that it would launch an investigation of continued allegations of a prison camp on Diego Garcia, which it claimed were twice confirmed by comments made by retired U.S. Army general Barry McCaffrey. On 31 July 2008, an unnamed former White House official alleged that the United States had imprisoned and interrogated at least one suspect on Diego Garcia during 2002 and possibly 2003. Manfred Nowak, one of five United Nations special rapporteurs on torture, said that credible evidence exists supporting allegations that ships serving as black sites have used Diego Garcia as a base. The human rights group Reprieve alleged that United States-operated ships moored outside the territorial waters of Diego Garcia were used to incarcerate and torture detainees.Rendition flight refuelling admissionSeveral groups claim that the military base on Diego Garcia has been used by the United States government for transport of prisoners involved in the controversial extraordinary rendition program, an allegation formally reported to the Council of Europe in June 2007. On 21 February 2008, British Foreign Secretary David Miliband admitted that two United States extraordinary rendition flights refuelled on Diego Garcia in 2002, and was "very sorry" that earlier denials were having to be corrected. Leaked diplomatic cables According to leaked diplomatic cables, in a calculated move planned in 2009, the UK proposed that the BIOT become a "marine reserve" with the aim of preventing the former inhabitants from returning to the islands. A summary of the diplomatic cable is as follows:<blockquote>HMG would like to establish a "marine park" or "reserve" providing comprehensive environmental protection to the reefs and waters of the British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT), a senior Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) official informed Polcouns on 12 May. The official insisted that the establishment of a marine park—the world's largest—would in no way impinge on USG use of the BIOT, including Diego Garcia, for military purposes. He agreed that the UK and United States should carefully negotiate the details of the marine reserve to assure that United States interests were safeguarded and the strategic value of BIOT was upheld. He said that the BIOT's former inhabitants would find it difficult, if not impossible, to pursue their claim for resettlement on the islands if the entire Chagos Archipelago were a marine reserve.</blockquote> Natural history No species of plant, bird, amphibian, reptile, mollusc, crustacean or mammal is endemic on Diego Garcia or the surrounding waters, though some species of fish and aquatic invertebrates are endemic. All plants, wildlife, and aquatic species are protected to some degree. Much of the lagoon and other waters of Diego Garcia are protected wetlands, following an application by the UK in 2004 to obtain Ramsar site wetlands conservation status, and large parts of the island are nature preserves. Geography Diego Garcia is the largest land mass in the Chagos Archipelago (which includes Peros Banhos, the Salomon Islands, the Three Brothers, the Egmont Islands, and the Great Chagos Bank), being an atoll occupying approximately , of which is dry land. The continuous portion of the atoll rim stretches from one end to the other, enclosing a lagoon long and up to wide, with a pass opening at the north. Three small islands are located in the pass. The total area of the atoll is about . The lagoon area is roughly with depths ranging down to about . The total land area (excluding peripheral reefs) is around . The coral reef surrounding the seaward side of the atoll is generally broad, flat, and shallow around below mean sea level in most locations and varying from in width. This fringing seaward reef shelf comprises an area around . At the outer edge of the reef shelf, the bottom slopes very steeply into deep water, at some locations dropping to more than within of the shore. Diego Garcia is frequently subject to earthquakes caused by tectonic plate movement along the Carlsberg Ridge located just to the west of the island. One was recorded in 1812; one measuring 7.6 on the Richter Scale hit on 30 November 1983, at 23:46 local time and lasted 72 seconds, resulting in minor damage including wave damage to a 50-m stretch of the southern end of the island, and another on 2 December 2002, an earthquake measuring 4.6 on the Richter scale struck the island at 12:21 am. Oceanography Diego Garcia lies within the influence of the South Equatorial Current year-round. The surface currents of the Indian Ocean also have a monsoonal regimen associated with the Asian Monsoonal wind regimen. Sea surface temperatures are in the range of year-round. Fresh water supply Diego Garcia is the above-water rim of a coral atoll composed of Holocene coral rubble and sand to the depth of about , overlaying Pleistocene limestone deposited at the then-sea level on top of a seamount rising about from the floor of the Indian Ocean. The Holocene sediments are porous and completely saturated with sea water. Any rain falling on the above-water rim quickly percolates through the surface sand and encounters the salt water underneath. Diego Garcia is of sufficient width to minimise tidal fluctuations in the aquifer, and the rainfall (in excess of 102.5 inches/260 cm per year on average) is sufficient in amount and periodicity for the fresh water to form a series of convex, freshwater, Ghyben-Herzberg lenses floating on the heavier salt water in the saturated sediments. The horizontal structure of each lens is influenced by variations in the type and porosity of the subsurface deposits, which on Diego Garcia are minor. At depth, the lens is globular; near the surface, it generally conforms to the shape of the island. When a Ghyben-Herzberg lens is fully formed, its floating nature will push a freshwater head above mean sea level, and if the island is wide enough, the depth of the lens below mean sea level will be 40 times the height of the water table above sea level. On Diego Garcia, this equates to a maximum depth of 20 m. However, the actual size and depth of each lens is dependent on the width and shape of the island at that point, the permeability of the aquifer, and the equilibrium between recharging rainfall and losses to evaporation to the atmosphere, transpiration by plants, tidal advection, and human use. In the plantation period, shallow wells, supplemented by rainwater collected in cisterns, provided sufficient water for the pastoral lifestyle of the small population. On Diego Garcia today, the military base uses over 100 shallow "horizontal" wells to produce over 560,000 L per day from the "Cantonment" lens on the northwest arm of the island—sufficient water for western-style usage for a population of 3,500. This 3.7 km<sup>2</sup> lens holds an estimated 19 million m<sup>3</sup> of fresh water and has an average daily recharge from rainfall over 10,000 m<sup>3</sup>, of which 40% remains in the lens and 60% is lost through evapotranspiration. Extracting fresh water from a lens for human consumption requires careful calculation of the sustainable yield of the lens by season because each lens is susceptible to corruption by saltwater intrusion caused by overuse or drought. In addition, overwash by tsunamis and tropical storms has corrupted lenses in the Maldives and several Pacific islands. Vertical wells can cause salt upcoming into the lens, and overextraction will reduce freshwater pressure resulting in lateral intrusion by seawater. Because the porosity of the surface soil results in virtually zero runoff, lenses are easily polluted by fecal waste, burials, and chemical spills. Corruption of a lens can take years to "flush out" and reform, depending on the ratio of recharge to losses. Two are of significance to island wildlife and to recharge their respective freshwater lenses. One of these is centred on the northwest point of the atoll; another is found near the Point Marianne Cemetery on the southeast end of the airfield. Other, smaller freshwater wetlands are found along the east side of the runway, and in the vicinity of the receiver antenna field on the northwest arm of the atoll. Also, several man-made freshwater ponds resulted from excavations made during construction of the airfield and road on the western half of the atoll rim. These fill from rainfall and from extending into the Ghyben-Herzberg lenses found on this island. Climate Diego Garcia has an equatorial tropical rainforest climate (Köppen Af). The surrounding sea surface temperature is the primary climatic control, and temperatures are generally uniform throughout the year, with an average maximum of by day during March and April, and from July to September. Diurnal variation is roughly , falling to the low by night. Diego Garcia is at minimum risk from tropical cyclones due to its proximity to the equator where the coriolis parameter required to organise circulation of the upper atmosphere is minimal. Low-intensity storms have hit the island, including one in 1901, which blew over 1,500 coconut trees; one on 16 September 1944, which caused the wreck of a Royal Air Force PBY Catalina; one in September 1990 which demolished the tent city then being constructed for United States Air Force bomber crews during Operation Desert Storm; and one on 22 July 2007, when winds exceeded and over of rain fell in 24 hours. A biological survey conducted in early 2005 indicated erosional effects of the tsunami wave on Diego Garcia and other islands of the Chagos Archipelago. One stretch of shoreline was found to have been breached by the tsunami wave, representing about 10% of the eastern arm. A biological survey by the Chagos Conservation Trust reported that the resulting inundation additionally washed away shoreline shrubs and small to medium-sized coconut palms. \|source 2 Meteo Climat (record highs and lows) }} Vegetation The first botanical observations of the island were made by Hume in 1883, when the coconut plantations had been in operation for a full century. Subsequent studies and collections during the plantation era were made in 1885, 1905, 1939, and 1967. Thus, very little of the nature of the precontact vegetation is known. The 1967 survey, published by the Smithsonian is used as the most authoritative baseline for more recent research. These studies indicate the vegetation of the island may be changing rapidly. For example, J. M. W. Topp collected data annually between 1993 and 2003 and found that on the average three new plant species arrived each year, mainly on Diego Garcia. His research added fully a third more species to Stoddart. Topp and Martin Hamilton of Kew Gardens compiled the most recent checklist of vegetation in 2009. In 1967, Stoddart described the land area of Diego Garcia as having a littoral hedge of Scaevola taccada, while inland, Cocos nucifera (coconut) was the most dominant tree, covering most of the island. The substory was either managed and park-like, with understory less than 0.5 m in height, or consisted of what he called "Cocos Bon-Dieu" – an intermediate story of juvenile trees and a luxuriant ground layer of self-sown seedlings – causing those areas to be relatively impenetrable. Also, areas of remnant tropical hardwood forest are at the sites of the plantation-era villages, as well as Casuarina equisetifolia (iron wood pines) woodlands. None of these was endemic, and another survey in 2005 identified just 36 species as "native", meaning arriving without the assistance of humans, and found elsewhere in the world. No terrestrial plant species are of any conservation-related concern at present. Of the 36 native vascular plants on Diego Garcia, 12 are trees, five are shrubs, seven are dicotyledon herbs, three are grasses, four are vines, and five are ferns. The 12 tree species are: Barringtonia asiatica (fish-poison tree), Calophyllum inophyllum (Alexandrian laurel), Cocos nucifera, Cordia subcordata, Guettarda speciosa, Intsia bijuga, Hernandia sonora, Morinda citrifolia, Neisosperma oppositifolium, Pisonia grandis, Terminalia catappa, and Heliotropium foertherianum. Another three tree species are common, and may be native, but they may also have been introduced by humans: Casuarina equisetifolia, Hibiscus tiliaceus, and Pipturus argenteus. The five native shrubs are: Caesalpinia bonduc, Pemphis acidula, Premna serratifolia, Scaevola taccada (often mispronounced "Scaveola"), and Suriana maritima. Also, 134 species of plants are classified as "weedy" or "naturalised alien species", being those unintentionally introduced by man, or intentionally introduced as ornamentals or crop plants which have now "gone native", including 32 new species recorded since 1995, indicating a very rapid rate of introduction. The remainder of the species list consists of cultivated food or ornamental species, grown in restricted environments such as a planter's pot. In 2004, 10 plant communities were recognised on the atoll rim: * Mixed native forest, with no dominant canopy species * Marshes are divided into three different types: cattail (Typha domingensis), wetland, and mixed species. Cattail marshes contained almost entirely cattails. These areas are often man-made reservoirs or drainages that have been almost entirely monotypic. Wetlands were based upon vegetation that occurred in the area with fresh water. Mixed-species marshes were highly variable and usually had no standing water. Wildlife s are protected on Diego Garcia.]] All the terrestrial and aquatic fauna of Diego Garcia are protected, with the exception of certain game fish, rats, and cats; hefty fines are levied against violators. Crustaceans The island is a haven for several types of crustacean; "warrior crabs" (Cardisoma carnifex) overrun the jungle at night. The extremely large coconut crab or robber crab (Birgus latro) is found here in large numbers. Because of the protections provided the species on this atoll, and the isolation of the east rim of the atoll, the species is recorded in greater densities there than anywhere else in its range (339 crabs/ha).MammalsNo mammal species are native on Diego Garcia, with no record of bats. Other than rats (Rattus rattus), all "wild" mammal species are feral descendants of domesticated species. During the plantation era, Diego Garcia was home to large herds of Sicilian donkeys (Equus asinus), dozens of horses (Equus caballus), hundreds of dogs (Canis familiaris), and house cats (Felis catus). In 1971, the BIOT Commissioner ordered the extermination of feral dogs following the departure of the last plantation workers, and the program continued through 1975, when the last feral dog was observed and shot. Donkeys, which numbered over 400 in 1972, were down to just 20 individuals in 2005. The last horse was observed in 1995, The 680-hectare Barton Point Nature Reserve was identified as an Important Bird Area for its large breeding colony of red-footed boobies.Introduced birds The island hosts introduced bird species from many regions, including cattle egrets (Bubulcus ibis), Indian barred ground dove, also called the zebra dove (Geopelia striata), turtle dove (Nesoenas picturata), Indian mynah (Acridotheres tristis), Madagascar fody (Foudia madagascariensis), and chickens (Gallus gallus). Terrestrial reptiles and freshwater amphibians Currently, three lizards and one toad are known to inhabit Diego Garcia, and possibly one snake. All are believed to have been introduced by human activity. The house gecko (Hemidactylus frenatus), the mourning gecko (Lepidodactylus lugubris), the garden lizard (an agamid) (Calotes versicolor), and the cane toad (Bufo marinus). A viable population of a type of blind snake from the family Typhlopidae may be present, probably the brahminy blind snake (Ramphotyphlops braminus). This snake feeds on the larvae, eggs, and pupae of ants and termites, and is about the size of a large earthworm. Sea turtles Diego Garcia provides suitable foraging and nesting habitat for both the hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) and the green turtle (Chelonia mydas). Juvenile hawksbills are quite common in the lagoon and at Barachois Sylvane (also known as Turtle Cove) in the southern part of the lagoon. Adult hawksbills and greens are common in the surrounding seas and nest regularly on the ocean-side beaches of the atoll. Hawksbills have been observed nesting during June and July, and from November to March. Greens have been observed nesting in every month; the average female lays three clutches per season, each having an average clutch size of 113 eggs. Diurnal nesting is common in both species. An estimated 300–700 hawksbills and 400–800 greens nest in the Chagos. Endangered species Four reptiles and six cetaceans are endangered and may or may not be found on or around Diego Garcia: Hawksbill turtle (Eretmocheyls imbricata) – known; leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) – possible; green turtle (Chelonia mydas) – known; olive ridley turtle (Lepidochelys oliveacea) – possible; sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) – possible; sei whale (Balaeonoptera borealis) – possible; finback whale (Balaeonoptera physalus) – possible; Bryde's whale (Balaeonoptera edeni) – possible; blue whale (Balaeonoptera musculus) – possible; humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) – possible; southern right whale (Eubalaena australis) – possible. United Kingdom military activities British Forces British Indian Ocean Territories (BFBIOT) is the official name for the British Armed Forces deployment at the Permanent Joint Operating Base (PJOB) on Diego Garcia, in the British Indian Ocean Territory. While the naval and airbase facilities on Diego Garcia are leased to the United States, in practice, it operates as a joint UK-US base, with the UK retaining full and continual access. Diego Garcia is strategically located, offering access to East Africa, the Middle East and Southeast Asia. The base serves as a staging area for the buildup or resupply of military forces prior to an operation. There are approximately 40–50 British military personnel posted on Diego Garcia, most of them from Naval Party 1002 (NP1002). NP1002 forms the island's civil administration and some naval forces.United States military activitiesDuring the Cold War era, following the British withdrawal from East of Suez, the United States was keen to establish a military base in the Indian Ocean to counter Soviet influence and establish American dominance in the region and protect its sea-lanes for oil transportation from the Middle East. The United States saw the atoll as the "Malta of the Indian Ocean" equidistant from all points. The island has served as an "unsinkable aircraft carrier" for United States activities during the Iranian revolution, the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, Operation Desert Fox, Operation Enduring Freedom, and Operation Iraqi Freedom. In the contemporary era, the atoll retains a key role in America's strategic approach to the Indian Ocean, acting as a flexible forward military hub able to support a range of offensive activities. The United States military facilities on Diego Garcia have been known informally as Camp Justice and, after renaming in July 2006, as Camp Thunder Cove. Formally, the base is known as Naval Support Facility Diego Garcia (the US activity) or Permanent Joint Operating Base (PJOB) Diego Garcia (the UK's term). United States military activities in Diego Garcia have caused friction between India and the United States in the past. Political party CPI(M) in India has repeatedly called for the military base to be dismantled, as they saw the United States naval presence in Diego Garcia as a hindrance to peace in the Indian Ocean. Recent construction in support of US military activities on Diego Garcia has included Black Construction/Mace International JV building a 34-metre antenna facility (expected completed by April 2021) and two new 13-metre radomes (expected completed by February 2021); and SJC-BVIL moving underground the overhead power and telephone lines that run from the Navy ammunition area to the Air Force ammunition area along DG1 (expected completed by September 2022). Naval Support Facility Diego Garcia bombers and KC-10A Extenders on Diego Garcia in November 2001 during the Afghanistan bombing campaign]] take off, B-52 bombers on tarmac on Diego Garcia]] Naval Support Facility Diego Garcia provides Base Operating Services to tenant commands located on the island. The command's mission is "To provide logistic support to operational forces forward deployed to the Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf AORs in support of national policy objectives." KBR has run base operations support services at Naval Support Facility Diego Garcia. United States Air Force and Space Force units based on Diego Garcia 36 MSG, Pacific Air Force Det 1, 730th Air Mobility Squadron, Air Mobility Command Det 1, 21st Space Operations Squadron, a Satellite Control Network Remote Tracking Station, Space Operations Command Det 2, a GEODSS facility, Space Operations Command United States pre-positioned vessels The atoll shelters the ships of the United States Marine Pre-positioning Squadron Two. These ships carry equipment and supplies to support a major armed force with tanks, armoured personnel carriers, munitions, fuel, spare parts and even a mobile field hospital. This equipment was used during the Persian Gulf War, when the squadron transported equipment to Saudi Arabia. The ship composition of MPSRON TWO is dynamic. During August 2010 it was composed of the following: MV Capt. Steven L. Bennett USNS SGT William R. Button (T-AK-3012), MV SSG Edward A. Carter, Jr. (T-AK-4544), MV Maj. Bernard F. Fisher USNS Lawrence H. Gianella USNS SGT Matej Kocak (T-AK-3005), USNS 1st LT Baldomero Lopez (T-AK-3010), MV LTC John U. D. Page USNS GYSGT Fred W. Stockham Five of these vessels carry supplies for the US Marine Corps sufficient to support a Marine Air-Ground Task Force for 30 days: USNS Button, USNS Kocak, USNS Lopez, USNS Stockham, and USNS Fisher. Prior to 2001, COMPSRON 2 consisted of up to 20 ships, including four Combat Force Ships which provided rapid-response delivery of equipment to ground troops in the United States Army. Three are lighter aboard ships (LASH) which carry barges called lighters that contain Army ammunition to be ferried ashore: MV American Cormorant, SS Green Harbour, (LASH), SS Green Valley, (LASH), MV Jeb Stuart, (LASH). There were logistics vessels to service the rapid delivery requirements of the United States Air Force, United States Navy and Defense Logistics Agency. These included container ships for Air Force munitions, missiles and spare parts; a 500-bed hospital ship, and floating storage and offloading units assigned to Military Sealift Command supporting the Defense Logistics Agency, and an offshore petroleum discharge system (OPDS) tanker. Examples of ships are MV Buffalo Soldier, MV Green Ridge, pre-position tanker USNS Henry J. Kaiser, and tanker . HF global station The United States Air Force operates a High Frequency Global Communications System transceiver site located on the south end of the atoll near the GEODSS station. The transceiver is operated remotely from Andrews Air Force Base and Grand Forks Air Force Base and is locally maintained by NCTS FE personnel.Naval Computer and Telecommunications Station Far East Detachment Diego GarciaNaval Computer and Telecommunications Station Far East Detachment Diego Garcia operates a detachment in Diego Garcia. This detachment provides base telephone communications, base network services (Local Network Services Center), pier connectivity services, and an AN/GSC-39C SHF satellite terminal, operates the Hydroacoustic Data Acquisition System, and performs on-site maintenance for the remotely operated Air Force HF-GCS terminal. In July 2023, Reuters confirmed an underwater fibre-optic cable spur from the Oman Australia Cable was constructed to Diego Garcia during 2022. Naval Security Group Detachment Diego Garcia Naval Security Group detachment Diego Garcia was disestablished on 30 September 2005. Remaining essential operations were transferred to a contractor. The large AN/AX-16 High Frequency Radio direction finding Circularly Disposed Antenna Array has been demolished, but the four satellite antenna radomes around the site remain . However, multiple CDAAs on the island still exist, as seen in satellite imagery. Space Shuttle The island was designated as one of the emergency landing sites worldwide for the NASA Space Shuttle. None of these facilities were ever used throughout the life of the shuttle program.Cargo service transited between Singapore and Diego Garcia once a month.]] All consumable food and equipment are brought to Diego Garcia by sea or air, and all non-biodegradable waste is shipped off the island as well. From 1971 to 1973, United States Navy LSTs provided this service. Beginning in 1973, civilian ships were contracted to provide these services. From 2004 to 2009, the US-flagged container ship MV Baffin Strait, often referred to as the "DGAR shuttle", delivered 250 containers every month from Singapore to Diego Garcia. The ship delivered "more than 200,000 tons of cargo to the island each year". In 2004, TransAtlantic Lines outbid Sealift Incorporated for the transport contract between Singapore and Diego Garcia. The route had previously been serviced by Sealift Inc.'s MV Sagamore, crewed by members of American Maritime Officers and Seafarers' International Union.<ref name"sag"/> TransAtlantic Lines reportedly won the contract by approximately 10 per cent, representing a price difference of about $2.7 million.<ref name"sag"/> The Baffin Straits charter ran from 10 January 2005, to 30 September 2008, at a daily rate of $12,550.See also James Horsburgh List of British Army installations List of United States military bases Robert Moresby Stealing a Nation References Bibliography * * * * * * * * * * * Further reading * * Ladwig III, Walter C., Andrew S. Erickson, and Justin D. Mikolay, [https://books.google.com/books?idntD3AgAAQBAJ&pgPT92 "Diego Garcia and American Security in the Indian Ocean,"] in Carnes Lord and Andrew Erickson Rebalancing US Forces: Basing and Forward Presence in the Asia Pacific Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2014, pp. 131–180. * Ladwig III, Walter C., Pilger, John, Freedom Next Time (2007). Urish, Daniel W., Coral, Copra, and Concrete: An Illustrated Memoir of Diego Garcia Atoll (2015). US Naval Support Facility Diego Garcia "Integrated Natural Resources Management Plan," September 2005. Wenban-Smith, N. and Carter, M., Chagos: A History, Exploration, Exploitation, Expulsion Published by Chagos Conservation Trust, London (2016). Winchester, Simon, Outposts: Journeys to the Surviving Relics of the British Empire (2004). External links [https://web.archive.org/web/20120422112040/http://www.chagos.org/home.htm Chagos Islands Indigenous Population Support Internet Site] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/7075361.stm BBC News Exiles lose appeal over benefits] 02/11/07 [http://www.chagos-trust.org/ The Chagos Conservation Trust] [https://web.archive.org/web/20120119044248/http://protectchagos.org/ The Chagos Environmental Network] [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/british-indian-ocean-territory/ CIA World Factbook: British Indian Ocean Territory] Jonathan Freedland, [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/22691 "A Black and Disgraceful Site"], The New York Review of Books, 28 May 2009. Erickson, Andrew S., Walter C. Ladwig III and Justin D. Mikolay,[https://web.archive.org/web/20121003051516/http://users.ox.ac.uk/~mert1769/Diego%20Garcia.pdf "Diego Garcia and the United States' Emerging Indian Ocean Strategy,"] Asian Security, Vol. 6, No. 3 (Autumn 2010), pp. 214–237. [http://www.diegogarciaonline.com/ Diego Garcia Online: Information for locals of Diego Garcia.] [http://sgs.lpi.org.uk/seagreensingers/theisland Recording of The Island] , a jazz opera commissioned and broadcast in the 1960s on radio themed on events in Garcia Diego written by William Russo, words by Adrian Mitchell, performed by the Russo Orchestra sung by Cleo Laine and Denis Quilley. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120229042433/http://www.msc.navy.mil/mpstwo/ Maritime Prepositioning Ship Squadron Two, Diego Garcia (Official Site)] [https://www.cnic.navy.mil/DiegoGarcia/index.htm Naval Support Facility, Diego Garcia (Official Site)] [http://www.law.northwestern.edu/journals/jihr/v5/n1/4/Nauvel.pdf "A Return from Exile in Sight? The Chagossians & their Struggle"] , from the Northwestern Journal of International Human Rights [http://www.mod.uk/DefenceInternet/AboutDefence/WhatWeDo/DoctrineOperationsandDiplomacy/PJHQ/PjobDiegoGarcia.htm UK MOD website on Permanent Joint Operating Base Diego Garcia.] [https://web.archive.org/web/20101230022139/http://www.historycommons.org/timeline.jsp?timeline=diego_garcia Diego Garcia] Timeline of Diego Garican History, 1770–2008, posted the History Commons [https://web.archive.org/web/20120716181503/http://homepage.ntlworld.com/jksonc/docs/bancoult-d16b1.html US/UK BIOT defence agreements, 1966–1982], US court filing *James Rogers and Luis Simón. [http://www.europarl.europa.eu/meetdocs/2004_2009/documents/dv/sede300309studype407004_/SEDE300309StudyPE407004_en.pdf The Status and Location of the Military Installations of the Member States of the European Union and Their Potential Role for the European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP)]. Brussels: European Parliament, 2009. 25 pp. Category:Atolls of the Chagos Archipelago Category:Capitals in Asia Category:Capitals of British Overseas Territories Category:Geography of the British Indian Ocean Territory Category:Islands of the British Indian Ocean Territory Category:Mauritius–United Kingdom relations Category:Mauritius–United States relations Category:Military of the British Forces British Indian Ocean Territories Category:Ramsar sites in British Overseas Territories Category:United Kingdom–United States relations Category:Prison islands	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diego_Garcia	2025-04-05T18:28:42.771430
8631	Dimmu Borgir	\| current_members = Shagrath Silenoz Daray Gerlioz Victor Brandt \| past_members = (see below) }} Dimmu Borgir () is a Norwegian symphonic black metal band from Jessheim, formed in 1993. The name is derived from Dimmuborgir, a volcanic formation in Iceland, the name of which means "dark cities" or "dark castles/fortresses" in Icelandic, Faroese and Old Norse. The band has been through numerous lineup changes over the years; vocalist Shagrath and rhythm guitarist Silenoz are the only original members who still remain. History For All Tid and Stormblåst period Dimmu Borgir was founded in 1993 by Silenoz and Tjodalv. Shagrath, Brynjard Tristan and Stian Aarstad later joined Dimmu Borgir, and then released an EP in 1994 entitled Inn i evighetens mørke ("Into the Darkness of Eternity"). This short EP sold out within weeks, and the band followed up with the 1994 full-length album For All Tid ("For All Time"). This album featured vocal contributions by Vicotnik of Ved Buens Ende and Dødheimsgard and Aldrahn of Dødheimsgard and Zyklon-B. The initial line-up consisted of Shagrath playing drums with Tjodalv on guitar and Silenoz contributing lead vocals. This line-up changed before the release of Stormblåst ("Stormblown") on Cacophonous Records in 1996, an album considered by many to be their finest. It is also the last album which features all lyrics written and sung in Norwegian. Enthrone Darkness Triumphant period After Stormblåst, keyboardist Stian Aarstad left the band due to his obligation to serve in the Norwegian army, thus being unable to participate in the 1996 recording of ''Devil's Path''. That period was also marked by the departure of bassist Brynjard Tristan and the arrival of Nagash. Stian Aarstad returned for the recording of 1997's Enthrone Darkness Triumphant. He had trouble attending rehearsals and was unable to tour. He was then subsequently dismissed and replaced by Kimberly Goss for their 1997/1998 world tour. Enthrone Darkness Triumphant was a huge success for the band, and was their first release signed to Nuclear Blast, a German record label. The album was recorded in the Abyss Studios, owned by Hypocrisy's frontman Peter Tägtgren. After the release of Enthrone Darkness Triumphant, the band went on tour with In Flames, Dissection and other bands who were prominent in the scene at the time. Spiritual Black Dimensions and Puritanical Euphoric Misanthropia period After the tour for Enthrone Darkness Triumphant, the band recruited new members Mustis on keyboards and Astennu on lead guitar. Dimmu Borgir's following full-length albums Spiritual Black Dimensions in 1999 and 2001's Puritanical Euphoric Misanthropia, both met critical acclaim. However, another line-up change occurred between the two albums; Nagash quit and was replaced by new bassist/singer ICS Vortex, and Tjodalv left due to his family commitments, and to form the subsequent band Susperia, to be replaced with Nick Barker of Cradle of Filth. Astennu was fired from his guitar duties as well due to creative differences, and was replaced by Galder. Death Cult Armageddon and Stormblåst MMV period Despite the regular video play on MTV2 and Fuse that their follow-up album would receive, the band stated that they were not "commercially-oriented", and instead, they "simply wished to spread their message to more people". In 2003, Dimmu Borgir recorded Death Cult Armageddon. Death Cult Armageddon was recorded with the Prague Philharmonic Orchestra, conducted by Adam Klemens. All orchestrations were arranged by Gaute Storaas (who had previously worked with Dimmu Borgir on the album Puritanical Euphoric Misanthropia). In 2004, Dimmu Borgir performed on the mainstage at Ozzfest. In 2005, the band did a complete re-recording of the Stormblåst album, featuring Hellhammer of Mayhem fame as the session drummer. The album also featured a DVD with a live performance from the 2004 Ozzfest tour. In Sorte Diaboli period Dimmu Borgir's seventh studio album, In Sorte Diaboli, was released on 24 April 2007. A special edition version was released in a boxed case with a DVD, backward-printed lyrics, and a mirror. The album artwork was released on 14 February 2007 on a promotional webpage for the album. This album features once more the drumming of Hellhammer of Mayhem. Blomberg left the band in mid-tour in 2007 because of a neck injury that resulted in limited movement of his right arm. With the release of this album, Dimmu Borgir became the first black metal band with a number one album on the charts in their native country. In October 2008, they released their second live DVD set titled The Invaluable Darkness, which was based on several shows during the world tour supporting "In Sorte Diaboli". In 2008, the band played the UK festival Bloodstock. performing on Gods of Metal 2007]] In 2009, members ICS Vortex and Mustis independently announced their departure from Dimmu Borgir. Mustis released a statement claiming his disfavor with the band, stating that he was not properly credited for his writing contributions to the band's music, mentioning possibly taking legal action. Dimmu Borgir soon after confirmed the pair's dismissal from the band, releasing a statement explaining why the two were fired. Shagrath, Silenoz and Galder wrote: "Funny then, how the new album is half-way finished written already by the rest of us without any of these guys' input, still having all those elements we're known for." Silenoz explained that the growing periods of time between albums was because the band had stopped writing music while touring, which was affecting the quality of the music. He described the new album as having an "eerie and haunting feel to it", adding that the material is "epic", "primal", atmospheric and ambient. A promotional image released with the statement showed Shagrath returning to the keyboards. The album features an ensemble orchestra, the Kringkastingsorkestret (the Norwegian Broadcasting Orchestra), as well as the Schola Cantorum choir, totaling more than 100 musicians and singers. Gaute Storaas, composer of the orchestral arrangements, released a statement on his role in working on the album. "Their music is epic, thematic and symphonic already from the creation; they are clearly having an orchestral approach to composing. My role in this is sometimes just to transcribe their themes, sometimes to take their ideas, tear them apart and build them back up in ways that are true to the band's intentions. The music must also be both interesting and playable for the musicians, and hopefully, meet the quality standards of the orchestral world." On 8 July the band confirmed that they had tapped Swedish multi-instrumentalist Snowy Shaw (Therion, Dream Evil) to replace bassist/clean vocalist ICS Vortex on their then-upcoming album, Abrahadabra, and world tour. On 25 August it was announced that Snowy Shaw had left Dimmu Borgir to rejoin Therion. On 17 September 2010 Dimmu Borgir released the song "Born Treacherous" from Abrahadabra on their official Myspace page. Then on 24 September the band announced they would stream Abrahadabra in its entirety until 7 p.m. EST that evening. The keyboards and bass are currently played by Gerlioz from Apoptygma Berzerk and Cyrus of Susperia respectively, and the clean vocals are sampled. 28 May 2011 saw Dimmu Borgir, for the first time in the band's career, perform live with a full symphony orchestra and choir in a one-off show with the Norwegian Broadcasting Orchestra and Schola Cantorum Choir (who collaborated on Abrahadabra the previous year) at the Oslo Spectrum entitled "Forces of the Northern Night". This was broadcast live on Norway's main national TV carrier NRK. The setlist for this show consisted of tracks from the band's recent transfiguration Abrahadabra, leading tracks "Vredysbyrd" and "Progenies of the Great Apocalypse" from Death Cult Armageddon, as well as newly updated versions of tracks from their standard back catalog; "The Serpentine Offering", "Kings of the Carnival Creation", and "Mourning Palace" which were re-orchestrated by Gaute Storaas. The band played a similar show the following year at the Wacken Open Air festival, having yet performed a second live show with a symphony orchestra and choir. This time, they were accompanied by the Czech National Orchestra with the same choir, being the second band in the festival's history to play with a live orchestra and choir (next to German power metal band Rage's 2007 performance). The show was broadcast live on Germany's Kultur TV arts channel. Silenoz has also said in several recent interviews that both live sets have been fully mixed and will be accompanied by a feature-length documentary and bonus material when released. In late 2011-2012 the band went on a special tour for fans in various European countries, including playing in some small, intimate venues celebrating their 1997 album Enthrone Darkness Triumphant by playing the album in its entirety, alongside an additional set of various fan favourite tracks, following a poll to fans directly, asking which of their first 3 albums would they want to see played in full on their next European tour.Forces of the Northern Night and EonianThe band originally announced in August 2013 that work had commenced on the band's next album. However, the production and release of the album has faced numerous delays. It will mark the longest-ever gap between each studio release. Following various delays, the Oslo and Wacken Orchestra performances, recorded between 2011 and 2012, were released on CD/DVD/Blu-ray format on 28 April 2017 worldwide as their third live video release titled Forces of the Northern Night. Silenoz recently revealed that the band is in the mixing stage of the follow-up to Abrahadabra. Ten songs will feature on the next album and they have said it has since been completed. On 18 December 2017 it was announced that the first single from the new album will be initially released on a 7-inch vinyl EP, and will be titled Interdimensional Summit, and was released on 23 February 2018. The new album was titled Eonian and was released on 4 May through Nuclear Blast, and marked the band's first new release of original material in almost eight years. A second song from the new album, "Council of Wolves and Snakes", was made available for streaming online on 30 March. On 28 May, it was announced that Victor Brandt (Entombed A.D., Firespawn) had officially joined as the band's new bassist. Upcoming tenth studio album According to updates on the bandmembers' Instagram accounts in September 2020, the band is in the process of writing and pre-production for their tenth studio album. Silenoz originally claimed the new album wouldn't take as long to release. However, he later took back this statement in December 2023, where he said the band was not prepared to rush the album, and said it will be finished when it is finished, and referred to the 8 years it took Eonian to be released as the longest time it could take for the next album. A cover album was released on December 8, 2023, titled Inspiratio Profanus. It contains all the covers the band has recorded up to Abrahadabra. On March 30, 2024, during a show in Norway, the band reunited with former members Tjodalv, ICS Vortex and Mustis for a live performance. On August 18, 2024, Galder announced via his Instagram account that he had left Dimmu Borgir, playing his last show the day before at Dynamo Metal Fest. In December 2024 it was revealed on the band’s official Instagram that they had entered the studio to record their tenth studio album, indicating a possibility it will be released later in 2025, although an official statement regarding its release is yet to be announced. Musical style and influences Dimmu Borgir's older releases (since 1994 to 1999) are, according to AllMusic journalist Bradley Torreano, strongly influenced by Darkthrone, Mayhem, Bathory, Emperor, Celtic Frost, Immortal, Venom, and Iron Maiden. Enthrone Darkness Triumphant, Dimmu Borgir's third album, "distinguished itself in two important areas, firstly forgoing their native language for English and secondly for its dramatic increase in synthesizer content." As the music strongly differed from the older, rawer black metal style, Jon "Metalion" Kristiansen called Spiritual Black Dimensions "a fine case of melodic, over-produced symphonic metal. If you like this melodic style I can't really think of anyone doing it better [...]. No, I wouldn't call this black metal. Read the interview with Funeral Mist for the right definition of black metal."MembersCurrent official members Silenoz – rhythm guitar , lead vocals , bass Shagrath – lead vocals , drums , lead guitar , keyboards, synthesizers, bass Current session/touring members Daray – drums Gerlioz – keyboards, synthesizers Victor Brandt – bass Discography For all tid (1995) Stormblåst (1996) Enthrone Darkness Triumphant (1997) Spiritual Black Dimensions (1999) Puritanical Euphoric Misanthropia (2001) Death Cult Armageddon (2003) In Sorte Diaboli (2007) Abrahadabra (2010) Eonian (2018) References External links * Category:Norwegian symphonic black metal musical groups Category:Musical groups established in 1993 Category:1993 establishments in Norway Category:Spellemannprisen winners Category:Musical groups from Oslo Category:People from Jessheim Category:Nuclear Blast artists Category:Articles which contain graphical timelines Category:English-language musical groups from Norway	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimmu_Borgir	2025-04-05T18:28:42.822536
