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<!-- Do NOT add the birth of Jesus here; his birthday is not verified as actually having taken place on December 25. Christmas is listed in "Holidays and observances" below. -->
Events
Pre-1600
*36 – Forces of Emperor Guangwu of the Eastern Han, under the command of Wu Han, conquer the separatist Chengjia empire, reuniting China.
* 274 – A temple to Sol Invictus is dedicated in Rome by Emperor Aurelian.
* 333 – Roman Emperor Constantine the Great elevates his youngest son Constans to the rank of Caesar.
* 336 – First documentary sign of Christmas celebration in Rome.
* 350 – Vetranio meets Constantius II at Naissus (Serbia) and is forced to abdicate his imperial title. Constantius allows him to live as a private citizen on a state pension.
* 508 – Clovis I, king of the Franks, is baptized into the Catholic faith at Reims, by Saint Remigius.
* 597 – Augustine of Canterbury and his fellow-labourers baptise in Kent more than 10,000 Anglo-Saxons.
* 800 – The coronation of Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor, in Rome.
* 820 – Eastern Emperor Leo V is murdered in a church of the Great Palace of Constantinople by followers of Michael II.
*1000 – The foundation of the Kingdom of Hungary: Hungary is established as a Christian kingdom by Stephen I of Hungary.
*1013 – Sweyn Forkbeard takes control of the Danelaw and is proclaimed king of England.
*1025 – Coronation of Mieszko II Lambert as king of Poland.
*1046 – Henry III is crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Clement II.
*1066 – William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy is crowned king of England, at Westminster Abbey, London.
*1076 – Coronation of Bolesław II the Generous as king of Poland.
*1100 – Baldwin of Boulogne is crowned the first King of Jerusalem in the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem.
*1130 – Count Roger II of Sicily is crowned the first king of Sicily.
*1261 – Eleven-year-old John IV Laskaris of the restored Eastern Roman Empire is deposed and blinded by orders of his co-ruler Michael VIII Palaiologos.
*1492 – The carrack Santa María, commanded by Christopher Columbus, runs onto a reef off Haiti due to an improper watch.
*1553 – Battle of Tucapel: Mapuche rebels under Lautaro defeat the Spanish conquistadors and executes the governor of Chile, Pedro de Valdivia.
*1559 – Pope Pius IV is elected, four months after his predecessor's death.
1601–1900
*1724 – J. S. Bach leads the first performance of Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ, BWV 91, in Leipzig, based on Luther's 1524 Christmas hymn.
*1758 – Halley's Comet is sighted by Johann Georg Palitzsch, confirming Edmund Halley's prediction of its passage. This was the first passage of a comet predicted ahead of time.
*1766 – Mapuches in Chile launch a series of surprise attacks against the Spanish starting the Mapuche uprising of 1766.
*1776 – American Revolutionary War: General George Washington and the Continental Army cross the Delaware River at night to attack Hessian forces serving Great Britain at Trenton, New Jersey, the next day.
*1793 – Northwest Indian War: General "Mad Anthony" Wayne and a 300 man detachment identify the site of St. Clair's 1791 defeat by the large number of unburied human remains at modern Fort Recovery, Ohio.
*1809 – Dr. Ephraim McDowell performs the first ovariotomy, removing a 22-pound tumor.
*1814 – Rev. Samuel Marsden holds the first Christian service on land in New Zealand at Rangihoua Bay.
*1815 – The Handel and Haydn Society, oldest continually performing arts organization in the United States, gives its first performance.
*1826 – The Eggnog Riot at the United States Military Academy concludes after beginning the previous evening.
*1831 – The Great Jamaican Slave Revolt begins; up to 20% of Jamaica's slaves mobilize in an ultimately unsuccessful fight for freedom.
*1837 – Second Seminole War: American general Zachary Taylor leads 1,100 troops against the Seminoles at the Battle of Lake Okeechobee.
*1868 – Pardons for ex-Confederates: United States President Andrew Johnson grants an unconditional pardon to all Confederate veterans.
*1870 – Wagner's Siegfried Idyll is first performed.
1901–present
*1914 – World War I: A series of unofficial truces occur across the Western Front to celebrate Christmas.
*1915 – The National Protection War breaks out against the Empire of China, as military leaders Cai E and Tang Jiyao proclaim the independence of Yunnan and begin a campaign to restore the Republic.
*1927 – B. R. Ambedkar and his followers burn copies of the Manusmriti in Mahad, Maharashtra, to protest its treatment of Dalit people.
*1932 – A magnitude 7.6 earthquake in Gansu, China kills 275 people.
*1941 – Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, appointed commander of the U.S. Pacific Fleet on December 17, arrives at Pearl Harbor.
* 1941 – World War II: Battle of Hong Kong ends, beginning the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong.
* 1941 – Admiral Émile Muselier seizes the archipelago of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, which become the first part of France to be liberated by the Free French Forces.
*1946 – The first European self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction is initiated within the Soviet Union's F-1 nuclear reactor.
*1950 – The Stone of Scone, traditional coronation stone of British monarchs, is taken from Westminster Abbey by Scottish nationalist students. It later turns up in Scotland on April 11, 1951.
*1951 – A bomb explodes at the home of Harry T. Moore and Harriette V. S. Moore, early leaders of the Civil Rights Movement, killing Harry instantly and fatally wounding Harriette.
*1962 – The Soviet Union conducts its final above-ground nuclear weapon test, in anticipation of the 1963 Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty.
*1963 – Turkish Cypriot Bayrak Radio begins transmitting in Cyprus after Turkish Cypriots are forcibly excluded from Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation.
*1968 – Apollo program: Apollo 8 performs the first successful Trans-Earth injection (TEI) maneuver, sending the crew and spacecraft on a trajectory back to Earth from Lunar orbit.
* 1968 – Kilvenmani massacre: Forty-four Dalits (untouchables) are burnt to death in Kizhavenmani village, Tamil Nadu, a retaliation for a campaign for higher wages by Dalit laborers.
*1976 – EgyptAir Flight 864, a Boeing 707-366C, crashes on approach to Don Mueang International Airport, killing 71 people.
*1977 – Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin meets in Egypt with its president Anwar Sadat.
*1986 – Iraqi Airways Flight 163, a Boeing 737-270C, is hijacked and crashes in Arar, Saudi Arabia, killing 63 people.
*1989 – Romanian Revolution: Deposed President of Romania Nicolae Ceaușescu and his wife, Elena, are condemned to death and executed after a summary trial.
*1991 – Mikhail Gorbachev resigns as President of the Soviet Union (the union itself is dissolved the next day). Ukraine's referendum is finalized and Ukraine officially leaves the Soviet Union.
* 1996 – The body of American child beauty queen JonBenét Ramsey was found in her family's Boulder, Colorado, home. Her murder remains unsolved.
*1999 – Cubana de Aviación Flight 310, a Yakovlev Yak-42, crashes near Bejuma, Carabobo State, Venezuela, killing 22 people.
*2003 – UTA Flight 141, a Boeing 727-223, crashes at the Cotonou Airport in Benin, killing 141 people.
* 2003 – The ill-fated Beagle 2 probe, released from the Mars Express spacecraft on December 19, stops transmitting shortly before its scheduled landing.
*2004 – The Cassini orbiter releases Huygens probe which successfully landed on Saturn's moon Titan on January 14, 2005.
*2012 – An Antonov An-72 plane crashes close to the city of Shymkent, killing 27 people.
* 2012 – Air Bagan Flight 011, a Fokker 100, crashes on approach to Heho Airport in Heho, Myanmar, killing two people.
*2016 – A Russian Defence Ministry Tupolev Tu-154 carrying members of the Alexandrov Ensemble crashes into the Black Sea shortly after takeoff, killing all 92 people on board.
*2019 – Twenty people are killed and thousands are left homeless by Typhoon Phanfone in the Philippines.
*2020 – An explosion in Nashville, Tennessee, occurs, leaving three civilians in the hospital.
*2021 – The James Webb Space Telescope is launched.
*2024 – Azerbaijan Airlines Flight 8243 crashes in Aktau, Kazakhstan, killing 38 of its occupants.
<!--Do NOT add video games, video game consoles, movie, TV, or album releases, as they WILL be deleted. This includes videos posted to video sharing sites.-->
Births
<!-- Do NOT add the birth of Jesus here; His birthday is not verified as actually having taken place on December 25. Christmas is listed in "Holidays and observances" below. -->
Pre-1600
*1250 – John IV Laskaris, Byzantine emperor (d. 1305)
*1281 – Alice de Lacy, 4th Countess of Lincoln (d. 1348)
*1400 – John Sutton, 1st Baron Dudley, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (d. 1487)
*1424 – Margaret Stewart, Dauphine of France (d. 1445)
*1461 – Christina of Saxony, Queen consort of Denmark (d. 1521)
*1490 – Francesco Marinoni, Italian Roman Catholic priest (d. 1562)
*1493 – Antoinette de Bourbon, French noblewoman (d. 1583)
*1505 – Christine of Saxony, German noblewoman (d. 1549)
*1564 – Johannes Buxtorf, German Calvinist theologian (d. 1629)
*1583 – Orlando Gibbons, English organist and composer (d. 1625)
*1584 – Margaret of Austria, Queen of Spain (d. 1611)
1601–1900
*1601 – Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Gotha (d. 1675)
*1628 – Noël Coypel, French painter and educator (d. 1707)
*1642 – Isaac Newton, English physicist and mathematician (d. 1727)
*1652 – Archibald Pitcairne, Scottish physician, anatomist, and scholar (d. 1713)
*1665 – Lady Grizel Baillie, Scottish-English poet and songwriter (d. 1746)
*1674 – Thomas Halyburton, Scottish minister and theologian (d. 1712)
*1686 – Giovanni Battista Somis, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1763)
*1700 – Leopold II, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau (d. 1758)
*1711 – Jean-Joseph de Mondonville, French violinist and composer (d. 1772)
*1716 – Johann Jakob Reiske, German physician and scholar (d. 1774)
*1717 – Pope Pius VI (d. 1799)
*1728 – Johann Adam Hiller, German composer and conductor (d. 1804)
*1730 – Filippo Mazzei, Italian-American physician and philosopher (d. 1816)
*1745 – Chevalier de Saint-Georges, Caribbean-French violinist, composer, and conductor (d. 1799)
*1757 – Benjamin Pierce, American general and politician, 17th Governor of New Hampshire (d. 1839)
*1766 – Christmas Evans, Welsh Nonconformist preacher (d. 1838)
*1771 – Dorothy Wordsworth, English diarist and poet (d. 1855)
*1776 – Sydney, Lady Morgan, Irish author and poet (d. 1859)
*1810 – L. L. Langstroth, American apiarist, clergyman and teacher (d. 1895)
*1821 – Clara Barton, American nurse and humanitarian, founder of the American Red Cross (d. 1912)
*1825 – Stephen F. Chadwick, American lawyer and politician, 5th Governor of Oregon (d. 1895)
*1829 – Patrick Gilmore, Irish-American composer and bandleader (d. 1892)
*1856 – Pud Galvin, American baseball player and manager (d. 1902)
*1861 – Francis Henry Buzzacott, American hunter, explorer and army scout famous for writing Buzzacott's Masterpiece (d. 1947)
*1861 – Madan Mohan Malaviya, Indian educator, lawyer, and politician, President of the Indian National Congress (d. 1946)
*1865 – Evangeline Booth, English 4th General of The Salvation Army (d. 1950)
*1869 – Charles Finger, English-American journalist and author (d. 1941)
*1872 – Helena Rubinstein, Polish-American businesswoman and philanthropist (d. 1965)
*1873 – Otto Frederick Hunziker, Swiss-American agriculturalist and educator (d. 1959)
*1874 – Lina Cavalieri, Italian soprano and actress (d. 1944)
*1875 – Francis Aveling, Canadian psychologist and priest (d. 1941)
* 1875 – Theodor Innitzer, Austrian cardinal (d. 1955)
*1876 – Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Indian-Pakistani lawyer and politician, 1st Governor-General of Pakistan (d. 1948)
* 1876 – Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus, German chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1959)
*1878 – Louis Chevrolet, American race car driver and businessman, co-founded Chevrolet (d. 1941)
* 1878 – Noël, Countess of Rothes, British philanthropist, social leader and heroine of Titanic disaster (d. 1956)
* 1878 – Joseph M. Schenck, Russian-American film producer (d. 1961)
*1883 – Hugo Bergmann, Czech-Israeli philosopher and academic (d. 1975)
* 1883 – Hana Meisel, Belarusian-Israeli agronomist and politician (d. 1972)
*1884 – Samuel Berger, American boxer (d. 1925)
* 1884 – Evelyn Nesbit, American model and actress (d. 1967)
*1886 – Malak Hifni Nasif, Egyptian poet and activist (d. 1918)
* 1886 – Kid Ory, American trombonist and bandleader (d. 1973)
*1887 – Conrad Hilton, American entrepreneur (d. 1979)
*1889 – Lila Bell Wallace, American publisher and philanthropist, co-founded ''Reader's Digest'' (d. 1984)
*1890 – Noel Odell, English geologist and mountaineer (d. 1987)
*1891 – Kenneth Anderson, Indian-English general and politician, Governor of Gibraltar (d. 1959)
* 1891 – Clarrie Grimmett, New Zealand-Australian cricketer (d. 1980)
*1899 – Humphrey Bogart, American actor (d. 1957)
1901–present
*1901 – Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester (d. 2004)
*1902 – William Bell, American tuba player and educator (d. 1971)
* 1902 – Barton MacLane, American actor, playwright, and screenwriter (d. 1969)
*1903 – Antiochos Evangelatos, Greek composer and conductor (d. 1981)
*1904 – Gerhard Herzberg, German-Canadian physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1999)
* 1904 – Philip Vera Cruz, Filipino-American labor leader and farmworker (d. 1994)
*1906 – Lew Grade, Baron Grade, Ukrainian-English film producer (d. 1998)
* 1906 – Ernst Ruska, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1988)
*1907 – Cab Calloway, American singer-songwriter and bandleader (d. 1994)
* 1907 – Mike Mazurki, Ukrainian-American wrestler and actor (d. 1990)
* 1907 – Glenn McCarthy, American businessman, founded the Shamrock Hotel (d. 1988)
*1908 – Quentin Crisp, English author and illustrator (d. 1999)
* 1908 – Ernest L. Massad, American general (d. 1993)
* 1908 – Jo-Jo Moore, American baseball player (d. 2001)
*1909 – Zora Arkus-Duntov, Belgian-American engineer (d. 1996)
*1911 – Louise Bourgeois, French-American sculptor and painter (d. 2010)
*1913 – Candy Candido, American singer, bass player, and voice actor (d. 1999)
* 1913 – Tony Martin, American singer (d. 2012)
*1914 – James Fletcher Jnr, New Zealand businessman (d. 2007)
* 1914 – Oscar Lewis, American anthropologist of Latin America (d. 1970)
*1915 – Pete Rugolo, Italian-American composer and producer (d. 2011)
*1916 – Ahmed Ben Bella, Algerian soldier and politician, 1st President of Algeria (d. 2012)
*1917 – Arseny Mironov, Russian scientist, engineer, pilot, oldest active researcher in aircraft aerodynamics and flight testing (d. 2019)
* 1917 – Lincoln Verduga Loor, Ecuadorian journalist and politician (d. 2009)
*1918 – Anwar Sadat, Egyptian lieutenant and politician, 3rd President of Egypt, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1981)
*1919 – Naushad Ali, Indian composer and director (d. 2006)
* 1919 – Paul David, Canadian cardiologist and politician, founded the Montreal Heart Institute (d. 1999)
* 1919 – Noele Gordon, English actress (d. 1985)
*1921 – Zaib-un-Nissa Hamidullah, Indian-Pakistani journalist and author (d. 2000)
* 1921 – Steve Otto, Polish-Canadian lawyer and politician (d. 1989)
*1922 – William Demby, American author (d. 2013)
*1923 – René Girard, French-American historian, philosopher, and critic (d. 2015)
* 1923 – Louis Lane, American conductor and educator (d. 2016)
*1924 – Rod Serling, American screenwriter and producer, created The Twilight Zone (d. 1975)
* 1924 – Atal Bihari Vajpayee, Indian poet and politician, 10th Prime Minister of India (d. 2018)
*1925 – Carlos Castaneda, Peruvian-American anthropologist and author (d. 1998)
* 1925 – Ned Garver, American baseball player (d. 2017)
* 1925 – Sam Pollock, Canadian businessman (d. 2007)
*1926 – Enrique Jorrín, Cuban violinist and composer (d. 1987)
*1927 – Nellie Fox, American baseball player and coach (d. 1975)
* 1927 – Ram Narayan, Indian sarangi player (d. 2024)
*1928 – Irish McCalla, American actress and model (d. 2002)
* 1928 – Dick Miller, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2019)
*1929 – Christine M. Jones, American educator and politician (d. 2013)
* 1929 – China Machado, Chinese-born Portuguese-American fashion model, editor and television producer (d. 2016)
* 1929 – Chris Kenner, American singer and songwriter (d. 1976)
*1930 – Emmanuel Agassi, Iranian-American boxer and coach (d. 2021)
* 1930 – Armenak Alachachian, Armenian basketball player and coach (d. 2017)
* 1930 – Mary Rose Tuitt, Montserrat politician (d. 2005)
*1932 – Mabel King, American actress and singer (d. 1999)
*1933 – Basil Heatley, English runner (d. 2019)
*1935 – Sadiq al-Mahdi, Sudanese politician, Prime Minister of Sudan (d. 2020)
* 1935 – Stephen Barnett, American scholar and academic (d. 2009)
* 1935 – Jeanne Hopkins Lucas, American educator and politician (d. 2007)
*1936 – Princess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy
* 1936 – Ismail Merchant, Indian-English director and producer (d. 2005)
*1937 – Maung Aye, Burmese military officer
* 1937 – O'Kelly Isley Jr., American R&B/soul singer-songwriter (d. 1986)
*1938 – Duane Armstrong, American painter
* 1938 – Noel Picard, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2017)
*1939 – Ghulam Ahmad Bilour, Pakistani businessman and politician
* 1939 – Bob James, American keyboard player, songwriter, and producer
* 1939 – Akong Rinpoche, Tibetan-Chinese spiritual leader (d. 2013)
*1940 – Hilary Spurling, English journalist and author
*1941 – Kenneth Calman, Scottish physician and academic
*1942 – Françoise Dürr, French tennis player and coach
* 1942 – Barbara Follett, English politician
* 1942 – Barry Goldberg, American keyboard player, songwriter, and producer (d. 2025)
* 1942 – Enrique Morente, Spanish singer-songwriter (d. 2010)
*1943 – Wilson Fittipaldi Júnior, Brazilian race car driver and businessman (d. 2024)
* 1943 – Ravish Malhotra, Indian pilot and military officer
* 1943 – Eve Pollard, English journalist and author
* 1943 – Hanna Schygulla, German actress
* 1943 – Jacqui McShee, English singer
*1944 – Kenny Everett, British comedian and broadcaster (d. 1995)
* 1944 – Jairzinho, Brazilian footballer
* 1944 – Sam Strahan, New Zealand rugby player (d. 2019)
*1945 – Rick Berman, American screenwriter and producer
* 1945 – Mike Pringle, Zambian-Scottish lawyer and politician
* 1945 – Noel Redding, English singer-songwriter and bass player (d. 2003)
* 1945 – Ken Stabler, American football player and sportscaster (d. 2015)
*1946 – Jimmy Buffett, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, producer, and actor (d. 2023)
*1950 – Peter Boardman, English mountaineer and author (d. 1982)
* 1950 – Karl Rove, American political strategist and activist
*1952 – Tolossa Kotu, Ethiopian runner and coach
* 1952 – CCH Pounder, Guyanese-American actress
* 1952 – Desireless, French singer and songwriter
*1953 – Kaarlo Maaninka, Finnish runner
*1954 – Annie Lennox, Scottish singer-songwriter and pianist
*1958 – Cheryl Chase, American voice actress and singer
* 1958 – Rickey Henderson, American baseball player and coach (d. 2024)
*1965 – Ed Davey, English politician, Leader of the Liberal Democrats
* 1965 – Dmitri Mironov, Russian ice hockey player
* 1965 – David Rath, Czech physician and politician
*1966 – Toshi Arai, Japanese race car driver
*1967 – Andreas Haitzer, Austrian politician
* 1967 – Jason Thirsk, American bass player (d. 1996)
*1968 – Helena Christensen, Danish model and actress
* 1968 – Jim Dowd, American ice hockey player
*1969 – Nicolas Godin, French musician
* 1969 – Noel Goldthorpe, Australian rugby league player
* 1969 – Frederick Onyancha, Kenyan runner
*1970 – Emmanuel Amunike, Nigerian footballer and manager
* 1970 – Rodney Dent, American basketball player
*1971 – Dido, English singer-songwriter
* 1971 – Noel Hogan, Irish musician and songwriter
* 1971 – Justin Trudeau, Canadian educator and politician, 23rd Prime Minister of Canada
* 1972 – Qu Yunxia, Chinese runner
*1973 – Robbie Elliott, English footballer and coach
* 1973 – Chris Harris, American wrestler
* 1973 – Daisuke Miura, Japanese baseball player and coach
* 1973 – Alexandre Trudeau, Canadian journalist and director
*1975 – Hideki Okajima, Japanese baseball player
* 1975 – Choi Sung-yong, South Korean footballer and manager
* 1975 – Marcus Trescothick, English cricketer
*1976 – Tuomas Holopainen, Finnish keyboard player, songwriter, and producer
* 1976 – Atko Väikmeri, Estonian footballer
* 1976 – Armin van Buuren, Dutch DJ and record producer
*1977 – Ali Tandoğan, Turkish footballer
* 1977 – Israel Vázquez, Mexican boxer (d. 2024)
*1978 – Simon Jones, Welsh cricketer
* 1978 – Joel Porter, Australian footballer and manager
* 1978 – Jeremy Strong, American actor
*1979 – Ferman Akgül, Turkish singer-songwriter
* 1979 – Laurent Bonnart, French footballer
* 1979 – Robert Huff, English race car driver
* 1979 – Hyun Young-min, South Korean footballer
*1980 – Laura Sadler, English actress (d. 2003)
* 1980 – Marcus Trufant, American football player
*1981 – Trenesha Biggers, American wrestler and model
*1981 – Camille Herron, American ultramarathon runner
* 1981 – Christian Holst, Danish-Faroese footballer
* 1981 – Willy Taveras, Dominican baseball player
*1982 – Shawn Andrews, American football player
* 1982 – Rob Edwards, Welsh footballer
* 1982 – Ethan Kath, Canadian keyboard player, songwriter and producer
* 1982 – Chris Rene, American singer-songwriter and producer
*1984 – Chris Cahill, Samoan footballer
* 1984 – Alastair Cook, English cricketer
* 1984 – Jessica Origliasso, Australian singer, actress, and fashion designer
* 1984 – Lisa Origliasso, Australian singer, actress, and fashion designer
* 1984 – Chris Richard, American basketball player
*1985 – Martin Mathathi, Kenyan runner
* 1985 – Rusev, Bulgarian-American professional wrestler
* 1985 – Perdita Weeks, Welsh actress
*1987 – Ceyhun Gülselam, Turkish footballer
* 1987 – Demaryius Thomas, American football player (d. 2021)
*1988 – Eric Gordon, American basketball player
* 1988 – Lukas Hinds-Johnson, German rugby player
* 1988 – Joãozinho, Brazilian footballer
*1991 – Avu-chan, Japanese musician, songwriter, actor, model and producer
*1992 – Mitakeumi Hisashi, Japanese sumo wrestler
*1993 – Emi Takei, Japanese actress, fashion model and singer
*1996 – Emiliano Buendía, Argentine footballer
*1999 – Adut Akech, South Sudanese-Australian fashion model
*2000 – Wilfried Singo, Ivorian footballer
<!-- Please do not add yourself, non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. -->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 304 – Saint Anastasia
* 795 – Pope Adrian I
* 820 – Emperor Leo V
* 936 – Zhang Jingda, general of Later Tang
* 940 – Makan ibn Kaki, Iranian general
*1147 – Guy II, Count of Ponthieu (b. )
*1156 – Peter the Venerable, French abbot and saint (b. 1092)
* 1156 – Sverker the Elder, king of Sweden
*1294 – Mestwin II, Duke of Pomerania
*1395 – Elisabeth, Countess of Neuchâtel, Swiss ruler
*1406 – Henry III of Castile (b. 1379)
*1505 – George Grey, 2nd Earl of Kent, English politician (b. 1454)
*1553 – Pedro de Valdivia, Spanish explorer and politician, 1st Royal Governor of Chile (b. 1500)
1601–1900
*1634 – Lettice Knollys, English noblewoman (b. 1543)
*1635 – Samuel de Champlain, French soldier, geographer, and explorer (b. 1567)
*1676 – William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle, English soldier and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Nottinghamshire (b. 1592)
* 1676 – Matthew Hale, English lawyer and jurist, Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales (b. 1609)
*1683 – Kara Mustafa Pasha, Ottoman general and politician, 111th Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire (b. 1634)
*1708 – Jørgen Thormøhlen, German-Norwegian merchant (b. c.1640)
*1730 – Henry Scott, 1st Earl of Deloraine, Scottish peer and general (b. 1676)
*1758 – James Hervey, English priest and author (b. 1714)
*1784 – Yosa Buson, Japanese poet and painter (b. 1716)
*1796 – Velu Nachiyar, Queen of Sivagangai (b. 1730)
*1824 – Barbara von Krüdener, German mystic and author (b. 1764)
* 1824 – William Lawless, Irish revolutionary, later French Army general (b. 1772)
*1868 – Linus Yale, Jr., American engineer and businessman (b. 1821)
*1875 – Young Tom Morris, Scottish golfer (b. 1851)
*1880 – Fridolin Anderwert, Swiss lawyer and politician, President of the Swiss National Council (b. 1828)
1901–present
*1916 – Albert Chmielowski, Polish saint, founded the Albertine Brothers (b. 1845)
*1921 – Vladimir Korolenko, Russian journalist, author, and activist (b. 1853)
*1925 – Karl Abraham, German psychoanalyst and author (b. 1877)
*1926 – Emperor Taishō of Japan (b. 1879)
*1928 – Miles Burke, American boxer (b. 1885)
*1930 – Jakob Mändmets, Estonian journalist and author (b. 1871)
*1933 – Francesc Macià, Catalan colonel and politician, 122nd President of Catalonia (b. 1859)
*1935 – Paul Bourget, French author and critic (b. 1852)
*1938 – Karel Čapek, Czech author and playwright (b. 1890)
*1940 – Agnes Ayres, American actress (b. 1898)
*1941 – Richard S. Aldrich, American lawyer and politician (b. 1884)
*1944 – George Steer, South African-English journalist and author (b. 1909)
*1946 – W. C. Fields, American actor, comedian, juggler, and screenwriter (b. 1880)
*1947 – Gaspar G. Bacon, American lawyer and politician, 51st Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts (b. 1886)
*1949 – Leon Schlesinger, American animator and producer, founded Warner Bros. Cartoons (b. 1884)
*1950 – Neil Francis Hawkins, English politician (b. 1903)
*1952 – Margrethe Mather, American photographer (b. 1886)
*1953 – Patsy Donovan, Irish-American baseball player and manager (b. 1865)
* 1953 – William Haselden, British cartoonist (b. 1872)
*1956 – Robert Walser, Swiss author and playwright (b. 1878)
*1957 – Charles Pathé, French record producer, founded Pathé Records (b. 1863)
*1961 – Owen Brewster, American captain, lawyer, and politician, 54th Governor of Maine (b. 1888)
* 1961 – Otto Loewi, German-American pharmacologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1873)
*1963 – Tristan Tzara, Romanian-French poet, playwright, painter, and critic (b. 1896)
*1970 – Michael Peto, Hungarian-English photographer and journalist (b. 1908)
*1973 – İsmet İnönü, Turkish general and politician, 2nd President of Turkey (b. 1884)
* 1973 – Gabriel Voisin, French pilot and engineer (b. 1880)
*1975 – Gaston Gallimard, French publisher, founded Éditions Gallimard (b. 1881)
* 1975 – Gunnar Kangro, Estonian mathematician and author (b. 1913)
*1977 – Charlie Chaplin, English actor and director (b. 1889)
*1979 – Joan Blondell, American actress and singer (b. 1906)
* 1979 – Jordi Bonet, Canadian painter and sculptor (b. 1932)
*1980 – Fred Emney, English actor and comedian (b. 1900)
*1983 – Joan Miró, Spanish painter and sculptor (b. 1893)
*1988 – Shōhei Ōoka, Japanese author and critic (b. 1909)
* 1988 – Edward Pelham-Clinton, 10th Duke of Newcastle, English entomologist and lepidopterist (b. 1920)
*1989 – Benny Binion, American poker player and businessman (b. 1904)
* 1989 – Elena Ceaușescu, Romanian politician, First Lady of Romania (b. 1916)
* 1989 – Nicolae Ceaușescu, Romanian general and politician, 1st President of Romania (b. 1918)
* 1989 – Betty Garde, American actress (b. 1905)
* 1989 – Frederick F. Houser, American judge and politician, 34th Lieutenant Governor of California (b. 1905)
* 1989 – Billy Martin, American baseball player and manager (b. 1928)
* 1989 – Robert Pirosh, American director and screenwriter (b. 1910)
*1991 – Wilbur Snyder, American football player and wrestler (b. 1929)
*1992 – Monica Dickens, British-American nurse and author (b. 1915)
*1993 – Pierre Victor Auger, French physicist and academic (b. 1899)
*1994 – Zail Singh, Indian politician, 7th President of India (b. 1916)
*1995 – Emmanuel Levinas, Lithuanian-French philosopher and academic (b. 1906)
* 1995 – Dean Martin, American singer and actor (b. 1917)
* 1995 – Chang Kee-ryo, Korean surgeon (b. 1914)
*1996 – Bill Hewitt, Canadian sportscaster (b. 1928)
*1997 – Anatoli Boukreev, Kazakh mountaineer and explorer (b. 1958)
* 1997 – Denver Pyle, American actor (b. 1920)
*1998 – John Pulman, English snooker player (b. 1923)
*2000 – Neil Hawke, Australian cricketer and footballer (b. 1939)
* 2000 – Willard Van Orman Quine, American philosopher and academic (b. 1908)
*2001 – Alfred A. Tomatis, French otolaryngologist and academic (b. 1920)
*2003 – Nicholas Mavroules, American politician (b. 1929)
*2004 – Gennadi Strekalov, Russian engineer and astronaut (b. 1940)
*2005 – Derek Bailey, English guitarist (b. 1930)
* 2005 – Robert Barbers, Filipino police officer, lawyer, and politician, 15th Secretary of the Interior and Local Government (b. 1944)
* 2005 – Birgit Nilsson, Swedish operatic soprano (b. 1918)
* 2005 – Joseph Pararajasingham, Sri Lankan journalist, businessman, and politician (b. 1934)
*2006 – James Brown, American singer-songwriter (b. 1933)
*2007 – Des Barrick, English cricketer (b. 1927)
* 2007 – Jim Beauchamp, American baseball player and coach (b. 1939)
*2008 – Eartha Kitt, American singer and actress (b. 1927)
*2009 – Vic Chesnutt, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1964)
*2010 – Carlos Andrés Pérez, Venezuelan politician, 66th President of Venezuela (b. 1922)
*2011 – Giorgio Bocca, Italian journalist (b. 1920)
* 2011 – Jim Sherwood, American saxophonist (b. 1942)
* 2011 – Simms Taback, American author and illustrator (b. 1932)
*2012 – Erico Aumentado, Filipino journalist, lawyer, and politician (b. 1940)
* 2012 – Halfdan Hegtun, Norwegian radio host and politician (b. 1918)
* 2012 – Joe Krivak, American football player and coach (b. 1935)
* 2012 – Turki bin Sultan, Saudi Arabian politician (b. 1959)
* 2012 – Şerafettin Elçi, Turkish lawyer, politician, government minister (b. 1938)
*2013 – Anthony J. Bryant, American historian and author (b. 1961)
* 2013 – David R. Harris, English geographer, anthropologist, archaeologist and academic (b. 1930)
* 2013 – Wayne Harrison, English footballer (b. 1967)
* 2013 – Mike Hegan, American baseball player and sportscaster (b. 1942)
* 2013 – Lola Lange, Canadian rural feminist and appointee to the Royal Commission on the Status of Women (b. 1922)
* 2013 – Mel Mathay, Filipino politician, 8th Mayor of Quezon City (b. 1932)
*2014 – Ricardo Porro, Cuban-French architect (b. 1925)
* 2014 – Geoff Pullar, English cricketer (b. 1935)
* 2014 – David Ryall, English actor (b. 1935)
*2015 – George Clayton Johnson, American author and screenwriter (b. 1929)
* 2015 – Dorothy M. Murdock, American author and historian (b. 1961)
*2016 – Valery Khalilov, Russian military musician and composer (b. 1952)
* 2016 – George Michael, British singer and songwriter (b. 1963)
* 2016 – Vera Rubin, American astronomer (b. 1928)
*2017 – D. Herbert Lipson, American magazine publisher (Philadelphia, Boston) (b. 1929)
*2018 – Sulagitti Narasamma, Indian midwife (b. 1920)
*2019 – Ari Behn, Norwegian writer (b. 1972)
*2020 – K. C. Jones, American basketball player and coach (b. 1932)
*2021 – Wayne Thiebaud, American artist (b. 1920)
*2022 – Fabián O'Neill, Uruguayan footballer (b. 1973)
*2023 – Jim Breaks, British wrestler (b. 1940)
*2024 – Britt Allcroft, English writer (b. 1943)
*2024 – Bill Bergey, American football player (b. 1945)
*2024 – Jax Dane, American professional wrestler (b. 1976)
* 2024 – M. T. Vasudevan Nair, Indian author and screenwriter (b. 1933)
* 2024 – Osamu Suzuki, Japanese businessman (b. 1930)
<!-- Please do not add yourself, non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. -->
Holidays and observances
*Children's Day (Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Equatorial Guinea, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Gabon, Republic of Congo)
*Christian feast day:
**Anastasia of Sirmium (Catholic Church)
**Stephen (Armenian Apostolic Church)
**December 25 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*Christmas Day, Christian festival commemorating the birth of Jesus. (Internationally observed)
*Tulsi Pujan Diwas (India)
*Constitution Day (Taiwan)
*Good Governance Day (India)
*Quaid-e-Azam's Day (Pakistan)
*Takanakuy (Chumbivilcas Province, Peru)
References
External links
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/25 BBC: On This Day]
*
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/december/25 Historical Events on December 25]
Category:Days of December
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_25
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2025-04-05T18:28:32.380568
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8271
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Digital television
|
standards]]
Digital television (DTV) is the transmission of television signals using digital encoding, in contrast to the earlier analog television technology which used analog signals. At the time of its development it was considered an innovative advancement and represented the first significant evolution in television technology since color television in the 1950s. Modern digital television is transmitted in high-definition television (HDTV) with greater resolution than analog TV. It typically uses a widescreen aspect ratio (commonly 16:9) in contrast to the narrower format (4:3) of analog TV. It makes more economical use of scarce radio spectrum space; it can transmit up to seven channels in the same bandwidth as a single analog channel, and provides many new features that analog television cannot. A transition from analog to digital broadcasting began around 2000. Different digital television broadcasting standards have been adopted in different parts of the world; below are the more widely used standards:
* Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) uses coded orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) modulation and supports hierarchical transmission. This standard has been adopted in Europe, Africa, Asia and Australia, for a total of approximately 60 countries.
* Advanced Television System Committee (ATSC) standard uses eight-level vestigial sideband (8VSB) for terrestrial broadcasting. This standard has been adopted by 9 countries: the United States, Canada, Mexico, South Korea, Bahamas, Jamaica, the Dominican Republic, Haiti and Suriname.
* Integrated Services Digital Broadcasting (ISDB) is a system designed to provide good reception to fixed receivers and also portable or mobile receivers. It utilizes OFDM and two-dimensional interleaving. It supports hierarchical transmission of up to three layers and uses MPEG-2 video and Advanced Audio Coding. This standard has been adopted in Japan and the Philippines. ISDB-T International is an adaptation of this standard using H.264/MPEG-4 AVC, which has been adopted in most of South America as well as Botswana and Angola.
* Digital Terrestrial Multimedia Broadcast (DTMB) adopts time-domain synchronous (TDS) OFDM technology with a pseudo-random signal frame to serve as the guard interval (GI) of the OFDM block and the training symbol. The DTMB standard has been adopted in China, including Hong Kong and Macau.
* Digital Multimedia Broadcasting (DMB) is a digital radio transmission technology developed in South Korea as part of the national information technology project for sending multimedia such as TV, radio and datacasting to mobile devices such as mobile phones, laptops and GPS navigation systems.
History
Background
Digital television's roots are tied to the availability of inexpensive, high-performance computers. It was not until the 1990s that digital TV became a real possibility. Digital television was previously not practically feasible due to the impractically high bandwidth requirements of uncompressed video, requiring around for a standard-definition television (SDTV) signal,
A digital TV broadcast service was proposed in 1986 by Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT) and the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunication (MPT) in Japan, where there were plans to develop an "Integrated Network System" service. However, it was not possible to practically implement such a digital TV service until the adoption of motion-compensated DCT video compression formats such as MPEG made it possible in the early 1990s. An American company, General Instrument, also demonstrated the feasibility of a digital television signal in 1990. This led to the FCC being persuaded to delay its decision on an advanced television (ATV) standard until a digitally based standard could be developed.
When it became evident that a digital standard might be achieved in March 1990, the FCC took several important actions. First, the Commission declared that the new TV standard must be more than an enhanced analog signal, but be able to provide a genuine HDTV signal with at least twice the resolution of existing television images. Then, to ensure that viewers who did not wish to buy a new digital television set could continue to receive conventional television broadcasts, it dictated that the new ATV standard must be capable of being simulcast on different channels. The new ATV standard also allowed the new DTV signal to be based on entirely new design principles. Although incompatible with the existing NTSC standard, the new DTV standard would be able to incorporate many improvements. Digital cable broadcasts were tested and launched in the US in 1996 by TCI and Time Warner. The first digital terrestrial platform was launched in November 1998 as ONdigital in the UK, using the DVB-T standard. Technical information Formats and bandwidth
(1080i broadcast, top) and NTSC (480i transmission, bottom)]]
Digital television supports many different picture formats defined by the broadcast television systems which are a combination of size and aspect ratio (width to height ratio).
With digital terrestrial television (DTT) broadcasting, the range of formats can be broadly divided into two categories: high-definition television (HDTV) for the transmission of high-definition video and standard-definition television (SDTV). These terms by themselves are not very precise and many subtle intermediate cases exist.
One of several different HDTV formats that can be transmitted over DTV is: pixels in progressive scan mode (abbreviated 720p) or pixels in interlaced video mode (1080i). Each of these uses a 16:9 aspect ratio. HDTV cannot be transmitted over analog television channels because of channel capacity issues.
SDTV, by comparison, may use one of several different formats taking the form of various aspect ratios depending on the technology used in the country of broadcast. NTSC can deliver a resolution in 4:3 and in 16:9, while PAL can give in 4:3 and in 16:9. However, broadcasters may choose to reduce these resolutions to reduce bit rate (e.g., many DVB-T channels in the UK use a horizontal resolution of 544 or 704 pixels per line).
Each commercial broadcasting terrestrial television DTV channel in North America is allocated enough bandwidth to broadcast up to 19 megabits per second. However, the broadcaster does not need to use this entire bandwidth for just one broadcast channel. Instead, the broadcast can use Program and System Information Protocol and subdivide across several video subchannels (a.k.a. feeds) of varying quality and compression rates, including non-video datacasting services.
A broadcaster may opt to use a standard-definition (SDTV) digital signal instead of an HDTV signal, because current convention allows the bandwidth of a DTV channel (or "multiplex") to be subdivided into multiple digital subchannels, (similar to what most FM radio stations offer with HD Radio), providing multiple feeds of entirely different television programming on the same channel. This ability to provide either a single HDTV feed or multiple lower-resolution feeds is often referred to as distributing one's bit budget or multicasting. This can sometimes be arranged automatically, using a statistical multiplexer. With some implementations, image resolution may be less directly limited by bandwidth; for example in DVB-T, broadcasters can choose from several different modulation schemes, giving them the option to reduce the transmission bit rate and make reception easier for more distant or mobile viewers.
Reception
There are several different ways to receive digital television. One of the oldest means of receiving DTV (and TV in general) is from terrestrial transmitters using an antenna (known as an aerial in some countries). This delivery method is known as digital terrestrial television (DTT). With DTT, viewers are limited to channels that have a terrestrial transmitter within range of their antenna.
Other delivery methods include digital cable and digital satellite. In some countries where transmissions of TV signals are normally achieved by microwaves, digital multichannel multipoint distribution service is used. Other standards, such as digital multimedia broadcasting (DMB) and digital video broadcasting - handheld (DVB-H), have been devised to allow handheld devices such as mobile phones to receive TV signals. Another way is Internet Protocol television (IPTV), which is the delivery of TV over a computer network. Finally, an alternative way is to receive digital TV signals via the open Internet (Internet television), whether from a central streaming service or a P2P (peer-to-peer) system.
Some signals are protected by encryption and backed up with the force of law under the WIPO Copyright Treaty and national legislation implementing it, such as the US Digital Millennium Copyright Act. Access to encrypted channels can be controlled by a removable card, for example via the Common Interface or CableCard.
Protection parameters
Digital television signals must not interfere with each other and they must also coexist with analog television until it is phased out. The following table gives allowable signal-to-noise and signal-to-interference ratios for various interference scenarios. This table is a crucial regulatory tool for controlling the placement and power levels of stations. Digital TV is more tolerant of interference than analog TV.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! System Parameters<br /><small>(protection ratios)</small>
! Canada
! US
! EBU<br /><small>ITU-mode M3</small>
! Japan & Brazil2/3), Analog TV (M/NTSC).}}
|-
! C/N for AWGN Channel
| +19.5 dB<br />(16.5 dB)
| +15.19 dB
| +19.3 dB
| +19.2 dB
|-
! Co-Channel DTV into Analog TV
| +33.8 dB
| +34.44 dB
| +34 ≈37 dB
| +38 dB
|-
! Co-Channel Analog TV into DTV
| +7.2 dB
| +1.81 dB
| +4 dB
| +4 dB
|-
! Co-Channel DTV into DTV
| +19.5 dB<br />(16.5 dB)
| +15.27 dB
| +19 dB
| +19 dB
|-
! Lower Adjacent Channel DTV into Analog TV
| −16 dB
| −17.43 dB
| −5 ~ −11 dB
| −6 dB
|-
! Upper Adjacent Channel DTV into Analog TV
| −12 dB
| −11.95 dB
| −1 ~ −10
| −5 dB
|-
! Lower Adjacent Channel Analog TV into DTV
| −48 dB
| −47.33 dB
| −34 ~ −37 dB
| −35 dB
|-
! Upper Adjacent Channel Analog TV into DTV
| −49 dB
| −48.71 dB
| −38 ~ −36 dB
| −37 dB
|-
! Lower Adjacent Channel DTV into DTV
| −27 dB
| −28 dB
| −30 dB
| −28 dB
|-
! Upper Adjacent Channel DTV into DTV
| −27 dB
| −26 dB
| −30 dB
| −29 dB
|}
Interaction
People can interact with a DTV system in various ways. One can, for example, browse the electronic program guide. Modern DTV systems sometimes use a return path providing feedback from the end user to the broadcaster. This is possible over cable TV or through an Internet connection but is not possible with a standard antenna alone.
Some of these systems support video on demand using a communication channel localized to a neighborhood rather than a city (terrestrial) or an even larger area (satellite).
1seg
1seg (1-segment) is a special form of ISDB. Each channel is further divided into 13 segments. Twelve are allocated for HDTV and the other for narrow-band receivers such as mobile televisions and cell phones.
Comparison to analog
DTV has several advantages over analog television, the most significant being that digital channels take up less bandwidth and the bandwidth allocations are flexible depending on the level of compression and resolution of the transmitted image. This means that digital broadcasters can provide more digital channels in the same space, provide high-definition television service, or provide other non-television services such as multimedia or interactivity. DTV also permits special services such as multiplexing (more than one program on the same channel), electronic program guides and additional languages (spoken or subtitled). The sale of non-television services may provide an additional revenue source to broadcasters.
Digital and analog signals react to interference differently. For example, common problems with analog television include ghosting of images, noise from weak signals and other problems that degrade the quality of the image and sound, although the program material may still be watchable. With digital television, because of the cliff effect, reception of the digital signal must be very nearly complete; otherwise, neither audio nor video will be usable.
Analog TV began with monophonic sound and later developed multichannel television sound with two independent audio signal channels. DTV allows up to 5 audio signal channels plus a subwoofer bass channel, producing broadcasts similar in quality to movie theaters and DVDs.
Digital TV signals require less transmission power than analog TV signals to be broadcast and received satisfactorily. Compression artifacts, picture quality monitoring and allocated bandwidth
DTV images have some picture defects that are not present on analog television or motion picture cinema, because of present-day limitations of bit rate and compression algorithms such as MPEG-2. This defect is sometimes referred to as mosquito noise.
Because of the way the human visual system works, defects in an image that are localized to particular features of the image or that come and go are more perceptible than defects that are uniform and constant. However, the DTV system is designed to take advantage of other limitations of the human visual system to help mask these flaws, e.g., by allowing more compression artifacts during fast motion where the eye cannot track and resolve them as easily and, conversely, minimizing artifacts in still backgrounds that, because time allows, may be closely examined in a scene.
Broadcast, cable, satellite and Internet DTV operators control the picture quality of television signal encoders using sophisticated, neuroscience-based algorithms, such as the structural similarity index measure (SSIM) video quality measurement tool. Another tool called visual information fidelity (VIF), is used in the Netflix VMAF video quality monitoring system.
Quantising effects can create contours—rather than smooth gradations—on areas with small graduations in amplitude. Typically, a very flat scene, such as a cloudless sky, will exhibit visible steps across its expanse, often appearing as concentric circles or ellipses. This is known as color banding. Similar effects can be seen in very dark scenes, where true black backgrounds are overlaid by dark gray areas. These transitions may be smooth, or may show a scattering effect as the digital processing dithers and is unable to consistently allocate a value of either absolute black or the next step up the greyscale.
Effects of poor reception
Changes in signal reception from factors such as degrading antenna connections or changing weather conditions may gradually reduce the quality of analog TV. The nature of digital TV results in a perfectly decodable video initially, until the receiving equipment starts picking up interference that overpowers the desired signal or if the signal is too weak to decode. Some equipment will show a garbled picture with significant damage, while other devices may go directly from perfectly decodable video to no video at all or lock up. This phenomenon is known as the digital cliff effect.
Block errors may occur when transmission is done with compressed images. A block error in a single frame often results in black boxes in several subsequent frames, making viewing difficult.
For remote locations, distant channels that, as analog signals, were previously usable in a snowy and degraded state may, as digital signals, be perfectly decodable or may become completely unavailable. The use of higher frequencies add to these problems, especially in cases where a clear line-of-sight from the receiving antenna to the transmitter is not available because usually higher frequency signals can't pass through obstacles as easily.
Effect on old analog technology
Television sets with only analog tuners cannot decode digital transmissions. When analog broadcasting over the air ceases, users of sets with analog-only tuners may use other sources of programming (e.g., cable, recorded media) or may purchase set-top converter boxes to tune in the digital signals. In the United States, a government-sponsored coupon was available to offset the cost of an external converter box.
The digital television transition began around the late 1990s and has been completed on a country-by-country basis in most parts of the world.
Disappearance of TV-audio receivers
Prior to the conversion to digital TV, analog television broadcast audio for TV channels on a separate FM carrier signal from the video signal. This FM audio signal could be heard using standard radios equipped with the appropriate tuning circuits.
However, after the digital television transition, no portable radio manufacturer has yet developed an alternative method for portable radios to play just the audio signal of digital TV channels; DTV radio is not the same thing.
Environmental issues
The adoption of a broadcast standard incompatible with existing analog receivers has created the problem of large numbers of analog receivers being discarded. One superintendent of public works was quoted in 2009 saying; "some of the studies I’ve read in the trade magazines say up to a quarter of American households could be throwing a TV out in the next two years following the regulation change." In Michigan in 2009, one recycler estimated that as many as one household in four would dispose of or recycle a TV set in the following year. The digital television transition, migration to high-definition television receivers and the replacement of CRTs with flat screens are all factors in the increasing number of discarded analog CRT-based television receivers. In 2009, an estimated 99 million analog TV receivers were sitting unused in homes in the US alone and, while some obsolete receivers are being retrofitted with converters, many more are simply dumped in landfills where they represent a source of toxic metals such as lead as well as lesser amounts of materials such as barium, cadmium and chromium. See also
* Autoroll
* Digital television in the United Kingdom
* Digital television in the United States
* Text to speech in digital television
References
Further reading
* Hart, Jeffrey A., [https://web.archive.org/web/20120515012604/http://inethub.olvi.net.ua/ftp/library/somelibrary/techno/hart%20j.a.%20-%20technology,%20television%20and%20competition%5Bc%5D%20the%20politics%20of%20digital%20tv%20(2004)(en).pdf Television, technology, and competition : HDTV and digital TV in the United States, Western Europe, and Japan], New York : Cambridge University Press, 2004.
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/2997973_Overview_of_Digital_Television_Development_Worldwide Overview of Digital Television Development Worldwide] Proceedings of the IEEE, VOL. 94, NO. 1, JANUARY 2006 (University of Texas at San Antonio)
External links
* [http://www.dtv.gov/ The FCC's US consumer-oriented DTV website]
Category:Television technology
Category:Television terminology
Television
Category:Japanese inventions
Category:Telecommunications-related introductions in the 1990s
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Declaration of Arbroath
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' copy of the Declaration from 1320, in the National Archives of Scotland]]
The Declaration of Arbroath (; ; ) is the name usually given to a letter, dated 6 April 1320 at Arbroath, written by Scottish barons and addressed to Pope John XXII. It constituted King Robert I's response to his excommunication for disobeying the pope's demand in 1317 for a truce in the First War of Scottish Independence. The letter asserted the antiquity of the independence of the Kingdom of Scotland, denouncing English attempts to subjugate it. In the 1680s, the Latin text was printed for the first time and translated into English in the wake of the Glorious Revolution, after which time it was sometimes described as a declaration of independence. In reply, the Declaration was composed and signed and, in response, the papacy rescinded King Robert Bruce's excommunication and thereafter addressed him using his royal title. Edward I, the "Hammer of Scots", died in 1307; his son and successor Edward II did not renew his father's campaigns in Scotland.
It has also been argued that the Declaration was not a statement of popular sovereignty (and that its signatories would have had no such concept) but a statement of royal propaganda supporting Bruce's faction. A justification had to be given for the rejection of King John Balliol in whose name William Wallace and Andrew de Moray had rebelled in 1297. The reason given in the Declaration is that Bruce was able to defend Scotland from English aggression whereas King John could not.
Whatever the true motive, the idea of a contract between King and people was advanced to the Pope as a justification for Bruce's coronation whilst John de Balliol, who had abdicated the Scottish throne, still lived as a Papal prisoner.
There is also recent scholarship that suggests that the Declaration was substantially derived from the 1317 Irish Remonstrance, also sent in protest of English actions. There are substantial similarities in content between the 1317 Irish Remonstrance and the Declaration of Arbroath, produced three years later. It is also clear that the drafters of the Declaration of Arbroath would have access to the 1317 Irish Remonstrance, it having been circulated to Scotland in addition to the Pope. It has been suggested therefore that the 1317 Remonstrance was a "prototype" for the Declaration of Arbroath, suggesting Irish-Scottish cooperation in attempts to protest against English interference.
Text
For the full text in Latin and a translation in English, See Declaration of Arbroath on WikiSource.
Signatories
There are 39 names—eight earls and thirty-one barons—at the start of the document, all of whom may have had their seals appended, probably over the space of some time, possibly weeks, with nobles sending in their seals to be used. The folded foot of the document shows that at least eleven additional barons and freeholders (who were not noble) who were not listed on the head were associated with the letter. On the extant copy of the Declaration there are only 19 seals, and of those 19 people only 12 are named within the document. It is thought likely that at least 11 more seals than the original 39 might have been appended. The Declaration was then taken to the papal court at Avignon by Sir Adam Gordon, Sir Odard de Maubuisson, and Bishop Kininmund who was not yet a bishop and probably included for his scholarship.
The Pope heeded the arguments contained in the Declaration, influenced by the offer of support from the Scots for his long-desired crusade if they no longer had to fear English invasion. He exhorted Edward II in a letter to make peace with the Scots. However, it did not lead to his recognising Robert as King of Scots, and the following year was again persuaded by the English to take their side and issued six bulls to that effect.
Eight years later, on 1 March 1328, the new English king, Edward III, signed a peace treaty between Scotland and England, the Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton. In this treaty, which was in effect until 1333, Edward renounced all English claims to Scotland. In October 1328, the interdict on Scotland, and the excommunication of its king, were removed by the Pope.ManuscriptThe original copy of the Declaration that was sent to Avignon is lost. The only existing manuscript copy of the Declaration survives among Scotland's state papers, measuring 540mm wide by 675mm long (including the seals), it is held by the National Archives of Scotland in Edinburgh, a part of the National Records of Scotland.
The most widely known English language translation was made by Sir James Fergusson, formerly Keeper of the Records of Scotland, from text that he reconstructed using this extant copy and early copies of the original draft.
G. W. S. Barrow has shown that one passage in particular, often quoted from the Fergusson translation, was carefully written using different parts of The Conspiracy of Catiline by the Roman author, Sallust (86–35 BC) as the direct source:
List of signatories
Listed below are the signatories of the Declaration of Arbroath in 1320.
The letter itself is written in Latin. It uses the Latin versions of the signatories' titles, and in some cases, the spelling of names has changed over the years. This list generally uses the titles of the signatories' Wikipedia biographies.
*Duncan, Earl of Fife (changed sides in 1332)
*Thomas Randolph, Earl of Moray (nephew and supporter of King Robert although briefly fought for the English after being captured by them, Guardian of the Realm after Robert the Bruce's death)
*Patrick Dunbar, Earl of March (or Earl of Dunbar) (changed sides several times)
*Malise, Earl of Strathearn (King Robert loyalist)
*Malcolm, Earl of Lennox (King Robert loyalist)
*William, Earl of Ross (earlier betrayed King Robert's female relatives to the English)
*Magnús Jónsson, Earl of Orkney
*William de Moravia, Earl of Sutherland
*Walter, High Steward of Scotland (King Robert loyalist)
*William de Soules, Lord of Liddesdale and Butler of Scotland (later imprisoned for plotting against the King)
*Sir James Douglas, Lord of Douglas (one of King Robert's leading loyalists)
*Roger de Mowbray, Lord of Barnbougle and Dalmeny (later imprisoned for plotting against King Robert)
*David, Lord of Brechin (later executed for plotting against King Robert)
*David de Graham of Kincardine
*Ingram de Umfraville (fought on the English side at Bannockburn but then changed sides to support King Robert)
*John de Menteith, guardian of the earldom of Menteith (earlier betrayed William Wallace to the English)
*Alexander Fraser of Touchfraser and Cowie
*Gilbert de la Hay, Constable of Scotland (King Robert loyalist)
*Robert Keith, Marischal of Scotland (King Robert loyalist)
*Henry St Clair of Rosslyn
*John de Graham, Lord of Dalkeith, Abercorn & Eskdale
*David Lindsay of Crawford
*William Oliphant, Lord of Aberdalgie and Dupplin (briefly fought for the English)
*Patrick de Graham of Lovat
*John de Fenton, Lord of Baikie and Beaufort
*William de Abernethy of Saltoun
*David Wemyss of Wemyss
*William Mushet
*Fergus of Ardrossan
*Eustace Maxwell of Caerlaverock
*William Ramsay
*William de Monte Alto, Lord of Ferne
*Alan Murray
*Donald Campbell
*John Cameron
*Reginald le Chen, Lord of Inverugie and Duffus
*Alexander Seton
*Andrew de Leslie
*Alexander Straiton
In addition, the names of the following do not appear in the document's text, but their names are written on seal tags and their seals are present:
*Alexander de Lamberton (became a supporter of Edward Balliol after the Battle of Dupplin Moor, 1332)
*Edward Keith (subsequently Marischal of Scotland; d. 1346)
*Arthur Campbell (Bruce loyalist)
*Thomas de Menzies (Bruce loyalist)
*John de Inchmartin (became a supporter of Edward Balliol after the Battle of Dupplin Moor, 1332; d. after 1334)
*John Duraunt
*Thomas de Morham
Legacy
In 1998 former majority leader Trent Lott succeeded in instituting an annual "National Tartan Day" on 6 April by resolution of the United States Senate. US Senate Resolution 155 of 10 November 1997 states that "the Declaration of Arbroath, the Scottish Declaration of Independence, was signed on April 6, 1320 and the American Declaration of Independence was modeled [sic] on that inspirational document". However this claim is generally unsupported by historians.
In 2016 the Declaration of Arbroath was placed on the UK Memory of the World Register, part of UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme.
2020 was the 700th anniversary of the Declaration of Arbroath's composition; an Arbroath 2020 festival was arranged but postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The National Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh planned to display the document to the public for the first time in fifteen years.<ref name":2" /> See also
* Declaration of independence
* Claim of Right 1989
* Barons' Letter of 1301, refutation of Papal claim to Scottish suzerainty by English barons
Notes
References
Sources
*
*
*
*
*
External links
*
*
* [http://www.nas.gov.uk/about/090401.asp Declaration of Arbroath] on National Archives of Scotland website (includes full Latin text and English translation)
* [https://www.nrscotland.gov.uk/files//research/declaration-of-arbroath/declaration-of-arbroath-transcription-and-translation.pdf Transcription and Translation of the Declaration of Arbroath, 6 April 1320]
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Category:14th-century documents
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Arbroath, Declaration of
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Digital data
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Digital}}
. The time shown by the digits on the face at any instant is digital data. The actual precise time is analog data. ]]
Digital data, in information theory and information systems, is information represented as a string of discrete symbols, each of which can take on one of only a finite number of values from some alphabet, such as letters or digits. An example is a text document, which consists of a string of alphanumeric characters. The most common form of digital data in modern information systems is binary data, which is represented by a string of binary digits (bits) each of which can have one of two values, either 0 or 1.
Digital data can be contrasted with analog data, which is represented by a value from a continuous range of real numbers. Analog data is transmitted by an analog signal, which not only takes on continuous values but can vary continuously with time, a continuous real-valued function of time. An example is the air pressure variation in a sound wave.
The word digital comes from the same source as the words digit and digitus (the Latin word for finger), as fingers are often used for counting. Mathematician George Stibitz of Bell Telephone Laboratories used the word digital in reference to the fast electric pulses emitted by a device designed to aim and fire anti-aircraft guns in 1942. The term is most commonly used in computing and electronics, especially where real-world information is converted to binary numeric form as in digital audio and digital photography.
Symbol to digital conversion
Since symbols (for example, alphanumeric characters) are not continuous, representing symbols digitally is rather simpler than conversion of continuous or analog information to digital. Instead of sampling and quantization as in analog-to-digital conversion, such techniques as polling and encoding are used.
A symbol input device usually consists of a group of switches that are polled at regular intervals to see which switches are switched. Data will be lost if, within a single polling interval, two switches are pressed, or a switch is pressed, released, and pressed again. This polling can be done by a specialized processor in the device to prevent burdening the main CPU. When a new symbol has been entered, the device typically sends an interrupt, in a specialized format, so that the CPU can read it.
For devices with only a few switches (such as the buttons on a joystick), the status of each can be encoded as bits (usually 0 for released and 1 for pressed) in a single word. This is useful when combinations of key presses are meaningful, and is sometimes used for passing the status of modifier keys on a keyboard (such as shift and control). But it does not scale to support more keys than the number of bits in a single byte or word.
Devices with many switches (such as a computer keyboard) usually arrange these switches in a scan matrix, with the individual switches on the intersections of x and y lines. When a switch is pressed, it connects the corresponding x and y lines together. Polling (often called scanning in this case) is done by activating each x line in sequence and detecting which y lines then have a signal, thus which keys are pressed. When the keyboard processor detects that a key has changed state, it sends a signal to the CPU indicating the scan code of the key and its new state. The symbol is then encoded or converted into a number based on the status of modifier keys and the desired character encoding.
A custom encoding can be used for a specific application with no loss of data. However, using a standard encoding such as ASCII is problematic if a symbol such as 'ß' needs to be converted but is not in the standard.
It is estimated that in the year 1986, less than 1% of the world's technological capacity to store information was digital and in 2007 it was already 94%. The year 2002 is assumed to be the year when humankind was able to store more information in digital than in analog format (the "beginning of the digital age"). Properties of digital information
All digital information possesses common properties that distinguish it from analog data with respect to communications:
* Synchronization: Since digital information is conveyed by the sequence in which symbols are ordered, all digital schemes have some method for determining the beginning of a sequence. In written or spoken human languages, synchronization is typically provided by pauses (spaces), capitalization, and punctuation. Machine communications typically use special synchronization sequences.
* Language: All digital communications require a formal language, which in this context consists of all the information that the sender and receiver of the digital communication must both possess, in advance, for the communication to be successful. Languages are generally arbitrary and specify the meaning to be assigned to particular symbol sequences, the allowed range of values, methods to be used for synchronization, etc.
* Errors: Disturbances (noise) in analog communications invariably introduce some, generally small deviation or error between the intended and actual communication. Disturbances in digital communication only result in errors when the disturbance is so large as to result in a symbol being misinterpreted as another symbol or disturbing the sequence of symbols. It is generally possible to have near-error-free digital communication. Further, techniques such as check codes may be used to detect errors and correct them through redundancy or re-transmission. Errors in digital communications can take the form of substitution errors, in which a symbol is replaced by another symbol, or insertion/deletion errors, in which an extra incorrect symbol is inserted into or deleted from a digital message. Uncorrected errors in digital communications have an unpredictable and generally large impact on the information content of the communication.
* Copying: Because of the inevitable presence of noise, making many successive copies of an analog communication is infeasible because each generation increases the noise. Because digital communications are generally error-free, copies of copies can be made indefinitely.
* Granularity: The digital representation of a continuously variable analog value typically involves a selection of the number of symbols to be assigned to that value. The number of symbols determines the precision or resolution of the resulting datum. The difference between the actual analog value and the digital representation is known as quantization error. For example, if the actual temperature is 23.234456544453 degrees, but only two digits (23) are assigned to this parameter in a particular digital representation, the quantizing error is 0.234456544453. This property of digital communication is known as granularity.
* Compressible: According to Miller, "Uncompressed digital data is very large, and in its raw form, it would actually produce a larger signal (therefore be more difficult to transfer) than analog data. However, digital data can be compressed. Compression reduces the amount of bandwidth space needed to send information. Data can be compressed, sent, and then decompressed at the site of consumption. This makes it possible to send much more information and results in, for example, digital television signals offering more room on the airwave spectrum for more television channels." Historical digital systems
Even though digital signals are generally associated with the binary electronic digital systems used in modern electronics and computing, digital systems are actually ancient, and need not be binary or electronic.
* DNA genetic code is a naturally occurring form of digital data storage.
* Written text (due to the limited character set and the use of discrete symbols – the alphabet in most cases)
* The abacus was created sometime between 1000 BC and 500 BC, it later became a form of calculation frequency. Nowadays it can be used as a very advanced, yet basic digital calculator that uses beads on rows to represent numbers. Beads only have meaning in discrete up and down states, not in analog in-between states.
* A beacon is perhaps the simplest non-electronic digital signal, with just two states (on and off). In particular, smoke signals are one of the oldest examples of a digital signal, where an analog "carrier" (smoke) is modulated with a blanket to generate a digital signal (puffs) that conveys information.
* Morse code uses six digital states—dot, dash, intra-character gap (between each dot or dash), short gap (between each letter), medium gap (between words), and long gap (between sentences)—to send messages via a variety of potential carriers such as electricity or light, for example using an electrical telegraph or a flashing light.
* The Braille uses a six-bit code rendered as dot patterns.
* Flag semaphore uses rods or flags held in particular positions to send messages to the receiver watching them some distance away.
* International maritime signal flags have distinctive markings that represent letters of the alphabet to allow ships to send messages to each other.
* More recently invented, a modem modulates an analog "carrier" signal (such as sound) to encode binary electrical digital information, as a series of binary digital sound pulses. A slightly earlier, surprisingly reliable version of the same concept was to bundle a sequence of audio digital "signal" and "no signal" information (i.e. "sound" and "silence") on magnetic cassette tape for use with early home computers.
See also
* Analog-to-digital converter
* Barker code
* Binary number
* Comparison of analog and digital recording
* Computer data storage
* Data (computer science)
* Data remanence
* Digital architecture
* Digital art
* Digital control
* Digital divide
* Digital electronics
* Digital infinity
* Digital native
* Digital physics
* Digital recording
* Digital Revolution
* Digital video
* Digital-to-analog converter
* Internet forum
References
Further reading
* Tocci, R. 2006. Digital Systems: Principles and Applications (10th Edition). Prentice Hall.
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Deduction
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Deduction may refer to:
Philosophy
Deductive reasoning, the mental process of drawing inferences in which the truth of their premises ensures the truth of their conclusion
Natural deduction, a class of proof systems based on simple and self-evident rules of inference that aim to closely mirror how reasoning actually occurs
Taxation
Tax deduction, variable tax dollars subtracted from gross income
Itemized deduction, eligible expense that individual taxpayers in the United States can report on their Federal income tax returns
Standard deduction, dollar amount that non-itemizers may subtract from their income
Other uses
English modals of deduction, English modal verbs to state how sure somebody is about something.
Deduction (food stamps), used in the United States to calculate a household's monthly food stamp benefit goods
See also
Induction (disambiguation)
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Demon
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}}
Evil Spirit (film)|the album|Evil Spirits (album)Evil Spirits (album)}}
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demon king Pazuzu, , Louvre]]
A demon is a malevolent supernatural entity. Historically, belief in demons, or stories about demons, occurs in folklore, mythology, religion, and literature; these beliefs are reflected in media including comics, fiction, film, television, and video games. Belief in demons probably goes back to the Paleolithic age, stemming from humanity's fear of the unknown, the strange and the horrific. In ancient Near Eastern religions and in the Abrahamic religions, including early Judaism and ancient-medieval Christian demonology, a demon is considered a harmful spiritual entity that may cause demonic possession, calling for an exorcism. Large portions of Jewish demonology, a key influence on Christianity and Islam, originated from a later form of Zoroastrianism, and was transferred to Judaism during the Persian era.
Demons may or may not also be considered to be devils: minions of the Devil. The Greek conception of a notably appears in the philosophical works of Plato, where it describes the divine inspiration of Socrates. In Christianity, morally ambivalent were replaced by demons, forces of evil only striving for corruption. Such demons are not the Greek intermediary spirits, but hostile entities, already known in Iranian beliefs. In Western esotericism and Renaissance magic, which grew out of an amalgamation of Greco-Roman magic, Jewish Aggadah, and Christian demonology, a demon is believed to be a spiritual entity that may be conjured and controlled.
Belief in demons remains an important part of many modern religions and occult traditions. Demons are still feared largely due to their alleged power to possess living creatures. In contemporary Western esoteric traditions, demons may be used as metaphors for inner psychological processes ("inner demons").
Etymology
(a medieval demon from German folklore) flying over Wittenberg, in a lithograph by Eugène Delacroix.]]
The Ancient Greek word () denotes a spirit or divine power, much like the Latin or . most likely came from the Greek verb ( or ). The Greek conception of a notably appears in the philosophical works of Plato, where it describes the divine inspiration of Socrates. The original Greek word does not carry the negative connotation initially understood by implementation of the Koine (daimonion), such as shedu from Chaldean mythology. The demons of Mesopotamia were generally hostile spirits of lesser power than a deity. According to the Babylonian creation epic Enūma Eliš, both gods and demons are the children of Tiamat, the goddess of primordial chaos. The demons were engendered by Tiamat as an act of revenge in reaction to the gods slaying her primordial partner Abzu.