8632	Druze	Druse}} \| image = <br /><br /> \| caption = Druze star and Druze flag \| population ≈800,000–2,000,000 \| region1 = \| pop1 600,000 \| region2 = \| pop2 250,000 \| region3 = and the Golan Heights \| pop3 143,000 \| region4 = \| pop4 60,000 \| region5 = \| pop5 50,000 \| region7 = \| pop7 20,000 \| region8= \| pop8 10,000 \| region9 = \| pop9 4,268 \| rels = Druze \| scrips = Epistles of Wisdom<br />() \| founder Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmad \| langs = }} }} (referred to as al-Muwaḥḥidūn al-Druze) }} Druze ( ; , or , , ), who call themselves al-Muwaḥḥidūn (), are an Arab esoteric religious group from West Asia who adhere to the Druze faith, an Abrahamic, monotheistic, and syncretic religion whose main tenets assert the unity of God, reincarnation, and the eternity of the soul. Although the Druze faith developed from Isma'ilism, Druze do not identify as Muslims. They maintain Arabic language and culture as integral parts of their identity, with Arabic being their primary language. Most Druze religious practices are kept secret, and conversion to their religion is not permitted for outsiders. Interfaith marriages are rare and strongly discouraged. They differentiate between spiritual individuals, known as "uqqāl", who hold the faith's secrets, and secular ones, known as "juhhāl", who focus on worldly matters. Druze believe that, after completing the cycle of rebirth through successive reincarnations, the soul reunites with the Cosmic Mind (). The Epistles of Wisdom is the foundational and central text of the Druze faith. The Druze faith originated in Isma'ilism (a branch of Shia Islam), and has been influenced by a diverse range of traditions, including Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, Pythagoreanism. This has led to the development of a distinct and secretive theology, characterized by an esoteric interpretation of scripture that emphasizes the importance of the mind and truthfulness. They regard Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Muhammad, and the Isma'ili Imam Muhammad ibn Isma'il as prophets. Additionally, Druze tradition honors figures such as Salman the Persian, al-Khidr (whom they identify with Elijah, John the Baptist and Saint George), Job, Luke the Evangelist, and others as "mentors" and "prophets". The Druze faith is one of the major religious groups in the Levant, with between 800,000 and a million adherents. They are primarily located in Lebanon, Syria, and Israel, with smaller communities in Jordan. They make up 5.5% of Lebanon's population, 3% of Syria and 1.6% of Israel. The oldest and most densely-populated Druze communities exist in Mount Lebanon and in the south of Syria around Jabal al-Druze (literally the "Mountain of the Druze"). The Druze community played a critically important role in shaping the history of the Levant, where it continues to play a significant political role. As a religious minority, they have often faced persecution from various Muslim regimes, including contemporary Islamic extremism. Several theories about the origins of the Druze have been proposed, with the Arabian hypothesis being the most widely accepted among historians, intellectuals, and religious leaders within the Druze community. This hypothesis significantly influences the Druze's self-perception, cultural identity, and both oral and written traditions. It suggests that the Druze are descended from 12 Arab tribes that migrated to Syria before and during the early Islamic period. This perspective is accepted by the entire Druze communities in Syria and Lebanon, as well as by most Druze in Israel. Etymology The name Druze is derived from the name of Muhammad bin Ismail Nashtakin ad-Darazī (from Persian , "seamster") who was an early preacher. Although the Druze consider ad-Darazī a heretic, the name has been used to identify them, possibly by their historical opponents as a way to attach their community with ad-Darazi's poor reputation. Before becoming public, the movement was secretive and held closed meetings in what was known as Sessions of Wisdom. During this stage a dispute occurred between ad-Darazi and Hamza bin Ali mainly concerning ad-Darazi's ("exaggeration"), which refers to the belief that God was incarnated in human beings to ad-Darazi naming himself "The Sword of the Faith", which led Hamza to write an epistle refuting the need for the sword to spread the faith and several epistles refuting the beliefs of the . In 1016 ad-Darazi and his followers openly proclaimed their beliefs and called people to join them, causing riots in Cairo against the Unitarian movement including Hamza bin Ali and his followers. This led to the suspension of the movement for one year and the expulsion of ad-Darazi and his supporters. Some authorities see in the name "Druze" a descriptive epithet, derived from Arabic ("she who studies"). Others have speculated that the word comes from the Persian word ( "bliss") or from Shaykh Hussayn ad-Darazī, who was one of the early converts to the faith. As for Western sources, Benjamin of Tudela, the Jewish traveler who passed through Lebanon in or around 1165, was one of the first European writers to refer to the Druze by name. The word ("Druzes") occurs in an early Hebrew edition of his travels, but it is clear that this is a scribal error. Be that as it may, he described the Druze as "mountain dwellers, monotheists, who believe in 'soul eternity' and reincarnation". He also stated that "they loved the Jews". Location The number of Druze people worldwide is between 800,000 and one million, with the vast majority residing in the Levant. The primary countries with Druze populations are Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Jordan. According to the Institute of Druze Studies, as of 1998, approximately 40–50% of Druze live in Syria, 30–40% in Lebanon, 6–7% in Israel, and 1–2% in Jordan. Outside the Middle East, significant Druze communities exist in Australia, Canada, Europe, Latin America (mainly Venezuela, In 2021 the largest Druze communities outside the Middle East are in Venezuela, with approximately 60,000, and in the United States, with around 50,000. In 2017, the Los Angeles Times reported about 30,000 Druze in the United States, with the largest concentration in Southern California. History Early history The story of the creation of the Druze faith in the days between 1017 and 1018 is dominated by three men and their struggle for influence. * Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmad was an Ismaili mystic and scholar from Khorasan, who arrived in Fatimid Egypt in 1014 or 1016 arrived in Fatimid Egypt in 1014 or 1016. In 1017, Hamza began to preach a Muwaḥḥidūn (Unitarian) doctrine. Hamza gained the support of the Fātimid caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, who issued a decree promoting religious freedom and eventually became a central figure in the Druze faith. al-Darazi arrives in Cairo Little is known about the early life of al-Darazi. According to most sources, he was born in Bukhara. He is believed to have been of Persian origins and his title al-Darazi is Persian in origin, meaning "the tailor". He arrived in Cairo in 1015, or 1017, after which he joined the newly emerged Druze movement. Al-Darazi was converted early to the Unitarian faith and became one of its early preachers. At that time, the movement enlisted a large number of adherents. As the number of his followers grew, he became obsessed with his leadership and gave himself the title "The Sword of the Faith". Al-Darazi argued that he should be the leader of the daʻwah rather than Hamza ibn Ali and gave himself the title "Lord of the Guides" because Caliph al-Hakim referred to Hamza as "Guide of the Consented". It is said that al-Darazi allowed wine, forbidden marriages and taught metempsychosis It promoted absolute monotheism and the concepts of supporting your fellow man, true speech and pursuit of oneness with God. These concepts superseded all ritual, law and dogma and requirements for pilgrimage, fasting, holy days, prayer, charity, devotion, creed and particular worship of any prophet or person was downplayed. Sharia was opposed and Druze traditions started during the call continue today, such as meeting for reading, prayer and social gathering on a Thursday instead of a Friday at Khalwats instead of mosques. Such gatherings and traditions were not compulsory and people were encouraged to pursue a state of compliance with the real law of nature governing the universe. Epistle thirteen of the Epistles of Wisdom called it "A spiritual doctrine without any ritualistic imposition". The time of the call was seen as a revolution of truth, with missionaries preaching its message all around the Middle East. These messengers were sent out with the Druze epistles and took written vows from believers, whose souls are thought to still exist in the Druze of today. The souls of those who took the vows during the call are believed to be continuously reincarnating in successive generations of Druze until the return of al-Hakim to proclaim a second Divine call and establish a Golden Age of justice and peace for all. al-Darazi is executed By 1018, al-Darazi had gathered around him partisans—"Darazites"—who believed that universal reason became incarnated in Adam at the beginning of the world, was then passed to the prophets, then into Ali, and then into his descendants, the Fatimid Caliphs. Disappearance of Al-Hakim Al-Hakim disappeared one night while on his evening ride—presumably assassinated, perhaps at the behest of his formidable elder sister Sitt al-Mulk. The Druze believe he went into Occultation with Hamza ibn Ali and three other prominent preachers, leaving the care of the "Unitarian missionary movement" to a new leader, al-Muqtana Baha'uddin. The call was suspended briefly between 19 May 1018 and 9 May 1019 during the apostasy of al-Darazi and again between 1021 and 1026 during a period of persecution by the Fatimid caliph al-Zahir li-I'zaz Din Allah for those who had sworn the oath to accept the call. Persecutions started forty days after the disappearance into Occultation of al-Hakim, who was thought to have been converting people to the Unitarian faith for over twenty years prior. Al-Hakim convinced some heretical followers such as al-Darazi of his soteriological divinity and officially declared the Divine call after issuing a decree promoting religious freedom. This was the result of a power struggle inside of the Fatimid Calphate, in which the Druze were viewed with suspicion because they refused to recognize the new caliph as their Imam. Many spies, mainly the followers of al-Darazi, joined the Unitarian movement to infiltrate the Druze community. The spies set about agitating trouble and soiling the reputation of the Druze. This resulted in friction with the new caliph who clashed militarily with the Druze community. The clashes ranged from Antioch to Alexandria, where tens of thousands of Druze were slaughtered by the Fatimid army, The largest massacre was at Antioch, where 5000 prominent Druze were killed, followed by that of Aleppo. These sources assert that al-Hakim rejected al-Darazi's claims of divinity, During the Crusades Wadi al-Taym, in Lebanon, was one of the two most important centers of Druze missionary activity in the 11th century and was the first area where the Druze appeared in the historical record under the name "Druze". It is generally considered the birthplace of the Druze faith. It was during the period of Crusader rule in Levant (1099–1291) that the Druze first emerged into the full light of history in the Gharb region of the Chouf. As powerful warriors serving the leaders in Damascus against the Crusades, the Druze were given the task of keeping watch over the Crusaders in the seaport of Beirut, to prevent them from making any encroachments inland. Subsequently, the Druze chiefs of the Gharb placed their considerable military experience at the disposal of the Mamluk sultans in Egypt (1250–1516); first, to assist them in putting an end to what remained of Crusader rule in the coastal Levant, and later to help them safeguard the Lebanese coast against Crusader retaliation by sea. In the early period of the Crusader era, the Druze feudal power was in the hands of two families, the Tanukhs and the Arslans. From their fortresses in the Gharb area (now in Aley District of southern Mount Lebanon Governorate), the Tanukhs led their incursions into the Phoenician coast and finally succeeded in holding Beirut and the marine plain against the Franks. Because of their fierce battles with the Crusaders, the Druze earned the respect of the Sunni caliphs and thus gained important political powers. After the middle of the twelfth century, the Maan family superseded the Tanukhs in Druze leadership. The origin of the family goes back to Prince Ma'an, who made his appearance in Lebanon in the days of the Abbasid caliph al-Mustarshid (1118–35). The Ma'ans chose for their abode the Chouf in south-western Lebanon (southern Mount Lebanon Governorate), overlooking the maritime plain between Beirut and Sidon, and made their headquarters in Baaqlin, which is still a leading Druze village. They were invested with feudal authority by Sultan Nur ad-Din Zengi and furnished respectable contingents to the Muslim ranks in their struggle against the Crusaders. Certain aspects of the faith, such as transmigration of souls between adherents and incarnation, were viewed as heretical or kufr (infidelity) and foreign by Sunni and Shia Muslims, but contributed to solidarity among the Druze, who closed their religion to new converts in 1046 due to the threat of persecution. The proto-Salafi thinker ibn Taymiyya believed the Druze had a high level of infidelity besides being apostates. Thus, they were not trustworthy and should not be forgiven. He taught also that Muslims cannot accept Druze penitence nor keep them alive, and that Druze property should be confiscated and their women enslaved. Having cleared the Holy Land of the Crusaders, the Mamluk Sultanate now turned their attention to the schismatic Muslims of Syria. In 1305, after the issuing of a fatwa by the scholar ibn Taymiyya calling for jihad against all non-Sunni Muslim groups like the Druze, Alawites, Isma'ilis, and Twelver Shi'a, al-Nasir Muhammad inflicted a disastrous defeat on the Druze at Keserwan, and forced outward compliance on their part to Sunnism. The Sunni Mamluk campaigns led to the destruction of many Christian churches and monasteries and Druze sanctuaries khilwat, and caused mass destruction of Maronite and Druze villages and the killings and mass displacement of its inhabitants. Lebanese Sunni authors generally write of the campaigns from a pro-Mamluk stance, seeing in them the legitimate Muslim state's efforts to incorporate Mount Lebanon into the Islamic realm, while Druze authors write with a focus on the Druze community's consistent connection to Mount Lebanon and defense of its practical autonomy. Later, the Druze were severely attacked at Saoufar in the 1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze after the Ottomans claimed that the Druze had assaulted their caravans near Tripoli. As a result of the Ottoman experience with the rebellious Druze, the word Durzi in Turkish came, and continues, to mean someone who is the ultimate thug. The 16th and 17th centuries witnessed a succession of armed Druze rebellions against the Ottomans countered by repeated Ottoman punitive expeditions against the Chouf, in which the Druze population of the area was severely depleted and many villages destroyed. These military measures, severe as they were, did not succeed in reducing the local Druze to the required degree of subordination. This led the Ottoman government to agree to an arrangement whereby the different nahiyahs (districts) of the Chouf would be granted in iltizam ("fiscal concession") to one of the region's amirs, or leading chiefs, leaving the maintenance of law and order and the collection of taxes in the area in the hands of the appointed amir. This arrangement was to provide the cornerstone for the privileged status ultimately enjoyed by the whole of Mount Lebanon, Druze and Christian areas alike. Fakhr-al-Din II was the first ruler in modern Lebanon to open the doors of his country to foreign Western influences. Under his auspices the French established a khān (hostel) in Sidon, the Florentines a consulate, and Christian missionaries were admitted into the country. Beirut and Sidon, which Fakhr-al-Din II beautified, still bear traces of his benign rule. See the new biography of this Prince, based on original sources, by TJ Gorton: Renaissance Emir: a Druze Warlord at the Court of the Medici (London, Quartet Books, 2013), for an updated view of his life. Fakhr ad Din II was succeeded in 1635 by his nephew Mulhim Ma'n, who ruled through his death in 1658. (Fakhr ad Din's only surviving son, Husayn, lived the rest of his life as a court official in Constantinople.) Emir Mulhim exercised Iltizam taxation rights in the Shuf, Gharb, Jurd, Matn, and Kisrawan districts of Lebanon. Mulhim's forces battled and defeated those of Mustafa Pasha, Beylerbey of Damascus, in 1642, but he is reported by historians to have been otherwise loyal to Ottoman rule. Following Mulhim's death, his sons Ahmad and Korkmaz entered into a power struggle with other Ottoman-backed Druze leaders. In 1660, the Ottoman Empire moved to reorganize the region, placing the sanjaks (districts) of Sidon-Beirut and Safed in a newly formed province of Sidon, a move seen by local Druze as an attempt to assert control. Ahmad however emerged victorious in the power struggle among the Druze in 1667, but the Maʿnīs lost control of Safad Ahmad continued as local ruler through his death from natural causes, without heir, in 1697. During the Ottoman–Habsburg War (1683–1699), Ahmad Ma'n collaborated in a rebellion against the Ottomans which extended beyond his death. Having consolidated his conquests in Syria (1831–1838), Ibrahim Pasha, son of the viceroy of Egypt, Muhammad Ali Pasha, made the fatal mistake of trying to disarm the Christians and Druze of the Lebanon and to draft the latter into his army. This was contrary to the principles of the life of independence which these mountaineers had always lived, and resulted in a general uprising against Egyptian rule. The Druze of Wadi al-Taym and Ḥawran, under the leadership of Shibli al-Aryan, distinguished themselves in their stubborn resistance at their inaccessible headquarters, al-Laja, lying southeast of Damascus. Qaysites and the Yemenites , about the control of Jebel Druze]] The conquest of Syria by the Muslim Arabs in the middle of the seventh century introduced into the land two political factions later called the Qaysites and the Yemenites. The Qaysite party represented the Bedouin Arabs who were regarded as inferior by the Yemenites who were earlier and more cultured emigrants into Syria from southern Arabia. Druze and Christians grouped in political, rather than religious, parties; the party lines in Lebanon obliterated ethnic and religious lines and the people grouped themselves into one or the other of these two parties regardless of their religious affiliations. The sanguinary feuds between these two factions depleted, in course of time, the manhood of the Lebanon and ended in the decisive battle of Ain Dara in 1711, which resulted in the utter defeat of the Yemenite party. Many Yemenite Druze thereupon migrated to the Hauran region, laying the foundation of Druze power there. The Qays were led by Emir Haydar of the Shihab dynasty and consisted of the Druze clans of Jumblatt, Talhuq, Imad and Abd al-Malik and the Maronite clan of Khazen. The Yamani faction was led by Mahmoud Abu Harmoush and consisted of the Druze Alam al-Din, Arslan and Sawaf clans. The Yamani faction also had backing from the Ottoman provincial authorities of Sidon and Damascus. The battle ended in a rout of the Yamani faction and resulted in the consolidation of Qaysi political and fiscal domination over Mount Lebanon. with amicable relations between the two groups prevailing throughout history, with the exception of some periods, including 1860 civil conflict in Mount Lebanon and Damascus. In 1840, social disturbance started between Druze and their Christian Maronite neighbors, who had previously been on friendly terms. This culminated in the civil war of 1860. After the Shehab dynasty converted to Christianity, some prominent Druze families, including the Druze Abi-Lamma clan—who were close allies of the Shihabs—also converted to Christianity and joined the Maronite Church. The Druze community and feudal leaders came under attack from the regime with the collaboration of the Maronite Catholic Church, and the Druze lost most of their political and feudal powers. Also, the Druze formed an alliance with Britain and allowed Protestant missionaries to enter Mount Lebanon, creating tension between them and the Catholic Maronites. The Maronite-Druze conflict in 1840–60 was an outgrowth of the Maronite independence movement, directed against the Druze, Druze feudalism, and the Ottoman-Turks. The civil war was not therefore a religious war, except in Damascus, where it spread and where the vastly non-Druze population was anti-Christian. This animosity was fueled by economic disparities, with Christians, who were generally wealthier and more prosperous, compare to the economically struggling Muslim residents. The movement culminated with the 1859–60 massacre and defeat of the Maronites by the Druze. The civil war of 1860 cost the Maronites some ten thousand lives in Damascus, Zahlé, Deir al-Qamar, Hasbaya, and other towns of Lebanon. The European powers then determined to intervene, and authorized the landing in Beirut of a body of French troops under General Beaufort d'Hautpoul, whose inscription can still be seen on the historic rock at the mouth of Nahr al-Kalb. French intervention on behalf of the Maronites did not help the Maronite national movement, since France was restricted in 1860 by the British government, which did not want the Ottoman Empire dismembered. But European intervention pressured the Turks to treat the Maronites more justly. Following the recommendations of the powers, the Ottoman Porte granted Lebanon local autonomy, guaranteed by the powers, under a Maronite governor. This autonomy was maintained until World War I. The Maronite Catholics and the Druze founded modern Lebanon in the early eighteenth century, through the ruling and social system known as the "Maronite-Druze dualism" which developed in Ottoman-era Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate, The ruling and social system in the Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate was formed from the Maronite-Druze dualism, and the security stability and Druze-Maronite coexistence in the Mutasarrifate allowed the development of the economy and the system of government. Al-Farouqi also disarmed the population, extracted significant taxes, and launched a census of the region. Modern history In Lebanon, Syria, Israel, and Jordan, the Druzites have official recognition as a separate religious community with its own religious court system. Although most Druze no longer consider themselves Muslim, Al Azhar of Egypt recognized them in 1959 as one of the Islamic sects in the Al-Azhar Shia Fatwa due to political reasons, as Gamal Abdel Nasser saw it as a tool to spread his appeal and influence across the entire Arab world. The Druze religion does not endorse separatism, and urges blending with the communities they reside in; the Druze have often done so to avoid persecution. Yet the Druze also have a history of resistance to occupying powers, and they have at times enjoyed more freedom than most other groups living in the Levant. Other notable communities live in the Harim Mountains, the Damascus suburb of Jaramana, and on the southeast slopes of Mount Hermon. A large Syrian Druze community historically lived in the Golan Heights, but following wars with Israel in 1967 and 1973, many of these Druze fled to other parts of Syria; most of those who remained live in a handful of villages in the disputed zone, while only a few live in the narrow remnant of Quneitra Governorate that is still under effective Syrian control. The Druze always played a far more important role in Syrian politics than its comparatively small population would suggest. With a community of little more than 100,000 in 1949, or roughly three percent of the Syrian population, the Druze of Syria's southwestern mountains constituted a potent force in Syrian politics and played a leading role in the nationalist struggle against the French. Under the military leadership of Sultan Pasha al-Atrash, the Druze provided much of the military force behind the Syrian Revolution of 1925–27. In 1945, Amir Hasan al-Atrash, the paramount political leader of the Jebel al-Druze, led the Druze military units in a successful revolt against the French, making the Jebel al-Druze the first and only region in Syria to liberate itself from French rule without British assistance. At independence the Druze, made confident by their successes, expected that Damascus would reward them for their many sacrifices on the battlefield. They demanded to keep their autonomous administration and many political privileges accorded them by the French and sought generous economic assistance from the newly independent government. the Druze community was subjected to a heavy attack by the Syrian government. Shishakli believed that among his many opponents in Syria, the Druze were the most potentially dangerous, and he was determined to crush them. He frequently proclaimed: "My enemies are like a serpent: The head is the Jebel al-Druze, the stomach Homs, and the tail Aleppo. If I crush the head, the serpent will die." Shishakli dispatched 10,000 regular troops to occupy the Jebel al-Druze. Several towns were bombarded with heavy weapons, killing scores of civilians and destroying many houses. According to Druze accounts, Shishakli encouraged neighboring Bedouin tribes to plunder the defenseless population and allowed his own troops to run amok. After the Shishakli's military campaign, the Druze community lost much of its political influence, but many Druze military officers played important roles in the Ba'ath government currently ruling Syria. Before the Syrian civil war, it was estimated that around 700,000 Druze lived in Syria in 2010, constituting about 3% of the population. Of these, approximately 337,500 resided in the Suwayda Governorate, which had a Druze majority of around 90% and a significant Christian minority. Additionally, about 250,000 Druze, or 35.7% of the total Druze population, lived in Damascus and its surrounding areas, including Jaramana, Sahnaya, and Jdeidat Artouz. Approximately 30,000 Druze lived on the eastern side of Mount Hermon, while around 25,000 Druze were spread across 14 villages in Jabal al-Summaq in Idlib Governorate. Several Druze militias fought in the Syrian civil war. These included Jaysh al-Muwahhidin which largely engaged in defensive war, though were also described as supporters of Bashar al-Assad and the Ba'athist government. The Druze Al-Jabal Brigade played a major role in the 2024 Syrian opposition offensives, which toppled the Ba'athists. In Lebanon shrine in Niha village in the Chouf region of Lebanon.]] , 1967]] The Druzite community in Lebanon played an important role in the formation of the modern state of Lebanon, and even though they are a minority they play an important role in the Lebanese political scene. Before and during the Lebanese Civil War (1975–90), the Druze were in favor of Pan-Arabism and Palestinian resistance represented by the PLO. Most of the community supported the Progressive Socialist Party formed by their leader Kamal Jumblatt and they fought alongside other leftist and Palestinian parties against the Lebanese Front that was mainly constituted of Christians. At the time, the Lebanese government and economy were running under the significant influence of elites within the Maronite Christian community. After the assassination of Kamal Jumblatt on 16 March 1977, his son Walid Jumblatt took the leadership of the party and played an important role in preserving his father's legacy after winning the Mountain War and sustained the existence of the Druze community during the sectarian bloodshed that lasted until 1990. In August 2001, Maronite Catholic Patriarch Nasrallah Boutros Sfeir toured the predominantly Druze Chouf region of Mount Lebanon and visited Mukhtara, the ancestral stronghold of Druze leader Walid Jumblatt. The tumultuous reception that Sfeir received not only signified a historic reconciliation between Maronites and Druze, who had fought a bloody war in 1983–1984, but underscored the fact that the banner of Lebanese sovereignty had broad multi-confessional appeal and was a cornerstone for the Cedar Revolution in 2005. Jumblatt's post-2005 position diverged sharply from the tradition of his family. He also accused Damascus of being behind the 1977 assassination of his father, Kamal Jumblatt, expressing for the first time what many knew he privately suspected. The BBC describes Jumblatt as "the leader of Lebanon's most powerful Druze clan and heir to a leftist political dynasty". The second largest political party supported by Druze is the Lebanese Democratic Party led by Prince Talal Arslan, the son of Lebanese independence hero Emir Majid Arslan. The Druze community is primarily located in the rural and mountainous regions to the east and south of Beirut. They represent approximately 5.2 percent of Lebanon's population and are spread across 136 villages in areas such as Hasbaya, Rashaya, Chouf, Aley, Marjeyoun and Beirut. The Druze make up the majority in Aley, Baakleen, Hasbaya and Rashaya. Specifically, they constitute over half of the population in the Aley District, about a third in the Rashaya District, and around a quarter in both the Chouf and Matn Districts. In Israel Scouts march to Jethro's tomb. Today, thousands of Israeli Druze belong to such "Druze Zionist" movements.]] The Druzites form a religious minority in Israel of more than 100,000, mostly residing in the north of the country. In 2004, there were 102,000 Druze living in the country. In 2010, the population of Israeli Druze citizens grew to over 125,000. At the end of 2018, there were 143,000 in Israel and the Israeli-occupied portion of the Golan Heights. Today, thousands of Israeli Druze belong to "Druze Zionist" movements. By the end of 2019, around 81% of the Israeli Druze population resided in the Northern District, while 19% were in the Haifa District. The largest Druze communities are found in Daliyat al-Karmel and Yirka (also known as Yarka). The Druze live in 19 towns and villages scattered across the mountaintops in northern Israel, either in exclusively Druze areas or in mixed communities with Christians and Muslims. As of 2011, fewer than 10% of the Druze population in the Golan Heights had accepted Israeli citizenship. In 1957, the Israeli government designated the Druze a distinct religious community at the request of its communal leaders. The Druze are Arabic-speaking citizens of Israel and serve in the Israel Defense Forces, just as most citizens do in Israel. Members of the community have attained top positions in Israeli politics and public service. The number of Druze parliament members usually exceeds their proportion in the Israeli population, and they are integrated within several political parties. Some scholars maintain that Israel has tried to separate the Druze from other Arab communities, and that the effort has influenced the way Israel's Druze perceive their modern identity. In the diaspora Venezuela hosts the largest Druze communities outside the Middle East, estimated at 60,000 individuals. Arab immigration to Venezuela started as early as the 19th and 20th centuries, with migrants primarily hailing from the Ottoman provinces of Lebanon, Syria, and Palestine. They settled predominantly in Caracas, and have significantly influenced Venezuelan culture, particularly in terms of Arabic food and music. Religiously, the Arab-Venezuelans community consists mainly of Druze and Christians, who are affiliated with the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Rite Catholic Churches. The early Druze migrants to Venezuela assimilated well into the local population, with some even converting Catholicism. Nevertheless, many retained a strong Druze and Arab identity, along with adherence to Druze values. A prominent example of Druze influence in Venezuela is the former vice president, Tareck El Aissami, who is of Druze descent. Other notable Venezuelan figures of Druze origin include Haifa El Aissami and Tarek William Saab. The United States is the second largest home of Druze communities outside the Middle East after Venezuela. Estimates vary between about 30,000 and 50,000 Beliefs God The Druze conception of the deity is declared by them to be one of strict and uncompromising unity. The main Druze doctrine states that God is both transcendent and immanent, in which he is above all attributes, but at the same time, he is present. In their desire to maintain a rigid confession of unity, they stripped from God all attributes (tanzīh). In God, there are no attributes distinct from his essence. He is wise, mighty, and just, not by wisdom, might, and justice, but by his own essence. God is "the whole of existence", rather than merely "above existence" or on his throne, which would make him "limited". There is neither "how", "when", nor "where" about him; in this way, he is incomprehensible. In this dogma, they are similar to the semi-philosophical, semi-religious body which flourished under Al-Ma'mun and was known by the name of Mu'tazila and the fraternal order of the Brethren of Purity (Ikhwan al-Ṣafa). Unlike the ''Mu'tazila, and similar to some branches of Sufism, the Druze believe in the concept of Tajalli (meaning "theophany"). Other ancient Druze writings include the ''Rasa'il al-Hind (Epistles of India) and the previously lost (or hidden) manuscripts such as al-Munfarid bi-Dhatihi and al-Sharia al-Ruhaniyya as well as others including didactic and polemic treatises. Reincarnation Reincarnation is a paramount principle in the Druze faith. Reincarnations occur instantly at one's death because there is an eternal duality of the body and the soul and it is impossible for the soul to exist without the body. A human soul will transfer only to a human body, in contrast to the Neoplatonic, Hindu and Buddhist belief systems, according to which souls can transfer to any living creature. Furthermore, a male Druze can be reincarnated only as another male Druze and a female Druze only as another female Druze. A Druze cannot be reincarnated in the body of a non-Druze. Additionally, souls cannot be divided and the number of souls existing in the universe is finite. The cycle of rebirth is continuous and the only way to escape is through successive reincarnations. When this occurs, the soul is united with the Cosmic Mind and achieves the ultimate happiness. </blockquote> The Druze also use a similar formula, called al-'ahd, when one is initiated into the ʻUqqāl. Sanctuaries ]] The prayer-houses of the Druze are called khilwa, khalwa, khilwat or khalwat. The primary sanctuary of the Druze is at Khalwat al-Bayada. Esotericism The Druze believe that many teachings given by prophets, religious leaders and holy books have esoteric meanings preserved for those of intellect, in which some teachings are symbolic and allegorical in nature, and divide the understanding of holy books and teachings into three layers. These layers, according to the Druze, are as follows: * The obvious or exoteric (zahir), accessible to anyone who can read or hear; * The hidden or esoteric (batin), accessible to those who are willing to search and learn through the concept of exegesis; * And the hidden of the hidden, a concept known as anagoge, inaccessible to all but a few really enlightened individuals who truly understand the nature of the universe. Druze do not believe that the esoteric meaning abrogates or necessarily abolishes the exoteric one. Hamza bin Ali refutes such claims by stating that if the esoteric interpretation of taharah (purity) is purity of the heart and soul, it doesn't mean that a person can discard his physical purity, as salat (prayer) is useless if a person is untruthful in his speech and that the esoteric and exoteric meanings complement each other. Seven Druze precepts The Druze follow seven moral precepts or duties that are considered the core of the faith. Druze in different states can have radically different lifestyles. Theophany Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmad is considered the founder of the Druze and the primary author of the Druze manuscripts. Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah is an important figure in the Druze faith whose eponymous founder ad-Darazi proclaimed him as the incarnation of God in 1018. Historian David R. W. Bryer defines the Druzes as ghulat of Isma'ilism, since they exaggerated the cult of the caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah and considered him divine; he also defines the Druzes as a religion that deviated from Islam. He also added that as a result of this deviation, the Druze faith "seems as different from Islam as Islam is from Christianity or Christianity is from Judaism". John the Baptist, Saint Matthew, Saint Mark, and Saint Luke. Formal Druze worship is confined to weekly meeting on Thursday evenings, during which all members of community gather together to discuss local issues before those not initiated into the secrets of the faith (the juhhāl, or the ignorant) are dismissed, and those who are "uqqāl" or "enlightened" (those few initiated in the Druze holy books) remain to read and study. Religious symbol The Druze strictly avoid iconography, but use five colors ("Five Limits" ) as a religious symbol: green, red, yellow, blue, and white. The five limits were listed by Ismail at-Tamimi (d. 1030) in the Epistle of the Candle (risalat ash-sham'a) as: * First limit: Hamza Ibn Ali () (or Jesus according to other sources) The stripes are a diagrammatic cut of the spheres in neoplatonic philosophy, while the five-pointed star embodies the golden ratio, phi, as a symbol of temperance and a life of moderation. Prayer houses and holy places , northern Israel]] Holy places of the Druze are archaeological sites important to the community and associated with religious holidays; the most notable example being Nabi Shu'ayb, dedicated to Jethro, who is a central figure of the Druze religion. Druze make pilgrimages to this site on the holiday of Ziyarat al-Nabi Shu'ayb. , Israel]] One of the most important features of the Druze village having a central role in social life is the khilwa or —a house of prayer, retreat and religious unity. The may be known as in local languages. The second type of religious shrine is one associated with the anniversary of a historic event or death of a prophet. If it is a mausoleum the Druze call it mazār and if it is a shrine they call it maqām. The holy places become more important to the community in times of adversity and calamity. The holy places and shrines of the Druze are scattered in various villages, in places where they are protected and cared for. They are found in Syria, Lebanon and Israel. As such, there is no "Druze clergy". Those few initiated in the Druze holy books are called ("the wise"), while the regular members of the group are called ("the ignorant"). Some find this classification disparaging however, and as such, terms like , meaning "(concerned with the) spiritual", and , meaning "(concerned with the) physical", are also used. Given the strict religious, intellectual and spiritual requirements, most of the Druze are not initiated and might be referred to as (), literally "the Ignorant", but in practice referring to the non-initiated Druze. However, that term is seldom used by the Druze. Those Druze are not granted access to the Druze holy literature or allowed to attend the initiated religious meetings of the . The "juhhāl" are the vast majority of the Druze community. The Druze believe in the unity of God, and are often known as the "People of Monotheism" or simply "Monotheists". Their theology has a Neo-Platonic view about how God interacts with the world through emanations and is similar to some gnostic and other esoteric sects. Druze philosophy also shows Sufi influences. Druze principles focus on honesty, loyalty, filial piety, altruism, patriotic sacrifice, and monotheism. They reject nicotine, alcohol, and other drugs and often, the consumption of pork (to the Uqqāl and not necessarily to the Juhhāl). Druze reject polygamy, believe in reincarnation, and are not obliged to observe most of the religious rituals. The Druze believe that rituals are symbolic and have an individualistic effect on the person, for which reason Druze are free to perform them, or not. The community does celebrate Eid al-Adha, however, considered their most significant holiday; though their form of observance is different compared to that of most Muslims. Culture The Druze community maintains Arabic language and culture as core elements of their identity. Because a non-Druze partner cannot convert to Druze faith, the couple cannot have Druze children, because the Druze faith can only be passed on through birth to two Druze parents. The procedure is practiced as a cultural tradition, and has no religious significance in the Druze faith. There is no special date for this act in the Druze faith: male Druze infants are usually circumcised shortly after birth, however some remain uncircumcised until the age of ten or older. Some Druze do not circumcise their male children, and refuse to observe this "common Muslim practice". Druze communities are often close-knit and maintain a strong sense of identity and solidarity. A key aspect of their religious practice includes ziyarat, or visits to holy places. One of the most significant events in Druze religious life is the annual pilgrimage to the Shrine of Shu'ayb, observed between April 25 and 28. This pilgrimage is dedicated to Shu'ayb, whom Druze believe to be a prophet and whose purported tomb is located at this shrine. This event is so important that it is officially recognized as a public holiday in Israel. Language The mother tongue of Druze in Syria, Lebanon and Israel is Levantine Arabic, except those born and living in the Druze diaspora such as Venezuela, where Arabic was not taught or spoken at home. The Druze Arabic dialect, especially in the rural areas, is often different from the other regional Arabic dialects. Druze Arabic dialect is distinguished from others by retention of the phoneme , the use of which by Druze is particularly prominent in the mountains and less so in urban areas. The Druze citizens of Israel are Arabic in language and culture, and linguistically speaking, the majority of them are fluently bilingual, speaking both a Central Northern Levantine Arabic dialect and Hebrew. In Druze Arab homes and towns in Israel, the primary language spoken is Arabic, while some Hebrew words have entered the colloquial Arabic dialect. They often use Hebrew characters to write their Arabic dialect online. Cultural identity ]] Various scholars agree that the Druze community's cultural identity is deeply intertwined with their Arab heritage. Historian Nejla Abu-Izzedin and Kamal Salibi both argue that the Druze are profoundly embedded within the Arab cultural framework, as demonstrated by their common language and social customs. They assert that this integration is apparent through the Druze's active participation in regional traditions and their assimilation into Arab society, despite their distinct religious and philosophical beliefs. Scholar Robert Brenton Betts explains that the Druze social structure is characterized by a strong sense of community and the leadership of religious elders known as 'sheikhs'. These leaders are pivotal in guiding both the spiritual and social aspects of Druze life, which is crucial for preserving their unique identity. Betts also points to specific Druze practices, such as the annual pilgrimage to the Shrine of Shu'ayb, as examples of how these traditions, along with the role of the sheikhs, are deeply ingrained in Druze social life. He argues that these practices are not just religious rituals but are fundamental to reinforcing Druze unity and continuity. According to some scholars, the Druze cultural identity is shaped by their interactions with both Christian and Muslim communities, reflecting a synthesis of religious and cultural influences. Historians notes that the Druze have historically maintained a positive relationship with Christians, as evidenced by shared traditions and social practices in Mount Lebanon. This interaction has led to overlapping symbols, customs, mutual veneration of saints and their shrines, and shared terminology for God. Sites such as the Church of Saidet et Tallé in Deir el Qamar, historically a popular Marian pilgrimage site among the Druze, exemplify this cultural exchange. The Druze also venerate Christian saints like Saint George and the Prophet Elijah, admired for their "bravery and warrior-like qualities". Conversely, despite sharing historical roots with Muslims, the Druze often experience a more complex relationship with Muslim communities due to their distinct religious beliefs and practices. According to Druze narrative, these acts of persecution were aimed at eradicating the entire community. This narrative has shaped the Druze sense of identity and their awareness of survival. As a survival strategy, some Druze have historically posed as Muslims, a practice known as taqiya. Cuisine ) in Isfiya, Israel]] Druze cuisine is Arab cuisine, and shares many similarities with other Levantine cuisines. It features a rich array of grains, meat, potato, cheese, bread, whole grains, fruits, vegetables, fresh fish and tomatoes. A hallmark of Druze and Levantine cuisine is meze including tabbouleh, hummus and baba ghanoush. Kibbeh nayyeh is also a popular mezze among the Druze. Other well-known dishes among Druzes include falafel, sfiha, shawarma, dolma, kibbeh, kusa mahshi, shishbarak, muhammara, and mujaddara. Among the popular traditional Arabic dessert by the Druze is Knafeh. In Israel, the Saj bread is known as "Druze Pita" as it was easier for Israeli Jews to identify with Druze than with Arabs. It is a pita filled with labneh (thick yoghurt) and topped with olive oil and za’atar, and a very popular bread in Israel. Al-Meleh a popular dish among Druze in Hauran region (Suwayda Governorate), cooked in a pressure cooker and served on huge special plates at weddings, holidays, and other special occasions. And consists of bulgur wheat immersed in ghee with lamb and yogurt, and served hot with fried kibbeh and vegetables. For reasons that remain unclear, the Mulukhiyah dish was banned by the Fatimid Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah sometime during his reign (996–1021). While the ban was eventually lifted after the end of his reign, the Druze, who hold Al-Hakim in high regard and give him quasi-divine authority, Mate (in Levantine Arabic, /mæte/) is a popular drink consumed by the Druze brought to the Levant by Syrian migrants from Argentina in the 19th century. Marriage family visiting Gamla; wearing religious dress]] The Druze rejection of polygamy, unlike in traditional Islamic traditions, reflects a significant influence from Christianity on their faith. Marrying a non-Druze, whether male or female, is viewed as apostasy from the Druze religion. The Druze community holds a negative perception of apostates who marry outside the religion. Consequently, those who leave the Druze religion due to interfaith marriage are forced to leave their village and are exiled to distant, non-Druze areas. This religious and social pressure leads to their isolation and classification as outcasts within their Druze community. Druze and other religions Relationship with Muslims The Druze faith is often classified as a branch of Isma'ilism; although according to various scholars Druze faith "diverge substantially from Islam, both Sunni and Shia". Even though the faith originally developed out of Ismaili Islam, most Druze do not identify as Muslims, and they do not accept the five pillars of Islam. Historian David R. W. Bryer defines the Druzes as ghulat of Isma'ilism, since they exaggerated the cult of the caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah and considered him divine; he also defines the Druzes as a religion that deviated from Islam. Historically the relationship between the Druze and Muslims has been characterized by intense persecution. The persecution of the Druze included massacres, demolishing Druze prayer houses and holy places, and forced conversion to Islam. Those acts of persecution were meant to eradicate the whole community according to the Druze narrative. Most recently, the Syrian Civil War, which began in 2011, saw persecution of the Druze at the hands of Islamic extremists. Since Druze emerged from Islam and share certain beliefs with Islam, its position of whether it is a separate religion or a sect of Islam is sometimes controversial among Muslim scholars. Druze are not considered Muslims by those belonging to orthodox Islamic schools of thought. Ibn Taymiyya, a prominent Muslim scholar muhaddith, dismissed the Druze as non-Muslims, and his fatwa cited that Druze: "Are not at the level of ′Ahl al-Kitāb (People of the Book) nor mushrikin (polytheists). Rather, they are from the most deviant kuffār (Infidel) ... Their women can be taken as slaves and their property can be seized ... they are to be killed whenever they are found and cursed as they described ... It is obligatory to kill their scholars and religious figures so that they do not misguide others", which in that setting would have legitimized violence against them as apostates. The Ottoman Empire often relied on Ibn Taymiyya's religious ruling to justify their persecution of Druze. In contrast, according to Ibn Abidin, whose work ''Radd al-Muhtar 'ala al-Durr al-Mukhtar'' is still considered the authoritative text of Hanafi fiqh today, the Druze are neither Muslims nor apostates. In 1959, in an ecumenical move driven by Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser's effort to broaden his political appeal after the establishment of the United Arab Republic between Egypt and Syria in 1958, the Islamic scholar Mahmud Shaltut at Al Azhar University in Cairo classified the Druze as Muslims, even though most Druze no longer consider themselves Muslim. The fatwa declares that the Druze are Muslims because they recite the twofold Shahada, and believe in the Qur'an and monotheism and do not oppose Islam in word or deed. This fatwa was not accepted by all in the Islamic world, many dissenting scholars have argued the Druze recite the Shahada as a form of taqiya; a precautionary dissimulation or denial of religious belief and practice in the face of persecution. Some sects of Islam, including all Shia denominations, don't recognize the religious authority of Al Azhar University, those that do sometimes challenge the religious legitimacy of Shaltut's fatwa because it was issued for political reasons, as Gamal Abdel Nasser saw it as a tool to spread his appeal and influence across the entire Arab world. (Jethro) grave near Hittin, Israel: Both religions venerate Shuaib.]] Both religions venerate Shuaib and Muhammad: Shuaib (Jethro) is revered as the chief prophet in the Druze religion, and in Islam he is considered a prophet of God. Muslims regard Muhammad as the final and paramount prophet sent by God, to the Druze, Muhammad is exalted as one of the seven prophets sent by God in different periods of history. Scholars argue that Druze recite the Shahada in order to protect their religion and their own safety, and to avoid persecution by Muslims. including some of Shihab dynasty members, as well as the Abi-Lamma clan. Christian and Druze communities share a long history of interaction dating back roughly a millennium, particularly in Mount Lebanon. Jabal al-Druze, the Galilee region, Mount Carmel, and Golan Heights. The Maronite Catholic and the Druze founded modern Lebanon in the early Eighteenth Century, through a governing and social system known as the "Maronite-Druze dualism" in the Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate. The Druze faith incorporates some elements of Christianity, The full Druze canon or Druze scripture (Epistles of Wisdom) includes the Old Testament, the New Testament, the Quran and philosophical works by Plato and those influenced by Socrates among works from other religions and philosophers. The Druze faith shows influence of Christian monasticism, among other religious practices. and it is practiced in Coptic Christianity, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, and the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church as a rite of passage. Male circumcision is also widely practiced by the Druze, The Druze revere Jesus "the son of Joseph and Mary" and his four disciples, who wrote the Gospels. According to the Druze manuscripts Jesus is the Greatest Imam and the incarnation of Ultimate Reason (Akl) on earth and the first cosmic principle (Hadd), and regards Jesus and Hamza ibn Ali as the incarnations of one of the five great celestial powers, who form part of their system. In the Druze tradition, Jesus is known under three titles: the True Messiah (al-Masih al-Haq), the Messiah of all Nations (Masih al-Umam), and the Messiah of Sinners. This is due, respectively, to the belief that Jesus delivered the true Gospel message, the belief that he was the Saviour of all nations, and the belief that he offers forgiveness. Both religions venerate the Virgin Mary, John the Baptist, Saint George, Elijah, Luke the Evangelist, Antisemitic material is contained in the Druze literature such as the Epistles of Wisdom; for example in an epistle ascribed to one of the founders of Druze, Baha al-Din al-Muqtana, probably written sometime between AD 1027 and AD 1042, accused the Jews of crucifying Jesus. In other epistles, Jews are depicted negatively as "morally corrupt and murderers of prophets", particularly in chapters 13–14 of the Epistles of Wisdom. The epistle "Excuses and Warnings" predicts that, as a sign of the end times, Jews will seize control of Jerusalem and seek revenge on its inhabitants as well as those of Acre. Afterwards, Messiah Jesus will expel the Jews from Jerusalem due to their spread of moral corruption worldwide. Christians will then dominate Muslims until the Day of Judgment, when divine judgment by Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah will occur. On the other hand, Benjamin of Tudela, a Jewish traveler from the 12th century, pointed out that the Druze maintained good commercial relations with the Jews nearby, and according to him this was because the Druze liked the Jewish people. Yet, the Jews and Druze lived isolated from each other, except in a few mixed towns such as Deir al-Qamar and Peki'in. The Deir el Qamar Synagogue was built in 1638, during the Ottoman era in Lebanon, to serve the local Jewish population, some of whom were part of the immediate entourage of the Druze Emir Fakhr-al-Din II. During the Ottoman period, relations between the Druze of Galilee and the Jewish community were generally strained and marked by conflict. In 1660, during a Druze power struggle in Mount Lebanon, Druze forces destroyed Jewish settlements in the Galilee, including Safad and Tiberias. The tension escalated in 1834 during the Peasants' Revolt, when Safed's Jewish community endured a month-long assault that involved extensive looting, violence, and the destruction of Jewish properties by both Druze and Muslims. During the Druze revolt against the rule of Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt, the Jewish community in Safad was attacked by Druze rebels in early July 1838, the violence against the Jews included plundering their homes and desecrating their synagogues. ]] Interactions between Jews and Druze were rare before the establishment of Israel in 1948, as they historically lived isolated from each other. During the British Mandate for Palestine, the Druze did not embrace the rising Arab nationalism of the time or participate in violent confrontations with Jewish immigrants. In 1948, many Druze volunteered for the Israeli army and no Druze villages were destroyed or permanently abandoned. Since the establishment of the state of Israel, the Druze have demonstrated solidarity with Israel and distanced themselves from Arab Islamic radicalism. Israeli Druze male citizens serve in the Israel Defense Forces. The Jewish-Druze partnership was often referred as "a covenant of blood" (Hebrew: , brit damim) in recognition of the common military yoke carried by the two peoples for the security of the country. Israeli Druze scholars Kais M. Firro and Rabah Halabi contend that the Israeli narrative of a "special historical bond" or "blood pact" between Druze and Jews is a myth fabricated by early Zionist circles to divide and control Arab religious communities in Israel, with no historical foundation. From 1957, the Israeli government formally recognized the Druze as a separate religious community, and they are defined as a distinct ethnic group in the Israeli Ministry of Interior's census registration. Scholars attribute this trend to cultural differences between Jews and Druze. In terms of religious comparison, scholars consider Judaism and the Druze faith as ethnoreligious groups, Figures in the Hebrew Bible such as Adam, Noah, Abraham, and Moses are considered important prophets of God in the Druze faith, being among the seven prophets who appeared in different periods of history. Jethro of Midian is considered an ancestor of the Druze who revere him as their spiritual founder and chief prophet. Origins Ethnic origins A study carried out by th Israeli Druze historian Kais M. Firro examines various theories about the origins of the Druze, including possible connections to the Arameans, Arabs, Itureans, Cuthites, Hivites, Armenians, Persians, and Turks. Some suggested a European origin. In the 17th century, there was a prevailing belief in France that the Druze were descendants of a lost army of European Christian crusaders. According to this notion, after the fall of the Christian stronghold of Acre in 1291 and the subsequent persecution by the victorious Mamluks, these crusaders sought refuge in the mountains of Lebanon and settled there permanently. Additionally, Two English researchers, Gertrude Bell and David Hogarth, also proposed that the Druze are a blend of Arabs from Southern Arabia and the mountain-dwelling Aramaeans. in Jabal Druze (Hauran), dressed in their traditional clothing]] The second approach, used by Druze historians, scholars, intellectuals and clerics, emphasizes the migration and settlement of Arab tribes to highlight the pure Arab lineage of those who adopted Druze beliefs in the 11th century. Proponents argue that the Druze speak a "pure Arab dialect" and are of "pure Arab blood", not mixed with Turkish or other influences, due to their practice of strict endogamy marriage. This view maintains that most Druze are descended from 12 Arab tribes that migrated to Syria before the Islamic period. It relies on historical records, Druze chronicles, and genealogical trees reconstructed by Druze families to trace their ancestry and settlement in Syria. According to Firro, all Druze historians, scholars and leaders in Lebanon and Syria consider the Druze to be Arabs, and this view is accepted by the entire Druze community in those countries. In contrast, while most Druze in Israel consider themselves Arabs, some Israeli Druze politicians have begun to reject the idea of Arabic racial origin as a component of Druze national identity for political reasons. According to Firro, the third approach in the research on Druze origins is based on the conclusions of researchers and anthropologists. Studies by Felix von Luschan, Arries and Kappers found that Druze in the Levant, along with their Muslim and Christian counterparts, share the same origins. Similarly, Druze historian Nejla Abu-Izzedin has concluded that Druze, Christians, and Muslims in the Levant have the same racial background. According to Druze historian Amin Talea', Druze oral and written traditions recount that twelve Arab tribes converted to Islam and fought alongside Muslim warriors until they were introduced to the Druze religion by preachers sent from Egypt by the Fatimid caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah. Talea' adds that, over time, the Druze developed a strong sense of their pure Arab origins, believing that, apart from their unique religious practices, their spiritual and material culture closely mirrored that of the broader population of Greater Syria. Arabian hypothesis domains in Mount Lebanon under Mamluk rule, with the Buhturids, a Tanukh clan, holding a significant place in Druze history.]] The Druze faith extended to many areas in the Middle East, but most of the modern Druze can trace their origin to the Wadi al-Taym in Southern Lebanon, which is named after an Arab tribe Taym Allah (or Taym Allat) which, according to Islamic historian al-Tabari, first came from the Arabian Peninsula into the valley of the Euphrates where they had been Christianized prior to their migration into Lebanon. Many of the Druze feudal families, whose genealogies have been preserved by the two modern Syrian chroniclers Haydar al-Shihabi and Ahmad Faris al-Shidyaq, seem also to point in the direction of this origin. Arabian tribes emigrated via the Persian Gulf and stopped in Iraq on their route that would later to lead them to Syria. The first feudal Druze family, the Tanukhids, which made for itself a name in fighting the Crusaders was, according to Haydar al-Shihabi, an Arab tribe from Mesopotamia where it occupied the position of a ruling family and apparently was Christianized. Travelers like Niebuhr, and scholars like Max von Oppenheim, undoubtedly echoing the popular Druze belief regarding their own origin, have classified them as Arabs. The Arabian hypothesis is widely regarded as the leading explanation for the origins of the Druze people among historians, scholars, intellectuals, and religious leaders within the Druze community. This theory suggests that the Druze descended from twelve Arab tribes that migrated to Syria before and during the early Islamic period. It also serves as the primary framework for understanding their historical and racial origins, as reflected in their oral traditions and written literature. This hypothesis is central to the Druze's self-perception and cultural identity. This view is accepted by the entire Druze community in Syria and Lebanon, as well as by most Druze in Israel. The Arabic language is spoken by the Druze and is also the language in which their sacred texts are written. Scholars who hold this view argue that this linguistic connection underscores the Druze's ethnic Arab identity. According to Druze historian Nejla Abu-Izzedin, the Druze people are of Arab origin, both culturally and historically. She explains that Druze traditions and narratives consistently trace their roots to Arab tribes who settled in Syria, some prior to the advent of Islam and others during the Muslim conquest. Abu-Izzedin further notes that when the Druze community was established, its members were spread across a wide area of Syria. The majority of those who embraced the Druze faith were Arab tribes from the northern region, making the Arab elements of the community predominant. According to Abu-Izzedin, "ethnically", the "Wadi al-Taym has been authoritatively stated to be one of the most Arab regions of [geographical] Syria". The area was one of the two most important centers of Druze missionary activity in the 11th century. Additionally, Abu-Izzedin highlights that the Tanukhids, an Arab tribe, hold a significant place in Druze history. She asserts that the Druze claims of Arab origin were not driven by self-interest, as Arabs were no longer in a dominant position when the Druze community was founded in the 11th century. Furthermore, Druze narratives recount their involvement in pivotal events in Arab history. In modern times, the Druze have largely adopted Arab nationalism and played a notable role in the Great Syrian Revolt of 1920's. Druze scholar Sami Makarem notes that Wadi Taym and southern Lebanon (Jabal Amel) were pivotal centers for Druze missionary activity in the 11th century, inhabited by Arab tribes. He explains that Druze oral traditions and religious documents suggest that most Druze ancestors came from twelve Arab tribes in Maarat al-Numan during the early period of Islam and its conquests. Later, they migrated and settled in Lebanon. Makarem highlights the Druze's strong Arab heritage, noting that early Druze followers were predominantly of Arab descent. He also points out that many tribes settling in the Levant before Islam came from southern Arabia, including Yamani and Qaysi tribes. According to Makarem, Druze belief links their ancestry to tribes that lived in [geographical] Syria, some before Islam and others arriving during the conquest. Israeli Druze historian Salman Hamud Fallah asserted that the Druze people of today originated from the Arabian Peninsula. He noted that some of their ancestors came from the northern part of the peninsula, while others came from the southern region, specifically Yemen. In addition, Israeli Druze historian Yusri Hazran describes the Druze narrative, which holds that twelve Arab tribes migrated into the Syrian region either before the rise of Islam or during the early Islamic period. These tribes were predominantly of Yamani tribes, with the Tanukhids being the most dominant among them. Subsequently, these tribes adopted the Druze doctrine. Hazran affirms that this narrative is recognized within Druze doctrine and its scriptures. Druze researchers and historians from Israel, such as Kais M. Firro, Rabah Halabi, Munir Fakhr El-Din, and Afifa E. Kheir, confirm that the Druze are Arabs and note that this was not a contentious issue in Israel before 1962. Halabi observes that Israeli policies aimed at granting the Druze a distinct community status and political identity led some Druze to see this separate "Druze-Israeli identity" as an ethnic marker for social integration within Israeli society. Scholar Michael Cohen adds that, despite the Israeli and Zionist narrative promoting a distinct "Druze ethnic identity", most Druze in Israel view their origins as Arab and consider their Druze identity primarily as religious. Druze as a mixture of Western Asian tribes The 1911 edition of Encyclopædia Britannica states that the Druze are "a mixture of refugee stocks, in which the Arab largely predominates, grafted on to an original mountain population of Aramaic blood". Iturean hypothesis According to Jewish contemporary literature, the Druze, who were visited and described in 1165 by Benjamin of Tudela, were pictured as descendants of the Itureans, an Ismaelite Arab tribe, which used to reside in the northern parts of the Golan plateau through Hellenistic and Roman periods. The word Druzes, in an early Hebrew edition of his travels, occurs as Dogziyin, but it is clear that this is a scribal error. Archaeological assessments of the Druze region have also proposed the possibility of Druze descending from Itureans, who had inhabited Mount Lebanon and Golan Heights in late classic antiquity, but their traces fade in the Middle Ages. Genetics Lebanese Christians and Druze became a genetic isolate in the predominantly Islamic world. In a 2005 study of ASPM gene variants, Mekel-Bobrov et al. found that the Israeli Druze people of the Mount Carmel region have among the highest rate of the newly evolved ASPM- Haplogroup D, at 52.2% occurrence of the approximately 6,000-year-old allele. While it is not yet known exactly what selective advantage is provided by this gene variant, the Haplogroup D allele is thought to be positively selected in populations and to confer some substantial advantage that has caused its frequency to rapidly increase. A 2004 DNA study has shown that Israeli Druze are remarkable for the high frequency (35%) of males who carry the Y-chromosomal haplogroup L, which is otherwise uncommon in the Middle East (Shen et al. 2004). This haplogroup originates from prehistoric South Asia and has spread from Pakistan into southern Iran. A 2008 study done on larger samples showed that L-M20 averages 27% in Mount Carmel Druze, 2% in Galilee Druze, 8% in Lebanese Druze, and it was not found in a sample of 59 Syrian Druze (Slush et al. 2008). Also, a new study concluded that the Druze harbor a remarkable diversity of mitochondrial DNA lineages that appear to have separated from each other thousands of years ago. But instead of dispersing throughout the world after their separation, the full range of lineages can still be found within the Druze population. The researchers noted that the Druze villages contained a striking range of high frequency and high diversity of the X haplogroup, suggesting that this population provides a glimpse into the past genetic landscape of the Near East at a time when the X haplogroup was more prevalent. A 2008 study published on the genetic background of Druze communities in Israel showed highly heterogeneous parental origins. A total of 311 Israeli Druze were sampled: 37 from the Golan Heights, 183 from the Galilee, and 35 from Mount Carmel, as well as 27 Druze immigrants from Syria and 29 from Lebanon (Slush et al. 2008). The researchers found the following frequencies of Y-chromosomal and MtDNA haplogroups: * Mount Carmel: L 27%, R 27%, J 18%, E 15%, G 12%. * Galilee: J 31%, R 20%, E 18%, G 14%, K 11%, Q 4%, L 2%. * Golan Heights: J 54%, E 29%, I 8%, G 4%, C 4%. * Lebanon: J 58%, K 17%, Q 8%, R 8%, L 8%. * Syria: J 39%, E 29%, R 14%, G 14%, K 4%. Maternal MtDNA haplogroup frequencies: H 32%, X 13%, K 12.5%, U 10%, T 7.5%, HV 4.8%, J 4.8%, I 3.5%, pre HV 3%, L2a3 2.25%, N1b 2.25%, M1 1.6%, W 1.29%. In a principal component analysis of a 2014 study, Druze were located between Lebanese people and Mizrahi Jews. According to a 2015 study, Druze have a largely similar genome with Middle Eastern Arabs, but they have not married outside of their clans in 1000 years and Druze families from different regions share a similarity with each other that distinguishes them from other Middle Eastern populations. A 2016 study based on testing samples of Druze in the historic region of Syria, in comparison with ancient humans (including Anatolian and Armenian), and on Geographic Population Structure (GPS) tool by converting genetic distances into geographic distances, concluded that Druze might hail from the Zagros Mountains and the surroundings of Lake Van in eastern Anatolia, then they later migrated south to settle in the mountainous regions in Syria, Lebanon and Israel. A 2020 study on remains from Canaanaite (Bronze Age southern Levantine) populations suggests a significant degree of genetic continuity in currently Arabic-speaking Levantine populations (including the Druze, Lebanese, Palestinians, and Syrians), as well as in most Jewish groups (including Sephardi Jews, Ashkenazi Jews, Mizrahi Jews, and Maghrebi Jews) from the populations of the Bronze Age Levant, suggesting that the aforementioned groups all derive more than half of their overall ancestry (atDNA) from Canaanite / Bronze Age Levantine populations, albeit with varying sources and degrees of admixture from differing host or invading populations depending on each group. In a 2021 study, Druze were a part of the larger Levant-Iraq cluster in a fineSTRUCTURE tree analysis, and overlapped with Lebanese people in a principal component analysis. See also Sword Battalion * Jaysh al-Muwahhidin * Jabal Druze State * List of Druze * Neoplatonism and Gnosticism * Religious syncretism * Christianity and Druze Notes ReferencesCitations Bibliography * }} * * * * * * * * * * [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_nE7RjS91_E4C Archive] * * * * * * \|publisherCaravan Books \|isbn978-0-88206-003-3}} * * * * * * * * Further reading * Jean-Marc Aractingi, La Face Cachée des Druzes "Les Francs-Maçons de l'Orient", 251 pages, Editeur : Independently published (2020), * Jean-Marc Aractingi, "Les Druzes et la Franc-maçonnerie", in ''Les Cahiers de l'Orient'', no. 69, 1er trimestre 2003, Paris: L'Équerre et le Croissant, éditions Les Cahiers de l'Orient * Jean-Marc Aractingi, "Points de convergence dans les rituels et symboles chez les Druzes et chez les francs-maçons", in Les Cahiers, Jean Scot Erigène, no 8, Franc-maçonnerie et Islamité, Paris: la Grande Loge de France. * Pinhas Inabri – [http://jcpa.org/arabism-islam-where-druze-fit/ "Pan-Arabism versus Pan-Islam – Where Do the Druze Fit?"] * * . * Rabih Alameddine I, the Divine: A Novel in First Chapters, Norton (2002). . * B. Destani, ed. Minorities in the Middle East: Druze Communities 1840–1974, 4 volumes, Slough: Archive Editions (2006). . * R. Scott Kennedy "The Druze of the Golan: A Case of Non-Violent Resistance" Journal of Palestine Studies, Vol. 13, No. 2 (Winter, 1984), pp. 48–46. * * Bashar Tarabieh "Education, Control and Resistance in the Golan Heights". Middle East Report, No. 194/195, Odds against Peace (May–August 1995), pp. 43–47. * * Dr. Said Hany: Druze Trilogy 1 – Philosophy. USA. 2020. ISBN 978-0-244-23549-9 Druze Trilogy 2 – Theology. USA. 2020. ISBN 978-0-244-23701-1 ** Druze Trilogy 3 – Genealogy. USA. 2020. ISBN 978-0-244-83701-3 External links Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Abrahamic religions Category:Arab ethnic groups Category:Ethnic religions Category:Ethnoreligious groups Category:Ethnic groups in the Middle East Category:Monotheistic religions Category:Neoplatonism Category:Religions derived from Islam Category:Religion in Syria Category:Religion in Lebanon Category:Ethnoreligious groups in Israel Category:Religion in Jordan	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druze	2025-04-05T18:28:42.977956
8633	December 12	Events Pre-1600 * 627 – Battle of Nineveh: A Byzantine army under Emperor Heraclius defeats Emperor Khosrau II's Persian forces, commanded by General Rhahzadh. 1388 – Maria of Enghien sells the lordship of Argos and Nauplia to the Republic of Venice. 1601–1900 1787 – Pennsylvania becomes the second state to ratify the US Constitution. 1862 – American Civil War: sinks on the Yazoo River. 1866 – Oaks explosion: The worst mining disaster in England kills 361 miners and rescuers. 1870 – Joseph H. Rainey of South Carolina becomes the second black U.S. congressman.1901–present 1901 – Guglielmo Marconi receives the first transatlantic radio signal (the letter "S" [•••] in Morse Code), at Signal Hill in St John's, Newfoundland. 1915 – Yuan Shikai declares the establishment of the Empire of China and proclaims himself Emperor. 1917 – Father Edward J. Flanagan founds Boys Town as a farm village for wayward boys. 1935 – The Lebensborn Project, a Nazi reproduction program, is founded by Heinrich Himmler. 1936 – The beginning of Xi'an incident. As a result, Chiang Kai Shek is captured. 1937 – Second Sino-Japanese War: USS Panay incident: Japanese aircraft bomb and sink U.S. gunboat on the Yangtze river in China. 1939 – sinks after a collision with off the coast of Scotland with the loss of 124 men. * 1939 – Winter War: The Battle of Tolvajärvi, also known as the first major Finnish victory in the Winter War, begins. 1941 – World War II: Fifty-four Japanese A6M Zero fighters raid Batangas Field, Philippines. Jesús Villamor and four Filipino fighter pilots fend them off; César Basa is killed. 1941 – The Holocaust: Adolf Hitler declares the imminent extermination of the Jews at a meeting in the Reich Chancellery. 1945 – The People's Republic of Korea is outlawed in the South, by order of the United States Army Military Government in Korea. 1946 – United Nations Security Council Resolution 13 relating to acceptance of Siam (now Thailand) to the United Nations is adopted. 1956 – United Nations Security Council Resolution 121 relating to acceptance of Japan to the United Nations is adopted. 1963 – Kenya declares independence from Great Britain. 1969 – The Piazza Fontana bombing; a bomb explodes at the headquarters of Banca Nazionale dell'Agricoltura (the National Agricultural Bank) in Piazza Fontana in Milan, Italy, killing 17 people and wounding 88. The same afternoon, three more bombs are detonated in Rome and Milan, and another is found unexploded. 1979 – The 8.2 Tumaco earthquake shakes Colombia and Ecuador with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent), killing 300–600, and generating a large tsunami. 1979 – Coup d'état of December Twelfth occurs in South Korea. 1985 – Arrow Air Flight 1285R, a McDonnell Douglas DC-8, crashes after takeoff in Gander, Newfoundland, killing all 256 people on board, including 236 members of the United States Army's 101st Airborne Division. 1988 – The Clapham Junction rail crash kills thirty-five and injures hundreds after two collisions of three commuter trains—one of the worst train crashes in the United Kingdom. 1999 – A magnitude 7.3 earthquake hits the Philippines's main island of Luzon, killing six people, injuring 40, and causing power outages that affected the capital Manila. 2000 – The United States Supreme Court releases its decision in Bush v. Gore. 2001 – Prime Minister of Vietnam Phan Văn Khải announces the decision on upgrading the Phong Nha–Kẻ Bàng nature reserve to a national park, providing information on projects for the conservation and development of the park and revised maps. 2012 – North Korea successfully launches its first satellite, Kwangmyŏngsŏng-3 Unit 2. 2015 – The Paris Agreement relating to United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is adopted. 2021 – Dutch Formula One racing driver Max Verstappen wins the controversial 2021 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix, beating seven-time World Champion Lewis Hamilton to become the first Formula One World Champion to come from the Netherlands. 2024 – Indian Grandmaster Gukesh Dommaraju became the undisputed World Chess Champion in a tournament held in Singapore, making him the 18th and the youngest champion in chess history. Births Pre-1600 <!-- Please do not add yourself or anyone else without a biography in Wikipedia to this list.--> 1526 – Álvaro de Bazán, 1st Marquis of Santa Cruz, Spanish admiral (d. 1588) 1601–1900 1685 – Lodovico Giustini, Italian pianist and composer (d. 1743) 1724 – Samuel Hood, 1st Viscount Hood, English admiral and politician (d. 1816) 1786 – William L. Marcy, American lawyer, judge, and politician, 21st United States Secretary of State (d. 1857) 1799 – Karl Bryullov, Russian painter (d. 1852) 1805 – Henry Wells, American businessman, co-founded Wells Fargo and American Express (d. 1878) 1806 – Stand Watie, American general (d. 1871) 1812 – John Sandfield Macdonald, Canadian lawyer and politician, 1st Premier of Ontario (d. 1872) 1821 – Gustave Flaubert, French novelist (d. 1880) 1830 – Joseph Orville Shelby, Confederate general (d. 1897) 1842 – Adolf Bötticher, German journalist and historian (d. 1901) 1845 – Bruce Price, American architect, designed the American Surety Building and Bank of the Metropolis (d. 1903) 1863 – Edvard Munch, Norwegian painter (d. 1944) 1866 – Alfred Werner, Swiss chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1919) 1870 – Walter Benona Sharp, American businessman, co-founded Hughes Tool Company (d. 1912) 1876 – Alvin Kraenzlein, American hurdler and runner (d. 1928) 1881 – Louise Thuliez, French school teacher, resistance fighter during World War I and World War II and author (d. 1966) 1893 – Edward G. Robinson, American actor (d. 1973)1901–present1901 – Harald Kaarmann, Estonian footballer (d. 1942) 1907 – Roy Douglas, English pianist and composer (d. 2015) 1912 – Henry Armstrong, American boxer (d. 1988) 1914 – Patrick O'Brian, English author (d. 2000) 1915 – Frank Sinatra, American singer, actor, and producer (d. 1998) 1918 – Joe Williams, American singer and pianist (d. 1999) 1920 – Josef Doležal, Czech race walker (d. 1999) 1923 – Bob Barker, American game show host and producer (d. 2023) * 1923 – Bob Dorough, American musician, composer, and producer (d. 2018) * 1923 – Emahoy Tsegué-Maryam Guèbrou, Ethiopian pianist, composer and nun (d. 2023) 1924 – Ed Koch, American politician, 105th Mayor of New York City (d. 2013) 1925 – Ted Kennedy, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2009) * 1925 – Dattu Phadkar, Indian cricketer (d. 1985) * 1925 – Vladimir Shainsky, Ukrainian-Russian pianist and composer (d. 2017) 1927 – Robert Noyce, American inventor and businessman, co-founded the Intel Corporation (d. 1990) 1928 – Helen Frankenthaler, American painter and academic (d. 2011) 1929 – Toshiko Akiyoshi, Japanese pianist and composer 1932 – Bob Pettit, American basketball player and coach 1933 – Christa Stubnick, German sprinter (d. 2021) 1934 – Miguel de la Madrid, Mexican lawyer and politician, 52nd President of Mexico (d. 2012) 1936 – Iolanda Balaș, Romanian high jumper and educator (d. 2016) 1937 – Connie Francis, American singer, musician, and actress 1940 – Sharad Pawar, Indian politician, Indian Minister of Agriculture 1940 – Dionne Warwick, American singer 1942 – Bob Thompson, American jazz pianist, composer and arranger 1943 – Dickey Betts, American musician and songwriter (d. 2024) 1945 – Gísli S. Einarsson, Icelandic politician 1945 – Tony Williams, American drummer, composer, and producer (d. 1997) 1946 – Emerson Fittipaldi, Brazilian racing driver 1947 – Wings Hauser, American actor (d. 2025) * 1947 – Chris Mullin, English journalist and politician 1948 – Randy Smith, American basketball player (d. 2009) 1948 – Colin Todd, English football player and coach 1949 – Bill Nighy, English actor 1949 – Marc Ravalomanana, Malagasy businessman and politician, President of Madagascar 1950 – Pedro Ferriz de Con, Mexican journalist 1950 – Heiner Flassbeck, German economist and academic * 1950 – Rajinikanth, Indian actor * 1950 – Billy Smith, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and manager * 1950 – Gorman Thomas, American baseball player 1951 – Rehman Malik, Pakistani politician, Pakistani Minister of Interior (d. 2022) 1952 – Cathy Rigby, American gymnast 1953 – Martin Ferguson, Australian lawyer and politician 1953 – Rafael Septién, Mexican-American football player 1955 – Eddy Schepers, Belgian cyclist 1955 – Stephen Smith, Australian politician 1956 – Johan van der Velde, Dutch cyclist 1957 – Sheila E., American singer and musician 1961 – Andrey Perlov, Russian race walker 1962 – Tracy Austin, American tennis player and sportscaster * 1962 – Arturo Barrios, Mexican-American runner * 1962 – Mike Golic, American football player and radio host 1963 – Eduardo Castro Luque, Mexican businessman and politician (d. 2012) 1964 – Haywood Jeffires, American football player and coach * 1964 – Sabu, American wrestler 1965 – Russell Batiste Jr., American funk and R&B drummer (d. 2023) 1965 – Will Carling, English rugby union player 1967 – John Randle, American football player 1968 – Sašo Udovič, Slovenian footballer 1969 – Wilfred Kirochi, Kenyan runner 1969 – Fiona May, English-Italian long jumper * 1969 – Michael Möllenbeck, German discus thrower 1970 – Mädchen Amick, American actress and director 1970 – Jennifer Connelly, American actress * 1970 – Regina Hall, American actress 1971 – Sammy Korir, Kenyan runner 1972 – Nicky Eaden, English footballer and coach * 1972 – Craig Field, Australian rugby league player * 1972 – Wilson Kipketer, Kenyan-Danish runner * 1972 – Georgios Theodoridis, Greek sprinter 1974 – Bernard Lagat, Kenyan-American runner 1974 – Nolberto Solano, Peruvian footballer and manager 1975 – Mayim Bialik, American actress, neuroscientist, and author 1975 – Craig Moore, Australian footballer and manager 1977 – Yoel Hernández, Cuban hurdler 1977 – Orlando Hudson, American baseball player * 1977 – Dean Macey, English decathlete and bobsledder * 1977 – Colin White, Canadian ice hockey player 1979 – Garrett Atkins, American baseball player 1979 – Nate Clements, American football player * 1979 – John Salmons, American basketball player 1980 – Dejene Berhanu, Ethiopian runner (d. 2010) 1980 – Dorin Goian, Romanian footballer 1981 – Eddie Kingston, American wrestler 1981 – Pedro Ríos, Spanish footballer * 1981 – Yuvraj Singh, Indian cricketer * 1981 – Stephen Warnock, English footballer * 1981 – Andrew Whitworth, American football player and commentator 1982 – Ervin Santana, Dominican baseball player 1982 – Dmitry Tursunov, Russian tennis player and coach 1983 – Roni Porokara, Finnish footballer 1984 – Daniel Agger, Danish footballer 1985 – Pat Calathes, Greek-American basketball player 1985 – Andrew Ladd, Canadian ice hockey player 1986 – Daddy Birori, Rwandan footballer 1986 – Përparim Hetemaj, Finnish footballer * 1986 – Nina Kolarič, Slovenian long jumper * 1986 – T. J. Ward, American football player 1988 – Isaac John, New Zealand rugby league player 1988 – Lonah Chemtai Salpeter, Israeli Olympic marathon runner 1990 – Nixon Chepseba, Kenyan runner 1990 – Dawin, American singer-songwriter * 1990 – Victor Moses, Nigerian footballer * 1990 – Tyron Smith, American football player 1991 – Joseph Leilua, Australian-Samoan rugby league player 1993 – Zeli Ismail, English footballer 1994 – Otto Warmbier, American student imprisoned in North Korea (d. 2017) 1996 – Lucas Hedges, American actor 1997 – Ed Oliver, American football player 2001 – Michael Olise, French footballer <!-- Please do not add yourself, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. --> Deaths Pre-1600 * 884 – King Carloman II of the Franks (born c.866; hunting accident) 1296 – Isabella of Mar, first wife of Robert Bruce VII (b. 1277) 1572 – Loredana Marcello, Dogaressa of Venice, botanist, author 1601–1900 1751 – Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke, English philosopher and politician, Secretary at War (b. 1678) 1766 – Johann Christoph Gottsched, German philosopher, author, and critic (b. 1700) 1794 – Meshullam Feivush Heller, Ukrainian author (b. 1742) 1803 – Prince Frederick Adolf of Sweden (b. 1750) 1858 – Jacques Viger, Canadian archeologist and politician, 1st Mayor of Montreal (b. 1787) 1889 – Viktor Bunyakovsky, Ukrainian-Russian mathematician and theorist (b. 1804) 1894 – John Sparrow David Thompson, Canadian lawyer, judge, and politician, 4th Prime Minister of Canada (b. 1845)1901–present1913 – Menelik II, Ethiopian emperor (b. 1844) 1921 – Henrietta Swan Leavitt, American astronomer and academic (b. 1868) 1923 – Raymond Radiguet, French author and poet (b. 1903) 1934 – Thorleif Haug, Norwegian skier (b. 1894) 1939 – Douglas Fairbanks, Sr., American actor, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1883) 1941 – César Basa, Filipino lieutenant and pilot (b. 1915) 1948 – Marjory Stephenson, British biochemist (b. 1885) 1951 – Mildred Bailey, American singer (b. 1907) 1958 – Albert Walsh, Canadian lawyer and politician, 1st Lieutenant Governor of Newfoundland (b. 1900) 1966 – Karl Ruberl, Austrian-American swimmer (b. 1880) 1968 – Tallulah Bankhead, American actress (b. 1902) 1970 – Doris Blackburn, Australian politician (b. 1889) 1975 – Richard Baggallay, English colonel and cricketer (b. 1884) 1980 – Jean Lesage, Canadian lawyer and politician, 19th Premier of Quebec (b. 1912) 1985 – Anne Baxter, American actress (b. 1923) 1993 – József Antall, Hungarian historian and politician, 35th Prime Minister of Hungary (b. 1932) 1994 – Stuart Roosa, American colonel, pilot, and astronaut (b. 1933) 1996 – Vance Packard, American journalist, author, and critic (b. 1914) 1997 – Evgenii Landis, Ukrainian-Russian mathematician and academic (b. 1921) 1998 – Lawton Chiles, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 41st Governor of Florida (b. 1930) 1998 – Morris Udall, American captain and politician (b. 1922) 1999 – Paul Cadmus, American painter and illustrator (b. 1904) 1999 – Joseph Heller, American novelist, short story writer, and playwright(b. 1923) 2001 – Ardito Desio, Italian geologist and explorer (b. 1897) 2002 – Dee Brown, American historian and author (b. 1908) 2003 – Heydar Aliyev, Azerbaijani general and politician, 3rd President of Azerbaijan (b. 1923) 2005 – Robert Newmyer, American actor and producer (b. 1956) * 2005 – Annette Stroyberg, Danish actress (b. 1936) * 2005 – Gebran Tueni, Lebanese journalist and politician (b. 1957) 2006 – Paul Arizin, American basketball player (b. 1928) 2006 – Peter Boyle, American actor (b. 1935) * 2006 – Raymond P. Shafer, American attorney and politician, 39th Governor of Pennsylvania (b. 1917) * 2006 – Alan Shugart, American engineer and businessman, co-founded Seagate Technology (b. 1930) 2007 – François al-Hajj, Lebanese general (b. 1953) 2007 – Ike Turner, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b. 1931) 2008 – Avery Dulles, American cardinal and theologian (b. 1918) 2008 – Van Johnson, American actor (b. 1916) 2010 – Tom Walkinshaw, Scottish race car driver, founded Tom Walkinshaw Racing (b. 1946) 2012 – Joe Allbritton, American banker, publisher, and philanthropist, founded the Allbritton Communications Company (b. 1924) * 2012 – David Tait, English rugby player (b. 1987) 2013 – Tom Laughlin, American actor, director, screenwriter, author, educator, and activist (b. 1931) 2013 – Abdul Quader Molla, Bangladeshi journalist and politician (b. 1948) * 2013 – Audrey Totter, American actress (b. 1917) 2014 – Norman Bridwell, American author and illustrator, created Clifford the Big Red Dog (b. 1928) 2014 – Ivor Grattan-Guinness, English mathematician, historian, and academic (b. 1941) * 2014 – Herb Plews, American baseball player (b. 1928) 2015 – Frans Geurtsen, Dutch footballer (b. 1942) 2015 – Evelyn S. Lieberman, American politician, White House Deputy Chief of Staff (b. 1944) 2016 – Shirley Hazzard, Australian-American novelist, short story writer, and essayist (b. 1931) 2017 – Ed Lee, American politician and attorney, 43rd Mayor of San Francisco (b. 1952) * 2017 – Pat DiNizio, American singer and songwriter (b. 1955) 2019 – Danny Aiello, American actor (b. 1933) 2020 – John le Carré, English author (b. 1931) * 2020 – Ann Reinking, American actress, dancer, and choreographer (b. 1949) 2021 – Vicente Fernández, Mexican actor, ranchera singer, and film producer (b. 1940) 2021 – Bernie Fowler, American politician and environmental advocate (b. 1924) 2021 – Maʻafu Tukuiʻaulahi, Tongan politician and military officer, Deputy Prime Minister (b. 1955) <!--Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.--> Holidays and observances Christian feast day: Corentin of Quimper Jane Frances de Chantal Edburga of Minster-in-Thanet Finnian of Clonard Thomas Holland Ida of Nivelles Peter the Aleut Vicelinus Our Lady of Guadalupe December 12 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) * Constitution Day (Russia) * Day of Neutrality (Turkmenistan)ReferencesExternal links * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/12 BBC: On This Day] * * [https://www.onthisday.com/events/december/12 Historical Events on December 12] Category:Days of December	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_12	2025-04-05T18:28:43.054535
8637	Door	}} .</nowiki>\|thumb\|A door]] A door is a hinged or otherwise movable barrier that allows ingress (entry) into and egress (exit) from an enclosure. The created opening in the wall is a doorway or portal. A door's essential and primary purpose is to provide security by controlling access to the doorway (portal). Conventionally, it is a panel that fits into the doorway of a building, room, or vehicle. Doors are generally made of a material suited to the door's task. They are commonly attached by hinges, but can move by other means, such as slides or counterbalancing. The door may be able to move in various ways (at angles away from the doorway/portal, by sliding on a plane parallel to the frame, by folding in angles on a parallel plane, or by spinning along an axis at the center of the frame) to allow or prevent ingress or egress. In most cases, a door's interior matches its exterior side. But in other cases (e.g., a vehicle door) the two sides are radically different. Many doors incorporate locking mechanisms to ensure that only some people can open them (such as with a key). Doors may have devices such as knockers or doorbells by which people outside announce their presence. Apart from providing access into and out of a space, doors may have the secondary functions of ensuring privacy by preventing unwanted attention from outsiders, of separating areas with different functions, of allowing light to pass into and out of a space, of controlling ventilation or air drafts so that interiors may be more effectively heated or cooled, of dampening noise, and of blocking the spread of fire. Doors can have aesthetic, symbolic, ritualistic purposes. Receiving the key to a door can signify a change in status from outsider to insider. Doors and doorways frequently appear in literature and the arts with metaphorical or allegorical import as a portent of change. History <!-- This section contains verbatim text from the Encyclopedia Britannica (1911) article on doors. See References.--> The earliest recorded doors appear in the paintings of Egyptian tombs, which show them as single or double doors, each of a single piece of wood. People may have believed these were doors to the afterlife, and some include designs of the afterlife. In Egypt, where the climate is intensely dry, doors were not framed against warping, but in other countries required framed doors—which, according to Vitruvius (iv. 6.) was done with stiles (sea/si) and rails (see: Frame and panel), the enclosed panels filled with tympana set in grooves in the stiles and rails. The stiles were the vertical boards, one of which, tenoned or hinged, is known as the hanging stile, the other as the middle or meeting stile. The horizontal cross pieces are the top rail, bottom rail, and middle or intermediate rails. The most ancient doors were made of timber, such as those referred to in the Biblical depiction of King Solomon's temple being in olive wood (I Kings vi. 31–35), which were carved and overlaid with gold. The doors that Homer mentions appear to have been cased in silver or brass. Besides olive wood, elm, cedar, oak and cypress were used. Two doors over 5,000 years old have been found by archaeologists near Zürich, Switzerland. Ancient doors were hung by pintles at the top and bottom of the hanging stile, which worked in sockets in the lintel and sill, the latter in some hard stone such as basalt or granite. Those Hilprecht found at Nippur, dating from 2000 BC, were in dolerite. The tenons of the gates at Balawat were sheathed with bronze (now in the British Museum). These doors or gates were hung in two leaves, each about wide and high; they were encased with bronze bands or strips, high, covered with repoussé decoration of figures. The wood doors would seem to have been about thick, but the hanging stile was over diameter. Other sheathings of various sizes in bronze show this was a universal method adopted to protect the wood pivots. In the Hauran in Syria where timber is scarce, the doors were made of stone, and one measuring is in the British Museum; the band on the meeting stile shows that it was one of the leaves of a double door. At Kuffeir near Bostra in Syria, Burckhardt found stone doors, high, being the entrance doors of the town. In Etruria many stone doors are referred to by Dennis. folding doors at Pompeii, from the first century AD, similar with Neoclassical doors from the 19th century]] Ancient Greek and Roman doors were either single doors, double doors, triple doors, sliding doors or folding doors, in the last case the leaves were hinged and folded back. In the tomb of Theron at Agrigentum there is a single four-panel door carved in stone. In the Blundell collection is a bas-relief of a temple with double doors, each leaf with five panels. Among existing examples, the bronze doors in the church of SS. Cosmas and Damiano, in Rome, are important examples of Roman metal work of the best period; they are in two leaves, each with two panels, and are framed in bronze. Those of the Pantheon are similar in design, with narrow horizontal panels in addition, at the top, bottom and middle. Two other bronze doors of the Roman period are in the Lateran Basilica. The Greek scholar Heron of Alexandria created the earliest known automatic door in the first century AD during the era of Roman Egypt. The first foot-sensor-activated automatic door was made in China during the reign of Emperor Yang of Sui (r. 604–618), who had one installed for his royal library. Copper and its alloys were integral in medieval architecture. The doors of the church of the Nativity at Bethlehem (6th century) are covered with plates of bronze, cut out in patterns. Those of Hagia Sophia at Constantinople, of the eighth and ninth century, are wrought in bronze, and the west doors of the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle (9th century), of similar manufacture, were probably brought from Constantinople, as also some of those in St. Marks, Venice. The bronze doors on the Aachen Cathedral in Germany date back to about 800 AD. Bronze baptistery doors at the Cathedral of Florence were completed in 1423 by Ghiberti. (For more information, see: Copper in architecture). wall painting of an ornate door, in the Villa Boscoreale (Italy), from the first century AD]] Of the 11th and 12th centuries there are numerous examples of bronze doors, the earliest being one at Hildesheim, Germany (1015). The Hildesheim design affected the concept of Gniezno door in Poland. Of others in South Italy and Sicily, the following are the finest: in Sant'Andrea, Amalfi (1060); Salerno (1099); Canosa di Puglia (1111); Troia, two doors (1119 and 1124); Ravello (1179), by Barisano of Trani, who also made doors for Trani cathedral; and in Monreale and Pisa cathedrals, by Bonano of Pisa. In all these cases the hanging stile had pivots at the top and bottom. The exact period when the builder moved to the hinge is unknown, but the change apparently brought about another method of strengthening and decorating doors—wrought-iron bands of various designs. As a rule, three bands with ornamental work constitute the hinges, with rings outside the hanging stiles that fit on vertical tenons set into the masonry or wooden frame. There is an early example of the 12th century in Lincoln. In France, the metalwork of the doors of Notre Dame at Paris is a beautiful example, but many others exist throughout France and England. In Italy, celebrated doors include those of the Battistero di San Giovanni (Florence), which are all in bronze—including the door frames. The modeling of the figures, birds and foliage of the south doorway, by Andrea Pisano (1330), and of the east doorway by Ghiberti (1425–1452), are of great beauty. In the north door (1402–1424), Ghiberti adopted the same scheme of design for the paneling and figure subjects as Andrea Pisano, but in the east door, the rectangular panels are all filled, with bas-reliefs that illustrate Scripture subjects and innumerable figures. These may the gates of Paradise of which Michelangelo speaks. Doors of the mosques in Cairo were of two kinds: those externally cased with sheets of bronze or iron, cut in decorative patterns, and incised or inlaid, with bosses in relief; and those of wood-framed with interlaced square and diamond designs. The latter design is Coptic in origin. The doors of the palace at Palermo, which were made by Saracenic workmen for the Normans, are fine examples in good preservation. A somewhat similar decorative class of door is found in Verona, where the edges of the stiles and rails are beveled and notched. elements, from the Singer House (Saint Petersburg, Russia)]] In the Renaissance period, Italian doors are quite simple, their architects trusting more to the doorways for effect; but in France and Germany the contrary is the case, the doors being elaborately carved, especially in the Louis XIV and Louis XV periods, and sometimes with architectural features such as columns and entablatures with pediment and niches, the doorway being in plain masonry. While in Italy the tendency was to give scale by increasing the number of panels, in France the contrary seems to have been the rule; and one of the great doors at Fontainebleau, which is in two leaves, is entirely carried out as if consisting of one great panel only. The earliest Renaissance doors in France are those of the cathedral of St. Sauveur at Aix (1503). In the lower panels there are figures . high in Gothic niches, and in the upper panels a double range of niches with figures about . high with canopies over them, all carved in cedar. The south door of Beauvais Cathedral is in some respects the finest in France; the upper panels are carved in high relief with figure subjects and canopies over them. The doors of the church at Gisors (1575) are carved with figures in niches subdivided by classic pilasters superimposed. In St. Maclou at Rouen are three magnificently carved doors; those by Jean Goujon have figures in niches on each side, and others in a group of great beauty in the center. The other doors, probably about forty to fifty years later, are enriched with bas-reliefs, landscapes, figures and elaborate interlaced borders. NASA's Vehicle Assembly Building at the Kennedy Space Center contains the four largest doors. The Vehicle Assembly Building was originally built for the assembly of the Apollo missions' Saturn vehicles and was then used to support Space Shuttle operations. Each of the four doors are high. The oldest door in England can be found in Westminster Abbey and dates from 1050. In England in the 17th century the door panels were raised with bolection or projecting moldings, sometimes richly carved, around them; in the 18th century the moldings worked on the stiles and rails were carved with the egg-and-dart ornament. <gallery widths"170" heights"200" mode"packed" caption"Short visual history of doors"> File:Fragment from a tomb door MET 23.3.174f-emf.jpg\|Fragment from an Ancient Egyptian tomb door, circa 2150 –1981 BC, in the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City) File:The Hercules Sarcophagus depicting the Twelve Labors of Hercules, 150-160 AD, Kayseri Archaeological Museum, Turkey (26261172056) (lighter version).jpg\|Ancient Greek door carved on the Hercules sarcophagus from the Kayseri Archaeology Museum (Kayseri, Turkey) File:Bronze door, Basilica di San Giovanni, 2013.jpg\|Ancient Roman bronze doors of the Curia Julia, now in the Basilica of St. John Lateran (Rome) File:Gate, ash-Shibak Fort, Ibra (North ash-Sharqiyah Governorate) Origin- Surat, India (Mughal Empire) Teak wood and brass.jpg\|Indian Mughal teak wood and brass door File:Tenghua Jiuguan 21 2015-04.JPG\|Traditional Chinese folding doors in The Old Museum of Wisteria (Changzhou, China) File:Lateral door church Theotokos Gorgoepikoos Athens, Greece.jpg\|Byzantine door of the Little Metropolis (Athens, Greece) File:Door in Morocco, 2010.jpg\|Islamic door decorated with geometric patterns in Morocco File:'Berfrestone' (DB) door and tympanum arch St Nicholas Church Barfrestone Kent England 1.jpg\|Romanesque door of the Saint Nicholas' Church in Barfrestone (Kent, England) File:Doorway detail, St Magnus Cathedral, Kirkwall, Orkney.jpg\|Gothic door of the St Magnus Cathedral (Kirkwall, Scotland) File:Iconography - Saint Basil's Cathedral (19970306871).jpg\|Russian door in Saint Basil's Cathedral (Moscow) File:The entrance of the Antim Monastery Church.jpg\|Brâncovenesc door of the Antim Monastery (Bucharest, Romania), with a pisanie above it File:Gdańsk (158).JPG\|Renaissance door in Gdańsk (Poland) File:Chateau de Versailles Vestibule Haut 11 (lighter and fixed angles).jpg\|Baroque door in the Palace of Versailles (Versailles, France) File:Porte rue Monsieur-le-Prince Paris.jpg\|Rococo door on Rue Monsieur-le-Prince (Paris) File:P1210063 Paris III rue des Francs-Bourgeois n26 rwk.jpg\|Louis XVI door of the Hôtel Mortier de Sandreville, on Rue des Francs-Bourgeois (Paris) File:Pierre Rousseau - Double-Leaf Doors - 1942.2.12 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif\|Neoclassical painted double-leaf door, 1790s, by , in the Cleveland Museum of Art (US) File:Brooklyn Museum 1994.92 Door with Lock (2).jpg\|African door with lock, late 19th or early 20th century, wood with iron, from Burkina Faso, in the Brooklyn Museum (New York City) File:Zespół klasztoru Gandan (39).jpg\|A decorated door from the Gandantegchinlen Monastery (Mongolia) File:P1250574 Paris V rue Malebranche n3 porte gothique bis encours.jpg\|Gothic Revival door on Rue Malebranche (Paris) File:Egyptian Revival mausoleum, Forest Home Cemetery.jpg\|Egyptian Revival door of a mausoleum in the Forest Home Cemetery (Wisconsin, US) File:Armoiries de lIrlande à lambassade dIrlande à Paris.jpg\|Rococo Revival door of the Hôtel de Breteuil (Paris) File:3-5, Strada Icoanei, Bucharest (Romania) 1.jpg\|Romanian Revival door of the Școala Centrală National College on Strada Icoanei (Bucharest) File:Paris Porte cochère rue La Bruyère 2012.jpg\|19th century Eclectic Classicist door on Rue La Bruyère (Paris) File:Entrance of the George Enescu Museum.jpg\|Beaux-Arts door of the Cantacuzino Palace (Bucharest) File:Porte et marquise CCI Nancy.jpg\|Art Nouveau metal and glass door in Nancy (France), with a big transparent awning above it File:49-53, Calea Victoriei, Bucharest (Romania) 10.jpg\|Stripped Classicist door of the Royal Palace of Bucharest, now the National Museum of Art of Romania File:La Maison Bleue, porte d'entrée - Angers - 20110119.jpg\|Art Deco door in Angers (France) File:Fischerkirche (main door), Born a. Darß.jpg\|Wooden church door in Born auf dem Darß (Germany) </gallery> Design and styles called The Gates of Paradise, 1425–1452, gilded bronze, height: 5.2 m]] (Vienna, Austria)]] There are many kinds of doors, with different purposes: * The most common type is the single-leaf door, which consists of a single rigid panel that fills the doorway. There are many variations on this basic design, such as the double-leaf door or double door and French windows, which have two adjacent independent panels hinged on each side of the doorway. * A half door or Dutch door or stable door is divided in half horizontally. Traditionally the top half opens so a worker can feed a horse or other animal while the bottom half remains closed to keep the animal inside. This style of door has been adapted for homes. * Saloon doors are a pair of lightweight swing doors often found in public bars, and especially associated with the American west. Saloon doors, also known as cafe doors, often use bidirectional hinges that close the door regardless of which direction it opens by incorporating springs. Saloon doors that only extend from knee-level to chest-level are known as batwing doors. * A blind door, Gibb door, or jib door has no visible trim or operable components. It blends with the adjacent wall in all finishes, to appear as part of the wall—a disguised door. * A French door consists of a frame around one or more transparent or translucent panels (called lights or lites) that may be installed singly, in matching pairs, or even as series. A matching pair of these doors is called a French window, as it resembles a door-height casement window. When a pair of French doors is used as a French window, the application does not generally include a central mullion (as do some casement window pairs), thus allowing a wider unobstructed opening. The frame typically requires a weather strip at floor level and where the doors meet to prevent water ingress. An espagnolette bolt may let the head and foot of each door be secured in one movement. The slender window joinery maximizes light into the room and minimizes the visual impact of the doorway joinery when considered externally. The doors of a French window often open outward onto a balconet, balcony, porch, or terrace and they may provide an entrance to a garden. * A louvered door has fixed or movable wooden fins (often called slats or louvers) which permit open ventilation while preserving privacy and preventing the passage of light to the interior. Being relatively weak structures, they are most commonly used for wardrobes and drying rooms, where security is of less importance than good ventilation, although a very similar structure is commonly used to form window shutters. Double louvred doors were introduced into Seagate, built in Florida in 1929 by Gwendolyn and Powel Crosley, that provided the desired circulation of air with an added degree of privacy in that it is impossible to see through the fins in any direction. * A composite door is a single leaf door that can be solid or with glass, and is usually filled with high density foam. In the United Kingdom, composite doors are commonly certified to BS PAS 23/24 and be compliant with Secured by Design, an official UK police initiative. * A steel security door is one which is made from strong steel, often for use on vaults and safe rooms to withstand attack. These may also be fitted with wooden outer panels to resemble standard internal and external doors. * A flush door is a completely smooth door, having plywood or MDF fixed over a light timber frame, the hollow parts of which are often filled with a cardboard core material. Skins can also be made out of hardboards, the first of which was invented by William H Mason in 1924. Called Masonite, its construction involved pressing and steaming wood chips into boards. Flush doors are most commonly employed in the interior of a dwelling, although slightly more substantial versions are occasionally used as exterior doors, especially within hotels and other buildings containing many independent dwellings. * A moulded door has the same structure as that of flush door. The only difference is that the surface material is a moulded skin made of MDF. Skins can also be made out of hardboards. * A ledge and brace door often called board and batten doors are made from multiple vertical boards fixed together by two or more horizontal timbers called ledges (or battens) and sometimes kept square by additional diagonal timbers called braces. * A wicket door is a pedestrian door built into a much larger door allowing access without requiring the opening of the larger door. Examples might be found on the ceremonial door of a cathedral or in a large vehicle door in a garage or hangar. * A bifold door<span id"bifold"></span><!