Some demons were evil spirits of those who died in misery, while other demons were nature demons causing harm by carrying plagues, nightmares, causing headaches, and storms.
Many demonic beings were home to the underworld, sometimes referred to as "offspring of arali". These demons ascend from the underworld and terrorize mortals. One class of demons that were believed to reside in the underworld were known as galla; their primary purpose appears to have been to drag unfortunate mortals back to Kur. They are frequently referenced in magical texts, and some texts describe them as being seven in number. Several extant poems describe the galla dragging the god Dumuzid into the underworld. Like many other Mesopotamian demons galla could also fulfill a protective role. In a hymn from King Gudea of Lagash ( 2144 – 2124 BCE), a minor god named Ig-alima is described as "the great galla of Girsu".
Ancient Zoroastrianism
(The Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp). The demon is inspired by ancient Persian beliefs.]]
(The Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp)]]
The Zoroastrian concept of demons (Daeva, later ) had strong influence on the Abrahamic religions, especially Christianity and Islam. By elevating Ahura Mazda to the one supreme God, the founder Zoroaster relegated the daevas to demons. Emphasizing free-will, Zoroaster taught that demons became evil by their own volition in rejecting truth over falsehood.
The battle between the hosts of deities against evil demons ( and ) are described in the Bundahishn. Humankind lives in a world between the good powers of God (Ahura Mazda) and the Devil (Ahriman) and suffers corruption through defection of humankind. Therefore, Zorastrianism proposes a threefold nature for humans: divine, animalistic, and demonic. As such, humans are obligated to keep fighting the demonic traits.
Apocalyptic period and early Christianity
The concept of demons as servants of the Devil entered the Christian tradition via Post-exilic Judaism. Inspired by Zoroastrian dualistic cosmology, the non-Jewish deities were demonized, as evident from intertestamental writings. The apocalyptic literature then builds the foundation for the authors of the Gospels in first-century Palestine.
In antiquity, belief in demonic agents of misfortune were widespread. The early Christian community took it for granted that people outside the Judeo-Christian community were worshipping demons. Conversion to Christianity meant renunciation of the demons by the bearers of the Holy Spirit.
By the end of the sixth century, the Mediterranean Christian society widely considered themselves to be unequivocally Christian, with an exception to Jews, the last record of worshipping another pre-Christian deity being in 570s.
Medieval Christian Europe
Magical rites, charms, and beliefs in spiritual entities were prominent in pre-Christian Europe. While the Church officially declared such beliefs as false, the persistance of such beliefs among the wider populations led Christian monks to assimilate Christian with non-Christian rites. To sanction the invocation of non-Christian supernatural powers, Christian missionaries, such as John Cassian in the fifth century, Many pagan nature spirits like dwarfs and elves thus became seen as demons, servants of the supreme Devil. A difference was made between monsters and demons. The monsters, regarded as distorted humans, probably without souls, were created so that people might be grateful to God that they did not suffer in such a state; they ranked above demons in existence and still claimed a small degree of beauty and goodness as they had not turned away from God.
In Medieval Christianity, demons and spirits were generally considered to be fallen angels. Morally ambivalent nature spirits, such as fairies from Irish and Scandinavian folktales were often explained as angels who remained neutral during the war of heaven. They became spirits of the place they fell into when banished to earth.
Islamic culture in the Middle Ages
slaying demons with his sword Zulfiqar in a Persian manuscript. As evident from the poetry of Sanā'ī Ghaznavī, the sword is believed to be made from fire (آتش), able to kill not only a body but also a soul.]]
In Islamic culture, demons () share many anthropomorphic attributes with the Arabian jinn. Like the jinn from Islamic traditions, they can enter sexual relationships with humans and sire offspring. Within context of the Islamic belief system, demons are considered to be yet another creature of God, rather than independent parts of the world, as evident from Abu Ali Bal'ami's interpretation of Tarikh al-Tabari
Demons are believed to be vanquished by sacred symbols. The content of the symbol depends on the prevailing religion of the culture. Among Turks, the basmalah ("invocation of the name of Allah") is used to ward off demons, while among Armenians, the symbol of the cross is utilized. Demons are believed to be mostly active at night and a bad smell in the air or sudden change in temperature would announce their presence. It is generally accepted that demons can be subjugated as they are said to be enslaved by legendary heroes (Solomon in the Quran and Jamshid in Persian legends). Due to their reluctant nature, even enslaved, they do always the opposite of what has been commanded.
Such demons frequently appear throughout literature as personification of human vices. The protagonist must overcome their own animalistic nature, the demons, in order to heed his rational inclination and achieve salvation. European occultism and Renaissance magic
Under influence of Islamic philosophy, Medieval occult traditions and Renaissance magic, demons are often seen as beneficial and useful, lacking an inherent negative connotation. In fifteenth- and sixteenth-century Renaissance magic, the terms demon and devil have two different, although not exclusive, meanings. The term demons refers to a cluster of supernatural beings, such as daimons, spirits, and devils, affecting the mind. He asserted that these beings are spirit-like and thus not human, but they have bodies and flesh and are thus, not angels. He suggested that these beings are structured similar to human societies, intelligent beings who eat and drink yet invisible to most humans. Their views were rejected by demonologists and religious orthodoxy and labelled as "atheistic". They denied that spirits could have an autonomeous existence and that they are demons with the sole purpose of deceiving and harming people.
A variety of spirits or the assumption that demons might be morally ambivalent is encouraged by necromancy. Here, a necromancer supposedly converses with the spirits of the dead. A ceremonial magician usually consults a grimoire, which gives the names and abilities of demons as well as detailed instructions for conjuring and controlling them. Grimoires are not limited to demons – some give instructions for the invocation of deity, a process called theurgy. The use of ceremonial magic to call demons is also known as goetia, a word derived from the Greek word , which originally denoted diviners, magicians, healers, and seers. Age of Enlightenment
, a Japanese ogre-like creature which often has horns and often translated into English as "demon".]]
In the 16th to early 17th centuries, the idea – inherited from Renaissance magic and occultism – that demonic forces could be conjured and controlled may have paved the way for the development of modern sciences. In Hermetic- and Kabbalist philosophy, demons could be subjugated and shaped the idea that humans can control their social environment and their surrounding natural forces.
The Age of Enlightenment conceptualizes humans as autonomous individuals, mostly independent from external invisible forces, such as demons or gods ruling over human fate. While in the pre-modern period, spirits and demons were assigned to various natural phenomena, the rationalistic school of thought, increasingly rejected the attribution of demons to unknown causes.
Many considered demons to be non-existent and alleged visions of demons and ghosts were explained as results of superstition. By that local religious customs were also oppressed in favor of nationwide (religious) ideas or deities. Wilkinson Duran states that people who believe in demons are often marginalized in the United States. In religious beliefs, applying such theories of evil, matter (Greek: ) becomes a sphere of demonic activity and transforms matter into the devilish principle par excellence. Gnosticism Gnosticism largely relies on Greek and Persian dualism, especially on Platonism. In accordance with Platonism, they regarded the idea as good while considering the material and conscious world to be inherently evil. The demonized star-deities of late Persian religion became associated with a demon, thus identifying the seven observable planets with an Archon (demonic ruler).
Examples of Gnostic portrayals of demons can be found in the Apocryphon of John in which they are said to have helped to construct the physical Adam and in Pistis Sophia which states they are ruled over by Hekate and punish corrupt souls. Mandaeism
In Mandaeism, the World of Darkness (), also referred to as Sheol, is the underworld located below Tibil (Earth). It is ruled by its king Ur (Leviathan) and its queen Ruha, mother of the seven planets and twelve constellations. The great dark Ocean of Sup (or Suf) lies in the World of Darkness. The great dividing river of Hitfun, analogous to the river Styx in Greek mythology, separates the World of Darkness from the World of Light.
Prominent infernal beings found in the World of Darkness include lilith, (vampire), (hobgoblin), (ghost), (Satan) and various other demons and evil spirits. founded in the third century AD by the Parthian prophet Mani (), in the Sasanian Empire. One of its key concepts is the doctrine of Two Principles and Three Moments. Accordingly, the world could be described as resulting from a past moment, in which two principles (good and evil) were separate, a contemporary moment in which both principles are mixed due to an assault of the world of darkness on the realm of light, and a future moment when both principles are distinct forever. Thus, evil and demons played a significant role within Manichaean teachings.
There are numberless designations for various groups of demonic entities in Manichaean cosmology. The general term used for the beings of the world of darkness is div.
In The Book of Giants, one of the canonical seven treatises also known from Jewish intertestamental literature, the Grigori () beget giant half-demon offspring with human woman. In the Middle Persian version of the Book of Giants they are referred to as , while in the Coptic Kephalaia as . the giant offspring became the ancient tyrannic rulers over mankind, until overthrown by the angels of punishment. Nonetheless, these demons are still active in the microcosm, such as Āz and Āwarzōg. The '''' (singular , ) are mentioned once in Leviticus 17:7, These entities appear in a scriptural context of animal or child sacrifice to non-existent false gods. witnessed such a performance in the presence of the Emperor Vespasian and ascribed its origin to King Solomon. In mythology, there were few defences against Babylonian demons. The mythical mace Sharur had the power to slay demons such as Asag, a legendary gallu or edimmu of hideous strength. Talmudic tradition and Midrashim
In the Jerusalem Talmud, notions of ( or ) are almost unknown or occur only very rarely, whereas in the Babylonian Talmud there are many references to and magical incantations. The existence of in general was not questioned by most of the Babylonian Talmudists. As a consequence of the rise of influence of the Babylonian Talmud over that of the Jerusalem Talmud, late rabbis, in general, took as fact the existence of , nor did most of the medieval thinkers question their reality. However, rationalists like Maimonides and Saadia Gaon and others explicitly denied their existence, and completely rejected concepts of demons, evil spirits, negative spiritual influences, attaching and possessing spirits. They thought the essential teaching about shedim and similar spirits is, that they should not be an object of worship, not a reality to be acknowledged or feared. Their point of view eventually became mainstream Jewish understanding.
Aggadic tales from the Persian tradition describe the , the mazziḳim ("harmers"), and the ruḥin ("spirits"). There were also lilin ("night spirits"), ṭelane ("shade", or "evening spirits"), ṭiharire ("midday spirits"), and ẓafrire ("morning spirits"), as well as the "demons that bring famine" and "such as cause storm and earthquake". Kabbalah In Kabbalah, demons are regarded as a necessary part of the divine emanation in the material world and a byproduct of human sin (Qlippoth).}} After they are created, they assume an existence on their own. Demons would attach themselves to the sinner and start to multiply as an act of self-preservation. Medieval Kabbalists characterize such demons as punishing angels of destruction. They are subject to the divine will, and do not act independently.
Other demonic entities, such as the , might be considered benevolent. The Zohar classifies them as those who are like humans and submit to the Torah, and those who have no fear of God and are like animals. Second Temple Judaism
The sources of demonic influence were thought to originate from the Watchers or Nephilim, who are first mentioned in Genesis 6 and are the focus of 1 Enoch Chapters 1–16, and also in Jubilees 10. The Nephilim were seen as the source of the sin and evil on Earth because they are referenced in Genesis 6:4 before the story of the Flood. In Genesis 6:5, God sees evil in the hearts of men. Ethiopic Enoch refers to Genesis 6:4–5, and provides further description of the story connecting the Nephilim to the corruption of humans. According to the Book of Enoch, sin originates when angels descend from heaven and fornicate with women, birthing giants. The Book of Enoch shows that these fallen angels can lead humans to sin through direct interaction or through providing forbidden knowledge. Most scholars understand the text, that demons originate from the evil spirits of the deceased giants, cursed by God to wander the Earth. Dale Martin disagrees with this interpretation, arguing that the ghosts of the Nephilim are distinct. The evil spirits would make the people sacrifice to the demons, but they were not demons themselves. The spirits are stated in Enoch to "corrupt, fall, be excited, and fall upon the earth, and cause sorrow". Christianity According to Christian theology, demons are fallen angels. They are believed to have been created as good angels who then turned evil by joining Lucifer in his rebellion against God. This mythology is not shared by Judaism or found as such in the New Testament. Augustine of Hippo (5th century) established the position, that demons are spirits (angels) who turn away from God, for Western demonology and for the Catholic Church. Old Testament The existence of demons as inherently malicious spirits within Old Testamental texts is absent. Though there are evil spirits sent by YHWH, they can hardly be called demons, since they serve and do not oppose the governing deity. Some old English Bible translations such as King James Version do not have the word demon in their vocabulary and translate it as 'devil'. As adversaries of Jesus, demons are not morally ambivalent spirits, but evil; causes of misery, suffering, and death. Unlike spirits in pagan beliefs, demons are not intermediary spirits who must be sacrificed for the appeasement of a deity. Possession also shows no trace of positivity, contrary to some pagan depictions of spirit possession. They are explicitly said to be ruled by the Devil or Beelzebub. Their origin is unclear, the texts take the existence of demons for granted. Many early Christians, like Irenaeus, Justin Martyr, Clement of Alexandria, and Lactantius assumed demons were ghosts of the Nephilim, known from Intertestamental writings. Because of references to Satan as the lord of demons and evil angels of Satan throughout the New Testament, other scholars identified fallen angels with demons. Demons as entirely evil entities, who have been born evil, may not fit the proposed origin of evil in free will, taught in alternate or opposing theologies.
Pseudepigrapha and deuterocanonical books
, written in Georgian by Nikrai.]]
Demons are included in biblical interpretation. In the story of Passover, the Bible tells the story as "the Lord struck down all the firstborn in Egypt" (). In the Book of Jubilees, which is considered canonical only by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, this same event is told slightly differently: "All the powers of [the demon] Mastema had been let loose to slay all the first-born in the land of Egypt. And the powers of the Lord did everything according as the Lord commanded them." (Jubilees 49:2–4)
In the Genesis flood narrative, the author explains how God was noticing "how corrupt the earth had become, for all the people on earth had corrupted their ways" (). In Jubilees, the sins of man are attributed to "the unclean demons [who] began to lead astray the children of the sons of Noah, and to make to err and destroy them" (Jubilees 10:1). In Jubilees, Mastema questions the loyalty of Abraham and tells God to "bid him offer him as a burnt offering on the altar, and Thou wilt see if he will do this command" (Jubilees 17:16). The discrepancy between the story in Jubilees and the story in Genesis 22 exists with the presence of Mastema. In Genesis, God tests the will of Abraham merely to determine whether he is a true follower, however; in Jubilees, Mastema has an agenda behind promoting the sacrifice of Abraham's son, "an even more demonic act than that of Satan in Job". In Jubilees, where Mastema, an angel tasked with tempting mortals into sin and iniquity, requests that God give him a tenth of the spirits of the children of the watchers, demons, in order to aid the process (Jubilees 10:7–9). These demons are passed into Mastema's authority, where once again, an angel is in charge of demonic spirits.
In the Testament of Solomon, written sometime in the first three centuries C.E., the demon Asmodeus explains that he is the son of an angel and a human mother. Another demon describes himself as having died in the "massacre in the age of giants". Beelzeboul, the prince of demons, appears as a fallen angel, not as a demon, but makes people worship demons as their gods. Christian demonology
, depicting Saint Anthony being assailed by demons]]
(detail), a Hieronymus Bosch painting, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.]]
performing an exorcism, as depicted by Goya]]
Since Early Christianity, demonology has developed from a simple acceptance of demons to a complex study that has grown from the original ideas taken from Jewish demonology and Christian scriptures. Christian demonology is studied in depth within the Roman Catholic Church, although many other Christian churches affirm and discuss the existence of demons.
Building upon the few references to in the New Testament, especially the poetry of the Book of Revelation, Christian writers of apocrypha from the second century onwards created a more complicated tapestry of beliefs about "demons" that was largely independent of Christian scripture.
While daimons were considered as both potentially benevolent or malevolent, Origen argued against Celsus that daimons are exclusively evil entities, supporting the later idea of (evil) demons. According to Origen's cosmology, increasing corruption and evil within the soul, the more estranged the soul gets from God. Therefore, Origen opined that the most evil demons are located underground. Besides the fallen angels known from Christian scriptures, Origen talks about Greek daemons, like nature spirits and giants. These creatures were thought to inhabit nature or air and nourish from pagan sacrifices roaming the earth. However, there is no functional difference between the spirits of the underworld and of earth, since both have fallen from perfection into the material world. Origen sums them up as fallen angels and thus equal to demons.
Many ascetics, like Origen and Anthony the Great, described demons as psychological powers, tempting to evil, in contrast to benevolent angels advising good. According to Life of Anthony, written in Greek around 360 by Athanasius of Alexandria, most of the time, the demons were expressed as an internal struggle, inclinations, and temptations. But after Anthony successfully resisted the demons, they would appear in human form to tempt and threaten him even more intensely.
Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite described evil as "defiancy" and does not give evil an ontological existence. He explains demons are deficient creatures, who willingly turn themselves towards the unreal and non-existence. Their dangerous nature results not from the power of their nature, but from their tendency to drag others into the "void" and the unreal, away from God.
Michael Psellos proposed the existence of several types of demons, deeply influenced by the material nature of the regions they dwell. The highest and most powerful demons attack the mind of people using their "imaginative action" () to produce illusions in the mind. The lowest demons, on the other hand, are almost mindless, gross, and grunting spirits, which try to possess people instinctively, simply attracted by the warmth and life of humans. These cause diseases, fatal accidents and animalistic behavior in their victims. They are unable to speak, while other lower types of demons might give out false oracles. The demons are divided into:
* Leliouria: The highest demons who inhabit the ether, beyond the moon
* Aeria: Demons of the air below the moon
* Chthonia: Inhabiting the land
* Hyraia/Enalia: Dwelling in the water
* Bypochtbonia: They live beneath the earth
* Misophaes: The lowest type of demon, blind and almost senseless in the lowest hell
Invocation of Saints, holy men and women, especially ascetics, reading the Gospel, holy oil or water is said to drive them out. However, Psellos' schemes have been too inconsistent to answer questions about the hierarchy of fallen angels. The devil's position is impossible to assign in this scheme and it does not respond to living perceptions of felt experience and was considered rather impractical to have a lasting effect or impact on Christian demonology.}}
The contemporary Roman Catholic Church unequivocally teaches that angels and demons are real beings rather than just symbolic devices. The Catholic Church has a cadre of officially sanctioned exorcists which perform many exorcisms each year. The exorcists of the Catholic Church teach that demons attack humans continually but that afflicted persons can be effectively healed and protected either by the formal rite of exorcism, authorized to be performed only by bishops and those they designate, or by prayers of deliverance, which any Christian can offer for themselves or others.
At various times in Christian history, attempts have been made to classify demons according to various proposed demonic hierarchies.
In recent times, scholars doubted that independent demons exist, and rather considers them, aking to Jewish satan, to be servants of God. According to S. N. Chiu, God is shown sending a demon against Saul in 1 Samuel 16 and 18 in order to punish him for the failure to follow God's instructions, showing God as having the power to use demons for his own purposes, putting the demon under his divine authority. According to the Britannica Concise Encyclopedia, demons, despite being typically associated with evil, are often shown to be under divine control, and not acting of their own devices. Islam
, a late 14th-century Arabic manuscript]]
In Islamic beliefs, demons are roughly of two types: Jinn and devils ( or ). The jinn derive from pre-Islamic Arabian beliefs, although their exact origin is unclear. The presence of jinn in pre-Islamic Arabian beliefs is not only testified by the Quran, but also by pre-Islamic literature in the seventh century. The (devils or satans) on the other hand, appear in stories bearing similarities with Judeo-Christian tradition.
Although virtually absent in the Quran, Muslims generally hold the belief that jinn can possess people. In the tradition of Ash'ari, it has been considered to be part of the doctrines () of the "people of the Sunnah" (). For most theologians, (Ashʿaris as well as Muʿtazilis), and in contrast to philosophers, both demons (jinn and devils) and angels are material. All sentient beings are said to be created out from a physical substance: angels from light, jinn from fire and air, devils from fire, and humans from earth.
The Quran emphasizes similarities between humans and jinn. The Quranic phrase () puts the jinn to the same position as humans and whereby also rejecting kinship with God.
While the jinn are morally ambivalent, the represent malevolent forces akin to the devils of the Judeo-Christian tradition,
Muslim writers on astrology identified the planetary spirits known from ancient Greek cosmology, with seven demon-kings, often invoked for the preparation of Magic squares. According to the Book of Wonders each day of the week is assigned to one of the (higher spirits) and (lower spirits).
Dharmic religions
Hinduism
Hinduism advocates the reincarnation and transmigration of souls according to one's karma. Souls (Atman) of the dead are adjudged by the Yama and are accorded various purging punishments before being reborn. According to Hindu cosmology, othing is either purely evil or good, and even demonic beings could eventually abandon their demonic nature. Humans that have committed extraordinary wrongs are condemned to roam as lonely, often mischief mongers, spirits for a length of time before being reborn. Many kinds of such spirits (Vetalas and Pishachas) are recognized in the later Hindu texts. Even celestial beings are subject to change.
The identification of with demons stems from the description of as "formerly gods" (). In the Veda, gods (deva) and demi-gods or titans (asura) are not yet differentiated beings and both share the upper world. Rather than denoting a separate class of being, the asuras are characterized by being great leaders, often warriors. , in the earliest hymns of the Rigveda, originally meant any supernatural spirit, either good or bad. Since the of the Indic linguistic branch is cognate with the of the Early Iranian languages, the word , representing a category of celestial beings, is a cognate with Old Persian Ahura. Ancient Hinduism tells that Devas (also called suras) and Asuras are half-brothers, sons of the same father Kashyapa; although some of the Devas, such as Varuna, are also called Asuras. Later, during Puranic age, Asura and Rakshasa came to exclusively mean any of a race of anthropomorphic, powerful, possibly evil beings. Daitya (lit. sons of the mother Diti), Danava (lit. sons of the mother "Danu"), Maya Danava, Rakshasa (lit. from "harm to be guarded against"), and are sometimes translated into English as .
It is only by the time of the Brahmanas that the asuras are said to inhabit the underworld and are progressively, despite originally distinct beings, assimilated to the rakshasas. The gods are said to have claimed heaven for themselves and tricked the asuras, ending on earth. During the Vedic period, gods aid humans against demons. By that, gods secure their own place in heaven, using humans as tools to defeat their cosmic enemies. The rakshasas are often portrayed as vile creatures associated with greed and magical abilities, unleashed through rites considered inappropriate by the Brahmins. However, the asuras retain some of their previous features, and function often as individual leaders of the rakshasas. The asuras also mostly dwell in the heavenly worlds, while the Earth is plagued by lower demonic beings such as rakshasas, bhutas, pretas, and pishachas. The pretas are ghosts, who could not go to the afterlife yet. The Pishachas, likewise, are spirits of the dead, but associated with eating human-flesh.
With increase in asceticism during the post-Vedic period, withdrawal of sacrificial rituals was considered a threat to the gods. However, all demonic appearances are only temporary.
Buddhism
Buddhism classifies sentient beings into six types: Deva, Asura, human, animal, ghost, hell-being. When Buddhism spread, it accommodated itself with indigenous popular ideas about demons. The Pali Sutras represent the unenlightened people as "possessed" by the demons of "desire" and "craving". Tasmanian mythology in particular has many beings translated as "devils"; these include malicious spirits like Rageowrapper as well as spirits summoned in magic. Tasmanian Aboriginal people would describe these entities as "devils" and related that these spiritual beings as walking alongside Aboriginal people "carrying a torch but could not be seen".
Ancient Egypt
The exact definition of demon in Egyptology posed a major problem for modern scholarship, since the borders between a deity and a demon are sometimes blurred and the ancient Egyptian language lacks a term for the modern English demon. Both deities and demons can act as intermediaries to deliver messages to humans. By that, they share some resemblance to the Greek . However, magical writings indicate that ancient Egyptians acknowledged the existence of malevolent demons by highlighting the demon names with red ink. haunted China from the very earliest periods and persisted throughout the late imperial era. In the Xia dynasty, nine bronze cauldrons with their forms were cast to help the common people to identify and to avoid them. Classical texts in the Zhou and Warring-States period distinguish between the demons of mountains and forests (the seductive Chimei ), demons of trees and rocks (a necrophagous fever-demon, the Wangliang ), who caused disease and miscarriage) and fever demons born from water (Wangxiang , a child-like being with red eyes). These demons were said to be born of aberrant qi (breath or energy), known to accost and kill travellers, and held responsible for sickness. People also feared the Muling (also muzhong ) – demons forming over time in trees of immense age, capable of inflicting disease and killing human passers-by and birds flying overhead. Examples include the penghou (), a demon associated with camphor trees in mountain forests, and which takes the form of a human-headed dog, and in the southern provinces, the banana-leaf spirits.
From the Tang dynasty onwards, belief in shapeshifting foxes, tigers and wolves, amongst other creatures, also featured in Chinese folk belief, partly due to the existence of outlawed fox-spirit cults. Fox demons () are described as cunning and lustful, capable of clairvoyance, and of inflicting disease and poisoning at will. They are sometimes seen as beings requiring worship to be appeased or placated. Tiger demons () and wolf demons () are ravening beings roaming large territories for prey, taking the form of humans to conveniently insert themselves into communities and settlements. Tiger demons are described as being enslave the souls of humans they have killed, turning them into minions. In the superstitious climate of the previous centuries, people mistaken as tigers and wolves in human disguise were often put to death or starved in their cells by magistrates.
Fish () and snake demons () are said to have attempted to assault Confucius. Even insects are capable of being demonic. In one tale, the sighting of a centipede demon () in the form of an old woman without eyes is said to have led to the sickness and death of an entire household.
One notable demon not in the above categories includes the Heisheng or Heiqi ( or ), a kind of roving vapour demon that inflicts damage to persons and property wherever it roams, sometimes killing where it goes. Another are undefined Poltergeists, sometimes afflicting monasteries, causing serious nuisances, and unable to be exorcised.
Disambiguation
The terms Yao (), Mo (), Gui (), Guai () and Xie () are their various two-character combinations often used to refer to these creatures, but of these terms, only Mo () denotes demons in the religious sense.
China has two classes of beings that might be regarded as demons, and which are generally translated as such:
* Yao () – a kind of uncanny supernatural creature, usually with the power to shapeshift, to poison or to cause disease, and to bewilder or enthrall. They are associated with sorcery or sorcery-like powers. They are not always evil in the sense that Western demons or the Chinese () are but are represented as having malevolent tendencies and as creatures of ill-omen. They are often invoked as an explanation for strange events, bizarre occurrences, mysterious diseases and horrible accidents. They resemble the unseelie fae of Celtic legend and folklore in their powers and predisposition - and are sometimes translated as or rather than .
* Mo () Some scholars, like ibn Sina, rejected the reality of jinn altogether. Al-Jāḥiẓ and al-Masʿūdī, explained jinn and demons as merely psychological phenomena.
In his Kitāb al-Hayawān, al-Jāḥiẓ states that jinn and demons are the product of loneliness. Such a state induces people to mind-games, causing . Al-Masʿūdī is similarly critical regarding the reality of demons. He states that alleged demonic encounters are the result of fear and "wrong thinking". Alleged encounters are then told to other generations in bedtime stories and poems. When they grow up, they remember such stories in a state of fear or loneliness. This encourages their imaginations, resulting in another alleged demonic encounter. Sigmund Freud developed this idea and claimed that the concept of demons was derived from the important relation of the living to the dead: "The fact that demons are always regarded as the spirits of those who have died recently shows better than anything the influence of mourning on the origin of the belief in demons."
M. Scott Peck, an American psychiatrist, wrote two books on the subject, People of the Lie: The Hope For Healing Human Evil and ''Glimpses of the Devil: A Psychiatrist's Personal Accounts of Possession, Exorcism, and Redemption''. Peck describes in some detail several cases involving his patients. In People of the Lie he provides identifying characteristics of an evil person, whom he classified as having a character disorder. In Glimpses of the Devil Peck goes into significant detail describing how he became interested in exorcism in order to debunk the myth of possession by evil spirits – only to be convinced otherwise after encountering two cases which did not fit into any category known to psychology or psychiatry. Peck came to the conclusion that possession was a rare phenomenon related to evil and that possessed people are not actually evil; rather, they are doing battle with the forces of evil.
Although Peck's earlier work was met with widespread popular acceptance, his work on the topics of evil and possession has generated significant debate and derision. Much was made of his association with (and admiration for) the controversial Malachi Martin, a Roman Catholic priest and a former Jesuit, despite the fact that Peck consistently called Martin a liar and a manipulator.
See also
* Classification of demons
* List of fictional demons
* List of theological demons
* List of occult terms
* Acheri
* Empusa
* Erinyes
* Prayer to Saint Michael
* Fairy
* Folk devil
* Goblin
*
* Spiritual warfare
* Troll
* Unclean spirit
References
Citations Works cited
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* Wundt, W. (1906). Mythus und Religion, Teil II (Völkerpsychologie, Band II). Leipzig.
Further reading
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External links
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* [https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/index/d.htm#Demon Catechism of the Catholic Church:] Hyperlinked references to demons in the online Catechism of the Catholic Church
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050330091329/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-79 Dictionary of the History of Ideas:] Demonology
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Domino effect
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thumb|A falling line of dominoes, each knocking the next over
A domino effect is the cumulative effect produced when one event sets off a series of similar or related events, a form of chain reaction. The term is an analogy to a falling row of dominoes. It typically refers to a linked sequence of events where the time between successive events is relatively short. The term can be used literally (about a series of actual collisions) or metaphorically (about causal linkages within systems such as global finance or politics).
The literal, mechanical domino effect is exploited in Rube Goldberg machines. In chemistry, the principle applies to a domino reaction, in which one chemical reaction sets up the conditions necessary for a subsequent one that soon follows. In the realm of process safety, a domino-effect accident is an initial undesirable event triggering additional ones in related equipment or facilities, leading to a total incident effect more severe than the primary accident alone.
The metaphorical usage implies that an outcome is inevitable or highly likely (as it has already started to happen) – a form of slippery slope argument. When this outcome is actually unlikely (the argument is fallacious), it has also been called the domino fallacy.
See also
References
Further reading
Category:Metaphors referring to objects
Category:Causality
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Diffusion pump
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right|250 px|thumb|Six inch oil diffusion pump.
thumb|Ulvac oil diffusion pump cutaway
Diffusion pumps use a high speed jet of vapor to direct gas molecules in the pump throat down into the bottom of the pump and out the exhaust. They were the first type of high vacuum pumps operating in the regime of free molecular flow, where the movement of the gas molecules can be better understood as diffusion than by conventional fluid dynamics. Invented in 1915 by Wolfgang Gaede, he named it a diffusion pump since his design was based on the finding that gas cannot diffuse against the vapor stream, but will be carried with it to the exhaust. However, the principle of operation might be more precisely described as gas-jet pump, since diffusion also plays a role in other types of high vacuum pumps. In modern textbooks, the diffusion pump is categorized as a momentum transfer pump.
The diffusion pump is widely used in both industrial and research applications. Most modern diffusion pumps use silicone oil or polyphenyl ethers as the working fluid.
History
In the late 19th century, most vacuums were created using a Sprengel pump, which had the advantage of being very simple to operate, and capable of achieving quite good vacuum given enough time. Compared to later pumps, however, the pumping speed was very slow and the vapor pressure of the liquid mercury limited the ultimate vacuum.
Following his invention of the molecular pump, Wolfgang Gaede invented the diffusion pump in 1915, and originally used elemental mercury as the working fluid. After its invention, the design was quickly commercialized by Leybold. It was then improved by Irving Langmuir and W. Crawford. Cecil Reginald Burch discovered the possibility of using silicone oil in 1928.
Oil diffusion pumps
An oil diffusion pump is used to achieve higher vacuum (lower pressure) than is possible by use of positive displacement pumps alone. Although its use has been mainly associated within the high-vacuum range, down to
, diffusion pumps today can produce pressures approaching
when properly used with modern fluids and accessories. The features that make the diffusion pump attractive for high and ultra-high vacuum use are its high pumping speed for all gases and low cost per unit pumping speed when compared with other types of pump used in the same vacuum range. Diffusion pumps cannot discharge directly into the atmosphere, so a mechanical forepump is typically used to maintain an outlet pressure around
.
left|thumb|250 px|Diffusion pumps used on the Calutron mass spectrometers during the Manhattan Project, visible as black cylinders in the upper half of the image
thumb|right|250 px|Diagram of an oil diffusion pump
The oil diffusion pump is operated with an oil of low vapor pressure. The high speed jet is generated by boiling the fluid and directing the vapor through a jet assembly. Note that the oil is gaseous when entering the nozzles. Within the nozzles, the flow changes from laminar to supersonic and molecular. Often, several jets are used in series to enhance the pumping action. The outside of the diffusion pump is cooled using either air flow, water lines or a water-filled jacket. As the vapor jet hits the outer cooled shell of the diffusion pump, the working fluid condenses and is recovered and directed back to the boiler. The pumped gases continue flowing to the base of the pump at increased pressure, flowing out through the diffusion pump outlet, where they are compressed to ambient pressure by the secondary mechanical forepump and exhausted.
Unlike turbomolecular pumps and cryopumps, diffusion pumps have no moving parts and as a result are quite durable and reliable. They can function over pressure ranges of
. They are driven only by convection and thus have a very low energy efficiency.
One major disadvantage of diffusion pumps is the tendency to backstream oil into the vacuum chamber. This oil can contaminate surfaces inside the chamber or upon contact with hot filaments or electrical discharges may result in carbonaceous or siliceous deposits. Due to backstreaming, oil diffusion pumps are not suitable for use with highly sensitive analytical equipment or other applications which require an extremely clean vacuum environment, but mercury diffusion pumps may be in the case of ultra high vacuum chambers used for metal deposition. Often cold traps and baffles are used to minimize backstreaming, although this results in some loss of pumping speed.
The oil of a diffusion pump cannot be exposed to the atmosphere when hot. If this occurs, the oil will oxidise and has to be replaced. If a fire occurs, the smoke and residue may contaminate other parts of the system.
Oil types
The least expensive diffusion pump oils are based on hydrocarbons which have been purified by double-distillation. Compared with the other fluids, they have higher vapor pressure, so are usually limited to a pressure of
. They are also the most likely to burn or explode if exposed to oxidizers.
The most common silicone oils used in diffusion pumps are trisiloxanes, which contain the chemical group Si-O-Si-O-Si, to which various phenyl groups or methyl groups are attached. These are available as the so-called 702 and 703 blends, which were formerly manufactured by Dow Corning. These can be further separated into 704 and 705 oils, which are made up of the isomers of tetraphenyl tetramethyl trisiloxane and pentaphenyl trimethyl trisiloxane respectively.
For pumping reactive species, usually a polyphenyl ether based oil is used. These oils are the most chemical and heat resistant type of diffusion pump oil.
Steam ejectors
thumb|right|250 px|Plot of pumping speed as a function of pressure for a diffusion pump.
thumb|Early Langmuir mercury diffusion pump (vertical column) and its backing pump (in background), about 1920. The diffusion pump was widely used in manufacturing vacuum tubes, the key technology which dominated the radio and electronics industry for 50 years.
The steam ejector is a popular form of pump for vacuum distillation and freeze-drying. A jet of steam entrains the vapour that must be removed from the vacuum chamber. Steam ejectors can have single or multiple stages, with and without condensers in between the stages. While both steam ejectors and diffusion pumps use jets of vapor to entrain gas, they work on fundamentally different principles - steam ejectors rely on viscous flow and mixing to pump gas, whereas diffusion pumps use molecular diffusion. This has several consequences. In diffusion pumps, the inlet pressure can be much lower than the static pressure of jet, whereas in steam ejectors the two pressures are about the same. Also, diffusion pumps are capable of much higher compression ratios, and cannot discharge directly to atmosphere.
See also
Turbomolecular pump
Vacuum pump
Aspirator (pump)
References
External links
An oil diffusion pump built from glass by the Arizona State University Main
Further reading
Category:Vacuum pumps
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Domenico Alberti
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Domenico Alberti (c. 1710 – 14 October 1746 (according to other sources: 1740 and studied music with Antonio Lotti. He wrote operas, songs, and sonatas for keyboard instruments, for which he is best known today. His sonatas frequently employ arpeggiated accompaniment in the left hand in one of several patterns that are now collectively known as Alberti bass. Alberti was one of the earliest composers to use those patterns, but was not the first or only one. The most well-known of these patterns consists of regular broken chords, with the lowest note sounding first, then the highest, then the middle and then the highest again, with the pattern repeated.
Today, Alberti is regarded as a minor composer, and his works are played or recorded only irregularly. However, the Alberti bass was used by many later composers, and it became an important element in much keyboard music of the classical music era.
An example of Alberti bass (Mozart's Piano Sonata, K 545):
250px|center
In his own lifetime, Alberti was known as a singer, and often used to accompany himself on the harpsichord. In 1736, he served as a page for Pietro Andrea Cappello, the Venetian ambassador to Spain. While at the Spanish court, the famous castrato singer Farinelli heard him sing. Farinelli was said to have been impressed, although Alberti was an amateur.
Alberti's best known pieces are his keyboard sonatas, although even they are very rarely performed. It is thought he wrote around 36 sonatas, of which 14 have survived. They all have two movements, each in binary form.
It is probable that Mozart's first violin sonatas, written at the age of seven, were modeled on Alberti's work.
References
External links
Category:1710s births
Category:1746 deaths
Category:Italian Baroque composers
Category:Italian Classical-period composers
Category:Italian opera composers
Category:Italian male opera composers
Category:Musicians from Venice
Category:18th-century Italian composers
Category:18th-century Italian male musicians
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Doris Day
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| birth_place = Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place = Carmel Valley, California, U.S.
| known_for | occupation
| years_active = 1937–2012
| spouse =
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| children = Terry Melcher
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Doris Day (born Doris Mary Anne Kappelhoff; April 3, 1922 – May 13, 2019<!-- Do not change her birth date to 1924 or any other date - this has been discussed and resolved on the talk page. -->) was an American actress and singer.<!--Keep most notable occupations in lead per MOS:ROLEBIO--> She began her career as a big band singer in 1937, achieving commercial success in 1945 with two No. 1 recordings, "Sentimental Journey" and "My Dreams Are Getting Better All the Time" with Les Brown and His Band of Renown. She left Brown to embark on a solo career and recorded more than 650 songs from 1947 to 1967.
Day was one of the leading Hollywood film stars of the 1950s and 1960s. Her film career began with Romance on the High Seas (1948). She starred in films of many genres, including musicals, comedies, dramas and thrillers. She played the title role in Calamity Jane (1953) and starred in Alfred Hitchcock's The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956) with James Stewart. She co-starred with Rock Hudson in three successful comedies, Pillow Talk (1959), for which she was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress, Lover Come Back (1961) and Send Me No Flowers (1964). She also worked with James Garner on both Move Over, Darling (1963) and The Thrill of It All (1963) and starred alongside Clark Gable, Cary Grant, James Cagney, David Niven, Ginger Rogers, Jack Lemmon, Frank Sinatra, Kirk Douglas, Lauren Bacall, and Rod Taylor in various films. After ending her film career in 1968, she starred in her own television sitcom The Doris Day Show (1968–1973).
In 1989, Day was awarded the Golden Globe and the Cecil B. DeMille Award for Lifetime Achievement in Motion Pictures. In 2004, she was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom. In 2008, she received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award as well as a Legend Award from the Society of Singers. In 2011, she was awarded the Los Angeles Film Critics Association's Career Achievement Award. In 2011, Day released her 29th studio album, My Heart, which contained new material and became a UK Top 10 album. , she was one of eight recording artists to have been the top box-office earner in the United States four times.Early lifeDay was born Doris Mary Anne Kappelhoff the daughter of German-American parents Alma Sophia (née Welz; 1895–1976) and William Joseph Kappelhoff (1892–1967). She was named after actress Doris Kenyon. Her mother was a homemaker, and her father was a music teacher and choirmaster. Her paternal grandfather Franz Joseph Wilhelm Kappelhoff immigrated to the United States in 1875 and settled within the large German community in Cincinnati. For most of her life, Day stated that she was born in 1924, but on the occasion of her 95th birthday, the Associated Press found her birth certificate that showed a 1922 year of birth. She developed an early interest in dance, and in the mid-1930s formed a dance duo with Jerry Doherty that performed in nationwide competitions. She had signed a contract with a casting company to be a dancer and she was preparing to move to Los Angeles to pursue this opportunity. Family friends that lived just north of Cincinnati, in Hamilton, Ohio planned a going away party for her but tragedy struck on her way to the party. On October 13, 1937, while Day was riding with friends, their car collided with a freight train, and she broke her right leg, curtailing her prospects as a professional dancer.CareerEarly career (1938–1947)
(1940)]]
While recovering from her car accident, Day sang along with the radio and discovered her singing talent. She later said: "During this long, boring period, I used to while away a lot of time listening to the radio, sometimes singing along with the likes of Benny Goodman, Duke Ellington, Tommy Dorsey, and Glenn Miller. But the one radio voice I listened to above others belonged to Ella Fitzgerald. There was a quality to her voice that fascinated me, and I'd sing along with her, trying to catch the subtle ways she shaded her voice, the casual yet clean way she sang the words."
Day's mother Alma arranged for Doris to receive singing lessons from Grace Raine. After three lessons, Raine told Alma that Day had "tremendous potential" and gave her three lessons per week for the price of one. Years later, Day said that Raine had a greater effect on her singing style and career than had anyone else.
During the eight months when she was receiving singing lessons, Day secured her first professional jobs as a vocalist on the WLW radio program ''Carlin's Carnival'' and in a local restaurant, Charlie Yee's Shanghai Inn. During her radio performances, she first caught the attention of Barney Rapp, who was seeking a female vocalist and asked her to audition for the job. According to Rapp, he had auditioned about 200 other singers.
In 1939, Rapp suggested the stage name Doris Day because the Kappelhoff surname was too long for marquees and he admired her rendition of the song "Day After Day". After working with Rapp, Day worked with bandleaders Jimmy James, Bob Crosby and Les Brown. In 1941, Day appeared as a singer in three Soundies with the Les Brown band.
While working with Brown, Day recorded her first hit recording, "Sentimental Journey", released in early 1945. It soon became an anthem for World War II servicemen. The song continues to be associated with Day, and she rerecorded it on several occasions, including a version for her 1971 television special. During 1945–46, Day (as vocalist with the Les Brown Band) had six other top ten hits on the Billboard chart: "My Dreams Are Getting Better All the Time", Tain't Me", "Till the End of Time", "You Won't Be Satisfied (Until You Break My Heart)", "The Whole World Is Singing My Song" and "I Got the Sun in the Mornin. Les Brown said, "As a singer Doris belongs in the company of Bing Crosby and Frank Sinatra."
Early film career (1948–1954)
and Day in Starlift (1951)]]
While singing with the Les Brown band and for nearly two years on Bob Hope's weekly radio program, She was shocked to receive the offer and admitted to Curtiz that she was a singer without acting experience but he appreciated her honesty and felt that "her freckles made her look like the All-American Girl."
The film provided her with a No. 2 hit recording as a soloist, "It's Magic", which occurred two months after her first No. 1 hit "Love Somebody", a duet with Buddy Clark. Day recorded "Someone Like You" before the film My Dream Is Yours (1949), which featured the song. In 1950, she collaborated as a singer with the polka musician Frankie Yankovic, and the U.S. servicemen in Korea voted her their favorite star.
Day continued to appear in light musicals such as On Moonlight Bay (1951), By the Light of the Silvery Moon (1953) and Tea For Two (1950) for Warner Bros.
in Calamity Jane (1953)]]
Her most commercially successful film for Warner Bros. was ''I'll See You in My Dreams'' (1951), a musical biography of lyricist Gus Kahn that broke box-office records of 20 years. It was Day's fourth film directed by Curtiz. She appeared as the title character in the comedic western-themed musical Calamity Jane (1953). A song from the film, "Secret Love", won the Academy Award for Best Original Song and became Day's fourth No. 1 hit single in the United States.
Between 1950 and 1953, the albums from six of her film musicals charted in the Top 10, including three that reached No. 1. After filming Lucky Me (1954) with Bob Cummings and Young at Heart (1955) with Frank Sinatra, Day elected to not renew her contract with Warner Brothers.
During this period, Day also had her own radio program, The Doris Day Show. It was broadcast on CBS in 1952–1953.Breakthrough (1955–1958)
(1955)]]
Primarily recognized as a musical-comedy actress, Day began to accept more dramatic roles in order to broaden her range. Her dramatic star turn as singer Ruth Etting in Love Me or Leave Me'' (1955), with top billing above James Cagney, received critical and commercial success, becoming Day's greatest film success to that point. Cagney said that she had "the ability to project the simple, direct statement of a simple, direct idea without cluttering it," comparing her performance to that of Laurette Taylor in the Broadway production The Glass Menagerie (1945). Day felt that it was her best film performance. The film's producer Joe Pasternak said, "I was stunned that Doris did not get an Oscar nomination." The film's soundtrack album became a No. 1 hit.
Day starred in Alfred Hitchcock's suspense film The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956 film) opposite James Stewart. She sang two songs in the film, "Que Sera, Sera (Whatever Will Be, Will Be)", which won an Academy Award for Best Original Song, and "We'll Love Again". The film was Day's 10th to reach the top 10 at the box office. She played the title role in the film noir thriller Julie (1956) with Louis Jourdan.
After three successive dramatic films, Day returned to her musical/comedic roots in The Pajama Game (1957) with John Raitt, based on the Broadway play of the same name. She appeared in the Paramount comedy ''Teacher's Pet (1958) alongside Clark Gable and Gig Young. She costarred with Richard Widmark and Gig Young in the romantic comedy film The Tunnel of Love (1958) and with Jack Lemmon in It Happened to Jane (1959).
Billboard annual nationwide poll of disc jockeys had ranked Day as the No. 1 female vocalist nine times in ten years (1949 through 1958), but her success and popularity as a singer was now being overshadowed by her box-office appeal.
Box-office success (1959–1968)
In 1959, Day entered her most successful phase as a film actress with a series of romantic comedies beginning with Pillow Talk (1959), costarring Rock Hudson, who became a lifelong friend, and Tony Randall. Day received a nomination for an Academy Award for Best Actress, her only career Oscar nomination. Day, Hudson and Randall appeared in two more films together, Lover Come Back (1961) and Send Me No Flowers (1964).
Along with David Niven and Janis Paige, Day starred in Please Don't Eat the Daisies (1960) and with Cary Grant in the comedy That Touch of Mink'' (1962). During 1960 and the 1962-1964 period, she ranked No. 1 at the box office, the second woman to be No. 1 four times, an accomplishment equaled by no other actress except Shirley Temple. She set a record that has yet to be matched by receiving seven consecutive Laurel Awards as the top female box-office star.
Day teamed with James Garner starting with The Thrill of It All, followed by Move Over, Darling (both 1963). The film's theme song "Move Over Darling", cowritten by her son, reached No. 8 in the UK. Between these comedic film appearances, Day costarred with Rex Harrison in the thriller Midnight Lace (1960), an update of the stage thriller Gaslight.
Day's next film Do Not Disturb (1965) was popular with audiences, but her popularity soon waned. By the late 1960s, in the period of the emerging sexual revolution, some critics and comics dubbed Day "The World's Oldest Virgin," and she slipped from the list of top box-office stars, last appearing in the top ten with the hit film The Glass Bottom Boat (1966). Among the roles that she declined was that of Mrs. Robinson in The Graduate, a role that eventually went to Anne Bancroft. In her memoirs, Day said that she had rejected the part on moral grounds, finding the script "vulgar and offensive."
Day starred in the Western film The Ballad of Josie in 1967. That same year, Day recorded The Love Album, although it was not released until 1994. In 1968, she starred in the comedy film Where Were You When the Lights Went Out? about the Northeast blackout of November 9, 1965. Her final feature, the comedy With Six You Get Eggroll, was released in 1968.
From 1959 to 1970, Day received nine Laurel Award nominations (and won four times) for best female performance in eight comedies and one drama. From 1959 through 1969, she received six Golden Globe nominations for best female performance in three comedies, one drama (Midnight Lace), one musical (Jumbo) and her television series.
Bankruptcy and television career
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After her third husband Martin Melcher died on April 20, 1968, Day was shocked to discover that Melcher and his business partner and advisor Jerome Bernard Rosenthal had squandered her earnings, leaving her deeply in debt. Rosenthal had been her attorney since 1949 when he had represented her in her uncontested divorce action against her second husband, saxophonist George W. Weidler. Day filed suit against Rosenthal in February 1969 and won a successful decision in 1974, but she did not receive compensation until a settlement was reached in 1979.
Day also learned to her displeasure that Melcher had committed her to a television series that became The Doris Day Show.
Day hated the idea of performing on television but felt obligated to forge ahead with the series. and featured a rerecorded version of "Que Sera, Sera" as its theme song. Day persevered with the show, needing to work to repay her debts, but only after CBS ceded creative control to her and her son. The show enjoyed a successful five-year run, although it may be best remembered for its abrupt season-to-season changes in casting and premise.
on the TV special Doris Day Today<br />(CBS, February 19, 1975) and Doris Day Today (1975), and she was a guest on various shows in the 1970s.
In the 1985–86 season, Day hosted her own television talk show, Doris Day's Best Friends'', on the Christian Broadcasting Network (CBN). The network canceled the show after 26 episodes despite the worldwide publicity that it had received. One episode featured Rock Hudson, who was showing the first public symptoms of AIDS, including severe weight loss and fatigue. He died from the disease later that year. Day later said, "He was very sick. But I just brushed that off and I came out and put my arms around him and said, 'Am I glad to see you'."1980s and 1990s
In October 1985, the Supreme Court of California rejected Rosenthal's appeal of the multimillion-dollar judgment awarded to Day in her suit against him for legal malpractice and upheld the conclusions of a trial court and an appeals court that Rosenthal had acted improperly. In April 1986, the U.S. Supreme Court refused to review the lower court's judgment. In June 1987, Rosenthal filed a $30 million lawsuit against lawyers who he claimed had cheated him out of millions of dollars in real-estate investments. He named Day as a codefendant, describing her as an "unwilling, involuntary plaintiff whose consent cannot be obtained." Rosenthal claimed that much of the money that Day had lost was the result of the unwise advice of other attorneys who had suggested that she sell three hotels at a loss, as well as some oil leases in Kentucky and Ohio. He claimed that he had made the investments under a long-term plan and did not intend to sell them until they appreciated in value. Two of the hotels sold in 1970 for about $7 million, and their estimated worth in 1986 was $50 million.
Terry Melcher stated that his father's premature death saved Day from financial ruin. It was not known whether Martin Melcher had himself been duped by Rosenthal, and Day stated publicly that she believed him to be innocent of any deliberate wrongdoing, stating that he "simply trusted the wrong person." According to author David Kaufman, Day's former costar Louis Jourdan maintained that Day disliked her husband, but Day's public statements regarding Melcher appear to contradict that assertion.
Day was scheduled to present, along with Patrick Swayze and Marvin Hamlisch, the award for Best Original Score Oscar at the 61st Academy Awards in March 1989, but she suffered a deep leg cut from a sprinkler and was unable to attend.
Day was inducted into the Ohio Women's Hall of Fame in 1981 and received the Cecil B. DeMille Award for career achievement in 1989. In 1994, Day's Greatest Hits album entered the British charts.
2000s
Day participated in celebrations of her birthday with an annual Doris Day music marathon.
She declined tribute offers from the American Film Institute and the Kennedy Center Honors because they both require that recipients attend in person. In 2004, she was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President George W. Bush for her achievements in the entertainment industry and for her work on behalf of animals. President Bush stated:
In 1978, Day founded the Doris Day Pet Foundation, now the Doris Day Animal Foundation (DDAF). An independent nonprofit 501(c)(3) grant-giving public charity, DDAF funds other nonprofit causes that promote animal welfare.
To complement the Doris Day Animal Foundation, Day formed the Doris Day Animal League (DDAL) in 1987, a national nonprofit citizens' lobbying organization on behalf of animals. Day actively lobbied the United States Congress in support of legislation designed to safeguard animal welfare on a number of occasions, and in 1995 she originated the annual World Spay Day. The DDAL merged into the Humane Society of the United States (HSUS) in 2006.
The Doris Day Horse Rescue and Adoption Center, which helps abused and neglected horses, opened in 2011 in Murchison, Texas on the grounds of an animal sanctuary started by Day's late friend, author Cleveland Amory. Day contributed $250,000 toward the founding of the center.
A posthumous auction of 1,100 of Day's possessions in April 2020 generated $3 million for the Doris Day Animal Foundation.
Day actively engaged in HIV/AIDS awareness for many years. Her commitment was primarily focused on raising awareness and fundraising for HIV/AIDS research. She co-organized several fundraising events for HIV/AIDS-related charities and provided financial contributions to research and support programs for individuals affected by the disease. In 2011, the Canadian magazine Gay Globe paid tribute to Day by featuring her on the cover of their #79 edition.
Personal life
Day's only child was music producer and songwriter Terry Melcher, who had a hit in the 1960s with "Hey Little Cobra" under the name the Rip Chords before becoming a successful producer whose acts included the Byrds, Paul Revere & the Raiders and the Beach Boys. In the late 1960s, Melcher became acquainted with Charles Manson and nearly signed him to a record deal. In August 1969, the Tate murders, orchestrated by Manson, were committed at the Benedict Canyon house that Melcher had formerly occupied. Melcher died of melanoma in November 2004.
From the 1980s, Day owned a hotel in Carmel-by-the-Sea called the Cypress Inn, an early pet–friendly hotel that was featured in Architectural Digest in 1999.MarriagesDay was married four times. From April 1941 to February 1943, she was married to trombonist Al Jorden (1917–1967), whom she met in Barney Rapp's band. Jorden was violent, had schizophrenia, and died by suicide years after their divorce. When Day became pregnant and refused to have an abortion, he beat her in an attempt to force a miscarriage. Their son was born Terrence Paul Jorden in 1942, and he adopted the surname of Melcher when he was adopted by Day's third husband.
Her second marriage was to George William Weidler (1926–1989), a saxophonist and brother of actress Virginia Weidler, from March 30, 1946, to May 31, 1949.
Day married American film producer Martin Melcher (1915–1968), who produced many of her films, on April 3, 1951, her 29th birthday, and the marriage lasted until he died in April 1968. As Day and Melcher were both Christian Scientists, she refused to visit a doctor for some time after experiencing symptoms that might have suggested cancer. Following Melcher's death, Day separated from the Church of Christ, Scientist and grew close to charismatic Protestants such as Kathryn Kuhlman, although she never lost interest in Christian Science teaching and practice.
Day's fourth marriage was to Barry Comden (1935–2009) from April 14, 1976, until April 2, 1982. He was the ''maître d'hôtel'' at one of Day's favorite restaurants. He knew of her great love of dogs and endeared himself to her by giving her a bag of meat scraps and bones as she left the restaurant. He later complained that Day cared more for her "animal friends" than for him. She was a lifelong Republican.
In a rare interview with The Hollywood Reporter on April 4, 2019, the day after her 97th birthday, Day talked about her work on the Doris Day Animal Foundation, founded in 1978. Asked to name the favorite of her films, she answered with Calamity Jane: "I was such a tomboy growing up, and she was such a fun character to play. Of course, the music was wonderful, too—'Secret Love,' especially, is such a beautiful song."
To commemorate her birthday, Day's fans gathered in late March each year for a three-day party in Carmel-by-the-Sea, California. The event was also a fundraiser for her animal foundation. During the 2019 event, there was a special screening of her film Pillow Talk (1959) to celebrate its 60th anniversary. Speaking about the film, Day stated that she "had such fun working with my pal, Rock. We laughed our way through three films we made together and remained great friends. I miss him." As requested by Day, the foundation announced that there would be no funeral services, grave marker or other public memorials.Filmography Notable films
* Romance on the High Seas (1948)
* Calamity Jane (1953)
* Love Me or Leave Me (1955)
* The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956)
* Pillow Talk (1959)
* The Thrill of It All (1963)
* Send Me No Flowers (1964)
* The Glass Bottom Boat (1966)
Discography
Studio albums
* ''You're My Thrill (1949)
* Young Man with a Horn (1950)
* Tea for Two (1950)
* Lullaby of Broadway (1951)
* On Moonlight Bay (1951)
* I'll See You in My Dreams (1951)
* By the Light of the Silvery Moon (1953)
* Calamity Jane (1953)
* Young at Heart (1954)
* Love Me or Leave Me (1955)
* Day Dreams (1955)
* Day by Day (1956)
* The Pajama Game (1957)
* Day by Night (1957)
* Hooray for Hollywood (1958)
* Cuttin' Capers (1959)
* What Every Girl Should Know (1960)
* Show Time (1960)
* Listen to Day (1960)
* Bright and Shiny (1961)
* I Have Dreamed (1961)
* Duet (1962)
* You'll Never Walk Alone (1962)
* Billy Rose's Jumbo (1962)
* Annie Get Your Gun (1963)
* Love Him (1963)
* The Doris Day Christmas Album (1964)
* With a Smile and a Song (1964)
* Latin for Lovers (1965)
* Doris Day's Sentimental Journey (1965)
* The Love Album (recorded 1967; released in 1994)
* My Heart (with eight previously unissued tracks recorded in 1985; released in 2011)
See also
* List of awards and nominations received by Doris Day
References
Sources
*Barothy, Mary Anne (2007), Day at a Time: An Indiana Girl's Sentimental Journey to Doris Day's Hollywood and Beyond. Hawthorne Publishing,
*
*Bret, David (2008), Doris Day: Reluctant Star. JR Books, London,
* Brogan, Paul E. (2011), Was That a Name I Dropped?'', Aberdeen Bay;
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* Patrick, Pierre; McGee, Garry (2009), The Doris Day Companion: A Beautiful Day. BearManor Media,
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External links
*
* [https://www.dorisdayanimalfoundation.org/ Doris Day Animal Foundation]
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Category:1922 births
Category:2019 deaths
Category:20th-century American actresses
Category:20th-century American women singers
Category:21st-century American women singers
Category:Actresses from Cincinnati
Category:Age controversies
Category:American Christian Scientists
Category:American film actresses
Category:American people of German descent
Category:American television actresses
Category:American television talk show hosts
Category:American women memoirists
Category:American women pop singers
Category:American animal welfare workers
Category:Arwin Records artists
Category:Big band singers
Category:California Republicans
Category:Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners
Category:Columbia Records artists
Category:Converts to Christian Science
Category:Deaths from pneumonia in California
Category:Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners
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Category:Traditional pop music singers
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Distillation
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Distill (album)|Distill (journal)Distill (journal)|Distillate (motor fuel)}}
s or mechanical stirring machine)<br />16: the distillate-cooling water bath. Distillation provides a convenient and time-tested solution to separate a diversity of chemicals in a continuous manner with high purity. However, distillation has an enormous environmental footprint, resulting in the consumption of approximately 25% of all industrial energy use. The key issue is that distillation operates based on phase changes, and this separation mechanism requires vast energy inputs.
Dry distillation (thermolysis and pyrolysis) is the heating of solid materials to produce gases that condense either into fluid products or into solid products. The term dry distillation includes the separation processes of destructive distillation and of chemical cracking, breaking down large hydrocarbon molecules into smaller hydrocarbon molecules. Moreover, a partial distillation results in partial separations of the mixture's components, which process yields nearly-pure components; partial distillation also realizes partial separations of the mixture to increase the concentrations of selected components. In either method, the separation process of distillation exploits the differences in the relative volatility of the component substances of the heated mixture.
In the industrial applications of classical distillation, the term distillation is used as a unit of operation that identifies and denotes a process of physical separation, not a chemical reaction; thus an industrial installation that produces distilled beverages, is a distillery of alcohol. These are some applications of the chemical separation process that is distillation:
* Distilling fermented products to yield alcoholic beverages with a high content by volume of ethyl alcohol.
* Desalination to produce potable water and for medico-industrial applications.
* Crude oil stabilisation, a partial distillation to reduce the vapor pressure of crude oil, which thus is safe to store and to transport, and thereby reduces the volume of atmospheric emissions of volatile hydrocarbons.
* Fractional distillation used in the midstream operations of an oil refinery for producing fuels and chemical raw materials for livestock feed.
* Cryogenic Air separation into the component gases — oxygen, nitrogen, and argon — for use as industrial gases.
* Chemical synthesis to separate impurities and unreacted materials.
History
Iron Age
Early evidence of distillation was found on Akkadian tablets dated describing perfumery operations. The tablets provided textual evidence that an early, primitive form of distillation was known to the Babylonians of ancient Mesopotamia. Classical antiquity Greek and Roman terminology
According to British chemist T. Fairley, neither the Greeks nor the Romans had any term for the modern concept of distillation. Words like "distill" would have referred to something else, in most cases a part of some process unrelated to what now is known as distillation. In the words of Fairley and German chemical engineer Norbert Kockmann respectively:
According to Dutch chemical historian Robert J. Forbes, the word distillare (to drip off) when used by the Romans, e.g. Seneca and Pliny the Elder, was "never used in our sense".
Aristotle
Aristotle knew that water condensing from evaporating seawater is fresh:
Letting seawater evaporate and condense into freshwater cannot be called "distillation" for distillation involves boiling, but the experiment may have been an important step towards distillation.
Alexandrian chemists
, from the Byzantine Greek manuscript Parisinus graces.]]Early evidence of distillation has been found related to alchemists working in Alexandria in Roman Egypt in the 1st century CE. Work on distilling other liquids continued in early Byzantine Egypt under Zosimus of Panopolis in the 3rd century.
Ancient India and China (1–500 CE)
Distillation was practiced in the ancient Indian subcontinent, which is evident from baked clay retorts and receivers found at Taxila, Shaikhan Dheri, and Charsadda in Pakistan and Rang Mahal in India dating to the early centuries of the Common Era. Frank Raymond Allchin says these terracotta distill tubes were "made to imitate bamboo". These "Gandhara stills" were only capable of producing very weak liquor, as there was no efficient means of collecting the vapors at low heat.
Distillation in China may have begun at the earliest during the Eastern Han dynasty (1st–2nd century CE). The Jabirian experiments with fractional distillation of animal and vegetable substances, and to a lesser degree also of mineral substances, is the main topic of the , an originally Arabic work falsely attributed to Avicenna that was translated into Latin and would go on to form the most important alchemical source for Roger Bacon ().
The distillation of wine is attested in Arabic works attributed to al-Kindī () and to al-Fārābī (), and in the 28th book of al-Zahrāwī's (Latin: Abulcasis, 936–1013) (later translated into Latin as ). In the twelfth century, recipes for the production of ("burning water", i.e., ethanol) by distilling wine with salt started to appear in a number of Latin works, and by the end of the thirteenth century it had become a widely known substance among Western European chemists. The works of Taddeo Alderotti (1223–1296) describe a method for concentrating alcohol involving repeated distillation through a water-cooled still, by which an alcohol purity of 90% could be obtained.
Medieval China
The distillation of beverages began in the Southern Song (10th–13th century) and Jin (12th–13th century) dynasties, according to archaeological evidence. A still was found in an archaeological site in Qinglong, Hebei province, China, dating back to the 12th century. Distilled beverages were common during the Yuan dynasty (13th–14th century). the first book solely dedicated to the subject of distillation, followed in 1512 by a much expanded version. Right after that, in 1518, the oldest surviving distillery in Europe, The Green Tree Distillery, was founded.
In 1651, John French published The Art of Distillation, the first major English compendium on the practice, but it has been claimed that much of it derives from Brunschwig's work. This includes diagrams with people in them showing the industrial rather than bench scale of the operation.
]
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As alchemy evolved into the science of chemistry, vessels called retorts became used for distillations. Both alembics and retorts are forms of glassware with long necks pointing to the side at a downward angle to act as air-cooled condensers to condense the distillate and let it drip downward for collection. Later, copper alembics were invented. Riveted joints were often kept tight by using various mixtures, for instance a dough made of rye flour. These alembics often featured a cooling system around the beak, using cold water, for instance, which made the condensation of alcohol more efficient. These were called pot stills. Today, the retorts and pot stills have been largely supplanted by more efficient distillation methods in most industrial processes. However, the pot still is still widely used for the elaboration of some fine alcohols, such as cognac, Scotch whisky, Irish whiskey, tequila, rum, cachaça, and some vodkas. Pot stills made of various materials (wood, clay, stainless steel) are also used by bootleggers in various countries. Small pot stills are also sold for use in the domestic production of flower water or essential oils.
Early forms of distillation involved batch processes using one vaporization and one condensation. Purity was improved by further distillation of the condensate. Greater volumes were processed by simply repeating the distillation. Chemists reportedly carried out as many as 500 to 600 distillations in order to obtain a pure compound.
In the early 19th century, the basics of modern techniques, including pre-heating and reflux, were developed. Coffey's continuous still may be regarded as the archetype of modern petrochemical units. The French engineer Armand Savalle developed his steam regulator around 1846. and the same and subsequent years saw developments in this theme for oils and spirits.
With the emergence of chemical engineering as a discipline at the end of the 19th century, scientific rather than empirical methods could be applied. The developing petroleum industry in the early 20th century provided the impetus for the development of accurate design methods, such as the McCabe–Thiele method by Ernest Thiele and the Fenske equation. The first industrial plant in the United States to use distillation as a means of ocean desalination opened in Freeport, Texas in 1961 with the hope of bringing water security to the region.
The availability of powerful computers has allowed direct computer simulations of distillation columns.
Applications
The application of distillation can roughly be divided into four groups: laboratory scale, industrial distillation, distillation of herbs for perfumery and medicinals (herbal distillate), and food processing. The latter two are distinctively different from the former two in that distillation is not used as a true purification method but more to transfer all volatiles from the source materials to the distillate in the processing of beverages and herbs.
The main difference between laboratory scale distillation and industrial distillation are that laboratory scale distillation is often performed on a batch basis, whereas industrial distillation often occurs continuously. In batch distillation, the composition of the source material, the vapors of the distilling compounds, and the distillate change during the distillation. In batch distillation, a still is charged (supplied) with a batch of feed mixture, which is then separated into its component fractions, which are collected sequentially from most volatile to less volatile, with the bottoms – remaining least or non-volatile fraction – removed at the end. The still can then be recharged and the process repeated.
In continuous distillation, the source materials, vapors, and distillate are kept at a constant composition by carefully replenishing the source material and removing fractions from both vapor and liquid in the system. This results in a more detailed control of the separation process.
Idealized model
The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the pressure around the liquid, enabling bubbles to form without being crushed. A special case is the normal boiling point, where the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the ambient atmospheric pressure.
It is a misconception that in a liquid mixture at a given pressure, each component boils at the boiling point corresponding to the given pressure, allowing the vapors of each component to collect separately and purely. However, this does not occur, even in an idealized system. Idealized models of distillation are essentially governed by Raoult's law and Dalton's law and assume that vapor–liquid equilibria are attained.
Raoult's law states that the vapor pressure of a solution is dependent on 1) the vapor pressure of each chemical component in the solution and 2) the fraction of solution each component makes up, a.k.a. the mole fraction. This law applies to ideal solutions, or solutions that have different components but whose molecular interactions are the same as or very similar to pure solutions.
Dalton's law states that the total pressure is the sum of the partial pressures of each individual component in the mixture. When a multi-component liquid is heated, the vapor pressure of each component will rise, thus causing the total vapor pressure to rise. When the total vapor pressure reaches the pressure surrounding the liquid, boiling occurs and liquid turns to gas throughout the bulk of the liquid. A mixture with a given composition has one boiling point at a given pressure when the components are mutually soluble. A mixture of constant composition does not have multiple boiling points.
An implication of one boiling point is that lighter components never cleanly "boil first". At boiling point, all volatile components boil, but for a component, its percentage in the vapor is the same as its percentage of the total vapor pressure. Lighter components have a higher partial pressure and, thus, are concentrated in the vapor, but heavier volatile components also have a (smaller) partial pressure and necessarily vaporize also, albeit at a lower concentration in the vapor. Indeed, batch distillation and fractionation succeed by varying the composition of the mixture. In batch distillation, the batch vaporizes, which changes its composition; in fractionation, liquid higher in the fractionation column contains more lights and boils at lower temperatures. Therefore, starting from a given mixture, it appears to have a boiling range instead of a boiling point, although this is because its composition changes: each intermediate mixture has its own, singular boiling point.