-- The preceding tag is a target for links on other pages, probably including the Dab Folding. --> is a unit that has several sections, folding in pairs. Wood is the most common material, and doors may also be metal or glass. Bifolds are most commonly made for closets, but may also be used as units between rooms. Bi-fold doors are essentially now doors that let the outside in. They open in concert; where the panels fold up against one another and are pushed together when opened. The main door panel (often known as the traffic door) is accompanied by a stack of panels that fold very neatly against one another when opened fully, which almost look like room dividers. * A sliding glass door, sometimes called an Arcadia door or patio door, is a door made of glass that slides open and sometimes has a screen (a removable metal mesh that covers the door). * Australian doors are a pair of plywood swinging doors often found in Australian public houses. These doors are generally red or brown in color and bear a resemblance to the more formal doors found in other British Colonies' public houses. * A false door is a wall decoration with the appearance of a window. In ancient Egyptian architecture, this was a common element in a tomb, the false door representing a gate to the afterlife. They can also be found in the funerary architecture of the desert tribes (e.g., Libyan Ghirza). Types Hinged Most doors are hinged along one side to allow the door to pivot away from the doorway in one direction, but not the other. The axis of rotation is usually vertical. In some cases, such as hinged garage doors, the axis may be horizontal, above the door opening. Doors can be hinged so that the axis of rotation is not in the plane of the door to reduce the space required on the side to which the door opens. This requires a mechanism so that the axis of rotation is on the side other than that in which the door opens. This is sometimes the case in trains or airplanes, such as for the door to the toilet, which opens inward. * A swing door has special single-action hinges that allow it to open either outward or inward, and is usually sprung to keep it closed. * French doors are derived from the French design called the casement door. It is a door with lites where all or some panels would be in a casement door. A French door traditionally has a moulded panel at the bottom of the door. It is called a French window when used in a pair as double-leaved doors with large glass panels in each door leaf, and in which the doors may swing out (typically) as well as in. * A double-acting door, patented in 1880 by the Dutch-American engineer Lorenz Bommer, swings both ways. They are often used in areas where many people are likely to pass through, such as restaurant kitchens. * A Dutch door or stable door consists of two halves. The top half operates independently from the bottom half. A variant exists in which opening the top part separately is possible, but because the lower part has a lip on the inside, closing the top part, while leaving the lower part open, is not. * A garden door resembles a French window (with lites), but is more secure because only one door is operable. The hinge of the operating door is next to the adjacent fixed door and the latch is located at the wall opening jamb rather than between the two doors or with the use of an espagnolette bolt. * A Lev door or convection door is an internal floor-to-ceiling (full height) door, consisting of a standard door leaf and an upper leaf in place of the usual header wall. The leaves may or may not be separated by a transom. The doors enable effective convection of warm air. Sliding It is often useful to have doors which slide along tracks, often for space or aesthetic considerations. A bypass door is a door unit that has two or more sections. The doors can slide in either direction along one axis on parallel overhead tracks, sliding past each other. They are most commonly used in closets to provide access one side of the closet at a time. Doors in a bypass unit overlap slightly when viewed from the front so they do not have a visible gap when closed. Doors which slide inside a wall cavity are called pocket doors. This type of door is used in tight spaces where privacy is also required. The door slab is mounted to roller and a track at the top of the door and slides inside a wall. Sliding glass doors are common in many houses, particularly as an entrance to the backyard. Such doors are also popular for use for the entrances to commercial structures, although they are not counted as fire exit doors. The door that moves is called the "active leaf", while the door that remains fixed is called the "inactive leaf". Rotating * A revolving door has several wings or leaves, generally four, radiating from a central shaft, forming compartments that rotate about a vertical axis. A revolving door allows people to pass in both directions without colliding, and forms an airlock maintaining a seal between inside and out. * A pivot door, instead of hinges, is supported on a bearing some distance away from the edge, so that there is more or less of a gap on the pivot side as well as the opening side. In some cases the pivot is central, creating two equal openings. High-speed A high-speed door is a very fast door some with opening speeds of up to 4 m/s, mainly used in the industrial sector where the speed of a door has an effect on production logistics, temperature and pressure control. High-speed cleanroom doors, usually consisting of a transparent material on a stainless steel frame, are used in pharmaceutical industries to allow passage between work areas while admitting minimal contaminants. The powerful high-speed doors have a smooth surface structure and no protruding edges, allowing minimal particle retention and easy cleaning. High-speed doors are made to handle a high number of openings, generally more than 200,000 a year. They must be built with heavy-duty parts and counterbalance systems for speed enhancement and emergency opening function. The door curtain was originally made of PVC, but was later also developed in aluminium and acrylic glass sections. High-speed refrigeration and cold-room doors with excellent insulation values have also been introduced for green and energy-saving requirements. In North America, the Door and Access Systems Manufacturing Association (DASMA) defines high-performance doors as non-residential powered doors characterized by rolling, folding, sliding or swinging action, that are either high-cycle (minimum 100 cycles/day) or high-speed (minimum 20 inches (508 mm)/second), and two out of three of the following: made-to-order for exact size and custom features, able to withstand equipment impact (break-away if accidentally hit by vehicle), or able to sustain heavy use with minimal maintenance. Automatic Automatically opening doors are powered open and closed either by electricity, spring, or both. There are several methods by which an automatically opening door is activated: # A sensor detects traffic is approaching. Sensors for automatic doors are generally: #* A pressure sensor – e.g., a floor mat which reacts to the pressure of someone standing on it. #* An infrared curtain or beam which shines invisible light onto sensors; if someone or something blocks the beam the door is triggered open. #* A motion sensor which uses low-power microwave radar for the same effect. #* A remote sensor (e.g. based on infrared or radio waves) can be triggered by a portable remote control, or is installed inside a vehicle. These are popular for garage doors. # A switch is operated manually, perhaps after security checks. This can be a push button switch or a swipe card. # The act of pushing or pulling the door triggers the open and close cycle. These are also known as power-assisted doors. In addition to activation sensors, automatically opening doors are generally fitted with safety sensors. These are usually an infrared curtain or beam, but can be a pressure mat fitted on the swing side of the door. The safety sensor prevents the door from colliding with an object by stopping or slowing its motion. A mechanism in modern automatic doors ensures that the door can open in a power failure. Other * Up-and-over or overhead doors are often used in garages. Instead of hinges, it has a mechanism, often counterbalanced or sprung, so it can lift and rest horizontally above the opening. A roller shutter or sectional overhead door is one variant of this type. * A tambour door or roller door is an up-and-over door made of narrow horizontal slats that rolls up and down by sliding along vertical tracks; it is typically found in entertainment centres and cabinets. * Rebated doors, a term chiefly used in Britain, are double doors with a lip or overlap (i.e. a rabbet) on the vertical edge(s) where they meet. Fire-rating can be achieved with an applied edge-guard or astragal molding on the meeting stile, in accordance with the American fire door. Applications , above a door]] Architectural doors have numerous general and specialized uses. Doors are generally used to separate interior spaces (closets, rooms, etc.) for convenience, privacy, safety, and security reasons. Doors are also used to secure passages into a building from the exterior, for reasons of climate control and safety. Doors also are applied in more specialized cases: * A blast-proof door is constructed to allow access to a structure as well as to provide protection from the force of explosions. * A garden door is any door that opens to a backyard or garden. This term is often used specifically for French windows, double French doors (with lites instead of panels), in place of a sliding glass door. The term also may refer to what is known as patio doors. * A jib door is a concealed door, whose surface reflects the moldings and finishes of the wall. These were used in historic English houses, mainly as servants' doors. * A pet door (also known as a cat flap or dog door) is an opening in a door to allow pets to enter and exit without the main door's being opened. It may be simply covered by a rubber flap, or it may be an actual door hinged on the top that the pet can push through. Pet doors may be mounted in a sliding glass door as a new (permanent or temporary) panel. Pet doors may be unidirectional, only allowing pets to exit. Additionally, pet doors may be electronic, only allowing animals with a special electronic tag to enter. * A trapdoor is a door that is oriented horizontally in a ceiling or floor, often accessed via a ladder. * A water door or water entrance, such as those used in Venice, Italy, is a door leading from a building built on the water, such as a canal, to the water itself where, for example, one may enter or exit a private boat or water taxi. Construction and components Paneling Panel doors, also called stile and rail doors, are built with frame and panel construction. EN 12519 is describing the terms which are officially used in European Member States. The main parts are listed below: * Stiles – Vertical boards that run the full height of a door and compose its right and left edges. The hinges are mounted to the fixed side (known as the "hanging stile"), and the handle, lock, bolt or latch are mounted on the swinging side (known as the "latch stile"). * Rails – Horizontal boards at the top, bottom, and optionally in the middle of a door that join the two stiles and split the door into two or more rows of panels. The "top rail" and "bottom rail" are named for their positions. The bottom rail is also known as "kick rail". A middle rail at the height of the bolt is known as the "lock rail", other middle rails are commonly known as "cross rails". * Mullions – Smaller optional vertical boards that run between two rails, and split the door into two or more columns of panels, the term is used sometimes for verticals in doors, but more often (UK and Australia) it refers to verticals in windows. * Muntin – Optional vertical members that divide the door into smaller panels. * Panels – Large, wider boards used to fill the space between the stiles, rails, and mullions. The panels typically fit into grooves in the other pieces, and help to keep the door rigid. Panels may be flat, or in raised panel designs. Can be glued in or stay as a floating panel. * Light – a piece of glass used in place of a panel, essentially giving the door a window. Board battening Also known as ledges and braced, board and batten doors are an older design consisting primarily of vertical slats: * Planks – Boards wider than 9" that extend the full height of the door, and are placed side by side filling the door's width. * Ledges and braces – Ledges extend horizontally across the door which the boards are affixed to. The ledges hold the planks together. When diagonally they are called braces which prevent the door from skewing. On some doors, especially antique ones, the ledges are replaced with iron bars that are often built into the hinges as extensions of the door-side plates. Ledging and bracing As board and batten doors. Impact resistance Impact-resistant doors have rounded stile edges to dissipate energy and minimize edge chipping, scratching and denting. The formed edges are often made of an engineered material. Impact-resistant doors excel in high traffic areas such as hospitals, schools, hotels and coastal areas. Frame and fill This type consists of a solid timber frame, filled on one face, face with tongue and groove boards. Quite often used externally with the boards on the weather face. Flushing Flushing of a door means the door is flush with the face of the wall on either side. Moulding * Stiles and rails – As above, but usually smaller. They form the outside edges of the door. * Core material: Material within the door used simply to fill space, provide rigidity and reduce druminess. Hollow-core – Often consists of a lattice or honeycomb made of corrugated cardboard, extruded polystyrene foam, or thin wooden slats. Can also be built with staggered wooden blocks. Hollow-core molded doors are commonly used as interior doors. * Lock block – A solid block of wood mounted within a hollow-core flush door near the bolt to provide a solid and stable location for mounting the door's hardware. Stave-core – Consists of wooden slats stacked upon one another in a manner similar to a board & batten door (though the slats are usually thinner) or the wooden-block hollow-core (except that the space is entirely filled). Solid-core – Can consist of low-density particle board or foam used to completely fill the space within the door. Solid-core flush doors (especially foam-core ones) are commonly used as exterior doors because they provide more insulation and strength. * Skin – The front and back faces of the door are covered with HDF/MDF skins. Swing direction Generally, door swings, or handing, are determined while standing on the outside or less secure side of the door while facing the door (i.e., standing on the side requiring a key to open, going from outside to inside, or from public to private). It is important to get the hand and swing correct on exterior doors, as the transom is usually sloped and sealed to resist water entry, and properly drain. In some custom millwork (or with some master carpenters), the manufacture or installer bevels the leading edge (the first edge to meet the jamb as the door closes) so that the door fits tight without binding. Specifying an incorrect hand or swing can make the door bind, not close properly, or leak. Fixing this error is expensive or time-consuming. In North America, many doors now come with factory-installed hinges, pre-hung on the jamb and sills. While facing the door from the outside or less secure side, if the hinge is on the right side of the door, the door is "right handed"; or if the hinge is on the left, it is "left handed". If the door swings toward you, it is "reverse swing"; or if the door swings away from you, it is "normal swing". In other words: * In the United States: Left hand hinge (LHH): Standing outside (or on the less secure side, or on the public side of the door), the hinges are on the left and the door opens in (away from you). Right hand hinge (RHH): Standing outside (or on the less secure side), the hinges are on the right and the door opens in (away from you). Left hand reverse (LHR): Standing outside the house (or on the less secure side), the hinges are on the left, knob on right, on opening the door it swings toward you (i.e. the door swings open toward the outside, or "outswing") Right hand reverse (RHR): Standing outside the house (i.e. on the less secure side), the hinges are on the right, knob on left, opening the door by pulling the door toward you (i.e. open swings to the outside, or "outswing") * In Europe: ** One of the oldest DIN standard applies: DIN 107 "Building construction; identification of right and left side" (first 1922–05, current 1974–04) defines that doors are categorized from the side where the door hinges can be seen. If the hinges are on the left, it is a DIN Left door (DIN Links, DIN gauche), if the hinges are on the right, it is a DIN Right door (DIN Rechts, DIN droite). The DIN Right and DIN Left marking are also used to categorize matching installation material such as mortise locks (referenced in DIN 107). The European Standard DIN EN 12519 "Windows and pedestrian doors. Terminology" includes these definitions of orientation. * In Australia: The "refrigerator rule" applies, and a refrigerator door is not opened from the inside. If the hinges are on the right then it is a right hand (or right hung) door. (Australian Standards for Installation of Timber Doorsets, AS 1909–1984 pg 6.) In public buildings, exterior doors open to the outside to comply with applicable fire codes. In a fire, a door that opens inward could cause a crush of people who cannot open it. Main materials New exterior doors are largely defined by the type of materials they are made from: wood, steel, fiberglass, UPVC/vinyl, aluminum, composite, glass (patio doors), etc. , the former main residence of the Brazilian imperial family with gilded imperial cyphers of Emperor Pedro II of Brazil]] Wooden doors – including solid wood doors – are a top choice for many homeowners, largely because of the aesthetic qualities of wood. Many wood doors are custom-made, but they have several downsides: their price, their maintenance requirements (regular painting and staining) and their limited insulating value (R-5 to R-6, not including the effects of the glass elements of the doors). Wood doors often have an overhang requirement to maintain a warranty. An overhang is a roof, porch area or awning that helps to protect the door and its finish from UV rays. Steel doors are another major type of residential front doors; most of them come with a polyurethane or other type of foam insulation core – a critical factor in a building's overall comfort and efficiency. Steel doors mostly in default comes along with frame and lock system, which is a high cost efficiency factor compared to wooden doors. Most modern exterior walls provide thermal insulation and energy efficiency, which can be indicated by the Energy Star label or the passive house standards. Premium composite (including steel doors with a thick core of polyurethane or other foam), fiberglass and vinyl doors benefit from the materials they are made from, from a thermal perspective. Insulation and weatherstripping There are very few door models with an R-value close to 10 (the R-value measures how well a barrier resists the conductive flow of heat). This is far less than the R-40 walls or the R-50 ceilings of super-insulated buildings – passive solar and zero-energy buildings. Typical doors are not thick enough to provide very high levels of energy efficiency. Many doors may have good R-values at their center, but their overall energy efficiency is reduced because of the presence of glass and reinforcing elements, or because of poor weatherstripping and the way the door is manufactured. Door weatherstripping is particularly important for energy efficiency. German-made passive house doors use multiple weatherstrips, including magnetic strips, to meet higher standards. These weatherstrips reduce energy losses due to air leakage. Dimensions United States ). From a catalog of "Bilt-well" mill work for the interior and exterior of homes.]] Standard door sizes in the US run along 2" increments. Customary sizes have a height of and a width of . Most residential passage (room to room) doors are . A standard US residential (exterior) door size is . Interior doors for wheelchair access must also have a minimum width of . Residential interior doors, as well as the doors of many small stores, offices, and other light commercial buildings, are often somewhat smaller than the doors of larger commercial buildings, public buildings, and grand homes. Older buildings often have smaller doors. Thickness: Most pre-fabricated doors are 1 3/8" thick (for interior doors) or 1 3/4" (exterior). Closets: small spaces such as closets, dressing rooms, half-baths, storage rooms, cellars, etc. often are accessed through doors smaller than passage doors in one or both dimensions but similar in design. Garages: Garage doors are generally 84" (7 feet; 2134 mm) or 96" (8 feet; 2438 mm) wide for a single-car opening. Two car garage doors (sometimes called double car doors) are a single door 192" (16 feet; 4877 mm). Because of size and weight these doors are usually sectional. That is split into four or five horizontal sections so that they can be raised more easily and do not require a lot of additional space above the door when opening and closing. Single piece double garage doors are common in some older homes. Europe Standard DIN doors are defined in DIN 18101 (published 1955–07, 1985–01, 2014–08). Door sizes are also given in the construction standard for wooden door panels (DIN 68706–1). The DIN commission created the harmonized European standard DIN EN 14351-1 for exterior doors and DIN EN 14351-2 for interior doors (published 2006–07, 2010–08), which define requirements for the CE marking and provide standard sizes by examples in the appendix. The DIN 18101 standard has a normative size (Nennmaß) slightly larger than the panel size (Türblatt) as the standard derives the panel sizes from the normative size being different single door vs double door and molded vs unmolded doors. DIN 18101/1985 defines interior single molded doors to have a common panel height of 1985 mm (normativ height 2010 mm) at panel widths of 610 mm, 735 mm, 860 mm, 985 mm, 1110 mm, plus a larger door panel size of 1110 mm x 2110 mm. The newer DIN 18101/2014 drops the definition of just five standard door sizes in favor of a basic raster running along 125 mm increments where the height and width are independent. Panel width may be in the range 485 mm to 1360 mmm, and the height may be in the range of 1610 mm to 2735 mm. The most common interior door is . Doorways When framed in wood for snug fitting of a door, the doorway consists of two vertical jambs on either side, a lintel or head jamb at the top, and perhaps a threshold at the bottom. When a door has more than one movable section, one of the sections may be called a leaf. See door furniture for a discussion of attachments to doors such as door handles, doorknobs, and door knockers. * Lintel – A horizontal beam above a door that supports the wall above it. (Also known as a header) * Jambs or legs – The vertical posts that form the sides of a door frame, where the hinges are mounted, and with which the bolt interacts. * Door casing, door frame, or chambranle – formed by the lintel and the two jambs. * Sill (for exterior doors) – A horizontal sill plate below the door that supports the door frame. Similar to a window sill but for a door * Threshold (for exterior doors) – A horizontal plate below the door that bridges the crack between the interior floor and the sill. * Doorstop – a thin slat built inside the frame to prevent a door from swinging through when closed, an act which might break the hinges. * Architrave – The decorative molding that outlines a door frame, called an Archivolt if the door is arched. Sometimes called brickmold in North America. * Doormat (also called door mat) – a mat placed typically in front of or behind a door of a home. This practice originated so that mud and dirt would be less prevalent on floors inside a building. <gallery modepacked widths"170px" heights="170px"> Door lock.jpg\|Front door of a house with typical door furniture: a letter box, door knocker, a latch and two locks Paris Rue de Douai5134.JPG\|A door knocker with putti holding a cartouche, in Paris Galerie dorée071.jpg\|Pair of door knobs in the Galerie dorée de la Banque de France of the Hôtel de Toulouse (Paris) St. Pancras Station (door & hinge). Camden.JPG\|Hinge of a door of the St Pancras railway station (London) </gallery> Related hardware Door furniture or hardware refers to any of the items that are attached to a door or a drawer to enhance its functionality or appearance. This includes items such as hinges, handles, door stops, etc. Safety Door safety relates to prevention of door-related accidents. Such accidents take place in various forms, and in a number of locations; ranging from car doors to garage doors. Accidents vary in severity and frequency. According to the National Safety Council in the United States, around 300,000 door-related injuries occur every year. The types of accidents vary from relatively minor cases where doors cause damage to other objects, such as walls, to serious cases resulting in human injury, particularly to fingers, hands, and feet. A closing door can exert up to 40 tons per square inch of pressure between the hinges. Because of the number of accidents taking place, there has been a surge in the number of lawsuits. Thus organisations may be at risk when car doors or doors within buildings are unprotected. According to the US General Services Administration, discussing child care centres: Opening direction Whenever a door is opened outward, there is a risk that it could strike another person. In many cases this can be avoided by architectural design which favors doors which open inward to rooms (from the perspective of a common area such as a corridor, the door opens outward). In cases where this is infeasible, it may be possible to avoid an accident by placing vision panels in the door. Inward-hinged doors can also escalate an accident by preventing people from escaping the building: people inside the building may press against the doors, and thus prevent the doors from opening. Related accidents include: * Grue Church fire: Grue, Norway in 1822 * Victoria Hall Disaster: Sunderland, UK in 1883 * Glen Cinema disaster: Paisley, UK in 1929 * Cocoanut Grove fire: Boston, USA in 1942 Today, the exterior doors of most large (especially public) buildings open outward, while interior doors such as doors to individual rooms, offices, suites, etc. open inward, as do many exterior doors of houses, particularly in North America. Stops Doorstops are simple devices that prevent a door from contacting and possibly damaging another object (typically a wall). They may either absorb the force of a moving door, or hold the door against unintended motion. Guards Door guards (hinge guards, anti-finger trapping devices, or finger guards) help prevent finger trapping accidents, as doors pose a risk to children, especially when closing. Door guards protect fingers in door hinges by covering the hinge-side gap of an open door, typically with a piece of rubber or plastic that wraps from the door frame to the door. Other door safety products eject the fingers from the push side of the door as it closes. There are various levels of door protection. Anti-finger trapping devices in front may leave the rear hinge pin side of doors unprotected. Full door protection uses front and rear anti-finger trapping devices and ensures the hinge side of a door is fully isolated. A risk assessment of the door determines the appropriate level of protection. There is also handle-side door protection, which prevents the door from slamming shut on the frame, which can cause injury to fingers/hands. Glass Glass doors pose the risk of unintentional collision if a person is unaware there is a door, or thinks it is open when it is not. This risk is greater with sliding glass doors because they often have large single panes that are hard to see. Stickers or other types of warnings on the glass surface make it more visible and help prevent injury. In the UK, Regulation 14 of the Workplace (Health and Safety Regulations) 1992 requires that builders mark windows and glass doors to make them conspicuous. Australian Standards: AS1288 and AS2208 require that glass doors be made of laminated, tempered, or toughened glass. Fire Buildings often have special purpose doors that automatically close to prevent the spread of fire and smoke. Fire doors that are improperly installed or tampered with can increase risk during a fire. Sometimes, door closer mechanisms ensure fire doors remain closed. An additional fire risk is that doors may prevent access to emergency services personnel coming to fight the fire and rescue occupants, etc. Fire fighters must use door breaching techniques in these situations to gain access. Doors in public buildings often have panic bars, which open the door in response to anyone pressing against the bar from the inside in the event of a fire or other emergency. Automobiles Vehicle doors present an increased risk of trapping hands or fingers due to the proximity of occupants. Bicyclists cycling on public roads risk dooring: collision with an abruptly opened vehicle door. Because cyclists often ride near parked cars alongside the road, they are particularly vulnerable. Aircraft In aircraft, doors in a pressurized cabin or cargo hold could pose risk if they open during flight, causing decompression. Air may rush out of the fuselage with sufficient velocity to eject unsecured occupants, cargo, and other items, and drastic pressure differences between compartments may cause aircraft floors or other interior partitions to fail. These concerns are typically mitigated with plug doors, which open inward. They are secured into their door frames by the difference in air pressure. Most cabin doors and emergency exits are of this type, but cargo doors typically open outward to maximise interior space. A number of aircraft accidents have involved outward-opening door failures, including: * American Airlines Flight 96 (1972) (design flaw) * Turkish Airlines Flight 981 (1974) (design flaw) * 1975 Tân Sơn Nhứt C-5 accident (poor maintenance) * United Airlines Flight 811 (1989) (design flaw) See also * Biometrics * Closed-circuit television * Coal hole * Door loop, a method for providing electric cabling to a door * Door security * Gibbs surround, a type of elaborate door (or window) surround * Double margin doors * Electronic lock * Hinge bender, a tool for adjusting door hinges * Identity document * IP camera * Janus, Roman god of doors * Keycards * Locksmithing * Lock picking * Logical security * Platform screen doors Citations General references * External links * Category:Types of gates	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Door	2025-04-05T18:28:43.128856
8640	Database normalization	Database normalization is the process of structuring a relational database in accordance with a series of so-called normal forms in order to reduce data redundancy and improve data integrity. It was first proposed by British computer scientist Edgar F. Codd as part of his relational model. Normalization entails organizing the columns (attributes) and tables (relations) of a database to ensure that their dependencies are properly enforced by database integrity constraints. It is accomplished by applying some formal rules either by a process of synthesis (creating a new database design) or decomposition (improving an existing database design). Objectives A basic objective of the first normal form defined by Codd in 1970 was to permit data to be queried and manipulated using a "universal data sub-language" grounded in first-order logic. An example of such a language is SQL, though it is one that Codd regarded as seriously flawed. The objectives of normalization beyond 1NF (first normal form) were stated by Codd as: thumb\|280px\|An insertion anomaly. Until the new faculty member, Dr. Newsome, is assigned to teach at least one course, their details cannot be recorded. thumb\|280px\|An update anomaly. Employee 519 is shown as having different addresses on different records. thumb\|280px\|A deletion anomaly. All information about Dr. Giddens is lost if they temporarily cease to be assigned to any courses. When an attempt is made to modify (update, insert into, or delete from) a relation, the following undesirable side effects may arise in relations that have not been sufficiently normalized: Insertion anomaly There are circumstances in which certain facts cannot be recorded at all. For example, each record in a "Faculty and Their Courses" relation might contain a Faculty ID, Faculty Name, Faculty Hire Date, and Course Code. Therefore, the details of any faculty member who teaches at least one course can be recorded, but a newly hired faculty member who has not yet been assigned to teach any courses cannot be recorded, except by setting the Course Code to null. Update anomaly The same information can be expressed on multiple rows; therefore updates to the relation may result in logical inconsistencies. For example, each record in an "Employees' Skills" relation might contain an Employee ID, Employee Address, and Skill; thus a change of address for a particular employee may need to be applied to multiple records (one for each skill). If the update is only partially successful – the employee's address is updated on some records but not others – then the relation is left in an inconsistent state. Specifically, the relation provides conflicting answers to the question of what this particular employee's address is. Deletion anomaly Under certain circumstances, the deletion of data representing certain facts necessitates the deletion of data representing completely different facts. The "Faculty and Their Courses" relation described in the previous example suffers from this type of anomaly, for if a faculty member temporarily ceases to be assigned to any courses, the last of the records on which that faculty member appears must be deleted, effectively also deleting the faculty member, unless the Course Code field is set to null. Minimize redesign when extending the database structure A fully normalized database allows its structure to be extended to accommodate new types of data without changing existing structure too much. As a result, applications interacting with the database are minimally affected. Normalized relations, and the relationship between one normalized relation and another, mirror real-world concepts and their interrelationships. Normal forms Codd introduced the concept of normalization and what is now known as the first normal form (1NF) in 1970. Codd went on to define the second normal form (2NF) and third normal form (3NF) in 1971, and Codd and Raymond F. Boyce defined the Boyce–Codd normal form (BCNF) in 1974. Ronald Fagin introduced the fourth normal form (4NF) in 1977 and the fifth normal form (5NF) in 1979. Christopher J. Date introduced the sixth normal form (6NF) in 2003. Informally, a relational database relation is often described as "normalized" if it meets third normal form. Most 3NF relations are free of insertion, updation, and deletion anomalies. The normal forms (from least normalized to most normalized) are: Constraint UNF 1NF 2NF 3NF EKNF BCNF 4NF ETNF 5NF DKNF 6NF Unique rows (no duplicate records) Every join dependency has only superkey components Every constraint is a consequence of domain constraints and key constraints Every join dependency is trivial Example of a step-by-step normalization Normalization is a database design technique, which is used to design a relational database table up to higher normal form. The process is progressive, and a higher level of database normalization cannot be achieved unless the previous levels have been satisfied. That means that, having data in unnormalized form (the least normalized) and aiming to achieve the highest level of normalization, the first step would be to ensure compliance to first normal form, the second step would be to ensure second normal form is satisfied, and so forth in order mentioned above, until the data conform to sixth normal form. However, normal forms beyond 4NF are mainly of academic interest, as the problems they exist to solve rarely appear in practice. The data in the following example were intentionally designed to contradict most of the normal forms. In practice it is often possible to skip some of the normalization steps because the data is already normalized to some extent. Fixing a violation of one normal form also often fixes a violation of a higher normal form. In the example, one table has been chosen for normalization at each step, meaning that at the end, some tables might not be sufficiently normalized. Initial data Let a database table exist with the following structure: +Supplier - Book - FranchiseeSupplier IDTitleFranchisee ID1Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization12The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 223Learning SQL3 This table is in 4NF, but the Supplier ID is equal to the join of its projections: {{Supplier ID, Title}, {Title, Franchisee ID}, {Franchisee ID, Supplier ID}}. No component of that join dependency is a superkey (the sole superkey being the entire heading), so the table does not satisfy the ETNF and can be further decomposed: Satisfying DKNF Let's have a look at the Book table from previous examples and see if it satisfies the domain-key normal form: +BookTitlePagesThicknessGenre IDPublisher IDBeginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization520Thick11The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2538Thick22Learning SQL338Slim13SQL Cookbook636Thick13 Logically, Thickness is determined by number of pages. That means it depends on Pages which is not a key. Let's set an example convention saying a book up to 350 pages is considered "slim" and a book over 350 pages is considered "thick". This convention is technically a constraint but it is neither a domain constraint nor a key constraint; therefore we cannot rely on domain constraints and key constraints to keep the data integrity. In other words – nothing prevents us from putting, for example, "Thick" for a book with only 50 pages – and this makes the table violate DKNF. To solve this, a table holding enumeration that defines the Thickness is created, and that column is removed from the original table: +Thickness EnumThicknessMin pagesMax pagesSlim1350Thick351999,999,999,999+Book - Pages - Genre - PublisherTitlePagesGenre IDPublisher IDBeginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization52011The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 253822Learning SQL33813SQL Cookbook63613 That way, the domain integrity violation has been eliminated, and the table is in DKNF. Satisfying 6NF A simple and intuitive definition of the sixth normal form is that "a table is in 6NF when the row contains the Primary Key, and at most one other attribute". That means, for example, the Publisher table designed while creating the 1NF: +PublisherPublisher IDNameCountry1ApressUSA needs to be further decomposed into two tables: +PublisherPublisher IDName1Apress+Publisher countryPublisher IDCountry1USA The obvious drawback of 6NF is the proliferation of tables required to represent the information on a single entity. If a table in 5NF has one primary key column and N attributes, representing the same information in 6NF will require N tables; multi-field updates to a single conceptual record will require updates to multiple tables; and inserts and deletes will similarly require operations across multiple tables. For this reason, in databases intended to serve online transaction processing (OLTP) needs, 6NF should not be used. However, in data warehouses, which do not permit interactive updates and which are specialized for fast query on large data volumes, certain DBMSs use an internal 6NF representation – known as a columnar data store. In situations where the number of unique values of a column is far less than the number of rows in the table, column-oriented storage allow significant savings in space through data compression. Columnar storage also allows fast execution of range queries (e.g., show all records where a particular column is between X and Y, or less than X.) In all these cases, however, the database designer does not have to perform 6NF normalization manually by creating separate tables. Some DBMSs that are specialized for warehousing, such as Sybase IQ, use columnar storage by default, but the designer still sees only a single multi-column table. Other DBMSs, such as Microsoft SQL Server 2012 and later, let you specify a "columnstore index" for a particular table. See also Denormalization Database refactoring Lossless join decomposition Notes and references Further reading Date, C. J. (1999), An Introduction to Database Systems (8th ed.). Addison-Wesley Longman. . Kent, W. (1983) A Simple Guide to Five Normal Forms in Relational Database Theory, Communications of the ACM, vol. 26, pp. 120–125 H.-J. Schek, P. Pistor Data Structures for an Integrated Data Base Management and Information Retrieval System External links Database Normalization Basics by Mike Chapple (About.com) Database Normalization Intro , Part 2 An Introduction to Database Normalization by Mike Hillyer. A tutorial on the first 3 normal forms by Fred Coulson Description of the database normalization basics by Microsoft Normalization in DBMS by Chaitanya (beginnersbook.com) A Step-by-Step Guide to Database Normalization ETNF – Essential tuple normal form Category:Database constraints Category:Data management Category:Data modeling Category:Relational algebra Category:Database management systems	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_normalization	2025-04-05T18:28:43.284848