The idealized model is accurate in the case of chemically similar liquids, such as benzene and toluene. In other cases, severe deviations from Raoult's law and Dalton's law are observed, most famously in the mixture of ethanol and water. These compounds, when heated together, form an azeotrope, which is when the vapor phase and liquid phase contain the same composition. Although there are computational methods that can be used to estimate the behavior of a mixture of arbitrary components, the only way to obtain accurate vapor–liquid equilibrium data is by measurement.
It is not possible to completely purify a mixture of components by distillation, as this would require each component in the mixture to have a zero partial pressure. If ultra-pure products are the goal, then further chemical separation must be applied. When a binary mixture is vaporized and the other component, e.g., a salt, has zero partial pressure for practical purposes, the process is simpler.
Batch or differential distillation
Heating an ideal mixture of two volatile substances, A and B, with A having the higher volatility, or lower boiling point, in a batch distillation setup (such as in an apparatus depicted in the opening figure) until the mixture is boiling results in a vapor above the liquid that contains a mixture of A and B. The ratio between A and B in the vapor will be different from the ratio in the liquid. The ratio in the liquid will be determined by how the original mixture was prepared, while the ratio in the vapor will be enriched in the more volatile compound, A (due to Raoult's Law, see above). The vapor goes through the condenser and is removed from the system. This, in turn, means that the ratio of compounds in the remaining liquid is now different from the initial ratio (i.e., more enriched in B than in the starting liquid).
The result is that the ratio in the liquid mixture is changing, becoming richer in component B. This causes the boiling point of the mixture to rise, which results in a rise in the temperature in the vapor, which results in a changing ratio of A : B in the gas phase (as distillation continues, there is an increasing proportion of B in the gas phase). This results in a slowly changing ratio of A : B in the distillate.
If the difference in vapour pressure between the two components A and B is large – generally expressed as the difference in boiling points – the mixture in the beginning of the distillation is highly enriched in component A, and when component A has distilled off, the boiling liquid is enriched in component B.
Continuous distillation
Continuous distillation is an ongoing distillation in which a liquid mixture is continuously (without interruption) fed into the process and separated fractions are removed continuously as output streams occur over time during the operation. Continuous distillation produces a minimum of two output fractions, including at least one volatile distillate fraction, which has boiled and been separately captured as a vapor and then condensed to a liquid. There is always a bottoms (or residue) fraction, which is the least volatile residue that has not been separately captured as a condensed vapor.
Continuous distillation differs from batch distillation in the respect that concentrations should not change over time. Continuous distillation can be run at a steady state for an arbitrary amount of time. For any source material of specific composition, the main variables that affect the purity of products in continuous distillation are the reflux ratio and the number of theoretical equilibrium stages, in practice determined by the number of trays or the height of packing. Reflux is a flow from the condenser back to the column, which generates a recycle that allows a better separation with a given number of trays. Equilibrium stages are ideal steps where compositions achieve vapor–liquid equilibrium, repeating the separation process and allowing better separation given a reflux ratio. A column with a high reflux ratio may have fewer stages, but it refluxes a large amount of liquid, giving a wide column with a large holdup. Conversely, a column with a low reflux ratio must have a large number of stages, thus requiring a taller column.
General improvements
Both batch and continuous distillations can be improved by making use of a fractionating column on top of the distillation flask. The column improves separation by providing a larger surface area for the vapor and condensate to come into contact. This helps it remain at equilibrium for as long as possible. The column can even consist of small subsystems ('trays' or 'dishes') which all contain an enriched, boiling liquid mixture, all with their own vapor–liquid equilibrium.
There are differences between laboratory-scale and industrial-scale fractionating columns, but the principles are the same. Examples of laboratory-scale fractionating columns (in increasing efficiency) include:
* Air condenser
* Vigreux column (usually laboratory scale only)
* Packed column (packed with glass beads, metal pieces, or other chemically inert material)
* Spinning band distillation system.
Laboratory procedures
Laboratory scale distillations are almost exclusively run as batch distillations. The device used in distillation, sometimes referred to as a still, consists at a minimum of a reboiler or pot in which the source material is heated, a condenser in which the heated vapor is cooled back to the liquid state, and a receiver in which the concentrated or purified liquid, called the distillate, is collected. Several laboratory scale techniques for distillation exist (see also distillation types).
A completely sealed distillation apparatus could experience extreme and rapidly varying internal pressure, which could cause it to burst open at the joints. Therefore, some path is usually left open (for instance, at the receiving flask) to allow the internal pressure to equalize with atmospheric pressure. Alternatively, a vacuum pump may be used to keep the apparatus at a lower than atmospheric pressure. If the substances involved are air- or moisture-sensitive, the connection to the atmosphere can be made through one or more drying tubes packed with materials that scavenge the undesired air components, or through bubblers that provide a movable liquid barrier. Finally, the entry of undesired air components can be prevented by pumping a low but steady flow of suitable inert gas, like nitrogen, into the apparatus.
Simple distillation
In simple distillation, the vapor is immediately channeled into a condenser. Consequently, the distillate is not pure but rather its composition is identical to the composition of the vapors at the given temperature and pressure. That concentration follows Raoult's law.
As a result, simple distillation is effective only when the liquid boiling points differ greatly (rule of thumb is 25 °C) or when separating liquids from non-volatile solids or oils. For these cases, the vapor pressures of the components are usually different enough that the distillate may be sufficiently pure for its intended purpose.
A cutaway schematic of a simple distillation operation is shown at right. The starting liquid 15 in the boiling flask 2 is heated by a combined hotplate and magnetic stirrer 13 via a silicone oil bath (orange, 14). The vapor flows through a short Vigreux column 3, then through a Liebig condenser 5, is cooled by water (blue) that circulates through ports 6 and 7. The condensed liquid drips into the receiving flask 8, sitting in a cooling bath (blue, 16). The adapter 10 has a connection 9 that may be fitted to a vacuum pump. The components are connected by ground glass joints.
Fractional distillation
For many cases, the boiling points of the components in the mixture will be sufficiently close that Raoult's law must be taken into consideration. Therefore, fractional distillation must be used to separate the components by repeated vaporization-condensation cycles within a packed fractionating column. This separation, by successive distillations, is also referred to as rectification. In reality, each cycle at a given temperature does not occur at exactly the same position in the fractionating column; theoretical plate is thus a concept rather than an accurate description.
More theoretical plates lead to better separations. A spinning band distillation system uses a spinning band of PTFE or metal to force the rising vapors into close contact with the descending condensate, increasing the number of theoretical plates.
Steam distillation
Like vacuum distillation, steam distillation is a method for distilling compounds which are heat-sensitive.Closed-system vacuum distillation (cryovap)Non-condensable gas can be expelled from the apparatus by the vapor of relatively volatile co-solvent, which spontaneously evaporates during initial pumping, and this can be achieved with regular oil or diaphragm pump.
Other types
* The process of reactive distillation involves using the reaction vessel as the still. In this process, the product is usually significantly lower boiling than its reactants. As the product is formed from the reactants, it is vaporized and removed from the reaction mixture. This technique is an example of a continuous vs. a batch process; advantages include less downtime to charge the reaction vessel with starting material, and less workup. Distillation "over a reactant" could be classified as a reactive distillation. It is typically used to remove volatile impurity from the distillation feed. For example, a little lime may be added to remove carbon dioxide from water followed by a second distillation with a little sulfuric acid added to remove traces of ammonia.
* Catalytic distillation is the process by which the reactants are catalyzed while being distilled to continuously separate the products from the reactants. This method is used to assist equilibrium reactions in reaching completion.
* Pervaporation is a method for the separation of mixtures of liquids by partial vaporization through a non-porous membrane.
* Extractive distillation is defined as distillation in the presence of a miscible, high boiling, relatively non-volatile component, the solvent, that forms no azeotrope with the other components in the mixture.
* Flash evaporation (or partial evaporation) is the partial vaporization that occurs when a saturated liquid stream undergoes a reduction in pressure by passing through a throttling valve or other throttling device. This process is one of the simplest unit operations, being equivalent to a distillation with only one equilibrium stage.
* Codistillation is distillation which is performed on mixtures in which the two compounds are not miscible. In the laboratory, the Dean-Stark apparatus is used for this purpose to remove water from synthesis products. The Bleidner apparatus is another example with two refluxing solvents.
* Membrane distillation is a type of distillation in which vapors of a mixture to be separated are passed through a membrane, which selectively permeates one component of mixture. Vapor pressure difference is the driving force. It has potential applications in seawater desalination and in removal of organic and inorganic components.
The unit process of evaporation may also be called "distillation":
* In rotary evaporation a vacuum distillation apparatus is used to remove bulk solvents from a sample. Typically the vacuum is generated by a water aspirator or a membrane pump.
* In a Kugelrohr apparatus a short path distillation apparatus is typically used (generally in combination with a (high) vacuum) to distill high boiling (> 300 °C) compounds. The apparatus consists of an oven in which the compound to be distilled is placed, a receiving portion which is outside of the oven, and a means of rotating the sample. The vacuum is normally generated by using a high vacuum pump.
Other uses:
* Dry distillation or destructive distillation, despite the name, is not truly distillation, but rather a chemical reaction known as pyrolysis in which solid substances are heated in an inert or reducing atmosphere and any volatile fractions, containing high-boiling liquids and products of pyrolysis, are collected. The destructive distillation of wood to give methanol is the root of its common name – wood alcohol.
* Freeze distillation is an analogous method of purification using freezing instead of evaporation. It is not truly distillation, but a recrystallization where the product is the mother liquor, and does not produce products equivalent to distillation. This process is used in the production of ice beer and ice wine to increase ethanol and sugar content, respectively. It is also used to produce applejack. Unlike distillation, freeze distillation concentrates poisonous congeners rather than removing them; As a result, many countries prohibit such applejack as a health measure. Also, distillation by evaporation can separate these since they have different boiling points.
* Distillation by filtration: In early alchemy and chemistry, otherwise known as natural philosophy, a form of "distillation" by capillary filtration was known as a form of distillation at the time. In this, a series of cups or bowls were set upon a stepped support with a "wick" of cotton or felt-like material, which had been wetted with water or a clear liquid with each step dripping down through the wetted cloth through capillary action in succeeding steps, creating a "purification" of the liquid, leaving solid materials behind in the upper bowls and purifying the succeeding product through capillary action through the moistened cloth. This was called "distillatio" by filtration by those using the method.
Azeotropic process
Interactions between the components of the solution create properties unique to the solution, as most processes entail non-ideal mixtures, where Raoult's law does not hold. Such interactions can result in a constant-boiling azeotrope which behaves as if it were a pure compound (i.e., boils at a single temperature instead of a range). At an azeotrope, the solution contains the given component in the same proportion as the vapor, so that evaporation does not change the purity, and distillation does not result in separation. For example, 95.6% ethanol (by mass) in water forms an azeotrope at 78.1 °C.
If the azeotrope is not considered sufficiently pure for use, there exist some techniques to break the azeotrope to give a more pure distillate. These techniques are known as azeotropic distillation. Some techniques achieve this by "jumping" over the azeotropic composition (by adding another component to create a new azeotrope, or by varying the pressure). Others work by chemically or physically removing or sequestering the impurity. For example, to purify ethanol beyond 95%, a drying agent (or desiccant, such as potassium carbonate) can be added to convert the soluble water into insoluble water of crystallization. Molecular sieves are often used for this purpose as well.
Immiscible liquids, such as water and toluene, easily form azeotropes. Commonly, these azeotropes are referred to as a low boiling azeotrope because the boiling point of the azeotrope is lower than the boiling point of either pure component. The temperature and composition of the azeotrope is easily predicted from the vapor pressure of the pure components, without use of Raoult's law. The azeotrope is easily broken in a distillation set-up by using a liquid–liquid separator (a decanter) to separate the two liquid layers that are condensed overhead. Only one of the two liquid layers is refluxed to the distillation set-up.
High boiling azeotropes, such as a 20 percent by weight mixture of hydrochloric acid in water, also exist. As implied by the name, the boiling point of the azeotrope is greater than the boiling point of either pure component.
Breaking an azeotrope with unidirectional pressure manipulation
The boiling points of components in an azeotrope overlap to form a band. By exposing an azeotrope to a vacuum or positive pressure, it is possible to bias the boiling point of one component away from the other by exploiting the differing vapor pressure curves of each; the curves may overlap at the azeotropic point, but are unlikely to remain identical further along the pressure axis to either side of the azeotropic point. When the bias is great enough, the two boiling points no longer overlap and so the azeotropic band disappears.
This method can remove the need to add other chemicals to a distillation, but it has two potential drawbacks.
Under negative pressure, power for a vacuum source is needed and the reduced boiling points of the distillates requires that the condenser be run cooler to prevent distillate vapors being lost to the vacuum source. Increased cooling demands will often require additional energy and possibly new equipment or a change of coolant.
Alternatively, if positive pressures are required, standard glassware can not be used, energy must be used for pressurization and there is a higher chance of side reactions occurring in the distillation, such as decomposition, due to the higher temperatures required to effect boiling.
A unidirectional distillation will rely on a pressure change in one direction, either positive or negative.
Pressure-swing distillation
Pressure-swing distillation is essentially the same as the unidirectional distillation used to break azeotropic mixtures, but here both positive and negative pressures may be employed.
This improves the selectivity of the distillation and allows a chemist to optimize distillation by avoiding extremes of pressure and temperature that waste energy. This is particularly important in commercial applications.
One example of the application of pressure-swing distillation is during the industrial purification of ethyl acetate after its catalytic synthesis from ethanol.
Industrial process
Large scale industrial distillation applications include both batch and continuous fractional, vacuum, azeotropic, extractive, and steam distillation. The most widely used industrial applications of continuous, steady-state fractional distillation are in petroleum refineries, petrochemical and chemical plants and natural gas processing plants.
To control and optimize such industrial distillation, a standardized laboratory method, ASTM D86, is established. This test method extends to the atmospheric distillation of petroleum products using a laboratory batch distillation unit to quantitatively determine the boiling range characteristics of petroleum products.
Industrial distillation is typically performed in large, vertical cylindrical columns known as distillation towers or distillation columns with diameters ranging from about and heights ranging from about or more. When the process feed has a diverse composition, as in distilling crude oil, liquid outlets at intervals up the column allow for the withdrawal of different fractions or products having different boiling points or boiling ranges. The "lightest" products (those with the lowest boiling point) exit from the top of the columns and the "heaviest" products (those with the highest boiling point) exit from the bottom of the column and are often called the bottoms.
Industrial towers use reflux to achieve a more complete separation of products. Reflux refers to the portion of the condensed overhead liquid product from a distillation or fractionation tower that is returned to the upper part of the tower as shown in the schematic diagram of a typical, large-scale industrial distillation tower. Inside the tower, the downflowing reflux liquid provides cooling and condensation of the upflowing vapors thereby increasing the efficiency of the distillation tower. The more reflux that is provided for a given number of theoretical plates, the better the tower's separation of lower boiling materials from higher boiling materials. Alternatively, the more reflux that is provided for a given desired separation, the fewer the number of theoretical plates required. Chemical engineers must choose what combination of reflux rate and number of plates is both economically and physically feasible for the products purified in the distillation column.
Such industrial fractionating towers are also used in cryogenic air separation, producing liquid oxygen, liquid nitrogen, and high purity argon. Distillation of chlorosilanes also enables the production of high-purity silicon for use as a semiconductor.
Design and operation of a distillation tower depends on the feed and desired products. Given a simple, binary component feed, analytical methods such as the McCabe–Thiele method or the Fenske equation Considerable work has been done on this topic by Fractionation Research, Inc. (commonly known as FRI).
Multi-effect distillation
The goal of multi-effect distillation is to increase the energy efficiency of the process, for use in desalination, or in some cases one stage in the production of ultrapure water. The number of effects is inversely proportional to the kW·h/m<sup>3</sup> of water recovered figure and refers to the volume of water recovered per unit of energy compared with single-effect distillation. One effect is roughly 636 kW·h/m<sup>3</sup>:
* Multi-stage flash distillation can achieve more than 20 effects with thermal energy input, as mentioned in the article.
* Vapor compression evaporation – Commercial large-scale units can achieve around 72 effects with electrical energy input, according to manufacturers.
There are many other types of multi-effect distillation processes, including one referred to as simply multi-effect distillation (MED), in which multiple chambers, with intervening heat exchangers, are employed.
In food processing
Beverages
Carbohydrate-containing plant materials are allowed to ferment, producing a dilute solution of ethanol in the process. Spirits such as whiskey and rum are prepared by distilling these dilute solutions of ethanol. Components other than ethanol, including water, esters, and other alcohols, are collected in the condensate, which account for the flavor of the beverage. Some of these beverages are then stored in barrels or other containers to acquire more flavor compounds and characteristic flavors.
Gallery
<gallery class="center">
File:Retort-in-operation-early-chemistry.png|Chemistry in its beginnings used retorts as laboratory equipment exclusively for distillation processes.
File:Distillation of dry and oxygen-free toluene.jpg| A simple set-up to distill dry and oxygen-free toluene.
File:Vacuum Column.png|Diagram of an industrial-scale vacuum distillation column as commonly used in oil refineries
File:Rotavapor.jpg|A rotary evaporator is able to distill solvents more quickly at lower temperatures through the use of a vacuum.
File:Semi-microscale distillation.jpg|Distillation using semi-microscale apparatus. The jointless design eliminates the need to fit pieces together. The pear-shaped flask allows the last drop of residue to be removed, compared with a similarly sized round-bottom flask. The small holdup volume prevents losses. A "pig" is used to channel the various distillates into three receiving flasks. If necessary the distillation can be carried out under vacuum using the vacuum adapter at the pig.
</gallery>
See also
* Atmospheric distillation of crude oil
* Clyssus
* Fragrance extraction
* Low-temperature distillation
* Microdistillery
* Sublimation
* Dixon rings
* Random column packing
References
Further reading
*
*
* Needham, Joseph (1980). [https://books.google.com/books?idJvLroG7r2MYC Science and Civilisation in China]. Cambridge University Press. .External links
* [https://www.extension.purdue.edu/extmedia/AE/AE-117.html Alcohol distillation]
* [http://www.members.tripod.com/historycheme/h_distill.html Case Study: Petroleum Distillation]
*
Category:Unit operations
Category:Alchemical processes
Category:Separation processes
Category:Laboratory techniques
Category:Phase transitions
Category:Gas technologies
Category:Ancient inventions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distillation
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2025-04-05T18:28:32.954524
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David Hilbert
|
| birth_place = Königsberg or Wehlau, Kingdom of Prussia
| death_date
| death_place = Göttingen, Nazi Germany
| field = Mathematics, physics, philosophy
| work_institutions = University of Königsberg<br />Göttingen University
| education = University of Königsberg (PhD)
| thesis_title = On Invariant Properties of Special Binary Forms, Especially of Spherical Functions
| thesis_year = 1885
| doctoral_advisor Ferdinand von Lindemann
| doctoral_students =
}}
| notable_students = Edward Kasner<br />John von Neumann<br />Emanuel Lasker<br />Carl Gustav Hempel|
| known_for = Hilbert's basis theorem<br />Hilbert's Nullstellensatz<br />Hilbert's axioms<br />Hilbert's problems<br />Hilbert's program<br />Einstein–Hilbert action<br />Hilbert space<br />Hilbert system<br />Epsilon calculus
| prizes Lobachevsky Prize <small>(1903)</small><br />Bolyai Prize <small>(1910)</small><br />ForMemRS <small>(1928)</small>
| spouse = Käthe Jerosch
| children = Franz (b. 1893)
}}
David Hilbert (; ; 23 January 1862 – 14 February 1943) was a German mathematician and philosopher of mathematics and one of the most influential mathematicians of his time.
Hilbert discovered and developed a broad range of fundamental ideas including invariant theory, the calculus of variations, commutative algebra, algebraic number theory, the foundations of geometry, spectral theory of operators and its application to integral equations, mathematical physics, and the foundations of mathematics (particularly proof theory). He adopted and defended Georg Cantor's set theory and transfinite numbers. In 1900, he presented a collection of problems that set a course for mathematical research of the 20th century.
Hilbert and his students contributed to establishing rigor and developed important tools used in modern mathematical physics. He was a cofounder of proof theory and mathematical logic.
Life
Early life and education
Hilbert, the first of two children and only son of Otto, a county judge, and Maria Therese Hilbert (née Erdtmann), the daughter of a merchant, was born in the Province of Prussia, Kingdom of Prussia, either in Königsberg (according to Hilbert's own statement) or in Wehlau (known since 1946 as Znamensk) near Königsberg where his father worked at the time of his birth. His paternal grandfather was David Hilbert, a judge and Geheimrat. His mother Maria had an interest in philosophy, astronomy and prime numbers, while his father Otto taught him Prussian virtues. After his father became a city judge, the family moved to Königsberg. David's sister, Elise, was born when he was six. He began his schooling aged eight, two years later than the usual starting age.
In late 1872, Hilbert entered the Friedrichskolleg Gymnasium (Collegium fridericianum, the same school that Immanuel Kant had attended 140 years before); but, after an unhappy period, he transferred to (late 1879) and graduated from (early 1880) the more science-oriented Wilhelm Gymnasium. Upon graduation, in autumn 1880, Hilbert enrolled at the University of Königsberg, the "Albertina". In early 1882, Hermann Minkowski (two years younger than Hilbert and also a native of Königsberg but had gone to Berlin for three semesters), returned to Königsberg and entered the university. Hilbert developed a lifelong friendship with the shy, gifted Minkowski.
Career
In 1884, Adolf Hurwitz arrived from Göttingen as an Extraordinarius (i.e., an associate professor)<!--at the Albertina in 1884-->. An intense and fruitful scientific exchange among the three began, and Minkowski and Hilbert especially would exercise a reciprocal influence over each other at various times in their scientific careers. Hilbert obtained his doctorate in 1885, with a dissertation, written under Ferdinand von Lindemann, He remained there for the rest of his life.
, was opened by Hilbert and Courant in 1930.]]
Göttingen school
Among Hilbert's students were Hermann Weyl, chess champion Emanuel Lasker, Ernst Zermelo, and Carl Gustav Hempel. John von Neumann was his assistant. At the University of Göttingen, Hilbert was surrounded by a social circle of some of the most important mathematicians of the 20th century, such as Emmy Noether and Alonzo Church.
Among his 69 Ph.D. students in Göttingen were many who later became famous mathematicians, including (with date of thesis): Otto Blumenthal (1898), Felix Bernstein (1901), Hermann Weyl (1908), Richard Courant (1910), Erich Hecke (1910), Hugo Steinhaus (1911), and Wilhelm Ackermann (1925). Between 1902 and 1939 Hilbert was editor of the Mathematische Annalen, the leading mathematical journal of the time. He was elected an International Member of the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1907.
Personal life
, before 1932]]
In 1892, Hilbert married Käthe Jerosch (1864–1945), who was the daughter of a Königsberg merchant, "an outspoken young lady with an independence of mind that matched [Hilbert's]." While at Königsberg, they had their one child, Franz Hilbert (1893–1969).
Franz suffered throughout his life from mental illness, and after he was admitted into a psychiatric clinic, Hilbert said, "From now on, I must consider myself as not having a son." His attitude toward Franz brought Käthe considerable sorrow.
Hilbert considered the mathematician Hermann Minkowski to be his "best and truest friend".
Hilbert was baptized and raised a Calvinist in the Prussian Evangelical Church. He later left the Church and became an agnostic. He also argued that mathematical truth was independent of the existence of God or other a priori assumptions. When Galileo Galilei was criticized for failing to stand up for his convictions on the Heliocentric theory, Hilbert objected: "But [Galileo] was not an idiot. Only an idiot could believe that scientific truth needs martyrdom; that may be necessary in religion, but scientific results prove themselves in due time."
Later years
Like Albert Einstein, Hilbert had closest contacts with the Berlin Group whose leading founders had studied under Hilbert in Göttingen (Kurt Grelling, Hans Reichenbach and Walter Dubislav).
Around 1925, Hilbert developed pernicious anemia, a then-untreatable vitamin deficiency whose primary symptom is exhaustion; his assistant Eugene Wigner described him as subject to "enormous fatigue" and how he "seemed quite old," and that even after eventually being diagnosed and treated, he "was hardly a scientist after 1925, and certainly not a Hilbert."
Hilbert was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1932.
Hilbert lived to see the Nazis purge many of the prominent faculty members at University of Göttingen in 1933. Those forced out included Hermann Weyl (who had taken Hilbert's chair when he retired in 1930), Emmy Noether and Edmund Landau. One who had to leave Germany, Paul Bernays, had collaborated with Hilbert in mathematical logic, and co-authored with him the important book Grundlagen der Mathematik (which eventually appeared in two volumes, in 1934 and 1939). This was a sequel to the Hilbert–Ackermann book Principles of Mathematical Logic from 1928. Hermann Weyl's successor was Helmut Hasse.
About a year later, Hilbert attended a banquet and was seated next to the new Minister of Education, Bernhard Rust. Rust asked whether "the Mathematical Institute really suffered so much because of the departure of the Jews." Hilbert replied, "Suffered? It doesn't exist any longer, does it?"
Death
By the time Hilbert died in 1943, the Nazis had nearly completely restaffed the university, as many of the former faculty had either been Jewish or married to Jews. Hilbert's funeral was attended by fewer than a dozen people, only two of whom were fellow academics, among them Arnold Sommerfeld, a theoretical physicist and also a native of Königsberg. News of his death only became known to the wider world several months after he died.
The epitaph on his tombstone in Göttingen consists of the famous lines he spoke at the conclusion of his retirement address to the Society of German Scientists and Physicians on 8 September 1930. The words were given in response to the Latin maxim: "Ignoramus et ignorabimus" or "We do not know and we shall not know":
The day before Hilbert pronounced these phrases at the 1930 annual meeting of the Society of German Scientists and Physicians, Kurt Gödel—in a round table discussion during the Conference on Epistemology held jointly with the Society meetings—tentatively announced the first expression of his incompleteness theorem. Gödel's incompleteness theorems show that even elementary axiomatic systems such as Peano arithmetic are either self-contradicting or contain logical propositions that are impossible to prove or disprove within that system.
Contributions to mathematics and physics
Solving Gordan's Problem<!-- predominantly capitalized in the literature; "Gordan's problem" and "Gordan's Problem" redirect here-->
Hilbert's first work on invariant functions led him to the demonstration in 1888 of his famous finiteness theorem. Twenty years earlier, Paul Gordan had demonstrated the theorem of the finiteness of generators for binary forms using a complex computational approach. Attempts to generalize his method to functions with more than two variables failed because of the enormous difficulty of the calculations involved. To solve what had become known in some circles as ''Gordan's Problem, Hilbert realized that it was necessary to take a completely different path. As a result, he demonstrated Hilbert's basis theorem, showing the existence of a finite set of generators, for the invariants of quantics in any number of variables, but in an abstract form. That is, while demonstrating the existence of such a set, it was not a constructive proof—it did not display "an object"—but rather, it was an existence proof and relied on use of the law of excluded middle in an infinite extension.
Hilbert sent his results to the Mathematische Annalen. Gordan, the house expert on the theory of invariants for the Mathematische Annalen'', could not appreciate the revolutionary nature of Hilbert's theorem and rejected the article, criticizing the exposition because it was insufficiently comprehensive. His comment was:
}}
Klein, on the other hand, recognized the importance of the work, and guaranteed that it would be published without any alterations. Encouraged by Klein, Hilbert extended his method in a second article, providing estimations on the maximum degree of the minimum set of generators, and he sent it once more to the Annalen. After having read the manuscript, Klein wrote to him, saying:
}}
Later, after the usefulness of Hilbert's method was universally recognized, Gordan himself would say:
For all his successes, the nature of his proof created more trouble than Hilbert could have imagined. Although Kronecker had conceded, Hilbert would later respond to others' similar criticisms that "many different constructions are subsumed under one fundamental idea"—in other words (to quote Reid): "Through a proof of existence, Hilbert had been able to obtain a construction"; "the proof" (i.e. the symbols on the page) was "the object". Indeed, Hilbert would lose his "gifted pupil" Weyl to intuitionism—"Hilbert was disturbed by his former student's fascination with the ideas of Brouwer, which aroused in Hilbert the memory of Kronecker". Brouwer the intuitionist in particular opposed the use of the Law of Excluded Middle over infinite sets (as Hilbert had used it). Hilbert responded:
}} Nullstellensatz
In the subject of algebra, a field is called algebraically closed if and only if every polynomial over it has a root in it. Under this condition, Hilbert gave a criterion for when a collection of polynomials <math>(p_\lambda)_{\lambda \in \Lambda}</math> of <math>n</math> variables has a common root: This is the case if and only if there do not exist polynomials <math>q_1, \ldots, q_k</math> and indices <math>\lambda_1, \ldots, \lambda_k</math> such that
:<math>1 \sum_{j1}^k p_{\lambda_j}(\vec x) q_j(\vec x)</math>.
This result is known as the Hilbert root theorem, or "Hilberts Nullstellensatz" in German. He also proved that the correspondence between vanishing ideals and their vanishing sets is bijective between affine varieties and radical ideals in <math>\C[x_1, \ldots, x_n]</math>.
Curve
In 1890, Giuseppe Peano had published an article in the Mathematische Annalen describing the historically first space-filling curve. In response, Hilbert designed his own construction of such a curve, which is now called Hilbert curve. Approximations to this curve are constructed iteratively according to the replacement rules in the first picture of this section. The curve itself is then the pointwise limit.
Axiomatization of geometry
The text Grundlagen der Geometrie (tr.: Foundations of Geometry) published by Hilbert in 1899 proposes a formal set, called Hilbert's axioms, substituting for the traditional axioms of Euclid. They avoid weaknesses identified in those of Euclid, whose works at the time were still used textbook-fashion. It is difficult to specify the axioms used by Hilbert without referring to the publication history of the Grundlagen since Hilbert changed and modified them several times. The original monograph was quickly followed by a French translation, in which Hilbert added V.2, the Completeness Axiom. An English translation, authorized by Hilbert, was made by E.J. Townsend and copyrighted in 1902. This translation incorporated the changes made in the French translation and so is considered to be a translation of the 2nd edition. Hilbert continued to make changes in the text and several editions appeared in German. The 7th edition was the last to appear in Hilbert's lifetime. New editions followed the 7th, but the main text was essentially not revised.}}
Hilbert's approach signaled the shift to the modern axiomatic method. In this, Hilbert was anticipated by Moritz Pasch's work from 1882. Axioms are not taken as self-evident truths. Geometry may treat things, about which we have powerful intuitions, but it is not necessary to assign any explicit meaning to the undefined concepts. The elements, such as point, line, plane, and others, could be substituted, as Hilbert is reported to have said to Schoenflies and Kötter, by tables, chairs, glasses of beer and other such objects. It is their defined relationships that are discussed.
Hilbert first enumerates the undefined concepts: point, line, plane, lying on (a relation between points and lines, points and planes, and lines and planes), betweenness, congruence of pairs of points (line segments), and congruence of angles. The axioms unify both the plane geometry and solid geometry of Euclid in a single system.
23 problems
Hilbert put forth a highly influential list consisting of 23 unsolved problems at the International Congress of Mathematicians in Paris in 1900. This is generally reckoned as the most successful and deeply considered compilation of open problems ever to be produced by an individual mathematician.
After reworking the foundations of classical geometry, Hilbert could have extrapolated to the rest of mathematics. His approach differed from the later "foundationalist" Russell–Whitehead or "encyclopedist" Nicolas Bourbaki, and from his contemporary Giuseppe Peano. The mathematical community as a whole could engage in problems of which he had identified as crucial aspects of important areas of mathematics.
The problem set was launched as a talk, "The Problems of Mathematics", presented during the course of the Second International Congress of Mathematicians, held in Paris. The introduction of the speech that Hilbert gave said:
He presented fewer than half the problems at the Congress, which were published in the acts of the Congress. In a subsequent publication, he extended the panorama, and arrived at the formulation of the now-canonical 23 Problems of Hilbert (see also Hilbert's twenty-fourth problem). The full text is important, since the exegesis of the questions still can be a matter of debate when it is asked how many have been solved.
Some of these were solved within a short time. Others have been discussed throughout the 20th century, with a few now taken to be unsuitably open-ended to come to closure. Some continue to remain challenges.
The following are the headers for Hilbert's 23 problems as they appeared in the 1902 translation in the Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society.
: 1. Cantor's problem of the cardinal number of the continuum.
: 2. The compatibility of the arithmetical axioms.
: 3. The equality of the volumes of two tetrahedra of equal bases and equal altitudes.
: 4. Problem of the straight line as the shortest distance between two points.
: 5. Lie's concept of a continuous group of transformations without the assumption of the differentiability of the functions defining the group.
: 6. Mathematical treatment of the axioms of physics.
: 7. Irrationality and transcendence of certain numbers.
: 8. Problems of prime numbers (The "Riemann Hypothesis").
: 9. Proof of the most general law of reciprocity in any number field.
: 10. Determination of the solvability of a Diophantine equation.
: 11. Quadratic forms with any algebraic numerical coefficients
: 12. Extensions of Kronecker's theorem on Abelian fields to any algebraic realm of rationality
: 13. Impossibility of the solution of the general equation of 7th degree by means of functions of only two arguments.
: 14. Proof of the finiteness of certain complete systems of functions.
: 15. Rigorous foundation of Schubert's enumerative calculus.
: 16. Problem of the topology of algebraic curves and surfaces.
: 17. Expression of definite forms by squares.
: 18. Building up of space from congruent polyhedra.
: 19. Are the solutions of regular problems in the calculus of variations always necessarily analytic?
: 20. The general problem of boundary values (Boundary value problems in PDE's).
: 21. Proof of the existence of linear differential equations having a prescribed monodromy group.
: 22. Uniformization of analytic relations by means of automorphic functions.
: 23. Further development of the methods of the calculus of variations.
Formalism
In an account that had become standard by the mid-century, Hilbert's problem set was also a kind of manifesto that opened the way for the development of the formalist school, one of three major schools of mathematics of the 20th century. According to the formalist, mathematics is manipulation of symbols according to agreed upon formal rules. It is therefore an autonomous activity of thought.
Program
In 1920, Hilbert proposed a research project in metamathematics that became known as Hilbert's program. He wanted mathematics to be formulated on a solid and complete logical foundation. He believed that in principle this could be done by showing that:
# all of mathematics follows from a correctly chosen finite system of axioms; and
# that some such axiom system is provably consistent through some means such as the epsilon calculus.
He seems to have had both technical and philosophical reasons for formulating this proposal. It affirmed his dislike of what had become known as the ignorabimus, still an active issue in his time in German thought, and traced back in that formulation to Emil du Bois-Reymond.
This program is still recognizable in the most popular philosophy of mathematics, where it is usually called formalism. For example, the Bourbaki group adopted a watered-down and selective version of it as adequate to the requirements of their twin projects of (a) writing encyclopedic foundational works, and (b) supporting the axiomatic method as a research tool. This approach has been successful and influential in relation with Hilbert's work in algebra and functional analysis, but has failed to engage in the same way with his interests in physics and logic.
Hilbert wrote in 1919:
Hilbert published his views on the foundations of mathematics in the 2-volume work, Grundlagen der Mathematik.
Gödel's work
Hilbert and the mathematicians who worked with him in his enterprise were committed to the project. His attempt to support axiomatized mathematics with definitive principles, which could banish theoretical uncertainties, ended in failure.
Gödel demonstrated that any consistent formal system that is sufficiently powerful to express basic arithmetic cannot prove its own completeness using only its own axioms and rules of inference. In 1931, his incompleteness theorem showed that Hilbert's grand plan was impossible as stated. The second point cannot in any reasonable way be combined with the first point, as long as the axiom system is genuinely finitary.
Nevertheless, the subsequent achievements of proof theory at the very least clarified consistency as it relates to theories of central concern to mathematicians. Hilbert's work had started logic on this course of clarification; the need to understand Gödel's work then led to the development of recursion theory and then mathematical logic as an autonomous discipline in the 1930s. The basis for later theoretical computer science, in the work of Alonzo Church and Alan Turing, also grew directly out of this "debate".Functional analysisAround 1909, Hilbert dedicated himself to the study of differential and integral equations; his work had direct consequences for important parts of modern functional analysis. In order to carry out these studies, Hilbert introduced the concept of an infinite dimensional Euclidean space, later called Hilbert space. His work in this part of analysis provided the basis for important contributions to the mathematics of physics in the next two decades, though from an unanticipated direction. Later on, Stefan Banach amplified the concept, defining Banach spaces. Hilbert spaces are an important class of objects in the area of functional analysis, particularly of the spectral theory of self-adjoint linear operators, that grew up around it during the 20th century.Physics
Until 1912, Hilbert was almost exclusively a pure mathematician. When planning a visit from Bonn, where he was immersed in studying physics, his fellow mathematician and friend Hermann Minkowski joked he had to spend 10 days in quarantine before being able to visit Hilbert. In fact, Minkowski seems responsible for most of Hilbert's physics investigations prior to 1912, including their joint seminar on the subject in 1905.
In 1912, three years after his friend's death, Hilbert turned his focus to the subject almost exclusively. He arranged to have a "physics tutor" for himself. He started studying kinetic gas theory and moved on to elementary radiation theory and the molecular theory of matter. Even after the war started in 1914, he continued seminars and classes where the works of Albert Einstein and others were followed closely.
By 1907, Einstein had framed the fundamentals of the theory of gravity, but then struggled for nearly 8 years to put the theory into its final form. By early summer 1915, Hilbert's interest in physics had focused on general relativity, and he invited Einstein to Göttingen to deliver a week of lectures on the subject. Einstein received an enthusiastic reception at Göttingen. Over the summer, Einstein learned that Hilbert was also working on the field equations and redoubled his own efforts. During November 1915, Einstein published several papers culminating in The Field Equations of Gravitation (see Einstein field equations). Nearly simultaneously, Hilbert published "The Foundations of Physics", an axiomatic derivation of the field equations (see Einstein–Hilbert action). Hilbert fully credited Einstein as the originator of the theory and no public priority dispute concerning the field equations ever arose between the two men during their lives. See more at priority.
Additionally, Hilbert's work anticipated and assisted several advances in the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics. His work was a key aspect of Hermann Weyl and John von Neumann's work on the mathematical equivalence of Werner Heisenberg's matrix mechanics and Erwin Schrödinger's wave equation, and his namesake Hilbert space plays an important part in quantum theory. In 1926, von Neumann showed that, if quantum states were understood as vectors in Hilbert space, they would correspond with both Schrödinger's wave function theory and Heisenberg's matrices.
Throughout this immersion in physics, Hilbert worked on putting rigor into the mathematics of physics. While highly dependent on higher mathematics, physicists tended to be "sloppy" with it. To a pure mathematician like Hilbert, this was both ugly and difficult to understand. As he began to understand physics and how physicists were using mathematics, he developed a coherent mathematical theory for what he found – most importantly in the area of integral equations. When his colleague Richard Courant wrote the now classic Methoden der mathematischen Physik (Methods of Mathematical Physics) including some of Hilbert's ideas, he added Hilbert's name as author even though Hilbert had not directly contributed to the writing. Hilbert said "Physics is too hard for physicists", implying that the necessary mathematics was generally beyond them; the Courant–Hilbert book made it easier for them.
Number theory
Hilbert unified the field of algebraic number theory with his 1897 treatise Zahlbericht (literally "report on numbers"). He also resolved a significant number-theory problem formulated by Waring in 1770. As with the finiteness theorem, he used an existence proof that shows there must be solutions for the problem rather than providing a mechanism to produce the answers. He then had little more to publish on the subject; but the emergence of Hilbert modular forms in the dissertation of a student means his name is further attached to a major area.
He made a series of conjectures on class field theory. The concepts were highly influential, and his own contribution lives on in the names of the Hilbert class field and of the Hilbert symbol of local class field theory. Results were mostly proved by 1930, after work by Teiji Takagi.
Hilbert did not work in the central areas of analytic number theory, but his name has become known for the Hilbert–Pólya conjecture, for reasons that are anecdotal. Ernst Hellinger, a student of Hilbert, once told André Weil that Hilbert had announced in his seminar in the early 1900s that he expected the proof of the Riemann Hypothesis would be a consequence of Fredholm's work on integral equations with a symmetric kernel.
Works
His collected works (Gesammelte Abhandlungen) have been published several times. The original versions of his papers contained "many technical errors of varying degree"; when the collection was first published, the errors were corrected and it was found that this could be done without major changes in the statements of the theorems, with one exception—a claimed proof of the continuum hypothesis. The errors were nonetheless so numerous and significant that it took Olga Taussky-Todd three years to make the corrections.<ref name"Rota97"/>See alsoConcepts
* List of things named after David Hilbert
* Foundations of geometry
* Hilbert C*-module
* Hilbert cube
* Hilbert curve
* Hilbert matrix
* Hilbert metric
* Hilbert–Mumford criterion
* Hilbert number
* Hilbert ring
* Hilbert–Poincaré series
* Hilbert series and Hilbert polynomial
* Hilbert space
* Hilbert spectrum
* Hilbert system
* Hilbert transform
* Hilbert's arithmetic of ends
* Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel
* Hilbert–Schmidt operator
* Hilbert–Smith conjecture
Theorems
* Hilbert–Burch theorem
* Hilbert's irreducibility theorem
* Hilbert's Nullstellensatz
* Hilbert's theorem (differential geometry)
* Hilbert's Theorem 90
* Hilbert's syzygy theorem
* Hilbert–Speiser theorem
Other
* Brouwer–Hilbert controversy
* Direct method in the calculus of variations
* Entscheidungsproblem
* Geometry and the Imagination
* General relativity priority dispute
Footnotes
Citations
Sources
Primary literature in English translation
*
** 1918. "Axiomatic thought," 1114–1115.
** 1922. "The new grounding of mathematics: First report," 1115–1133.
** 1923. "The logical foundations of mathematics," 1134–1147.
** 1930. "Logic and the knowledge of nature," 1157–1165.
** 1931. "The grounding of elementary number theory," 1148–1156.
** 1904. "On the foundations of logic and arithmetic," 129–138.
** 1925. "On the infinite," 367–392.
** 1927. "The foundations of mathematics," with comment by Weyl and Appendix by Bernays, 464–489.
*
*
*
*
*
Secondary literature
* , available at Gallica. The "Address" of Gabriel Bertrand of 20 December 1943 at the French Academy: he gives biographical sketches of the lives of recently deceased members, including Pieter Zeeman, David Hilbert and Georges Giraud.
* Bottazzini Umberto, 2003. Il flauto di Hilbert. Storia della matematica. UTET,
* Corry, L., Renn, J., and Stachel, J., 1997, "Belated Decision in the Hilbert-Einstein Priority Dispute," Science 278: nn-nn.
*
* Dawson, John W. Jr 1997. Logical Dilemmas: The Life and Work of Kurt Gödel. Wellesley MA: A. K. Peters. .
*
* Grattan-Guinness, Ivor, 2000. The Search for Mathematical Roots 1870–1940. Princeton Univ. Press.
* Gray, Jeremy, 2000. The Hilbert Challenge.
*
* Mehra, Jagdish, 1974. Einstein, Hilbert, and the Theory of Gravitation. Reidel.
* Piergiorgio Odifreddi, 2003. Divertimento Geometrico. Le origini geometriche della logica da Euclide a Hilbert. Bollati Boringhieri, . A clear exposition of the "errors" of Euclid and of the solutions presented in the Grundlagen der Geometrie, with reference to non-Euclidean geometry.
* The definitive English-language biography of Hilbert.
*
*
*
*Sieg, Wilfried, and Ravaglia, Mark, 2005, "Grundlagen der Mathematik" in Grattan-Guinness, I., ed., Landmark Writings in Western Mathematics. Elsevier: 981–99. (in English)
* Thorne, Kip, 1995. ''Black Holes and Time Warps: Einstein's Outrageous Legacy, W. W. Norton & Company; Reprint edition. .
* Georg von Wallwitz: Meine Herren, dies ist keine Badeanstalt. Wie ein Mathematiker das 20. Jahrhundert veränderte.'' Berenberg Verlag, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-946334-24-8. The definitive German-language biography of Hilbert.
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110517092213/http://www.ags.uni-sb.de/~cp/p/hilbertbernays/goal.htm Hilbert Bernays Project]
* [http://aleph0.clarku.edu/~djoyce/hilbert/problems.html Hilbert's 23 Problems Address]
* [http://mathematics.conference-site.com// ICMM 2014 dedicated to the memory of D.Hilbert]
*
*
*
* [http://math.sfsu.edu/smith/Documents/HilbertRadio/HilbertRadio.mp3 Hilbert's radio speech recorded in Königsberg 1930 (in German)] , with English [http://math.sfsu.edu/smith/Documents/HilbertRadio/HilbertRadio.pdf translation]
* [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/HilbertsConstants.html Wolfram MathWorld – Hilbert'Constant]
*
*
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080514013255/http://www.gresham.ac.uk/event.asp?PageId45&EventId628 'From Hilbert's Problems to the Future'], lecture by Professor Robin Wilson, Gresham College, 27 February 2008 (available in text, audio and video formats).
*
Category:1862 births
Category:1943 deaths
Category:Scientists from Königsberg
Category:People from the Province of Prussia
Category:19th-century German mathematicians
Category:20th-century German mathematicians
Category:Foreign members of the Royal Society
Category:Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
Category:German agnostics
Category:Formalism (deductive)
Category:Former Protestants
Category:German geometers
Category:German mathematical analysts
Category:German number theorists
Category:Operator theorists
Category:Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
Category:German relativity theorists
Category:Academic staff of the University of Göttingen
Category:University of Königsberg alumni
Category:Academic staff of the University of Königsberg
Category:Philosophers of mathematics
Category:Members of the American Philosophical Society
Category:Recipients of the Cothenius Medal
Category:Presidents of the German Mathematical Society
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Down syndrome
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{{Infobox medical condition
| name = Down syndrome
| image = Boy with Down Syndrome.JPG <!-- Do not change this picture without discussing it in the Down syndrome discussion page. Because of continued vandalism, pictures will be immediately reverted. -->
| alt = Eight year old boy with Down syndrome
| caption = An eight-year-old boy displaying characteristic facial features of Down syndrome
| field = Medical genetics, pediatrics
| synonyms = Down's syndrome, Down's, trisomy 21
| symptoms Delayed development, characteristic physical features, mild to moderate intellectual disability
| diagnosis Prenatal screening, genetic testing It is usually associated with developmental delays, mild to moderate intellectual disability, and characteristic physical features.
<!-- Cause and diagnosis -->
The parents of the affected individual are usually genetically normal. The incidence of the syndrome increases with the age of the mother, from less than 0.1% for 20-year-old mothers to 3% for those of age 45. Usually, babies get 23 chromosomes from each parent for a total of 46, whereas in Down syndrome, a third 21st chromosome is attached. The extra chromosome is provided at conception as the egg and sperm combine. In 1–2% of cases, the additional chromosome is added in the embryo stage and only impacts some of the cells in the body; this is known as Mosaic Down syndrome. Down syndrome can be identified during pregnancy by prenatal screening, followed by diagnostic testing, or after birth by direct observation and genetic testing. Since the introduction of screening, Down syndrome pregnancies are often aborted (rates varying from 50 to 85% depending on maternal age, gestational age, and maternal race/ethnicity).
<!-- Management and prognosis -->
There is no cure for Down syndrome. Education and proper care have been shown to provide better quality of life. Some children with Down syndrome are educated in typical school classes, while others require more specialized education. In adulthood, about 20% in the United States do some paid work, with many requiring a sheltered work environment. Caretaker support in financial and legal matters is often needed. Regular screening for health issues common in Down syndrome is recommended throughout the person's life.
<!--Epidemiology and history -->
Down syndrome is the most common chromosomal abnormality, occurring in about 1 in 1,000 babies born worldwide, The syndrome is named after British physician John Langdon Down, who dedicated his medical practice to the cause. Some aspects were described earlier by French psychiatrist Jean-Étienne Dominique Esquirol in 1838 and French physician Édouard Séguin in 1844. The genetic cause was discovered in 1959. As adults, their mental abilities are typically similar to those of an 8- or 9-year-old. They can have poor immune function
|Abnormal teeth
| 60%
|-
|Stunted growth
| 90%
|Slanted eyes
| 60%
|Shortened hands
| 60%
|Obstructive sleep apnea
| 60%
| 75%
|}
Physical
People with Down syndrome may have these physical characteristics: a small chin, epicanthic folds, low muscle tone, a flat nasal bridge, and a protruding tongue. A protruding tongue is caused by low tone and weak facial muscles, and often corrected with myofunctional exercises. Some characteristic airway features can lead to obstructive sleep apnea in around half of those with Down syndrome. Atlantoaxial instability may cause myelopathy due to cervical spinal cord compression later in life, this often manifests as new onset weakness, problems with coordination, bowel or bladder incontinence, and gait dysfunction. Serial imaging cannot reliably predict future cervical cord compression, but changes can be seen on neurological exam. The condition is surgically corrected with spine surgery. Individuals with Down syndrome are at increased risk for obesity as they age due to hypothyroidism, other medical issues and lifestyle. Growth charts have been developed specifically for children with Down syndrome. Walking is acquired in 50% of children after 24 months.
Most individuals with Down syndrome have mild (IQ: 50–69) or moderate (IQ: 35–50) intellectual disability with some cases having severe (IQ: 20–35) difficulties. Those with mosaic Down syndrome typically have IQ scores 10–30 points higher than that. As they age, the gap tends to widen between people with Down syndrome and their same-age peers.
Commonly, individuals with Down syndrome have better language understanding than ability to speak. 10–45% of those with Down syndrome have either a stutter or rapid and irregular speech, making it difficult to understand them. After reaching 30 years of age, some may lose their ability to speak. While people with Down syndrome are generally happy, symptoms of depression and anxiety may develop in early adulthood. In those who reach 60 years of age, 50–70% have the disease. It primarily appears in teenagers and younger adults.
Senses
, visible in the irises of a baby with Down syndrome]]
Hearing and vision disorders occur in more than half of people with Down syndrome. especially in the Western World. Dot-like opacities in the cortex of the lens (cerulean cataract) are present in up to 50% of people with Down syndrome, but may be followed without treatment if they are not visually significant. In Down syndrome, the presence of epicanthal folds may give the false impression of strabismus, referred to as pseudostrabismus. Nasolacrimal duct obstruction, which causes tearing (epiphora), is more frequently bilateral and multifactorial than in children without Down syndrome. causing visual blurring or distortion. Keratoconus first presents in the teen years and progresses into the thirties. Down syndrome is a strong risk factor for developing keratoconus, and onset may be occur at a younger age than in those without Down syndrome. and may be present at birth. Ear infections often begin in the first year of life and are partly due to poor eustachian tube function. Excessive ear wax can also cause hearing loss due to obstruction of the outer ear canal. Age-related hearing loss of the sensorineural type occurs at a much earlier age and affects 10–70% of people with Down syndrome. Some of the genetic contributions to pulmonary hypertension in individuals with Down Syndrome are abnormal lung development, endothelial dysfunction, and proinflammatory genes. People with Down syndrome have a lower risk of hardening of the arteries. the risk of testicular cancer and certain blood cancers, including acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) and acute megakaryoblastic leukemia (AMKL) is increased while the risk of other non-blood cancers is decreased.
Blood cancers
Leukemia is 10 to 15 times more common in children with Down syndrome. Acute lymphoblastic leukemia in Down syndrome accounts for 1–3% of all childhood cases of ALL. It occurs most often in those older than nine years or having a white blood cell count greater than 50,000 per microliter and is rare in those younger than one year old. ALL in Down syndrome tends to have poorer outcomes than other cases of ALL in people without Down syndrome. In short, the likelihood of developing acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is higher in children with Down syndrome compared to those without Down syndrome.
Myeloid leukemia typically precedes Down syndrome and is accompanied by a condition known as transient abnormal myelopoiesis (TAM), which generally disrupts the differentiation of megakaryocytes and erythrocytes. In Down syndrome, AMKL is typically preceded by transient myeloproliferative disease (TMD), a disorder of blood cell production in which non-cancerous megakaryoblasts with a mutation in the GATA1 gene rapidly divide during the later period of pregnancy. GATA1 mutations combined with trisomy 21 contribute to a predisposition to TAM. In about 10% of cases, TMD progresses to AMKL during the three months to five years following its resolution.
Non-blood cancers
People with Down syndrome have a lower risk of all major solid cancers, including those of lung, breast, and cervix, with the lowest relative rates occurring in those aged 50 years or older. One exception is testicular germ cell cancer which occurs at a higher rate in Down syndrome. Type 1 diabetes mellitus is also more common. Other congenital problems can include duodenal atresia, imperforate anus and gastroesophageal reflux disease. While plaque and poor oral hygiene are contributing factors, the severity of these periodontal diseases cannot be explained solely by external factors. The weakened immune system also contributes to increased incidence of yeast infections in the mouth (from Candida albicans). less effective oral hygiene habits, and higher plaque indexes.
Higher rates of tooth wear and bruxism are also common.
Fertility
Males with Down syndrome usually do not father children, while females have lower rates of fertility relative to those who are unaffected. Without assisted reproductive technologies, around half of the children of someone with Down syndrome will also have the syndrome. and there is no scientific research which shows that environmental factors or the parents' activities contribute to Down syndrome. The only factor that has been linked to the increased chance of having a baby with Down syndrome is advanced parental age. This is mostly associated with advanced maternal age but about 10 per cent of cases are associated with advanced paternal age. for Down syndrome (trisomy 21) showing the three copies of chromosome 21]]
Down syndrome is caused by having three copies of the genes on chromosome 21, rather than the usual two. The parents of the affected individual are typically genetically normal. In 1–2.5% of cases, some of the cells in the body are normal and others have trisomy 21, known as mosaic Down syndrome. The other common mechanisms that can give rise to Down syndrome include: a Robertsonian translocation, isochromosome, or ring chromosome. These contain additional material from chromosome 21 and occur in about 2.5% of cases.Trisomy 21Down syndrome (also known by the karyotype 47,XX,+21 for females and 47,XY,+21 for males) is mostly caused by a failure of the 21st chromosome to separate during egg or sperm development, known as nondisjunction. Mosaic Down syndrome Mosaic Down syndrome is diagnosed when there is a mixture of two types of cells: some cells have three copies of chromosome 21 but some cells have the typical two copies of chromosome 21. Children with mosaic Down syndrome may have the same features as other children with Down syndrome. However, they may have fewer characteristics of the condition due to the presence of some (or many) cells with a typical number of chromosomes.Translocation Down syndromeThe extra chromosome 21 material may also occur due to a Robertsonian translocation in 2–4% of cases. This may be a new mutation or previously present in one of the parents. This results in a 15% chance of having a child with Down syndrome when the mother is affected and a less than 5% probability if the father is affected.
Mechanism
The extra genetic material present in Down syndrome results in overexpression of a portion of the 310 genes located on chromosome 21. with this area including genes for the amyloid precursor protein, superoxide dismutase, and likely the ETS2 proto oncogene. Other research, however, has not confirmed these findings.
The dementia that occurs in Down syndrome is due to an excess of amyloid beta peptide produced in the brain and is similar to Alzheimer's disease, which also involves amyloid beta build-up. Senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles are present in nearly all by 35 years of age, though dementia may not be present.DiagnosisScreening before birthGuidelines recommend screening for Down syndrome to be offered to all pregnant women, regardless of age. A number of tests are used, with varying levels of accuracy. They are typically used in combination to increase the detection rate. The presence or absence of many markers is more accurate.
<gallery mode"packed" heights"200px">
T21.JPG|Ultrasound of fetus with Down syndrome showing a large bladder
Nuchal edema in Down Syndrome Dr. W. Moroder.jpg|Enlarged NT and absent nasal bone in a fetus at 11 weeks with Down syndrome
</gallery>
Blood tests
Several blood markers can be measured to predict the chances of Down syndrome during the first or second trimester.
Testing of the mother's blood for fetal DNA is being studied and appears promising in the first trimester. The International Society for Prenatal Diagnosis considers it a reasonable screening option for those women whose pregnancies are at a high likelihood of trisomy 21.Combinations{| class"wikitable"
|+ First- and second-trimester screening
|-
!Screen
!Week of pregnancy when performed
!Detection rate
!False positive
!Description
|-
|Combined test
| 10–13.5 wks
| 82–87%
| 5%
|Uses ultrasound to measure nuchal translucency in addition to blood tests for free or total beta-hCG and PAPP-A
|-
|Quad screen
|15–20 wks
|81%
| 5%
|Measures the maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein, unconjugated estriol, hCG, and inhibin-A
|-
|Integrated test
|15–20 wks
|94–96%
|5%
|Is a combination of the quad screen, PAPP-A, and NT
|-
|Cell-free fetal DNA
|From 10 wks
|96–100%
|0.3%
|A blood sample is taken from the mother by venipuncture and is sent for DNA analysis.
|}
Efficacy
For combinations of ultrasonography and non-genetic blood tests, screening in both the first and second trimesters is better than just screening in the first trimester. If Down syndrome occurs in one in 500 pregnancies with a 90% detection rate and the test used has a 5% false-positive rate, of 28 women who test positive on screening, only one will have a fetus with Down syndrome confirmed. If the screening test has a 2% false-positive rate, this means of 11 women who test positive on screening, only one will have a fetus with Down syndrome. The risk of limb problems may be increased in the offspring if chorionic villus sampling is performed before 10 weeks. In the United States, the termination rate after diagnosis is around 75%,After birthA diagnosis can often be suspected based on the child's physical appearance at birth. Education and proper care can provide a positive quality of life.!! Adults Behavioral issues and mental illness are typically managed with counseling or medications. In the United States, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1975 requires public schools generally to allow attendance by students with Down syndrome.
<!-- Early Intervention Therapies -->
Individuals with Down syndrome may learn better visually. Drawing may help with language, speech, and reading skills. Children with Down syndrome still often have difficulty with sentence structure and grammar, as well as developing the ability to speak clearly. Several types of early intervention can help with cognitive development. Efforts to develop motor skills include physical therapy, speech and language therapy, and occupational therapy. Physical therapy focuses specifically on motor development and teaching children to interact with their environment. Speech and language therapy can help prepare for later language. Lastly, occupational therapy can help with skills needed for later independence.
Other
Tympanostomy tubes are often needed Tonsillectomy is also often done to help with sleep apnea and throat infections. donepezil, rivastigmine, or galantamine.Prognosis
Between 5–15% of children with Down syndrome in Sweden attend regular school. Many learn to read and write and some are able to do paid work. In Sweden, however, less than 1% have regular jobs. Many are able to live semi-independently,
Individuals with Down syndrome have a higher risk of early death than the general population. to 25 years in the 1980s, The National Down Syndrome Society provides information regarding raising a child with Down syndrome.
Epidemiology
]]
Down syndrome is the most common chromosomal abnormality in humans. More children are born with Down syndrome in countries where abortion is not allowed and in countries where pregnancy more commonly occurs at a later age. and 1.1 per 1,000 live births in Norway are affected. The number of pregnancies with Down syndrome is more than two times greater with many spontaneously aborting.
History
, The Adoration of the Christ Child, depicts a person with Down syndrome as one of the angels.]]
— first described Down syndrome]]
English physician John Langdon Down first described Down syndrome in 1862, recognizing it as a distinct type of mental disability, and again in a more widely published report in 1866. Édouard Séguin described it as separate from cretinism in 1844. By the 20th century, Down syndrome had become the most recognizable form of mental disability.
Due to his perception that children with Down syndrome shared facial similarities with those of Blumenbach's Mongoloid race, John Langdon Down used the term "mongoloid". He felt that the existence of Down syndrome confirmed that all peoples were genetically related. In the 1950s with discovery of the underlying cause as being related to chromosomes, concerns about the race-based nature of the name increased.
In 1961, a group of nineteen scientists suggested that "mongolism" had "misleading connotations" and had become "an embarrassing term". While this terminology continued to be used until the late twentieth century, it is now considered unacceptable and is no longer in common use.
In antiquity, many infants with disabilities were either killed or abandoned.
Researchers believe that a number of historical pieces of art portray Down syndrome, including pottery from the pre-Columbian Tumaco-La Tolita culture in present-day Colombia and Ecuador, and the 16th-century painting The Adoration of the Christ Child.
In the 20th century, many individuals with Down syndrome were institutionalized, few of the associated medical problems were treated, and most people died in infancy or early adulthood. With the rise of the eugenics movement, 33 of the then 48 U.S. states and several countries began programs of forced sterilization of individuals with Down syndrome and comparable degrees of disability. Action T4 in Nazi Germany saw the systematic murder of people with Down syndrome made public policy.
With the discovery of karyotype techniques in the 1950s it became possible to identify abnormalities of chromosomal number or shape. and in 2014 the Scientific Council of the French Federation of Human Genetics unanimously awarded its Grand Prize to his colleague Marthe Gautier for her role in this discovery. The discovery took place in the laboratory of Raymond Turpin at the Hôpital Trousseau in Paris, France. Jérôme Lejeune and Marthe Gautier were both his students.
As a result of this discovery, the condition became known as trisomy 21. Even before the discovery of its cause, the presence of the syndrome in all races, its association with older maternal age, and its rarity of recurrence had been noticed. Medical texts had assumed it was caused by a combination of inheritable factors that had not been identified. Other theories had focused on injuries sustained during birth.
Society and culture
Name
Down syndrome is named after John Langdon Down. He was the first person to provide an accurate description of the syndrome. His research that was published in 1866 earned him the recognition as the Father of the syndrome. While others had previously recognized components of the condition, John Langdon Down described the syndrome as a distinct, unique medical condition. However, both the possessive and nonpossessive forms remain in use by the general population. The term "trisomy 21" is also commonly used.
Ethics
Obstetricians routinely offer antenatal screenings for various conditions, including Down syndrome. When results from testing become available, it is considered an ethical requirement to share the results with the patient.
Some bioethicists deem it reasonable for parents to select a child who would have the highest well-being. One criticism of this reasoning is that it often values those with disabilities less. Some parents argue that Down syndrome should not be prevented or cured and that eliminating Down syndrome amounts to genocide. The disability rights movement does not have a position on screening, Some in the United States who are anti-abortion support abortion if the fetus is disabled, while others do not. Of a group of 40 mothers in the United States who have had one child with Down syndrome, half agreed to screening in the next pregnancy. Women may face disapproval whether they choose abortion or not. Some of those against screening refer to it as a form of eugenics. These were organizations advocating for the inclusion of people with Down syndrome into the general school system and for a greater understanding of the condition among the general population, Kobato Kai founded in Japan in 1964, and the National Down Syndrome Society founded in 1979 in the United States.
The first World Down Syndrome Day was held on 21 March 2006. The day and month were chosen to correspond with 21 and trisomy, respectively. It was recognized by the United Nations General Assembly in 2011. The project began when International Down syndrome swimmer Filipe Santos broke the world record in the 50m butterfly event, but was unable to compete at the Paralympic Games.Paralympic Swimming
International Paralympic Committee Para-swimming classification codes are based upon single impairment only, whereas Down syndrome individuals have both physical and intellectual impairments.
Although Down syndrome swimmers are able to compete in the Paralympic Swimming S14 intellectual impairment category (provided they score low in IQ tests), they are often outmatched by the superior physicality of their opponents.
At present there is no designated Paralympic category for swimmers with Down syndrome, meaning they have to compete as intellectually disadvantaged athletes. This disregards their physical disabilities.
A number of advocacy groups globally have been lobbying for the inclusion of a distinct classification category for Down syndrome swimmers within the IPC Classification Codes framework.
Despite ongoing advocacy, the issue remains unresolved, and swimmers with Down syndrome continue to face challenges in accessing appropriate classification pathways.Research
Efforts are underway to determine how the extra chromosome 21 material causes Down syndrome, as currently this is unknown, Two efforts being studied are the use stem cells and gene therapy. Other methods being studied include the use of antioxidants, gamma secretase inhibition, adrenergic agonists, and memantine. Research is often carried out on an animal model, the Ts65Dn mouse.Other hominidsDown syndrome may also occur in hominids other than humans. In great apes chromosome 22 corresponds to the human chromosome 21 and thus trisomy 22 causes Down syndrome in apes. The condition was observed in a common chimpanzee in 1969 and a Bornean orangutan in 1979, but neither lived very long. The common chimpanzee Kanako (born around 1993, in Japan) has become the longest-lived known example of this condition. Kanako has some of the same symptoms that are common in human Down syndrome. It is unknown how common this condition is in chimps, but it is plausible it could be roughly as common as Down syndrome is in humans.
Fossilized remains of a Neanderthal aged approximately 6 at death were described in 2024. The child, nicknamed Tina, suffered from a malformation of the inner ear that only occurs in people with Down syndrome, and would have caused hearing loss and disabling vertigo. The fact that a Neanderthal with such a condition survived to such an age was taken as evidence of compassion and extra-maternal care among Neanderthals.
In popular culture
, an actor with Down syndrome, born in 1965]]
Individuals
*Jamie Brewer is an American actress and model. She is best known for her roles in the FX horror anthology television series American Horror Story. In its first season, Murder House, she portrayed Adelaide "Addie" Langdon; in the third season, Coven, she portrayed Nan, an enigmatic and clairvoyant witch; in the fourth season Freak Show, she portrayed Chester Creb's vision of his doll, Marjorie; in the seventh season Cult, she portrayed Hedda, a member of the 'SCUM' crew, led by feminist Valerie Solanas; and she also returned to her role as Nan in the eighth season, Apocalypse. In February 2015, Brewer became the first woman with Down syndrome to walk the red carpet at New York Fashion Week, for designer Carrie Hammer.
*Sofía Jirau is a Puerto Rican model with Down syndrome, working with top designers and renowned media outlets such Vogue Mexico, People, Hola!, among others. In February 2020, Jirau made her debut at New York Fashion Week. Then in February 2022, she became the first-ever model with Down Syndrome to be hired by the American retail company Victoria's Secret. She walked the LA Fashion Week runway in 2022. Jirau launched a campaign in 2021 called Sin Límites or No Limits "which seeks to make visible the challenges facing the Down syndrome community, demonstrate our ability to achieve our goals, and raise awareness about the condition throughout the world." He was awarded the Jimmy V Award for Perseverance at the 2021 ESPY Awards. Nikic continues to run races around the world, using his platform to promote his 1% Better message and bring awareness to the endless possibilities for people with Down syndrome.
*Grace Strobel is an American model and the first person with Down Syndrome to represent an American skin-care brand. She first joined Obagi in 2020, and continues to be an Ambassador for the brand as of 2022. She walked the runway representing Tommy Hilfiger for Runway of Dreams New York Fashion Week 2020 and Atlantic City Fashion Week. Strobel has been featured in Forbes, on The Today Show, Good Morning America, by Rihanna's Fenty Beauty, Lady Gaga's Kindness Channel, and many more.Television and film*Life Goes On is an American drama television series that aired on ABC from September 12, 1989, to May 23, 1993. The show centers on the Thatcher family living in suburban Chicago: Drew, his wife Libby, and their children Paige, Rebecca and Charles. Charles, called Corky on the show and portrayed by Chris Burke, was the first major character on a television series with Down syndrome. Burke's revolutionary role conveyed a realistic portrayal of people with Down syndrome and changed the way audiences viewed people with disabilities.
*Struck by Lightning, an Australian film by Jerzy Domaradzki and starring Garry McDonald, is a comedy-drama depicting the efforts by a newly appointed physical education teacher to introduce soccer to a specialized school for youths with Down syndrome.
*Champions (2023) is a film starring four main actors with Down syndrome: Madison Tevlin, Kevin Iannucci, Matthew Von Der Ahe and James Day Keith. It is an American sports comedy film directed by Bobby Farrelly in his solo directorial debut, from a screenplay written by Mark Rizzo. The film stars Woody Harrelson as a temperamental minor-league basketball coach who after an arrest must coach a team of players with intellectual disabilities as community service; Kaitlin Olson, Ernie Hudson, and Cheech Marin also star.
*Born This Way is an American reality television series produced by Bunim/Murray Productions featuring seven adults with Down syndrome with work hard to achieve goals and overcome obstacles. The show received a Television Academy Honor in 2016.
*The Peanut Butter Falcon is a 2019 American comedy-drama film written and directed by Tyler Nilson and Michael Schwartz, in their directorial film debut, and starring Zack Gottsagen, Shia LaBeouf, Dakota Johnson and John Hawkes. The plot follows a young man with Down syndrome who escapes from an assisted living facility, in order to follow his dream of being a wrestler, and befriends a wayward fisherman on the run. As the two men form a rapid bond, a social worker attempts to track them.
Music
*The Devo song "Mongoloid" is about someone with Down syndrome.
*The Amateur Transplants song "Your Baby" is about a fetus with Down syndrome.
Toys
*In 2023, Mattel released a Barbie doll with characteristics of a person having Down syndrome as a way to promote diversity.
See also
* List of syndromes
* Characteristics of syndromic ASD conditions
Notes
References
Further reading
*
*
*
*
External links
* [https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/downs-syndrome/ Down's syndrome] by the UK National Health Service
| ICD10 =
| ICD9 =
| ICDO | OMIM 190685
| OMIM_mult | MedlinePlus 000997
| eMedicineSubj = ped
| eMedicineTopic = 615
| DiseasesDB = 3898
| MeshID = D004314
}}
Category:Autosomal trisomies
Category:Genetic syndromes
Category:Syndromes with intellectual disability
Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate (full)
Category:Syndromes affecting the gastrointestinal tract
Category:Syndromes affecting the heart
Category:Syndromes affecting the nervous system
Category:Syndromes with craniofacial abnormalities
Category:Syndromic autism
Category:Diseases named after discoverers
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Dyslexia
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Classification
Dyslexia is divided into developmental and acquired forms. Acquired dyslexia occurs subsequent to neurological insult, such as traumatic brain injury or stroke. People with acquired dyslexia exhibit some of the signs or symptoms of the developmental disorder, but require different assessment strategies and treatment approaches. Pure alexia, also known as agnosic alexia or pure word blindness, is one form of alexia which makes up "the peripheral dyslexia" group.Signs and symptoms
In early childhood, symptoms that correlate with a later diagnosis of dyslexia include delayed onset of speech and a lack of phonological awareness. These behaviors are seen in many children as they learn to read and write, and are not considered to be defining characteristics of dyslexia. They may also show difficulty in segmenting words into individual sounds (such as sounding out the three sounds of k, a, and t in cat) or may struggle to blend sounds, indicating reduced phonemic awareness.
Difficulties with word retrieval or naming things is also associated with dyslexia. People with dyslexia are commonly poor spellers, a feature sometimes called dysorthographia or dysgraphia, which depends on the skill of orthographic coding.Associated conditionsDyslexia often co-occurs with other learning disorders, but the reasons for this comorbidity have not been clearly identified. These associated disabilities include:
; Dysgraphia: A disorder involving difficulties with writing or typing, sometimes due to problems with eye–hand coordination; it also can impede direction- or sequence-oriented processes, such as tying knots or carrying out repetitive tasks. In dyslexia, dysgraphia is often multifactorial, due to impaired letter-writing automaticity, organizational and elaborative difficulties, and impaired visual word forming, which makes it more difficult to retrieve the visual picture of words required for spelling. Dyslexia and ADHD commonly occur together. Approximately 15% and up to 35% of people with ADHD have dyslexia. This can lead to problems with auditory memory and auditory sequencing. Many people with dyslexia have auditory processing problems, and may develop their own logographic cues to compensate for this type of deficit. Some research suggests that auditory processing skills could be the primary shortfall in dyslexia.
; Developmental coordination disorder: A neurological condition characterized by difficulty in carrying out routine tasks involving balance, fine-motor control and kinesthetic coordination; difficulty in the use of speech sounds; and problems with short-term memory and organization. Causes Researchers have been trying to find the neurobiological basis of dyslexia since the condition was first identified in 1881. For example, some have tried to associate the common problem among people with dyslexia of not being able to see letters clearly to abnormal development of their visual nerve cells.
Neuroanatomy
Neuroimaging techniques, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron emission tomography (PET), have shown a correlation between both functional and structural differences in the brains of children with reading difficulties. Some people with dyslexia show less activation in parts of the left hemisphere of the brain involved with reading, such as the inferior frontal gyrus, inferior parietal lobule, and the middle and ventral temporal cortex. with some implication that the observed neural manifestation of developmental dyslexia is task-specific (i.e., functional rather than structural). fMRIs of people with dyslexia indicate an interactive role of the cerebellum and cerebral cortex as well as other brain structures in reading.
The cerebellar theory of dyslexia proposes that impairment of cerebellum-controlled muscle movement affects the formation of words by the tongue and facial muscles, resulting in the fluency problems that some people with dyslexia experience. The cerebellum is also involved in the automatization of some tasks, such as reading. The fact that some children with dyslexia have motor task and balance impairments could be consistent with a cerebellar role in their reading difficulties. However, the cerebellar theory has not been supported by controlled research studies.GeneticsResearch into potential genetic causes of dyslexia has its roots in post-autopsy examination of the brains of people with dyslexia. The previously cited studies and others suggest that abnormal cortical development, presumed to occur before or during the sixth month of fetal brain development, may have caused the abnormalities. Abnormal cell formations in people with dyslexia have also been reported in non-language cerebral and subcortical brain structures. Several genes have been associated with dyslexia, including DCDC2 and KIAA0319 on chromosome 6, and DYX1C1 on chromosome 15.Gene–environment interactionThe contribution of gene–environment interaction to reading disability, which estimates the proportion of variance associated with a person's environment and the proportion associated with their genes, has been intensely studied using twin studies. Both environmental and genetic factors appear to contribute to reading development. Studies examining the influence of environmental factors such as parental education and teaching quality have determined that genetics have greater influence in supportive, rather than less optimal, environments. However, more optimal conditions may just allow those genetic risk factors to account for more of the variance in outcome because the environmental risk factors have been minimized.LanguageThe orthographic complexity of a language directly affects how difficult it is to learn to read it. English and French have comparatively "deep" phonemic orthographies within the Latin alphabet writing system, with complex structures employing spelling patterns on several levels: letter-sound correspondence, syllables, and morphemes. Languages such as Spanish, Italian and Finnish primarily employ letter-sound correspondence—so-called "shallow" orthographies—which makes them easier to learn for people with dyslexia.
Pathophysiology
For most people who are right-hand dominant, the left hemisphere of their brain is more specialized for language processing. With regard to the mechanism of dyslexia, fMRI studies suggest that this specialization is less pronounced or absent in people with dyslexia. In other studies, dyslexia is correlated with anatomical differences in the corpus callosum, the bundle of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres.
Data via diffusion tensor MRI indicate changes in connectivity or in gray matter density in areas related to reading and language. Finally, the left inferior frontal gyrus has shown differences in phonological processing in people with dyslexia.
Dual route theory
The dual-route theory of reading aloud was first described in the early 1970s. This theory suggests that two separate mental mechanisms, or cognitive routes, are involved in reading aloud. One mechanism is the lexical route, which is the process whereby skilled readers can recognize known words by sight alone, through a "dictionary" lookup procedure. The other mechanism is the nonlexical or sublexical route, which is the process whereby the reader can "sound out" a written word. This is done by identifying the word's constituent parts (letters, phonemes, graphemes) and applying knowledge of how these parts are associated with each }}for example, how a string of neighboring letters sound together.
Diagnosis
Dyslexia is a heterogeneous, dimensional learning disorder that impairs accurate and fluent word reading and spelling. Typical—but not universal—features include difficulties with phonological awareness, inefficient and often inaccurate processing of sounds in oral language (phonological processing), and verbal working memory deficits.
Dyslexia is a neurodevelopmental disorder, subcategorized in diagnostic guides as a learning disorder with impairment in reading (ICD-11 prefixes "developmental" to "learning disorder"; DSM-5 uses "specific"). Dyslexia is not a problem with intelligence. Emotional problems often arise secondary to learning difficulties. The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke describes dyslexia as "difficulty with phonological processing (the manipulation of sounds), spelling, and/or rapid visual-verbal responding". Phonological awareness enables one to identify, discriminate, remember (working memory), and mentally manipulate the sound structures of language—phonemes, onsite-rime segments, syllables, and words.Assessment
The following can be done to assess for dyslexia:
Apply a multidisciplinary team approach involving the child's parent(s) and teacher(s), school psychologist, pediatrician, and, as appropriate, speech and language pathologist (speech therapist), and occupational therapist.
Gain familiarity with typical ages children reach various general developmental milestones, and domain-specific milestones, such as phonological awareness (recognizing rhyming words; identifying the initial sounds in words).
Do not rely on tests exclusively. Careful observation of the child in the school and home environments, and sensitive, comprehensive parental interviews are just as important as tests.
Look at the empirically supported response to intervention (RTI) approach, which "... involves monitoring the progress of a group of children through a programme of intervention rather than undertaking a static assessment of their current skills. Children with the most need are those who fail to respond to effective teaching, and they are readily identified using this approach."
Assessment tests
There is a wide range of tests that are used in clinical and educational settings to evaluate the possibility of dyslexia. If initial testing suggests that a person might have dyslexia, such tests are often followed up with a full diagnostic assessment to determine the extent and nature of the disorder. Some tests can be administered by a teacher or computer; others require specialized training and are given by psychologists.
* General measures of cognitive ability, such as the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities, or Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales. Low general cognitive ability would make reading more difficult. Cognitive ability measures also often try to measure different cognitive processes, such as verbal ability, nonverbal and spatial reasoning, working memory, and processing speed. There are different versions of these tests for different age groups. Almost all of these require additional training to give and score correctly, and are done by psychologists. According to Mather and Schneider (2015), a confirmatory profile and/or pattern of scores on cognitive tests confirming or ruling-out reading disorder has not yet been identified.
* Screening or evaluation for mental health conditions: Parents and teachers can complete rating scales or behavior checklists to gather information about emotional and behavioral functioning for younger people. Many checklists have similar versions for parents, teachers, and younger people old enough to read reasonably well (often 11 years and older) to complete. Examples include the Behavioral Assessment System for Children, and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. All of these have nationally representative norms, making it possible to compare the level of symptoms to what would be typical for the younger person's age and biological sex. Other checklists link more specifically to psychiatric diagnoses, such as the Vanderbilt ADHD Rating Scales or the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED). Screening uses brief tools that are designed to catch cases with a disorder, but they often get false positive scores for people who do not have the disorder. Screeners should be followed up by a more accurate test or diagnostic interview as a result. Depressive disorders and anxiety disorders are two-three times higher in people with dyslexia, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is more common, as well.
* Review of academic achievement and skills: Average spelling/reading ability for a dyslexic is a percentage ranking <16, well below normal. In addition to reviewing grades and teacher notes, standardized test results are helpful in evaluating progress. These include group administered tests, such as the Iowa Tests of Educational Development, that a teacher may give to a group or whole classroom of younger people at the same time. They also could include individually administered tests of achievement, such as the Wide Range Achievement Test, or the Woodcock-Johnson (which also includes a set of achievement tests). The individually administered tests again require more specialized training.
Screening
Screening procedures seek to identify children who show signs of possible dyslexia. In the preschool years, a family history of dyslexia, particularly in biological parents and siblings, predicts an eventual dyslexia diagnosis better than any test. In primary school (ages 5–7), the ideal screening procedure consists of training primary school teachers to carefully observe and record their pupils' progress through the phonics curriculum, and thereby identify children progressing slowly. When teachers identify such students they can supplement their observations with screening tests such as the Phonics screening check used by United Kingdom schools during Year one.
In the medical setting, child and adolescent psychiatrist M. S. Thambirajah emphasizes that the high prevalence of developmental disorders in school-aged children, all children seen in clinics should be systematically screened for developmental disorders irrespective of the presenting problem/s." Thambirajah recommends screening for developmental disorders, including dyslexia, by conducting a brief developmental history, a preliminary psychosocial developmental examination, and obtaining a school report regarding academic and social functioning.Management
Through the use of compensation strategies, therapy and educational support, individuals with dyslexia can learn to read and write. There are techniques and technical aids that help to manage or conceal symptoms of the disorder. Reducing stress and anxiety can sometimes improve written comprehension. For dyslexia intervention with alphabet-writing systems, the fundamental aim is to increase a child's awareness of correspondences between graphemes (letters) and phonemes (sounds), and to relate these to reading and spelling by teaching how sounds blend into words. Reinforced collateral training focused on reading and spelling may yield longer-lasting gains than oral phonological training alone. Early intervention can be successful in reducing reading failure.
Research does not suggest that specially-tailored fonts (such as Dyslexie and OpenDyslexic) help with reading. Children with dyslexia read text set in a regular font such as Times New Roman and Arial just as quickly, and they show a preference for regular fonts over specially-tailored fonts.
Prognosis
Dyslexic children require special instruction for word analysis and spelling from an early age. The prognosis, generally speaking, is positive for individuals who are identified in childhood and receive support from friends and family.EpidemiologyThe prevalence of dyslexia is unknown, but it has been estimated to be as low as 5% and as high as 17% of the population. Dyslexia is diagnosed more often in males. Dyslexia is not limited to difficulty in converting letters to sounds, and Chinese people with dyslexia may have difficulty converting Chinese characters into their meanings. The Chinese vocabulary uses logographic, monographic, non-alphabet writing where one character can represent an individual phoneme.
The phonological-processing hypothesis attempts to explain why dyslexia occurs in a wide variety of languages. Furthermore, the relationship between phonological capacity and reading appears to be influenced by orthography.
History
Dyslexia was clinically described by Oswald Berkhan in 1881, but the term dyslexia was coined in 1883 by Rudolf Berlin, an ophthalmologist in Stuttgart. He used the term to refer to the case of a young boy who had severe difficulty learning to read and write, despite showing typical intelligence and physical abilities in all other respects. In 1896, W. Pringle Morgan, a British physician from Seaford, East Sussex, published a description of a reading-specific learning disorder in a report to the British Medical Journal titled "Congenital Word Blindness". The distinction between phonological versus surface types of dyslexia is only descriptive, and without any etiological assumption as to the underlying brain mechanisms. However, studies have alluded to potential differences due to variation in performance. Over time, the consensus has changed from an intelligence-based model to an age-based model for dyslexia .
Society and culture
As is the case with any disorder, society often makes an assessment based on incomplete information. Before the 1980s, dyslexia was thought to be a consequence of education, rather than a neurological disability. As a result, society often misjudges those with the disorder. If the instructors of a person with dyslexia lack the necessary training to support a child with the condition, there is often a negative effect on the student's learning participation.
Since at least the 1960s in the UK, the children diagnosed with developmental dyslexia have consistently been from privileged families. Although half of prisoners in the UK have significant reading difficulties, very few have ever been evaluated for dyslexia. The perfectionist self-presentation is when an individual attempts to present themselves as the perfect ideal image and hides any imperfections. However, substantial research is also available regarding people with dyslexia who speak Arabic, Chinese, Hebrew, or other languages. The outward expression of individuals with reading disability, and regular poor readers, is the same in some respects.See also
* Dyscalculia, difficulty comprehending numbers and math
* Learning to read
* Orton-Gillingham
* List of people with dyslexia
References
Further reading
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External links
(developmental),
| ICD10 = (developmental),
| ICD9 =
| ICDO | OMIM 127700
| MedlinePlus = 001406
| eMedicineSubj = article
| eMedicineTopic = 1835801
| MeshID = D004410
| Scholia = Q132971
}}
}}
Category:Literacy
Category:Learning to read
Category:Specific developmental disorders
*Dyslexia
Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
Category:Wikipedia neurology articles ready to translate
Category:Writing
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Delft
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| coordinates_footnotes | subdivision_type Country
| subdivision_name = Netherlands
| subdivision_type1 = Province
| subdivision_name1 = South Holland
| seat_type = City Hall
| seat = Delft City Hall
| government_footnotes
| governing_body = Municipal council
| leader_party = CDA
| leader_title = Mayor
| leader_name = Marja van Bijsterveldt
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| postal_code_type = Postcodes
| postal_code = 2600–2629
| area_code_type = Area code
| area_code = 015
| website
}}
of the 1654 explosion superimposed on the Paardenmarkt, the site's present occupant.]]
Delft () is a city and municipality in the province of South Holland, Netherlands. It is located between Rotterdam, to the southeast, and The Hague, to the northwest. Together with them, it is a part of both the Rotterdam–The Hague metropolitan area and the Randstad.
Delft is a popular tourist destination in the Netherlands, famous for its historical connections with the reigning House of Orange-Nassau, for its blue pottery, for being home to the painter Jan Vermeer, and for hosting Delft University of Technology (TU Delft). Historically, Delft played a highly influential role in the Dutch Golden Age. In terms of science and technology, thanks to the pioneering contributions of Antonie van Leeuwenhoek and Martinus Beijerinck, Delft can be considered to be the birthplace of microbiology.
History
Early history
, 1877]]
]]
The city of Delft came into being beside a canal, the 'Delf', which comes from the word delven, meaning to delve or dig, and this led to the name Delft. At the elevated place where this 'Delf' crossed the creek wall of the silted up river Gantel, a Count established his manor, probably around 1075. Partly because of this, Delft became an important market town, the evidence for which can be seen in the size of its central market square.
Having been a rural village in the early Middle Ages, Delft developed into a city, and on 15 April 1246, Count Willem II granted Delft its city charter. Trade and industry flourished. In 1389 the Delfshavensche Schie canal was dug through to the river Maas, where the port of Delfshaven was built, connecting Delft to the sea.
Until the 17th century, Delft was one of the major cities of the then county (and later province) of Holland. In 1400, for example, the city had 6,500 inhabitants, making it the third largest city after Dordrecht (8,000) and Haarlem (7,000). In 1560, Amsterdam, with 28,000 inhabitants, had become the largest city, followed by Delft, Leiden and Haarlem, which each had around 14,000 inhabitants.
In 1536, a large part of the city was destroyed by the great fire of Delft.
The town's association with the House of Orange started when William of Orange (Willem van Oranje), nicknamed William the Silent (Willem de Zwijger), took up residence in 1572 in the former Saint-Agatha convent (subsequently called the Prinsenhof). At the time he was the leader of growing national Dutch resistance against Spanish occupation, known as the Eighty Years' War. By then Delft was one of the leading cities of Holland and was equipped with the necessary city walls to serve as a headquarters. In October 1573, an attack by Spanish forces was repelled in the Battle of Delft.
After the Act of Abjuration was proclaimed in 1581, Delft became the de facto capital of the newly independent Netherlands, as the seat of the Prince of Orange.
When William was shot dead on 10 July 1584 by Balthazar Gerards in the hall of the Prinsenhof (now the Prinsenhof Museum), the family's traditional burial place in Breda was still in the hands of the Spanish. Therefore, he was buried in the Delft Nieuwe Kerk (New Church), starting a tradition for the House of Orange that has continued to the present day.
Around this time, Delft also occupied a prominent position in the field of printing.
A number of Italian glazed earthenware makers settled in the city and introduced a new style. The tapestry industry also flourished when famous manufacturer François Spierincx moved to the city. In the 17th century, Delft experienced a new heyday, thanks to the presence of an office of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) (opened in 1602) and the manufacture of Delft Blue china.
A number of notable artists based themselves in the city, including Leonard Bramer, Carel Fabritius, Pieter de Hoogh, Gerard Houckgeest, Emanuel de Witte, Jan Steen, and Johannes Vermeer.
Reinier de Graaf and Antonie van Leeuwenhoek received international attention for their scientific research.
Explosion
: A View of Delft after the Explosion of 1654]]
for public safety, today in use as a clubhouse]]
The Delft Explosion, also known in history as the Delft Thunderclap, occurred on 12 October 1654 when a gunpowder store exploded, destroying much of the city. More than a hundred were killed and thousands were injured.
About of gunpowder were stored in barrels in a magazine in a former Clarist convent in the Doelenkwartier district, where the Paardenmarkt is now located. Cornelis Soetens, the keeper of the magazine, opened the store to check a sample of the powder and a huge explosion followed. Fortunately, many citizens were away, visiting a market in Schiedam or a fair in The Hague.
Today, the explosion is primarily remembered for killing Rembrandt's most promising pupil, Carel Fabritius, and destroying nearly all his works.
Delft artist Egbert van der Poel painted several pictures of Delft showing the devastation.
The gunpowder store (Dutch: Kruithuis) was subsequently re-housed, a 'cannonball's distance away', outside the city, in a new building designed by architect Pieter Post.
Sights
'' by Johannes Vermeer, 1660–1661]]
, 1665]]
The city centre retains a large number of monumental buildings, while in many streets there are canals of which the banks are connected by typical bridges, altogether making this city a notable tourist destination.
Historical buildings and other sights of interest include:
*Oude Kerk (Old Church), constructed between 1246 and 1350. Buried here: Piet Hein, Johannes Vermeer, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek.
*Nieuwe Kerk (New Church), constructed between 1381 and 1496. It contains the Dutch royal family's burial vault which, between funerals, is sealed with a cover stone.
*A statue of Hugo Grotius created by in 1886, located on the Markt near the Nieuwe Kerk.
*The Prinsenhof (Princes' Court), now a museum. Another windmill that formerly stood in Delft, Het Fortuyn, was dismantled in 1917 and re-erected at the Netherlands Open Air Museum, Arnhem, Gelderland in 1920.
*Royal Delft also known as De Porceleyne Fles, is a great place which showcases Delft ware.
*Science Center attracts kids as well as adults.
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Delft stadhuis.jpg|Delft City Hall
File:Delft poorte.jpg|Eastern Gate (Oostpoort)
File:Delft Oude Kerk 002.jpg|The Old Church tower
File:Oude Langendijk Delft.jpg|Oude Langendijk
</gallery>
Culture
Delft is well known for the Delft pottery ceramic products
The painter Johannes Vermeer (1632–1675) was born in Delft. Vermeer used Delft streets and home interiors as the subject or background in his paintings. Its demolition started in December 2009, making way for the new railway tunnel in Delft. The occupants of the building, as well as the name 'Bacinol', moved to another building in the city. The name Bacinol relates to Dutch penicillin research during WWII.
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Education
Delft University of Technology (TU Delft) is one of four universities of technology in the Netherlands. It was founded as an academy for civil engineering in 1842 by King William II. As of 2022, well over 27,000 students are enrolled.
The UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, providing postgraduate education for people from developing countries, draws on the strong tradition in water management and hydraulic engineering of the Delft university.
The Hague University of Applied Sciences has a building on the Delft University of Technology campus. It opened in 2009 and offers several bachelor's degrees for the Faculty of Technology, Innovation & Society.
Inholland University of Applied Sciences also has a building on the Delft University of Technology campus. Several bachelor's degrees for the Agri, Food & Life Sciences faculty and the Engineering, Design and Computing faculty are being taught at the Delft campus.
Economy
In the local economic field, essential elements are:
*education; (amongst others Delft University of Technology) ( 21.651 students and 4.939 full-time employees),
*scientific research; (amongst others "TNO" Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research), Stichting Deltares, Nederlands Normalisatie-Instituut, UNESCO-IHE Institute for water education, Technopolis Innovation Park;
*tourism; (about one million registered visitors a year),
*industry; (DSM Gist Services BV, (Delftware) earthenware production by De Koninklijke Porceleyne Fles, Exact Software Nederland BV, TOPdesk, Ampelmann)
*retail; (IKEA (Inter IKEA Systems B.V., owner and worldwide franchisor of the IKEA Concept, is based in Delft), Makro, Eneco Energy NV).
Nature and recreation
East of Delft lies a relatively large nature and recreation area called the "Delftse Hout" ("Delft Wood"). Through the forest lie bike, horse-riding and footpaths. It also includes a vast lake (suitable for swimming and windsurfing), narrow beaches, a restaurant, and community gardens, plus camping ground and other recreational and sports facilities. (There is also a facility for renting bikes from the station.)
Inside the city, apart from a central park, there are several smaller town parks, including "Nieuwe Plantage", "Agnetapark", "Kalverbos".
There is also the Botanical Garden of the TU and an arboretum in Delftse Hout.
Notable people
Delft is the birthplace of:
Dutch Golden Age
*Jacob Willemsz Delff the Elder, (ca. 1550–1601), portrait painter
*Michiel Jansz. van Mierevelt (1567–1641), painter
*Willem van der Vliet (c. 1584–1642), painter
*Adriaen van de Venne (1589–1662), painter
*Adriaen Cornelisz van Linschoten (1590–1677), painter
*Daniël Mijtens (ca. 1590–1647/48), portrait painter
*Leonaert Bramer (1596–1674), painter of genre, religious, and history paintings
*Pieter Jansz van Asch (1603–ca. 1678), painter
*Evert van Aelst (1602–1657), still life painter
*Hendrick Cornelisz. van Vliet (ca. 1611–1675), painter of church interiors
*Harmen Steenwijck (ca. 1612–ca. 1656), painter of still lifes and fruit
*Jacob Willemsz Delff the Younger (1619–1661), portrait painter
*David Beck (1621–1656), portrait painter
*Egbert van der Poel (1621–1664), genre and landscape painter
*Daniel Vosmaer (1622–1666), painter
*Willem van Aelst (1627–1683), artist of still-lifes
*Hendrick van der Burgh (1627–after 1664), genre painter
*Johannes Vermeer (1632–1675), painter of domestic interior scenes
*Ary de Milde (1634–1708), ceramist
Public thinking and service
*Christian van Adrichem (1533–1585), Catholic priest and theological writer
*Jan Joosten van Lodensteijn (1556–1623), one of the first Dutchmen in Japan
*Hugo Grotius (1583–1645), humanist, diplomat, lawyer, theologian and jurist who laid the foundations for international law
*Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange (1584–1647), sovereign prince of Orange and stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders & Overijssel from 1625 to 1647
*Philippus Baldaeus (1632–1671), minister in Jaffna
*Diederik Durven (1676–1740), Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies from 1729 to 1732
*Abraham van der Weijden (1743–1773), ship's captain, initiated of Freemasonry in South Africa
*Gerrit Paape (1752–1803), painter of earthenware and stoneware, poet, journalist, novelist, judge, columnist and finally a ministerial civil servant
*Aegidius van Braam (1758–1822), naval vice-admiral
*Agneta Matthes (1847–1909), entrepreneur, manufactured yeast using the cooperative movement and housed workers at Agnetapark
*Henk Zeevalking (1922–2005), politician and jurist
*Piet Bukman (born 1934), politician and diplomat
*Klaas de Vries (born 1943), politician and jurist
*Atzo Nicolaï (born 1960), politician
*Marja van Bijsterveldt (born 1961), politician, Mayor of Delft since 2016
*Alexander Pechtold (born 1965), politician and art historian
Science and business
*Adolphus Vorstius (1597–1663), physician and botanist
*Martin van den Hove (1605–1639), astronomer and mathematician
*Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723), father of microbiology and developer of the microscope
*Nicolaas Kruik (1678–1754), land surveyor, cartographer, astronomer, weatherman and eponym of the Museum De Cruquius
*Bernard Romans (ca. 1720-ca. 1783), land surveyor, artist, naturalist, and author
*Martin van Marum (1750–1837), physician, inventor, scientist and teacher
*Jacob Gijsbertus Samuël van Breda (1788–1867), biologist and geologist
*Philippe-Charles Schmerling (1791–1836), prehistorian, geologist and pioneer in paleontology
*Martinus Beijerinck (1851–1931), microbiologist, discovered viruses, lived and worked in Delft
*Guillaume Daniel Delprat CBE (1856–1937), metallurgist, mining engineer and businessman
*Frederik H. Kreuger (1928–2015), high-voltage scientist, academic and inventor
*Marjo van der Knaap (born 1958), professor of pediatric neurology, white matter researcher
*Antoni Folkers (born 1960), architect, humanist
*Peter Schrijver (born 1963), historical linguist
*Ionica Smeets (born 1979), mathematician, science journalist, TV presenter and academic
*Boyan Slat (born 1994), inventor and entrepreneur, CEO of The Ocean Cleanup
Art
*Suzanne Manet (1829–1906), pianist, wife and model of painter Édouard Manet
*Betsy Perk (1833–1906), author of novels and plays, pioneer of the Dutch women's movement
*Ton Lutz (1919–2009) and Pieter Lutz (1927–2009), brothers and actors
*Bram Bogart (1921–2012), expressionist painter of the COBRA group
*Cor Dam (born 1935), sculptor, painter, illustrator and ceramist
*Kader Abdolah (born 1954), poet and columnist
*Michèle Van de Roer (born 1956), artist, designer, photographer and engraver
*Mariska Hulscher (born 1964), TV presenter
*Emma Kirchner (1830 - 1909), first woman photographer in Delft area
*Wessel van Diepen (born 1966), radio host, music producer and former TV presenter
*Rob Das (born 1969), film and TV actor, director and writer
*Jan-Willem van Ewijk (born 1970), film director, actor and screenwriter
*Ricky Koole (born 1972) a Dutch singer and film actress
*Vincent de Moor (born 1973), trance musician and remixer
*Roel van Velzen (born 1978), singer
*Marly van der Velden (born 1988), actress and fashion designer
*Rose Schmits (born c. 1988), potter and trans activist
Sport
*Jan Thomée (1886–1954), footballer, team bronze medallist at the 1908 Summer Olympics
*Henri van Schaik (1899–1991), horse rider, team silver medallist in the 1936 Summer Olympics
*Tinus Osendarp (1916–2002), sprint runner, twice bronze medallist at the 1936 Summer Olympics
*Stien Kaiser (born 1938), speed skater, twice bronze medallist at the 1968 Winter Olympics and gold and silver medallist in the 1972 Winter Olympics
*Pieter van der Kruk (born 1941), heavyweight weightlifter and shot putter, competed at the 1968 Summer Olympics
*Jan Timman (born 1951), chess grandmaster, raised in Delft
*Ria Stalman (born 1951), discus thrower and shot putter, gold medallist in the discus at the 1984 Summer Olympics
*Frank Leistra (born 1960), field hockey goalkeeper, team bronze medallist at the 1988 Summer Olympics
*Ken Monkou (born 1964), football player with 356 club caps
*Eeke van Nes (born 1969), rower, team bronze medallist at the 1996 Summer Olympics and team silver medallist at the 2000 Summer Olympics
*Thamar Henneken (born 1979), freestyle swimmer, team silver medallist at the 2000 Summer Olympics
*Ard van Peppen (born 1985), footballer with over 350 club caps
*Sytske de Groot (born 1986), rower, team bronze medallist at the 2012 Summer Olympics
*Aaron Meijers (born 1987), footballer with almost 400 club caps
*Michaëlla Krajicek (born 1989), tennis player
*Arantxa Rus (born 1990), tennis player
*Kelly Vollebregt (born 1995), handball player
*Victoria Pelova (born 1999), football player
*Tijmen van der Helm (born 2004), racing driver
Miscellaneous
*Nuna is a series of crewed solar-powered vehicles, built by students at the Delft University of Technology, that won the World solar challenge in Australia seven times in the last nine competitions (in 2001, 2003, 2005, 2007, 2013, 2015 and 2017).
*The so-called "Superbus" project aims to develop high-speed coaches capable of speeds of up to together with the supporting infrastructure including special highway lanes constructed separately next to the nation's highways; this project was led by Dutch astronaut professor Wubbo Ockels of the Delft University of Technology.
*Members of both Delft Student Rowing Clubs Proteus-Eretes and Laga have won many international trophies, including Olympic medals, in the past.
*Formula Student Team Delft is a student racing team that has won the Formula Student competition format in Germany three times in a row, their workplace is located along the shie.
*The Human Power Team Delft & Amsterdam, a team consisting mainly of students from the Delft University of Technology, has won The World Human Powered Speed Challenge (WHPSC) four times. This is an international contest for recumbents in the US state of Nevada, the aim of which is to break speed records. They set the world record of 133.78 kilometres an hour (83.13 mph) in 2013.International relationsTwin towns
Delft is twinned with:
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* Aarau, Switzerland
* Adapazarı, Turkey
* Castrop-Rauxel, Germany
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* Estelí, Nicaragua
* Freiberg, Germany
* Jingdezhen, China
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* Kingston upon Thames, United Kingdom
* Pretoria, South Africa
* Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina
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Transport
*Delft railway station; (As of February 2015, located in a new building.)
*Delft Campus railway station
Trains stopping at these stations connect Delft with, among others, the nearby cities of Rotterdam and The Hague, as often as every five minutes, for most of the day.
There are several bus routes from Delft to similar destinations. Trams frequently travel between Delft and The Hague and Leidschendam.
The whole city center and adjacent areas are a paid on-street parking area. In 2018, with the day parking fee of 29.5 Euro, it was the most expensive on-street parking area in the Netherlands, with the city centers of Deventer and Dordrecht being second and third, respectively. See also
*Delftware
*Delft School (Dutch Golden Age painting)
*Dutch Golden Age
*List of films set in Delft
*RandstadRail
*Tanthof
*Bicycle-friendly
Gallery
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Notes
References
*Further reading
*
*Vermeer: A View of Delft, Anthony Bailey, Henry Holt & Company, 2001,
External links
*[http://www.delft.nl/ Municipal Website of Delft]
*Radio Netherlands: [https://web.archive.org/web/20041225161614/http://www2.rnw.nl/rnw/en/features/cultureandhistory/041011doc The day the world came to an end]
*National Gallery, London: [https://web.archive.org/web/20080911094833/http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/cgi-bin/WebObjects.dll/CollectionPublisher.woa/wa/work?workNumber=NG1061 A View of Delft after the Explosion of 1654]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20161003092913/http://headline.icnx.net/delft-tu-develop-ambulance-drone/ TU Delft Develop Ambulance Drone]
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Duesberg hypothesis
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The Duesberg hypothesis is the claim that AIDS is not caused by HIV, but instead that AIDS is caused by noninfectious factors such as recreational and pharmaceutical drug use and that HIV is merely a harmless passenger virus. The most prominent supporters of the hypothesis are Duesberg himself, biochemist and vitamin proponent David Rasnick, and journalist Celia Farber. The scientific community generally contends that Duesberg's arguments in favor of the hypothesis are the result of cherry-picking predominantly outdated scientific data and selectively ignoring evidence that demonstrates HIV's role in causing AIDS.
Role of legal and illegal drug use
Duesberg argues that there is a statistical correlation between trends in recreational drug use and trends in AIDS cases. He argues that the epidemic of AIDS cases in the 1980s corresponds to a supposed epidemic of recreational drug use in the United States and Europe during the same time frame.
These claims are not supported by epidemiologic data. The average yearly increase in opioid-related deaths from 1990 to 2002 was nearly three times the yearly increase from 1979 to 1990, with the greatest increase in 2000–2002, yet AIDS cases and deaths fell dramatically during the mid-to-late-1990s. Duesberg's claim that recreational drug use, rather than HIV, was the cause of AIDS has been specifically examined and found to be false. Cohort studies have found that only HIV-positive drug users develop opportunistic infections; HIV-negative drug users do not develop such infections, indicating that HIV rather than drug use is the cause of AIDS.
Duesberg has also argued that nitrite inhalants were the cause of the epidemic of Kaposi sarcoma (KS) in gay men. However, this argument has been described as an example of the fallacy of a statistical confounding effect; it is now known that a herpesvirus, potentiated by HIV, is responsible for AIDS-associated KS.
Moreover, in addition to recreational drugs, Duesberg argues that anti-HIV drugs such as zidovudine (AZT) can cause AIDS. Duesberg's claim that antiviral medication causes AIDS is regarded as disproven within the scientific community. Placebo-controlled studies have found that AZT as a single agent produces modest and short-lived improvements in survival and delays the development of opportunistic infections; it certainly did not cause AIDS, which develops in both treated and untreated study patients. With the subsequent development of protease inhibitors and highly active antiretroviral therapy, numerous studies have documented the fact that anti-HIV drugs prevent the development of AIDS and substantially prolong survival, further disproving the claim that these drugs "cause" AIDS.
Similarly, the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS) and the Women's Interagency HIV Study (WIHS)—which between them observed more than 8,000 Americans—demonstrated that "the presence of HIV infection is the only factor that is strongly and consistently associated with the conditions that define AIDS." A 2008 study found that recreational drug use (including cannabis, cocaine, poppers, and amphetamines) had no effect on CD4 or CD8 T-cell counts, providing further evidence against a role of recreational drugs as a cause of AIDS.
Current AIDS definitions
Duesberg argued in 1989 that a significant number of AIDS victims had died without proof of HIV infection. However, with the use of modern culture techniques and polymerase chain reaction testing, HIV can be demonstrated in virtually all patients with AIDS.AIDS in AfricaAccording to the Duesberg hypothesis, AIDS is not found in Africa. What Duesberg calls "the myth of an African AIDS epidemic," among people" exists for several reasons, including:
*The need, according to Duesberg, of the CDC, the WHO, and other health organizations to justify their existences, resulting in their "manufacturing contagious plagues out of noninfectious medical conditions."
*Media sensationalism, with stories that "helped shape the Western impression of an AIDS problem out of control," resulting in high levels of funding.
*Confusion or incompetence on the part of African doctors: "Many common Third World diseases are confused with AIDS even if they are not part of its official definition."
Duesberg states that African AIDS cases are "a collection of long-established, indigenous diseases, such as chronic fevers, weight loss, alias "slim disease," diarrhea, and tuberculosis" that result from malnutrition and poor sanitation. African AIDS cases, though, have increased in the last three decades as HIV's prevalence has increased but as malnutrition percentages and poor sanitation have declined in many African regions. In addition, while HIV and AIDS are more prevalent in urban than in rural settings in Africa, malnutrition and poor sanitation are found more commonly in rural than in urban settings.
According to Duesberg, common diseases are easily misdiagnosed as AIDS in Africa because "the diagnosis of African AIDS is arbitrary" and does not include HIV testing. One of the reasons for using more HIV tests despite their expense is that, rather than overestimating AIDS as Duesberg suggests, the Bangui definition alone excluded nearly half of African AIDS patients."
Duesberg notes that diseases associated with AIDS differ between African and Western populations, concluding that the causes of immunodeficiency must be different. Tuberculosis is much more commonly diagnosed among AIDS patients in Africa than in Western countries, while PCP conforms to the opposite pattern. Tuberculosis, though, had higher prevalence in Africa than in the West before the spread of HIV. In Africa and the United States, HIV has spurred a similar percentage increase in tuberculosis cases. PCP may be underestimated in Africa: since machinery "required for accurate testing is relatively rare in many resource-poor areas, including large parts of Africa, PCP is likely to be underdiagnosed in Africa. Consistent with this hypothesis, studies that report the highest rates of PCP in Africa are those that use the most advanced diagnostic methods" Duesberg also claims that Kaposi's sarcoma is "exclusively diagnosed in male homosexual risk groups using nitrite inhalants and other psychoactive drugs as aphrodisiacs", and is found in heterosexuals in the United States as well.
Because reported AIDS cases in Africa and other parts of the developing world include a larger proportion of people who do not belong to Duesberg's preferred risk groups of drug addicts and male homosexuals, Duesberg writes on his website that "There are no risk groups in Africa, like drug addicts and homosexuals." However, many studies have addressed the issue of risk groups in Africa and concluded that the risk of AIDS is not equally distributed. In addition, AIDS in Africa largely kills sexually active working-age adults.
South African president Thabo Mbeki accepted Duesberg's hypothesis and, through the mid-2000s, rejected offers of medical assistance to fight HIV infection, a policy of inaction that cost over 300,000 lives.Duesberg claims that retroviruses like HIV must be harmless to surviveDuesberg argues that retroviruses like HIV must be harmless to survive: they do not kill cells and they do not cause cancer, he maintains. Duesberg writes, "retroviruses do not kill cells because they depend on viable cells for the replication of their RNA from viral DNA integrated into cellular DNA."
Duesberg also rejects the involvement of retroviruses and other viruses in cancer. To him, virus-associated cancers are "freak accidents of nature" that do not warrant research programs such as the war on cancer. Duesberg rejects a role in cancer for numerous viruses, including leukemia viruses, Epstein–Barr virus, human papilloma virus, hepatitis B, feline leukemia virus, and human T-lymphotropic virus.
Duesberg claims that the supposedly innocuous nature of all retroviruses is supported by what he considers to be their normal mode of proliferation: infection from mother to child in utero. Duesberg does not suggest that HIV is an endogenous retrovirus, a virus integrated into the germline and genetically heritable:
Opponents claim that nearly all HIV-positive people will develop AIDSDuesberg claims as support for his idea that many drug-free HIV-positive people have not yet developed AIDS; HIV/AIDS scientists note that many drug-free HIV-positive people have developed AIDS, and that, in the absence of medical treatment or rare genetic factors postulated to delay disease progression, it is very likely that nearly all HIV-positive people will eventually develop AIDS. Scientists also note that HIV-negative drug users do not suffer from immune system collapse.<ref name"drugusenature"/>
See also
* HIV/AIDS denialism
* Inventing the AIDS Virus
References
External links
* [http://www.duesberg.com/ Peter Duesberg's website]
*[http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/topics/HIVAIDS/Understanding/How+HIV+Causes+AIDS/HIVcausesAIDS.htm The Evidence That HIV Causes AIDS] : from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090924081255/http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/topics/HIVAIDS/Understanding/How+HIV+Causes+AIDS/howhiv.htm How HIV Causes AIDS]: National Institutes of Health fact sheet.
*[http://www.history.nih.gov/NIHInOwnWords/assets/media/pdf/publications/Koch_Postulate.pdf Koch's Postulates and the Etiology of AIDS: An Historical Perspective] .
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DSL (disambiguation)
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DSL or digital subscriber line is a family of technologies that provide digital data transmission over the wires of a local telephone network.
DSL may also refer to:
Damn Small Linux, a very small Linux distribution
Danish Sign Language
Data Security Law of the People's Republic of China
Definitive software library
Design Science License, a copyleft license for intellectual property
Diagnostic Systems Laboratories, a company now part of Beckman-Coulter
Dictionary of the Scots Language
Doctor of Strategic Leadership
Discovering Sky at the Longest wavelength, a lunar orbit array mission for low frequency radio astronomy, see Hongmeng Project
Domain-specific language, a specialized computer language
Digital subscriber line, a device used to connect a computer or router to a telephone line
Dominican Summer League of baseball
DSL, a musical artist signed to Ed Banger Records
Deutsche Schule Lagos, or the German School Lagos
"Don't Say Love", a 2023 song by Leigh-Anne
Digital Site License
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Dinosaur
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(possible Middle Triassic record)
| image =
| display_parents = 7
| taxon = Dinosauria
| authority = Owen, 1842
| subdivision_ranks = Major groups
| subdivision = *Ornithischia
*Saurischia
**Sauropodomorpha
**Theropoda
***Various extinct groups
***Aves (birds)
*Agnosphytis?
*Alwalkeria
*Chilesaurus
*Chindesaurus
*Daemonosaurus
*Eodromaeus
*Nhandumirim
*Nyasasaurus?
*Pisanosaurus?
*Smok?
*Tawa
*Thecospondylus
*Herrerasauria
*Silesauridae? <small>(paraphyletic?)</small>
}}
s are avian dinosaurs, and in phylogenetic taxonomy their over 11,000 extant species are included in the group Dinosauria.]]
Dinosaurs are<!-- Please use "are", as the scientific consensus is that birds are also dinosaurs themselves. --> a diverse group of reptiles of the clade Dinosauria. They first appeared during the Triassic period, between 243 and 233.23 million years ago (mya), although the exact origin and timing of the evolution of dinosaurs is a subject of active research. They became the dominant terrestrial vertebrates after the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event 201.3 mya and their dominance continued throughout the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. The fossil record shows that birds are feathered dinosaurs, having evolved from earlier theropods during the Late Jurassic epoch, and are the only dinosaur lineage known to have survived the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event approximately 66 mya. Dinosaurs can therefore be divided into avian dinosaurs—birds—and the extinct non-avian dinosaurs, which are all dinosaurs other than birds.
Dinosaurs are varied from taxonomic, morphological and ecological standpoints. Birds, at over 11,000 living species, are among the most diverse groups of vertebrates. Using fossil evidence, paleontologists have identified over 900 distinct genera and more than 1,000 different species of non-avian dinosaurs. Dinosaurs are represented on every continent by both extant species (birds) and fossil remains. Through the first half of the 20th century, before birds were recognized as dinosaurs, most of the scientific community believed dinosaurs to have been sluggish and cold-blooded. Most research conducted since the 1970s, however, has indicated that dinosaurs were active animals with elevated metabolisms and numerous adaptations for social interaction. Some were herbivorous, others carnivorous. Evidence suggests that all dinosaurs were egg-laying, and that nest-building was a trait shared by many dinosaurs, both avian and non-avian.
While dinosaurs were ancestrally bipedal, many extinct groups included quadrupedal species, and some were able to shift between these stances. Elaborate display structures such as horns or crests are common to all dinosaur groups, and some extinct groups developed skeletal modifications such as bony armor and spines. While the dinosaurs' modern-day surviving avian lineage (birds) are generally small due to the constraints of flight, many prehistoric dinosaurs (non-avian and avian) were large-bodied—the largest sauropod dinosaurs are estimated to have reached lengths of and heights of and were the largest land animals of all time. The misconception that non-avian dinosaurs were uniformly gigantic is based in part on preservation bias, as large, sturdy bones are more likely to last until they are fossilized. Many dinosaurs were quite small, some measuring about in length.
The first dinosaur fossils were recognized in the early 19th century, with the name "dinosaur" (meaning "terrible lizard") being coined by Sir Richard Owen in 1842 to refer to these "great fossil lizards". Since then, mounted fossil dinosaur skeletons have been major attractions at museums worldwide, and dinosaurs have become an enduring part of popular culture. The large sizes of some dinosaurs, as well as their seemingly monstrous and fantastic nature, have ensured their regular appearance in best-selling books and films, such as the Jurassic Park franchise. Persistent public enthusiasm for the animals has resulted in significant funding for dinosaur science, and new discoveries are regularly covered by the media.
Definition
Under phylogenetic nomenclature, dinosaurs are usually defined as the group consisting of the most recent common ancestor (MRCA) of Triceratops and modern birds (Neornithes), and all its descendants. Birds belong to the dinosaur subgroup Maniraptora, which are coelurosaurs, which are theropods, which are saurischians.
General description
skeleton, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County]]
Using one of the above definitions, dinosaurs can be generally described as archosaurs with hind limbs held erect beneath the body. compared to the number of modern-day birds (avian dinosaurs) at 10,806 species.
Extinct dinosaurs, as well as modern birds, include genera that are herbivorous and others carnivorous, including seed-eaters, fish-eaters, insectivores, and omnivores. While dinosaurs were ancestrally bipedal (as are all modern birds), some evolved into quadrupeds, and others, such as Anchisaurus and Iguanodon, could walk as easily on two or four legs. Cranial modifications like horns and crests are common dinosaurian traits, and some extinct species had bony armor. Although the best-known genera are remarkable for their large size, many Mesozoic dinosaurs were human-sized or smaller, and modern birds are generally small in size. Dinosaurs today inhabit every continent, and fossils show that they had achieved global distribution by the Early Jurassic epoch at latest. Modern birds inhabit most available habitats, from terrestrial to marine, and there is evidence that some non-avian dinosaurs (such as Microraptor) could fly or at least glide, and others, such as spinosaurids, had semiaquatic habits.
Early dinosaur research
]]
Scholarly descriptions of what would now be recognized as dinosaur bones first appeared in the late 17th century in England. Part of a bone, now known to have been the femur of a Megalosaurus, He correctly identified the bone as the lower extremity of the femur of a large animal, and recognized that it was too large to belong to any known species. He therefore concluded it to be the femur of a huge human, perhaps a Titan or another type of giant featured in legends. Edward Lhuyd, a friend of Sir Isaac Newton, published Lithophylacii Britannici ichnographia (1699), the first scientific treatment of what would now be recognized as a dinosaur. In it he described and named a sauropod tooth, "Rutellum impicatum", The term is derived .
Discoveries in North America
In 1858, William Parker Foulke discovered the first known American dinosaur, in marl pits in the small town of Haddonfield, New Jersey. (Although fossils had been found before, their nature had not been correctly discerned.) The creature was named Hadrosaurus foulkii. It was an extremely important find: Hadrosaurus was one of the first nearly complete dinosaur skeletons found (the first was in 1834, in Maidstone, England), and it was clearly a bipedal creature. This was a revolutionary discovery as, until that point, most scientists had believed dinosaurs walked on four feet, like other lizards. Foulke's discoveries sparked a wave of interests in dinosaurs in the United States, known as dinosaur mania.
Dinosaur mania was exemplified by the fierce rivalry between Edward Drinker Cope and Othniel Charles Marsh, both of whom raced to be the first to find new dinosaurs in what came to be known as the Bone Wars. This fight between the two scientists lasted for over 30 years, ending in 1897 when Cope died after spending his entire fortune on the dinosaur hunt. Many valuable dinosaur specimens were damaged or destroyed due to the pair's rough methods: for example, their diggers often used dynamite to unearth bones. Modern paleontologists would find such methods crude and unacceptable, since blasting easily destroys fossil and stratigraphic evidence. Despite their unrefined methods, the contributions of Cope and Marsh to paleontology were vast: Marsh unearthed 86 new species of dinosaur and Cope discovered 56, a total of 142 new species. Cope's collection is now at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City, while Marsh's is at the Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale University. At the end of the 1960s, however, the field of dinosaur research experienced a surge in activity that remains ongoing. Several seminal studies led to this activity. First, John Ostrom discovered the bird-like dromaeosaurid theropod Deinonychus and described it in 1969. Its anatomy indicated that it was an active predator that was likely warm-blooded, in marked contrast to the then-prevailing image of dinosaurs.
with a mounted skeleton of a tyrannosaurid (Gorgosaurus libratus)]]
New revelations were supported by an increase in dinosaur discoveries. Major new dinosaur discoveries have been made by paleontologists working in previously unexplored regions, including India, South America, Madagascar, Antarctica, and most significantly China. Across theropods, sauropodomorphs, and ornithischians, the number of named genera began to increase exponentially in the 1990s. These new localities also led to improvements in overall specimen quality, with new species being increasingly named not on scrappy fossils but on more complete skeletons, sometimes from multiple individuals. Better specimens also led to new species being invalidated less frequently. Asian localities have produced the most complete theropod specimens, while North American localities have produced the most complete sauropodomorph specimens. Reference books summarizing the state of dinosaur research, such as David B. Weishampel and colleagues' The Dinosauria, made knowledge more accessible and spurred further interest in dinosaur research. The release of the first and second editions of The Dinosauria in 1990 and 2004, and of a review paper by Paul Sereno in 1998, were accompanied by increases in the number of published phylogenetic trees for dinosaurs.
Soft tissue and molecular preservation
'' specimen's skin impressions found in 1999]]
Dinosaur fossils are not limited to bones, but also include imprints or mineralized remains of skin coverings, organs, and other tissues. Of these, skin coverings based on keratin proteins are most easily preserved because of their cross-linked, hydrophobic molecular structure. Fossils of keratin-based skin coverings or bony skin coverings are known from most major groups of dinosaurs. Dinosaur fossils with scaly skin impressions have been found since the 19th century. Samuel Beckles discovered a sauropod forelimb with preserved skin in 1852 that was incorrectly attributed to a crocodile; it was correctly attributed by Marsh in 1888 and subject to further study by Reginald Hooley in 1917. Owen and Hooley subsequently described skin impressions of Hypsilophodon and Iguanodon in 1885 and 1917. Since then, scale impressions have been most frequently found among hadrosaurids, where the impressions are known from nearly the entire body across multiple specimens.
Starting from the 1990s, major discoveries of exceptionally preserved fossils in deposits known as conservation Lagerstätten contributed to research on dinosaur soft tissues. Chiefly among these were the rocks that produced the Jehol (Early Cretaceous) and Yanliao (Mid-to-Late Jurassic) biotas of northeastern China, from which hundreds of dinosaur specimens bearing impressions of feather-like structures (both closely related to birds and otherwise, see ) have been described by Xing Xu and colleagues. In living reptiles and mammals, pigment-storing cellular structures known as melanosomes are partially responsible for producing colouration. Both chemical traces of melanin and characteristically shaped melanosomes have been reported from feathers and scales of Jehol and Yanliao dinosaurs, including both theropods and ornithischians. This has enabled multiple full-body reconstructions of dinosaur colouration, such as for Sinosauropteryx and Psittacosaurus by Jakob Vinther and colleagues, and similar techniques have also been extended to dinosaur fossils from other localities. (However, some researchers have also suggested that fossilized melanosomes represent bacterial remains.) Stomach contents in some Jehol and Yanliao dinosaurs closely related to birds have also provided indirect indications of diet and digestive system anatomy (e.g., crops). More concrete evidence of internal anatomy has been reported in Scipionyx from the Pietraroja Plattenkalk of Italy. It preserves portions of the intestines, colon, liver, muscles, and windpipe. However, in 2005, Schweitzer and colleagues reported that a femur of Tyrannosaurus preserved soft, flexible tissue within, including blood vessels, bone matrix, and connective tissue (bone fibers) that had retained their microscopic structure. Later, in 2009, Schweitzer and colleagues reported that a Brachylophosaurus femur preserved similar microstructures, and immunohistochemical techniques (based on antibody binding) demonstrated the presence of proteins such as collagen, elastin, and laminin. Both specimens yielded collagen protein sequences that were viable for molecular phylogenetic analyses, which grouped them with birds as would be expected. The extraction of fragmentary DNA has also been reported for both of these fossils, along with a specimen of Hypacrosaurus. In 2015, Sergio Bertazzo and colleagues reported the preservation of collagen fibres and red blood cells in eight Cretaceous dinosaur specimens that did not show any signs of exceptional preservation, indicating that soft tissue may be preserved more commonly than previously thought. Suggestions that these structures represent bacterial biofilms have been rejected, but cross-contamination remains a possibility that is difficult to detect.Evolutionary historyOrigins and early evolution
(large), Eoraptor (small) and a Plateosaurus skull, from the Triassic]]
Dinosaurs diverged from their archosaur ancestors during the Middle to Late Triassic epochs, roughly 20 million years after the devastating Permian–Triassic extinction event wiped out an estimated 96% of all marine species and 70% of terrestrial vertebrate species approximately 252 million years ago.
The Ischigualasto Formation (radiometrically dated at 231–230 million years old) has produced the early saurischian Eoraptor, originally considered a member of the Herrerasauridae but now considered to be an early sauropodomorph, along with the herrerasaurids Herrerasaurus and Sanjuansaurus, and the sauropodomorphs Chromogisaurus, Eodromaeus, and Panphagia. Eoraptor likely resemblance to the common ancestor of all dinosaurs suggests that the first dinosaurs would have been small, bipedal predators.) has produced the herrerasaurids Gnathovorax and Staurikosaurus, along with the sauropodomorphs Bagualosaurus, Buriolestes, Guaibasaurus, Macrocollum, Nhandumirim, Pampadromaeus, Saturnalia, and Unaysaurus. The Carnian-aged Chañares Formation of Argentina preserves primitive, dinosaur-like ornithodirans such as Lagosuchus and Lagerpeton in Argentina, making it another important site for understanding dinosaur evolution. These ornithodirans support the model of early dinosaurs as small, bipedal predators. Dinosaurs may have appeared as early as the Anisian epoch of the Triassic, approximately 243 million years ago, which is the age of Nyasasaurus from the Manda Formation of Tanzania. However, its known fossils are too fragmentary to identify it as a dinosaur or only a close relative. The referral of the Manda Formation to the Anisian is also uncertain. Regardless, dinosaurs existed alongside non-dinosaurian ornithodirans for a period of time, with estimates ranging from 5–10 million years to 21 million years. Most of these other animals became extinct in the Triassic, in one of two events. First, at about 215 million years ago, a variety of basal archosauromorphs, including the protorosaurs, became extinct. This was followed by the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event (about 201 million years ago), that saw the end of most of the other groups of early archosaurs, like aetosaurs, ornithosuchids, phytosaurs, and rauisuchians. Rhynchosaurs and dicynodonts survived (at least in some areas) at least as late as early –mid Norian and late Norian or earliest Rhaetian stages, respectively, and the exact date of their extinction is uncertain. These losses left behind a land fauna of crocodylomorphs, dinosaurs, mammals, pterosaurians, and turtles.Evolution and paleobiogeography
in the early Mesozoic (around 200 million years ago).]]
Dinosaur evolution after the Triassic followed changes in vegetation and the location of continents. In the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic, the continents were connected as the single landmass Pangaea, and there was a worldwide dinosaur fauna mostly composed of coelophysoid carnivores and early sauropodomorph herbivores. Terror birds and bathornithids occupied carnivorous guilds alongside predatory mammals, and ratites are still fairly successful as midsized herbivores; eogruiids similarly lasted from the Eocene to Pliocene, becoming extinct only very recently after over 20 million years of co-existence with many mammal groups.Classification
Dinosaurs belong to a group known as archosaurs, which also includes modern crocodilians. Within the archosaur group, dinosaurs are differentiated most noticeably by their gait. Dinosaur legs extend directly beneath the body, whereas the legs of lizards and crocodilians sprawl out to either side.
By contrast, ornithischians—"bird-hipped", from the Greek ornitheios (ὀρνίθειος) meaning "of a bird" and ischion (ἰσχίον) meaning "hip joint"—had a pelvis that superficially resembled a bird's pelvis: the pubic bone was oriented caudally (rear-pointing). Unlike birds, the ornithischian pubis also usually had an additional forward-pointing process. Ornithischia includes a variety of species that were primarily herbivores.
Despite the terms "bird hip" (Ornithischia) and "lizard hip" (Saurischia), birds are not part of Ornithischia. Birds instead belong to Saurischia, the "lizard-hipped" dinosaurs—birds evolved from earlier dinosaurs with "lizard hips". Further details and other hypotheses of classification may be found on individual articles.
*Dinosauria
**†Ornithischia ("bird-hipped"; diverse bipedal and quadrupedal herbivores)
***†Saphornithischia ("true" ornithischians)
****†Heterodontosauridae (small herbivores/omnivores with prominent canine-like teeth)
*****†Genasauria ("cheeked lizards")
******†Thyreophora (armored dinosaurs; bipeds and quadrupeds)
*******†Eurypoda (heavy, quadrupedal thyreophorans)
********†Stegosauria (spikes and plates as primary armor)
*********†Huayangosauridae (small stegosaurs with flank osteoderms and tail clubs)
*********†Stegosauridae (large stegosaurs)
********†Ankylosauria (scutes as primary armor)
*********†Parankylosauria (small, southern ankylosaurs with macuahuitl-like tails)
*********†Nodosauridae (mostly spiky, club-less ankylosaurs)
*********†Ankylosauridae (characterized by flat scutes)
**********†Ankylosaurinae (club-tailed ankylosaurids)
******†Neornithischia ("new ornithischians")
*******†Pyrodontia ("fire teeth")
********†Thescelosauridae ("wondrous lizards")
*********†Orodrominae (burrowers)
*********†Thescelosaurinae (large thescelosaurids)
********†Cerapoda ("horned feet")
*********†Marginocephalia (characterized by a cranial growth)
**********†Pachycephalosauria (bipeds with domed or knobby growth on skulls)
**********†Ceratopsia (bipeds and quadrupeds; many had neck frills and horns)
***********†Chaoyangsauridae (small, frill-less basal ceratopsians)
***********†Neoceratopsia ("new ceratopsians")
************†Leptoceratopsidae (little to no frills, hornless, with robust jaws)
************†Protoceratopsidae (basal ceratopsians with small frills and stubby horns)
*************†Ceratopsoidea (large-horned ceratopsians)
**************†Ceratopsidae (large, elaborately ornamented ceratopsians)
***************†Chasmosaurinae (ceratopsids with enlarged brow horns)
***************†Centrosaurinae (ceratopsids mostly characterized by frill and nasal ornamentation)
****************†Nasutoceratopsini (centrosaurines with enlarged nasal cavities)
****************†Centrosaurini (centrosaurines with enlarged nasal horns)
****************†Pachyrhinosaurini (mostly had nasal bosses instead of horns)
*********†Ornithopoda (various sizes; bipeds and quadrupeds; evolved a method of chewing using skull flexibility and numerous teeth)
**********†Hypsilophodontidae (small European neornithischians)
**********†Iguanodontia ("iguana teeth"; advanced ornithopods)
***********†Rhabdodontomorpha (with distinctive dentition)
************†Tenontosauridae (North American rhabdodontomorphs; bipeds and quadrupeds)
************†Rhabdodontidae (European rhabdodontomorphs)
***********†Euiguanodontia ("true iguanodonts")
************†Elasmaria (mostly southern ornithopods with mineralized plates along the ribs; may be thescelosaurids)
************†Dryomorpha (Dryosaurus and more advanced ornithopods)
*************†Dryosauridae (mid-sized, small headed)
**************†Ankylopollexia (early members mid-sized, stocky)
***************†Styracosterna ("spiked sterna")
****************†Hadrosauriformes (ancestrally had a thumb spike; large quadrupedal herbivores, with teeth merged into dental batteries)
*****************†Hadrosauromorpha (hadrosaurids and their closest relatives)
******************†Hadrosauridae ("duck-billed dinosaurs"; often with crests)
*******************†Saurolophinae (hadrosaurids with solid, small, no crests)
********************†Brachylophosaurini (short-crested)
********************†Kritosaurini (enlarged, solid nasal crests)
********************†Saurolophini (small, spike-like crests)
********************†Edmontosaurini (flat-headed saurolophines)
*******************†Lambeosaurinae (hadrosaurids often with hollow crests)
********************†Aralosaurini (solid-crested)
********************†Tsintaosaurini (vertical, tube-like crests)
********************†Parasaurolophini (long, backwards-arcing crests)
********************†Lambeosaurini (usually rounded crests)
**Saurischia
***†Herrerasauridae (early bipedal carnivores)
***†Sauropodomorpha (herbivores with small heads, long necks, and long tails)
****†Unaysauridae (primitive, strictly bipedal "prosauropods")
****†Plateosauria (diverse; bipeds and quadrupeds)
*****†Massopoda ("heavy feet")
******†Massospondylidae (long-necked, primitive sauropodomorphs)
******†Riojasauridae (large, primitive sauropodomorphs)
*******†Sauropodiformes (heavy, bipeds and quadrupeds)
********†Sauropoda (very large and heavy; quadrupedal)
*********†Lessemsauridae (gigantic yet lacking several weight-saving adaptations)
*********†Gravisauria ("heavy lizards")
**********†Eusauropoda ("true sauropods")
***********†Turiasauria (often large, widespread sauropods)
***********†Neosauropoda ("new sauropods"; columnar limbs)
************†Diplodocoidea (skulls and tails elongated; teeth typically narrow and pencil-like)
*************†Rebbachisauridae (short-necked, low-browsing diplodocoids often with high backs)
*************†Flagellicaudata (whip-tailed)
**************†Dicraeosauridae (small, short-necked diplodocoids with enlarged cervical and dorsal vertebrae)
**************†Diplodocidae (extremely long-necked)
***************†Apatosaurinae (robust cervical vertebrae)
***************†Diplodocinae (long, thin necks)
************†Macronaria (boxy skulls; spoon- or pencil-shaped teeth)
*************†Titanosauriformes ("titan lizard forms")
**************†Brachiosauridae (long-necked, long-armed macronarians)
**************†Somphospondyli ("porous vertebrae")
***************†Euhelopodidae (stocky, mostly Asian)
***************†Diamantinasauria (horse-like skulls; restricted to the Southern Hemisphere; may be titanosaurs)
***************†Titanosauria (diverse; stocky, with wide hips; most common in the Late Cretaceous of southern continents)
***Theropoda (carnivorous)
****Neotheropoda ("new theropods")
*****†Coelophysoidea (early theropods; includes Coelophysis and close relatives)
*****†"Dilophosaur-grade neotheropods" (larger kink-snouted dinosaurs)
*****Averostra ("bird snouts")
******†Ceratosauria (generally elaborately horned carnivores that existed from the Jurassic to Cretaceous periods, originally included Coelophysoidea)
*******†Ceratosauridae (ceratosaurs with large teeth)
*******†Abelisauroidea (ceratosaurs exemplified by reduced arms and hands)
********†Abelisauridae (large abelisauroids with short arms and oftentimes elaborate facial ornamentation)
********†Noasauridae (diverse, generally light theropods; may include several obscure taxa)
*********†Elaphrosaurinae (bird-like; omnivorous as juveniles but herbivorous as adults)
*********†Noasaurinae (small carnivores)
******Tetanurae (stiff-tailed dinosaurs)
*******†Megalosauroidea (early group of large carnivores)
********†Piatnitzkysauridae (small basal megalosauroids endemic to the Americas)
********†Megalosauridae (large megalosauroids with powerful arms and hands)
********†Spinosauridae (crocodile-like, semiaquatic carnivores)
*******Avetheropoda ("bird theropods")
********†Carnosauria (large meat-eating dinosaurs; megalosauroids sometimes included)
*********†Metriacanthosauridae (primitive Asian allosauroids)
*********†Allosauridae (Allosaurus and its very closest relatives)
*********†Carcharodontosauridae (robust allosauroids; includes some of the largest purely terrestrial carnivores)
********Coelurosauria (feathered theropods, with a range of body sizes and niches)
*********†Megaraptora? (theropods with large hand claws; potentially tyrannosauroids or neovenatorids)
*********†"Nexus of basal coelurosaurs" (used by Tweet to denote well-known taxa with unstable positions at the base of Coelurosauria)
*********Tyrannoraptora ("tyrant thieves")
**********†Tyrannosauroidea (mostly large, primitive coelurosaurs)
***********†Proceratosauridae (tyrannosauroids with head crests)
***********†Tyrannosauridae (Tyrannosaurus and close relatives)
**********Maniraptoriformes (bird-like dinosaurs)
***********†Ornithomimosauria (small-headed, mostly toothless, omnivorous or possible herbivores)
************†Ornithomimidae (very ostrich-like dinosaurs)
***********Maniraptora (dinosaurs with pennaceous feathers)
************†Alvarezsauroidea (small hunters with reduced forelimbs)
*************†Alvarezsauridae (insectivores with only one enlarged digit)
************†Therizinosauria (tall, long-necked theropods; omnivores and herbivores)
*************†Therizinosauroidea (larger therizinosaurs)
**************†Therizinosauridae (sloth-like herbivores, often with enlarged claws)
************†Oviraptorosauria (omnivorous, beaked dinosaurs)
*************†Caudipteridae (bird-like, basal oviraptorosaurs)
*************†Caenagnathoidea (cassowary-like oviraptorosaurs)
**************†Caenagnathidae (toothless oviraptorosaurs known from North America and Asia)
**************†Oviraptoridae (characterized by two bony projections at the back of the mouth; exclusive to Asia)
************Paraves (avialans and their closest relatives)
*************†Scansoriopterygidae (small tree-climbing theropods with membranous wings)
*************†Deinonychosauria (toe-clawed dinosaurs; may not form a natural group)
**************†Archaeopterygidae (small, winged theropods or primitive birds)
**************†Troodontidae (omnivores; enlarged brain cavities)
**************†Dromaeosauridae ("raptors")
***************†Microraptoria (characterized by large wings on both the arms and legs; may have been capable of powered flight)
***************†Eudromaeosauria (hunters with greatly enlarged sickle claws)
**************†Unenlagiidae (piscivores; may be dromaeosaurids)
***************†Halszkaraptorinae (duck-like; potentially semiaquatic)
***************†Unenlagiinae (long-snouted)
*************Avialae (modern birds and extinct relatives)
Timeline of major groups
Timeline of major dinosaur groups per .