8641	Desmothoracid	Order Desmothoracida, the desmothoracids, are a group of heliozoan protists, usually sessile and found in freshwater environments. The adult is a spherical cell around 10-20 μm in diameter surrounded by a perforated organic lorica, or shell, with many radial pseudopods projecting through the holes to capture food. These are supported by small bundles of microtubules that arise near a point on the nuclear membrane. Unlike other heliozoans, the microtubules are not in any regular geometric array, there does not appear to be a microtubule organizing center, and there is no distinction between the outer and inner cytoplasm. Reproduction takes place by the budding-off of small motile cells, usually with two flagella. Later these are lost, and the pseudopods and lorica are formed. Typically, a single lengthened pseudopod will secrete a hollow stalk that attaches the cell to the substrate. The form of the flagella, the tubular cristae within the mitochondria, and other characters have led to the suggestion that the desmothoracids belong among what is now the Cercozoa. This was later confirmed by genetic studies. As of the year 2000, the order Desmothoracida contained five genera with a total of 10 species. Order Desmothoracida Hartwig & Lesser 1874 emend. Honigberg et al. 1964 Family Clathrulinidae Claus 1874 Genus Clathrulina Cienkowski 1867 [Podosphaera Archer 1868 non Kunze 1823; Elaster Grimm 1872; Eleaster (sic) Schmidt 1913; Orbulinella Entz 1877] Species Clathrulina elegans Cienkowski 1867 [Clathrulina ovalis (von Daday 1885) Deflandre, 1926; Clathrulina cienkowskii ovalis von Daday 1885; Clathrulina cienkowskii Mereschkowsky 1879; Clathrulina stuhlmanni Schaudinn 1897; Podosphaera haeckeliana Archer 1868; Elaster greeffi Grimm 1872] Species Clathrulina smaragdea (Entz 1877) Mikrjukov 2000 [Orbulinella smaragdea Entz 1877; Orbulinella salina Labbe 1924] Genus Hedriocystis Hertwig & Lesser 1874 Species Hedriocystis pellucida Hertwig & Lesser 1874 Species Hedriocystis minor Siemensma 1991 Species Hedriocystis zhadani Mikrjukov 2000 Genus Penardiophrys Mikrjukov 2000 Species Penardiophrys reticulata (Penard 1904) Mikrjukov 2000 [Hedriocystis reticulata Penard 1904] Species Penardiophrys spinifera (Brown 1918) Mikrjukov 2000 [Hedriocystis spinifera Brown 1918] Genus Cienkowskya Schaudinn 1896 non Regel & Rach 1859 non Solms 1867 [Cienkowskia Weldon & Hickson 1909 non Rostafinski 1873 non Schweinfurth 1867 non Solms 1867; Wagneria Cienkowsky 1881 non Robineau-Desvoidy 1830 non Gistl 1848 non Alenitzin 1873 non Lemaire 1857 non Hesse 1912 non Heilprin 1887 non McCook 1895 non Jedlicka 1935 non Denier 1933 non Meladze 1967; Monomastigocystis de Saedeleer 1930] Species Cienkowskya mereschkovckii (Cienkowsky 1881) Schaudinn 1896 [Wagneria mereschkowskyi Cienkowsky 1881] Species Cienkowskya brachypous (De Saedeleer 1930) Mikrjukov 2000 [Monomastigocystis brachypous de Saedeleer 1930; Hedriocystis brachypous (De Saedeleer 1930) Siemensma 1991] Genus Actinosphaeridium Zacharias 1893 [Actinopshaeridium (sic)] Species Actinosphaeridium pedatus Zacharias 1893 [Nuclearia caulescens Penard 1903] Notes References Category:Filosa Category:Amoeboids	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desmothoracid	2025-04-05T18:28:43.297744
8642	Dalhousie University	<br />On seal: \| mottoeng = Pray and work<br />On seal: Teaching promotes innate ability \| established \| type = Public research university \| endowment $707.2 million \| chancellor Rustum Southwell \| provost = Frank Harvey \| president Kim Brooks \| students 20,970 \| undergrad = 16,002 \| postgrad = 4,968 \| city = Halifax \| province = Nova Scotia \| country = Canada \| coordinates \| campus = * Agricultural Campus, }} \| former_names = Dalhousie College<br />(1818–1863)<br />The Governors of Dalhousie College and University<br />(1863–1996) \| colours Wingtip Black, Beak Gold, Cloud White<br /> \| sporting_affiliations = U Sports, (AUS, RSEQ), ACAA, CCAA \| sports_nickname = }} \| academic_affiliations = \| website = \| logo = Dalhousie University Logo Black.svg \| image = Dalhousie University Seal.svg \| image_upright = 0.7 \| caption = Official seal \| faculty = }} Dalhousie University (commonly known as Dal) is a large public research university in Nova Scotia, Canada, with three campuses in Halifax, a fourth in Bible Hill, and a second medical school campus in Saint John, New Brunswick. Dalhousie offers over 200 degree programs in 13 undergraduate, graduate, and professional faculties. The university is a member of the U15, a group of research-intensive universities in Canada. The institution was established as Dalhousie College, a nonsectarian institution established in 1818 by the eponymous Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia, George Ramsay, 9th Earl of Dalhousie, with education reformer Thomas McCulloch as its first principal. However, the college did not hold its first class until 1838, with operations remaining sporadic due to financial difficulties. The college was reorganized in 1863 and renamed The Governors of Dalhousie College and University. The university formally changed its name to Dalhousie University in 1997 through the same provincial legislation that merged the institution with the Technical University of Nova Scotia. Dalhousie's varsity teams, the Tigers, compete in the Atlantic University Sport conference of Canadian Interuniversity Sport. Dalhousie's Faculty of Agriculture varsity teams are called the Dalhousie Rams, and compete in the ACAA and CCAA. Dalhousie is a coeducational university with more than 20,000 students and 150,000 alumni around the world. The university's notable alumni include a Nobel Prize winner and 94 Rhodes Scholars. History Dalhousie was founded, as the Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia George Ramsay, 9th Earl of Dalhousie, desired a non-denominational college in Halifax. Financing largely came from customs duties collected by a previous Lieutenant Governor, John Coape Sherbrooke, during the War of 1812 occupation of Castine, Maine; Sherbrooke invested £7,000 as an initial endowment and reserved £3,000 for the physical construction of the college. The college was established in 1818 though it faltered shortly after, as Ramsay left Halifax to serve as the Governor General of British North America. The school was structured upon the principles of the University of Edinburgh, located near Ramsay's home in Scotland, where lectures were open to male students, regardless of Christian religion or nationality. In 1821, Dalhousie College was officially incorporated by the Nova Scotia House of Assembly under the 1821 Act of Incorporation. The college did not hold its first class until 1838; operation of the college was intermittent and no degrees were awarded. and firmly against the Church of England's hold on higher education in Nova Scotia (through King's College), McCulloch carried with him from Pictou his education theory and pedagogy, “If Dalhousie College acquires usefulness and eminence, it will be not by an imitation of Oxford, but as an institution of science, and practical intelligence.” His approach to education was radical: he firmly believed that all schools "ought first to be ascertained, how far it is calculated to improve the community; and, if its general utility appear, it is, in proportion to its value and to the extent of the public funds, unquestionably entitled to the protection of Government, whether it belong to churchmen or [Presbyterian] dissenters, protestants or catholics, ought to be entirely disregarded!" He was responsible for creating a chair of natural history at Dalhousie to teach "geology, mineralogy, botany, and zoology." Following McCulloch's death, the college fell into decline once again and was reorganized as a high school in 1848. In 1863, the college opened for a third time and was reorganized by another legislative act, which added "University" to the school's name: "The Governors of Dalhousie College and University". Dalhousie reopened with six professors and one tutor. When it awarded its first degrees in 1866, the student body consisted of 28 male students working toward degrees and 28 occasional students. The first female graduate was Margaret Florence Newcombe from Grafton, Nova Scotia, who earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1885. Originally located at the space now occupied by Halifax City Hall, the college moved in 1886 to Carleton Campus and spread gradually to Studley Campus. In 1920, several buildings were destroyed by fire on the campus of the University of King's College in Windsor, Nova Scotia. Through a grant from the Carnegie Foundation, King's College relocated to Halifax and entered into a partnership with Dalhousie that continues to this day. Dalhousie expanded on 1 April 1997 when provincial legislation mandated an amalgamation with the nearby Technical University of Nova Scotia. This merger saw reorganization of faculties and departments to create the Faculty of Engineering, Faculty of Computer Science and the Faculty of Architecture and Planning. From 1997 to 2000, the Technical University of Nova Scotia operated as a constituent college of Dalhousie called Dalhousie Polytechnic of Nova Scotia (DalTech) until the collegiate system was dissolved. The legislation that merged the two schools also formally changed the name of the institution to its present form, Dalhousie University. On 1 September 2012, the Nova Scotia Agricultural College merged into Dalhousie to form a new Faculty of Agriculture, located in Bible Hill, Nova Scotia.Campuses before its merger with Dalhousie in 1997.]] Dalhousie has three campuses within the Halifax Peninsula and a fourth, the Agricultural Campus, in Bible Hill, Nova Scotia. The campus is largely surrounded by residential neighbourhoods. Robie Street divides it from the adjacent Carleton Campus, which houses the faculties of dentistry, medicine, and other health profession departments. The campus is adjacent to two large teaching hospitals affiliated with the school: the IWK Health Centre and the Queen Elizabeth II Health Sciences Centre. The university presently operates the largest academic library system in Atlantic Canada, and hosts the headquarters for the Ocean Tracking Network. The buildings at Dalhousie vary in age from Hart House, which was completed in 1864, to the Collaborative Health Education Building, completed in 2015. The original building of Dalhousie University was completed in 1824 on Halifax's Grand Parade. It was demolished in 1885 when the university outgrew the premises, and the City of Halifax sought possession of the entire Grand Parade. Halifax City Hall presently occupies the site of the original Dalhousie College. The W. K. Kellogg Health Science Library provides services largely for the faculties of dentistry, medicine, and other health professions. The Sexton Design & Technology Library is located within Sexton Campus. Its collection largely serves those in the faculties of engineering, architecture and planning, and houses the university's rare books collection. The Sir James Dunn Law Library holds the university's collection of common law materials, legal periodicals, as well as books on international law, health law, and environmental law. MacRae Library is located at the university's Agricultural Campus, and has the largest collection of agricultural resource material in Atlantic Canada. The Dalhousie University Archives houses official records of, or relating to, or people/activities connected with Dalhousie University and its founding institutions. The archives also houses material related to theatre, business and labour in Nova Scotia. The collection consists of manuscripts, texts, photographs, audio-visual material, microfilm, music, and artifacts. The university's first library, Macdonald Memorial Library, was built after alumni raised funds on the death of professor Charles Macdonald, who had left the university $2,000 to buy books in English literature on his death in 1901. The biology department operates the Thomas McCulloch Museum in its Life Sciences Centre (LSC). The most notable of the museum's exhibits include its preserved birds collection. Other collections include its Lorenzen ceramic mushrooms, its coral and shell collection, and its butterfly and insect collection. The museum's namesake Thomas McCulloch was a Scottish Presbyterian minister who served as Dalhousie's first president and created the Audubon mounted bird collection which is now housed at the museum. The Dalhousie Art Gallery is both a public gallery and an academic support unit housed since 1971 on the lowest level of the Dalhousie Arts Centre. Admission is free of charge. It is host to a permanent collection of over 1000 works. Some of the outdoor sculptures around the campus are part of this collection, such as the distinctive Marine Venus which has sat in the median of University Avenue since 1969. A notable exhibition from the Dalhousie Art Gallery includes "Archives of the Future" (March – April 2016) exploring the relationship between art creation and commerce with work by artists Zachary Gough, Dawn Georg, Sharlene Bamboat, Katie Vida and Dana Claxton.SustainabilityDalhousie University is actively involved in sustainability issues and has received a number of sustainability awards and recognition for academic programs, university operations, and research. In 2022, Dalhousie received a GOLD rating from AASHE STARS (Version 2.2). In 2009, the university signed the University and College Presidents' Climate Change Statement of Action for Canada to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases. Dalhousie is also a signatory of UNEP's International Declaration on Cleaner Production. In 1999, the university signed the Talloires Declaration, which committed Dalhousie and other higher education institutions to developing, creating, supporting, and maintaining sustainability. the Office of Sustainability, and the Dalhousie Student Union Sustainability Office were formed. During 2008, the President's Advisory Council on Sustainability was also created. The council meets quarterly to discuss pan-university sustainability issues. Dalhousie's College of Sustainability offers an undergraduate Major in Environment, Sustainability and Society (ESS) integrating with seven bachelor's degrees and 40 subjects across five faculties.AdministrationUniversity governance is conducted through the Board of Governors and the Senate, both of which were given much of their present power in the Unofficial Consolidation of an Act for the Regulation and Support of Dalhousie College in Chapter 24 of the Acts of 1863. This statute replaced ones from 1820, 1823, 1838, 1841 and 1848, and has since been supplemented 11 times, most recently in 1995. The president acts as the chief executive officer and is responsible to the Board of Governors and to the Senate for the supervision of administrative and academic works. Kim Brooks is the 13th president of the university, and has served since August 2023. Thomas McCulloch served as the first president when the office was created in 1838. John Forrest was the longest-serving president, holding the office from 1885 to 1911. Affiliated institutions , located adjacent to Dalhousie's Studley campus. The institution has been affiliated with Dalhousie since the 1920s.]] University of King's College is a post-secondary institution in Halifax affiliated with Dalhousie. The institution's campus is located adjacent to Dalhousie's Studley campus. Established in 1789, it was the first post-secondary institution in English Canada and the oldest English-speaking Commonwealth university outside the United Kingdom.FinancesThe university completed the 2017–18 year with revenues of $697.354 million and expenses of $664.274 million, yielding a surplus of $33.08 million. The largest source of revenue for the university was provincial operational grants, followed by tuition fees. The total endowment revenue reported in fiscal 2017–2018 was $481.372 million. Diversity The university has attempted to increase the representation of under-represented groups at Dalhousie through inclusive recruitment strategies. There have been several Dalhousie University scandals related to discrimination at the university.AcademicsDalhousie is a publicly funded research university, and a member of the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada, as well as the U15. , there were 20,970 students enrolled at the university. Dalhousie offers more than 4,000 courses and over 200 degree programs in 13 undergraduate, graduate, and professional faculties. The requirements for admission differ between students from Nova Scotia, students from other provinces in Canada, and international students due to lack of uniformity in marking schemes. The requirements for admission also differ depending on the program. In 2011, the secondary school average for incoming first-year undergraduate students was 85 percent. The university's registrar provides scholarships for its students in order to provide financial assistance, or to reward academic merits or performances in another fields, such as community involvement and leadership. Dalhousie also placed in a number of rankings that evaluated the employment prospects of its graduates. In the Times Higher Education's 2022 global employability ranking, Dalhousie placed 186th in the world, and eighth in Canada. Research In 2018, Research Infosource ranked Dalhousie as 15th on their list for top 50 research universities in Canada, with a sponsored research income (external sources of funding) of $150.038 million in 2017. In the same year, Dalhousie's faculty averaged a sponsored research income of $130,000, while its graduate students averaged a sponsored research income of $44,600. In 2007 Dalhousie topped the list of The Scientist's "Best Places to Work in Academia". The annual list divides research and academic institutions into American and international lists; Dalhousie University ranked first in the international category. According to a survey conducted by The Scientist, Dalhousie was the best non-commercial scientific institute in which to work in Canada. Dalhousie's research performance has been noted in several bibliometric university rankings, which use citation analysis to evaluate the impact a university has on academic publications. In 2019, the Performance Ranking of Scientific Papers for World Universities ranked Dalhousie 301st in the world, tied for 12th in Canada with the University of Manitoba; whereas the University Ranking by Academic Performance 2018–19 rankings placed the university 302nd in the world, and 13th in Canada. Marine research at Dalhousie has become a large focus of the university, with many of the university's faculty members involved in some form of marine research. Notably, Dalhousie is the headquarters of the Ocean Tracking Network, a research effort using implanted acoustic transmitters to study fish migration patterns. Dalhousie houses a number of marine research pools, a wet laboratory, and a benthic flume, which are collectively known as the Aquatron laboratory. Dalhousie is one of the founding members of the Halifax Marine Research Institute, founded on 2 June 2011. The institute, which is a partnership between a number of private industries, government, and post-secondary institutions, was designed to help increase the scale, quality, internationalization and impact of marine research in the region. In 2011, the university, along with WWF-Canada, created the Conservation Legacy For Oceans, which aimed at providing scholarships, funding, curriculum development, and work placements for students and academics dedicated to marine research, law, management, and policy making. In 2016, Dalhousie partnered with Memorial University of Newfoundland and the University of Prince Edward Island to form a collaborative research organization known as The Ocean Frontier Institute. Many of Dalhousie's faculties and departments focus on marine research. The Faculty of Engineering operates the Ocean Research Centre Atlantic, which is dedicated to research and tests in naval and off-shore engineering. Schulich School of Law also operates the Marine & Environmental Law Institute, which carries out research and conducts consultancy activities for governmental and non-governmental organizations. The school's Department of Political Science similarly operates the Centre for Foreign Policy Studies, which is primarily concerned with the fields of Canadian and American foreign, security, and defence policy, including maritime security policy. Student life .]] The student body of Dalhousie is currently represented by two student unions; the Dalhousie Student Union, which represents the general student population, and the Dalhousie Association for Graduate Students, which represents the interests of graduate students specifically. As of 2011, there were three sororities and three fraternities. They operate as non-accredited organizations and are not recognized by the Dalhousie Student Union. The main student newspaper, The Dalhousie Gazette, claims to be the oldest student-run newspaper in North America. The newspaper's offices are in the Student Union building. In 2021 and 2022, controversies arose around alcohol consumption at unsanctioned student gatherings on campus, specifically 'homecoming' in early October. Halifax Police urged the university to play a more active role in the issue.Clubs and societiesIn addition to the efforts made by the Dalhousie Student Union (DSU) Council, Dalhousie students have created and participated in over 320 clubs/societies. The Management Society, for example, is a group of students in the Faculty of Management who group together to enhance the experience of students in that faculty by hosting events, providing assistance and giving back. Until 25 July 2016, Dalhousie offered a website named "Tiger Society" which listed all current clubs and societies that were available for students to join. Through this website, students could request to join a society. Dalhousie also holds a Society Fair at the beginning of each fall and winter semester, in which all societies are given the opportunity to display their purpose/efforts and recruit new members. Student societies partake in a range of activities from simple gatherings, study groups, bake sales, intramural sports teams, to organizing larger scale fundraising events.AthleticsDalhousie's sports teams are called the Tigers. The Tigers varsity teams participate primarily in the Atlantic University Sport (AUS) of U Sports. There are teams for basketball, hockey, soccer, swimming, track and field, cross country running, and volleyball. The Tigers garnered a number of championships in the first decade of the 20th century, winning 63 AUS championships and two U Sports championships. More than 2,500 students participate in competitive clubs, intramural sport leagues, and tournaments. Opportunities are offered at multiple skill levels across a variety of sports. Dalhousie has six competitive sports clubs and 17 recreational clubs. Dalhousie's Agricultural Campus operates its own varsity team, called the Dalhousie Rams. The Rams varsity team participates in the Atlantic Collegiate Athletic Association, a member of the Canadian Collegiate Athletic Association. The Rams varsity teams include badminton, basketball, rugby, soccer, volleyball, and woodsmen. Dalhousie has a number of athletic facilities open to varsity teams and students. Dalplex is the largest main fitness and recreational facility. It houses a large fieldhouse, an Olympic-sized swimming pool, an indoor running track, weight rooms, courts and other facilities. Wickwire Field, with a seating capacity of up to 1,200, is the university's main outdoor field and is host to the varsity football, soccer, field hockey, lacrosse and rugby teams. Other sporting facilities include the Studley Gymnasium, and the Sexton Gymnasium and field. The Memorial Arena, home to the varsity hockey team, was demolished in 2012. The school is working to build a new arena jointly with nearby Saint Mary's University, whose facility is also aging. The Agricultural Campus has one athletic facility, the Langille Athletic Centre. As of 2010, through the efforts of alumni and devoted volunteers, the Dalhousie Football Club was reinstated. Playing in the Atlantic Football League (AFL), the team operates on donations from alumni. The team plays its home games at Wickwire Field. Insignia and other representations Seal The Dalhousie seal is based on the heraldic achievement of Clan Ramsay of Scotland, of which founder George Ramsay was clan head. The heraldic achievement consists of five parts – shield, coronet, crest, supporters and motto. One major difference between the Ramsay achievement and the university seal is that the Ramsay achievement features a griffin and greyhound, whereas the Dalhousie seal has two dragons supporting the eagle-adorned shield. Initially, the Ramsay achievement was used to identify Dalhousie, but the seal has evolved with the amalgamations the university has undergone. The seal was originally silver-coloured, but in 1950, the university's Board of Governors changed it to gold to match the university's colours of gold and black. These colours were adopted in 1887, after the rugby team led the debate about college colours for football jerseys. The shield and eagle of Dalhousie's seal have been used as the logo since 1987, with the present incarnation in use since 2003, which includes the tagline "inspiring minds". Notable alumni <gallery class="center"> File:Richard Bedford Bennett.jpg\|R. B. Bennett, 1st Viscount Bennett, 11th Prime Minister of Canada. File:JoeClark.jpg\|Joe Clark, 16th Prime Minister of Canada. File:Mulroney.jpg\|Brian Mulroney, 18th Prime Minister of Canada. File:Frank Bainimarama November 2014.jpg\|Frank Bainimarama, 8th Prime Minister of Fiji File:Arthur B. McDonald 5193-2015.jpg\|Arthur B. McDonald, awarded the Nobel Prize in physics for his work with solar neutrino. File:Kathryn D. Sullivan.jpg\|Kathryn D. Sullivan, first American woman to walk in space. File:C. Peter McColough, Xerox Corp..jpg\|Charles Peter McColough, former chairman, CEO, and president of Xerox File:LMM signed photo.jpg\|Lucy Maud Montgomery, author, best known for the Anne of Green Gables series </gallery> Dalhousie graduates have found success in a variety of fields, serving as heads of a diverse array of public and private institutions. Dalhousie University has over 130,000 alumni. Throughout Dalhousie's history, faculty, alumni, and former students have played prominent roles in many fields, and include 91 Rhodes Scholars. Dalhousie has also educated Nobel laureates. Astrophysicist and Dalhousie alumni Arthur B. McDonald (BSc 1964, MSc 1965) received the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physics for identifying neutrino change identities and mass. McDonald was also previously awarded the Herzberg Prize and the Benjamin Franklin Prize in physics. Other notable graduates of Dalhousie includes Donald O. Hebb, who helped advance the field of neuropsychology, Kathryn D. Sullivan, the first American woman to walk in space and Jeff Dahn, one of the world's foremost researchers in lithium battery chemistry and aging. E. Elizabeth Patton, elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (2021) and Personal Chair in Melanoma Genetics and Drug Discovery, MRC Human Genetics Unit, Edinburgh. Notable politicians who have attended Dalhousie include three Prime Ministers of Canada, R. B. Bennett, Joe Clark, and Brian Mulroney. Eight graduates have served as Lieutenant Governors: John Crosbie, Myra Freeman, Clarence Gosse, John Keiller MacKay, Henry Poole MacKeen, Fabian O'Dea, and Albert Walsh. Thirteen graduates have served as provincial premiers: Allan Blakeney, John Buchanan, Alex Campbell, Amor De Cosmos, Darrell Dexter, David Eby, Joe Ghiz, John Hamm, Angus Lewis Macdonald, Russell MacLellan, Gerald Regan, Robert Stanfield, Clyde Wells, and Danny Williams. The first woman appointed to the Supreme Court of Canada, Bertha Wilson, was a graduate from Dalhousie Law School. Other notable alumni from the Dalhousie include Lucy Maud Montgomery, an author that wrote a series of novels, including Anne of Green Gables. Prominent business leaders who studied at Dalhousie include Jamie Baillie, former CEO of Credit Union Atlantic, Graham Day, former CEO of British Shipbuilders, Sean Durfy, former CEO of WestJet, and Charles Peter McColough, former president and CEO of Xerox.Fictional representationsRedmond College, attended by Anne Shirley in L.M. Montgomery Anne of the Island, is based on Dalhousie.See also * Higher education in Nova Scotia * List of Canadian universities by endowment * List of colleges and universities named after people * List of fraternities and sororities at Dalhousie University * List of universities in Nova Scotia Footnotes References Bibliography * * * External links * Category:1818 establishments in Nova Scotia Category:Educational institutions established in 1818 Category:Rugby union teams in Nova Scotia Category:U15 Group of Canadian Research Universities	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalhousie_University	2025-04-05T18:28:43.373841
8643	Molecular diffusion	thumb\|260px\|Diffusion from a microscopic and macroscopic point of view. Initially, there are solute molecules on the left side of a barrier (purple line) and none on the right. The barrier is removed, and the solute diffuses to fill the whole container. Top: A single molecule moves around randomly. Middle: With more molecules, there is a clear trend where the solute fills the container more and more uniformly. Bottom: With an enormous number of solute molecules, all randomness is gone: The solute appears to move smoothly and systematically from high-concentration areas to low-concentration areas, following Fick's laws. Molecular diffusion, often simply called diffusion, is the thermal motion of all (liquid or gas) particles at temperatures above absolute zero. The rate of this movement is a function of temperature, viscosity of the fluid and the size (mass) of the particles. Diffusion explains the net flux of molecules from a region of higher concentration to one of lower concentration. Once the concentrations are equal the molecules continue to move, but since there is no concentration gradient the process of molecular diffusion has ceased and is instead governed by the process of self-diffusion, originating from the random motion of the molecules. The result of diffusion is a gradual mixing of material such that the distribution of molecules is uniform. Since the molecules are still in motion, but an equilibrium has been established, the result of molecular diffusion is called a "dynamic equilibrium". In a phase with uniform temperature, absent external net forces acting on the particles, the diffusion process will eventually result in complete mixing. Consider two systems; S1 and S2 at the same temperature and capable of exchanging particles. If there is a change in the potential energy of a system; for example μ1>μ2 (μ is Chemical potential) an energy flow will occur from S1 to S2, because nature always prefers low energy and maximum entropy. Molecular diffusion is typically described mathematically using Fick's laws of diffusion. Applications Diffusion is of fundamental importance in many disciplines of physics, chemistry, and biology. Some example applications of diffusion: Sintering to produce solid materials (powder metallurgy, production of ceramics) Chemical reactor design Catalyst design in chemical industry Steel can be diffused (e.g., with carbon or nitrogen) to modify its properties Doping during production of semiconductors. Significance thumb\|280px\|Schematic representation of mixing of two substances by diffusion Diffusion is part of the transport phenomena. Of mass transport mechanisms, molecular diffusion is known as a slower one. Biology In cell biology, diffusion is a main form of transport for necessary materials such as amino acids within cells. Diffusion of solvents, such as water, through a semipermeable membrane is classified as osmosis. Metabolism and respiration rely in part upon diffusion in addition to bulk or active processes. For example, in the alveoli of mammalian lungs, due to differences in partial pressures across the alveolar-capillary membrane, oxygen diffuses into the blood and carbon dioxide diffuses out. Lungs contain a large surface area to facilitate this gas exchange process. Tracer, self- and chemical diffusion thumb\|340px\|Self diffusion, exemplified with an isotopic tracer of radioactive isotope 22Na thumb\|340px\|Example of chemical (classical, Fick's, or Fickian) diffusion of sodium chloride in water Fundamentally, two types of diffusion are distinguished: Tracer diffusion and Self-diffusion, which is a spontaneous mixing of molecules taking place in the absence of concentration (or chemical potential) gradient. This type of diffusion can be followed using isotopic tracers, hence the name. The tracer diffusion is usually assumed to be identical to self-diffusion (assuming no significant isotopic effect). This diffusion can take place under equilibrium. An excellent method for the measurement of self-diffusion coefficients is pulsed field gradient (PFG) NMR, where no isotopic tracers are needed. In a so-called NMR spin echo experiment this technique uses the nuclear spin precession phase, allowing to distinguish chemically and physically completely identical species e.g. in the liquid phase, as for example water molecules within liquid water. The self-diffusion coefficient of water has been experimentally determined with high accuracy and thus serves often as a reference value for measurements on other liquids. The self-diffusion coefficient of neat water is: 2.299·10−9 m2·s−1 at 25 °C and 1.261·10−9 m2·s−1 at 4 °C. Chemical diffusion occurs in a presence of concentration (or chemical potential) gradient and it results in net transport of mass. This is the process described by the diffusion equation. This diffusion is always a non-equilibrium process, increases the system entropy, and brings the system closer to equilibrium. The diffusion coefficients for these two types of diffusion are generally different because the diffusion coefficient for chemical diffusion is binary and it includes the effects due to the correlation of the movement of the different diffusing species. Non-equilibrium system thumb\|280px\|Illustration of low entropy (top) and high entropy (bottom) Because chemical diffusion is a net transport process, the system in which it takes place is not an equilibrium system (i.e. it is not at rest yet). Many results in classical thermodynamics are not easily applied to non-equilibrium systems. However, there sometimes occur so-called quasi-steady states, where the diffusion process does not change in time, where classical results may locally apply. As the name suggests, this process is a not a true equilibrium since the system is still evolving. Non-equilibrium fluid systems can be successfully modeled with Landau-Lifshitz fluctuating hydrodynamics. In this theoretical framework, diffusion is due to fluctuations whose dimensions range from the molecular scale to the macroscopic scale. Chemical diffusion increases the entropy of a system, i.e. diffusion is a spontaneous and irreversible process. Particles can spread out by diffusion, but will not spontaneously re-order themselves (absent changes to the system, assuming no creation of new chemical bonds, and absent external forces acting on the particle). Concentration dependent "collective" diffusion Collective diffusion is the diffusion of a large number of particles, most often within a solvent. Contrary to brownian motion, which is the diffusion of a single particle, interactions between particles may have to be considered, unless the particles form an ideal mix with their solvent (ideal mix conditions correspond to the case where the interactions between the solvent and particles are identical to the interactions between particles and the interactions between solvent molecules; in this case, the particles do not interact when inside the solvent). In case of an ideal mix, the particle diffusion equation holds true and the diffusion coefficient D the speed of diffusion in the particle diffusion equation is independent of particle concentration. In other cases, resulting interactions between particles within the solvent will account for the following effects: the diffusion coefficient D in the particle diffusion equation becomes dependent of concentration. For an attractive interaction between particles, the diffusion coefficient tends to decrease as concentration increases. For a repulsive interaction between particles, the diffusion coefficient tends to increase as concentration increases. In the case of an attractive interaction between particles, particles exhibit a tendency to coalesce and form clusters if their concentration lies above a certain threshold. This is equivalent to a precipitation chemical reaction (and if the considered diffusing particles are chemical molecules in solution, then it is a precipitation). Molecular diffusion of gases Transport of material in stagnant fluid or across streamlines of a fluid in a laminar flow occurs by molecular diffusion. Two adjacent compartments separated by a partition, containing pure gases A or B may be envisaged. Random movement of all molecules occurs so that after a period molecules are found remote from their original positions. If the partition is removed, some molecules of A move towards the region occupied by B, their number depends on the number of molecules at the region considered. Concurrently, molecules of B diffuse toward regimens formerly occupied by pure A. Finally, complete mixing occurs. Before this point in time, a gradual variation in the concentration of A occurs along an axis, designated x, which joins the original compartments. This variation, expressed mathematically as -dCA/dx, where CA is the concentration of A. The negative sign arises because the concentration of A decreases as the distance x increases. Similarly, the variation in the concentration of gas B is -dCB/dx. The rate of diffusion of A, NA, depend on concentration gradient and the average velocity with which the molecules of A moves in the x direction. This relationship is expressed by Fick's law N_{A}= -D_{AB} \frac{dC_{A}}{dx} (only applicable for no bulk motion) where D is the diffusivity of A through B, proportional to the average molecular velocity and, therefore dependent on the temperature and pressure of gases. The rate of diffusion NA is usually expressed as the number of moles diffusing across unit area in unit time. As with the basic equation of heat transfer, this indicates that the rate of force is directly proportional to the driving force, which is the concentration gradient. This basic equation applies to a number of situations. Restricting discussion exclusively to steady state conditions, in which neither dCA/dx or dCB/dx change with time, equimolecular counterdiffusion is considered first. Equimolecular counterdiffusion If no bulk flow occurs in an element of length dx, the rates of diffusion of two ideal gases (of similar molar volume) A and B must be equal and opposite, that is N_A=-N_B. The partial pressure of A changes by dPA over the distance dx. Similarly, the partial pressure of B changes dPB. As there is no difference in total pressure across the element (no bulk flow), we have \frac{dP_A}{dx}=-\frac{dP_B}{dx}. For an ideal gas the partial pressure is related to the molar concentration by the relation P_{A}V=n_{A}RT where nA is the number of moles of gas A in a volume V. As the molar concentration CA is equal to nA/ V therefore P_{A}=C_{A}RT Consequently, for gas A, N_{A}=-D_{AB} \frac{1}{RT} \frac{dP_{A}}{dx} where DAB is the diffusivity of A in B. Similarly, N_{B}-D_{BA} \frac{1}{RT} \frac{dP_{B}}{dx}D_{AB} \frac{1}{RT}\frac{dP_{A}}{dx} Considering that dPA/dx-dPB/dx, it therefore proves that DABDBA=D. If the partial pressure of A at x1 is PA1 and x2 is PA2, integration of above equation, N_{A}=-\frac{D}{RT} \frac{(P_{A2}-P_{A1})}{x_{2}-x_{1}} A similar equation may be derived for the counterdiffusion of gas B. See also References External links Some pictures that display diffusion and osmosis An animation describing diffusion. A tutorial on the theory behind and solution of the Diffusion Equation. NetLogo Simulation Model for Educational Use (Java Applet) Short movie on brownian motion (includes calculation of the diffusion coefficient) A basic introduction to the classical theory of volume diffusion (with figures and animations) Diffusion on the nanoscale (with figures and animations) Category:Transport phenomena Category:Diffusion Category:Underwater diving physics	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_diffusion	2025-04-05T18:28:43.393247