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id:holocene value:rgb(0.999,0.95,0.88)
id:her value:red Legend:Herrerasauria
id:pur value:purple Legend:Sauropodomorpha
id:ther value:orange Legend:Theropoda
id:orn value:green Legend:Ornithischia
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from: -245 till: -228 color:middletriassic text:Middle
from: -228 till: -199.6 color:latetriassic text:Late
from: -199.6 till: -175.6 color:earlyjurassic text:Early
from: -175.6 till: -161.2 color:middlejurassic text:Middle
from: -161.2 till: -145.5 color:latejurassic text:Late
from: -145.5 till: -99.6 color:earlycretaceous text:Early
from: -99.6 till: -65.5 color:latecretaceous text:Late
from: -65.5 till: -55.8 color:paleocene text:Paleo.
from: -55.8 till: -33.9 color:eocene text:Eocene
from: -33.9 till: -23.03 color:oligocene text:Oligo.
from: -23.03 till: -5.332 color:miocene text:Mio.
from: -5.332 till: -2.588 color:pliocene text:Pl.
from: -2.588 till: -0.0117 color:pleistocene text:Pl.
from: -0.0117 till: 0 color:holocene text:H.
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from: -251 till: -199.6 color:triassic text:Triassic
from: -199.6 till: -145.5 color:jurassic text:Jurassic
from: -145.5 till: -65.5 color:cretaceous text:Cretaceous
from: -65.5 till: -23.03 color:paleogene text:Paleogene
from: -23.03 till: -2.588 color:neogene text:Neogene
from: -2.588 till: 0 color:quaternary text:Q.
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color:pur bar:NAM3 from:-225 till:-190 text:Plateosauridae
color:pur bar:NAM4 from:-228 till:-213 text:Riojasauridae
color:pur bar:NAM5 from:-227 till:-176 text:Massospondylidae
color:pur bar:NAM6 from:-183 till:-175 text:Vulcanodontidae
color:pur bar:NAM7 from:-168 till:-125 text:Turiasauria
color:pur bar:NAM8 from:-175 till:-150 text:Cetiosauridae
color:pur bar:NAM9 from:-174 till:-93 text:Diplodocoidea
color:pur bar:NAM10 from:-157 till:-93 text:Brachiosauridae
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color:ther bar:NAM16 from:-130 till:-66 text:Megaraptora
color:ther bar:NAM17 from:-166 till:-66 text:Tyrannosauroidea
color:ther bar:NAM18 from:-151.5 till:-108 text:Compsognathidae
color:ther bar:NAM19 from:-140 till:-66 text:Ornithomimosauria
color:ther bar:NAM20 from:-160 till:-66 text:Alvarezsauria
color:ther bar:NAM21 from:-139 till:-66 text:Therizinosauria
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from: -99.6 till: -65.5 color:latecretaceous text:Late
from: -65.5 till: -55.8 color:paleocene text:Paleo.
from: -55.8 till: -33.9 color:eocene text:Eocene
from: -33.9 till: -23.03 color:oligocene text:Oligo.
from: -23.03 till: -5.332 color:miocene text:Mio.
from: -5.332 till: -2.588 color:pliocene text:Pl.
from: -2.588 till: -0.0117 color:pleistocene text:Pl.
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from: -65.5 till: -23.03 color:paleogene text:Paleogene
from: -23.03 till: -2.588 color:neogene text:Neogene
from: -2.588 till: 0 color:quaternary text:Q.
</timeline>
Paleobiology
Knowledge about dinosaurs is derived from a variety of fossil and non-fossil records, including fossilized bones, feces, trackways, gastroliths, feathers, impressions of skin, internal organs and other soft tissues. Two topics of particular interest and study have been dinosaur size and behavior.Size
s:
]]
Current evidence suggests that dinosaur average size varied through the Triassic, Early Jurassic, Late Jurassic and Cretaceous. There are several proposed advantages for the large size of sauropods, including protection from predation, reduction of energy use, and longevity, but it may be that the most important advantage was dietary. Large animals are more efficient at digestion than small animals, because food spends more time in their digestive systems. This also permits them to subsist on food with lower nutritive value than smaller animals. Sauropod remains are mostly found in rock formations interpreted as dry or seasonally dry, and the ability to eat large quantities of low-nutrient browse would have been advantageous in such environments.
to the average human]]
The tallest and heaviest dinosaur known from good skeletons is Giraffatitan brancai (previously classified as a species of Brachiosaurus). Its remains were discovered in Tanzania between 1907 and 1912. Bones from several similar-sized individuals were incorporated into the skeleton now mounted and on display at the Museum für Naturkunde in Berlin; and would have belonged to an animal that weighed between and kilograms ( and lb). The longest complete dinosaur is the long Diplodocus'', which was discovered in Wyoming in the United States and displayed in Pittsburgh's Carnegie Museum of Natural History in 1907. The longest dinosaur known from good fossil material is Patagotitan: the skeleton mount in the American Museum of Natural History in New York is long. The Museo Municipal Carmen Funes in Plaza Huincul, Argentina, has an Argentinosaurus reconstructed skeleton mount that is long.
, potentially the largest terrestrial animal to ever exist.]]
There were larger dinosaurs, but knowledge of them is based entirely on a small number of fragmentary fossils. Most of the largest herbivorous specimens on record were discovered in the 1970s or later, and include the massive Argentinosaurus, which may have weighed and reached lengths of ; some of the longest were the long Diplodocus hallorum Another contender of this title includes Bruhathkayosaurus, a controversial taxon that was recently confirmed to exist after archived photos were uncovered. Bruhathkayosaurus was a titanosaur and would have most likely weighed more than even Marrapunisaurus. Recent size estimates in 2023 have placed this sauropod reaching lengths of up to long and a colossal weight range of around , if these upper estimates up true, Bruhathkayosaurus would have rivaled the blue whale and Perucetus colossus as one of the largest animals to have ever existed.
The largest carnivorous dinosaur was Spinosaurus, reaching a length of and weighing . The largest individuals may have weighed as much as .
, the smallest known dinosaur]]
The smallest dinosaur known is the bee hummingbird, with a length of only and mass of around . The smallest known non-avialan dinosaurs were about the size of pigeons and were those theropods most closely related to birds. While some early bird-like species may have already been arboreal as well (including dromaeosaurids) such as Microraptor'' Some species of modern bird have no nests; the cliff-nesting common guillemot lays its eggs on bare rock, and male emperor penguins keep eggs between their body and feet. Primitive birds and many non-avialan dinosaurs often lay eggs in communal nests, with males primarily incubating the eggs. While modern birds have only one functional oviduct and lay one egg at a time, more primitive birds and dinosaurs had two oviducts, like crocodiles. Some non-avialan dinosaurs, such as Troodon, exhibited iterative laying, where the adult might lay a pair of eggs every one or two days, and then ensured simultaneous hatching by delaying brooding until all eggs were laid.
When laying eggs, females grow a special type of bone between the hard outer bone and the marrow of their limbs. This medullary bone, which is rich in calcium, is used to make eggshells. A discovery of features in a Tyrannosaurus skeleton provided evidence of medullary bone in extinct dinosaurs and, for the first time, allowed paleontologists to establish the sex of a fossil dinosaur specimen. Further research has found medullary bone in the carnosaur Allosaurus and the ornithopod Tenontosaurus. Because the line of dinosaurs that includes Allosaurus and Tyrannosaurus diverged from the line that led to Tenontosaurus very early in the evolution of dinosaurs, this suggests that the production of medullary tissue is a general characteristic of all dinosaurs. An embryo of the basal sauropodomorph Massospondylus was found without teeth, indicating that some parental care was required to feed the young dinosaurs. Both Tyrannosaurus and Troodon had juveniles with clear superprecociality and likely occupying different ecological niches than the adults.
Genital structures are unlikely to fossilize as they lack scales that may allow preservation via pigmentation or residual calcium phosphate salts. In 2021, the best preserved specimen of a dinosaur's cloacal vent exterior was described for Psittacosaurus, demonstrating lateral swellings similar to crocodylian musk glands used in social displays by both sexes and pigmented regions which could also reflect a signalling function. However, this specimen on its own does not offer enough information to determine whether this dinosaur had sexual signalling functions; it only supports the possibility. Cloacal visual signalling can occur in either males or females in living birds, making it unlikely to be useful to determine sex for extinct dinosaurs.Physiology
Because both modern crocodilians and birds have four-chambered hearts (albeit modified in crocodilians), it is likely that this is a trait shared by all archosaurs, including all dinosaurs. An emerging consensus among researchers is that, while different lineages of dinosaurs would have had different metabolisms, most of them had higher metabolic rates than other reptiles but lower than living birds and mammals, which is termed mesothermy by some. Evidence from crocodiles and their extinct relatives suggests that such elevated metabolisms could have developed in the earliest archosaurs, which were the common ancestors of dinosaurs and crocodiles.
'' as an aquatic, tail-dragging animal, by Charles R. Knight, typified early views on dinosaur lifestyles.]]
After non-avian dinosaurs were discovered, paleontologists first posited that they were ectothermic. This was used to imply that the ancient dinosaurs were relatively slow, sluggish organisms, even though many modern reptiles are fast and light-footed despite relying on external sources of heat to regulate their body temperature. The idea of dinosaurs as ectothermic remained a prevalent view until Robert T. Bakker, an early proponent of dinosaur endothermy, published an influential paper on the topic in 1968. Bakker specifically used anatomical and ecological evidence to argue that sauropods, which had hitherto been depicted as sprawling aquatic animals with their tails dragging on the ground, were endotherms that lived vigorous, terrestrial lives. In 1972, Bakker expanded on his arguments based on energy requirements and predator-prey ratios. This was one of the seminal results that led to the dinosaur renaissance. From the 1960s forward, Armand de Ricqlès suggested that the presence of fibrolamellar bone—bony tissue with an irregular, fibrous texture and filled with blood vessels—was indicative of consistently fast growth and therefore endothermy. Fibrolamellar bone was common in both dinosaurs and pterosaurs, though not universally present. This has led to a significant body of work in reconstructing growth curves and modeling the evolution of growth rates across various dinosaur lineages, which has suggested overall that dinosaurs grew faster than living reptiles. (although these ratios can be altered during fossilization); and the discovery of polar dinosaurs, which lived in Australia, Antarctica, and Alaska when these places would have had cool, temperate climates.
s of an abelisaur and a bird]]
In saurischian dinosaurs, higher metabolisms were supported by the evolution of the avian respiratory system, characterized by an extensive system of air sacs that extended the lungs and invaded many of the bones in the skeleton, making them hollow. would have provided them with more oxygen compared to a mammal of similar size, while also having a larger resting tidal volume and requiring a lower breathing frequency, which would have allowed them to sustain higher activity levels. would have prevented large sauropods from overheating. These traits may have enabled sauropods to grow quickly to gigantic sizes. Sauropods may also have benefitted from their size—their small surface area to volume ratio meant that they would have been able to thermoregulate more easily, a phenomenon termed gigantothermy.
Like other reptiles, dinosaurs are primarily uricotelic, that is, their kidneys extract nitrogenous wastes from their bloodstream and excrete it as uric acid instead of urea or ammonia via the ureters into the intestine. This would have helped them to conserve water. However, at least some modern birds (such as hummingbirds) can be facultatively ammonotelic, excreting most of the nitrogenous wastes as ammonia. This material, as well as the output of the intestines, emerges from the cloaca. In addition, many species regurgitate pellets, and fossil pellets are known as early as the Jurassic from Anchiornis.
The size and shape of the brain can be partly reconstructed based on the surrounding bones. In 1896, Marsh calculated ratios between brain weight and body weight of seven species of dinosaurs, showing that the brain of dinosaurs was proportionally smaller than in today's crocodiles, and that the brain of Stegosaurus was smaller than in any living land vertebrate. This contributed to the widespread public notion of dinosaurs as being sluggish and extraordinarily stupid. Harry Jerison, in 1973, showed that proportionally smaller brains are expected at larger body sizes, and that brain size in dinosaurs was not smaller than expected when compared to living reptiles. Direct fossil evidence of feathers or feather-like structures has been discovered in a diverse array of species in many non-avian dinosaur groups, and theropods,
However, researchers do not agree regarding whether these structures share a common origin between lineages (i.e., they are homologous), If the former is the case, filaments may have been common in the ornithodiran lineage and evolved before the appearance of dinosaurs themselves. The description of feathered dinosaurs has not been without controversy in general; perhaps the most vocal critics have been Alan Feduccia and Theagarten Lingham-Soliar, who have proposed that some purported feather-like fossils are the result of the decomposition of collagenous fiber that underlaid the dinosaurs' skin, If feather-like structures were indeed widely present among non-avian dinosaurs, the lack of abundant fossil evidence for them may be due to the fact that delicate features like skin and feathers are seldom preserved by fossilization and thus often absent from the fossil record.
Skeleton
Because feathers are often associated with birds, feathered dinosaurs are often touted as the missing link between birds and dinosaurs. However, the multiple skeletal features also shared by the two groups represent another important line of evidence for paleontologists. Areas of the skeleton with important similarities include the neck, pubis, wrist (semi-lunate carpal), arm and pectoral girdle, furcula (wishbone), and breast bone. Comparison of bird and dinosaur skeletons through cladistic analysis strengthens the case for the link.
Soft anatomy
of Aerosteon riocoloradensis]]
Large meat-eating dinosaurs had a complex system of air sacs similar to those found in modern birds, according to a 2005 investigation led by Patrick M. O'Connor. The lungs of theropod dinosaurs (carnivores that walked on two legs and had bird-like feet) likely pumped air into hollow sacs in their skeletons, as is the case in birds. "What was once formally considered unique to birds was present in some form in the ancestors of birds", O'Connor said. In 2008, scientists described Aerosteon riocoloradensis, the skeleton of which supplies the strongest evidence to date of a dinosaur with a bird-like breathing system. CT scanning of Aerosteon's fossil bones revealed evidence for the existence of air sacs within the animal's body cavity. The ratio between egg volume and body mass of adults among these dinosaurs suggest that the eggs were primarily brooded by the male and that the young were highly precocial, similar to many modern ground-dwelling birds.
Some dinosaurs are known to have used gizzard stones like modern birds. These stones are swallowed by animals to aid digestion and break down food and hard fibers once they enter the stomach. When found in association with fossils, gizzard stones are called gastroliths. became extinct in a mass extinction event, called the Cretaceous–Paleogene (K-Pg) extinction event, at the end of the Cretaceous period. Above the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary, which has been dated to 66.038 ± 0.025 million years ago, fossils of non-avian dinosaurs disappear abruptly; the absence of dinosaur fossils was historically used to assign rocks to the ensuing Cenozoic. The nature of the event that caused this mass extinction has been extensively studied since the 1970s, leading to the development of two mechanisms that are thought to have played major roles: an extraterrestrial impact event in the Yucatán Peninsula, along with flood basalt volcanism in India. However, the specific mechanisms of the extinction event and the extent of its effects on dinosaurs are still areas of ongoing research. Alongside dinosaurs, many other groups of animals became extinct: pterosaurs, marine reptiles such as mosasaurs and plesiosaurs, several groups of mammals, ammonites (nautilus-like mollusks), rudists (reef-building bivalves), and various groups of marine plankton. The relatively large size of most dinosaurs and the low diversity of small-bodied dinosaur species at the end of the Cretaceous may have contributed to their extinction; the extinction of the bird lineages that did not survive may also have been caused by a dependence on forest habitats or a lack of adaptations to eating seeds for survival.Pre-extinction diversityJust before the K-Pg extinction event, the number of non-avian dinosaur species that existed globally has been estimated at between 628 and 1078. It remains uncertain whether the diversity of dinosaurs was in gradual decline before the K-Pg extinction event, or whether dinosaurs were actually thriving prior to the extinction. Rock formations from the Maastrichtian epoch, which directly preceded the extinction, have been found to have lower diversity than the preceding Campanian epoch, which led to the prevailing view of a long-term decline in diversity. However, these comparisons did not account either for varying preservation potential between rock units or for different extents of exploration and excavation. another analysis by David Fastovsky and colleagues in 2004 even showed that dinosaur diversity continually increased until the extinction, but this analysis has been rebutted. Since then, different approaches based on statistics and mathematical models have variously supported either a sudden extinction or a gradual decline. End-Cretaceous trends in diversity may have varied between dinosaur lineages: it has been suggested that sauropods were not in decline, while ornithischians and theropods were in decline.Impact event
(left) and his son Walter Alvarez (right) at the K-T Boundary in Gubbio, Italy, 1981]]
at the tip of the Yucatán Peninsula; the impactor that formed this crater may have caused the dinosaur extinction.]]
The bolide impact hypothesis, first brought to wide attention in 1980 by Walter Alvarez, Luis Alvarez, and colleagues, attributes the K-Pg extinction event to a bolide (extraterrestrial projectile) impact. Alvarez and colleagues proposed that a sudden increase in iridium levels, recorded around the world in rock deposits at the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary, was direct evidence of the impact. The actual impact site remained elusive until a crater measuring wide was discovered in the Yucatán Peninsula of southeastern Mexico, and was publicized in a 1991 paper by Alan Hildebrand and colleagues. Now, the bulk of the evidence suggests that a bolide wide impacted the Yucatán Peninsula 66 million years ago, forming this crater
Within hours, the Chicxulub impact would have created immediate effects such as earthquakes, tsunamis, and a global firestorm that likely killed unsheltered animals and started wildfires. However, it would also have had longer-term consequences for the environment. Within days, sulfate aerosols released from rocks at the impact site would have contributed to acid rain and ocean acidification. (This role was ascribed to sulfate aerosols until experiments demonstrated otherwise.) The cessation of photosynthesis would have led to the collapse of food webs depending on leafy plants, which included all dinosaurs save for grain-eating birds. Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide would have been released by this volcanic activity, resulting in climate change through temperature perturbations of roughly but possibly as high as . Like the Chicxulub impact, the eruptions may also have released sulfate aerosols, which would have caused acid rain and global cooling. However, due to large error margins in the dating of the eruptions, the role of the Deccan Traps in the K-Pg extinction remains unclear. even after the crater's discovery, the impact was still thought to only have had a regional, not global, effect on the extinction event. In response, Luis Alvarez rejected volcanic activity as an explanation for the iridium layer and the extinction as a whole. Since then, however, most researchers have adopted a more moderate position, which identifies the Chicxulub impact as the primary progenitor of the extinction while also recognizing that the Deccan Traps may also have played a role. Walter Alvarez himself has acknowledged that the Deccan Traps and other ecological factors may have contributed to the extinctions in addition to the Chicxulub impact. Combined with mathematical modelling of the seismic waves that would have been generated by the impact, this has led to the suggestion that the Chicxulub impact may have triggered these eruptions by increasing the permeability of the mantle plume underlying the Deccan Traps.
Whether the Deccan Traps were a major cause of the extinction, on par with the Chicxulub impact, remains uncertain. Proponents consider the climatic impact of the sulfur dioxide released to have been on par with the Chicxulub impact, and also note the role of flood basalt volcanism in other mass extinctions like the Permian-Triassic extinction event. They consider the Chicxulub impact to have worsened the ongoing climate change caused by the eruptions. Meanwhile, detractors point out the sudden nature of the extinction and that other pulses in Deccan Traps activity of comparable magnitude did not appear to have caused extinctions. They also contend that the causes of different mass extinctions should be assessed separately. In 2020, Alfio Chiarenza and colleagues suggested that the Deccan Traps may even have had the opposite effect: they suggested that the long-term warming caused by its carbon dioxide emissions may have dampened the impact winter from the Chicxulub impact. The age estimates have also been considered unreliable.Cultural depictions
for the Crystal Palace Park in 1853]]
'' (1914) by Winsor McCay, featuring the first animated dinosaur]]
By human standards, dinosaurs were creatures of fantastic appearance and often enormous size. As such, they have captured the popular imagination and become an enduring part of human culture. The entry of the word "dinosaur" into the common vernacular reflects the animals' cultural importance: in English, "dinosaur" is commonly used to describe anything that is impractically large, obsolete, or bound for extinction.See also
* Dinosaur diet and feeding
* Evolutionary history of life
* Lists of dinosaur-bearing stratigraphic units
* List of dinosaur genera
* List of bird genera
* List of birds
* List of informally named dinosaurs
* List of films featuring dinosaurs
Notes
References
Bibliography
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* The 5th edition of the book is available from the [https://archive.org/details/History_of_Life_5th_Edition_by_Richard_Cowen Internet Archive]. Retrieved 2019-10-19.
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Category:Carnian first appearances
Category:Extant Late Triassic first appearances
Category:Taxa named by Richard Owen
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Diamagnetism
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has one of the largest diamagnetic constants of any room temperature material. Here a pyrolytic carbon sheet is levitated by its repulsion from the strong magnetic field of neodymium magnets]]
Diamagnetism is the property of materials that are repelled by a magnetic field; an applied magnetic field creates an induced magnetic field in them in the opposite direction, causing a repulsive force. In contrast, paramagnetic and ferromagnetic materials are attracted by a magnetic field. Diamagnetism is a quantum mechanical effect that occurs in all materials; when it is the only contribution to the magnetism, the material is called diamagnetic. In paramagnetic and ferromagnetic substances, the weak diamagnetic force is overcome by the attractive force of magnetic dipoles in the material. The magnetic permeability of diamagnetic materials is less than the permeability of vacuum, μ<sub>0</sub>. In most materials, diamagnetism is a weak effect which can be detected only by sensitive laboratory instruments, but a superconductor acts as a strong diamagnet because it entirely expels any magnetic field from its interior (the Meissner effect).
Diamagnetism was first discovered when Anton Brugmans observed in 1778 that bismuth was repelled by magnetic fields. In 1845, Michael Faraday demonstrated that it was a property of matter and concluded that every material responded (in either a diamagnetic or paramagnetic way) to an applied magnetic field. On a suggestion by William Whewell, Faraday first referred to the phenomenon as diamagnetic (the prefix dia- meaning through or across), then later changed it to diamagnetism.
A simple rule of thumb is used in chemistry to determine whether a particle (atom, ion, or molecule) is paramagnetic or diamagnetic: If all electrons in the particle are paired, then the substance made of this particle is diamagnetic; If it has unpaired electrons, then the substance is paramagnetic. Materials
. On keeping diamagnetic materials in a magnetic field, the electron orbital motion changes in such a way that magnetic dipole moments are induced on the atoms / molecules in the direction opposite to the external magnetic field]]
Diamagnetism is a property of all materials, and always makes a weak contribution to the material's response to a magnetic field. However, other forms of magnetism (such as ferromagnetism or paramagnetism) are so much stronger such that, when different forms of magnetism are present in a material, the diamagnetic contribution is usually negligible. Substances where the diamagnetic behaviour is the strongest effect are termed diamagnetic materials, or diamagnets. Diamagnetic materials are those that some people generally think of as non-magnetic, and include water, wood, most organic compounds such as petroleum and some plastics, and many metals including copper, particularly the heavy ones with many core electrons, such as mercury, gold and bismuth. The magnetic susceptibility values of various molecular fragments are called Pascal's constants (named after ).
Diamagnetic materials, like water, or water-based materials, have a relative magnetic permeability that is less than or equal to 1, and therefore a magnetic susceptibility less than or equal to 0, since susceptibility is defined as μ<sub>v</sub> − 1}}. This means that diamagnetic materials are repelled by magnetic fields. However, since diamagnetism is such a weak property, its effects are not observable in everyday life. For example, the magnetic susceptibility of diamagnets such as water is }}. The most strongly diamagnetic material is bismuth, }}, although pyrolytic carbon may have a susceptibility of }} in one plane. Nevertheless, these values are orders of magnitude smaller than the magnetism exhibited by paramagnets and ferromagnets. Because χ<sub>v</sub> is derived from the ratio of the internal magnetic field to the applied field, it is a dimensionless value.
In rare cases, the diamagnetic contribution can be stronger than paramagnetic contribution. This is the case for gold, which has a magnetic susceptibility less than 0 (and is thus by definition a diamagnetic material), but when measured carefully with X-ray magnetic circular dichroism, has an extremely weak paramagnetic contribution that is overcome by a stronger diamagnetic contribution.
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+Notable diamagnetic materials
!Material!! χ<sub>v</sub> [× 10<sup>−5</sup> (SI units)]
|-
|Superconductor
| −10<sup>5</sup>
|-
|Pyrolytic carbon
| −40.9
|-
|Bismuth
| −16.6
|-
|Neon
| −6.74
|-
|Mercury
| −2.9
|-
|Silver
| −2.6
|-
|Carbon (diamond)
| −2.1
|-
|Lead
| −1.8
|-
|Carbon (graphite)
| −1.6
|-
|Copper
| −1.0
|-
|Water
| −0.91
|}
Superconductors
(left) to superconductivity (right). At the transition, the superconductor expels the magnetic field and then acts as a perfect diamagnet.]]
Superconductors may be considered perfect diamagnets ( −1}}), because they expel all magnetic fields (except in a thin surface layer) due to the Meissner effect. Demonstrations Curving water surfaces If a powerful magnet (such as a supermagnet) is covered with a layer of water (that is thin compared to the diameter of the magnet) then the field of the magnet significantly repels the water. This causes a slight dimple in the water's surface that may be seen by a reflection in its surface.
Levitation<!-- This section is linked from Magnetic levitation -->
levitates inside a diameter vertical bore of a Bitter solenoid in a magnetic field of about 16 teslas at the Nijmegen High Field Magnet Laboratory. ]]
Diamagnets may be levitated in stable equilibrium in a magnetic field, with no power consumption. Earnshaw's theorem seems to preclude the possibility of static magnetic levitation. However, Earnshaw's theorem applies only to objects with positive susceptibilities, such as ferromagnets (which have a permanent positive moment) and paramagnets (which induce a positive moment). These are attracted to field maxima, which do not exist in free space. Diamagnets (which induce a negative moment) are attracted to field minima, and there can be a field minimum in free space.
A thin slice of pyrolytic graphite, which is an unusually strongly diamagnetic material, can be stably floated in a magnetic field, such as that from rare earth permanent magnets. This can be done with all components at room temperature, making a visually effective and relatively convenient demonstration of diamagnetism.
The Radboud University Nijmegen, the Netherlands, has conducted experiments where water and other substances were successfully levitated. Most spectacularly, a live frog (see figure) was levitated.
In September 2009, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in Pasadena, California announced it had successfully levitated mice using a superconducting magnet, an important step forward since mice are closer biologically to humans than frogs. JPL said it hopes to perform experiments regarding the effects of microgravity on bone and muscle mass.
Recent experiments studying the growth of protein crystals have led to a technique using powerful magnets to allow growth in ways that counteract Earth's gravity.
A simple homemade device for demonstration can be constructed out of bismuth plates and a few permanent magnets that levitate a permanent magnet.
Theory
The electrons in a material generally settle in orbitals, with effectively zero resistance and act like current loops. Thus it might be imagined that diamagnetism effects in general would be common, since any applied magnetic field would generate currents in these loops that would oppose the change, in a similar way to superconductors, which are essentially perfect diamagnets. However, since the electrons are rigidly held in orbitals by the charge of the protons and are further constrained by the Pauli exclusion principle, many materials exhibit diamagnetism, but typically respond very little to the applied field.
The Bohr–Van Leeuwen theorem proves that there cannot be any diamagnetism or paramagnetism in a purely classical system. However, the classical theory of Langevin for diamagnetism gives the same prediction as the quantum theory. The classical theory is given below.
Langevin diamagnetism
Paul Langevin's theory of diamagnetism (1905) applies to materials containing atoms with closed shells (see dielectrics). A field with intensity , applied to an electron with charge and mass , gives rise to Larmor precession with frequency <var>eB</var> / 2<var>m</var>}}. The number of revolutions per unit time is}}, so the current for an atom with electrons is (in SI units)
:<math>\chi \frac{\mu_0 n \mu}{B} -\frac{\mu_0e^2 Zn }{6 m}\langle r^2\rangle.</math>
In atoms, Langevin susceptibility is of the same order of magnitude as Van Vleck paramagnetic susceptibility.
In metals
The Langevin theory is not the full picture for metals because there are also non-localized electrons. The theory that describes diamagnetism in a free electron gas is called Landau diamagnetism, named after Lev Landau, and instead considers the weak counteracting field that forms when the electrons' trajectories are curved due to the Lorentz force. Landau diamagnetism, however, should be contrasted with Pauli paramagnetism, an effect associated with the polarization of delocalized electrons' spins. For the bulk case of a 3D system and low magnetic fields, the (volume) diamagnetic susceptibility can be calculated using Landau quantization, which in SI units is
:<math>\chi = -\mu_0\frac{e^2}{12\pi^2 m\hbar}\sqrt{2mE_{\rm F}},</math>
where <math>E_{\rm F}</math> is the Fermi energy. This is equivalent to <math>-\mu_0\mu_{\rm B}^2 g(E_{\rm F})/3</math>, exactly <math display"inline">-1/3</math> times Pauli paramagnetic susceptibility, where <math>\mu_{\rm B}e\hbar/2m</math> is the Bohr magneton and <math>g(E)</math> is the density of states (number of states per energy per volume). This formula takes into account the spin degeneracy of the carriers (spin-1/2 electrons).
In doped semiconductors the ratio between Landau and Pauli susceptibilities may change due to the effective mass of the charge carriers differing from the electron mass in vacuum, increasing the diamagnetic contribution. The formula presented here only applies for the bulk; in confined systems like quantum dots, the description is altered due to quantum confinement. Additionally, for strong magnetic fields, the susceptibility of delocalized electrons oscillates as a function of the field strength, a phenomenon known as the De Haas–Van Alphen effect, also first described theoretically by Landau.
See also
*Antiferromagnetism
*Magnetochemistry
*Moses effect
*
References
External links
*
*[https://feynmanlectures.caltech.edu/II_34.html The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol. II Ch. 34: The Magnetism of Matter]
Category:Electric and magnetic fields in matter
Category:Magnetic levitation
Category:Magnetism
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Duke of Marlborough (title)
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<br />Earl of Marlborough<br />Baron Spencer (from 1733)<br />Baron Churchill of Sandridge
| extinction_date | family_seat Blenheim Palace
| former_seat | motto
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Duke of Marlborough (<small>pronounced</small> ) is a title in the Peerage of England. It was created by Queen Anne in 1702 for John Churchill, 1st Earl of Marlborough (1650–1722), the noted military leader. The queen and the nation also gave him what became Blenheim Palace, unique as a national monument and family home. In historical texts, unqualified use of the title typically refers to the 1st Duke. The name of the dukedom refers to Marlborough in Wiltshire.
The earldom of Marlborough was held by the family of Ley from its creation in 1626 until its extinction with the death of the 4th earl in 1679. The title was recreated 10 years later for John Churchill (in 1689).
History of the dukedom
Churchill had been made Lord Churchill of Eyemouth (1682) in the Peerage of Scotland, and Baron Churchill of Sandridge (1685) and Earl of Marlborough (1689) in the Peerage of England. Shortly after her accession to the throne in 1702, Queen Anne made Churchill the first Duke of Marlborough and granted him the subsidiary title Marquess of Blandford''.
In 1678, Churchill married Sarah Jennings (1660–1744), a courtier and influential favourite of the queen. They had seven children, of whom four daughters married into some of the most important families in Great Britain; one daughter and one son died in infancy. He was pre-deceased by his son, John Churchill, Marquess of Blandford, in 1703; so, to prevent the extinction of the titles, a special Act of Parliament was passed. When the 1st Duke of Marlborough died in 1722 his title as Lord Churchill of Eyemouth in the Peerage of Scotland became extinct and the Marlborough titles passed, according to the Act, to his eldest daughter Henrietta (1681–1733), the 2nd Duchess of Marlborough. She was married to Francis Godolphin, 2nd Earl of Godolphin and had a son who predeceased her.
When Henrietta died in 1733, the Marlborough titles passed to her nephew Charles Spencer (1706–1758), the third son of her late sister Anne (1683–1716), who had married the 3rd Earl of Sunderland in 1699. After his older brother's death in 1729, Charles Spencer had already inherited the Spencer family estates and the titles of Earl of Sunderland (1643) and Baron Spencer of Wormleighton (1603), all in the Peerage of England. Upon his maternal aunt Henrietta's death in 1733, Charles Spencer succeeded to the Marlborough family estates and titles and became the 3rd Duke. When he died in 1758, his titles passed to his eldest son George (1739–1817), who was succeeded by his eldest son George, the 5th Duke (1766–1840). In 1815, Francis Spencer (the younger son of the 4th Duke) was created Baron Churchill in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. In 1902, his grandson, the 3rd Baron Churchill, was created Viscount Churchill.
In 1817, the 5th Duke obtained permission to assume and bear the surname of Churchill in addition to his surname of Spencer, to perpetuate the name of his illustrious great-great-grandfather. At the same time, he received Royal Licence to quarter the coat of arms of Churchill with his paternal arms of Spencer. The double-barrelled surname of "Spencer-Churchill" has been used by family members since 1817, although some members have preferred to style themselves simply as "Churchill".
The 7th Duke was the paternal grandfather of British Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill, who was born at Blenheim Palace on 30 November 1874.
The 11th Duke, John Spencer-Churchill, died in 2014, having assumed the title in 1972. The 12th and present Duke is Charles James Spencer-Churchill.
Family seat
.]]
The family seat is Blenheim Palace in Woodstock, Oxfordshire.
After his leadership in the victory against the French in the Battle of Blenheim on 13 August 1704, the 1st Duke was honoured by Queen Anne granting him the royal manor of Woodstock, and building him a house at her expense to be called Blenheim. Construction started in 1705 and the house was completed in 1722, the year of the 1st Duke's death. Blenheim Palace has since remained in the Churchill and Spencer-Churchill family.
With the exception of the 10th Duke and his first wife, the dukes and duchesses of Marlborough are buried in Blenheim Palace's chapel. Most other members of the Spencer-Churchill family are interred in St. Martin's parish churchyard at Bladon, a short distance from the palace.
Other titles of the Dukes
Subsidiary titles
The Duke holds subsidiary titles: Marquess of Blandford (created in 1702 for John Churchill), Earl of Sunderland (created in 1643 for the Spencer family), Earl of Marlborough (created in 1689 for John Churchill), Baron Spencer of Wormleighton (created in 1603 for the Spencer family), and Baron Churchill of Sandridge (created in 1685 for John Churchill), all in the Peerage of England.
The title Marquess of Blandford is used as the courtesy title for the Duke's eldest son and heir. The Duke's eldest son's eldest son can use the courtesy title Earl of Sunderland, and the duke's eldest son's eldest son's eldest son (not necessarily the eldest great-grandson) the title Lord Spencer of Wormleighton (not to be confused with Earl Spencer).
The title of Earl of Marlborough, created for John Churchill in 1689, had previously been created for James Ley, in 1626, becoming extinct in 1679.
Foreign titles
The 1st Duke was honoured with land and titles in the Holy Roman Empire: Emperor Leopold I created him a Prince in 1704, and in 1705, his successor Emperor Joseph I gave him the principality of Mindelheim (once the lordship of the noted soldier Georg von Frundsberg). He was obliged to surrender Mindelheim in 1714 by the Treaty of Utrecht, which returned it to Bavaria. He tried to obtain Nellenburg in Austria in exchange, which at that time was only a county ('Landgrafschaft'), but this failed, partially because Austrian law did not allow for Nellenburg to be converted into a sovereign principality. The 1st Duke's princely title of Mindelheim became extinct either on the return of the land to Bavaria or on his death, as the Empire operated Salic Law, which prevented female succession.
Coats of arms
Original arms of the Churchill family
The original arms of Sir Winston Churchill (1620–1688), father of the 1st Duke of Marlborough, were simple and in use by his own father in 1619. The shield was Sable a lion rampant Argent, debruised by a bendlet Gules. The addition of a canton of Saint George (see below) rendered the distinguishing mark of the bendlet unnecessary. The 1st Duke was also entitled to a coronet indicating his rank. Desdichado means without happiness or without joy, alluding to the first Duke's father, Winston, who was a royalist and faithful supporter of the king during the English Civil War but was not compensated for his losses after the restoration. Charles II knighted Winston Churchill and other Civil War royalists but did not compensate them for their wartime losses, thereby inducing Winston to adopt the motto. It is unusual for the motto of an Englishman of the era to be in Spanish rather than Latin, and it is not known why this is the case.
Gallery of arms
<gallery>
File:Churchill Original.svg|Original arms of the Churchill family
File:Coat of arms of John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough.svg|Arms of Sir Winston Churchill, the father of the 1st Duke of Marlborough
File:Coat of arms of the John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough (16xx-1722).svg|Arms of the 1st Duke of Marlborough, with quarterings representing his estates in Germany
MarlboroughCoatOfArms.jpg|Simple arms of the Spencer Dukes of Marlborough before they changed their name to "Spencer-Churchill" and took the modern arms
George Spencer, 4th Duke of Marlborough Color.jpg|Arms of George Spencer, 4th Duke of Marlborough
Arms of Spencer-Churchill, Duke of Marlborough.svg|Shield of the Spencer-Churchill Dukes of Marlborough since 1817
File:Coat of Arms of Winston Churchill as a Gentleman.svg|Arms of Winston Churchill (or any Spencer-Churchill) as a gentleman
Coat of Arms of Winston Churchill.svg|Arms of Sir Winston Churchill as a Knight of the Garter
</gallery>
Achievement
* John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough (1650–1722)
** Henrietta Godolphin, 2nd Duchess of Marlborough (1681–1733)
** Anne Spencer, Countess of Sunderland (1683–1716)
*** Charles Spencer, 3rd Duke of Marlborough (1706–1758)
**** George Spencer, 4th Duke of Marlborough (1739–1817)
***** George Spencer-Churchill, 5th Duke of Marlborough (1766–1840)
****** George Spencer-Churchill, 6th Duke of Marlborough (1793–1857)
******* John Spencer-Churchill, 7th Duke of Marlborough (1822–1883)
******** George Spencer-Churchill, 8th Duke of Marlborough (1844–1892)
********* Charles Spencer-Churchill, 9th Duke of Marlborough (1871–1934)
********** John Spencer-Churchill, 10th Duke of Marlborough (1897–1972)
*********** John Spencer-Churchill, 11th Duke of Marlborough (1926–2014)
************ James Spencer-Churchill, 12th Duke of Marlborough (born 1955)
************* (1) George Spencer-Churchill, Marquess of Blandford ()
************* (2) Lord Caspar Spencer-Churchill ()
************ (3) Lord Edward Spencer-Churchill ()
*********** Lord Charles Spencer-Churchill (1940–2016)
************ (4) Rupert Spencer-Churchill ()
************ (5) Dominic Spencer-Churchill ()
************* (6) Ivor Spencer-Churchill ()
************ (7) Alexander Spencer-Churchill ()
************* (8) Jake Spencer-Churchill ()
********** Lord Ivor Spencer-Churchill (1898–1956)
***********male issue and descendants in remainder
******** Lord Randolph Spencer-Churchill (1849–1895)
********* Sir Winston Spencer-Churchill (1874–1965)
********** Randolph Spencer-Churchill (1911–1968)
*********** Winston Spencer-Churchill (1940–2010)
************male issue and descendants in remainder
***** Francis Spencer, 1st Baron Churchill (1779–1845)
****** Barons Churchill
**** Lord Charles Spencer (1740–1820)
***** John Spencer (1767–1831)
****** Frederick Spencer (1796–1831)
******* Charles Spencer (1827–1898)
******** Sir Charles Spencer (1869–1934)
********* John Spencer (1907–1977)
**********male issue and descendants in remainder
********* Charles Spencer (1909–1963)
**********male issue in remainder
*** John Spencer (1708–1746)
**** John Spencer, 1st Earl Spencer (1734–1783)
***** Earls Spencer
** Elizabeth Churchill, Countess of Bridgewater (1687–1714)
*** Anne Villiers, Countess of Jersey (1705–1762)
**** George Villiers, 4th Earl of Jersey (1735–1805)
***** Earls of Jersey
{| class=wikitable
|+ Notes and sources
! Mark !! Note <!--Source for listing or note on exclusion from succession-->
|-
| align="center" | 2 || Issue from second marriage
|-
| align="center" | 3 || Issue from third marriage
<!--
|-
| align="center" | 4 || Issue from fourth marriage
|-
| align="center" | A || Absolute primogeniture
|-
| align="center" | S || Salic law
|-
| align="center" | I || Excluded for being born out of wedlock.
|-
| align="center" | B || Barred to succeed if there are nearest male relative -->
|}
Family trees
<section begin=FamilyTree />
<section end"FamilyTree" />References External links
* [https://www.blenheimpalace.com/ Blenheim Palace website]
Category:Dukedoms in the Peerage of England
Duke
Category:Peerages created with special remainders
Category:Noble titles created in 1702
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_of_Marlborough_(title)
|
2025-04-05T18:28:33.762449
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December 17
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EventsPre-1600
<!-- Please don't Wikify years that have already been linked -->
*497 BC – The first Saturnalia festival was celebrated in ancient Rome.
* 546 – Siege of Rome: The Ostrogoths under king Totila plunder the city, by bribing the Eastern Roman garrison.
* 920 – Romanos I Lekapenos is crowned co-emperor of the underage Constantine VII.
* 942 – Assassination of William I of Normandy.
* 1297 – King Kyawswa of Pagan is overthrown by the three Myinsaing brothers, marking the de facto end of the Pagan Kingdom.
* 1354 – Margaret II, Countess of Hainaut and Holy Roman Empress and her son William I, Duke of Bavaria, sign a peace treaty ending the Hook and Cod wars.
*1398 – Sultan Nasir-u Din Mehmud's armies in Delhi are defeated by Timur.
*1538 – Pope Paul III excommunicates Henry VIII of England.
*1583 – Cologne War: Forces under Ernest of Bavaria defeat troops under Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg at the Siege of Godesberg.
*1586 – Go-Yōzei becomes Emperor of Japan.
1601–1900
*1665 – The first account of a blood transfusion is published, in the form of a letter from physician Richard Lower to chemist Robert Boyle, in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
*1718 – War of the Quadruple Alliance: Great Britain declares war on Spain.
*1777 – American Revolution: France formally recognizes the United States.
*1790 – The Aztec calendar stone is discovered at El Zócalo, Mexico City.
*1807 – Napoleonic Wars: France issues the Milan Decree, which confirms the Continental System.
*1812 – War of 1812: U.S. forces attack a Lenape village in the Battle of the Mississinewa.
*1819 – Simón Bolívar declares the independence of Gran Colombia in Angostura (now Ciudad Bolívar in Venezuela).
*1835 – The second Great Fire of New York destroys of New York City's Financial District.
*1837 – A fire in the Winter Palace of Saint Petersburg kills 30 guards.
*1862 – American Civil War: General Ulysses S. Grant issues General Order No. 11, expelling Jews from parts of Tennessee, Mississippi, and Kentucky.
*1865 – First performance of the Unfinished Symphony by Franz Schubert.
*1892 – First issue of Vogue is published.
*1896 – Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania's Schenley Park Casino, which was the first multi-purpose arena with the technology to create an artificial ice surface in North America, is destroyed in a fire.
1901–present
*1903 – The Wright brothers make the first controlled powered, heavier-than-air flight in the Wright Flyer at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina.
*1907 – Ugyen Wangchuck is crowned first King of Bhutan.
*1918 – Darwin Rebellion: Up to 1,000 demonstrators march on Government House in Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia.
*1926 – Antanas Smetona assumes power in Lithuania as the 1926 coup d'état is successful.
*1927 – Indian revolutionary Rajendra Lahiri is hanged in Gonda jail, Uttar Pradesh, India, two days before the scheduled date.
*1928 – Indian revolutionaries Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev Thapar and Shivaram Rajguru assassinate British police officer James Saunders in Lahore, Punjab, to avenge the death of Lala Lajpat Rai at the hands of the police. The three were executed in 1931.
*1933 – The first NFL Championship Game is played at Wrigley Field in Chicago between the New York Giants and Chicago Bears. The Bears won 23–21.
*1935 – First flight of the Douglas DC-3.
*1938 – Otto Hahn discovers the nuclear fission of the heavy element uranium, the scientific and technological basis of nuclear energy.
*1939 – World War II: Battle of the River Plate: The Admiral Graf Spee is scuttled by Captain Hans Langsdorff outside Montevideo.
*1943 – All Chinese are again permitted to become citizens of the United States upon the repeal of the Act of 1882 and the introduction of the Magnuson Act.
*1944 – World War II: Battle of the Bulge: Malmedy massacre: American 285th Field Artillery Observation Battalion POWs are shot by Waffen-SS Kampfgruppe Joachim Peiper.
*1945 – Kurdistan flag day, the flag of Kurdistan was raised for the first time in Mahabad in eastern Kurdistan (Iran).
*1947 – First flight of the Boeing B-47 Stratojet strategic bomber.
*1948 – The Finnish Security Police is established to remove communist leadership from its predecessor, the State Police.
*1950 – The F-86 Sabre's first mission over Korea.
*1951 – The American Civil Rights Congress delivers "We Charge Genocide" to the United Nations.
*1957 – The United States successfully launches the first Atlas intercontinental ballistic missile at Cape Canaveral, Florida.
*1960 – Troops loyal to Emperor Haile Selassie in Ethiopia crush the coup that began December 13, returning power to their leader upon his return from Brazil. Haile Selassie absolves his son of any guilt.
* 1960 – Munich C-131 crash: Twenty passengers and crew on board as well as 32 people on the ground are killed.
*1961 – Niterói circus fire: Fire breaks out during a performance by the Gran Circus Norte-Americano in the city of Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, killing more than 500.
*1967 – Harold Holt, Prime Minister of Australia, disappears while swimming near Portsea, Victoria, and is presumed drowned.
*1969 – Project Blue Book: The United States Air Force closes its study of UFOs.
*1970 – Polish protests: In Gdynia, soldiers fire at workers emerging from trains, killing dozens.
*1973 – Thirty passengers are killed in an attack by Palestinian terrorists on Rome's Leonardo da Vinci–Fiumicino Airport.
*1981 – American Brigadier General James L. Dozier is abducted by the Red Brigades in Verona, Italy.
*1983 – Provisional IRA members detonate a car bomb at Harrods Department Store in London. Three police officers and three civilians are killed.
*1989 – Romanian Revolution: Protests continue in Timișoara, Romania, with rioters breaking into the Romanian Communist Party's District Committee building and attempting to set it on fire.
* 1989 – Fernando Collor de Mello defeats Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva in the second round of the Brazilian presidential election, becoming the first democratically elected President in almost 30 years.
* 1989 – The Simpsons premieres on television with the episode "Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire".
*1997 – Peruvian internal conflict: Fourteen members of the Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement provoke a hostage crisis by taking over the Japanese embassy in Lima.
* 1997 – Aerosvit Flight 241: A Yakovlev Yak-42 crashes into the Pierian Mountains near Thessaloniki Airport in Thessaloniki, Greece, killing all 70 people on board.
*2002 – Second Congo War: The Congolese parties of the Inter Congolese Dialogue sign a peace accord which makes provision for transitional governance and legislative and presidential elections within two years.
*2003 – The Soham murder trial ends at the Old Bailey in London, with Ian Huntley found guilty of two counts of murder. His girlfriend, Maxine Carr, is found guilty of perverting the course of justice.
* 2003 – SpaceShipOne, piloted by Brian Binnie, makes its first powered and first supersonic flight.
* 2003 – Sex work rights activists establish December 17 (or "D17") as International Day to End Violence Against Sex Workers to memorialize victims of a serial killer who targeted prostitutes, and highlight State violence against sex workers by police and others.
*2005 – Anti-World Trade Organization protesters riot in Wan Chai, Hong Kong.
* 2005 – Jigme Singye Wangchuck abdicates the throne as King of Bhutan.
*2009 – sinks off the coast of Lebanon, resulting in the deaths of 44 people and over 28,000 animals.
*2010 – Mohamed Bouazizi sets himself on fire. This act became the catalyst for the Tunisian Revolution and the wider Arab Spring.
*2014 – The United States and Cuba re-establish diplomatic relations after severing them in 1961.
Births
Pre-1600
<!-- Please do not add yourself or anyone else without a biography in Wikipedia to this list.-->
*1239 – Kujō Yoritsugu, Japanese shōgun (d. 1256)
*1267 – Emperor Go-Uda of Japan (d. 1324)
*1554 – Ernest of Bavaria, Roman Catholic bishop (d. 1612)
*1556 – Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana, poet in Mughal Empire (d. 1627)
*1574 – Pedro Téllez-Girón, 3rd Duke of Osuna, Spanish nobleman and politician (d. 1624)1601–1900
*1616 – Roger L'Estrange, English pamphleteer and author (d. 1704)
*1619 – Prince Rupert of the Rhine (d. 1682)
*1632 – Anthony Wood, English historian and author (d. 1695)
*1685 – Thomas Tickell, English poet (d. 1740)
*1699 – Charles-Louis Mion, French composer and educator (d. 1775)
*1706 – Émilie du Châtelet, French mathematician and physicist (d. 1749)
*1734 – Maria I of Portugal (d. 1816)
*1749 – Domenico Cimarosa, Italian composer and educator (d. 1801)
*1778 – Humphry Davy, English chemist and physicist (d. 1829)
*1796 – Thomas Chandler Haliburton, Canadian judge and politician (d. 1865)
*1797 – Joseph Henry, American physicist and engineer (d. 1878)
*1807 – John Greenleaf Whittier, American poet and activist (d. 1892)
*1812 – Vilhelm Petersen, Danish painter (d. 1880)
*1827 – Alexander Wassilko von Serecki, Austrian lawyer and politician (d. 1893)
*1830 – Jules de Goncourt, French author and critic (d. 1870)
*1835 – Alexander Emanuel Agassiz, Swiss-American ichthyologist and engineer (d. 1910)
*1840 – Nozu Michitsura, Japanese field marshal (d. 1908)
*1842 – Sophus Lie, Norwegian mathematician and academic (d. 1899)
*1847 – Émile Faguet, French author and critic (d. 1916)
*1853 – Pierre Paul Émile Roux, French physician and immunologist, co-founded the Pasteur Institute (d. 1933)
*1858 – Eva Nansen, Norwegian mezzo-soprano singer and pioneer on women skiing (d. 1907)
*1859 – Paul César Helleu, French painter and illustrator (d. 1927)
*1866 – Kazys Grinius, Lithuanian physician and politician, third President of Lithuania (d. 1950)
*1873 – Ford Madox Ford, English novelist, poet, and critic (d. 1939)
*1874 – William Lyon Mackenzie King, Canadian economist and politician, tenth Prime Minister of Canada (d. 1950)
*1881 – Aubrey Faulkner, South African-English cricketer and coach (d. 1930)
*1884 – Alison Uttley, English children's book writer (d. 1976)
*1887 – Josef Lada, Czech painter and illustrator (d. 1957)
*1890 – Prince Joachim of Prussia (d. 1920)
*1892 – Sam Barry, American basketball player and coach (d. 1950)
*1893 – Charles C. Banks, English captain and pilot (d. 1971)
* 1893 – Erwin Piscator, German director and producer (d. 1966)
*1894 – Arthur Fiedler, American conductor (d. 1979)
* 1894 – Patrick Flynn, Irish-American runner and soldier (d. 1969)
* 1894 – Wim Schermerhorn, Dutch cartographer, engineer, and politician, Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 1977)
*1895 – Gerald Patterson, Australian tennis player (d. 1967)
*1898 – Loren Murchison, American sprinter (d. 1979)
*1900 – Mary Cartwright, English mathematician and academic, one of the first people to analyze a dynamical system with chaos (d. 1998)
1901–present
*1903 – Erskine Caldwell, American novelist and short story writer (d. 1987)
* 1903 – Ray Noble, English bandleader, composer, and actor (d. 1978)
*1904 – Paul Cadmus, American painter and illustrator (d. 1999)
*1905 – Simo Häyhä, Finnish soldier and sniper (d. 2002)
* 1905 – Mohammad Hidayatullah, 11th Chief Justice of India, and politician, sixth Vice President of India (d. 1992)
* 1905 – Erico Verissimo, Brazilian author and translator (d. 1975)
*1906 – Fernando Lopes-Graça, Portuguese composer and conductor (d. 1994)
* 1906 – Russell C. Newhouse, American pilot and engineer (d. 1998)
*1908 – Willard Libby, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1980)
*1910 – Eknath Easwaran, Indian-American educator and author (d. 1999)
* 1910 – Sy Oliver, American singer-songwriter and trumpet player (d. 1988)
*1912 – Edward Short, Baron Glenamara, English captain and politician, Lord President of the Council (d. 2012)
*1913 – Burt Baskin, American businessman, co-founded Baskin-Robbins (d. 1967)
*1914 – Mushtaq Ali, Indian cricketer (d. 2005)
* 1914 – Fernando Alonso, Cuban ballet dancer, co-founded the Cuban National Ballet (d. 2013)
*1916 – Penelope Fitzgerald, English author and poet (d. 2000)
*1917 – Kenneth Dike, Nigerian historian, author, and academic (d. 1983)
*1920 – Kenneth E. Iverson, Canadian computer scientist, developed the APL programming language (d. 2004)
*1921 – Lore Berger, German-Swiss author and translator (d. 1943)
*1922 – Alan Voorhees, American engineer and academic (d. 2005)
*1923 – Jaroslav Pelikan, American historian and scholar (d. 2006)
*1926 – Ray Jablonski, American baseball player (d. 1985)
* 1926 – John Hans Krebs, American lawyer and politician (d. 2014)
* 1926 – Stephen Lewis, English actor, director, screenwriter, and playwright (d. 2015)
*1927 – Richard Long, American actor and director (d. 1974)
* 1927 – Edward Meneeley, American painter and sculptor (d. 2012)
*1928 – Marilyn Beck, American journalist (d. 2014)
* 1928 – Eli Beeding, American captain and pilot (d. 2013)
* 1928 – Doyle Conner, American farmer and politician, seventh Florida Commissioner of Agriculture (d. 2012)
*1929 – William Safire, American journalist and author (d. 2009)
*1930 – Bob Guccione, American photographer and publisher, founded Penthouse (d. 2010)
* 1930 – Armin Mueller-Stahl, German actor and painter
* 1930 – Dorothy Rowe, Australian psychologist and author (d. 2019)
*1931 – Gerald Finnerman, American director and cinematographer (d. 2011)
* 1931 – Dave Madden, Canadian-American actor (d. 2014)
* 1931 – James McGaugh, American neurobiologist and psychologist
*1932 – John Bond, English footballer and manager (d. 2012)
*1934 – Irving Petlin, American painter and academic (d. 2018)
* 1934 – Ray Wilson, English footballer and manager (d. 2018)
*1935 – Brian Langford, English cricketer (d. 2013)
* 1935 – Cal Ripken Sr., American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 1999)
*1936 – Pope Francis
*1943 – Ron Geesin, Scottish pianist and composer
*1944 – Jack L. Chalker, American author and educator (d. 2005)
* 1944 – Carlo M. Croce, Italian-American oncologist and academic
* 1944 – Bernard Hill, English actor (d. 2024)
*1946 – Simon Bates, English radio host
* 1946 – Eugene Levy, Canadian actor, director, and screenwriter
*1947 – Wes Studi, American actor and producer
*1948 – Valery Belousov, Russian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2015)
* 1948 – Jim Bonfanti, American rock drummer
*1959 – Bob Stinson, American songwriter and guitarist (d. 1995)
*1961 – Mansoor al-Jamri, Bahraini journalist and author
* 1961 – Sara Dallin, English singer
*1966 – Tracy Byrd, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1966 – Kristiina Ojuland, Estonian politician, 23rd Estonian Minister of Foreign Affairs
*1967 – Vincent Damphousse, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster
* 1967 – Gigi D'Agostino, Italian muscisian, singer and DJ.
* 1967 – Karsten Neitzel, German footballer and manager
*1968 – Claudio Suárez, Mexican footballer
* 1968 – Paul Tracy, Canadian race car driver and sportscaster
*1969 – Laurie Holden, American actress and model
* 1971 – Antoine Rigaudeau, French basketball player
*1972 – John Abraham, Indian actor and producer
* 1972 – Iván Pedroso, Cuban long jumper and coach
*1973 – Eddie Fisher, American drummer
* 1973 – Konstadinos Gatsioudis, Greek javelin thrower
* 1973 – Rian Johnson, American director, producer, and screenwriter
* 1973 – Paula Radcliffe, English runner
* 1973 – Hasan Vural, German-Turkish footballer
*1974 – Charl Langeveldt, South African cricketer
* 1974 – Sarah Paulson, American actress
* 1977 – Samuel Påhlsson, Swedish ice hockey player
* 1977 – Katheryn Winnick, Canadian actress
* 1980 – Ryan Hunter-Reay, American race car driver
* 1980 – Alexandra Papageorgiou, Greek hammer thrower
* 1980 – Eli Pariser, American activist and author
*1981 – Jerry Hsu, American skateboarder and photographer
* 1981 – Tim Wiese, German footballer
*1982 – Josh Barfield, American baseball player
* 1982 – Lorenzo Cittadini, Italian rugby player
* 1982 – Craig Kielburger, Canadian activist and author
* 1982 – Stéphane Lasme, Gabonese basketball player
*1983 – Gregory Campbell, Canadian ice hockey player and executive
* 1983 – Erik Christensen, Canadian ice hockey player
* 1983 – Mikky Ekko, American singer and songwriter
* 1985 – Łukasz Broź, Polish footballer
* 1985 – Craig Reid, English footballer
*1986 – Emma Bell, American actress
* 1987 – Bo Guagua, Chinese businessman
* 1987 – Chelsea Manning, American soldier and intelligence analyst
*1988 – Liisa Ehrberg, Estonian cyclist
* 1988 – Grethe Grünberg, Estonian ice dancer
* 1988 – Kris Joseph, Canadian basketball player
* 1988 – David Rudisha, Kenyan runner
* 1988 – Yann Sommer, Swiss footballer
* 1988 – Craig Sutherland, Scottish footballer
*1989 – André Ayew, Ghanaian footballer
* 1989 – Taylor York, American musician
* 1992 – Joshua Ingram, Canadian drummer and percussionist
*1993 – Kiersey Clemons, American actress
*1994 – Lloyd Perrett, New Zealand rugby league player
* 1994 – Nat Wolff, American singer-songwriter, keyboard player and actor
*1996 – Elizaveta Tuktamysheva, Russian figure skater
*1997 – Naiktha Bains, British-Australian tennis player
* 1997 – Shoma Uno, Japanese figure skater
*1998 – Jasmine Armfield, English actress
* 1998 – Martin Ødegaard, Norwegian footballer
*1999 – Mirei Sasaki, Japanese singer, model, and actress
*2000 – Wesley Fofana, French footballer
*2002 – Castello Lukeba, French footballer
<!--Please do not add yourself, non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information.-->
Deaths
Pre-1600
<!-- Please don't Wikify years that have already been linked -->
* 779 – Sturm, abbot of Fulda
* 908 – al-Abbas ibn al-Hasan al-Jarjara'i, Abbasid vizier
* 908 – Abdallah ibn al-Mu'tazz, Abbasid prince and poet, anti-caliph for one day
* 942 – William I, duke of Normandy
*1187 – Pope Gregory VIII (b. 1100)
*1195 – Baldwin V, Count of Hainaut (b. 1150)
*1273 – Rumi, Persian jurist, theologian, and poet (b. 1207)
*1316 – Juan Fernández, bishop-elect of León
*1419 – William Gascoigne, Chief Justice of England
*1471 – Infanta Isabel, Duchess of Burgundy (b. 1397)
*1559 – Irene di Spilimbergo, Italian Renaissance poet and painter (b. 1538)
*1562 – Eleonora di Toledo, Grand Duchess of Tuscany (b. 1522)
1601–1900
*1663 – Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba (b. 1583)
*1721 – Richard Lumley, 1st Earl of Scarbrough, English soldier and politician, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (b. 1640)
*1830 – Simón Bolívar, Venezuelan general and politician, second President of Venezuela (b. 1783)
*1833 – Kaspar Hauser, German feral child (b. 1812?)
*1847 – Marie Louise, Duchess of Parma (b. 1791)
*1857 – Francis Beaufort, Irish hydrographer and officer in the Royal Navy (b. 1774)
*1891 – José María Iglesias, Mexican politician and interim President (1876–1877) (b. 1823)
1901–present
*1904 – William Shiels, Irish-Australian politician, 16th Premier of Victoria (b. 1848)
*1907 – William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, Irish-Scottish physicist and engineer (b. 1824)
*1909 – Leopold II of Belgium (b. 1835)
*1917 – Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, English physician and activist (b. 1836)
*1927 – Rajendra Lahiri, Indian activist (b. 1892)
*1928 – Frank Rinehart, American photographer (b. 1861)
*1929 – Manuel de Oliveira Gomes da Costa, Portuguese general and politician, tenth President of Portugal (b. 1863)
*1930 – Peter Warlock, Welsh composer and critic (b. 1894)
*1932 – Charles Winckler, Danish discus thrower, shot putter, and tug of war competitor (b. 1867)
*1933 – 13th Dalai Lama (b. 1876)
*1935 – Lizette Woodworth Reese, American poet (b. 1856)
*1940 – Alicia Boole Stott, Anglo-Irish mathematician and academic (b. 1860)
*1942 – Allen Bathurst, Lord Apsley, English lieutenant and politician (b. 1895)
*1947 – Christos Tsigiridis, Greek engineer (b. 1877)
*1956 – Eddie Acuff, American actor (b. 1903)
*1957 – Dorothy L. Sayers, English author, poet, and playwright (b. 1893)
*1962 – Thomas Mitchell, American actor (b. 1892)
*1964 – Victor Francis Hess, Austrian-American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1883)
*1967 – Harold Holt, Australian lawyer and politician, 17th Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1908)
*1970 – Oliver Waterman Larkin, American historian, author, and educator (b. 1896)
*1978 – Don Ellis, American trumpet player, composer, and bandleader (b. 1934)
*1981 – Antiochos Evangelatos, Greek composer and conductor (b. 1903)
*1982 – Homer S. Ferguson, American lawyer, judge, and politician (b. 1889)
*1986 – Guillermo Cano Isaza, Colombian journalist (b. 1925)
*1987 – Bernardus Johannes Alfrink, Dutch cardinal (b. 1900)
* 1987 – Linda Wong, American porn actress (b. 1951)
* 1987 – Marguerite Yourcenar, Belgian-American author and poet (b. 1903)
*1992 – Günther Anders, German journalist and philosopher (b. 1902)
* 1992 – Dana Andrews, American actor (b. 1909)
*1999 – Rex Allen, American singer-songwriter and actor (b. 1920)
* 1999 – Grover Washington Jr., American singer-songwriter and saxophonist (b. 1943)
* 1999 – C. Vann Woodward, American historian and academic (b. 1908)
*2002 – K. W. Devanayagam, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician, tenth Sri Lankan Minister of Justice (b. 1910)
*2003 – Otto Graham, American football player and coach (b. 1921)
*2004 – Tom Wesselmann, American painter and sculptor (b. 1931)
*2005 – Jack Anderson, American journalist and author (b. 1922)
* 2005 – Marc Favreau, Canadian actor and poet (b. 1929)
* 2005 – Haljand Udam, Estonian orientalist and academic (b. 1936)
*2006 – Larry Sherry, American baseball player and coach (b. 1935)
*2008 – Sammy Baugh, American football player and coach (b. 1914)
* 2008 – Freddy Breck, German singer-songwriter, producer, and journalist (b. 1942)
* 2008 – Dave Smith, American baseball player and coach (b. 1955)
* 2008 – Gregoire, Congolese chimpanzee, oldest recorded (b. 1942)
*2009 – Chris Henry, American football player (b. 1983)
* 2009 – Jennifer Jones, American actress (b. 1919)
* 2009 – Alaina Reed Hall, American actress (b. 1946)
*2010 – Captain Beefheart, American singer-songwriter (b. 1941)
* 2010 – Walt Dropo, American basketball and baseball player (b. 1923)
* 2010 – Ralph Coates, English footballer (b. 1946)
*2011 – Eva Ekvall, Venezuelan journalist and author, Miss Venezuela 2000 (b. 1983)
* 2011 – Kim Jong-il, North Korean commander and politician, second Supreme Leader of North Korea (b. 1941)
*2012 – Richard Adams, Filipino-American activist (b. 1947)
* 2012 – James Gower, American priest and activist, co-founded the College of the Atlantic (b. 1922)
* 2012 – Daniel Inouye, American captain and politician (b. 1924)
* 2012 – Laurier LaPierre, Canadian historian, journalist, and politician (b. 1929)
* 2012 – Frank Pastore, American baseball player and radio host (b. 1957)
*2013 – Fred Bruemmer, Latvian-Canadian photographer (b. 1929)
* 2013 – Ricardo María Carles Gordó, Spanish cardinal (b. 1926)
* 2013 – Richard Heffner, American historian and television host (b. 1925)
* 2013 – Tetsurō Kashibuchi, Japanese drummer, songwriter, and producer (b. 1950)
* 2013 – Janet Rowley, American geneticist and biologist (b. 1925)
* 2013 – Conny van Rietschoten, Dutch sailor (b. 1926)
*2014 – Dieter Grau, German-American scientist and engineer (b. 1913)
* 2014 – Richard C. Hottelet, American journalist (b. 1917)
* 2014 – Oleh Lysheha, Ukrainian poet and playwright (b. 1949)
* 2014 – Lowell Steward, American captain (b. 1919)
* 2014 – Ivan Vekić, Croatian colonel, lawyer, and politician, Croatian Minister of the Interior (b. 1938)
*2015 – Hal Brown, American baseball player and manager (b. 1924)
* 2015 – Osamu Hayaishi, American-Japanese biochemist and academic (b. 1920)
* 2015 – Michael Wyschogrod, German-American philosopher and theologian (b. 1928)
*2016 – Benjamin A. Gilman, American soldier and politician (b. 1922)
* 2016 – Henry Heimlich, American doctor (b. 1920)
* 2016 – Gordon Hunt, American voice director (b. 1929)
*2020 – Jeremy Bulloch, English actor (b. 1945)
* 2020 – Allen Dines, American politician (b. 1921)
* 2023 – Ronaldo Valdez, Filipino actor (b. 1947)
* 2023 – James McCaffrey, American actor (b. 1958)
* 2024 – Igor Kirillov, Russian general (b. 1970)
* 2024 – Marisa Paredes, Spanish film actress (b. 1946)
<!--Please do not add non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information.-->
Holidays and observances
* Christian feast day:
** Daniel the Prophet
** Josep Manyanet i Vives
** Lazarus of Bethany (local commemoration in Cuba)
** O Sapientia
** Olympias the Deaconess
** Wivina
** Sturm
** December 17 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
* Accession Day (Bahrain)
* International Day to End Violence Against Sex Workers
* Kurdish Flag Day (Global Kurdish population)
* National Day (Bhutan)
* Pan American Aviation Day (United States)
* Wright Brothers Day, a United States federal observance by Presidential proclamation
References
External links
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/17 BBC: On This Day]
*
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/december/17 Historical Events on December 17]
Category:Days of December
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_17
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Difference engine
|
's difference engine, the first one built from Babbage's design. It has the same precision on all columns, except in calculating polynomials, the precision on the higher-order columns could be lower.]]
A difference engine is an automatic mechanical calculator designed to tabulate polynomial functions. It was designed in the 1820s, and was created by Charles Babbage. The name difference engine is derived from the method of finite differences, a way to interpolate or tabulate functions by using a small set of polynomial co-efficients. Some of the most common mathematical functions used in engineering, science and navigation are built from logarithmic and trigonometric functions, which can be approximated by polynomials, so a difference engine can compute many useful tables.
History
The notion of a mechanical calculator for mathematical functions can be traced back to the Antikythera mechanism of the 2nd century BC, while early modern examples are attributed to Pascal and Leibniz in the 17th century.
In 1784 J. H. Müller, an engineer in the Hessian army, devised and built an adding machine and described the basic principles of a difference machine in a book published in 1786 (the first written reference to a difference machine is dated to 1784), but he was unable to obtain funding to progress with the idea.Charles Babbage's difference enginesCharles Babbage began to construct a small difference engine in and had completed it by 1822 (Difference Engine 0). He announced his invention on 14 June 1822, in a paper to the Royal Astronomical Society, entitled "Note on the application of machinery to the computation of astronomical and mathematical tables". This machine used the decimal number system and was powered by cranking a handle. The British government was interested, since producing tables was time-consuming and expensive and they hoped the difference engine would make the task more economical.