8645	Declension	In linguistics, declension (verb: to decline) is the changing of the form of a word, generally to express its syntactic function in the sentence by way of an inflection. Declension may apply to nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, and determiners. It serves to indicate number (e.g. singular, dual, plural), case (e.g. nominative, accusative, genitive, or dative), gender (e.g. masculine, feminine, or neuter), and a number of other grammatical categories. Inflectional change of verbs is called conjugation. Declension occurs in many languages. It is an important aspect of language families like Quechuan (i.e., languages native to the Andes), Indo-European (e.g. German, Icelandic, Irish, Lithuanian and Latvian, Slavic, Sanskrit, Latin, Ancient and Modern Greek, Albanian, Romanian, Kurdish, Classical and Modern Armenian), Bantu (e.g. Swahili, Zulu, Kikuyu), Semitic (e.g. Modern Standard Arabic), Finno-Ugric (e.g. Hungarian, Finnish, Estonian), and Turkic (e.g. Turkish). Old English was an inflectional language, but largely abandoned inflectional changes as it evolved into Modern English. Though traditionally classified as synthetic, Modern English has become a mostly analytic language. English-speaking perspective <!-- This section uses Croatian as an invisible comparison language in the comments. Glosses are widely used for the same purpose, but additional lines in a foreign language might just confuse.--> Unlike English, many languages use suffixes to specify subjects and objects and word cases in general. Inflected languages have a freer word order than modern English, an analytic language in which word order identifies the subject and object. As an example, even though both of the following sentences consist of the same words, the meaning is different: the adjective little would be in the same case as the noun it modifies (boy), and the case of the determiner our would agree with the case of the noun it determines (street). Using the case suffixes invented for this example, the original sentence would read: * Mum, this little boy dog was chasing a cat down our street!<!--Croatian: Mama, ovoga malenog dječaka pas lovio je mačku po našoj ulici!--> And like other inflected languages, the sentence rearranged in the following ways would mean virtually the same thing, but with different expressiveness: * A cat was down our street chasing dog this little boy, mum!<!--Croatian: Mačku je po našoj ulici lovio pas ovoga malenog dječaka, mama!--> * Mum, down street our a cat was chasing this little boy dog!<!--Croatian: Mama, po ulici našoj mačku je lovio ovoga malenog dječaka pas!--> Instead of the locative, the instrumental form of "down our street" could also be used: * Mum, this little boy dog our street was chasing a cat!<!--Croatian: Mama, ovoga malenog dječaka pas našom je ulicom lovio mačku!--> * A cat was, mum, our street chasing dog this little boy<!--Croatian: Mačku je, mama, našom ulicom mačku lovio pas ovoga malenog dječaka!--> * Our street a cat was chasing dog this little boy, mum!<!--Croatian: Našom ulicom mačku je lovio pas ovoga malenog dječaka, mama!--> Different word orders preserving the original meaning are possible in an inflected language, and articles are also declined. History It is agreed that Ancient Greeks had a "vague" idea of the forms of a noun in their language. A fragment of Anacreon seems to confirm this idea. Nevertheless, it cannot be concluded that the Ancient Greeks actually knew what the cases were. The Stoics developed many basic notions that today are the rudiments of linguistics. The idea of grammatical cases is also traced back to the Stoics, but it is still not completely clear what the Stoics exactly meant with their notion of cases.Modern English In Modern English, the system of declensions is so simple compared to some other languages that the term declension is rarely used. Nouns Most nouns in English have distinct singular and plural forms. Nouns and most noun phrases can form a possessive construction. Plurality is most commonly shown by the ending -s (or -es), whereas possession is always shown by the enclitic ''-'s or, for plural forms ending in s, by just an apostrophe. Consider, for example, the forms of the noun girl. Most speakers pronounce all forms other than the singular plain form (girl) exactly the same. {\|class="wikitable" \|- ! ! Singular ! Plural \|- ! Plain \| girl \| girls \|- ! Possessive \| girl's \| girls' \|} By contrast, a few irregular nouns (like man/men) are slightly more complex in their forms. In this example, all four forms are pronounced distinctly. {\|class="wikitable" \|- ! ! Singular ! Plural \|- ! Plain \| man \| men \|- ! Possessive \| man's \| men's \|} For nouns, in general, gender is not declined in Modern English. There are isolated situations where certain nouns may be modified to reflect gender, though not in a systematic fashion. Loan words from other languages, particularly Latin and the Romance languages, often preserve their gender-specific forms in English, e.g. alumnus (masculine singular) and alumna (feminine singular). Similarly, names borrowed from other languages show comparable distinctions: Andrew and Andrea, Paul and Paula, etc. Additionally, suffixes such as -ess, -ette, and -er are sometimes applied to create overtly gendered versions of nouns, with marking for feminine being much more common than marking for masculine. Many nouns can actually function as members of two genders or even all three, and the gender classes of English nouns are usually determined by their agreement with pronouns, rather than marking on the nouns themselves. There can be other derivations from nouns that are not considered declensions. For example, the proper noun Britain has the associated descriptive adjective British and the demonym Briton. Though these words are clearly related, and are generally considered cognates, they are not specifically treated as forms of the same word, and thus are not declensions. Pronouns Pronouns in English have more complex declensions. For example, the first person "I": {\|class="wikitable" \|- ! ! Singular ! Plural \|- ! Subjective \| I \| we \|- ! Objective \| me \| us \|- ! Dependent possessive \| my \| our \|- ! Independent possessive \| mine \| ours \|} Whereas nouns do not distinguish between the subjective (nominative) and objective (oblique) cases, some pronouns do; that is, they decline to reflect their relationship to a verb or preposition, or case. Consider the difference between he (subjective) and him (objective), as in "He saw it" and "It saw him"; similarly, consider who, which is subjective, and the objective whom (although it is increasingly common to use who for both). The one situation where gender is still clearly part of the English language is in the pronouns for the third person singular. Consider the following: {\|class="wikitable" \|- ! rowspan="2" \| ! rowspan="2" \| Masculine ! rowspan="2" \| Feminine ! colspan="2" \| Neuter \|- ! non-person ! person \|- ! Subjective \| he \| she \| rowspan="2" \| it \| they \|- ! Objective \| him \| rowspan="2" \| her \| them \|- ! Dependent possessive \| rowspan="2" \| his \| rowspan="2" \| its \| their \|- ! Independent possessive \| hers \| theirs \|} The distinguishing of neuter for persons and non-persons is peculiar to English. This has existed since the 14th century. However, the use of singular they is often restricted to specific contexts, depending on the dialect or the speaker. It is most typically used to refer to a single person of unknown gender (e.g. "someone left their jacket behind") or a hypothetical person where gender is insignificant (e.g. "If someone wants to, then they should"). Its use has expanded in recent years due to increasing social recognition of persons who do not identify themselves as male or female (see gender-nonbinary). The singular they still uses plural verb forms, reflecting its origins.Adjectives and adverbs Some English adjectives and adverbs are declined for degree of comparison. The unmarked form is the positive form, such as quick. Comparative forms are formed with the ending -er (quicker), while superlative forms are formed with -est (quickest). Some are uncomparable; the remainder are usually periphrastic constructions with more (more beautiful) and most (most modestly). See degree of comparison for more. Adjectives are not declined for case in Modern English (though they were in Old English), nor number nor gender. Determiners The demonstrative determiners this and that are declined for number, as these and those. The article is never regarded as declined in Modern English, although formally, the words that and possibly she correspond to forms of the predecessor of the (sē m., þæt n., sēo f.) as it was declined in Old English. Latin Just as verbs in Latin are conjugated to indicate grammatical information, Latin nouns and adjectives that modify them are declined to signal their roles in sentences. There are five important cases for Latin nouns: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative. Since the vocative case usually takes the same form as the nominative, it is seldom spelt out in grammar books. Yet another case, the locative, is limited to a small number of words. The usual basic functions of these cases are as follows: Nominative case indicates the subject. Genitive case indicates possession and can be translated with 'of'. Dative case marks the indirect object and can be translated with 'to' or 'for'. Accusative case marks the direct object. Ablative case is used to modify verbs and can be translated as 'by', 'with', 'from', etc. Vocative case is used to address a person or thing. The genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative also have important functions to indicate the object of a preposition. Given below is the declension paradigm of Latin puer 'boy' and puella 'girl': {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Case !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural \|- \| Nominative \|\| puer \|\| puerī \|\| puella \|\| puellae \|- \| Genitive \|\| puerī \|\| puerōrum \|\| puellae \|\| puellārum \|- \| Dative \|\| puerō \|\| puerīs \|\| puellae \|\| puellīs \|- \| Accusative \|\| puerum \|\| puerōs \|\| puellam \|\| puellās \|- \| Ablative \|\| puerō \|\| puerīs \|\| puellā \|\| puellīs \|- \|Vocative \|puer \|puerī \|puella \|puellae \|} From the provided examples we can see how cases work: Sanskrit Sanskrit, another Indo-European language, has eight cases: nominative, vocative, accusative, genitive, dative, ablative, locative and instrumental. Some do not count vocative as a separate case, despite it having a distinctive ending in the singular, but consider it as a different use of the nominative. Sanskrit grammatical cases have been analyzed extensively. The grammarian Pāṇini identified six semantic roles or karaka, which correspond closely to the eight cases: * agent (, related to the nominative) * patient (, related to the accusative) * means (, related to the instrumental) * recipient (, related to the dative) * source (, related to the ablative) relation (, related to genitive) locus (, related to the locative) * address (, related to the vocative) For example, consider the following sentence: \| {from the tree} {a leaf} {to the ground} falls \| "a leaf falls from the tree to the ground"}} Here leaf is the agent, tree is the source, and ground is the locus. The endings -aṁ, -at, -āu mark the cases associated with these meanings. Verse 37 of the Rāmarakṣāstotram gives an example of all 8 types of declensions in Sanskrit for the singular proper noun Rāma. <!-- This is an interesting but lesser known mnemonic used to remember the declension for singular masculine nouns ending with -a. I found some blogs and non-ISBN books discussing this but credible scholarly articles are harder to find. I added this example because I felt that the other examples were insufficient or lacked comparision, and the 'English-speaking perspective' uses made up endings. --><!-- I suggest adding more examples from other real languages that allow comparision of the same word in context for all possible cases. -->{\| class="wikitable" !Verse !Case !Translation and remarks \|- \|Rāmo rājamaṇiḥ \|Nominative \|Rāma is a jewel among kings The case declension here is Rāmaḥ but the visarga has undergone sandhi. \|- \|sadā vijayate Rāmaṃ rameśaṃ bhaje \|Accusative \|''Ever victorious, I worship that Rāma who is Ramā's lord.'' Both words '<nowiki/>''Rāma Rameśa'<nowiki/> are individually declined as 'rāmaṃ rameśaṃ \|- \|Rāmeṇābhihatā niśācaracamū \|Instrumental \|Rāma, by whose hands are the armies of demons annhiliated Rāmeṇa is the declension that underwent sandhi with the word abhihatā \|- \|Rāmāya tasmai namaḥ \|Dative \|I bow to that Rāma. Dative case is used here to show that Rāma is the receiver of the reverence. \|- \|Rāmānnāsti parāyaṇaṃ parataraṃ \|Ablative \|There is no better support than Rāma The declension here is Rāmāt that has undergone sandhi with nāsti. Ablative case is also used for comparisons in Sanskrit \|- \|Rāmasya dāso’smyahaṃ \|Genitive \|I am a servant of Rāma. Normal declension without sandhi. \|- \|Rāme cittalayaḥ sadā bhavatu me \|Locative \|Let my thoughts always be focused on Rāma.'' Locative case to indicate the 'focus of thoughts' \|- \|Bho Rāma māmuddhara! \|Vocative \|O Rāma save me! Vocative case uses the plain stem, unlike Nominative which adds a visarga. Sometimes vocative is considered to be a different use of nominative.<ref name=":1" /> \|} Declension in specific languages Albanian declension Basque declension Arabic * Classical and Modern Standard Arabic declension (ʾIʿrab) Greek and Latin Ancient Greek and Latin First declension Ancient Greek and Latin Second declension Ancient Greek and Latin Third declension Greek declension Latin declension Celtic languages Irish declension Germanic languages German declension Icelandic declension Gothic declension Dutch declension system (abandoned) Middle English declension Baltic languages Latvian declension Lithuanian declension Slavic languages Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin and Serbian declension Czech declension Polish declension Russian declension Slovak declension Slovene declension Ukrainian declension Romance languages * Romanian declension Indo-Aryan languages * Urdu and Hindi declension Uralic languages Finnish noun cases Languages that lost their declension system Modern Arabic dialects (incl. Maltese) * Most Germanic languages: English Dutch Danish many Norwegian dialects ** many Swedish dialects * Most Romance languages: Spanish Portuguese French Italian ** Catalan * Some Slavic languages Bulgarian Macedonian Some Celtic languages Welsh See also Grammatical conjugation * Grammatical case * Strong inflection * Weak inflection Notes and references Notes Citations External links [http://www.hi.is/~eirikur/cases.pdf The Status of Morphological Case in the Icelandic Lexicon] by Eiríkur Rögnvaldsson. Discussion of whether cases convey any inherent syntactic or semantic meaning. [http://web.phil-fak.uni-duesseldorf.de/~wdl/OptCase.pdf Optimal Case: The Distribution of Case in German and Icelandic] by Dieter Wunderlich <!--[http://phrontistery.info/cases.html A long list of names for cases] found in one language or another--><!--dead link--> <small>Lexicon of Linguistics:</small> [http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Declension Declension] * <small>Lexicon of Linguistics:</small> [http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemmaBase Base], [http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemmaStem Stem], [http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Root Root] * <small>Lexicon of Linguistics:</small> [http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Defective+paradigm Defective Paradigm] * <small>Lexicon of Linguistics:</small> [http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Strong+verb Strong Verb] * <small>Lexicon of Linguistics:</small> [http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemmaIP Inflection Phrase (IP)], [http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemmaINFL INFL], [http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemmaAGR AGR], [http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemmatense Tense] * <small>Lexicon of Linguistics:</small> [http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Lexicalist+Hypothesis Lexicalist Hypothesis] *[http://mysite.du.edu/~etuttle/classics/nugreek/app1.htm classical Greek declension] Category:Grammatical cases Category:Grammar Category:Linguistic morphology Category:Linguistics terminology	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declension	2025-04-05T18:28:43.482231
8648	Daffynition	A daffynition (a portmanteau blend of daffy and definition) is a form of pun involving the reinterpretation of an existing word, on the basis that it sounds like another word (or group of words). Presented in the form of dictionary definitions, they are similar to transpositional puns, but often much less complex and easier to create. Under the name Uxbridge English Dictionary, making up daffynitions is a popular game on the BBC Radio 4 comedy quiz show I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue. A lesser-known subclass of daffynition is the goofinition, which relies strictly on literal associations and correct spellings, such as "lobster = a weak tennis player". This play on words is similar to Cockney rhyming slang. Examples acrostic: An angry bloodsucking arachnid. (a-cross-tick) American: A happy cylindrical food container. (a-merry-can) apéritif: A set of dentures. (a-pair-of-teeth) avoidable: What a bullfighter tries to do. (avoid-a-bull) buccaneer: too much to pay for corn ([a]-buck-an-ear) dandelion: A fashionably dressed big cat (dandy-lion) decadent: Possessing only ten teeth. (deca-dent) denial: A river in Egypt. (the-Nile) devastation: Where people wait for buses. (the-bus-station) dilate: live long (die-late) euthanasia: Teenagers in the world's largest continent. (youth-in-Asia) fortunate: Consumption of an expensive meal. (fortune-ate) impolite: A flaming goblin. (imp-alight) indistinct: where one places dirty dishes (in-the-sink) information: how geese fly (in-formation) innuendoes: Italian suppositories. () insolent: Fallen off the Isle of Wight ferry. (in-Solent) isolate: Me not on time. (I-(am)-so-late) laburnum: French for barbecue. (la-burn-em) legend: A foot. (leg-end) oboe: A French tramp. (hobo) paradox: Two doctors. (pair-of-docs) or where one ties two boats. (Pair of docks) pasteurise: Too far to see. () protein: In favour of youth. (pro-teen) propaganda: A gentlemanly goose. (proper-gander) or to look at something very carefully (proper-gander, where gander is slang for looking) recycle: To repair a bicycle, or obtain a replacement bicycle. (re-cycle) relief: What trees do in Spring. (re-leaf) specimen: An Italian astronaut. (spaceman) symmetry: A South African or New Zealand graveyard. (cemetery) See also Sniglet The Meaning of Liff The Devil's Dictionary External links The Odford English Dictionary (Daffynitions) Fuller's Dictionary of Daffynitions Category:Puns	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daffynition	2025-04-05T18:28:43.512471
8649	List of football clubs in the Netherlands	The Dutch Football League is organized by the Royal Dutch Football Association (KNVB, Koninklijke Nederlandse Voetbalbond).The most successful teams are Ajax (36), PSV (24) and Feyenoord (16). Important teams of the past are HVV (10 titles), Sparta Rotterdam (6 titles) and Willem II (3 titles). The annual match that marks the beginning of the season is called the Johan Cruijff Schaal (Johan Cruyff Shield). Contenders are the champions and the cup winners of the previous season. Dutch professional clubs }} \|position=top}} \|position=bottom}} \|position=bottom}} \|position=right}} \|position=left}} \|position=bottom}} \|position=top}} \|position=top}} \|position=bottom}} \|position=top}} \|position=top}} \|position=left}} \|position=right}} \|position=right}} }} {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|- ! Club ! Location ! Venue ! Capacity ! Manager \|- \| ADO Den Haag \| The Hague \| Cars Jeans Stadion \| align="center" \| 15,000 \| Darije Kalezić \|- \| Ajax \| Amsterdam \| Johan Cruyff Arena \| align="center" \| 53,490 \| Francesco Farioli \|- \| AZ \| Alkmaar \| AFAS Stadion \| align="center" \| 17,023 \| Maarten Martens \|- \| Excelsior \| Rotterdam \| Stadion Woudestein \| align="center" \| 4,400 \| Marinus Dijkhuizen \|- \| Feyenoord \| Rotterdam \| Stadion Feijenoord \| align="center" \| 51,177 \| Brian Priske \|- \| Go Ahead Eagles \| Deventer \| Adelaarshorst \| align="center" \| 10,400 \| René Hake \|- \| Groningen \| Groningen \| Noordlease Stadion \| align="center" \| 22,550 \| Dick Lukkien \|- \| Heerenveen \| Heerenveen \| Abe Lenstra Stadion \| align="center" \| 27,224 \| Robin van Persie \|- \| Heracles Almelo \| Almelo \| Polman Stadion \| align="center" \| 13,500 \| Erwin van de Looi \|- \| NEC \| Nijmegen \| Stadion de Goffert \| align="center" \| 12,500 \| Rogier Meijer \|- \| PEC Zwolle \| Zwolle \| MAC³PARK Stadion \| align="center" \| 13,250 \| Johnny Jansen \|- \| PSV \| Eindhoven \| Philips Stadion \| align="center" \| 36,500 \| Peter Bosz \|- \| Roda JC \| Kerkrade \| Parkstad Limburg Stadion \| align="center" \| 19,979 \| Bas Sibum \|- \| Sparta Rotterdam \| Rotterdam \| Het Kasteel \| align="center" \| 11,026 \| Jeroen Rijsdijk \|- \| Twente \| Enschede \| De Grolsch Veste \| align="center" \| 30,205 \| Joseph Oosting \|- \| Utrecht \| Utrecht \| Stadion Galgenwaard \| align="center" \| 23,750 \| Ron Jans \|- \| Vitesse \| Arnhem \| GelreDome \| align="center" \| 25,500 \| Edward Sturing \|- \| Willem II Tilburg \| Tilburg \| Koning Willem II Stadion \| align="center" \| 14,500 \| Peter Maes \|- \| Almere City \| Almere \| Yanmar Stadion \| align="center" \| 3,000 \| Hedwiges Maduro \|- \| Cambuur \| Leeuwarden \| Cambuur Stadion \| align="center" \| 10,500 \| Henk de Jong \|- \| De Graafschap \| Doetinchem \| Stadion De Vijverberg \| align="center" \| 12,600 \| Jan Vreman \|- \| Den Bosch \| 's-Hertogenbosch \| De Vliert \| align="center" \| 9,000 \| David Nascimento \|- \| Dordrecht \| Dordrecht \| GN Bouw Stadion \| align="center" \| 4,235 \| Melvin Boel \|- \| FC Eindhoven \| Eindhoven \| Jan Louwers Stadion \| align="center" \| 4,200 \| Willem Weijs \|- \| Emmen \| Emmen \| Univé Stadion \| align="center" \| 8,600 \| Fred Grim \|- \| Fortuna Sittard \| Sittard \| Fortuna Sittard Stadion \| align="center" \| 12,500 \| Danny Buijs \|- \| Helmond Sport \| Helmond \| Stadion De Braak \| align="center" \| 4,100 \| Bob Peeters \|- \| MVV \| Maastricht \| De Geusselt \| align="center" \| 10,234 \| Maurice Verberne \|- \| NAC Breda \| Breda \| Rat Verlegh Stadion \| align="center" \| 19,000 \| Carl Hoefkens \|- \| TOP Oss \| Oss \| Heesen Yachts Stadion \| align="center" \| 4,700 \| Ruud Brood \|- \| RKC Waalwijk \| Waalwijk \| Mandemakers Stadion \| align="center" \| 7,508 \| Henk Fraser \|- \| Telstar \| Velsen \| TATA Steel Stadion \| align="center" \| 3,625 \| Anthony Correia \|- \| Volendam \| Volendam \| Kras Stadion \| align="center" \| 6,260 \| Regillio Simons \|- \| VVV-Venlo \| Venlo \| De Koel \| align="center" \| 8,000 \| Rick Kruys \|- \|} Former Dutch league teams * Koninklijke HFC * AVV RAP (of Amsterdam) were the first official champions of the Netherlands in 1899. The club however became a Cricket club in 1916 following a total of 5 national football titles. * Fortuna 54 (of Geleen) and Sittardia (of Sittard) merged to form Fortuna Sittard in 1968. * Blauw Wit, DWS and De Volewijckers merged to form FC Amsterdam in 1972, which ceased to exist in 1982. * PEC and the Zwolsche Boys merged to form PEC Zwolle in 1971, which became FC Zwolle in 1990. * Sportclub Enschede and the Enschedese Boys merged to form FC Twente in 1965. * DOS, Elinkwijk and Velox merged to form FC Utrecht in 1970. * GVAV became FC Groningen in 1971. * Alkmaar 54 and FC Zaanstreek merged to form AZ in 1967. * Roda Sport and Rapid JC merged to form Roda JC in 1962. * BVC Rotterdam and BVC Flamingos merged to form Scheveningen Holland Sport in 1954, which merged with ADO in 1971 to form FC Den Haag, and became ADO Den Haag in 1996. * SVV and Dordrecht '90 merged to form SVV/Dordrecht '90 in 1991. The club has since been renamed FC Dordrecht. * VC Vlissingen (from Flushing) became a professional club in 1990, changed its name to VCV Zeeland a year later, and became an amateur club again in 1992. * FC Wageningen (founded in 1911) won the Dutch cup in 1939 and 1948, joined the Dutch professional league when it was formed in 1954, and remained professional until the club went bankrupt in 1992. * HVC of Amersfoort was formed in 1905, joined the league in 1954, was renamed to SC Amersfoort in 1973 and went bankrupt in 1982. * Fortuna Vlaardingen (formed in 1904) joined the professional league in 1955, was renamed to FC Vlaardingen in 1974 and went bankrupt in 1981. * HFC Haarlem (formed in 1889) joined the professional league in 1954 and remained professional until the club went bankrupt in 2010. * RBC Roosendaal (formed in 1927) joined the professional league in 1955 till 1971 and 1983 and remained professional until the club went bankrupt in 2011. * AGOVV Apeldoorn (formed in 1913) joined the professional league in 1954 till 1971, returned to professional soccer on 1 July 2003, and went bankrupt in 2013. * SC Veendam (formed in 1894) joined the professional league in 1954, and went bankrupt in 2013. * Zwart-Wit '28 won the national amateur championship in 1971 and the national cup for women in 2000. Went bankrupt in 2004. See also * Eerste Divisie * Eredivisie * List of football stadiums in the Netherlands References External links * [http://www.midfielddynamo.com/leagues/holland/big3.htm Midfield Dynamo's list of the Dutch football league's 'Big 3' and 'Best of the Rest' of the other clubs], midfielddynamo.com * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120104020028/http://www.nlplanet.com/blog/category/orange-football/ Orange Football Blog - Weekly summaries from the Eredivisie and other articles], nlplanet.com * [http://www.eredivisie.nl/clubs Official Eredivisie site] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20091004172645/http://www.jupilerleague.nl/ Official Eerste Divisie website] * [http://www.league321.com/netherlands-football.html#Club_stats_details League321.com] - Club stats records. Netherlands Clubs Football clubs ja:エールディヴィジ	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_football_clubs_in_the_Netherlands	2025-04-05T18:28:43.536119
8650	Dragon 32/64	}} \| logo \| image <!-- include the tag --> \| caption = A Dragon 32 home computer<!-- include if image is not a logo --> \| developer \| manufacturer Dragon Data \| carrier \| family \| type = Home computer \| generation \| releasedate \| lifespan \| price <!-- this is price at initial release, not the current price. --> \| discontinued Additionally, as a cost-cutting measure, the hardware-supported text modes only included upper case characters; this restricted the system's appeal to the educational market. It was acquired by the Spanish company Eurohard S.A., which moved the factory from Wales to Cáceres and released the Dragon 200 (a Dragon 64 with a new case that allowed a monitor to be placed on top) and the Dragon 200-E (an enhanced Dragon 200 with both upper and lower case characters and a Spanish keyboard), but ultimately filed for bankruptcy in 1987. The remaining stock from Eurohard was purchased by a Spanish electronics hobbyist magazine and given away to those who paid for a three-year subscription, until 1992. In the United States it was possible to purchase the Tano Dragon new in box until early 2017 from California Digital, a retailer that purchased the remaining stock.<gallery mode"packed"> File:PIC 0119 Dragon 32-2.jpg\|Dragon 32 front view File:Dragon 32 Trasera.jpg\|Dragon 32 back view File:Dragon 32 laterales-3.jpg\|Dragon 32 side views File:Dragon 64 top view.jpg\|Dragon 64 top view File:Dragon 64 trasera.JPG\|Dragon 64 back view File:Dragon 64 laterales.jpg\|Dragon 64 side views File:Dragon by Tano 64K computer.jpg\|Dragon by Tano File:Dragon200Box.jpg\|Dragon 200 box File:Dragon200-4.jpg\|Dragon 200 top view File:Dragon200-5.jpg\|Dragon 200 back view File:Dragon200E Top.jpg\|Dragon 200-E top view File:Dragon200E Back.jpg\|Dragon 200-E back view File:Dragon200E Left.jpg\|Dragon 200-E left side view File:Dragon200E Right.jpg\|Dragon 200-E right side view File:MC6847 Dragon200E Charset.png\|Dragon 200-E upper and lower case Spanish character set </gallery> Reception BYTE wrote in January 1983 that the Dragon 32 "offers more feature for the money than most of its competitors", but "there's nothing exceptional about it". The review described it as a redesigned, less-expensive Color Computer with 32K RAM and better keyboard. Technical notes Hardware and peripherals The Dragon is built around the Motorola MC6809E processor running at 0.89 MHz. It was an advanced 8-bit CPU design, with limited 16-bit capabilities. It was possible to increase the speed of the computer by using <code>POKE 65495,0</code> which accelerated the ROM-resident BASIC interpreter, but temporarily disabled proper functioning of the cassette/printer ports. Manufacturing variances mean that not all Dragons were able to function at this higher speed, and use of this POKE could cause some units to crash or be unstable, though with no permanent damage. <code>POKE 65494,0</code> returned the speed to normal. <code>POKE 65497,0</code> pushed the speed yet higher but the display was lost until a slower speed was restored. The Dragon used the SN74LS783/MC6883 Synchronous Address Multiplexer (SAM) and the MC6847 Video Display Generator (VDG). I/O was provided by two MC6821 Peripheral Interface Adapters (PIAs). Many Dragon 32s were upgraded by their owners to 64 KB of memory. A few were further expanded to 128 KB, 256 KB, or 512 KB with home-built memory controllers/memory management units (MMUs). A broad range of peripherals exist for the Dragon 32/64, and there are add-ons such as the Dragon's Claw which give the Dragons a port that is hardware-compatible with the BBC Micro's user port, though separate software drivers for connected devices must be developed. Although neither machine has a built-in disk operating system (Compact Cassettes being the standard storage mechanism commonly used for machines of the time), DragonDOS was supplied as part of the disk controller interface from Dragon Data Ltd. The versatile external ports, including the standard RS-232 on the 64, also allows hobbyists to attach a diverse range of equipment. The computer featured a composite monitor port as an alternative to the TV RF output which can be used to connect the Dragon 32 to most modern TVs to deliver a much better picture. The Dragon used analogue joysticks, unlike most systems of the time which used simpler and cheaper digital systems. Other uses for the joystick ports included light pens. Tony Clarke and Richard Wadman established the specifications for the Dragon. The units had a robust motherboard in a spacious case, reminiscent of the BBC Micro, and so were more tolerant of aftermarket modification than some of their contemporaries, which often had their components crammed into the smallest possible space. Video modes The Dragon's main display mode is 'black on green' text (the black was, in actuality, a deeper, muddier green). The only graphics possible in this mode are quarter-tile block based. It also has a selection of five high-resolution modes, named PMODEs 0–4, which alternate monochrome and four-colour in successively higher resolutions, culminating in the black-and-white 256×192 PMODE 4. Each mode has two possible colour palettes – these are rather garish and cause the system to fare poorly in visual comparisons with other home computers of the time. It is also impossible to use standard printing commands to print text in the graphical modes, causing software development difficulties. Full-colour, scanline-based 64×192 semi-graphics modes are also possible, though their imbalanced resolution and programming difficulty (not being accessible via BASIC) meant they were not often utilised. Disk systems First to market was a complete disk operating system produced by Premier Microsystems, located near Croydon. The system was sold as the "Delta" disk operating system; there was a proposal for Dragon to market this as an addon. Dragon did not enter into such an agreement and instead produced the DragonDOS system. The two systems were incompatible. Delta's lead in availability ensured that software was released in the format, whilst Dragon's "official" status ensured that it, too, gained software published in its format. This led to confusion and frustration, with customers finding they had either purchased a version incompatible with their setup, or that the software was only available for the competing standard. System software The Dragon comes with a Microsoft BASIC interpreter in 16 KB of ROM. The BASIC appears to be nearly identical to Tandy Color Computer's Extended Basic with a few changes necessary to interact with the Dragon system. The Dragon has additional circuitry to make the MC6847 VDG compatible with European 625-line PAL television standards, rather than the US 525-line NTSC standard, and a Centronics parallel printer port not present on the TRS-80. Some models were manufactured with NTSC video for the US and Canadian markets. References ;Notes * Vander Reyden, John (1983). Dragon 32 programmer's reference guide. Beam Software/Melbourne House. . * Smeed, D.; Sommerville, I. (1983). Inside the Dragon''. Addison-Wesley. External links * [http://www.6809.org.uk/dragon/ The Dragon 32/64 Computers] – at website www.6809.org.uk * [http://archive.worldofdragon.org/ The Dragon Archive] – An archive of everything related to the Dragon 32/64 and its clones and prototypes * [https://web.archive.org/web/20190430134129/http://www.dragon32universe.info/ Dragon 32 Universe (Archived since April 25th, 2019)] – A primarily games-based archive of Dragon 32 games, reviews and instructions * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160715103218/http://archive.worldofdragon.org/downloads/Information/David%20Lindsley%20-%20Dragon%20Computer%20History.pdf A Slayed Beast - History of the Dragon Computer] at dragon-archive-online.co.uk. * [https://archive.today/20130105120823/http://finance.groups.yahoo.com/group/dragonuser/ The International Dragon Users Group] – The Yahoo! group for Dragon Users * [http://biblioteca.museo8bits.es/dragon/dragon.zip Manuals of Dragon 32, Dragon 64 and DragonDOS (DOS 437 character set)] at www.museo8bits.es * [http://www.computinghistory.org.uk/cgi-bin/sitewise.pl?actsect&pt1094_371&s=1265 Dragon Update - National Users Group Magazine Library at the Centre for Computing History] * [http://dragon32.co.uk/ The Dragon 32/64 Inlay Artwork and Game Archive] at dragon32.co.uk - Archive of Dragon 32/64 inlay artwork and playable games Category:Computer-related introductions in 1982 Category:6809-based home computers Category:Home computers<!-- Leave this, otherwise navigation is impossible for those who don't know what a 6809 is --> Category:TRS-80 Color Computer Category:Dragon Data Category:Computers designed in the United Kingdom	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragon_32/64	2025-04-05T18:28:43.561227
8651	Dark matter	}} <!-- Before changing percentages, please note that 85% here refers to that of matter /excluding/ dark energy: (Dark matter 26.8%, Dark energy 68.3%, Ordinary matter 4.9%, Total 95.1% is Dark matter & Dark energy)--> In astronomy, dark matter is an invisible and hypothetical form of matter that does not interact with light or other electromagnetic radiation. Dark matter is implied by gravitational effects which cannot be explained by general relativity unless more matter is present than can be observed. Such effects occur in the context of formation and evolution of galaxies, gravitational lensing, the observable universe's current structure, mass position in galactic collisions, the motion of galaxies within galaxy clusters, and cosmic microwave background anisotropies. Dark matter is thought to serve as gravitational scaffolding for cosmic structures. After the Big Bang, dark matter clumped into blobs along narrow filaments with superclusters of galaxies forming a cosmic web at scales on which entire galaxies appear like tiny particles. In the standard Lambda-CDM model of cosmology, the mass–energy content of the universe is 5% ordinary matter, 26.8% dark matter, and 68.2% a form of energy known as dark energy. Thus, dark matter constitutes 85% of the total mass, while dark energy and dark matter constitute 95% of the total mass–energy content. While the density of dark matter is significant in the halo around a galaxy, its local density in the Solar System is much less than normal matter. The total of all the dark matter out to the orbit of Neptune would add up about 10^17 kg, the same as a large asteroid. Dark matter is not known to interact with ordinary baryonic matter and radiation except through gravity, making it difficult to detect in the laboratory. The most prevalent explanation is that dark matter is some as-yet-undiscovered subatomic particle, such as either weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs) or axions. The other main possibility is that dark matter is composed of primordial black holes. a minority of astrophysicists, intrigued by specific observations that are not well explained by ordinary dark matter, argue for various modifications of the standard laws of general relativity. These include modified Newtonian dynamics, tensor–vector–scalar gravity, or entropic gravity. So far none of the proposed modified gravity theories can describe every piece of observational evidence at the same time, suggesting that even if gravity has to be modified, some form of dark matter will still be required. Wm. Thomson, Lord Kelvin, discussed the potential number of stars around the Sun in the appendices of a book based on a series of lectures given in 1884 in Baltimore.</blockquote> In 1906, Henri Poincaré A publication from 1930 by Swedish astronomer Knut Lundmark points to him being the first to realise that the universe must contain much more mass than can be observed. Dutch radio astronomy pioneer Jan Oort also hypothesized the existence of dark matter in 1932. Oort was studying stellar motions in the galactic neighborhood and found the mass in the galactic plane must be greater than what was observed, but this measurement was later determined to be incorrect. In 1933, Swiss astrophysicist Fritz Zwicky studied galaxy clusters while working at Cal Tech and made a similar inference. ('dark matter'). Zwicky estimated its mass based on the motions of galaxies near its edge and compared that to an estimate based on its brightness and number of galaxies. He estimated the cluster had about 400 times more mass than was visually observable. The gravity effect of the visible galaxies was far too small for such fast orbits, thus mass must be hidden from view. Based on these conclusions, Zwicky inferred some unseen matter provided the mass and associated gravitational attraction to hold the cluster together. Zwicky's estimates were off by more than an order of magnitude, mainly due to an obsolete value of the Hubble constant; the same calculation today shows a smaller fraction, using greater values for luminous mass. Nonetheless, Zwicky did correctly conclude from his calculation that most of the gravitational matter present was dark. He attributed it to either light absorption within the galaxy or modified dynamics in the outer portions of the spiral, rather than to unseen matter. Following Babcock's 1939 report of unexpectedly rapid rotation in the outskirts of the Andromeda Galaxy and a mass-to-light ratio of 50; in 1940, Oort discovered and wrote about the large non-visible halo of NGC 3115. 1970s The hypothesis of dark matter largely took root in the 1970s. Several different observations were synthesized to argue that galaxies should be surrounded by halos of unseen matter. In two papers that appeared in 1974, this conclusion was drawn in tandem by independent groups: in Princeton, New Jersey, by Jeremiah Ostriker, Jim Peebles, and Amos Yahil, and in Tartu, Estonia, by Jaan Einasto, Enn Saar, and Ants Kaasik. One of the observations that served as evidence for the existence of galactic halos of dark matter was the shape of galaxy rotation curves. These observations were done in optical and radio astronomy. In optical astronomy, Vera Rubin and Kent Ford worked with a new spectrograph to measure the velocity curve of edge-on spiral galaxies with greater accuracy. At the same time, radio astronomers were making use of new radio telescopes to map the 21 cm line of atomic hydrogen in nearby galaxies. The radial distribution of interstellar atomic hydrogen (H}}) often extends to much greater galactic distances than can be observed as collective starlight, expanding the sampled distances for rotation curves – and thus of the total mass distribution – to a new dynamical regime. Early mapping of Andromeda with the telescope at Green Bank and the dish at Jodrell Bank already showed the H}} rotation curve did not trace the decline expected from Keplerian orbits. As more sensitive receivers became available, <!-- -->Roberts<!----> & <!-- -->Whitehurst<!----> (1975) were able to trace the rotational velocity of Andromeda to 30 kpc, much beyond the optical measurements. Illustrating the advantage of tracing the gas disk at large radii; that paper's Figure 16 In 1978, Albert Bosma showed further evidence of flat rotation curves using data from the Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope. By the late 1970s the existence of dark matter halos around galaxies was widely recognized as real, and became a major unsolved problem in astronomy. The evidence for dark matter also included gravitational lensing of background objects by galaxy clusters, The search for this particle, by a variety of means, is one of the major efforts in particle physics. Technical definition In standard cosmological calculations, "matter" means any constituent of the universe whose energy density scales with the inverse cube of the scale factor, i.e., }}.}} This is in contrast to "radiation", which scales as the inverse fourth power of the scale factor }},}} and a cosmological constant, which does not change with respect to (}}}}). the energy of ultra-relativistic particles, such as early-era standard-model neutrinos, is similarly halved. The cosmological constant, as an intrinsic property of space, has a constant energy density regardless of the volume under consideration. In principle, "dark matter" means all components of the universe which are not visible but still obey }}.}} In practice, the term "dark matter" is often used to mean only the non-baryonic component of dark matter, i.e., excluding "missing baryons". Context will usually indicate which meaning is intended. Observational evidence This section presents the observational evidence for dark matter from the smallest to the largest scales. Galaxy rotation curves The arms of spiral galaxies rotate around their galactic center. The luminous mass density of a spiral galaxy decreases as one goes from the center to the outskirts. If luminous mass were all the matter, then the galaxy can be modelled as a point mass in the centre and test masses orbiting around it, similar to the Solar System. From Kepler's Third Law, it is expected that the rotation velocities will decrease with distance from the center, similar to the Solar System. This is not observed. Instead, the galaxy rotation curve remains flat or even increases as distance from the center increases. If Kepler's laws are correct, then the obvious way to resolve this discrepancy is to conclude the mass distribution in spiral galaxies is not similar to that of the Solar System. In particular, there may be a lot of non-luminous matter (dark matter) in the outskirts of the galaxy. Velocity dispersions Stars in bound systems must obey the virial theorem. The theorem, together with the measured velocity distribution, can be used to measure the mass distribution in a bound system, such as elliptical galaxies or globular clusters. With some exceptions, velocity dispersion estimates of elliptical galaxies do not match the predicted velocity dispersion from the observed mass distribution, even assuming complicated distributions of stellar orbits. As with galaxy rotation curves, the obvious way to resolve the discrepancy is to postulate the existence of non-luminous matter. Galaxy clusters Galaxy clusters are particularly important for dark matter studies since their masses can be estimated in three independent ways: * From the scatter in radial velocities of the galaxies within clusters * From X-rays emitted by hot gas in the clusters. From the X-ray energy spectrum and flux, the gas temperature and density can be estimated, hence giving the pressure; assuming pressure and gravity balance determines the cluster's mass profile. * Gravitational lensing (usually of more distant galaxies) can measure cluster masses without relying on observations of dynamics (e.g., velocity). Generally, these three methods are in reasonable agreement that dark matter outweighs visible matter by approximately 5 to 1. Bullet Cluster The Bullet Cluster is the result of a recent collision of two galaxy clusters. It is of particular note because the location of the center of mass as measured by gravitational lensing is different from the location of the center of mass of visible matter. This is difficult for modified gravity theories, which generally predict lensing around visible matter, to explain. Standard dark matter theory however has no issue: the hot, visible gas in each cluster would be cooled and slowed down by electromagnetic interactions, while dark matter (which does not interact electromagnetically) would not. This leads to the dark matter separating from the visible gas, producing the separate lensing peak as observed. Gravitational lensing One of the consequences of general relativity is the gravitational lens. Gravitational lensing occurs when massive objects between a source of light and the observer act as a lens to bend light from this source. Lensing does not depend on the properties of the mass; it only requires there to be a mass. The more massive an object, the more lensing is observed. An example is a cluster of galaxies lying between a more distant source such as a quasar and an observer. In this case, the galaxy cluster will lens the quasar. Strong lensing is the observed distortion of background galaxies into arcs when their light passes through such a gravitational lens. It has been observed around many distant clusters including Abell 1689. By measuring the distortion geometry, the mass of the intervening cluster can be obtained. In the weak regime, lensing does not distort background galaxies into arcs, causing minute distortions instead. By examining the apparent shear deformation of the adjacent background galaxies, the mean distribution of dark matter can be characterized. The measured mass-to-light ratios correspond to dark matter densities predicted by other large-scale structure measurements. Type Ia supernova distance measurements Type Ia supernovae can be used as standard candles to measure extragalactic distances, which can in turn be used to measure how fast the universe has expanded in the past. Data indicates<!--data is "usually used with a singular verb". See https://www.dictionary.com/browse/data--> the universe is expanding at an accelerating rate, the cause of which is usually ascribed to dark energy. Since observations indicate the universe is almost flat, it is expected the total energy density of everything in the universe should sum to 1 (). The measured dark energy density is ; the observed ordinary (baryonic) matter energy density is and the energy density of radiation is negligible. This leaves a missing which nonetheless behaves like matter (see technical definition section above)dark matter. Redshift-space distortions Large galaxy redshift surveys may be used to make a three-dimensional map of the galaxy distribution. These maps are slightly distorted because distances are estimated from observed redshifts; the redshift contains a contribution from the galaxy's so-called peculiar velocity in addition to the dominant Hubble expansion term. On average, superclusters are expanding more slowly than the cosmic mean due to their gravity, while voids are expanding faster than average. In a redshift map, galaxies in front of a supercluster have excess radial velocities towards it and have redshifts slightly higher than their distance would imply, while galaxies behind the supercluster have redshifts slightly low for their distance. This effect causes superclusters to appear squashed in the radial direction, and likewise voids are stretched. Their angular positions are unaffected. This effect is not detectable for any one structure since the true shape is not known, but can be measured by averaging over many structures. It was predicted quantitatively by Nick Kaiser in 1987, and first decisively measured in 2001 by the 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey. Results are in agreement with the Lambda-CDM model. Lyman-alpha forest In astronomical spectroscopy, the Lyman-alpha forest is the sum of the absorption lines arising from the Lyman-alpha transition of neutral hydrogen in the spectra of distant galaxies and quasars. Lyman-alpha forest observations can also constrain cosmological models. These constraints agree with those obtained from WMAP data. Cosmic microwave background Although both dark matter and ordinary matter are matter, they do not behave in the same way. In particular, in the early universe, ordinary matter was ionized and interacted strongly with radiation via Thomson scattering. Dark matter does not interact directly with radiation, but it does affect the cosmic microwave background (CMB) by its gravitational potential (mainly on large scales) and by its effects on the density and velocity of ordinary matter. Ordinary and dark matter perturbations, therefore, evolve differently with time and leave different imprints on the CMB. The CMB is very close to a perfect blackbody but contains very small temperature anisotropies of a few parts in 100,000. A sky map of anisotropies can be decomposed into an angular power spectrum, which is observed to contain a series of acoustic peaks at near-equal spacing but different heights. The locations of these peaks depend on cosmological parameters. Matching theory to data, therefore, constrains cosmological parameters. The CMB anisotropy was first discovered by COBE in 1992, though this had too coarse resolution to detect the acoustic peaks. After the discovery of the first acoustic peak by the balloon-borne BOOMERanG experiment in 2000, the power spectrum was precisely observed by WMAP in 2003–2012, and even more precisely by the Planck spacecraft in 2013–2015. The results support the Lambda-CDM model. but difficult to reproduce with any competing model such as modified Newtonian dynamics (MOND). Structure formation Structure formation refers to the period after the Big Bang when density perturbations collapsed to form stars, galaxies, and clusters. Prior to structure formation, the Friedmann solutions to general relativity describe a homogeneous universe. Later, small anisotropies gradually grew and condensed the homogeneous universe into stars, galaxies and larger structures. Ordinary matter is affected by radiation, which is the dominant element of the universe at very early times. As a result, its density perturbations are washed out and unable to condense into structure. If there were only ordinary matter in the universe, there would not have been enough time for density perturbations to grow into the galaxies and clusters currently seen. Dark matter provides a solution to this problem because it is unaffected by radiation. Therefore, its density perturbations can grow first. The resulting gravitational potential acts as an attractive potential well for ordinary matter collapsing later, speeding up the structure formation process. Sky surveys and baryon acoustic oscillations Baryon acoustic oscillations (BAO) are fluctuations in the density of the visible baryonic matter (normal matter) of the universe on large scales. These are predicted to arise in the Lambda-CDM model due to acoustic oscillations in the photon–baryon fluid of the early universe and can be observed in the cosmic microwave background angular power spectrum. BAOs set up a preferred length scale for baryons. As the dark matter and baryons clumped together after recombination, the effect is much weaker in the galaxy distribution in the nearby universe, but is detectable as a subtle (≈1 percent) preference for pairs of galaxies to be separated by 147 Mpc, compared to those separated by 130–160 Mpc. This feature was predicted theoretically in the 1990s and then discovered in 2005, in two large galaxy redshift surveys, the Sloan Digital Sky Survey and the 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey. Combining the CMB observations with BAO measurements from galaxy redshift surveys provides a precise estimate of the Hubble constant and the average matter density in the Universe. The results support the Lambda-CDM model. Theoretical classifications Dark matter can be divided into cold, warm, and hot categories. These categories refer to velocity rather than an actual temperature, and indicate how far corresponding objects moved due to random motions in the early universe, before they slowed due to cosmic expansion. This distance is called the free streaming length. The categories of dark matter are set with respect to the size of the collection of mass prior to structure formation that later collapses to form a dwarf galaxy. This collection of mass is sometimes called a protogalaxy. Dark matter particles are classified as cold, warm, or hot if their free streaming length is much smaller (cold), similar to (warm), or much larger (hot) than the protogalaxy of a dwarf galaxy. Mixtures of the above are also possible: a theory of mixed dark matter was popular in the mid-1990s, but was rejected following the discovery of dark energy. The significance of the free streaming length is that the universe began with some primordial density fluctuations from the Big Bang (in turn arising from quantum fluctuations at the microscale). Particles from overdense regions will naturally spread to underdense regions, but because the universe is expanding quickly, there is a time limit for them to do so. Faster particles (hot dark matter) can beat the time limit while slower particles cannot. The particles travel a free streaming length's worth of distance within the time limit; therefore this length sets a minimum scale for later structure formation. Because galaxy-size density fluctuations get washed out by free-streaming, hot dark matter implies the first objects that can form are huge supercluster-size pancakes, which then fragment into galaxies, while the reverse is true for cold dark matter. Deep-field observations show that galaxies formed first, followed by clusters and superclusters as galaxies clump together, \|- \| strangelet \|- \| dynamical dark matter \| \|- \|rowspan=3\| macroscopic \| primordial black holes \|- \| massive compact halo objects (MACHOs) \|- \| macroscopic dark matter (Macros) \|} observations of dwarf galaxies provide new insights on dark matter.]] Baryonic matter Dark matter can refer to any substance which interacts predominantly via gravity with visible matter (e.g., stars and planets). Hence in principle it need not be composed of a new type of fundamental particle but could, at least in part, be made up of standard baryonic matter, such as protons or neutrons. Most of the ordinary matter familiar to astronomers, including planets, brown dwarfs, red dwarfs, visible stars, white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes, fall into this category. A black hole would ingest both baryonic and non-baryonic matter that comes close enough to its event horizon; afterwards, the distinction between the two is lost. These massive objects that are hard to detect are collectively known as MACHOs. Some scientists initially hoped that baryonic MACHOs could account for and explain all the dark matter. However, multiple lines of evidence suggest the majority of dark matter is not baryonic: * Sufficient diffuse, baryonic gas or dust would be visible when backlit by stars. * The theory of Big Bang nucleosynthesis predicts the observed abundance of the chemical elements. If there are more baryons, then there should also be more helium, lithium and heavier elements synthesized during the Big Bang. Agreement with observed abundances requires that baryonic matter makes up between 4–5% of the universe's critical density. In contrast, large-scale structure and other observations indicate that the total matter density is about 30% of the critical density. * Detailed analysis of the small irregularities (anisotropies) in the cosmic microwave background by WMAP and Planck indicate that around five-sixths of the total matter is in a form that only interacts significantly with ordinary matter or photons through gravitational effects. Non-baryonic matter If baryonic matter cannot make up most of dark matter, then dark matter must be non-baryonic. There are two main candidates for non-baryonic dark matter: new hypothetical particles and primordial black holes. Unlike baryonic matter, nonbaryonic particles do not contribute to the formation of the elements in the early universe (Big Bang nucleosynthesis) Candidates abound (see the table above), each with their own strengths and weaknesses. Undiscovered massive particles There exists no formal definition of a Weakly Interacting Massive Particle, but broadly, it is an elementary particle which interacts via gravity and any other force (or forces) which is as weak as or weaker than the weak nuclear force, but also non-vanishing in strength. Many WIMP candidates are expected to have been produced thermally in the early Universe, similarly to the particles of the Standard Model according to Big Bang cosmology, and usually will constitute cold dark matter. Obtaining the correct abundance of dark matter today via thermal production requires a self-annihilation cross section of <math>\langle \sigma v \rangle \simeq 3 \times 10^{-26} \mathrm{cm}^{3} \;\mathrm{s}^{-1}</math>, which is roughly what is expected for a new particle in the 100 GeV mass range that interacts via the electroweak force. Because supersymmetric extensions of the Standard Model of particle physics readily predict a new particle with these properties, this apparent coincidence is known as the "WIMP miracle", and a stable supersymmetric partner has long been a prime explanation for dark matter. Experimental efforts to detect WIMPs include the search for products of WIMP annihilation, including gamma rays, neutrinos and cosmic rays in nearby galaxies and galaxy clusters; direct detection experiments designed to measure the collision of WIMPs with nuclei in the laboratory, as well as attempts to directly produce WIMPs in colliders, such as the Large Hadron Collider at CERN. In the early 2010s, results from direct-detection experiments along with the lack of evidence for supersymmetry at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) experiment have cast doubt on the simplest WIMP hypothesis. Undiscovered ultralight particles Axions are hypothetical elementary particles originally theorized in 1978 independently by Frank Wilczek and Steven Weinberg as the Goldstone boson of Peccei–Quinn theory, which had been proposed in 1977 to solve the strong CP problem in quantum chromodynamics (QCD). QCD effects produce an effective periodic potential in which the axion field moves. Expanding the potential about one of its minima, one finds that the product of the axion mass with the axion decay constant is determined by the topological susceptibility of the QCD vacuum. An axion with mass much less than 60 keV is long-lived and weakly interacting: A perfect dark matter candidate. The oscillations of the axion field about the minimum of the effective potential, the so-called misalignment mechanism, generate a cosmological population of cold axions with an abundance depending on the mass of the axion. With a mass above 5 μeV/<sup>2</sup> ( times the electron mass) axions could account for dark matter, and thus be both a dark-matter candidate and a solution to the strong CP problem. If inflation occurs at a low scale and lasts sufficiently long, the axion mass can be as low as 1 peV/<sup>2</sup>. Because axions have extremely low mass, their de Broglie wavelength is very large, in turn meaning that quantum effects could help resolve the small-scale problems of the Lambda-CDM model. A single ultralight axion with a decay constant at the grand unified theory scale provides the correct relic density without fine-tuning. Axions as a dark matter candidate have gained in popularity in recent years, because of the non-detection of WIMPS.Primordial black holes Primordial black holes are hypothetical black holes that formed soon after the Big Bang. In the inflationary era and early radiation-dominated universe, extremely dense pockets of subatomic matter may have been tightly packed to the point of gravitational collapse, creating primordial black holes without the supernova compression typically needed to make black holes today. Because the creation of primordial black holes would pre-date the first stars, they are not limited to the narrow mass range of stellar black holes and also not classified as baryonic dark matter. The idea that black holes could form in the early universe was first suggested by Yakov Zeldovich and Igor Dmitriyevich Novikov in 1967, and independently by Stephen Hawking in 1971. It quickly became clear that such black holes might account for at least part of dark matter. Primordial black holes as a dark matter candidate has the major advantage that it is based on a well-understood theory (General Relativity) and objects (black holes) that are already known to exist. However, producing primordial black holes requires exotic cosmic inflation or physics beyond the standard model of particle physics, and might also require fine-tuning. Primordial black holes can also span nearly the entire possible mass range, from atom-sized to supermassive. The idea that primordial black holes make up dark matter gained prominence in 2015 following results of gravitational wave measurements which detected the merger of intermediate-mass black holes. Black holes with about 30 solar masses are not predicted to form by either stellar collapse (typically less than 15 solar masses) or by the merger of black holes in galactic centers (millions or billions of solar masses), which suggests that the detected black holes might be primordial. A later survey of about a thousand supernovae detected no gravitational lensing events, when about eight would be expected if intermediate-mass primordial black holes above a certain mass range accounted for over 60% of dark matter. However, that study assumed that all black holes have the same or similar mass to the LIGO/Virgo mass range, which might not be the case (as suggested by subsequent James Webb Space Telescope observations). Nonetheless, research and theories proposing dense dark matter accounts for dark matter continue as of 2018, including approaches to dark matter cooling, and the question remains unsettled. In 2019, the lack of microlensing effects in the observation of Andromeda suggests that tiny black holes do not exist. Nonetheless, there still exists a largely unconstrained mass range smaller than that which can be limited by optical microlensing observations, where primordial black holes may account for all dark matter. Dark matter aggregation and dense dark matter objects If dark matter is composed of weakly interacting particles, then an obvious question is whether it can form objects equivalent to planets, stars, or black holes. Historically, the answer has been it cannot, of dark matter annihilation around supermassive black holes. (Duration 0:03:13, also see file description.)]] Indirect detection experiments search for the products of the self-annihilation or decay of dark matter particles in outer space. For example, in regions of high dark matter density (e.g., the centre of the Milky Way) two dark matter particles could annihilate to produce gamma rays or Standard Model particle–antiparticle pairs. Alternatively, if a dark matter particle is unstable, it could decay into Standard Model (or other) particles. These processes could be detected indirectly through an excess of gamma rays, antiprotons or positrons emanating from high density regions in the Milky Way and other galaxies. A major difficulty inherent in such searches is that various astrophysical sources can mimic the signal expected from dark matter, and so multiple signals are likely required for a conclusive discovery. Such a signal would be strong indirect proof of WIMP dark matter. The detection by LIGO in September 2015 of gravitational waves opens the possibility of observing dark matter in a new way, particularly if it is in the form of primordial black holes. Many experimental searches have been undertaken to look for such emission from dark matter annihilation or decay, examples of which follow. The Energetic Gamma Ray Experiment Telescope observed more gamma rays in 2008 than expected from the Milky Way, but scientists concluded this was most likely due to incorrect estimation of the telescope's sensitivity. The Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope is searching for similar gamma rays. In 2009, an as yet unexplained surplus of gamma rays from the Milky Way's galactic center was found in Fermi data. This Galactic Center GeV excess might be due to dark matter annihilation or to a population of pulsars. In April 2012, an analysis of previously available data from Fermi's Large Area Telescope instrument produced statistical evidence of a 130 GeV signal in the gamma radiation coming from the center of the Milky Way. WIMP annihilation was seen as the most probable explanation. At higher energies, ground-based gamma-ray telescopes have set limits on the annihilation of dark matter in dwarf spheroidal galaxies and in clusters of galaxies. The PAMELA experiment (launched in 2006) detected excess positrons. They could be from dark matter annihilation or from pulsars. No excess antiprotons were observed. In 2013, results from the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer on the International Space Station indicated excess high-energy cosmic rays which could be due to dark matter annihilation. Collider searches for dark matter An alternative approach to the detection of dark matter particles in nature is to produce them in a laboratory. Experiments with the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) may be able to detect dark matter particles produced in collisions of the LHC proton beams. Because a dark matter particle should have negligible interactions with normal visible matter, it may be detected indirectly as (large amounts of) missing energy and momentum that escape the detectors, provided other (non-negligible) collision products are detected. Constraints on dark matter also exist from the LEP experiment using a similar principle, but probing the interaction of dark matter particles with electrons rather than quarks. Any discovery from collider searches must be corroborated by discoveries in the indirect or direct detection sectors to prove that the particle discovered is, in fact, dark matter. Alternative hypotheses Because dark matter has not yet been identified, many other hypotheses have emerged aiming to explain the same observational phenomena without introducing a new unknown type of matter. The theory underpinning most observational evidence for dark matter, general relativity, is well-tested on Solar System scales, but its validity on galactic or cosmological scales has not been well proven. A suitable modification to general relativity can in principle conceivably eliminate the need for dark matter. The best-known theories of this class are MOND and its relativistic generalization tensor–vector–scalar gravity (TeVeS), f(R) gravity, negative mass, dark fluid, and entropic gravity. Alternative theories abound. A problem with alternative hypotheses is that observational evidence for dark matter comes from so many independent approaches (see the "observational evidence" section above). Explaining any individual observation is possible but explaining all of them in the absence of dark matter is very difficult. Nonetheless, there have been some scattered successes for alternative hypotheses, such as a 2016 test of gravitational lensing in entropic gravity and a 2020 measurement of a unique MOND effect. The prevailing opinion among most astrophysicists is that while modifications to general relativity can conceivably explain part of the observational evidence, there is probably enough data to conclude there must be some form of dark matter present in the universe. In popular culture Dark matter regularly appears as a topic in hybrid periodicals that cover both factual scientific topics and science fiction, and dark matter itself has been referred to as "the stuff of science fiction". Mention of dark matter is made in works of fiction. In such cases, it is usually attributed extraordinary physical or magical properties, thus becoming inconsistent with the hypothesized properties of dark matter in physics and cosmology. For example: * Dark matter serves as a plot device in the 1995 X-Files episode "Soft Light". * A dark-matter-inspired substance known as "Dust" features prominently in Philip Pullman's His Dark Materials trilogy. * Beings made of dark matter are antagonists in Stephen Baxter's Xeelee Sequence. More broadly, the phrase "dark matter" is used metaphorically in fiction to evoke the unseen or invisible. <!-- Please do not add trivia about dark matter in popular culture to this section. Examples require secondary sources that provide context and indicate how those examples are significant. --> Gallery See also ;Related theories * * * Density wave theory – A theory in which waves of compressed gas, which move slower than the galaxy, maintain galaxy's structure * * * * ;Experiments * , a search apparatus * , large underground dark matter detector * , a space mission * * , a research program * , astrophysical simulations * , a particle accelerator research infrastructure ;Dark matter candidates * * * * * * * * * * Weakly interacting slim particle (WISP)Low-mass counterpart to WIMP * * ;Other * * Luminiferous aether – A once theorized invisible and infinite material with no interaction with physical objects, used to explain how light could travel through a vacuum (now disproven) Notes References Further reading * * * * * * * (Recommended on BookAuthrority site)) * Weiss, Rainer, (July/August 2023) "The Dark Universe Comes into Focus" Scientific American, vol. 329, no. 1, pp. 7–8. External links * * Category:Celestial mechanics Category:Large-scale structure of the cosmos Category:Physics beyond the Standard Model Category:Astroparticle physics Category:Exotic matter Matter Category:Concepts in astronomy Category:Unsolved problems in astronomy Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Dark concepts in astrophysics	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_matter	2025-04-05T18:28:43.644677

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