In 1823, the British government gave Babbage £1700 to start work on the project. Although Babbage's design was feasible, the metalworking techniques of the era could not economically make parts in the precision and quantity required. Thus the implementation proved to be much more expensive and doubtful of success than the government's initial estimate. According to the 1830 design for Difference Engine No. 1, it would have about 25,000 parts, weigh 4 tons, and operate on 20-digit numbers by sixth-order differences. In 1832, Babbage and Joseph Clement produced a small working model (one-seventh of the plan), Lady Byron described seeing the working prototype in 1833: "We both went to see the thinking machine (or so it seems) last Monday. It raised several Nos. to the 2nd and 3rd powers, and extracted the root of a Quadratic equation." Work on the larger engine was suspended in 1833.
By the time the government abandoned the project in 1842, Babbage had received and spent over £17,000 on development, which still fell short of achieving a working engine. The government valued only the machine's output (economically produced tables), not the development (at unpredictable cost) of the machine itself. Babbage refused to recognize that predicament.
Babbage went on to design his much more general analytical engine, but later designed an improved "Difference Engine No. 2" design (31-digit numbers and seventh-order differences),
Scheutzian calculation engine
, London]]
Inspired by Babbage's difference engine in 1834, the Swedish inventor Per Georg Scheutz built several experimental models. In 1837 his son Edward proposed to construct a working model in metal, and in 1840 finished the calculating part, capable of calculating series with 5-digit numbers and first-order differences, which was later extended to third-order (1842). In 1843, after adding the printing part, the model was completed.
In 1851, funded by the government, construction of the larger and improved (15-digit numbers and fourth-order differences) machine began, and finished in 1853. The machine was demonstrated at the World's Fair in Paris, 1855 and then sold in 1856 to the Dudley Observatory in Albany, New York. Delivered in 1857, it was the first printing calculator sold. It had the same basic construction as the previous one, weighing about .
Others
Martin Wiberg improved Scheutz's construction (, his machine has the same capacity as Scheutz's: 30-digit and sixth-order) but used his device only for producing and publishing printed tables (interest tables in 1860, and logarithmic tables in 1875).
Alfred Deacon of London in produced a small difference engine (20-digit numbers and third-order differences).
American George B. Grant started working on his calculating machine in 1869, unaware of the works of Babbage and Scheutz (Schentz). One year later (1870) he learned about difference engines and proceeded to design one himself, describing his construction in 1871. In 1874 the Boston Thursday Club raised a subscription for the construction of a large-scale model, which was built in 1876. It could be expanded to enhance precision and weighed about .
Christel Hamann built one machine (16-digit numbers and second-order differences) in 1909 for the "Tables of Bauschinger and Peters" ("Logarithmic-Trigonometrical Tables with eight decimal places"), which was first published in Leipzig in 1910. It weighed about .
Burroughs Corporation in about 1912 built a machine for the Nautical Almanac Office which was used as a difference engine of second-order. It was later replaced in 1929 by a Burroughs Class 11 (13-digit numbers and second-order differences, or 11-digit numbers and <nowiki>[at least up to]</nowiki> fifth-order differences).
Alexander John Thompson about 1927 built integrating and differencing machine (13-digit numbers and fifth-order differences) for his table of logarithms "Logarithmetica britannica". This machine was composed of four modified Triumphator calculators.
Leslie Comrie in 1928 described how to use the Brunsviga-Dupla calculating machine as a difference engine of second-order (15-digit numbers). This work led the Science Museum to construct a working calculating section of difference engine No. 2 from 1985 to 1991, under Doron Swade, the then Curator of Computing. This was to celebrate the 200th anniversary of Babbage's birth in 1991. In 2002, the printer which Babbage originally designed for the difference engine was also completed. The conversion of the original design drawings into drawings suitable for engineering manufacturers' use revealed some minor errors in Babbage's design (possibly introduced as a protection in case the plans were stolen), which had to be corrected. The difference engine and printer were constructed to tolerances achievable with 19th-century technology, resolving a long-standing debate as to whether Babbage's design could have worked using Georgian-era engineering methods. The machine contains 8,000 parts and weighs about 5 tons.
The printer's primary purpose is to produce stereotype plates for use in printing presses, which it does by pressing type into soft plaster to create a flong. Babbage intended that the Engine's results be conveyed directly to mass printing, having recognized that many errors in previous tables were not the result of human calculating mistakes but from slips in the manual typesetting process. It has since been transferred to Intellectual Ventures in Seattle where it is on display just outside the main lobby. Operation
in Mountain View, California]]
The difference engine consists of a number of columns, numbered from 1 to N. The machine is able to store one decimal number in each column. The machine can only add the value of a column n + 1 to column n to produce the new value of n. Column N can only store a constant, column 1 displays (and possibly prints) the value of the calculation on the current iteration.
The engine is programmed by setting initial values to the columns. Column 1 is set to the value of the polynomial at the start of computation. Column 2 is set to a value derived from the first and higher derivatives of the polynomial at the same value of X. Each of the columns from 3 to N is set to a value derived from the <math>(n-1)</math> first and higher derivatives of the polynomial.
Timing
In the Babbage design, one iteration (i.e. one full set of addition and carry operations) happens for each rotation of the main shaft. Odd and even columns alternately perform an addition in one cycle. The sequence of operations for column <math>n</math> is thus:
Initial values
The initial values of columns can be calculated by first manually calculating N consecutive values of the function and by backtracking (i.e. calculating the required differences).
Col <math>1_0</math> gets the value of the function at the start of computation <math>f(0)</math>. Col <math>2_0</math> is the difference between <math>f(1)</math> and <math>f(0)</math>...
If the function to be calculated is a polynomial function, expressed as
: <math> f(x) = a_n x^n + a_{n-1} x^{n-1} + \cdots + a_2 x^2 + a_1 x + a_0 \, </math>
the initial values can be calculated directly from the constant coefficients a<sub>0</sub>, a<sub>1</sub>,a<sub>2</sub>, ..., a<sub>n</sub> without calculating any data points. The initial values are thus:
* Col <math>1_0</math> = a<sub>0</sub>
* Col <math>2_0</math> = a<sub>1</sub> + a<sub>2</sub> + a<sub>3</sub> + a<sub>4</sub> + ... + a<sub>n</sub>
* Col <math>3_0</math> = 2a<sub>2</sub> + 6a<sub>3</sub> + 14a<sub>4</sub> + 30a<sub>5</sub> + ...
* Col <math>4_0</math> = 6a<sub>3</sub> + 36a<sub>4</sub> + 150a<sub>5</sub> + ...
* Col <math>5_0</math> = 24a<sub>4</sub> + 240a<sub>5</sub> + ...
* Col <math>6_0</math> = 120a<sub>5</sub> + ...
* <math>...</math>
Use of derivatives
Many commonly used functions are analytic functions, which can be expressed as power series, for example as a Taylor series. The initial values can be calculated to any degree of accuracy; if done correctly the engine will give exact results for first N steps. After that, the engine will only give an approximation of the function.
The Taylor series expresses the function as a sum obtained from its derivatives at one point. For many functions the higher derivatives are trivial to obtain; for instance, the sine function at 0 has values of 0 or <math>\pm1</math> for all derivatives. Setting 0 as the start of computation we get the simplified Maclaurin series
:<math>
\sum_{n=0}^{\infin} \frac{f^{(n)}(0)}{n!}\ x^{n}
</math>
The same method of calculating the initial values from the coefficients can be used as for polynomial functions. The polynomial constant coefficients will now have the value
:<math>
a_n \equiv \frac{f^{(n)}(0)}{n!}
</math>
Curve fitting
The problem with the methods described above is that errors will accumulate and the series will tend to diverge from the true function. A solution which guarantees a constant maximum error is to use curve fitting. A minimum of N values are calculated evenly spaced along the range of the desired calculations. Using a curve fitting technique like Gaussian reduction an N−1th degree polynomial interpolation of the function is found.<ref name"Thelen" /> With the optimized polynomial, the initial values can be calculated as above. See also
<!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order & add a short description WP:SEEALSO -->
* Allan G. Bromley
* Johann Helfrich von Müller
* Martin Wiberg
* Pinwheel calculator
References
Further reading
*
*
*
*
*
*
External links
* [https://www.computerhistory.org/babbage/ The Computer History Museum exhibition on Babbage and the difference engine]
* [https://www.meccano.us/difference_engines/rde_1/ Meccano Difference Engine #1]
* [http://www.meccano.us/difference_engines/rde_2/index.html Meccano Difference Engine #2]
* [https://sites.google.com/site/babbagedifferenceengine/howitwasintendedtowork Babbage's First Difference Engine – How it was intended to work]
* [http://sites.google.com/site/babbagedifferenceengine/analysisofexpenditureondifferenceenginen Analysis of Expenditure on Babbage's Difference Engine No. 1]
* [https://satyam.com.ar/Babbage/en/index.html Difference engine workings with animations]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100311120130/http://www.powerhousemuseum.com/collection/database/?irn150269&img146773 Difference Engine No1 specimen piece at the Powerhouse Museum, Sydney]
* [https://www.xrez.com/case-studies/exhibition/babbage-gigapixel-difference-engine/ Gigapixel Image of the Difference Engine No2]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YtZCYnBlZpk Scheutz Difference Engine in action video. Purchased by the Dudley Observatory's first director, Benjamin Apthorp Gould, in 1856. Gould was an acquaintance of Babbage. The Difference Engine performed astronomical calculations for the Observatory for many years, and is now part of the national collection at the Smithsonian.]
* Links to videos about Babbage DE 2 and its construction:
Category:1822 introductions
Category:Addition<!-- the only thing a 'difference' engine does! -->
Category:Articles containing video clips
Category:Charles Babbage
Category:Collection of the Science Museum, London
Category:Computer-related introductions in the 19th century
Category:English inventions
Category:Mechanical calculators
Category:Replicas
Category:Subtraction<!-- hand calculated -->
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Difference_engine
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Draupnir
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thumb|Draupnir multiplying itself
thumb|upright|The third gift — an enormous hammer (1902) by Elmer Boyd Smith. The ring Draupnir is visible among other creations by the Sons of Ivaldi.
In Norse mythology, Draupnir (Old Norse: , "the dripper") is a gold ring possessed by the god Odin with the ability to multiply itself: Every ninth night, eight new rings 'drip' from Draupnir, each one of the same size and weight as the original.
Draupnir was forged by the dwarven brothers Brokkr and Eitri (or Sindri). Brokkr and Eitri made this ring as one of a set of three gifts which included Mjöllnir and Gullinbursti. They made these gifts in accordance with a bet Loki made saying that Brokkr and Eitri could not make better gifts than the three made by the Sons of Ivaldi. In the end, Mjöllnir, Thor's hammer, won the contest for Brokkr and Eitri. Loki used a loophole to get out of the wager for his head (the wager was for Loki's head only, but he argued that, to remove his head, they would have to injure his neck, which was not in the bargain) and Brokkr punished him by sealing his lips shut with wire.
The ring was placed by Odin on the funeral pyre of his son Baldr:
The ring was subsequently retrieved by Hermóðr. It was offered as a gift by Freyr's servant Skírnir in the wooing of Gerðr, which is described in the poem Skírnismál.
Notes
References
Orchard, Andy (1997). Dictionary of Norse Myth and Legend. Cassell.
Category:Artifacts in Norse mythology
Category:Odin
Category:Individual rings
Category:Magic rings
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draupnir
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Dromi
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Dromi () is a Hebrew surname. Notable people with the surname include:
(1985–2015), Israeli journalist , publicist and TV presenter
Pnina Dromi, birth name of Pnina Gary Israeli actress and theatre director
Roberto José Dromi (1945–2024) Argentinian politician and lawyer
Shai Dromi, Israeli farmer who shot and killed a Bedouin intruder, an event that gave rise to the "Dromis' Law" of self-defense
, Israeli journalist and editor
See also
Category:Hebrew-language surnames
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dromi
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Divergence
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500px|thumb|upright1.75|alt A vector field with diverging vectors, a vector field with converging vectors, and a vector field with parallel vectors that neither diverge nor converge|The divergence of different vector fields. The divergence of vectors from point (x,y) equals the sum of the partial derivative-with-respect-to-x of the x-component and the partial derivative-with-respect-to-y of the y-component at that point:
<math>\nabla\!\cdot(\mathbf{V}(x,y)) = \frac{\partial\, {V_x(x,y)}}{\partial{x}}+\frac{\partial\, {V_y(x,y)}}{\partial{y}}</math>
In vector calculus, divergence is a vector operator that operates on a vector field, producing a scalar field giving the quantity of the vector field's source at each point. More technically, the divergence represents the volume density of the outward flux of a vector field from an infinitesimal volume around a given point.
As an example, consider air as it is heated or cooled. The velocity of the air at each point defines a vector field. While air is heated in a region, it expands in all directions, and thus the velocity field points outward from that region. The divergence of the velocity field in that region would thus have a positive value. While the air is cooled and thus contracting, the divergence of the velocity has a negative value.
Physical interpretation of divergence
In physical terms, the divergence of a vector field is the extent to which the vector field flux behaves like a source or a sink at a given point. It is a local measure of its "outgoingness" – the extent to which there are more of the field vectors exiting from an infinitesimal region of space than entering it. A point at which the flux is outgoing has positive divergence, and is often called a "source" of the field. A point at which the flux is directed inward has negative divergence, and is often called a "sink" of the field. The greater the flux of field through a small surface enclosing a given point, the greater the value of divergence at that point. A point at which there is zero flux through an enclosing surface has zero divergence.
The divergence of a vector field is often illustrated using the simple example of the velocity field of a fluid, a liquid or gas. A moving gas has a velocity, a speed and direction at each point, which can be represented by a vector, so the velocity of the gas forms a vector field. If a gas is heated, it will expand. This will cause a net motion of gas particles outward in all directions. Any closed surface in the gas will enclose gas which is expanding, so there will be an outward flux of gas through the surface. So the velocity field will have positive divergence everywhere. Similarly, if the gas is cooled, it will contract. There will be more room for gas particles in any volume, so the external pressure of the fluid will cause a net flow of gas volume inward through any closed surface. Therefore, the velocity field has negative divergence everywhere. In contrast, in a gas at a constant temperature and pressure, the net flux of gas out of any closed surface is zero. The gas may be moving, but the volume rate of gas flowing into any closed surface must equal the volume rate flowing out, so the net flux is zero. Thus the gas velocity has zero divergence everywhere. A field which has zero divergence everywhere is called solenoidal.
If the gas is heated only at one point or small region, or a small tube is introduced which supplies a source of additional gas at one point, the gas there will expand, pushing fluid particles around it outward in all directions. This will cause an outward velocity field throughout the gas, centered on the heated point. Any closed surface enclosing the heated point will have a flux of gas particles passing out of it, so there is positive divergence at that point. However any closed surface not enclosing the point will have a constant density of gas inside, so just as many fluid particles are entering as leaving the volume, thus the net flux out of the volume is zero. Therefore, the divergence at any other point is zero.
Definition
The divergence of a vector field at a point is defined as the limit of the ratio of the surface integral of out of the closed surface of a volume enclosing to the volume of , as shrinks to zero
:{{oiint
| preintegral <math>\left. \operatorname{div} \mathbf{F} \right|_\mathbf{x_0} \lim_{V \to 0} \frac{1}{|V|}</math>
| intsubscpt = <math>\scriptstyle S(V)</math>
| integrand = <math>\mathbf{F} \cdot \mathbf{\hat n} \, dS</math>
}}
where }} is the volume of , is the boundary of , and <math>\mathbf{\hat n}</math> is the outward unit normal to that surface. It can be shown that the above limit always converges to the same value for any sequence of volumes that contain and approach zero volume. The result, , is a scalar function of .
Since this definition is coordinate-free, it shows that the divergence is the same in any coordinate system. However the above definition is not often used practically to calculate divergence; when the vector field is given in a coordinate system the coordinate definitions below are much simpler to use.
A vector field with zero divergence everywhere is called solenoidal – in which case any closed surface has no net flux across it.
Definition in coordinates
Cartesian coordinates
In three-dimensional Cartesian coordinates, the divergence of a continuously differentiable vector field <math>\mathbf{F} = F_x\mathbf{i} + F_y\mathbf{j} + F_z\mathbf{k}</math> is defined as the scalar-valued function:
<math display"block">\operatorname{div} \mathbf{F} \nabla\cdot\mathbf{F} \left(\frac{\partial}{\partial x}, \frac{\partial}{\partial y}, \frac{\partial}{\partial z} \right) \cdot (F_x,F_y,F_z) \frac{\partial F_x}{\partial x}+\frac{\partial F_y}{\partial y}+\frac{\partial F_z}{\partial z}.</math>
Although expressed in terms of coordinates, the result is invariant under rotations, as the physical interpretation suggests. This is because the trace of the Jacobian matrix of an -dimensional vector field in -dimensional space is invariant under any invertible linear transformation.
The common notation for the divergence is a convenient mnemonic, where the dot denotes an operation reminiscent of the dot product: take the components of the operator (see del), apply them to the corresponding components of , and sum the results. Because applying an operator is different from multiplying the components, this is considered an abuse of notation.
Cylindrical coordinates
For a vector expressed in local unit cylindrical coordinates as
<math display"block">\mathbf{F} \mathbf{e}_r F_r + \mathbf{e}_\theta F_\theta + \mathbf{e}_z F_z,</math>
where is the unit vector in direction , the divergence is
<math display"block">\operatorname{div} \mathbf F \nabla \cdot \mathbf{F} = \frac{1}{r} \frac{\partial}{\partial r} \left(r F_r\right) + \frac1r \frac{\partial F_\theta}{\partial\theta} + \frac{\partial F_z}{\partial z}.
</math>
The use of local coordinates is vital for the validity of the expression. If we consider the position vector and the functions , , and , which assign the corresponding global cylindrical coordinate to a vector, in general {{nowrap|<math>r(\mathbf{F}(\mathbf{x})) \neq F_r(\mathbf{x})</math>,}} {{nowrap|<math>\theta(\mathbf{F}(\mathbf{x})) \neq F_{\theta}(\mathbf{x})</math>,}} and {{nowrap|<math>z(\mathbf{F}(\mathbf{x})) \neq F_z(\mathbf{x})</math>.}} In particular, if we consider the identity function , we find that:
<math display"block">\theta(\mathbf{F}(\mathbf{x})) \theta \neq F_{\theta}(\mathbf{x}) 0.</math> Spherical coordinates
In spherical coordinates, with the angle with the axis and the rotation around the axis, and again written in local unit coordinates, the divergence is
<math>\operatorname{div}\mathbf{F} \nabla \cdot \mathbf{F} \frac{1}{r^2} \frac{\partial}{\partial r} \left(r^2 F_r\right) + \frac{1}{r\sin\theta} \frac{\partial}{\partial \theta} \left(\sin\theta\, F_\theta\right) + \frac{1}{r \sin\theta} \frac{\partial F_\varphi}{\partial \varphi}.</math>
Tensor field
Let be continuously differentiable second-order tensor field defined as follows:
<math display"block">\mathbf{A} \begin{bmatrix}
A_{11} & A_{12} & A_{13} \\
A_{21} & A_{22} & A_{23} \\
A_{31} & A_{32} & A_{33}
\end{bmatrix}</math>
the divergence in cartesian coordinate system is a first-order tensor field and can be defined in two ways:
<math display"block">\operatorname{div} (\mathbf{A}) \frac{\partial A_{ik}}{\partial x_k}~\mathbf{e}_i A_{ik,k}~\mathbf{e}_i \begin{bmatrix}
\dfrac{\partial A_{11}}{\partial x_1} +\dfrac{\partial A_{12}}{\partial x_2} +\dfrac{\partial A_{13}}{\partial x_3} \\
\dfrac{\partial A_{21}}{\partial x_1} +\dfrac{\partial A_{22}}{\partial x_2} +\dfrac{\partial A_{23}}{\partial x_3} \\
\dfrac{\partial A_{31}}{\partial x_1} +\dfrac{\partial A_{32}}{\partial x_2} +\dfrac{\partial A_{33}}{\partial x_3}
\end{bmatrix}</math>
and
<math display="block">
\nabla \cdot \mathbf A \frac{\partial A_{ki}}{\partial x_k} ~\mathbf{e}_i A_{ki,k}~\mathbf{e}_i =
\begin{bmatrix}
\dfrac{\partial A_{11}}{\partial x_1} + \dfrac{\partial A_{21}}{\partial x_2} + \dfrac{\partial A_{31}}{\partial x_3} \\
\dfrac{\partial A_{12}}{\partial x_1} + \dfrac{\partial A_{22}}{\partial x_2} + \dfrac{\partial A_{32}}{\partial x_3} \\
\dfrac{\partial A_{13}}{\partial x_1} + \dfrac{\partial A_{23}}{\partial x_2} + \dfrac{\partial A_{33}}{\partial x_3} \\
\end{bmatrix}
</math>
We have
<math display"block">\operatorname{div} {\left(\mathbf{A}^\mathsf{T}\right)} \nabla \cdot \mathbf A</math>
If tensor is symmetric then {{nowrap|<math>\operatorname{div} (\mathbf{A}) = \nabla \cdot \mathbf A</math>.}} Because of this, often in the literature the two definitions (and symbols and <math>\nabla \cdot</math>) are used interchangeably (especially in mechanics equations where tensor symmetry is assumed).
Expressions of <math>\nabla\cdot\mathbf A</math> in cylindrical and spherical coordinates are given in the article del in cylindrical and spherical coordinates.
General coordinates
Using Einstein notation we can consider the divergence in general coordinates, which we write as , where is the number of dimensions of the domain. Here, the upper index refers to the number of the coordinate or component, so refers to the second component, and not the quantity squared. The index variable is used to refer to an arbitrary component, such as . The divergence can then be written via the [https://www.genealogy.math.ndsu.nodak.edu/id.php?id59087 Voss]-Weyl formula, as:
<math display"block">\operatorname{div}(\mathbf{F}) \frac{1}{\rho} \frac{\partial {\left(\rho \, F^i\right)}}{\partial x^i},</math>
where <math>\rho</math> is the local coefficient of the volume element and are the components of <math>\mathbf{F} F^i\mathbf{e}_i</math> with respect to the local unnormalized covariant basis (sometimes written as {{nowrap|<math>\mathbf{e}_i \partial\mathbf{x} / \partial x^i</math>).}} The Einstein notation implies summation over , since it appears as both an upper and lower index.
The volume coefficient is a function of position which depends on the coordinate system. In Cartesian, cylindrical and spherical coordinates, using the same conventions as before, we have , and , respectively. The volume can also be expressed as <math display"inline">\rho \sqrt{\left|\det g_{ab}\right|}</math>, where is the metric tensor. The determinant appears because it provides the appropriate invariant definition of the volume, given a set of vectors. Since the determinant is a scalar quantity which doesn't depend on the indices, these can be suppressed, writing {{nowrap|<math display"inline">\rho \sqrt{\left|\det g\right|}</math>.}} The absolute value is taken in order to handle the general case where the determinant might be negative, such as in pseudo-Riemannian spaces. The reason for the square-root is a bit subtle: it effectively avoids double-counting as one goes from curved to Cartesian coordinates, and back. The volume (the determinant) can also be understood as the Jacobian of the transformation from Cartesian to curvilinear coordinates, which for gives {{nowrap|<math display"inline">\rho \left| \frac{\partial(x,y,z)}{\partial (x^1,x^2,x^3)}\right|</math>.}}
Some conventions expect all local basis elements to be normalized to unit length, as was done in the previous sections. If we write <math>\hat{\mathbf{e}}_i</math> for the normalized basis, and <math>\hat{F}^i</math> for the components of with respect to it, we have that
<math display"block">\mathbf{F} F^i \mathbf{e}_i F^i \|{\mathbf{e}_i }\| \frac{\mathbf{e}_i}{\| \mathbf{e}_i \|}
F^i \sqrt{g_{ii}} \, \hat{\mathbf{e}}_i =
\hat{F}^i \hat{\mathbf{e}}_i,</math>
using one of the properties of the metric tensor. By dotting both sides of the last equality with the contravariant element ^i</math>,}} we can conclude that <math display"inline">F^i \hat{F}^i / \sqrt{g_{ii}}</math>. After substituting, the formula becomes:
<math display"block">\operatorname{div}(\mathbf{F}) \frac 1{\rho} \frac{\partial \left(\frac{\rho}{\sqrt{g_{ii}}}\hat{F}^i\right)}{\partial x^i} =
\frac 1{\sqrt{\det g}} \frac{\partial \left(\sqrt{\frac{\det g}{g_{ii}}}\,\hat{F}^i\right)}{\partial x^i}.</math>
See for further discussion.
Properties
The following properties can all be derived from the ordinary differentiation rules of calculus. Most importantly, the divergence is a linear operator, i.e.,
:<math>\operatorname{div}(a\mathbf{F} + b\mathbf{G}) = a \operatorname{div} \mathbf{F} + b \operatorname{div} \mathbf{G}</math>
for all vector fields and and all real numbers and .
There is a product rule of the following type: if is a scalar-valued function and is a vector field, then
:<math>\operatorname{div}(\varphi \mathbf{F}) = \operatorname{grad} \varphi \cdot \mathbf{F} + \varphi \operatorname{div} \mathbf{F},</math>
or in more suggestive notation
:<math>\nabla\cdot(\varphi \mathbf{F}) = (\nabla\varphi) \cdot \mathbf{F} + \varphi (\nabla\cdot\mathbf{F}).</math>
Another product rule for the cross product of two vector fields and in three dimensions involves the curl and reads as follows:
:<math>\operatorname{div}(\mathbf{F}\times\mathbf{G}) = \operatorname{curl} \mathbf{F} \cdot\mathbf{G} - \mathbf{F} \cdot \operatorname{curl} \mathbf{G},</math>
or
:<math>\nabla\cdot(\mathbf{F}\times\mathbf{G}) = (\nabla\times\mathbf{F})\cdot\mathbf{G} - \mathbf{F}\cdot(\nabla\times\mathbf{G}).</math>
The Laplacian of a scalar field is the divergence of the field's gradient:
:<math>\operatorname{div}(\operatorname{grad}\varphi) = \Delta\varphi.</math>
The divergence of the curl of any vector field (in three dimensions) is equal to zero:
:<math>\nabla\cdot(\nabla\times\mathbf{F})=0.</math>
If a vector field with zero divergence is defined on a ball in , then there exists some vector field on the ball with curl G}}. For regions in more topologically complicated than this, the latter statement might be false (see Poincaré lemma). The degree of failure of the truth of the statement, measured by the homology of the chain complex
:<math>\{ \text{scalar fields on } U \} ~ \overset{\operatorname{grad}}{\rarr} ~ \{ \text{vector fields on } U \} ~ \overset{\operatorname{curl}}{\rarr} ~ \{ \text{vector fields on } U \} ~ \overset{\operatorname{div}}{\rarr} ~ \{ \text{scalar fields on } U \}</math>
serves as a nice quantification of the complicatedness of the underlying region . These are the beginnings and main motivations of de Rham cohomology.
Decomposition theorem
It can be shown that any stationary flux that is twice continuously differentiable in and vanishes sufficiently fast for → ∞}} can be decomposed uniquely into an irrotational part and a source-free part . Moreover, these parts are explicitly determined by the respective source densities (see above) and circulation densities (see the article Curl):
For the irrotational part one has
:<math>\mathbf E=-\nabla \Phi(\mathbf r),</math>
with
:<math>\Phi (\mathbf{r})=\int_{\mathbb R^3}\,d^3\mathbf r'\;\frac{\operatorname{div} \mathbf{v}(\mathbf{r}')}{4\pi\left|\mathbf{r}-\mathbf{r}'\right|}.</math>
The source-free part, , can be similarly written: one only has to replace the scalar potential by a vector potential and the terms by , and the source density
by the circulation density .
This "decomposition theorem" is a by-product of the stationary case of electrodynamics. It is a special case of the more general Helmholtz decomposition, which works in dimensions greater than three as well.
In arbitrary finite dimensions
The divergence of a vector field can be defined in any finite number <math>n</math> of dimensions. If
:<math>\mathbf{F} = (F_1 , F_2 , \ldots F_n) ,</math>
in a Euclidean coordinate system with coordinates , define
:<math>\operatorname{div} \mathbf{F} \nabla\cdot\mathbf{F} \frac{\partial F_1}{\partial x_1} + \frac{\partial F_2}{\partial x_2} + \cdots + \frac{\partial F_n}{\partial x_n}.</math>
In the 1D case, reduces to a regular function, and the divergence reduces to the derivative.
For any , the divergence is a linear operator, and it satisfies the "product rule"
:<math>\nabla\cdot(\varphi \mathbf{F}) = (\nabla\varphi) \cdot \mathbf{F} + \varphi (\nabla\cdot\mathbf{F})</math>
for any scalar-valued function .
Relation to the exterior derivative
One can express the divergence as a particular case of the exterior derivative, which takes a 2-form to a 3-form in . Define the current two-form as
:<math>j = F_1 \, dy \wedge dz + F_2 \, dz \wedge dx + F_3 \, dx \wedge dy .</math>
It measures the amount of "stuff" flowing through a surface per unit time in a "stuff fluid" of density 1 dx ∧ dy ∧ dz}} moving with local velocity . Its exterior derivative is then given by
:<math>dj \left(\frac{\partial F_1}{\partial x} +\frac{\partial F_2}{\partial y} +\frac{\partial F_3}{\partial z} \right) dx \wedge dy \wedge dz (\nabla \cdot {\mathbf F}) \rho </math>
where <math>\wedge</math> is the wedge product.
Thus, the divergence of the vector field can be expressed as:
:<math>\nabla \cdot {\mathbf F} = {\star} d{\star} \big({\mathbf F}^\flat \big) .</math>
Here the superscript is one of the two musical isomorphisms, and is the Hodge star operator. When the divergence is written in this way, the operator <math>{\star} d{\star}</math> is referred to as the codifferential. Working with the current two-form and the exterior derivative is usually easier than working with the vector field and divergence, because unlike the divergence, the exterior derivative commutes with a change of (curvilinear) coordinate system.
In curvilinear coordinates
The appropriate expression is more complicated in curvilinear coordinates. The divergence of a vector field extends naturally to any differentiable manifold of dimension that has a volume form (or density) , e.g. a Riemannian or Lorentzian manifold. Generalising the construction of a two-form for a vector field on , on such a manifold a vector field defines an -form obtained by contracting with . The divergence is then the function defined by
:<math>dj = (\operatorname{div} X) \mu .</math>
The divergence can be defined in terms of the Lie derivative as
:<math>{\mathcal L}_X \mu = (\operatorname{div} X) \mu .</math>
This means that the divergence measures the rate of expansion of a unit of volume (a volume element) as it flows with the vector field.
On a pseudo-Riemannian manifold, the divergence with respect to the volume can be expressed in terms of the Levi-Civita connection :
:<math>\operatorname{div} X \nabla \cdot X {X^a}_{;a} ,</math>
where the second expression is the contraction of the vector field valued 1-form with itself and the last expression is the traditional coordinate expression from Ricci calculus.
An equivalent expression without using a connection is
:<math>\operatorname{div}(X) = \frac{1}{\sqrt{\left|\det g \right|}} \, \partial_a \left(\sqrt{\left|\det g \right|} \, X^a\right),</math>
where is the metric and <math>\partial_a</math> denotes the partial derivative with respect to coordinate }}. The square-root of the (absolute value of the determinant of the) metric appears because the divergence must be written with the correct conception of the volume. In curvilinear coordinates, the basis vectors are no longer orthonormal; the determinant encodes the correct idea of volume in this case. It appears twice, here, once, so that the <math>X^a</math> can be transformed into "flat space" (where coordinates are actually orthonormal), and once again so that <math>\partial_a</math> is also transformed into "flat space", so that finally, the "ordinary" divergence can be written with the "ordinary" concept of volume in flat space (i.e. unit volume, i.e. one, i.e. not written down). The square-root appears in the denominator, because the derivative transforms in the opposite way (contravariantly) to the vector (which is covariant). This idea of getting to a "flat coordinate system" where local computations can be done in a conventional way is called a vielbein. A different way to see this is to note that the divergence is the codifferential in disguise. That is, the divergence corresponds to the expression <math>\star d\star</math> with <math>d</math> the differential and <math>\star</math> the Hodge star. The Hodge star, by its construction, causes the volume form to appear in all of the right places.
The divergence of tensors
Divergence can also be generalised to tensors. In Einstein notation, the divergence of a contravariant vector }} is given by
:<math>\nabla \cdot \mathbf{F} = \nabla_\mu F^\mu ,</math>
where denotes the covariant derivative. In this general setting, the correct formulation of the divergence is to recognize that it is a codifferential; the appropriate properties follow from there.
Equivalently, some authors define the divergence of a mixed tensor by using the musical isomorphism : if is a -tensor ( for the contravariant vector and for the covariant one), then we define the divergence of to be the -tensor
:<math>(\operatorname{div} T) (Y_1 , \ldots , Y_{q-1}) = {\operatorname{trace}} \Big(X \mapsto \sharp (\nabla T) (X , \cdot , Y_1 , \ldots , Y_{q-1}) \Big);</math>
that is, we take the trace over the first two covariant indices of the covariant derivative.. But equally well defined choices for the divergence could be made by using other indices. Consequently, it is more natural to specify the divergence of with respect to a specified index. There are however two important special cases where this choice is essentially irrelevant: with a totally symmetric contravariant tensor, when every choice is equivalent, and with a totally antisymmetric contravariant tensor ( a k-vector), when the choice affects only the sign.}}
The <math>\sharp</math> symbol refers to the musical isomorphism.
See also
*Curl
*Del in cylindrical and spherical coordinates
*Divergence theorem
*Gradient
Notes
Citations
References
*
*
*
*
* External links
*
* [http://mathinsight.org/divergence_idea The idea of divergence of a vector field]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110916111844/http://www.khanacademy.org/video/divergence-1?playlist=Calculus Khan Academy: Divergence video lesson]
*
Category:Differential operators
Category:Linear operators in calculus
Category:Vector calculus
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divergence
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2025-04-05T18:28:33.957639
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Events
Pre-1600
*1118 – The city of Zaragoza is conquered by king Alfonso I of Aragon from the Almoravid.
*1271 – Kublai Khan renames his empire "Yuan" (元 yuán), officially marking the start of the Yuan dynasty of Mongolia and China.
*1499 – A rebellion breaks out in Alpujarras in response to the forced conversions of Muslims in Spain.
1601–1900
*1622 – Portuguese forces score a military victory over the Kingdom of Kongo at the Battle of Mbumbi in present-day Angola.
*1655 – The Whitehall Conference ends with the determination that there was no law preventing Jews from re-entering England after the Edict of Expulsion of 1290.
*1777 – The United States celebrates its first Thanksgiving, marking the recent victory by the American rebels over British General John Burgoyne at Saratoga in October.
*1787 – New Jersey becomes the third state to ratify the U.S. Constitution.
*1793 – Surrender of the frigate La Lutine by French Royalists to Lord Samuel Hood; renamed , she later becomes a famous treasure wreck.
*1833 – The national anthem of the Russian Empire, "God Save the Tsar!", is first performed.
*1854 – The Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada abolishes the seigneurial system.
*1865 – US Secretary of State William Seward proclaims the adoption of the Thirteenth Amendment, prohibiting slavery throughout the United States.
*1867 – A magnitude 7.0 earthquakes strikes off the coast of Taiwan, triggering a tsunami and killing at least 580 people.
*1878 – The Al-Thani family become the rulers of the state of Qatar.
*1892 – Premiere performance of The Nutcracker by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky in Saint Petersburg, Russia.
*1898 – Gaston de Chasseloup-Laubat sets the first officially recognized land speed record of in a Jeantaud electric car.
1901–present
*1916 – World War I: The Battle of Verdun ends when the second French offensive pushes the Germans back two or three kilometres, causing them to cease their attacks.
*1917 – The resolution containing the language of the Eighteenth Amendment to enact Prohibition is passed by the United States Congress.
*1932 – The Chicago Bears defeat the Portsmouth Spartans in the first NFL playoff game to win the NFL Championship.
*1935 – The Lanka Sama Samaja Party is founded in Ceylon.
*1939 – World War II: The Battle of the Heligoland Bight, the first major air battle of the war, takes place.
*1944 – World War II: XX Bomber Command responds to the Japanese Operation Ichi-Go offensive by dropping five hundred tons of incendiary bombs on a supply base in Hankow, China.
* 1944 – The Supreme Court of the United States issued its decision in Korematsu v. United States supporting Franklin D. Roosevelt's Executive Order 9066 which cleared the way for the incarceration of nearly all 120,000 Japanese Americans, two-thirds of whom were U.S. citizens, born and raised in the United States.
*1957 – A violent F5 tornado wipes out the entire community of Sunfield, Illinois.
*1958 – Project SCORE, the world's first communications satellite, is launched.
*1966 – Saturn's moon Epimetheus is discovered by astronomer Richard Walker.
*1972 – Vietnam War: President Richard Nixon announces that the United States will engage North Vietnam in Operation Linebacker II, a series of Christmas bombings, after peace talks collapsed with North Vietnam on the 13th.
*1973 – Soviet Soyuz Programme: Soyuz 13, crewed by cosmonauts Valentin Lebedev and Pyotr Klimuk, is launched from Baikonur in the Soviet Union.
*1977 – United Airlines Flight 2860 crashes near Kaysville, Utah, killing all three crew members on board.
* 1977 – SA de Transport Aérien Flight 730 crashes near Madeira Airport in Funchal, Madeira, Portugal, killing 36.
*1981 – First flight of the Russian heavy strategic bomber Tu-160, the world's largest combat aircraft, largest supersonic aircraft and largest variable-sweep wing aircraft built.
*1995 – A Lockheed L-188 Electra crashes in Jamba, Cuando Cubango, Angola, killing 141 people.
*1999 – NASA launches into orbit the Terra platform carrying five Earth Observation instruments, including ASTER, CERES, MISR, MODIS and MOPITT.
*2002 – California gubernatorial recall: Then Governor of California Gray Davis announces that the state would face a record budget deficit of $35 billion, roughly double the figure reported during his reelection campaign one month earlier.
*2005 – The Chadian Civil War begins when rebel groups, allegedly backed by neighbouring Sudan, launch an attack in Adré.
*2006 – The first of a series of floods strikes Malaysia. The death toll of all flooding is at least 118, with over 400,000 people displaced.
* 2006 – United Arab Emirates holds its first-ever elections.
*2015 – Kellingley Colliery, the last deep coal mine in Great Britain, closes.
*2017 – Amtrak Cascades passenger train 501, derailed near DuPont, Washington, a city in United States near Olympia, Washington killing six people, and injuring 70 others.
*2018 – List of bolides: A meteor exploded over the Bering Sea with a force over 10 times greater than the atomic bomb that destroyed Hiroshima in 1945.
*2019 – The United States House of Representatives impeaches Donald Trump for the first time.
*2022 – Argentina win the 2022 FIFA World Cup final, defeating title holders France 4–2 on penalties following a 3–3 draw after extra time.BirthsPre-1600
<!-- Please don't Wikify years that have already been linked -->
*1406 – Richard Olivier de Longueil, French Roman Catholic bishop and cardinal (d. 1470)
*1481 – Sophie of Mecklenburg, Duchess of Mecklenburg, Duchess of Saxony (d. 1503)
*1499 – Sebald Heyden, German musicologist and theologian (d. 1561)
*1505 – Philipp von Hutten, German explorer (d. 1546)
*1507 – Ōuchi Yoshitaka, Japanese daimyō (d. 1551)
*1552 – Ahmad Ibn al-Qadi, Moroccan writer, judge and mathematician (d. 1616)
*1590 – William Louis, Count of Nassau-Saarbrücken (d. 1640)
1601–1900
*1602 – Simonds d'Ewes, English historian and politician (d. 1650)
*1610 – Charles du Fresne, sieur du Cange, French philologist and historian (d. 1688)
*1620 – Heinrich Roth, German missionary and scholar (d. 1668)
*1624 – John Hull, colonial American merchant and politician (d. 1683)
*1626 – Christina, Queen of Sweden (d. 1689)
*1660 – Countess Johanna Magdalene of Hanau-Lichtenberg (d. 1715)
*1661 – Christopher Polhem, Swedish physicist and inventor (d. 1751)
*1662 – James Douglas, 2nd Duke of Queensberry, Scottish colonel and politician, Secretary of State for Scotland (d. 1711)
*1707 – Charles Wesley, English missionary and composer (d. 1788)
*1725 – Johann Salomo Semler, German historian and theologian (d. 1791)
*1734 – Jean-Baptiste Rey, French conductor and composer (d. 1810)
*1800 – James Watney, English brewer and businessman (d. 1884)
*1824 – John Hall, English-New Zealand politician, 12th Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1907)
*1825 – Charles Griffin, American general (d. 1876)
* 1825 – John S. Harris, American surveyor and politician (d. 1906)
* 1825 – Mariano Ignacio Prado, Peruvian general, twice President of Peru (d. 1901)
*1835 – Lyman Abbott, American minister, theologian, and author (d. 1922)
*1847 – Augusta Holmès, French pianist and composer (d. 1903)
*1849 – Henrietta Edwards, Canadian activist and author (d. 1931)
*1856 – J. J. Thomson, English physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1940)
*1860 – Edward MacDowell, American pianist and composer (d. 1908)
*1861 – Lionel Monckton, English composer and critic (d. 1924)
*1863 – Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria (d. 1914)
*1867 – Foxhall P. Keene, American polo player and horse breeder (d. 1941)
*1869 – Edward Willis Redfield, American painter and educator (d. 1965)
*1870 – Saki, British short story writer (d. 1916)
*1873 – Francis Burton Harrison, American general and politician, 6th Governor-General of the Philippines (d. 1957)
*1875 – Matt McGrath, Irish-American hammer thrower (d. 1941)
*1878 – Joseph Stalin, Georgian-Russian marshal and politician,General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (d. 1953)
*1879 – Paul Klee, Swiss-German painter and educator (d. 1940)
*1882 – Richard Maury, American-Argentinian engineer, designed the Salta–Antofagasta railway (d. 1950)
*1884 – Emil Starkenstein, Czech pharmacologist, co-founded clinical pharmacology (d. 1942)
*1886 – Ty Cobb, American baseball player and manager (d. 1961)
*1887 – Bhikhari Thakur, Indian actor, singer, and playwright (d. 1971)
*1888 – Gladys Cooper, English actress and singer (d. 1971)
* 1888 – Robert Moses, American urban planner (d. 1981)
*1890 – Edwin Howard Armstrong, American engineer, invented FM radio (d. 1954)
*1896 – Gerald Barry, English colonel and cricketer (d. 1977)
*1897 – Fletcher Henderson, American pianist and composer (d. 1952)
*1899 – Peter Wessel Zapffe, Norwegian philosopher and author (d. 1990)
1901–present
*1904 – George Stevens, American director, producer, screenwriter, and cinematographer (d. 1975)
*1907 – Bill Holland, American race car driver (d. 1984)
* 1907 – Lawrence Lucie, American guitarist and educator (d. 2009)
*1908 – Celia Johnson, English actress (d. 1982)
* 1908 – Paul Siple, American geographer and explorer (d. 1969)
*1910 – Abe Burrows, American author, playwright, and director (d. 1985)
* 1910 – Eric Tindill, New Zealand rugby player, cricketer, and umpire (d. 2010)
*1911 – Jules Dassin, American-Greek actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2008)
*1912 – Benjamin O. Davis, Jr., American general and pilot (d. 2002)
*1913 – Alfred Bester, American author and screenwriter (d. 1987)
* 1913 – Willy Brandt, German politician, 4th Chancellor of Germany, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1992)
* 1913 – Ray Meyer, American basketball player and coach (d. 2006)
*1916 – Douglas Fraser, Scottish-American trade union leader and academic (d. 2008)
* 1916 – Betty Grable, American actress, singer, and dancer (d. 1973)
*1917 – Ossie Davis, American actor and activist (d. 2005)
* 1931 – Bill Thompson, American television host (d. 2014)
*1932 – Norm Provan, Australian rugby league player, coach, and businessman (d. 2021)
* 1932 – Roger Smith, American actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2017)
*1933 – Lonnie Brooks, American blues singer and guitarist (d. 2017)
*1934 – Marc Rich, Belgian-American businessman, founded Glencore (d. 2013)
* 1934 – Boris Volynov, Russian colonel, engineer, and cosmonaut
*1935 – Rosemary Leach, English actress (d. 2017)
* 1935 – Jacques Pépin, French-American chef and author
* 1939 – Michael Moorcock, English author and songwriter
* 1939 – Harold E. Varmus, American biologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate
*1940 – Ilario Castagner, Italian football manager (d. 2023)
* 1940 – John Cooper, English sprinter and hurdler (d. 1974)
*1941 – Sam Andrew, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2015)
* 1941 – Wadada Leo Smith, American trumpet player and composer
* 1941 – Joan Wallach Scott, American historian, author, and academic
*1942 – Lenore Blum, American mathematician and academic
* 1942 – Bobby Keyes, Australian rugby league player (d. 2022)
*1943 – Bobby Keys, American saxophone player (d. 2014)
* 1943 – Keith Richards, English musician
* 1943 – Alan Rudolph, American director and screenwriter
*1944 – Crispian Steele-Perkins, English trumpet player and educator
*1945 – Jean Pronovost, Canadian ice hockey player and coach
*1946 – Steve Biko, South African activist, founded the Black Consciousness Movement (d. 1977)
*1947 – Leonid Yuzefovich, Russian author and screenwriter
*1948 – George T. Johnson, American basketball player
* 1948 – Bill Nelson, English singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1948 – Mimmo Paladino, Italian sculptor and painter
* 1948 – Laurent Voulzy, French-English singer-songwriter and guitarist
*1949 – David A. Johnston, American volcanologist and geologist (d. 1980)
*1950 – Gillian Armstrong, Australian director, producer, and screenwriter
* 1950 – Randy Castillo, American drummer and songwriter (d. 2002)
* 1950 – Sarath Fonseka, Sri Lankan general and politician
* 1950 – Lizmark, Mexican wrestler (d. 2015)
* 1950 – Leonard Maltin, American historian, author, and critic
*1952 – John Leventhal, American songwriter and producer
*1953 – Kevin Beattie, English footballer (d. 2018)
* 1953 – Elliot Easton, American guitarist and singer
* 1954 – Willi Wülbeck, German runner
*1955 – Vijay Mallya, Indian businessman and politician
* 1955 – Bogusław Mamiński, Polish runner
*1956 – Ron White, American comedian
*1972 – Anzhela Balakhonova, Ukrainian pole vaulter
* 1972 – Raymond Herrera, American drummer and songwriter
* 1972 – DJ Lethal, Latvian-American musician
*1973 – Fatuma Roba, Ethiopian runner
*1974 – Peter Boulware, American football player and politician
* 1974 – Knut Schreiner, Norwegian singer, guitarist, and producer
*1975 – Randy Houser, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1975 – Sia, Australian singer-songwriter
* 1978 – Ali Curtis, American soccer player
* 1978 – Josh Dallas, American actor
* 1980 – Neil Fingleton, English actor and basketball player, one of the tallest 25 men in the world (d. 2017)
* 1980 – Benjamin Watson, American football player
*1983 – Andy Fantuz, Canadian football player
*1984 – Brian Boyle, American ice hockey player
* 1984 – Paul Harrison, English footballer
* 1984 – Giuliano Razzoli, Italian skier
* 1984 – Derrick Tribbett, American bass player and singer
*1986 – Chris Carter, American baseball player
* 1986 – François Hamelin, Canadian speed skater
* 1986 – Usman Khawaja, Pakistani-Australian cricketer
*1987 – Miki Ando, Japanese figure skater
*1988 – Lizzie Deignan, English cyclist
* 1988 – Seth Doege, American football player
* 1988 – Brianne Theisen-Eaton, Canadian heptathlete
* 1988 – Imad Wasim, Pakistani cricketer
*1989 – Ashley Benson, American actress and singer
*1990 – Victor Hedman, Swedish ice hockey player
* 1990 – Sierra Kay, American singer-songwriter
*1991 – Marcus Butler, English model and YouTuber
*1992 – Ryan Crouser, American shot putter
* 1992 – Bridgit Mendler, American singer-songwriter and actress
*1993 – Byron Buxton, American baseball player
* 1993 – Thomas Lam, Finnish footballer
*1994 – Gerard Gumbau, Spanish footballer
* 1994 – Natália Kelly, American-Austrian singer
*1995 – Barbora Krejčíková, Czech tennis player
* 1995 – Lim Na-young, South Korean singer and actress
*1997 – Ronald Acuña Jr., Venezuelan baseball player
* 1997 – Alex DeBrincat, American ice hockey player
*2000 – Jayden Daniels, American football player
* 2000 – Korapat Kirdpan, Thai actor and singer
* 2000 – Travon Walker, American football player
*2001 – Billie Eilish, American singer
* 2001 – Jalen Johnson, American basketball player
*2002 – Giuliano Simeone, Argentine footballer
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Deaths
Pre-1600
* 919 – Lady Wu, wife of Qian Liu (b. 858)
* 933 – Yaonian Yanmujin, Chinese empress dowager
*1075 – Edith of Wessex (b. 1025)
*1133 – Hildebert, French poet and scholar (b. 1055)
*1290 – Magnus III, king of Sweden (b. 1240)
*1442 – Pierre Cauchon, French Catholic bishop (b. 1371)
*1495 – Alfonso II of Naples (b. 1448)
*1577 – Anna of Saxony, Princess consort of Orange (b. 1544)
1601–1900
*1645 – Nur Jahan, empress consort of the Mughal Empire (b. 1577)
*1651 – William Brabazon, 1st Earl of Meath, English lawyer and politician (b. 1580)
*1692 – Veit Ludwig von Seckendorff, German scholar and politician (b. 1626)
*1737 – Antonio Stradivari, Italian instrument maker (b. 1644)
*1787 – Soame Jenyns, English poet and politician (b. 1704)
*1799 – Jean-Étienne Montucla, French mathematician and historian (b. 1725)
*1803 – Johann Gottfried Herder, German philosopher, theologian, and poet (b. 1744)
*1829 – Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, French soldier, biologist, and academic (b. 1744)
*1843 – Thomas Graham, 1st Baron Lynedoch, Scottish-English general and politician (b. 1748)
*1848 – Bernard Bolzano, Bohemian priest and mathematician (b. 1781)
*1864 – José Justo Corro, Mexican politician, President of Mexico (1836–1837) (b. 1794)
*1869 – Louis Moreau Gottschalk, American pianist and composer (b. 1829)
*1880 – Michel Chasles, French mathematician and academic (b. 1793)
*1892 – Richard Owen, English biologist, anatomist, and paleontologist (b. 1804)
1901–present
*1919 – John Alcock, English captain and pilot (b. 1892)
*1922 – Sir Carl Meyer, 1st Baronet, German-English banker and businessman (b. 1851)
*1925 – Hamo Thornycroft, English sculptor and academic (b. 1850)
*1932 – Eduard Bernstein, German theorist and politician (b. 1850)
*1936 – Andrija Mohorovičić, Croatian meteorologist and seismologist (b. 1857)
*1939 – Ernest Lawson, Canadian-American painter (b. 1873)
*1961 – Leo Reisman, American violinist and bandleader (b. 1897)
*1969 – Charles Dvorak, American pole vaulter and coach (b. 1878)
*1971 – Bobby Jones, American golfer and lawyer (b. 1902)
* 1971 – Diana Lynn, American actress (b. 1926)
*1972 – Neilia Hunter Biden, first wife of Joe Biden (b. 1942)
*1973 – Allamah Rasheed Turabi, Indian-Pakistani religious leader and philosopher (b. 1908)
*1974 – Harry Hooper, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b. 1887)
*1975 – Theodosius Dobzhansky, Ukrainian geneticist and biologist (b. 1900)
*1977 – Michio Nishizawa, Japanese baseball player and manager (b. 1921)
* 1977 – Louis Untermeyer American poet, anthologist, critic (b. 1885)
*1980 – Dobriša Cesarić, Croatian poet and translator (b. 1902)
* 1980 – Alexei Kosygin, Russian soldier and politician, 8th Premier of the Soviet Union (b. 1904)
*1982 – Hans-Ulrich Rudel, German colonel and pilot (b. 1916)
*1985 – Xuân Diệu, Vietnamese poet and author (b. 1916)
*1987 – Conny Plank, German keyboard player and producer (b. 1940)
*1988 – Niyazi Berkes, Turkish Cypriot-English sociologist and academic (b. 1908)
*1990 – Anne Revere, American actress (b. 1903)
* 1990 – Paul Tortelier, French cellist and composer (b. 1914)
* 1990 – Joseph Zubin, Lithuanian-American psychologist and academic (b. 1900)
*1991 – George Abecassis, English race car driver (b. 1913)
*1992 – Mark Goodson, American game show producer, created Family Feud and The Price Is Right (b. 1915)
*1993 – Helm Glöckler, German race car driver (b. 1909)
* 1993 – Sam Wanamaker, American-English actor, director, and producer (b. 1919)
*1994 – Roger Apéry, Greek-French mathematician and academic (b. 1916)
* 1994 – Lilia Skala, Austrian-American actress (b. 1896)
*1995 – Brian Brockless, English organist, composer, and conductor (b. 1926)
* 1995 – Ross Thomas, American author (b. 1926)
* 1995 – Konrad Zuse, German engineer, designed the Z3 computer (b. 1910)
*1996 – Yulii Borisovich Khariton, Russian physicist and academic (b. 1904)
* 1996 – Irving Caesar, American composer (b. 1895)
*1997 – Chris Farley, American comedian and actor (b. 1964)
*1998 – Lev Dyomin, Russian colonel, pilot, and astronaut (b. 1926)
*1999 – Robert Bresson, French director and screenwriter (b. 1901)
*2000 – Stan Fox, American race car driver (b. 1952)
* 2000 – Randolph Apperson Hearst, American businessman (b. 1915)
* 2000 – Kirsty MacColl, British singer-songwriter (b. 1959)
*2001 – Gilbert Bécaud, French singer-songwriter, pianist, and actor (b. 1927)
* 2001 – Dimitris Dragatakis, Greek violinist and composer (b. 1914)
* 2001 – Marcel Mule, French saxophonist and educator (b. 1901)
*2002 – Necip Hablemitoğlu, Turkish historian and academic (b. 1954)
* 2002 – Ray Hnatyshyn, Canadian lawyer and politician, 24th Governor General of Canada (b. 1934)
* 2002 – Wayne Owens, American lawyer and politician (b. 1937)
* 2002 – Lucy Grealy, Irish-American author (b. 1963)
*2004 – Anthony Sampson, English journalist and author (b. 1926)
*2005 – Alan Voorhees, American engineer and urban planner (b. 1922)
*2006 – Joseph Barbera, American animator, director, and producer, co-founded Hanna-Barbera (b. 1911)
* 2006 – Ruth Bernhard, German-American photographer (b. 1905)
* 2006 – Shaukat Siddiqui, Pakistani author and activist (b. 1923)
*2007 – Hans Billian, Polish-German actor, director, and screenwriter (b. 1918)
* 2007 – Gerald Le Dain, Canadian lawyer and judge (b. 1924)
* 2007 – William Strauss, American author and playwright (b. 1947)
* 2007 – Alan Wagner, American businessman and critic (b. 1931)
*2008 – Majel Barrett, American actress and producer (b. 1932)
* 2008 – Mark Felt, American FBI agent and informant (b. 1913)
*2010 – Phil Cavarretta, American baseball player and manager (b. 1916)
* 2010 – Jacqueline de Romilly, French philologist, author, and scholar (b. 1913)
* 2010 – Tommaso Padoa-Schioppa, Italian economist and politician, Italian Minister of Economy and Finances (b. 1940)
* 2010 – James Pickles, English judge and journalist (b. 1925)
*2011 – Václav Havel, Czech poet, playwright, and politician, 1st President of the Czech Republic (b. 1936)
*2012 – Frank Macchiarola, American lawyer and academic (b. 1941)
* 2012 – Mustafa Ould Salek, Mauritanian colonel and politician, President of Mauritania (b. 1936)
* 2012 – Jim Whalen, American football player (b. 1943)
* 2012 – Anatoliy Zayaev, Ukrainian footballer, coach, and manager (b. 1931)
*2013 – Ken Hutcherson, American football player (b. 1952)
* 2013 – Graham Mackay, South African-English businessman (b. 1949)
*2014 – Donald J. Albosta, American soldier and politician (b. 1925)
* 2014 – Gideon Ben-Yisrael, Israeli soldier and politician (b. 1923)
* 2014 – Larry Henley, American singer-songwriter (b. 1937)
* 2014 – Virna Lisi, Italian actress (b. 1936)
* 2014 – Mandy Rice-Davies, English model and actress (b. 1944)
* 2014 – Robert Simpson, American meteorologist and author (b. 1912)
*2015 – Luc Brewaeys, Belgian pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1959)
* 2015 – Helge Solum Larsen, Norwegian businessman and politician (b. 1969)
*2016 – Zsa Zsa Gabor, Hungarian-American actress and socialite (b. 1917)
*2017 – Kim Jong-hyun, South Korean singer (b. 1990)
*2020 – Jerry Relph, American politician and member of the Minnesota Senate (b. 1944)
*2021 – Sayaka Kanda, Japanese actress and singer (b. 1986)
*2024 – Slim Dunlap, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1951)
*2024 – John Marsden, Australian writer (b. 1950)
<!--Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Holidays and observances
* Christian feast day:
** Expectation of the Blessed Virgin Mary
** Flannán
** Gatianus of Tours
** O Adonai
** Sebastian (Eastern Orthodox Church)
** Winibald
** December 18 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
* International Migrants Day
* National Day (Qatar)
* Republic Day (Niger)
* UN Arabic Language Day (United Nations)
References
External links
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/18 BBC: On This Day]
*
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/december/18 Historical Events on December 18]
Category:Days of December
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_18
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Decision problem
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thumb|200px|A decision problem has only two possible outputs (yes or no) on any input.
In computability theory and computational complexity theory, a decision problem is a computational problem that can be posed as a yes–no question based on the given input values. An example of a decision problem is deciding with the help of an algorithm whether a given natural number is prime. Another example is the problem, "given two numbers x and y, does x evenly divide y?"
A method for solving a decision problem, given in the form of an algorithm, is called a decision procedure for that problem. A decision procedure for the decision problem "given two numbers x and y, does x evenly divide y?" would give the steps for determining whether x evenly divides y. One such algorithm is long division. If the remainder is zero the answer is 'yes', otherwise it is 'no'. A decision problem which can be solved by an algorithm is called decidable.
Decision problems typically appear in mathematical questions of decidability, that is, the question of the existence of an effective method to determine the existence of some object or its membership in a set; some of the most important problems in mathematics are undecidable.
The field of computational complexity categorizes decidable decision problems by how difficult they are to solve. "Difficult", in this sense, is described in terms of the computational resources needed by the most efficient algorithm for a certain problem. The field of recursion theory, meanwhile, categorizes undecidable decision problems by Turing degree, which is a measure of the noncomputability inherent in any solution.
Definition
A decision problem is a yes-or-no question on an infinite set of inputs. It is traditional to define the decision problem as the set of possible inputs together with the set of inputs for which the answer is yes.
These inputs can be natural numbers, but can also be values of some other kind, like binary strings or strings over some other alphabet. The subset of strings for which the problem returns "yes" is a formal language, and often decision problems are defined as formal languages.
Using an encoding such as Gödel numbering, any string can be encoded as a natural number, via which a decision problem can be defined as a subset of the natural numbers. Therefore, the algorithm of a decision problem is to compute the characteristic function of a subset of the natural numbers.
Examples
A classic example of a decidable decision problem is the set of prime numbers. It is possible to effectively decide whether a given natural number is prime by testing every possible nontrivial factor. Although much more efficient methods of primality testing are known, the existence of any effective method is enough to establish decidability.
Decidability
A decision problem is decidable or effectively solvable if the set of inputs (or natural numbers) for which the answer is yes is a recursive set. A problem is partially decidable, semidecidable, solvable, or provable if the set of inputs (or natural numbers) for which the answer is yes is a recursively enumerable set. Problems that are not decidable are undecidable. For those it is not possible to create an algorithm, efficient or otherwise, that solves them.
The halting problem is an important undecidable decision problem; for more examples, see list of undecidable problems.
Complete problems
Decision problems can be ordered according to many-one reducibility and related to feasible reductions such as polynomial-time reductions. A decision problem P is said to be complete for a set of decision problems S if P is a member of S and every problem in S can be reduced to P. Complete decision problems are used in computational complexity theory to characterize complexity classes of decision problems. For example, the Boolean satisfiability problem is complete for the class NP of decision problems under polynomial-time reducibility.
Function problems
Decision problems are closely related to function problems, which can have answers that are more complex than a simple 'yes' or 'no'. A corresponding function problem is "given two numbers x and y, what is x divided by y?".
A function problem consists of a partial function f; the informal "problem" is to compute the values of f on the inputs for which it is defined.
Every function problem can be turned into a decision problem; the decision problem is just the graph of the associated function. (The graph of a function f is the set of pairs (x,y) such that f(x) y.) If this decision problem were effectively solvable then the function problem would be as well. This reduction does not respect computational complexity, however. For example, it is possible for the graph of a function to be decidable in polynomial time (in which case running time is computed as a function of the pair (x,y)) when the function is not computable in polynomial time (in which case running time is computed as a function of x alone). The function f(x) 2x has this property.
Every decision problem can be converted into the function problem of computing the characteristic function of the set associated to the decision problem. If this function is computable then the associated decision problem is decidable. However, this reduction is more liberal than the standard reduction used in computational complexity (sometimes called polynomial-time many-one reduction); for example, the complexity of the characteristic functions of an NP-complete problem and its co-NP-complete complement is exactly the same even though the underlying decision problems may not be considered equivalent in some typical models of computation.
Optimization problems
Unlike decision problems, for which there is only one correct answer for each input, optimization problems are concerned with finding the best answer to a particular input. Optimization problems arise naturally in many applications, such as the traveling salesman problem and many questions in linear programming.
Function and optimization problems are often transformed into decision problems by considering the question of whether the output is equal to or less than or equal to a given value. This allows the complexity of the corresponding decision problem to be studied; and in many cases the original function or optimization problem can be solved by solving its corresponding decision problem. For example, in the traveling salesman problem, the optimization problem is to produce a tour with minimal weight. The associated decision problem is: for each N, to decide whether the graph has any tour with weight less than N. By repeatedly answering the decision problem, it is possible to find the minimal weight of a tour.
Because the theory of decision problems is very well developed, research in complexity theory has typically focused on decision problems. Optimization problems themselves are still of interest in computability theory, as well as in fields such as operations research.
See also
ALL (complexity)
Computational problem
Decidability (logic) – for the problem of deciding whether a formula is a consequence of a logical theory.
Search problem
Counting problem (complexity)
Word problem (mathematics)
References
Category:Computational problems
Category:Computability theory
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_problem
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Domain Name System
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| based on | influenced
| osilayer = Application layer
| ports = 53
| rfcs = RFC 1034, RFC 1035
| hardware =
}}
The Domain Name System (DNS) is a hierarchical and distributed name service that provides a naming system for computers, services, and other resources on the Internet or other Internet Protocol (IP) networks. It associates various information with domain names (identification strings) assigned to each of the associated entities. Most prominently, it translates readily memorized domain names to the numerical IP addresses needed for locating and identifying computer services and devices with the underlying network protocols. The Domain Name System has been an essential component of the functionality of the Internet since 1985.
The Domain Name System delegates the responsibility of assigning domain names and mapping those names to Internet resources by designating authoritative name servers for each domain. Network administrators may delegate authority over subdomains of their allocated name space to other name servers. This mechanism provides distributed and fault-tolerant service and was designed to avoid a single large central database. In addition, the DNS specifies the technical functionality of the database service that is at its core. It defines the DNS protocol, a detailed specification of the data structures and data communication exchanges used in the DNS, as part of the Internet protocol suite.
The Internet maintains two principal namespaces, the domain name hierarchy and the IP address spaces. The Domain Name System maintains the domain name hierarchy and provides translation services between it and the address spaces. Internet name servers and a communication protocol implement the Domain Name System. A DNS name server is a server that stores the DNS records for a domain; a DNS name server responds with answers to queries against its database.
The most common types of records stored in the DNS database are for start of authority (SOA), IP addresses (A and AAAA), SMTP mail exchangers (MX), name servers (NS), pointers for reverse DNS lookups (PTR), and domain name aliases (CNAME). Although not intended to be a general-purpose database, DNS has been expanded over time to store records for other types of data for either automatic lookups, such as DNSSEC records, or for human queries such as responsible person (RP) records. As a general-purpose database, the DNS has also been used in combating unsolicited email (spam) by storing blocklist. The DNS database is conventionally stored in a structured text file, the zone file, but other database systems are common.
The Domain Name System originally used the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) as transport over IP. Reliability, security, and privacy concerns spawned the use of the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) as well as numerous other protocol developments.
Function
An often-used analogy to explain the DNS is that it serves as the phone book for the Internet by translating human-friendly computer hostnames into IP addresses. For example, the hostname <code>www.example.com</code> within the domain name example.com translates to the addresses (IPv4) and (IPv6). The DNS can be quickly and transparently updated, allowing a service's location on the network to change without affecting the end users, who continue to use the same hostname. Users take advantage of this when they use meaningful Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) and e-mail addresses without having to know how the computer actually locates the services.
An important and ubiquitous function of the DNS is its central role in distributed Internet services such as cloud services and content delivery networks. When a user accesses a distributed Internet service using a URL, the domain name of the URL is translated to the IP address of a server that is proximal to the user. The key functionality of the DNS exploited here is that different users can simultaneously receive different translations for the same domain name, a key point of divergence from a traditional phone-book view of the DNS. This process of using the DNS to assign proximal servers to users is key to providing faster and more reliable responses on the Internet and is widely used by most major Internet services.
The DNS reflects the structure of administrative responsibility on the Internet.
History
Using a simpler, more memorable name in place of a host's numerical address dates back to the ARPANET era. The Stanford Research Institute (now SRI International) maintained a text file named HOSTS.TXT that mapped host names to the numerical addresses of computers on the ARPANET. Elizabeth Feinler developed and maintained the first ARPANET directory. Maintenance of numerical addresses, called the Assigned Numbers List, was handled by Jon Postel at the University of Southern California's Information Sciences Institute (ISI), whose team worked closely with SRI.
Addresses were assigned manually. Computers, including their hostnames and addresses, were added to the primary file by contacting the SRI Network Information Center (NIC), directed by Feinler, via telephone during business hours. Later, Feinler set up a WHOIS directory on a server in the NIC for retrieval of information about resources, contacts, and entities. She and her team developed the concept of domains. Feinler suggested that domains should be based on the location of the physical address of the computer. Computers at educational institutions would have the domain edu, for example. She and her team managed the Host Naming Registry from 1972 to 1989.
By the early 1980s, maintaining a single, centralized host table had become slow and unwieldy and the emerging network required an automated naming system to address technical and personnel issues. Postel directed the task of forging a compromise between five competing proposals of solutions to Paul Mockapetris. Mockapetris instead created the Domain Name System in 1983 while at the University of Southern California.
The Internet Engineering Task Force published the original specifications in RFC 882 and RFC 883 in November 1983. These were updated in RFC 973 in January 1986.
In 1984, four UC Berkeley students, Douglas Terry, Mark Painter, David Riggle, and Songnian Zhou, wrote the first Unix name server implementation for the Berkeley Internet Name Domain, commonly referred to as BIND. In 1985, Kevin Dunlap of DEC substantially revised the DNS implementation. Mike Karels, Phil Almquist, and Paul Vixie then took over BIND maintenance. Internet Systems Consortium was founded in 1994 by Rick Adams, Paul Vixie, and Carl Malamud, expressly to provide a home for BIND development and maintenance. BIND versions from 4.9.3 onward were developed and maintained by ISC, with support provided by ISC's sponsors. As co-architects/programmers, Bob Halley and Paul Vixie released the first production-ready version of BIND version 8 in May 1997. Since 2000, over 43 different core developers have worked on BIND.
In November 1987, RFC 1034 and RFC 1035 superseded the 1983 DNS specifications. Several additional Request for Comments have proposed extensions to the core DNS protocols.
Structure
Domain name space
The domain name space consists of a tree data structure. Each node or leaf in the tree has a label and zero or more resource records (RR), which hold information associated with the domain name. The domain name itself consists of the label, concatenated with the name of its parent node on the right, separated by a dot.
The tree sub-divides into zones beginning at the root zone. A DNS zone may consist of as many domains and subdomains as the zone manager chooses. DNS can also be partitioned according to class where the separate classes can be thought of as an array of parallel namespace trees.
Administrative responsibility for any zone may be divided by creating additional zones. Authority over the new zone is said to be delegated to a designated name server. The parent zone ceases to be authoritative for the new zone.Domain name syntax, internationalization
The definitive descriptions of the rules for forming domain names appear in RFC 1035, RFC 1123, RFC 2181, and RFC 5892. A domain name consists of one or more parts, technically called labels, that are conventionally concatenated, and delimited by dots, such as example.com.
The right-most label conveys the top-level domain; for example, the domain name www.example.com belongs to the top-level domain com.
The hierarchy of domains descends from right to left; each label to the left specifies a subdivision, or subdomain of the domain to the right. For example, the label example specifies a subdomain of the com domain, and www is a subdomain of example.com. This tree of subdivisions may have up to 127 levels.
A label may contain zero to 63 characters, because the length is only allowed to take 6 bits. The null label of length zero is reserved for the root zone. The full domain name may not exceed the length of 253 characters in its textual representation (or 254 with the trailing dot). but the current practice is to use the latter form. A primary server is a server that stores the original copies of all zone records. A secondary server uses a special automatic updating mechanism in the DNS protocol in communication with its primary to maintain an identical copy of the primary records.
Every DNS zone must be assigned a set of authoritative name servers. This set of servers is stored in the parent domain zone with name server (NS) records.
An authoritative server indicates its status of supplying definitive answers, deemed authoritative, by setting a protocol flag, called the "Authoritative Answer" (AA) bit in its responses.
Operation
Address resolution mechanism
Domain name resolvers determine the domain name servers responsible for the domain name in question by a sequence of queries starting with the right-most (top-level) domain label.
"www.wikipedia.org".]]
For proper operation of its domain name resolver, a network host is configured with an initial cache (hints) of the known addresses of the root name servers. The hints are updated periodically by an administrator by retrieving a dataset from a reliable source.
Assuming the resolver has no cached records to accelerate the process, the resolution process starts with a query to one of the root servers. In typical operation, the root servers do not answer directly, but respond with a referral to more authoritative servers, e.g., a query for "www.wikipedia.org" is referred to the org servers. The resolver now queries the servers referred to, and iteratively repeats this process until it receives an authoritative answer. The diagram illustrates this process for the host that is named by the fully qualified domain name "www.wikipedia.org".
This mechanism would place a large traffic burden on the root servers, if every resolution on the Internet required starting at the root. In practice caching is used in DNS servers to off-load the root servers, and as a result, root name servers actually are involved in only a relatively small fraction of all requests.
Recursive and caching name server
In theory, authoritative name servers are sufficient for the operation of the Internet. However, with only authoritative name servers operating, every DNS query must start with recursive queries at the root zone of the Domain Name System and each user system would have to implement resolver software capable of recursive operation.
To improve efficiency, reduce DNS traffic across the Internet, and increase performance in end-user applications, the Domain Name System supports DNS cache servers which store DNS query results for a period of time determined in the configuration (time-to-live) of the domain name record in question.
Typically, such caching DNS servers also implement the recursive algorithm necessary to resolve a given name starting with the DNS root through to the authoritative name servers of the queried domain. With this function implemented in the name server, user applications gain efficiency in design and operation.
The combination of DNS caching and recursive functions in a name server is not mandatory; the functions can be implemented independently in servers for special purposes.
Internet service providers typically provide recursive and caching name servers for their customers. In addition, many home networking routers implement DNS caches and recursion to improve efficiency in the local network.
DNS resolvers
The client side of the DNS is called a DNS resolver. A resolver is responsible for initiating and sequencing the queries that ultimately lead to a full resolution (translation) of the resource sought, e.g., translation of a domain name into an IP address. DNS resolvers are classified by a variety of query methods, such as recursive, non-recursive, and iterative. A resolution process may use a combination of these methods.
As a result of this distributed caching architecture, changes to DNS records do not propagate throughout the network immediately, but require all caches to expire and to be refreshed after the TTL. RFC 1912 conveys basic rules for determining appropriate TTL values.
Some resolvers may override TTL values, as the protocol supports caching for up to sixty-eight years or no caching at all. Negative caching, i.e. the caching of the fact of non-existence of a record, is determined by name servers authoritative for a zone which must include the Start of Authority (SOA) record when reporting no data of the requested type exists. The value of the minimum field of the SOA record and the TTL of the SOA itself is used to establish the TTL for the negative answer.
Reverse lookup
A reverse DNS lookup is a query of the DNS for domain names when the IP address is known. Multiple domain names may be associated with an IP address. The DNS stores IP addresses in the form of domain names as specially formatted names in pointer (PTR) records within the infrastructure top-level domain arpa. For IPv4, the domain is in-addr.arpa. For IPv6, the reverse lookup domain is ip6.arpa. The IP address is represented as a name in reverse-ordered octet representation for IPv4, and reverse-ordered nibble representation for IPv6.
When performing a reverse lookup, the DNS client converts the address into these formats before querying the name for a PTR record following the delegation chain as for any DNS query. For example, assuming the IPv4 address 208.80.152.2 is assigned to Wikimedia, it is represented as a DNS name in reverse order: 2.152.80.208.in-addr.arpa. When the DNS resolver gets a pointer (PTR) request, it begins by querying the root servers, which point to the servers of American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN) for the 208.in-addr.arpa zone. ARIN's servers delegate 152.80.208.in-addr.arpa to Wikimedia to which the resolver sends another query for 2.152.80.208.in-addr.arpa, which results in an authoritative response.
Client lookup
Users generally do not communicate directly with a DNS resolver. Instead DNS resolution takes place transparently in applications such as web browsers, e-mail clients, and other Internet applications. When an application makes a request that requires a domain name lookup, such programs send a resolution request to the DNS resolver in the local operating system, which in turn handles the communications required.
The DNS resolver will almost invariably have a cache (see above) containing recent lookups. If the cache can provide the answer to the request, the resolver will return the value in the cache to the program that made the request. If the cache does not contain the answer, the resolver will send the request to one or more designated DNS servers. In the case of most home users, the Internet service provider to which the machine connects will usually supply this DNS server: such a user will either have configured that server's address manually or allowed DHCP to set it; however, where systems administrators have configured systems to use their own DNS servers, their DNS resolvers point to separately maintained name servers of the organization. In any event, the name server thus queried will follow the process outlined above, until it either successfully finds a result or does not. It then returns its results to the DNS resolver; assuming it has found a result, the resolver duly caches that result for future use, and hands the result back to the software which initiated the request.
Broken resolvers
Some large ISPs have configured their DNS servers to violate rules, such as by disobeying TTLs, or by indicating that a domain name does not exist just because one of its name servers does not respond.
Some applications such as web browsers maintain an internal DNS cache to avoid repeated lookups via the network. This practice can add extra difficulty when debugging DNS issues as it obscures the history of such data. These caches typically use very short caching times on the order of one minute.
Internet Explorer represents a notable exception: versions up to IE 3.x cache DNS records for 24 hours by default. Internet Explorer 4.x and later versions (up to IE 8) decrease the default timeout value to half an hour, which may be changed by modifying the default configuration.
When Google Chrome detects issues with the DNS server it displays a specific error message.
Other applications
The Domain Name System includes several other functions and features.
Hostnames and IP addresses are not required to match in a one-to-one relationship. Multiple hostnames may correspond to a single IP address, which is useful in virtual hosting, in which many web sites are served from a single host. Alternatively, a single hostname may resolve to many IP addresses to facilitate fault tolerance and load distribution to multiple server instances across an enterprise or the global Internet.
DNS serves other purposes in addition to translating names to IP addresses. For instance, mail transfer agents use DNS to find the best mail server to deliver e-mail: An MX record provides a mapping between a domain and a mail exchanger; this can provide an additional layer of fault tolerance and load distribution.
The DNS is used for efficient storage and distribution of IP addresses of block-listed email hosts. A common method is to place the IP address of the subject host into the sub-domain of a higher level domain name, and to resolve that name to a record that indicates a positive or a negative indication.
For example:
* The address is block-listed. It points to , which resolves to .
* The address is not block-listed and points to . This hostname is either not configured, or resolves to .
E-mail servers can query blocklist.example to find out if a specific host connecting to them is in the block list. Many such block lists, either subscription-based or free of cost, are available for use by email administrators and anti-spam software.
To provide resilience in the event of computer or network failure, multiple DNS servers are usually provided for coverage of each domain. At the top level of global DNS, thirteen groups of root name servers exist, with additional "copies" of them distributed worldwide via anycast addressing.
Dynamic DNS (DDNS) updates a DNS server with a client IP address on-the-fly, for example, when moving between ISPs or mobile hot spots, or when the IP address changes administratively.
DNS message format
The DNS protocol uses two types of DNS messages, queries and responses; both have the same format. Each message consists of a header and four sections: question, answer, authority, and an additional space. A header field (flags) controls the content of these four sections.
The header section consists of the following fields: Identification, Flags, Number of questions, Number of answers, Number of authority resource records (RRs), and Number of additional RRs. Each field is 16 bits long, and appears in the order given. The identification field is used to match responses with queries.
After the flags word, the header ends with four 16-bit integers which contain the number of records in each of the sections that follow, in the same order.
;
;
:;
:;
:;
:;
:;
:;
:;
:;
:;
:;
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;Question section
The question section has a simpler format than the resource record format used in the other sections. Each question record (there is usually just one in the section) contains the following fields:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Resource record (RR) fields
|-
! Field !! Description !! Length (octets)
|-
| NAME || Name of the requested resource || Variable
|-
| TYPE || Type of RR (A, AAAA, MX, TXT, etc.) || 2
|-
| CLASS || Class code || 2
|}
The domain name is broken into discrete labels which are concatenated; each label is prefixed by the length of that label.
Resource records
The Domain Name System specifies a database of information elements for network resources. The types of information elements are categorized and organized with a list of DNS record types, the resource records (RRs). Each record has a type (name and number), an expiration time (time to live), a class, and type-specific data. Resource records of the same type are described as a resource record set (RRset), having no special ordering. DNS resolvers return the entire set upon query, but servers may implement round-robin ordering to achieve load balancing. In contrast, the Domain Name System Security Extensions (DNSSEC) work on the complete set of resource record in canonical order.
When sent over an Internet Protocol network, all records (answer, authority, and additional sections) use the common format specified in RFC 1035:
{| class"wikitable" style"margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Resource record (RR) fields
|-
! Field !! Description !! Length (octets)
|-
| NAME || Name of the node to which this record pertains || Variable
|-
| TYPE || Type of RR in numeric form (e.g., 15 for MX RRs) || 2
|-
| CLASS || Class code || 2
|-
| TTL || Count of seconds that the RR stays valid (The maximum is 2<sup>31</sup>−1, which is about 68 years) || 4
|-
| RDLENGTH || Length of RDATA field (specified in octets) || 2
|-
| RDATA || Additional RR-specific data || Variable, as per RDLENGTH
|}
NAME is the fully qualified domain name of the node in the tree. On the wire, the name may be shortened using label compression where ends of domain names mentioned earlier in the packet can be substituted for the end of the current domain name.
TYPE is the record type. It indicates the format of the data and it gives a hint of its intended use. For example, the A record is used to translate from a domain name to an IPv4 address, the NS record lists which name servers can answer lookups on a DNS zone, and the MX record specifies the mail server used to handle mail for a domain specified in an e-mail address.
RDATA is data of type-specific relevance, such as the IP address for address records, or the priority and hostname for MX records. Well known record types may use label compression in the RDATA field, but "unknown" record types must not (RFC 3597).
The CLASS of a record is set to IN (for Internet) for common DNS records involving Internet hostnames, servers, or IP addresses. In addition, the classes Chaos (CH) and Hesiod (HS) exist. Each class is an independent name space with potentially different delegations of DNS zones.
In addition to resource records defined in a zone file, the domain name system also defines several request types that are used only in communication with other DNS nodes (on the wire), such as when performing zone transfers (AXFR/IXFR) or for EDNS (OPT).
Wildcard records
The domain name system supports wildcard DNS records which specify names that start with the asterisk label, <code>*</code>, e.g., <code>*.example</code>. DNS records belonging to wildcard domain names specify rules for generating resource records within a single DNS zone by substituting whole labels with matching components of the query name, including any specified descendants. For example, in the following configuration, the DNS zone x.example specifies that all subdomains, including subdomains of subdomains, of x.example use the mail exchanger (MX) a.x.example. The AAAA record for a.x.example is needed to specify the mail exchanger IP address. As this has the result of excluding this domain name and its subdomains from the wildcard matches, an additional MX record for the subdomain a.x.example, as well as a wildcarded MX record for all of its subdomains, must also be defined in the DNS zone.
<syntaxhighlight lang="zone">
x.example. MX 10 a.x.example.
*.x.example. MX 10 a.x.example.
a.x.example. MX 10 a.x.example.
*.a.x.example. MX 10 a.x.example.
a.x.example. AAAA 2001:db8::1
</syntaxhighlight>
The role of wildcard records was refined in , because the original definition in was incomplete and resulted in misinterpretations by implementers. Use of DNS over UDP is limited by, among other things, its lack of transport-layer encryption, authentication, reliable delivery, and message length. In 1989, RFC 1123 specified optional Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) transport for DNS queries, replies and, particularly, zone transfers. Via fragmentation of long replies, TCP allows longer responses, reliable delivery, and re-use of long-lived connections between clients and servers. For larger responses, the server refers the client to TCP transport.
DNS over TLS (DoT)
DNS over TLS emerged as an IETF standard for encrypted DNS in 2016, utilizing Transport Layer Security (TLS) to protect the entire connection, rather than just the DNS payload. DoT servers listen on TCP port 853. specifies that opportunistic encryption and authenticated encryption may be supported, but did not make either server or client authentication mandatory.
DNS over HTTPS (DoH)
DNS over HTTPS was developed as a competing standard for DNS query transport in 2018, tunneling DNS query data over HTTPS, which transports HTTP over TLS. DoH was promoted as a more web-friendly alternative to DNS since, like DNSCrypt, it uses TCP port 443, and thus looks similar to web traffic, though they are easily differentiable in practice without proper padding.DNS over QUIC (DoQ)RFC 9250, published in 2022 by the Internet Engineering Task Force, describes DNS over QUIC. It has "privacy properties similar to DNS over TLS (DoT) [...], and latency characteristics similar to classic DNS over UDP". This method is not the same as DNS over HTTP/3.Oblivious DoH (ODoH) and predecessor Oblivious DNS (ODNS)Oblivious DNS (ODNS) was invented and implemented by researchers at Princeton University and the University of Chicago as an extension to unencrypted DNS, before DoH was standardized and widely deployed. Apple and Cloudflare subsequently deployed the technology in the context of DoH, as Oblivious DoH (ODoH). ODoH combines ingress/egress separation (invented in ODNS) with DoH's HTTPS tunneling and TLS transport-layer encryption in a single protocol.
DNS over Tor
DNS may be run over virtual private networks (VPNs) and tunneling protocols. The privacy gains of Oblivious DNS can be garnered through the use of the preexisting Tor network of ingress and egress nodes, paired with the transport-layer encryption provided by TLS.
DNSCrypt
The DNSCrypt protocol, which was developed in 2011 outside the IETF standards framework, introduced DNS encryption on the downstream side of recursive resolvers, wherein clients encrypt query payloads using servers' public keys, which are published in the DNS (rather than relying upon third-party certificate authorities) and which may in turn be protected by DNSSEC signatures. DNSCrypt uses either TCP port 443, the same port as HTTPS encrypted web traffic, or UDP port 443. This introduced not only privacy regarding the content of the query, but also a significant measure of firewall-traversal capability. In 2019, DNSCrypt was further extended to support an "anonymized" mode, similar to the proposed "Oblivious DNS", in which an ingress node receives a query which has been encrypted with the public key of a different server, and relays it to that server, which acts as an egress node, performing the recursive resolution. Privacy of user/query pairs is created, since the ingress node does not know the content of the query, while the egress nodes does not know the identity of the client. DNSCrypt was first implemented in production by OpenDNS in December 2011. There are several free and open source software implementations that additionally integrate ODoH. It is available for a variety of operating systems, including Unix, Apple iOS, Linux, Android, and Windows.Security issues
Originally, security concerns were not major design considerations for DNS software or any software for deployment on the early Internet, as the network was not open for participation by the general public. However, the expansion of the Internet into the commercial sector in the 1990s changed the requirements for security measures to protect data integrity and user authentication.
Several vulnerability issues were discovered and exploited by malicious users. One such issue is DNS cache poisoning, in which data is distributed to caching resolvers under the pretense of being an authoritative origin server, thereby polluting the data store with potentially false information and long expiration times (time-to-live). Subsequently, legitimate application requests may be redirected to network hosts operated with malicious intent.
DNS responses traditionally do not have a cryptographic signature, leading to many attack possibilities; the Domain Name System Security Extensions (DNSSEC) modify DNS to add support for cryptographically signed responses. DNSCurve has been proposed as an alternative to DNSSEC. Other extensions, such as TSIG, add support for cryptographic authentication between trusted peers and are commonly used to authorize zone transfer or dynamic update operations.
Techniques such as forward-confirmed reverse DNS can also be used to help validate DNS results.
DNS can also "leak" from otherwise secure or private connections, if attention is not paid to their configuration, and at times DNS has been used to bypass firewalls by malicious persons, and exfiltrate data, since it is often seen as innocuous.
DNS spoofing
Some domain names may be used to achieve spoofing effects. For example, }} and }} are different names, yet users may be unable to distinguish them in a graphical user interface depending on the user's chosen typeface. In many fonts the letter l and the numeral 1 look very similar or even identical. This problem, known as the IDN homograph attack, is acute in systems that support internationalized domain names, as many character codes in ISO 10646 may appear identical on typical computer screens. This vulnerability is occasionally exploited in phishing. DNSMessenger DNSMessenger is a type of cyber attack technique that uses the DNS to communicate and control malware remotely without relying on conventional protocols that might raise red flags. The DNSMessenger attack is covert because DNS is primarily used for domain name resolution and is often not closely monitored by network security tools, making it an effective channel for attackers to exploit.
This technique involves the use of DNS TXT records to send commands to infected systems. Once malware has been surreptitiously installed on a victim's machine, it reaches out to a controlled domain to retrieve commands encoded in DNS text records. This form of malware communication is stealthy, as DNS requests are usually allowed through firewalls, and because DNS traffic is often seen as benign, these communications can bypass many network security defenses.
DNSMessenger attacks can enable a wide array of malicious activities, from data exfiltration to the delivery of additional payloads, all while remaining under the radar of traditional network security measures. Understanding and defending against such methods are crucial for maintaining robust cybersecurity.
Privacy and tracking issues
Originally designed as a public, hierarchical, distributed and heavily cached database, DNS protocol has no confidentiality controls. User queries and nameserver responses are being sent unencrypted which enables network packet sniffing, DNS hijacking, DNS cache poisoning and man-in-the-middle attacks. This deficiency is commonly used by cybercriminals and network operators for marketing purposes, user authentication on captive portals and censorship.
User privacy is further exposed by proposals for increasing the level of client IP information in DNS queries (RFC 7871) for the benefit of content delivery networks.
The main approaches that are in use to counter privacy issues with DNS:
*VPNs, which move DNS resolution to the VPN operator and hide user traffic from local ISP,
*Tor, which replaces traditional DNS resolution with anonymous .onion domains, hiding both name resolution and user traffic behind onion routing counter-surveillance,
*Proxies and public DNS servers, which move the actual DNS resolution to a third-party provider, who usually promises little or no request logging and optional added features, such as DNS-level advertisement or pornography blocking.
**Public DNS servers can be queried using traditional DNS protocol, in which case they provide no protection from local surveillance, or DNS over HTTPS, DNS over TLS and DNSCrypt, which do provide such protection
Solutions preventing DNS inspection by local network operator are criticized for thwarting corporate network security policies and Internet censorship. They are also criticized from a privacy point of view, as giving away the DNS resolution to the hands of a small number of companies known for monetizing user traffic and for centralizing DNS name resolution, which is generally perceived as harmful for the Internet.
ICANN publishes the complete list of TLDs, TLD registries, and domain name registrars. Registrant information associated with domain names is maintained in an online database accessible with the WHOIS service. For most of the more than 290 country code top-level domains (ccTLDs), the domain registries maintain the WHOIS (Registrant, name servers, expiration dates, etc.) information. For instance, DENIC, Germany NIC, holds the DE domain data. From about 2001, most Generic top-level domain (gTLD) registries have adopted this so-called thick registry approach, i.e. keeping the WHOIS data in central registries instead of registrar databases.
For top-level domains on COM and NET, a thin registry model is used. The domain registry (e.g., GoDaddy, BigRock and PDR, VeriSign, etc., etc.) holds basic WHOIS data (i.e., registrar and name servers, etc.). Organizations, or registrants using ORG on the other hand, are on the Public Interest Registry exclusively.
Some domain name registries, often called network information centers (NIC), also function as registrars to end-users, in addition to providing access to the WHOIS datasets. The top-level domain registries, such as for the domains COM, NET, and ORG use a registry-registrar model consisting of many domain name registrars. In this method of management, the registry only manages the domain name database and the relationship with the registrars. The registrants (users of a domain name) are customers of the registrar, in some cases through additional subcontracting of resellers.
See also
<!-- New links in alphabetical order please -->
* Alternative DNS root
* Comparison of DNS server software
* Decentralized object location and routing
* Domain hijacking
* DNS hijacking
* DNS Long-Lived Queries
* DNS management software
* DNS over HTTPS
* DNS over TLS
* Hierarchical namespace
* IPv6 brokenness and DNS whitelisting
* Multicast DNS
* Public recursive name server
* resolv.conf
* Split-horizon DNS
* List of DNS record types
* List of managed DNS providers
* Zone file
* DNS leak
References
Sources
* Further readingStandards track
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* [http://www.zytrax.com/books/dns/ Zytrax.com], Open Source Guide – DNS for Rocket Scientists.
* [https://messwithdns.net/ Mess with DNS] – site where you can do experiments with DNS.
Category:Internet properties established in 1983
Category:Application layer protocols
Category:Internet Standards
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System
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David Letterman
|
|birth_place = Indianapolis, Indiana, U.S.
|medium =
|alma_mater = Ball State University (BA)
|active = 1970–present
|genre =
| subject =
|spouse |}}
|children = 1
|notable_work
|signature = David Letterman Autograph.svg
}}
David Michael Letterman (born April 12, 1947) is an American television host, comedian, writer, producer, and auto racing team owner. He hosted late-night television talk shows for 33 years, beginning with the February 1, 1982, debut of Late Night with David Letterman on NBC and ending with the May 20, 2015, broadcast of Late Show with David Letterman on CBS. In total, Letterman hosted 6,080 episodes of Late Night and Late Show, surpassing his friend and mentor Johnny Carson as the longest-serving late-night talk show host in American television history.
He is also a television and film producer. His company, Worldwide Pants, produced his shows as well as The Late Late Show and several primetime comedies, the most successful of which was the CBS sitcom Everybody Loves Raymond. Several late-night hosts have cited Letterman's influence, including Conan O'Brien, Jimmy Fallon, Seth Meyers (each of whom succeeded Letterman on Late Night), Stephen Colbert (his successor on The Late Show), Jimmy Kimmel, and Jon Stewart. Since 2018, he has hosted the Netflix series My Next Guest Needs No Introduction with David Letterman.
Early life and career
Letterman was born in Indianapolis, Indiana, on April 12, 1947, and he has two sisters, one older and one younger. His father, Harry Joseph Letterman (April 15, 1915 – February 13, 1973), was a florist. His mother, Dorothy Marie Letterman Mengering (née Hofert; July 18, 1921 – April 11, 2017), a church secretary for the Second Presbyterian Church of Indianapolis, was an occasional figure on Letterman's show, usually at holidays and birthdays.
Letterman grew up on the north side of Indianapolis, in the Broad Ripple area, about from the Indianapolis Motor Speedway. He enjoyed collecting model cars, including racers. In 2000, he told an interviewer for Esquire that, while growing up, he admired his father's ability to tell jokes and be the life of the party. Harry Joseph Letterman survived a heart attack at the age of 36 when David was a young boy. The fear of losing his father was constantly with Letterman as he grew up. The elder Letterman died of a second heart attack in 1973 at the age of 57.
Letterman attended his hometown's Broad Ripple High School and worked as a stock boy at the local Atlas Supermarket. According to the Ball State Daily News, he originally wanted to attend Indiana University, but his grades were not good enough, so he instead attended Ball State University in Muncie, Indiana. He is a member of the Sigma Chi fraternity, and graduated in 1969 from what was then the Department of Radio and Television. A self-described average student, Letterman later endowed a scholarship for what he called "C students" at Ball State. Though he registered for the draft and passed his physical after graduating from college, he was not drafted for service in Vietnam because he received a draft lottery number of 346 (out of 366).
Letterman began his broadcasting career as an announcer and newscaster at the college's student-run radio station—WBST—a 10-watt campus station that is now part of Indiana Public Radio. He was fired for treating classical music with irreverence.
He credits Paul Dixon, host of the Paul Dixon Show, a Cincinnati-based talk show also shown in Indianapolis while he was growing up, for inspiring his choice of career:
<blockquote>I was just out of college [in 1969], and I really didn't know what I wanted to do. And then all of a sudden I saw him doing it [on TV]. And I thought: That's really what I want to do!</blockquote>
Weatherman
Soon after graduating from Ball State in 1969, Letterman began his career as a radio talk show host on WNTS and on Indianapolis television station WLWI (which changed its call sign to WTHR in 1976) as an anchor and weatherman. He received some attention for his novel on-air delivery, which included congratulating a tropical storm for being upgraded to a hurricane, as well as for predicting hailstones "the size of canned hams".
Letterman also occasionally reported the weather and the day's very high and low temps for fictitious cities ("Eight inches of snow in Bingree and surrounding areas"). On another occasion, he riffed that the state border between Indiana and Ohio had been erased, when a satellite map accidentally omitted it, jokingly attributing it to dirty political dealings: "The higher-ups have removed the border between Indiana and Ohio, making it one giant state. Personally, I'm against it. I don't know what to do about it."
Letterman also starred in a local kiddie show, hosted a late-night TV show called "Freeze-Dried Movies" (a show in which he once acted out a scene from Godzilla (1954) using plastic dinosaurs), and hosted a talk show that aired early on Saturday mornings called Clover Power, in which he interviewed 4-H members about their projects.
In 1971, Letterman appeared as a pit road reporter for ABC Sports' tape-delayed coverage of the Indianapolis 500, which was his first nationally telecast appearance (WLWI was the local ABC affiliate at the time). He was initially introduced as Chris Economaki, but this was corrected at the end of the interview (Jim McKay announced his name as Dave Letterman). Letterman interviewed Mario Andretti, who had just crashed out of the race. Move to Los Angeles
in Los Angeles]]
In 1975, encouraged by his then-wife Michelle and several of his Sigma Chi fraternity brothers, Letterman moved to Los Angeles, California, with the hope of becoming a comedy writer. He and Michelle packed their belongings in his pickup truck and headed west. As of 2012, he still owned the truck. In Los Angeles, he began performing comedy at The Comedy Store. Jimmie Walker saw him on stage; with an endorsement from George Miller, Letterman joined a group of comedians whom Walker hired to write jokes for his stand-up act, a group that at various times also included Jay Leno, Paul Mooney, Robert Schimmel, Richard Jeni, Louie Anderson, Elayne Boosler, Byron Allen, Jack Handey, and Steve Oedekerk.
By the summer of 1977, Letterman was a writer and regular on the six-week summer series The Starland Vocal Band Show, broadcast on CBS. He hosted a 1977 pilot for a game show called The Riddlers (which was never picked up), and co-starred in the Barry Levinson-produced comedy special Peeping Times, which aired in January 1978. Later that year, Letterman was a cast member on Mary Tyler Moore's variety show, Mary. He made a guest appearance on Mork & Mindy (as a parody of EST leader Werner Erhard) and appearances on game shows such as The $20,000 Pyramid, The Gong Show, Hollywood Squares, Password Plus, and ''Liar's Club, as well as the Canadian cooking show Celebrity Cooks (November 1977), talk shows such as 90 Minutes Live'' (February 24 and April 14, 1978), and The Mike Douglas Show (April 3, 1979 and February 7, 1980). He was also screen tested for the lead role in the 1980 film Airplane!, a role that eventually went to Robert Hays.
Letterman's brand of dry, sarcastic humor caught the attention of scouts for The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, and he was soon a regular guest on the show. He became a favorite of Carson and was a regular guest host for the show beginning in 1978. Letterman credits Carson as the person who influenced his career the most. NBC Morning show
On June 23, 1980, Letterman was given his own morning comedy show on NBC, The David Letterman Show. It was originally 90 minutes long but was shortened to 60 minutes in August 1980. The show was a critical success, winning two Emmy Awards, but was a ratings disappointment and was canceled, the last show airing October 24, 1980. Late Night with David Letterman
in 1982]]
NBC kept Letterman on its payroll to try him in a different time slot. Late Night with David Letterman debuted February 1, 1982; the first guest was Bill Murray. Murray went on to become one of Letterman's most recurrent guests, guesting on his later CBS show's celebration of his 30th anniversary in late-night television, which aired January 31, 2012, and on the final CBS show, which aired May 20, 2015. The show ran Monday through Thursday nights at 12:30 a.m. Eastern Time, immediately following The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson (a Friday night broadcast was added in June 1987). It was seen as edgy and unpredictable, and soon developed a cult following (particularly among college students). Letterman's reputation as an acerbic interviewer was borne out in verbal sparring matches with Cher (who even called him an "asshole" on the show), Shirley MacLaine, Charles Grodin, and Madonna. The show also featured comedy segments and running characters, in a style heavily influenced by the 1950s and 1960s programs of Steve Allen.
The show often featured quirky, genre-mocking regular features, including "Stupid Pet Tricks" (which had its origins on Letterman's morning show), Stupid Human Tricks, dropping various objects off the roof of a five-story building, demonstrations of unorthodox clothing (such as suits made of Alka-Seltzer, Velcro and suet), a recurring Top 10 list, the Monkey-Cam (and the Audience Cam), a facetious letter-answering segment, several "Film[s] by My Dog Bob" in which a camera was mounted on Letterman's own dog (often with comic results) and Small Town News, all of which moved with Letterman to CBS.
Other episodes included Letterman using a bullhorn to interrupt a live interview on The Today Show on August 19, 1985, announcing that he was the NBC News president Lawrence K. Grossman and that he was not wearing any pants; walking across the hall to Studio 6B, at the time the news studio for WNBC-TV, and interrupting Al Roker's weather segments during Live at Five; and staging "elevator races", complete with commentary by NBC Sports' Bob Costas. In one appearance, in 1982, Andy Kaufman (who was wearing a neck brace) appeared with professional wrestler Jerry Lawler, who slapped and knocked the comedian to the ground (Lawler and Kaufman's friend Bob Zmuda later revealed that the incident was staged).
CBS
Late Show with David Letterman
, where Late Show with David Letterman was recorded]]
In 1992, Johnny Carson retired, and many fans, and Carson himself, believed that Letterman would become the new host of The Tonight Show. When NBC instead gave the job to Jay Leno, Letterman departed NBC to host his own late-night show on CBS, opposite The Tonight Show at 11:30 p.m., called the Late Show with David Letterman. The new show debuted on August 30, 1993, and was taped at the historic Ed Sullivan Theater, where Ed Sullivan broadcast his eponymous variety series from 1948 to 1971. For Letterman's arrival, CBS spent $8 million in renovations. CBS also signed Letterman to a three-year, $14 million/year contract, doubling his Late Night salary.
But while the expectation was that Letterman would retain his unique style and sense of humor with the move, Late Show was not an exact replica of his old NBC program. The monologue was lengthened. Paul Shaffer and the World's Most Dangerous Band followed Letterman to CBS, but they added a brass section and were rebranded the CBS Orchestra (at Shaffer's request); a small band had been mandated by Carson while Letterman occupied the 12:30 slot. Additionally, because of intellectual property disagreements, Letterman was unable to import many of his Late Night segments verbatim, but he sidestepped this problem by simply renaming them (the "Top Ten List" became the "Late Show Top Ten", "Viewer Mail" became the "CBS Mailbag", etc.). Time magazine wrote, "Letterman's innovation ... gained power from its rigorous formalism"; as his biographer Jason Zinoman puts it, he was "a fascinatingly disgruntled eccentric trapped inside a more traditional talk show".
Popularity
The Late Show<nowiki/>'s main competitor was NBC's The Tonight Show, which Jay Leno hosted for 22 years from 1992 to 2014<!--Letterman started after Leno-->, except from June 1, 2009, to January 22, 2010, when Conan O'Brien hosted. In 1993 and 1994, the Late Show consistently gained higher ratings than The Tonight Show. But in 1995, ratings dipped and Leno's show consistently beat Letterman's in the ratings from the time that Hugh Grant came on Leno's show after Grant's arrest for soliciting a prostitute.
Leno typically attracted about five million nightly viewers between 1999 and 2009. The Late Show lost nearly half its audience during its competition with Leno, attracting 7.1 million viewers nightly in its 1993–94 season and about 3.8 million per night as of Leno's departure in 2009. In the final months of his first stint as host of The Tonight Show, Leno beat Letterman in the ratings by a 1.3 million-viewer margin (5.2 million to 3.9 million), and Nightline and the Late Show were virtually tied. Once O'Brien took over Tonight, Letterman closed the gap in the ratings. O'Brien initially drove the median age of Tonight Show viewers from 55 to 45, with most older viewers opting to watch the Late Show instead. After Leno returned to The Tonight Show, Leno regained his lead.
Letterman's shows have garnered both critical and industry praise, receiving 67 Emmy Award nominations, winning 12 times in his first 20 years in late night television. From 1993 to 2009, Letterman ranked higher than Leno in the annual Harris Poll of ''Nation's Favorite TV Personality'' 12 times. Leno was higher than Letterman on that poll three times during the same period, in 1998, 2007, and 2008. Hosting the Academy Awards On March 27, 1995, Letterman hosted the 67th Academy Awards ceremony. Critics blasted what they deemed his poor performance, noting that his irreverent style undermined the traditional importance and glamor of the event. In a joke about their unusual names (inspired by a celebrated comic essay in The New Yorker, "Yma Dream" by Thomas Meehan), he started off by introducing Uma Thurman to Oprah Winfrey, and then both of them to Keanu Reeves: "Oprah...Uma. Uma...Oprah," "Have you kids met Keanu?" This and many of his other jokes fell flat.
Letterman recycled the apparent debacle into a long-running gag. On his first show after the Oscars, he joked, "Looking back, I had no idea that thing was being televised." He lampooned his stint two years later, during Billy Crystal's opening Oscar skit, which also parodied the plane-crashing scenes from that year's chief nominated film, The English Patient.
For years afterward, Letterman recounted his hosting the Oscars, although the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences continued to hold Letterman in high regard and invited him to host the Oscars again. On September 7, 2010, he made an appearance on the premiere of the 14th season of The View, and confirmed that he had been considered for hosting again.
Heart surgery hiatus
On January 14, 2000, a routine checkup revealed that an artery in Letterman's heart was severely obstructed. He was rushed to New York Presbyterian Hospital for emergency quintuple bypass surgery. During the first weeks of his recovery, reruns of the Late Show were shown and introduced by friends of Letterman, including Norm Macdonald, Drew Barrymore, including Drs. O. Wayne Isom and Louis Aronne, who frequently appeared on the show.
For a number of episodes, Letterman continued to crack jokes about his bypass, including saying: "Bypass surgery: it's when doctors surgically create new blood flow to your heart. A bypass is what happened to me when I didn't get The Tonight Show! It's a whole different thing." In a later running gag, he lobbied Indiana to rename the freeway circling Indianapolis (I-465) "The David Letterman Bypass". He also featured a montage of faux news coverage of his bypass surgery, including a clip of Letterman's heart for sale on the Home Shopping Network. Letterman became friends with his doctors and nurses. In 2008, Rolling Stone wrote: <blockquote>He hosted a doctor and nurse who'd helped perform the emergency quintuple-bypass heart surgery that saved his life in 2000. "These are people who were complete strangers when they opened my chest," he says. "And now, eight years later, they're among my best friends." introducing them as "my favorite band, playing my favorite song." During Letterman's last show, on which Foo Fighters appeared, Letterman said that Foo Fighters had been in the middle of a South American tour that they canceled to play on his comeback episode.
In February 2003, Letterman again handed the reins of the show to several guest hosts (including Bill Cosby, Brad Garrett, Whoopi Goldberg, Elvis Costello, John McEnroe, Vince Vaughn, Will Ferrell, Bonnie Hunt, Luke Wilson, and bandleader Paul Shaffer) when he was diagnosed with a severe case of shingles. Later that year, Letterman made regular use of guest hosts—including Tom Arnold and Kelsey Grammer—for shows broadcast on Fridays. In March 2007, Adam Sandler, who had been scheduled to be the lead guest, served as a guest host while Letterman was ill with a stomach virus.Second signing with CBS
in 2009]]
In March 2002, as Letterman's contract with CBS neared expiration, ABC offered him the time slot for long-running news program Nightline with Ted Koppel. Letterman was interested, as he believed he could never match Leno's ratings at CBS due to Letterman's complaint of weaker lead-ins from CBS's late local news programs, but was reluctant to replace Koppel. He addressed his decision to re-sign on the air, stating that he was content at CBS and that he had great respect for Koppel.
On December 4, 2006, CBS revealed that Letterman signed a new contract to host Late Show with David Letterman through the fall of 2010. "I'm thrilled to be continuing on at CBS," said Letterman. "At my age you really don't want to have to learn a new commute." Letterman further joked about the subject by pulling up his right pants leg, revealing a tattoo, presumably temporary, of the ABC logo.
"Thirteen years ago, David Letterman put CBS late night on the map and in the process became one of the defining icons of our network," said Leslie Moonves, president and CEO of CBS Corporation. "His presence on our air is an ongoing source of pride, and the creativity and imagination that the Late Show puts forth every night is an ongoing display of the highest quality entertainment. We are truly honored that one of the most revered and talented entertainers of our time will continue to call CBS 'home.'"
According to a 2007 article in Forbes magazine, Letterman earned $40 million a year. A 2009 article in The New York Times, however, said his salary was estimated at $32 million. Worldwide Pants agreed to lower its fee for the show, though it had remained a "solid moneymaker for CBS" under the previous contract. In April 2012, CBS announced it had extended its contract with Letterman through 2014. His contract was subsequently extended to 2015. Retirement from Late Show During the taping of his show on April 3, 2014, Letterman announced that he had informed CBS president Leslie Moonves that he would retire from hosting Late Show by May 20, 2015. Later in his retirement Letterman occasionally stated, in jest, that he had been fired. It was announced soon after that comedian and political satirist Stephen Colbert would succeed Letterman. Letterman's last episode aired on May 20, 2015, and opened with a presidential sendoff featuring four of the five living American presidents, George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton, George W. Bush, and Barack Obama, each mimicking the late president Gerald Ford's statement "Our long national nightmare is over." It also featured cameos from The Simpsons and Wheel of Fortune (the latter with a puzzle saying "Good riddance to David Letterman"), a Top Ten List of "things I wish I could have said to David Letterman" performed by regular guests including Alec Baldwin, Barbara Walters, Steve Martin, Jerry Seinfeld, Jim Carrey, Chris Rock, Julia Louis-Dreyfus, Peyton Manning, Tina Fey, and Bill Murray, and closed with a montage of scenes from both his CBS and NBC series set to a live performance of "Everlong" by Foo Fighters.
The final episode of Late Show with David Letterman was watched by 13.76 million viewers in the United States with an audience share of 9.3/24, earning the show its highest ratings since following the 1994 Winter Olympics on February 25, 1994, and the show's highest demo numbers (4.1 in adults 25–54 and 3.1 in adults 18–49) since Oprah Winfrey's first Late Show appearance following the ending of her feud with Letterman on December 1, 2005. Bill Murray, who had been his first guest on Late Night, was his final guest on Late Show. In a rarity for a late-night show, it was also the highest-rated program on network television that night, beating out all prime-time shows. In total, Letterman hosted 6,080 episodes of Late Night and Late Show, He made a surprise appearance on stage in San Antonio, Texas when he was invited up for an extended segment during Steve Martin's and Martin Short's A Very Stupid Conversation show, saying "I retired, and...I have no regrets," Letterman told the crowd after walking on stage. "I was happy. I'll make actual friends. I was complacent. I was satisfied. I was content, and then a couple of days ago Donald Trump said he was running for president. I have made the biggest mistake of my life, ladies and gentlemen" and then delivering a Top Ten List roasting Trump's presidential campaign followed by an onstage conversation with Martin and Short. Cellphone recordings of the appearance were posted on YouTube by audience members and widely reported in the media.
In 2016, Letterman joined the climate change documentary show Years of Living Dangerously as one of its celebrity correspondents. In season two's premiere episode, Letterman traveled to India to investigate the country's efforts to expand its inadequate energy grid, power its booming economy, and bring electricity to 300 million citizens for the first time. He also interviewed Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and traveled to rural villages where power is a scarce luxury and explored the United States' role in India's energy future.
On April 7, 2017, Letterman gave the induction speech for the band Pearl Jam into the Rock & Roll Hall Of Fame at a ceremony held at the Barclays Center in Brooklyn, New York City. Also in 2017, Letterman and Alec Baldwin co-hosted The Essentials on Turner Classic Movies. Letterman and Baldwin introduced seven films for the series.NetflixIn 2018, Letterman began hosting a six-episode monthly series of hour-long programs on Netflix consisting of long-form interviews and field segments. The show, My Next Guest Needs No Introduction with David Letterman, premiered January 12, 2018 with Barack Obama as its first guest. The second season premiered on May 31, 2019. Season 3 premiered on October 21, 2020, and includes Kim Kardashian West, Robert Downey Jr., Dave Chappelle and Lizzo as guests. Season 4 premiered on May 20, 2022, with Billie Eilish as the first guest. In October 2022, Letterman traveled to Kyiv, Ukraine, to film a special standalone episode of My Next Guest Needs No Introduction with David Letterman, interviewing Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelenskyy.
Notable exchanges and incidents
NBC and Johnny Carson
In spite of Johnny Carson's clear intention to pass his title to Letterman, NBC selected Jay Leno to host The Tonight Show after Carson's departure. Letterman maintained a close relationship with Carson through his break with NBC. Three years after he left for CBS, HBO produced a made-for-television movie called The Late Shift, based on a book by The New York Times reporter Bill Carter, chronicling the battle between Letterman and Leno for the Tonight Show hosting spot.
Carson later made a few cameo appearances as a guest on Letterman's show. Carson's final television appearance was on May 13, 1994, on a Late Show episode taped in Los Angeles, when he made a surprise appearance during a Top 10 list segment. In early 2005, it was revealed that Carson occasionally sent jokes to Letterman, who used them in his monologue; according to CBS senior vice president Peter Lassally (a onetime producer for both men), Carson got "a big kick out of it." Letterman would do a characteristic Carson golf swing after delivering one of his jokes. In a tribute to Carson, all the opening monologue jokes during the first show after Carson's death were by Carson.
Lassally also claimed that Carson had always believed Letterman, not Leno, to be his "rightful successor". During the early years of the Late Shows run, Letterman occasionally used some of Carson's trademark bits, including "Carnac the Magnificent" (with Paul Shaffer as Carnac), "Stump the Band", and the "Week in Review".
Oprah Winfrey
Oprah Winfrey appeared on Letterman's show when he was hosting NBC's Late Night on May 2, 1989. After that appearance, the two had a 16-year feud that arose, as Winfrey explained to Letterman after it had been resolved, as a result of the acerbic tone of their 1989 interview, of which she said that it "felt so uncomfortable to me that I didn't want to have that experience again". The feud apparently ended on December 2, 2005, when Winfrey appeared on CBS's Late Show with David Letterman in an event Letterman jokingly called "the Super Bowl of Love".
Winfrey and Letterman also appeared together in a Late Show promo aired during CBS's coverage of Super Bowl XLI in February 2007, with the two sitting next to each other on a couch watching the game. Since the game was played between the Indianapolis Colts and Chicago Bears, the Indianapolis-born Letterman wore a Peyton Manning jersey, while Winfrey, whose show was taped in Chicago, wore a Brian Urlacher jersey. On September 10, 2007, Letterman made his first appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show at Madison Square Garden in New York City.
Three years later, during CBS's coverage of Super Bowl XLIV between the Colts and the New Orleans Saints, the two appeared again in a Late Show promo, this time with Winfrey sitting on a couch between Letterman and Leno. Letterman wore the retired 70 jersey of Art Donovan, a member of the Colts' Hall of Fame and a regular Letterman guest. The appearance was Letterman's idea: Leno flew to New York City on an NBC corporate jet, sneaking into the Ed Sullivan Theater during the Late Shows February 4 taping wearing a disguise and meeting Winfrey and Letterman at a living room set created in the theater's balcony, where they taped their promo.
Winfrey interviewed Letterman in January 2013 on ''Oprah's Next Chapter''. They discussed their feud and Winfrey revealed that she had had a "terrible experience" while appearing on Letterman's show years earlier. Letterman could not recall the incident but apologized. 2007–2008 writers' strike Late Show went off air for eight weeks in 2007 during November and December because of the Writers Guild of America strike. Letterman's production company, Worldwide Pants, was the first company to make an individual agreement with the WGA, allowing his show to come back on the air on January 2, 2008. In his first episode back, he surprised the audience with a newly grown beard, which signified solidarity with the strike. His beard was shaved off during the show on January 7, 2008.
Palin joke
On June 8 and 9, 2009, Letterman told two sexually themed jokes about a daughter (never named) of Sarah Palin on his TV show. These included a statutory rape joke about Palin's then 14-year-old daughter, Willow, and MLB player Alex Rodriguez. Palin was in New York City at the time with Willow, and none of her other children were at the game. On his June 10 show, Letterman responded to the controversy, saying the jokes were meant to be about Palin's 18-year-old daughter, Bristol, whose pregnancy as an unmarried teenager had caused some controversy during the United States presidential election of 2008. "These are not jokes made about [Palin's] 14-year-old daughter ... I would never, never make jokes about raping or having sex of any description with a 14-year-old girl." Rodriguez demanded an apology for implying that he was a child molester. Letterman never specifically apologized to Rodriguez.
Al-Qaeda death threat
On August 17, 2011, it was reported that an Islamist militant had posted a death threat against Letterman on a website frequented by Al-Qaeda supporters, calling on American Muslims to kill him for making a joke about the death of Ilyas Kashmiri, an Al-Qaeda leader who was killed in a June 2011 drone strike in Pakistan. In his August 22 show, Letterman joked about the threat, saying "State Department authorities are looking into this. They're not taking this lightly. They're looking into it. They're questioning, they're interrogating, there's an electronic trail—but everybody knows it's Leno."
Appearances in other media
Letterman appeared in the pilot episode of the short-lived 1986 series Coach Toast, and appears with a bag over his head as a guest on Bonnie Hunt's 1990s sitcom The Building. He appeared in The Simpsons as himself in a couch gag when the Simpsons find themselves (and the couch) in Late Night with David Letterman. He had a cameo in the feature film Cabin Boy, with Chris Elliott, who worked as a writer for Letterman. In this and other appearances, Letterman is listed in the credits as "Earl Hofert", the name of Letterman's maternal grandfather. He also appeared as himself in the Howard Stern biographical film Private Parts and the 1999 Andy Kaufman biopic Man on the Moon, in a few episodes of Garry Shandling's 1990s TV series The Larry Sanders Show, and in "The Abstinence", a 1996 episode of the sitcom Seinfeld.
Letterman provided vocals for the Warren Zevon song "Hit Somebody" from ''My Ride's Here'', and provided the voice for Butt-head's father in the 1996 animated film Beavis and Butt-Head Do America, again credited as Earl Hofert.
Letterman was the focus of The Avengers on "Late Night with David Letterman", issue 239 (January 1984) of the Marvel comic book series The Avengers, in which the title characters (specifically Hawkeye, Wonder Man, Black Widow, Beast, and Black Panther) are guests on Late Night. A parody of Letterman named David Endochrine is gassed to death along with his bandleader, Paul, and their audience in Frank Miller's The Dark Knight Returns. In SWAT Kats: The Radical Squadron, Letterman was parodied as "David Litterbin". Letterman appears in issues 13–14 and 18 of Harvey Pekar's autobiographical comic book American Splendor. Those issues show Pekar's accounts of appearances on Late Night.
In 2010, a documentary directed by Joke Fincioen and Biagio Messina, Dying to do Letterman, was released, featuring Steve Mazan, a standup comic, who has cancer and wants to appear on Letterman's show. The film won best documentary and jury awards at the Cinequest Film Festival. Mazan published a book of the same name (full title Dying to Do Letterman: Turning Someday into Today) about his own saga.
Letterman appeared as a guest on CNN's Piers Morgan Tonight on May 29, 2012, when he was interviewed by Regis Philbin, the guest host and Letterman's longtime friend. Philbin again interviewed Letterman (and Shaffer) while guest-hosting CBS's The Late Late Show (between the tenures of Craig Ferguson and James Corden) on January 27, 2015. In June 2013, Letterman appeared in the second episode of season two of Comedians in Cars Getting Coffee. On November 5, 2013, he and Bruce McCall published a fiction satire book, This Land Was Made for You and Me (But Mostly Me), .
In Week 13 of the 2021 NFL season, Letterman joined Peyton and Eli Manning on their Manningcast feed of the Monday Night Football game between the New England Patriots and Buffalo Bills. Letterman mocked Bill Belichick after he was caught on camera wiping his nose with his shirt, and was in the middle of recalling being with Roger Goodell when Goodell was booed at the unveiling of Peyton Manning's statue in Indianapolis when ESPN suddenly cut to commercials.
On February 1, 2022, Letterman was the guest on Late Night with Seth Meyers, marking the 40th anniversary of the franchise's debut.
On November 20, 2023, Letterman returned to the Ed Sullivan theater on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert. Business ventures
Letterman started his production company, Worldwide Pants Incorporated, which produced his show and several others, in 1991. The company also produces feature films and documentaries and founded its own record label, Clear Entertainment. Worldwide Pants received significant attention in December 2007 after it was announced that it had independently negotiated its own contract with the Writers Guild of America, East, thus allowing Letterman, Craig Ferguson, and their writers to return to work, while the union continued its strike against production companies, networks, and studios with whom it had not yet reached agreements.
Letterman, Bobby Rahal, and Mike Lanigan of Mi-Jack Products co-own Rahal Letterman Lanigan Racing, an auto racing team competing in the WeatherTech SportsCar Championship and NTT IndyCar series. The team has twice won the Indianapolis 500: in 2004 with driver Buddy Rice, and in 2020 with Takuma Sato.
The Letterman Foundation for Courtesy and Grooming is a private foundation through which Letterman has donated millions of dollars to charities and other nonprofit organizations in Indiana and Montana, celebrity-affiliated organizations such as Paul Newman's Hole in the Wall Gang Camp, Ball State University, the American Cancer Society, the Salvation Army, and Médecins Sans Frontières.
Influences
Letterman's biggest influence and mentor was Johnny Carson. Letterman has denied this. and James Corden. Personal life Letterman has tinnitus, a symptom of hearing loss. On the Late Show in 1996, he talked about his experience with tinnitus during an interview with William Shatner, who has severe tinnitus caused by an on-set explosion. Letterman has said that he was initially unable to pinpoint the noise inside his head and that he hears a constant ringing in his ears.
Letterman no longer drinks alcohol. On more than one occasion, he said that he had once been a "horrible alcoholic" and had begun drinking around the age of 11 or 13 and continued until 1981 when he was 34. He has said that in 1981, "I was drunk 80% of the time ... I loved it. I was one of those guys, I looked around, and everyone else had stopped drinking and I couldn't understand why." When he was shown drinking what appears to be alcohol on the Late Show, it was actually apple juice.
In 2015, Letterman said of his anxiety: "For years and years and years—30, 40 years—I was anxious and hypochondriacal and an alcoholic, and many, many other things that made me different from other people." He became calmer through a combination of Transcendental Meditation and low doses of medication. Letterman is a Presbyterian, a religious tradition he was originally brought up in by his mother, though he once said he was motivated by "Lutheran, Midwestern guilt".
In August 2021, Letterman was hospitalized in Providence, Rhode Island, after hitting his head on the sidewalk and falling unconscious. He favorably recalled the care he received at Rhode Island Hospital in a video released by the hospital's owner.
Marriages, relationships, and family
On July 2, 1968, Letterman married his college sweetheart, Michelle Cook, in Muncie, Indiana; they divorced in 1977. He also had a long-term cohabiting relationship with the former head writer and producer on Late Night, Merrill Markoe, from 1978 to 1988. Markoe created several Late Night staples, such as "Stupid Pet/Human Tricks". Time magazine wrote that theirs was the defining relationship of Letterman's career, with Markoe also acting as his writing partner. She "put the surrealism in Letterman's comedy."
Letterman and Regina Lasko started dating in February 1986, while he was still living with Markoe. Lasko gave birth to their son, Harry Joseph Letterman, on November 3, 2003. Harry is named after Letterman's father. In 2005, police discovered a plot to kidnap Letterman's son and demand a $5 million ransom. Kelly Frank, a house painter who had worked for Letterman, was charged in the conspiracy.
Letterman and Lasko wed on March 19, 2009, in a quiet courthouse civil ceremony in Choteau, Montana, where he had purchased a ranch in 1999. Letterman announced the marriage during the taping of his show of March 23, shortly after congratulating Bruce Willis on his marriage the week before. Letterman told the audience he nearly missed the ceremony because his truck became stuck in mud two miles from their house. The family resides in North Salem, New York, on a estate.
Friendship with Foo Fighters
was a frequent guest on The Late Show and performed on the program several times with Foo Fighters between 1995 and 2014]]
Letterman has had a close relationship with the rock band Foo Fighters since its appearance on his first show upon his return from heart surgery. The band appeared many times on the Late Show, including a week-long stint in October 2014. While introducing the band's performance of "Miracle" on the October 17, 2014, show, Letterman told the story of how a souvenir video of himself and his four-year-old son learning to ski used the song as background music, unbeknownst to Letterman until he saw it. He said: "This is the second song of theirs that will always have great, great meaning for me for the rest of my life". This was the first time the band had heard this story. Worldwide Pants co-produced Dave Grohl's Sonic Highways TV series. "Letterman was the first person to get behind this project", Grohl said.
Extortion attempt and revelation of affairs
On October 1, 2009, Letterman announced on his show that he had been the victim of a blackmail attempt by a person threatening to reveal his sexual relationships with several of his female employees—a fact Letterman immediately thereafter confirmed. He said that someone had left a package in his car with material he said he would write into a screenplay and a book if Letterman did not pay him $2 million. Letterman said that he contacted the Manhattan District Attorney's office and partook in a sting operation that involved the handover of a fake check to the extortionist.
Joe Halderman, a producer of the CBS news magazine television series 48 Hours, was arrested around noon (EST) on October 1, 2009, after trying to deposit the check. He was indicted by a Manhattan grand jury following testimony from Letterman and pleaded not guilty to a charge of attempted grand larceny on October 2, 2009. Halderman pleaded guilty in March 2010 and was sentenced to six months in prison, followed by probation and community service.
A central figure in the case and one of the women with whom Letterman had had a sexual relationship was his longtime personal assistant Stephanie Birkitt, who often appeared on the show. She had also worked for 48 Hours. Until a month before the revelations, she had shared a residence with Halderman, who allegedly had copied her personal diary and used it, along with private emails, in the blackmail package.
In the days following the initial announcement of the affairs and the arrest, several prominent women, including Kathie Lee Gifford, co-host of NBC's Today Show, and NBC news anchor Ann Curry, questioned whether Letterman's affairs with subordinates created an unfair working environment. A spokesman for Worldwide Pants said that the company's sexual harassment policy did not prohibit sexual relationships between managers and employees. According to business news reporter Eve Tahmincioglu, "CBS suppliers are supposed to follow the company's business conduct policies" and the CBS 2008 Business Conduct Statement states that "If a consenting romantic or sexual relationship between a supervisor and a direct or indirect subordinate should develop, CBS requires the supervisor to disclose this information to his or her Company's Human Resources Department".
On October 3, 2009, TMZ reported that a former CBS employee, Holly Hester, had had a yearlong secret affair with Letterman in the early 1990s while she was his intern and a student at New York University. On October 5, 2009, Letterman devoted a segment of his show to a public apology to his wife and staff. Three days later, Worldwide Pants announced that Birkitt had been placed on a "paid leave of absence" from the Late Show. Stalking incidents Beginning in May 1988, Letterman was stalked by Margaret Mary Ray, a woman with schizophrenia. She stole his Porsche, camped out on his tennis court, and repeatedly broke into his house. Her exploits drew national attention, with Letterman occasionally joking about her on his show, though he never named her. After she died by suicide at age 46 in October 1998, Letterman told The New York Times that he had great compassion for her. A spokesperson for Letterman said: "This is a sad ending to a confused life."
In 2005, a woman was able to obtain a restraining order from a New Mexico judge, prohibiting Letterman from contacting her. She claimed he had sent her coded messages via his television program, causing her bankruptcy and emotional distress. Law professor Eugene Volokh called the case "patently frivolous".
Interests
Letterman is a car enthusiast and owns an extensive collection. In 2012, it was reported that the collection consisted of ten Ferraris, eight Porsches, four Austin-Healeys, two Honda motorcycles, a Chevy pickup, and one car each from automakers Mercedes-Benz, Jaguar, MG, Volvo, Cadillac and Pontiac. He often drives two electric vehicles, a Tesla Model S and a Mercedes.
In his 2013 appearance on Comedians in Cars Getting Coffee, part of Jerry Seinfeld's conversation with Letterman was filmed in Letterman's 1995 Volvo 960 station wagon, which is powered by a 380-horsepower racing engine. Paul Newman had the car built for Letterman.Filmography Film {| class"wikitable"
|- style="background:#b0c4de; text-align:center;"
! Year
! Title
! Role
! Notes
|-
| 1994
| Cabin Boy
| Old Salt In Fishing Village
| Credited as Earl Hofert
|-
| 1996
| Eddie
| Himself
| Cameo
|-
| 1996
| Beavis and Butt-Head Do America
| Mötley Crüe roadie (voice)
| Credited as Earl Hofert
|-
| 1997
| Private Parts
| Himself
| Cameo
|-
| 1999
| Man on the Moon
| Himself
| Cameo
|-
| 2005
| Strangers with Candy
|
| Executive producer
|-
| 2016
| Sully
| Himself
| Cameo
|-
| 2019
| Between Two Ferns: The Movie
| Himself
|
|-
| 2022
| Norm Macdonald: Nothing Special
| Himself
| Stand-up special
|}
Documentary feature films
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background:#ccc; text-align:center;"
!scope="col"| Year
!scope="col"| Title
!scope"col" width65 | Role
!scope"col" class"unsortable" | Notes
|-
| 2005
|Grizzly Man
| Himself
| Archive footage from a 2001 The Late Show with David Letterman episode starring Timothy Treadwell. Cut for the DVD release.
|-
|}
Television
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background:#b0c4de; text-align:center;"
! Year
! Title
! Role(s)
! Notes
|-
| 1977
| The Starland Vocal Band Show
| Announcer / Various
| 6 episodes
|-
| 1978
| Mary
| Announcer / Various
| 3 episodes
|-
| 1978
| Peeping Times
| Dan Cochran
| Television film
|-
| 1979
| Fast Friends
| Matt Morgan
| Television film
|-
| 1979
| Mork & Mindy
| Ellsworth
| Episode: "Mork Goes Erk"
|-
| 1979
| The Mary Tyler Moore Hour
| Various roles
| 8 episodes
|-
| 1979
| Password Plus
| Himself
| Game Show Participant / Celebrity Guest Star
|-
| 1980
| The David Letterman Show
| Himself (host)
| 90 episodes; also creator, writer and executive producer
|-
| 1981
| Open All Night
| Man in Suit
| Episode: "Buckaroo Buddies"
|-
| 1982–1993
| Late Night with David Letterman
| Himself (host)
| 1,819 episodes; also creator, writer and executive producer
|-
| 1986
| 38th Primetime Emmy Awards
| Himself (co-host)
| Special
|-
| 1993–2015
| Late Show with David Letterman
| Himself (host)
| 4,263 episodes; also creator, writer and executive producer
|-
| 1993
| Murphy Brown
| Himself
| Episode: "Bump in the Night"
|-
| 1993
| The Building
| The Thief
| 5 episodes; also executive producer<br />Also appeared in Episode: "Damned If You Do"
|-
| 1993–1995
| The Larry Sanders Show
| Himself
| 2 episodes
|-
| 1994
| Beavis and Butt-Head
| Himself (voice)
| Episode: "Late Night with Butt-head"
|-
| 1995
| 67th Academy Awards
| Himself (host)
| Television special
|-
| 1995–1999
| The Late Late Show with Tom Snyder
|
| 777 episodes; co-creator and executive producer
|-
| 1995–1996
| Bonnie
|
| 13 episodes; also executive producer
|-
| 1995
| The Nanny
| Himself
| Episode: "Pen Pal"
|-
| 1995
| Favorite Deadly Sins
| Himself
| Television film
|-
| 1996
| The Dana Carvey Show
| Himself
| Episode: "The Diet Mug Root Beer Dana Carvey Show"
|-
| 1996
| Seinfeld
| Himself
| Episode: "The Abstinence"
|-
| 1996
| The High Life
|
| 8 episodes; also executive producer
|-
| 1996–2005
| Everybody Loves Raymond
|
| 210 episodes; also executive producer
|-
| 1997–1998
| Spin City
| Himself / Rags
| 2 episodes
|-
| 1998
| Cosby
| Himself
| Episode "Fifteen Minutes of Fame"
|-
| 1999–2004
| The Late Late Show with Craig Kilborn
|
| 1,190 episodes; co-creator and executive producer
|-
| 2000–2004
| ED
|
| 83 episodes; executive producer
|-
| 2005–2014
| The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson
|
| 2,058 episodes; co-creator and executive producer
|-
| 2007
| The Knights of Prosperity
|
| 13 episodes; also executive producer
|-
| 2012
| The Simpsons
| Himself (voice)
| Episode: "The D'oh-cial Network"
|-
| 2018–present
| My Next Guest Needs No Introduction with David Letterman
| Himself (host)
| Also creator, writer and executive producer
|-
| 2020
| The Comedy Store
| Himself
|
|-
| 2022
| ''That's My Time with David Letterman
| Himself (host)
|
|-
| rowspan=2|2024
| Stupid Pet Tricks
| Himself
| Episode: "Late Night Memories"; also executive producer
|-
| John Mulaney Presents: Everybody's in LA''
| Himself
| Episode: "Earthquakes"
|-
|}
Awards, honors and legacy
David Letterman Communication and Media Building
in 1987]]
In 1996, Letterman was ranked 45th on TV Guides 50 Greatest TV Stars of All Time. In 2002, The Late Show with David Letterman was ranked seventh on TV Guide's 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time.
On September 7, 2007, Letterman visited his alma mater, Ball State University in Muncie, Indiana, for the dedication of a communications facility named in his honor for his dedication to the university. The $21 million, David Letterman Communication and Media Building opened for the 2007 fall semester. Thousands of Ball State students, faculty, and local residents welcomed Letterman back to Indiana. Letterman's emotional speech touched on his struggles as a college student and his late father, and also included the "top ten good things about having your name on a building", finishing with "if reasonable people can put my name on a $21 million building, anything is possible." Over many years Letterman "has provided substantial assistance to [Ball State's] Department of Telecommunications, including an annual scholarship that bears his name."
At the same time, Indiana Governor Mitch Daniels gave Letterman a Sagamore of the Wabash award, which recognizes distinguished service to the state of Indiana.
Letterman was a recipient of the 2012 Kennedy Center Honors, where he was called "one of the most influential personalities in the history of television, entertaining an entire generation of late-night viewers with his unconventional wit and charm." On May 16, 2017, Letterman was named the next recipient of the Mark Twain Prize for American Humor, the award granted annually by the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts. He received the prize in a ceremony on October 22, 2017.
The Letterman Foundation for Courtesy and Grooming
The Letterman Foundation for Courtesy and Grooming (LFCG) was an American private foundation whose president and primary contributor was David Letterman. Its treasurer was Fred Nigro, who has appeared on Late Show with David Letterman, where he has been identified as Letterman's accountant. The foundation operated out of Nigro's Los Angeles offices. LFCG was founded in August 1993 as the DL Foundation. Since at least 2001, LFCG was known as the American Foundation for Courtesy and Grooming, until it assumed its current name, in 2011.
According to LFCG's tax returns (Form 990-PF), made available by the Foundation Center, for the years from 2001 through 2011, LFCG donated a total of over $9.2 million to various foundations and other organizations.
References
Further reading
* , [https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/10/books/review/letterman-biography-jason-zinoman.html "Book Review: The Legacy of David Letterman, Icon of the Grizzled Generation"] by Tom Carson, The New York Times, April 10, 2017
* External links
*
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Letterman
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| birth_place = Lewisham, London, England
| education =
| occupation = Actor
| years_active = 1975–present
| spouse =
| children = 1
}}
Delroy George Lindo (born 18 November 1952) is an English–American actor. He is the recipient of such accolades as an NAACP Image Award, a Satellite Award, and nominations for a Drama Desk Award, a Helen Hayes Award, a Tony Award, two Critics' Choice Television Awards, and three Screen Actors Guild Awards.
He moved with his mother to San Francisco when he was 16, after they had left London and lived in Canada for a few years. Here he completed his education and entered acting. Lindo has played prominent roles in four Spike Lee films: West Indian Archie in Malcolm X (1992), Woody Carmichael in Crooklyn (1994), Rodney Little in Clockers (1995), and Paul in Da 5 Bloods (2020). He was praised for his performance in Da 5 Bloods as a Vietnam War veteran, winning the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor and the National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Actor.
Lindo also played Bo Catlett in Get Shorty (1995), Arthur Rose in The Cider House Rules (1999), and Detective Castlebeck in Gone in 60 Seconds (2000). Lindo starred as Alderman Ronin Gibbons in the TV series The Chicago Code (2011), as Winter on the series Believe (2014), and as Adrian Boseman in The Good Fight (2017–2021).
Early life
Delroy Lindo was born in 1952 in Lewisham, the son of Jamaican parents. His mother had immigrated to the UK in 1951 to work as a nurse, and his father worked in various jobs. Lindo grew up in nearby Eltham and attended Woolwich Polytechnic School for Boys. He became interested in acting as a child when he appeared in a nativity play at school.
When he was a teenager, Lindo moved with his mother to Toronto. When he was 16, they moved to San Francisco. Career Lindo made his film debut in 1976 with the Canadian John Candy comedy Find the Lady. He played an army sergeant in More American Graffiti (1979).
For a decade from the early 1980s, Lindo's career was more focused on theatre acting than film, although he has said this was not a conscious decision.
Lindo returned to film in the science fiction film Salute of the Jugger (1990), which has become a cult classic. Although he had turned down Spike Lee for a role in Do the Right Thing, Lee cast him as Woody Carmichael in the drama Crooklyn (1994), which brought Lindo notice. His other roles with Lee include West Indian Archie, a psychotic gangster, in Malcolm X, and a starring role as a neighborhood drug dealer in Clockers.
Other films in which he has starring roles are Barry Sonnenfeld's Get Shorty (1995), Ron Howard's Ransom (1996), and Soul of the Game (1996), as the baseball player Satchel Paige.
In 1998 Lindo co-starred as African-American explorer Matthew Henson, in the TV film Glory & Honor, directed by Kevin Hooks. It portrayed Henson's nearly 20-year partnership with Commander Robert Peary in Arctic exploration, and their effort to find the Geographic North Pole in 1909. Lindo received a Satellite Award for best actor for his portrayal of Henson. Lindo has continued to work in television, and in 2006 was seen on the short-lived NBC drama Kidnapped.
Lindo had a small role in the 1995 film Congo, playing the corrupt Captain Wanta. Lindo was not credited for the role. He played an angel in the comedy film A Life Less Ordinary (1997).
He guest-starred on The Simpsons in the episode "Brawl in the Family", playing a character named Gabriel.
In the British film Wondrous Oblivion (2003), directed by Paul Morrison, Lindo starred as Dennis Samuels, the father of a Jamaican immigrant family in London in the 1950s. Lindo said he made the film in honor of his parents, who had similarly moved to London in those years.
In 2007, Lindo began an association with Berkeley Repertory Theatre in Berkeley, California, when he directed Tanya Barfield's play The Blue Door. In the autumn of 2008, Lindo revisited August Wilson's play ''Joe Turner's Come and Gone'', directing a production at the Berkeley Rep. In 2010, he played the role of elderly seer Bynum in David Lan's production of Joe Turner at the Young Vic Theatre in London.
Lindo was in the main cast of the Fox crime drama The Chicago Code (2011), the NBC fantasy series Believe, and the ABC soap Blood & Oil (2015). In 2017, Lindo began playing Adrian Boseman in the CBS legal drama The Good Fight, a role he would star in for the series' first four seasons and reprise as a guest star in its fifth season. Lindo was cast as the lead in an ABC drama pilot ''Harlem's Kitchen'' in March 2020.
In 2015, Lindo was expected to play Marcus Garvey in a biopic of the black nationalist historical figure that had been in pre-production for several years. In recent years Lindo has appeared in the action film Point Break (2015), the drama Battlecreek (2017), the horror film Malicious (2018), and The Harder They Fall (2021) as Bass Reeves. Lindo appeared in Da 5 Bloods (2020) in another collaboration with Spike Lee. For his role in Da 5 Bloods, Lindo received critical acclaim and a number of accolades.
Entertainment Weekly said of Hulu's comedy series Unprisoned (2023), "Delroy Lindo is so good it should be illegal."UpcomingIt was announced in July 2021 that Lindo would star as Mr Nancy in the British Amazon Prime miniseries adaptation of Neil Gaiman's Anansi Boys alongside Malachi Kirby. In November, Lindo officially joined the cast of the upcoming Marvel Studios film Blade in an undisclosed role.
As of 2020, Lindo was developing a screenplay for his directorial debut about the Windrush generation.
Lindo is a football fan and supports Manchester United.
Upon learning more about the Windrush generation, both through his mother's account and his own role as a Jamaican immigrant in Wondrous Oblivion, Lindo became inspired to study the subject and history further. In 2014, he completed a master's thesis from New York University's Gallatin School.
He was awarded an honorary doctorate in Arts and Humanities from Virginia Union University.
Filmography
Film
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! Notes
|-
| 1976 || Find the Lady || Sam ||
|-
| 1979 || More American Graffiti || Army Sergeant ||
|-
| rowspan="3" | 1990 || The Blood of Heroes || Mbulu ||
|-
| Mountains of the Moon || Mabruki ||
|-
| Bright Angel || Harley ||
|-
| 1991 || The Hard Way || Captain Brix ||
|-
| 1992 || Malcolm X || West Indian Archie ||
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1993 ||Blood In Blood Out || "Bonafide" ||
|-
| Mr. Jones || Howard ||
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1994 || ''L'exil du roi Behanzin || Behanzin ||
|-
| Crooklyn || Woody Carmichael ||
|-
| rowspan="3" | 1995 || Clockers || Rodney Little ||
|-
| Congo || Captain Wanta || Uncredited
|-
| Get Shorty || Bo Catlett ||
|-
| rowspan="3" | 1996 || Ransom || FBI Special Agent Lonnie Hawkins ||
|-
| Broken Arrow || Colonel Max Wilkins ||
|-
| Feeling Minnesota || "Red" ||
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1997 || A Life Less Ordinary || Jackson ||
|-
| The Devil's Advocate || Phillipe Moyez || Uncredited
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1999 || Pros & Cons || Kyle Pettibone ||
|-
| The Cider House Rules || Arthur Rose ||
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2000 || The Book of Stars || Professor ||
|-
| Gone in 60 Seconds || Detective Roland Castlebeck ||
|-
| Romeo Must Die'' || Isaak O'Day ||
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2001 || The One || Agent Harry Roedecker ||
|-
| Heist || Bobby Blane ||
|-
| The Last Castle || Brigadier General Jim Wheeler ||
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2003 || The Core || Dr. Ed "Braz" Brazzleton ||
|-
| Wondrous Oblivion || Dennis Samuel ||
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2005 || Domino || Claremont Williams ||
|-
| Sahara || Carl ||
|-
| 2007 || This Christmas || Joe Black ||
|-
| 2009 || Up || Beta (voice) ||
|-
| 2011 || The Big Bang || Skeres ||
|-
| 2014 || Cymbeline || Belarius ||
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2015 || Do You Believe? || Malachi ||
|-
| Point Break || FBI Instructor Hall ||
|-
| 2017 || Battlecreek || Arthur ||
|-
| 2018 || Malicious || Dr. Clark ||
|-
| 2020 || Da 5 Bloods || Paul ||
|-
| 2021 || The Harder They Fall || Bass Reeves ||
|-
| 2025 || Sinners || || Post-production
|}
Television
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! Notes
|-
| 1987 || Beauty and the Beast || Isaac Stubbs || 2 episodes
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1989 || A Man Called Hawk || Mark Slater || Episode: "Vendetta"
|-
| Perfect Witness || Berger || Television film
|-
| 1991 || Against the Law || Ben || Episode: "Hoops"
|-
| 1996 || Soul of the Game || Satchel Paige || Television film
|-
| 1997 || First Time Felon || Calhoun || Television film
|-
| 1998 || Glory & Honor ||Mathew Henson|| Television film
|-
| 1999 || Strange Justice || Clarence Thomas || Television film
|-
| 2002 || The Simpsons || Gabriel || Voice; episode: "Brawl in the Family"
|-
| 2003 || Profoundly Normal || Ricardo Thornton || Television film
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2005 || Lackawanna Blues || Mr. Lucious || Television film
|-
| The Exonerated || Delbert Tibbs || Television film
|-
| 2006–2007 ||Kidnapped || Latimer King || Main cast; 13 episodes
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2009 || Law & Order: Special Victims Unit || Detective Victor Moran || Episode: "Baggage"
|-
| Mercy || Dr. Alfred Parks || Episode: "Can We Get That Drink Now?"
|-
| 2011 || The Chicago Code || Alderman Ronin Gibbons ||Main cast; 11 episodes
|-
| 2013 || Robot Chicken || Dopey Smurf, Scorpion Cashier (voices) || Episode: "Papercut to Aorta"
|-
| 2014 || Believe || Dr. Milton Winter ||Main cast; 13 episodes
|-
| 2015 || Blood & Oil || "Tip" Harrison || Main cast; 10 episodes
|-
| 2016 || ''Marvel's Most Wanted || Dominic Fortune || Unaired pilot
|-
| 2017–2021 || The Good Fight || Adrian Boseman || Main cast; 40 episodes
|-
| 2017 || This Is Us || Judge Ernest Bradley || Episode: "The Most Disappointed Man"
|-
| 2023–2024 || Unprisoned || Edwin Alexander || Main cast; also executive producer
|-
| || Anansi Boys || Mr Nancy || Upcoming
|-
|}
Theatre
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! Theatre
|-
| 1975–76 ||Of Mice and Men||
|Royal Manitoba Theatre Centre
|-
| 1979 ||Spell Number 7
| Performer
|Negro Ensemble Company
|-
| 1981–82 ||Macbeth|| Performer
|Cincinnati Playhouse
|-
| 1982–83 ||"Master Harold"...and the Boys|| Willie
|Lyceum Theatre
|-
| rowspan="2" |1983–84
|Home
|Cephus Miles
|Hartford Stage Company
|-
|A Lesson from Aloes
| Performer
|Virginia Stage Company
|-
| 1983–86 ||A Raisin in the Sun|| Walter Lee Younger
|Yale Repertory Theatre<br>Roundabout Theatre Company
|-
| rowspan="2" |1984–85
|The Black Branch
|Eli Crooner
| rowspan="2" |Actors Theatre of Louisville
|-
|Advice to the Players
|Robert Obosa
|-
|1985
|Much Ado About Nothing
|Friar Francis
|Shakespeare & Company
|-
|1985–86
|Union Boys
|Performer
|Yale Repertory Theatre
|-
|1986–88
|Joe Turner's Come and Gone
|Herald Loomis
|Huntington Theatre Company<br>Old Globe Theatre<br>Ethel Barrymore Theatre
|-
|1988–89
|Cobb
|Oscar Charleston
|Yale Repertory Theatre
|-
|1989–90
|Miss Evers' Boys
|Caleb Humphries
|Center Stage
|-
|1990–91
|Julius Caesar
|Caius Cassius
|Center Theatre Group
|-
|1992–93
|Othello
|Othello
|Great Lakes Theater
|-
|1993
|The Heliotrope Bouqet by <br/>Scott Joplin & Louis Chauvin''
|Scott Joplin
|Playwrights Horizons' Theatre
|-
|1998
|Othello
|Othello
|Actors Theatre of Louisville
|-
|2008
|Agamemnon
|Agamemnon
|Getty Villa
|-
|2009
|Things of Dry Hours
|Tice Hogan
|New York Theatre Workshop
|-
| 2012 ||The Exonerated
|Delbert Tibbs
|Bleecker Street Theater
|}
Video games
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
|-
| 2009
| Up
| Beta (voice)
|}
Awards and nominations
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! scope="col" | Award
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Category
! scope="col" | Nominee(s)
! scope="col" | Result
! scope"col" class"unsortable" |
|-
|African-American Film Critics Association
| 2022
| Best Ensemble
| The Harder They Fall
|
|
|-
|Austin Film Critics Association
|2022
|Best Ensemble
|The Harder They Fall
|
|
|-
|rowspan=5|Black Reel Awards
|rowspan=2|2000
|Outstanding Supporting Actor
| The Cider House Rules
|
|rowspan=2|
|-
|rowspan=2|Outstanding Actor, TV Movie or Limited Series
| Strange Justice
|
|-
| 2006
|The Exonerated
|
|
|-
| 2010
|Best Voice Performance
|Up
|
|
|-
| 2021
| Outstanding Actor
|Da 5 Bloods
|
|
|-
|Detroit Film Critics Society
|2021
|Best Ensemble
|The Harder They Fall
|
|
|-
|Drama Desk Award
| 1988
| Outstanding Featured Actor in a Play
| ''Joe Turner's Come and Gone
|
|
|-
| Celebration of Black Cinema and Television
| 2021
| Ensemble Award
| The Harder They Fall''
|
| style"text-align:center;"|
|-
|rowspan=2|Chicago Film Critics Association
|1995
| Best Supporting Actor
|Clockers
|
|
|-
|2020
| Best Actor
| Da 5 Bloods
|
|
|-
| Critics' Choice Super Awards
| 2020
| Best Actor in an Action Movie
| Da 5 Bloods
|
|
|-
|rowspan="3" |Critics' Choice Award
| 2018
|rowspan="2" |Best Supporting Actor in a Drama Series
|rowspan="2" |The Good Fight
|
|
|-
| 2020
|
|
|-
| 2021
|Best Actor
|Da 5 Bloods
|
|
|-
| rowspan="1" |Gotham Awards
| rowspan="1" |2021
| Ensemble Tribute Award
|The Harder They Fall
|
|
|-
|Hollywood Critics Association Awards
|2022
|Best Cast Ensemble
|The Harder They Fall
|
|
|-
|Hollywood Critics Association Midseason Award
|2020
| Best Actor
|Da 5 Bloods
|
|
|-
| Las Vegas Film Critics Society
| 1999
| Best Supporting Actor
|The Cider House Rules
|
|
|-
|New York Film Critics Circle Awards
| 2020
| Best Actor
| Da 5 Bloods
|
|
|-
|rowspan=6|NAACP Image Award
| 1992
| Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture
|Malcolm X
|
|
|-
|rowspan=2|1996
| Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture
| Ransom
|
|rowspan=2|
|-
|Outstanding Actor in a Television Movie
| Soul of the Game
|
|-
|2009
| Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series
|Law and Order: Special Victims Unit
|
|
|-
|rowspan=2|2022
||Outstanding S Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture
|rowspan=2|The Harder They Fall
|
|rowspan2|
|-
|Outstanding Ensemble Cast in a Motion Picture
|
|-
|National Board of Review Awards
|2021
|Best Cast
| The Harder They Fall
|
|
|-
|rowspan=4|National Society of Film Critics
| 1992
| Best Supporting Actor
|Malcolm X
|
|
|-
|rowspan=2|1995
| rowspan=2|Best Supporting Actor
| Clockers
|
|rowspan=2|
|-
|Get Shorty
|
|-
|2020
| Best Actor
|Da 5 Bloods
|
|
|-
|San Diego Film Critics Society
|2022
|Best Performance by an Ensemble
| The Harder They Fall
|
|
|-
|Santa Barbara International Film Festival
|2021
| American Riviera Award
| Himself
|
|
|-
|rowspan=3|Satellite Award
|1999
|rowspan=2|Best Actor - Miniseries of Television Movie
| Glory & Honor
|
|
|-
| 2000
| Strange Justice
|
|
|-
| 2020
| Best Actor in a Motion Picture – Drama
|Da 5 Bloods
|
|
|-
|rowspan=3|Screen Actors Guild Award
|1995
| Outstanding Cast in a Motion Picture
| Get Shorty
|
|
|-
|1999
| Outstanding Cast in a Motion Picture
| The Cider House Rules
|
|
|-
|2020
| Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture
|Da 5 Bloods
|
|
|-
| Tony Award
| 1988
| Best Featured Actor in a Play
| ''Joe Turner's Come and Gone
|
|
|-
|Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association Awards
|2021
|Best Ensemble
|The Harder They Fall
|
|
|-
|}
Notes
References
External links
*
*
* Mosi Secret, [https://www.gq.com/story/the-triumphant-career-of-delroy-lindo "The Long, Occasionally Dark, and Ultimately Triumphant Career of Delroy Lindo"], GQ'', 20 April 2021
}}
Category:1952 births
Category:Living people
Category:20th-century American male actors
Category:21st-century American male actors
Category:20th-century English male actors
Category:21st-century English male actors
Category:American male film actors
Category:American male television actors
Category:American male voice actors
Category:American Conservatory Theater alumni
Category:Black British male actors
Category:20th-century African-American male actors
Category:21st-century African-American male actors
Category:English expatriate male actors in the United States
Category:English male film actors
Category:English male stage actors
Category:English male television actors
Category:English people of Jamaican descent
Category:Male actors from London
Category:Male actors from San Francisco
Category:Actors from the Royal Borough of Greenwich
Category:Actors from the London Borough of Lewisham
Category:San Francisco State University alumni
Category:American people of English descent
Category:American actors of Jamaican descent
Category:People from Lewisham
Category:People from Eltham
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delroy_Lindo
|
2025-04-05T18:28:34.350248
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8343
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David Janssen
|
| birth_place = Naponee, Nebraska, U.S.
| death_date
| death_place = Malibu, California, U.S.
| resting_place = Hillside Memorial Park Cemetery
| years_active = 1945–1980
| occupation = Actor
| family | spouse
*
}}
}}
David Janssen (born David Harold Meyer; March 27, 1931 – February 13, 1980) was an American film and television actor who is best known for his starring role as Richard Kimble in the television series The Fugitive (1963–1967). Janssen also had the title roles in three other series: Richard Diamond, Private Detective; ''O'Hara, U.S. Treasury; and Harry O.
In 1996, TV Guide ranked him number 36 on its 50 Greatest TV Stars of All Time'' list.Early lifeDavid Janssen was born on March 27, 1931, in Naponee, a village in Franklin County in southern Nebraska. His father was Harold Edward Meyer, a banker, and his mother, Berniece Graf, was formerly Miss Nebraska and a Ziegfeld girl. Following his parents' divorce in 1935, his mother moved with David to Los Angeles and married Eugene Janssen in 1940. David used his stepfather's name after he entered the show business as a child.
He attended Fairfax High School, where he excelled on the basketball court, setting a school scoring record that lasted over 20 years. His first film part was at the age of thirteen, and by the age of twenty-five, he had appeared in twenty films and served two years as an enlisted man in the United States Army. During his Army days, Janssen became a friend of fellow enlistees Martin Milner and Clint Eastwood while posted at Fort Ord, California.Acting career
Janssen starred in four television series of his own:
* Richard Diamond, Private Detective (1957–1960)
* The Fugitive (1963–1967)
* ''O'Hara, U.S. Treasury'' (1971–1972)
* Harry O (1974–1976)
At the time of its airing in August 1967, the final episode of The Fugitive held the record for the greatest number of American homes to watch a series finale – 72 percent. In 1996 TV Guide ranked The Fugitive number 36 on its 50 Greatest Shows of All Time list.
His films include: To Hell and Back, the biography of Audie Murphy, who was the most decorated American soldier of World War II; Hell to Eternity, a 1960 American World War II biopic starring Jeffrey Hunter as a Hispanic boy who fought in the Battle of Saipan and who was raised by Japanese-American foster parents; John Wayne's Vietnam war film The Green Berets; opposite Gregory Peck, in the space story Marooned, in which Janssen played an astronaut sent to rescue three stranded men in space; and The Shoes of the Fisherman, as a television journalist in Rome reporting on the election of a new Pope (Anthony Quinn).
He also played pilot Harry Walker in the 1973 action movie Birds of Prey. He starred as a Los Angeles police detective trying to clear himself in the killing of an apparently innocent doctor in the 1967 film Warning Shot, which was shot during a break in the spring and summer of 1966 between the third and fourth seasons of The Fugitive.
Janssen played an alcoholic in the 1977 TV movie A Sensitive, Passionate Man, which co-starred Angie Dickinson, and played an engineer who devises an unbeatable system for blackjack in the 1978 made-for-TV movie Nowhere to Run, co-starring Stefanie Powers and Linda Evans. Janssen's impressively husky voice was used to good effect as the narrator for the TV mini-series Centennial (1978–79); he also appeared in the final episode. And in 1979 he starred in the made-for-TV mini series S.O.S. Titanic as John Jacob Astor, playing opposite Beverly Ross as his wife, Madeleine.
Though Janssen's scenes were cut from the final release, he also appeared as a journalist in the film Inchon, which he accepted to work with Laurence Olivier, who played General Douglas MacArthur. At the time of his death, Janssen had just begun filming a television movie playing the part of Father Damien, the priest who dedicated himself to the leper colony on the island of Molokai, Hawaii. The part was eventually reassigned to actor Ken Howard of the CBS series The White Shadow.
Personal life
Janssen was married twice. His first marriage was to model and interior decorator Ellie Graham, whom he married in Las Vegas on August 25, 1958. They divorced in 1968. In 1975, he married actress and model Dani Crayne Greco. They remained married until Janssen's death.
Death
Janssen was a heavy drinker, and a chain smoker who smoked up to four packs of cigarettes a day. He died from a sudden heart attack in the early morning of February 13, 1980, at his beachfront home in Malibu, California, at the age of 48. At the time of his death, Janssen was filming the television movie Father Damien. Janssen was buried at the Hillside Memorial Park Cemetery in Culver City, California. A non-denominational funeral was held at the Jewish chapel of the cemetery on February 17. Suzanne Pleshette delivered the eulogy at the request of Janssen's widow. Milton Berle, Johnny Carson, Tommy Gallagher, Richard Harris, Stan Herman, Rod Stewart, and Gregory Peck were among Janssen's pallbearers. Honorary pallbearers included Jack Lemmon, George Peppard, James Stewart, and Danny Thomas.
For his contribution to the television industry, David Janssen has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame located on the 7700 block of Hollywood Boulevard.Selected filmography
* ''It's a Pleasure (1945) as Davey / Boy Referee (uncredited)
* Swamp Fire'' (1946) as Emile's Eldest Son (uncredited)
* No Room for the Groom (1952) as Soldier (scenes deleted)
* Francis Goes to West Point (1952) as Corporal Thomas
* Untamed Frontier (1952) as Lottie's Dance Partner (uncredited)
* Bonzo Goes to College (1952) as Jack (uncredited)
* Yankee Buccaneer (1952) as Beckett
* Back at the Front (1952) as Soldier (uncredited)
* Leave It to Harry (1954) as Quiz Show Host (short subject)
* Chief Crazy Horse (1955) as Lieutenant Colin Cartwright
* Cult of the Cobra (1955) as Rico Nardi
* Francis in the Navy (1955) as Lieutenant Anders
* The Private War of Major Benson (1955) as Young Lieutenant
* To Hell and Back (1955) as Lieutenant Lee
* All That Heaven Allows (1955) as Freddie Norton (uncredited)
* The Square Jungle (1955) as Jack Lindsay
* Never Say Goodbye (1956) as Dave Heller
* The Toy Tiger (1956) as Larry Tripps
* Francis in the Haunted House (1956) as Police Lieutenant Hopkins
* Away All Boats (1956) as Talker (uncredited)
* Mr. Black Magic (1956) as Master of Ceremonies (short subject)
* Showdown at Abilene (1956) as Verne Ward
* The Girl He Left Behind (1956) as Captain Genaro
* Lafayette Escadrille (1958) as Duke Sinclair
* Hell to Eternity (1960) as Sergeant Bill Hazen
* Dondi (1961) as Dealey
* King of the Roaring 20s – The Story of Arnold Rothstein (1961) as Arnold Rothstein
* Ring of Fire (1961) as Sergeant Steve Walsh
* Twenty Plus Two (1961) as Tom Alder
* Man-Trap (1961) as Vince Biskay
* My Six Loves (1963) as Marty Bliss
* Warning Shot (1967) as Sergeant Tom Valens
* The Green Berets (1968) as George Beckworth
* The Shoes of the Fisherman (1968) as George Faber
* ''Where It's At (1969) as A.C.
* Marooned (1969) as Ted Dougherty
* Generation (1969) as Jim Bolton
* Macho Callahan (1970) as Diego Callahan
* Once Is Not Enough (1975) as Tom Colt
* The Swiss Conspiracy (1976) as David Christopher
* Two-Minute Warning (1976) as Steve
* Warhead (1977) as Tony Stevens
* Golden Rendezvous (1977) as Charles Conway
* Covert Action (1978) as Lester Horton
* Inchon (1981) as David Feld (scenes deleted after premiere; final film role; filmed in 1979; released posthumously)
Television films
* Belle Sommers (1962) as Danny Castle
* Night Chase (1970) as Adrian Vico
* The Longest Night (1972) as Alan Chambers
* Moon of the Wolf (1972) as Sheriff Aaron Whitaker
* Hijack (1973) as Jake Wilkenson
* Birds of Prey (1973) as Harry Walker
* Harry O – Such Dust As Dreams Are Made On (1973) as Harry Orwell
* Pioneer Woman (1973) as Robert Douglas
* Harry O – Smile Jenny, You're Dead (1974) as Harry Orwell
* Don't Call the Police (1974) as Harry Orwell
* Fer-de-Lance (1974) as Russ Bogan
* Stalk the Wild Child (1976) as Dr. James Hazard
* Mayday at 40,000 Feet! (1976) as Captain Pete Douglass
* A Sensitive, Passionate Man (1977) as Michael Delaney
* Superdome (1978) as Mike Shelley
* Nowhere to Run (1978) as Harry Adams
* S.O.S. Titanic (1979) as John Jacob Astor
* The Golden Gate Murders (1979) as Detective Sergeant Paul Silver
* High Ice (1980) as Glencoe MacDonald
* City in Fear (1980) as Vince Perrino (released posthumously)
* Father Damien: The Leper Priest (1980) (Incomplete – Replaced by Ken Howard)
Television series
* Boston Blackie (1951) (Season 1 Episode 2: "Cop Killer") as Armored Car Driver (uncredited)
* Lux Video Theatre (1955–1956) (3 episodes)
**(Season 5 Episode 30: "It Grows on Trees") (1955) as Ralph
**(Season 5 Episode 51: "Perilous Deception") (1955) as Joe Davies
**(Season 6 Episode 27: "It Started With Eve") (1956) as Johnny Reynolds Jr.
* Matinee Theatre (1956) (Episode 193: "Belong to Me") as Paul Merrick
* Conflict (1957) (Season 1 Episode 12: "The Money") as Sid Lukes
* You Are There (1957) (Season 5 Episode 8: "The End of the Dalton Gang (October 5, 1892)" as Grat Dalton
* U.S. Marshal (1 episode )
* Alcoa Theatre (1957–1958) (2 episodes)
**(Season 1 Episode 6: "Cupid Wore a Badge") (1957) as Mike Harper
**(Season 1 Episode 20: "Decoy Duck") (1958) as Jim McCandless
* The Millionaire (1957–1958) (2 episodes)
**(Season 4 Episode 14: "The Regina Wainwright Story") (1957) as Peter Miller
**(Season 5 Episode 5: "The David Barrett Story") (1958) as David Barrett
* Dick Powell's Zane Grey Theatre (1957–1959) (4 episodes)
**(Season 1 Episode 23: "There Were Four") (1957) as Danny Ensign
**(Season 2 Episode 14: "Trial by Fear") (1958) as Tod Owen
**(Season 3 Episode 1: "Trail to Nowhere") (1958) as Seth Larker
**(Season 3 Episode 15: "Hang the Heart High") (1959) as Dix Porter
* Richard Diamond, Private Detective (1957–1960) (77 episodes) as Richard Diamond / Chuck Garrett
* Sheriff of Cochise (1958) (Season 3 Episode 9: "The Turkey Farmers") as Arnie Hix
* Westinghouse Desilu Playhouse (1959) (Season 1 Episode 25: "Two Counts of Murder") as Ross Ingraham
* Death Valley Days (1961) (Season 9 Episode 18: "Deadline at Austin") as Dr. Bill Breckenridge
* Adventures in Paradise (1961) (Season 3 Episode 6: "Show Me a Hero") as Scotty Bell
* Naked City (1961–1963) (2 episodes)
**(Season 3 Episode 5: "A Wednesday Night Story") (1961) as Blair Cameron
**(Season 4 Episode 26: "On the Battle Front: Every Minute is Important") (1963) as Carl Ashland
* Thriller (1962)
* Target: The Corruptors (1962) (Season 1 Episode 19: "The Middle Man") as Robbie Wilson
* General Electric Theater (1962) (Season 10 Episode 20: "Shadow of a Hero") as Pat Howard
* Follow the Sun (1962) (Season 1 Episode 24: "A Choice of Weapons") as Johnny Sadowsky
* Checkmate (1962) (Season 2 Episode 25: "Ride a Wild Horse") as Len Kobalsky
* Cain's Hundred (1962) (Season 1 Episode 26: "Inside Track") as Dan Mullin
* Kraft Mystery Theatre (1962)
* Route 66 (1962) (Season 3 Episode 1: "One Tiger to a Hill") as Karno Starling
* The Eleventh Hour (1962) (Season 1 Episode 3: "Make Me a Place") as Hal Kincaid
* The Dick Powell Show'' (1963) (Season 2 Episode 23: "Thunder in a Forgotten Town") as Kenneth 'Ken' Morgan
* The Fugitive (1963–1967) (120 episodes) as Dr. Richard Kimble / varied aliases
* The Hollywood Palace (1965)
* ''O'Hara, U.S. Treasury'' (1971–1972) (23 episodes) as James O'Hara / Jim O'Hara
* Cannon (1973) (Season 3 Episode 1: "He Who Digs a Grave") as Ian Kirk
* Harry O (1973–1976) (45 episodes) as Harry Orwell
* Police Story (1977) (Season 5 Episode 1: "Trigger Point") as Sergeant Joe Wilson
* The Word (1978) (miniseries) (all 4 episodes) as Steve Randall
* Centennial (1978–1979) (Narrator for all 12 episodes) (10 episodes as Paul Garrett)
* Biography (1979) as Host
Bibliography
*
*
* David Janssen – Our Conversations: The Early Years (1965–1972): Volume 1 Michael Phelps
* David Janssen: Our Conversations: The Final Years: (1973–1980): Volume 2 Michael Phelps
References
External links
*
* [http://www.davidjanssen.net The David Janssen Archive]
*
*
Category:1931 births
Category:1980 deaths
Category:20th-century American male actors
Category:American male film actors
Category:American male television actors
Category:American people of Irish descent
Category:Burials at Hillside Memorial Park Cemetery
Category:Fairfax High School (Los Angeles) alumni
Category:Male actors from Nebraska
Category:People from Franklin County, Nebraska
Category:United States Army soldiers
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Docetism
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In the history of Christianity, docetism (from the dokeĩn "to seem", dókēsis "apparition, phantom") was the doctrine that the phenomenon of Jesus, his historical and bodily existence, and above all the human form of Jesus, was mere semblance without any true reality. Broadly, it is taken as the belief that Jesus only seemed to be human, and that his human form was an illusion.
The word Dokētaí ("Illusionists") referring to early groups who denied Jesus's humanity, first occurred in a letter by Bishop Serapion of Antioch (197–203), who discovered the doctrine in the Gospel of Peter, during a pastoral visit to a Christian community using it in Rhosus, and later condemned it as a forgery. It appears to have arisen over theological contentions concerning the meaning, figurative or literal, of a sentence from the Gospel of John: "the Word was made Flesh".
Docetism was unequivocally rejected at the First Council of Nicaea in 325 and is regarded as heretical by the Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, Armenian Apostolic Church, Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, and many Protestant denominations that accept and hold to the statements of these early church councils, such as Calvinist (Reformed Christians), Reformed Baptists, Waldensians, and all Trinitarian Christians.
Definitions
Docetism is broadly defined as the teaching that claims that Jesus' body was either absent or illusory. The term 'docetic' is rather nebulous. Two varieties were widely known. In one version, as in Marcionism, Christ was so divine that he could not have been human, since God lacked a material body, which therefore could not physically suffer. Jesus only appeared to be a flesh-and-blood man; his body was a phantasm. Other groups who were accused of docetism held that Jesus was a man in the flesh, but Christ was a separate entity who entered Jesus' body in the form of a dove at his baptism, empowered him to perform miracles, and abandoned him upon his death on the cross.
Christology and theological implications
Docetism's origin within Christianity is obscure. Ernst Käsemann controversially defined the Christology of the Gospel of John as "naïve docetism" in 1968. The ensuing debate reached an impasse as awareness grew that the very term "docetism", like "gnosticism", was difficult to define within the religio-historical framework of the debate. It has occasionally been argued that its origins were in heterodox Judaism or Oriental and Grecian philosophies. The alleged connection with Jewish Christianity would have reflected Jewish Christian concerns with the inviolability of (Jewish) monotheism. Docetic opinions seem to have circulated from very early times, 1 John appearing explicitly to reject them. Some 1stcentury Christian groups developed docetic interpretations partly as a way to make Christian teachings more acceptable to non-Christian ways of thinking about divinity.
In his critique of the theology of Clement of Alexandria, Photius in his Myriobiblon held that Clement's views reflected a quasi-docetic view of the nature of Christ, writing that "[Clement] hallucinates that the Word was not incarnate but only seems to be." (ὀνειροπολεῖ καὶ μὴ σαρκωθῆναι τὸν λόγον ἀλλὰ δόξαι.) In Clement's time, some disputes contended over whether Christ assumed the "psychic" flesh of mankind as heirs to Adam, or the "spiritual" flesh of the resurrection. Docetism largely died out during the first millennium AD.
The opponents against whom Ignatius of Antioch inveighs against are often taken to be Monophysite docetists. In his letter to the Smyrnaeans, 7:1, written around 110AD, he writes:
While these characteristics fit a Monophysite framework, a slight majority of scholars consider that Ignatius was waging a polemic on two distinct fronts, one Jewish, the other docetic; a minority holds that he was concerned with a group that commingled Judaism and docetism. Others, however, doubt that there was actual docetism threatening the churches, arguing that he was merely criticizing Christians who lived Jewishly or that his critical remarks were directed at an Ebionite or Cerinthian possessionist Christology, according to which Christ was a heavenly spirit that temporarily possessed Jesus.Islam and docetism
Some commentators have attempted to make a connection between Islam and docetism using the following Quranic verse:
}}
Some scholars theorise that Islam was influenced by Manichaeism (Docetism) in this view. However, the general consensus is that Manichaeism was not prevalent in Mecca in the 6th and 7th centuries, when Islam developed, and the influence can therefore not be proven.Docetism and Christ myth theory
Since Arthur Drews published his The Christ Myth (Die Christusmythe) in 1909, occasional connections have been drawn between docetist theories and the modern idea that Christ was a myth. Shailer Mathews called Drews' theory a "modern docetism". Frederick Cornwallis Conybeare thought any connection to be based on a misunderstanding of docetism. The idea recurred in classicist Michael Grant's 1977 review of the evidence for Jesus, who compared modern scepticism about a historical Jesus to the ancient docetic idea that Jesus only seemed to come into the world "in the flesh". Modern supporters of the theory did away with "seeming".
Texts believed to include docetism
Non-canonical Christian texts
* Acts of John
* Fundamental Epistle: In Against the Fundamental Epistle, Augustine of Hippo makes reference to Manichaeans believing that Jesus was docetic.
* Gnostic Apocalypse of Peter
* Gospel of Basilides
* Gospel of Judas
* Gospel of Peter
* Gospel of Philip
* Second Treatise of the Great Seth
See also
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Footnotes
References
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External links
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05070c.htm Docetae] in the Catholic Encyclopedia
Category:Christian terminology
Category:Gnostic terms and concepts
Category:Nature of Jesus Christ
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Drachma
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Drachma may refer to:
Ancient drachma, an ancient Greek currency
Modern drachma, a modern Greek currency (1833...2002)
Cretan drachma, currency of the former Cretan State
Drachma proctocomys, moth species, the only species in the Genus Drachma
See also
Dram (disambiguation)
Dirham
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Denarius
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thumb|Denarius of Mark Antony and Octavian, struck at Ephesus in 41 BC. The coin commemorated the two men's defeat of Brutus and Cassius a year earlier as well as celebrating the new Second Triumvirate.|360x360px
thumb|right|Top row (left to right): 157 BC Roman Republic, 73 AD Vespasian, 161 AD Marcus Aurelius, 194 AD Septimius Severus; Second row (left to right): 199 AD Caracalla, 200 AD Julia Domna, 219 AD Elagabalus, 236 AD Maximinus Thrax
The denarius (; : dēnāriī, ) was the standard Roman silver coin from its introduction in the Second Punic War to the reign of Gordian III (AD 238–244), when it was gradually replaced by the antoninianus. It continued to be minted in very small quantities, likely for ceremonial purposes, until and through the Tetrarchy (293–313).
The word dēnārius is derived from the Latin dēnī "containing ten", as its value was originally of 10 assēs. The word for "money" descends from it in Italian (denaro), Slovene (denar), Portuguese (dinheiro), and Spanish (dinero). Its name also survives in the dinar currency.
Its symbol is represented in Unicode as 𐆖 (U+10196), a numeral monogram that appeared on the obverse in the Republican period, denoting the 10 asses ("X") to 1 denarius ("I") conversion rate. However it can also be represented as X̶ (capital letter X with combining long stroke overlay).
History
thumb|300px|Starting with Nero in 64 AD, the Romans continuously debased their silver coins until, by the end of the 3rd century AD, hardly any silver was left.
A predecessor of the denarius was first struck in 269 or 268 BC, five years before the First Punic War, with an average weight of 6.81 grams, or of a Roman pound. Contact with the Greeks had prompted a need for silver coinage in addition to the bronze currency that the Romans were using at that time. This predecessor of the denarius was a Greek-styled silver coin of didrachm weight, which was struck in Neapolis and other Greek cities in southern Italy. These coins were inscribed with a legend that indicated that they were struck for Rome, but in style they closely resembled their Greek counterparts. They were rarely seen at Rome, to judge from finds and hoards, and were probably used either to buy supplies or to pay soldiers.
The first distinctively Roman silver coin appeared around 226 BC. Classical historians have sometimes called these coins "heavy denarii", but they are classified by modern numismatists as quadrigati, a term which survives in one or two ancient texts and is derived from the quadriga, or four-horse chariot, on the reverse. This, with a two-horse chariot or biga which was used as a reverse type for some early denarii, was the prototype for the most common designs used on Roman silver coins for a number of years.
Rome overhauled its coinage shortly before 211 BC, and introduced the denarius alongside a short-lived denomination called the victoriatus. The denarius contained an average 4.5 grams, or of a Roman pound, of silver, and was at first tariffed at ten asses, hence its name, which means 'tenner'. It formed the backbone of Roman currency throughout the Roman Republic and the early Empire.
The denarius began to undergo slow debasement toward the end of the republican period. Under the rule of Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD) its weight fell to 3.9 grams (a theoretical weight of of a Roman pound). It remained at nearly this weight until the time of Nero (AD 37–68), when it was reduced to of a pound, or 3.4 grams. Debasement of the coin's silver content continued after Nero. Later Roman emperors also reduced its weight to 3 grams around the late 3rd century.
The value at its introduction was 10 asses, giving the denarius its name, which translates as "containing ten". In about 141 BC, it was re-tariffed at 16 asses, to reflect the decrease in weight of the as. The denarius continued to be the main coin of the Roman Empire until it was replaced by the antoninianus in the early 3rd century AD. The coin was last issued, in bronze, under Aurelian between 270 and 275 AD, and in the first years of the reign of Diocletian.
Debasement and evolution
Year Event Weight Purity Notes 267 BC Predecessor 6.81 g ? pound. Equals 10 assēs, giving the denarius its name, which translates as "containing ten". The original copper coinage was weight-based, and was related to the Roman pound, the libra, which was about 325 g. The basic copper coin, the as, was to weigh 1 Roman pound. This was a large cast coin, and subdivisions of the as were used. The "pound" (libra, etc.) continued to be used as a currency unit, and survives e.g. in the British monetary system, which still uses the pound, abbreviated as £. 211 BC Introduction 4.55 g 95–98% pound. Denarius first struck. According to Pliny, it was established that the denarius should be given in exchange for ten pounds of bronze, the quinarius for five pounds, and the sestertius for two-and-a-half. But when the as was reduced in weight to one ounce, the denarius became equivalent to 16 assēs, the quinarius to eight, and the sestertius to four; although they retained their original names. It also appears, from Pliny and other writers, that the ancient libra was equivalent to 84 denarii. 200 BC Debasement 3.9 g 95–98% pound. 141 BC Debasement 3.9 g 95–98% pound. Retariffed to equal 16 assēs due to the decrease in weight of the as. 44 BC Debasement 3.9 g 95–98% Death of Julius Caesar, who set the denarius at 3.9 g. Legionary (professional soldier) pay was doubled to 225 denarii per year.14–37 AD 3.9 g 97.5–98% Tiberius slightly improved the fineness as he gathered his infamous hoard of 675 million denarii. 64–68 Debasement 3.41 g 93.5% pound. This more closely matched the Greek drachma. In 64 AD, Nero reduced the standard of the aureus to 45 to the Roman pound (7.2 g) and of the denarius to 96 to the Roman pound (3.30 g). He also lowered the denarius to 94.5% fine. Successive emperors lowered the fineness of the denarius; in 180 Commodus reduced its weight by one-eighth to 108 to the pound. 85–107 Debasement 3.41 g 93.5% Reduction in silver content under Domitian 148–161 Debasement 3.41 g 83.5% 193–235 Debasement 3.41 g 83.5% Several emperors (193–235) steadily debased the denarius from a standard of 78.5% to 50% fine. In 212 Caracalla reduced the weight of the aureus from 45 to 50 to the Roman pound. They also coined the aes from a bronze alloy with a heavy lead admixture, and discontinued fractional denominations below the as. In 215 Caracalla introduced the antoninianus (5.1 g; 52% fine), a double denarius, containing 80% of the silver of two denarii. The coin invariably carried the radiate imperial portrait. Elagabalus demonetized the coin in 219, but the senatorial emperors Pupienus and Balbinus in 238 revived the antoninianus as the principal silver denomination which successive emperors reduced to a less intrinsically valuable billon coin (2.60 g; 2% fine). 241 Debasement 3.41 g 48% 274 Double Denarius 3.41 g 5% In 274, the emperor Aurelian reformed the currency and his denominations remained in use until the great recoinage of Diocletian in 293. Aurelian struck a radiate aurelianianus of increased weight (84 to the Roman pound) and fineness (5% fine) that was tariffed at five notational denarii (sometimes called "common denarii" or "denarii communes" by modern writers, although this phrase does not appear in any ancient text). The coin carried on the reverse the numerals XXI, or in Greek κα (both meaning 21 or 20:1). Some scholars believe that this shows that the coin was equal to 20 sestertii (or 5 denarii), but it is more likely that it was intended to guarantee that it contained or 5% of silver, and was thus slightly better than many of the coins in circulation. The aureus (minted at 50 or 60 to the Roman pound) was exchanged at rates of 600 to 1,000 denarii, equivalent to 120 to 200 aurelianiani. Rare fractions of billion denarii, and of bronze sestertii and assēs, were also coined. At the same time, Aurelian reorganized the provincial mint at Alexandria, and he minted an improved Alexandrine tetradrachmon that might have been tariffed at par with the aurelianianus.
The emperor Tacitus in 276 briefly doubled the silver content of the aurelianianus and halved its tariffing to 2.5 d.c. (hence coins of Antioch and Tripolis (in Phoenicia) carry the value marks X.I), but Probus (276–282) immediately returned the aurelianianus to the standard and tariffing of Aurelian, and was the official tariffing until the reform of Diocletian in 293. 755 Novus denarius (new penny) Pepin the Short (), the first king of the Carolingian dynasty and father of Charlemagne, minted the novus denarius ("new penny"): 240 pennies minted from one Carolingian pound. So a single coin contained 21 grains of silver. Around 755, Pepin's Carolingian Reform established the European monetary system, which can be expressed as: 1 pound 20 shillings 240 pennies. Originally the pound was a weight of silver rather than a coin, and from a pound of pure silver 240 pennies were struck. The Carolingian Reform restored the silver content of the penny that was already in circulation and was the direct descendant of the Roman denarius. The shilling was equivalent to the solidus, the money of account that prevailed in Europe before the Carolingian Reform; it originated from the Byzantine gold coin that was the foundation of the international monetary system for more than 500 years. Debts contracted before the Carolingian Reform were defined in solidi. For three centuries following the Carolingian Reform, the only coin minted in Europe was the silver penny. Shillings and pounds were units of account used for convenience to express large numbers of pence, not actual coins. The Carolingian Reform also reduced the number of mints, strengthened royal authority over the mints, and provided for uniform design of coins. All coins bore the ruler's name, initial, or title, signifying royal sanction of the quality of the coins. Charlemagne spread the Carolingian system throughout Western Europe. The Italian lira and the French livre were derived from the Latin word for pound. Until the French Revolution, the unit of account in France was the livre, which equalled 20 sols or sous, each of which in turn equalled 12 deniers. During the Revolution the franc replaced the livre, and Napoleon's conquest spread the franc to Switzerland and Belgium. The Italian unit of account remained the lira, and in Britain the pound-shilling-penny relationship survived until 1971. Even in England the pennies were eventually debased, leaving 240 pennies representing substantially less than a pound of silver, and the pound as a monetary unit became divorced from a pound weight of silver. After the breakup of the Carolingian Empire pennies debased much faster, particularly in Mediterranean Europe, and in 1172 Genoa began minting a silver coin equal to four pennies. Rome, Florence, and Venice followed with coins of denominations greater than a penny, and late in the 12th century Venice minted a silver coin equal to 24 pennies. By the mid-13th century Florence and Genoa were minting gold coins, effectively ending the reign of the silver penny (denier, denarius) as the only circulating coin in Europe. 785 Penny Offa, king of Mercia, minted and introduced to England a penny of 22.5 grains of silver. The coin's designated value, however, was that of 24 troy grains of silver (one pennyweight, or of a troy pound, or about 1.56 grams), with the difference being a premium attached by virtue of the minting into coins (seigniorage). The penny led to the term "penny weight". 240 actual pennies (22.5 grains; minus the 1.5 grain for the seigniorage) weighed only 5,400 troy grains, known as a Saxon pound and later known as the tower pound, a unit used only by mints. The tower pound was abolished in the 16th century. However, 240 pennyweights (24 grains) made one troy pound of silver in weight, and the monetary value of 240 pennies also became known as a "pound". The silver penny remained the primary unit of coinage for about 500 years. 790 Penny 1.76 g 95–96% Charlemagne new penny with smaller diameter but greater weight. Average weight of 1.7 g, but ideal theoretical mass of 1.76 g. Purity is from 95% to 96%. Penny1.58 g 99% Tower pound of 5400 grains abolished and replaced by the Troy pound of 5760 grains. 1158 Penny 92.5% The purity of 92.5% silver (i.e. sterling silver) was instituted by Henry II in 1158 with the "Tealby Penny" — a hammered coin. 1500s Penny By the 16th century it contained about a third the silver content of a Troy pennyweight of 24 grains. 1915 Penny The penny, now struck in bronze, was worth around one-sixth of its value during the Middle Ages. British government sources suggest that there has been an 8700% price inflation since 1914, or an average of 4.2% annually.
Value, comparisons and silver content
thumb|Flavia Domitilla, wife of Vespasian and mother of Titus and Domitian
thumb|Quintus Antonius Balbus ()
1 gold aureus 2 gold quinarii 25 silver denarii 50 silver quinarii 100 bronze sestertii 200 bronze dupondii 400 copper asses 800 copper semisses 1,600 copper quadrantes
It is difficult to give even rough comparative values for money from before the 20th century, as the range of products and services available for purchase was so different. During the republic (509 BC – 27 BC), a legionary earned 112.5 denarii per year (0.3 denarii per day). Under Julius Caesar, this was doubled to 225 denarii/yr, with soldiers having to pay for their own food and arms, while in the reign of Augustus a Centurion received at least 3,750 denarii per year, and for the highest rank, 15,000 denarii.
By the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire (), a common soldier or unskilled laborer would be paid 1 denarius/day (with no tax deductions), around 300% inflation compared to the early period. Using the cost of bread as a baseline, this pay equates to around US$20 in 2013 terms. Expressed in terms of the price of silver, and assuming 0.999 purity, a troy ounce denarius had a precious metal value of around US$2.60 in 2021.
At the height of the Roman Empire a sextarius (546 ml or about 2 American cups) of ordinary wine cost roughly one dupondius ( of a denarius); after Diocletian's Edict on Maximum Prices was issued in 301 AD, the same item cost 8 debased common denarii – 6300% inflation.
Silver content plummeted across the lifespan of the denarius. Under the Roman Empire (after Nero) the denarius contained approximately 50 grains, 3.24 grams, or 0.105 ozt (about troy ounce). The fineness of the silver content varied with political and economic circumstances. From a purity of greater than 90% silver in the 1st century AD, the denarius fell to under 60% purity by 200 AD, and plummeted to 5% purity by 300 AD. By the reign of Gallienus, the antoninianus was a copper coin with a thin silver wash.
Influence
In the final years of the 1st century BC Tincomarus, a local ruler in southern Britain, started issuing coins that appear to have been made from melted down denarii. The coins of Eppillus, issued around Calleva Atrebatum around the same time, appear to have derived design elements from various denarii, such as those of Augustus and M. Volteius. It also survived in France as the name of a coin, the denier. The denarius also survives in the common Arabic name for a currency unit, the dinar used from pre-Islamic times, and still used in several modern Arab nations. The major currency unit in former Principality of Serbia, Kingdom of Serbia and former Yugoslavia was dinar, and it is still used in present-day Serbia. The Macedonian currency denar is also derived from the Roman denarius. The Italian word denaro, the Spanish word dinero, the Portuguese word dinheiro, and the Slovene word , all meaning money, are also derived from Latin denarius. The pre-decimal currency of the United Kingdom until 1970 of pounds, shillings and pence was abbreviated as £sd, with "d" referring to denarius and standing for penny.
Use in the Bible
In the New Testament, the gospels refer to the denarius as a day's wage for a common laborer (Matthew 20:2, John 12:5). In the Book of Revelation, during the Third Seal: Black Horse, a choinix ("quart") of wheat and three quarts of barley were each valued at one denarius. Bible scholar Robert H. Mounce says the price of the wheat and barley as described in the vision appears to be ten to twelve times their normal cost in ancient times. Revelation thus describes a condition where basic goods are sold at greatly inflated prices. Thus, the black horse rider depicts times of deep scarcity or famine, but not of starvation. Apparently, a choinix of wheat was the daily ration of one adult. Thus, in the conditions pictured by Revelation 6, the normal income for a working-class family would buy enough food for only one person. The less costly barley would feed three people for one day's wages.
The denarius is also mentioned in the Parable of the Unforgiving Servant & in Parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:25–37). The Render unto Caesar passage in Matthew 22:15–22 and Mark 12:13–17 uses the word (δηνάριον) to describe the coin held up by Jesus, translated in the King James Bible as "tribute penny". It is commonly thought to be a denarius with the head of Tiberius.
See also
Denarius of L. Censorinus – for the detailed description of a specific Roman denarius
Dupondius
French denier
Gold Dinar
Ides of March Coin
Macedonian denar
Sestertius
Solidus (coin)
Tribute penny
Pay (Roman army)
Notes
References
External links
Denarius
From Octavian to Augustus: Images Illustrating His Rise to Power (archived)
Denarius – A Roman soldier's daily pay. .
Category:Coins of ancient Rome
Category:Coins in the Bible
Category:New Testament Latin words and phrases
Category:Silver coins
Category:211 BC
Category:Dinar
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Della Rovere
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|titles* Pope (not hereditary)
* Duke of Urbino
* Duke of Sora
* Lord of Pesaro
* Lord of Senigallia
* Lord of Vinovo
* Count of Vinovo|styles|founded14th century|founderLeonardo Beltramo della Rovere|current head|final headVittoria della Rovere, died 1694|deposition}}
The House of Della Rovere (; literally "of the oak tree") was a powerful Italian noble family. It had humble origins in Savona, in Liguria, and acquired power and influence through nepotism and ambitious marriages arranged by two Della Rovere popes: Francesco Della Rovere, who ruled as Sixtus IV from 1471 to 1484 and his nephew Giuliano, who became Julius II in 1503. Sixtus IV built the Sistine Chapel, which was named after him. Julius II was patron to Michelangelo, Raphael and many other Renaissance artists and started the modern rebuilt of St. Peter's Basilica. Also the Basilica of San Pietro in Vincoli in Rome was the family church of the Della Rovere. Members of the family were influential in the Church of Rome, and as dukes of Urbino, dukes of Sora and lords of Senigallia; the title of Urbino was extinguished with the death of Francesco Maria II in 1631, and the family died out with the death of his granddaughter Vittoria, Grand Duchess of Tuscany. History Francesco Della Rovere was born into a poor family in Liguria in north-west Italy in 1414, the son of Leonardo della Rovere of Savona. A Franciscan who became Minister General of his order, then cardinal, he had a reputation for unworldliness until he was elected pope in 1471. As Sixtus IV he was both wealthy and powerful, and at once set about giving power and wealth to his nephews of the Della Rovere and Riario families. Within months of his election, he had made Giuliano della Rovere (the future pope Julius II) and Pietro Riario both cardinals and bishops; four other nephews were also made cardinals. He made Giovanni Della Rovere, who was not a priest, prefect of Rome, and arranged for him to marry into the da Montefeltro family, dukes of Urbino. Sixtus claimed descent from a noble Della Rovere family, the counts of Vinovo in Piemonte, and adopted their coat-of-arms.
Guidobaldo da Montefeltro adopted Francesco Maria I della Rovere, his sister's child and nephew of Pope Julius II. Guidobaldo I, who was heirless, called Francesco Maria at his court, and named him as heir of the Duchy of Urbino in 1504, this through the intercession of Julius II. In 1508, Francesco Maria inherited the duchy thereby starting the line of Rovere Dukes of Urbino. That dynasty ended in 1626 when Pope Urban VIII incorporated Urbino into the papal dominions. As compensation to the last sovereign duke, the title only could be continued by Francesco Maria II, and after his death by his heir, Federico Ubaldo.
Vittoria, last descendant of the della Rovere family (she was the only child of Federico Ubaldo), married Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany. They had two children: Cosimo III, Tuscany's longest reigning monarch, and Francesco Maria de' Medici, a prince of the Church.
Della Rovere Dukes of Urbino (1508)
#Francesco Maria I della Rovere (1490–1538)
#Guidobaldo II della Rovere (1514–1574)
#Francesco Maria II della Rovere (1549–1631) - duchy abolished, title continued
#Federico Ubaldo della Rovere (1605–1623) - title became extinct with his death.
Other people with the same surname
Among the many people who did not belong to this family, but bore the same name, are:
* the Della Rovere family, counts of Vinovo, among them:
** Domenico della Rovere of Vinovo, cardinal, who built the there
** his brother Cristoforo della Rovere of Vinovo
and various artists, including:
* the brothers Giovan Battista Della Rovere and Giovan Mauro Della Rovere, both known as "il Fiamminghino"
* an unrelated Lombard family of painters and illuminators active in the seventeenth century.
Gallery
<gallery mode"packed" heights"160px" style="text-align:left; font-size:93%">
File:Tizian Portrait Papst Sixtus IV ca. 1545-46 Uffizien Florenz-01 (cropped).jpg|Francesco della Rovere, later Sixtus IV
File:Pope Julius II.jpg|Giuliano della Rovere, later Julius II
File:Titian - Portrait of Francesco Maria della Rovere, Duke of Urbino - WGA22982.jpg|Francesco Maria I della Rovere
File:Titian (Tiziano Vecellio) - Portrait of Guidobaldo II della Rovere, Duke of Urbino - 1956.7.1 - Yale University Art Gallery.jpg|Guidobaldo II della Rovere
File:Francesco II della Rovere.jpg|Francesco Maria II della Rovere
File:Sustermans, Justus - Vittoria della Rovere con una rosa.jpg|Vittoria della Rovere
</gallery>
<gallery mode"packed" heights"160px" style="text-align:left; font-size:93%">
File:Urbino, palazzo ducale visto dal mercatale 02.JPG|Palazzo Ducale, Urbino
File:Panoramica P.za Duca Rocca.jpg|Rocca Della Rovere in Senigallia
File:Rocca Roveresca2 - Mondavio, Italia.JPG|Rocca Roveresca in Mondavio
File:Palazzo Della Rovere di San Lorenzo in Campo.JPG|Palazzo Della Rovere in San Lorenzo in Campo
File:Borgo - palazzo dei Penitenzieri 1150682.JPG|Palazzo Della Rovere in Rome
</gallery>
References
Further reading
* Ian Verstegen (2007). [https://books.google.com/books?id=-PCw5quwyY0C Patronage and Dynasty: the Rise of the Della Rovere in Renaissance Italy]. Kirksville, Missouri: Truman State University Press.
Category:Italian noble families
Category:Papal families
Category:Roman Catholic families
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Della_Rovere
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David Mamet
|
|birth_place = Chicago, Illinois, U.S.
|occupation =
|notableworks The Duck Variations (1971)<br /> Sexual Perversity in Chicago (1974)<br />Glengarry Glen Ross (1983)
|period = 1970–present
|spouse =
*
}}
|children 4, including Zosia Mamet and Clara Mamet
|education = Goddard College (BA)
|signature = David Mamet Signature.svg
}}
David Alan Mamet (; born November 30, 1947) is an American playwright, filmmaker, and author.
He won a Pulitzer Prize and received Tony nominations for his plays Glengarry Glen Ross (1984) and Speed-the-Plow (1988). He first gained critical acclaim for a trio of 1970s off-Broadway plays: The Duck Variations, Sexual Perversity in Chicago, and American Buffalo. His plays Race and The Penitent, respectively, opened on Broadway in 2009 and previewed off-Broadway in 2017.
Feature films that Mamet both wrote and directed include House of Games (1987), Homicide (1991), The Spanish Prisoner (1997), and his biggest commercial success, Heist (2001). His screenwriting credits include The Postman Always Rings Twice (1981), The Verdict (1982), The Untouchables (1987), Hoffa (1992), Wag the Dog (1997), and Hannibal (2001). Mamet himself wrote the screenplay for the 1992 adaptation of Glengarry Glen Ross, and wrote and directed the 1994 adaptation of his play Oleanna (1992). He created and produced the CBS series The Unit (2006–2009).
Mamet's books include: On Directing Film (1991), a commentary and dialogue about film-making; The Old Religion (1997), a novel about the lynching of Leo Frank; Five Cities of Refuge: Weekly Reflections on Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy (2004), a Torah commentary with Rabbi Lawrence Kushner; The Wicked Son (2006), a study of Jewish self-hatred and antisemitism; Bambi vs. Godzilla, a commentary on the movie business; The Secret Knowledge: On the Dismantling of American Culture (2011), a commentary on cultural and political issues; Three War Stories (2013), a trio of novellas about the physical and psychological effects of war; and Everywhere an Oink Oink: An Embittered, Dyspeptic, and Accurate Report of Forty Years in Hollywood (2023), an autobiographical account of his experiences in Hollywood.
Early life and education
Mamet was born in 1947 in Chicago to Lenore June (née Silver), a teacher, and Bernard Morris Mamet, a labor attorney. He is Jewish. His paternal grandparents were Polish Jews. Mamet has said his parents were communists and described himself as a "red diaper baby". One of his earliest jobs was as a busboy at Chicago's London House and The Second City. He also worked as an actor, editor for Oui magazine and as a cab-driver. He was educated at the progressive Francis W. Parker School and at Goddard College in Plainfield, Vermont. At the Chicago Public Library Foundation 20th anniversary fundraiser in 2006, though, Mamet announced "My alma mater is the Chicago Public Library. I got what little educational foundation I got in the third-floor reading room, under the tutelage of a Coca-Cola sign".
After a move to Chicago's North Side, Mamet met theater director Robert Sickinger, and began to work occasionally at Sickinger's Hull House Theatre. Thus began Mamet's lifelong involvement with the theater.
Career
Theater
Mamet is a founding member of the Atlantic Theater Company; he first gained acclaim for a trio of off-Broadway plays in 1976, The Duck Variations, Sexual Perversity in Chicago, and American Buffalo. His play The Anarchist, starring Patti LuPone and Debra Winger, in her Broadway debut, opened on Broadway on November 13, 2012, in previews and was scheduled to close on December 16, 2012. His 2017 play The Penitent previewed off-Broadway on February 8, 2017.
In 2002, Mamet was inducted into the American Theater Hall of Fame. Mamet later received the PEN/Laura Pels Theater Award for Grand Master of American Theater in 2010. In 2017, Mamet released an online class for writers entitled David Mamet teaches dramatic writing.
In 2019 Mamet returned to the London West End with a new play, Bitter Wheat, at the Garrick Theatre, starring John Malkovich. In 2023 it was announced that a new Mamet play, titled Henry Johnson, was expected to debut in Los Angeles starring Shia LaBeouf.FilmMamet's first film work was as a screenwriter, later directing his own scripts. According to Joe Mantegna, Mamet worked as a script doctor for the 1978 film Towing. Mamet's first produced screenplay was the 1981 production of The Postman Always Rings Twice, based on James M. Cain's novel. He received an Academy Award nomination one year later for the 1982 legal drama, The Verdict. He also wrote the screenplays for The Untouchables (1987), Hoffa (1992), The Edge (1997), Wag the Dog (1997), Ronin (1998), and Hannibal (2001). He received a second Academy Award nomination for Wag the Dog.
In 1987, Mamet made his film directing debut with his screenplay House of Games, which won Best Screenplay awards at the 1987 Venice Film Festival and the Film of the Year in 1989 from the London Film Critics' Circle Awards. The film starred his then-wife, Lindsay Crouse, and many longtime stage associates and friends, including fellow Goddard College graduates. Mamet was quoted as saying, "It was my first film as a director and I needed support, so I stacked the deck." After House of Games, Mamet later wrote and directed two more films focusing on the world of con artists, The Spanish Prisoner (1997) and Heist (2001). Among those films, Heist enjoyed the biggest commercial success.
Other films that Mamet both wrote and directed include: Things Change (1988), Homicide (1991) (nominated for the Palme d'Or at 1991 Cannes Film Festival and won a "Screenwriter of the Year" award for Mamet from the London Film Critics' Circle Awards), Oleanna (1994), The Winslow Boy (1999), State and Main (2000), Spartan (2004), Redbelt (2008), and the 2013 bio-pic TV movie Phil Spector.
A feature-length film, a thriller titled Blackbird, was intended for release in 2015, but is still in development.
<!-- Deleted image removed: -->
When Mamet adapted his play for the 1992 film Glengarry Glen Ross, he wrote an additional part (including the monologue "Coffee's for closers") for Alec Baldwin.
Mamet continues to work with an informal repertory company for his films, including Crouse, William H. Macy, Joe Mantegna, and Rebecca Pidgeon, as well as the aforementioned school friends.
Mamet rewrote the script for Ronin under the pseudonym "Richard Weisz" and turned in an early version of a script for Malcolm X which was rejected by director Spike Lee. Mamet also wrote an unproduced biopic script about Roscoe Arbuckle with Chris Farley intended to portray him. In 2000, Mamet directed a film version of Catastrophe, a one-act play by Samuel Beckett featuring Harold Pinter and John Gielgud (in his final screen performance). In 2008, he wrote and directed the mixed martial arts movie Redbelt, about a martial arts instructor tricked into fighting in a professional bout.
In On Directing Film, Mamet advocates for a method of storytelling based on Eisenstein's montage theory, stating that the story should be told through the juxtaposition of uninflected images. This method relies heavily on the cut between scenes, and Mamet urges directors to eliminate as much narration as possible. Mamet asserts that directors should focus on getting the point of a scene across, rather than simply following a protagonist, or adding visually beautiful or intriguing shots. Films should create order from disorder in search of the objective.
In 2023, reports emerged that Mamet would direct and co-write a new film titled Assassination, his first film since 2008. The film will center around the Chicago Mob ordering the assassination of John F. Kennedy, and will star Viggo Mortensen, Shia LaBeouf, Courtney Love, Al Pacino, and John Travolta. The film's production was scheduled to start in September 2023. In October, Barry Levinson took over as the film's director, while Mamet remained as the screenwriter.
In March 2024, Mamet stated that he is currently writing a screenplay centering about Hunter Biden, the second son of U.S. President Joe Biden. In June, Deadline reported that the film, titled The Prince, will directed by Cameron Van Hoy and star Scott Haze as the lead character Parker; alongside Nicolas Cage, J.K. Simmons, Giancarlo Esposito, and Andy Garcia. Mamet added that the film won't be "a travelogue", and will be inspired by Hunter's life, rather than serve as a biopic.
Books
Mamet published the essay collection Writing in Restaurants in 1986, followed by the poetry collection The Hero Pony in 1990. He has also published a series of short plays, monologues and four novels, The Village (1994), The Old Religion (1997), Wilson: A Consideration of the Sources (2000), and Chicago (2018). He has written several non-fiction texts, and children's stories, including True and False: Heresy and Common Sense for the Actor (1997). In 2004 he published a lauded version of the classical Faust story, Faustus, however, when the play was staged in San Francisco during the spring of 2004, it was not well received by critics. On May 1, 2010, Mamet released a graphic novel The Trials of Roderick Spode (The Human Ant).
Mamet detailed his conversion from modern liberalism to "a reformed liberal" in The Secret Knowledge: On the Dismantling of American Culture in 2011. Mamet published Three War Stories, a collection of novellas, in 2013 ; the novel The Diary of a Porn Star by Priscilla Wriston-Ranger: As Told to David Mamet With an Afterword by Mr. Mamet in 2019; and the political commentary Recessional: The Death of Free Speech and the Cost of a Free Lunch in 2022. In 2023 Mamet recounted his experiences in Hollywood and the movie-making industry in Everywhere an Oink Oink: An Embittered, Dyspeptic, and Accurate Report of Forty Years in Hollywood.
Television and radio
Mamet wrote one episode of Hill Street Blues, "A Wasted Weekend", that aired in 1987. His then-wife, Lindsay Crouse, appeared in numerous episodes (including that one) as Officer McBride. Mamet is also the creator, producer and frequent writer of the television series The Unit, where he wrote a well-circulated [http://movieline.com/2010/03/23/david-mamets-memo-to-the-writers-of-the-unit/ memo] to the writing staff. He directed a third-season episode of The Shield with Shawn Ryan. In 2007, Mamet directed two television commercials for Ford Motor Company. The two 30-second ads featured the Ford Edge and were filmed in Mamet's signature style of fast-paced dialogue and clear, simple imagery. Mamet's sister, Lynn, is a producer and writer for television shows, such as The Unit and Law & Order.
Mamet has contributed several dramas to BBC Radio through Jarvis & Ayres Productions, including an adaptation of Glengarry Glen Ross for BBC Radio 3 and new dramas for BBC Radio 4. The comedy ''Keep Your Pantheon (or On the Whole I'd Rather Be in Mesopotamia) was aired in 2007. The Christopher Boy's Communion'' was another Jarvis & Ayres production, first broadcast on BBC Radio 4 on March 8, 2021.
Style and reception
Mamet speak
Mamet's style of writing dialogue, marked by a cynical, street-smart edge, has come to be called Mamet speak. Mamet himself has criticized his (and other writers') tendency to write "pretty" at the expense of sound, logical plots. When asked how he developed his style for writing dialogue, Mamet said, "In my family, in the days prior to television, we liked to while away the evenings by making ourselves miserable, based solely on our ability to speak the language viciously. That's probably where my ability was honed."
Gender issues
Mamet's plays have frequently sparked debate and controversy. Following a 1992 staging of Oleanna, a play in which a college student accuses her professor of trying to rape her, a critic reported that the play divided the audience by gender and recounted that "couples emerged screaming at each other".
Archives
The papers of David Mamet were sold to the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin in 2007 and first opened for research in 2009. The growing collection consists mainly of manuscripts and related production materials for most of his plays, films, and other writings, but also includes his personal journals from 1966 to 2005. In 2015, the Ransom Center secured a second major addition to Mamet's papers, including more recent works. Additional materials relating to Mamet and his career can be found in the Ransom Center's collections of Robert De Niro, Mel Gussow, Tom Stoppard, Sam Shepard, Paul Schrader, Don DeLillo, and John Russell Brown.Personal lifeMamet and actress Lindsay Crouse married in 1977 and divorced in 1990. The couple have two children. Mamet has been married to actress and singer-songwriter Rebecca Pidgeon since 1991, and they have two children. Mamet and Pidgeon live in Santa Monica, California.Political viewsIn 2005, Mamet became a contributing blogger for The Huffington Post, drawing satirical cartoons with themes including political strife in Israel. In a 2008 essay at The Village Voice titled "Why I Am No Longer a 'Brain-Dead Liberal he discussed how his political views had shifted from liberalism to conservatism. In interviews, Mamet has highlighted his agreement with free market theorists such as Friedrich Hayek, the historian Paul Johnson, and economist Thomas Sowell, whom Mamet called "one of our greatest minds". In 2022, Mamet declined to explicitly label himself a Republican, but described himself as a conservative who "would like to conserve those things I grew up with: the love of family, the love of the country, love of service, love of God, love of community". In the same interview, Mamet went on to say that "there are famous dramatists and novelists [in the UK] whose works are full of anti-Semitic filth." He refused to give examples because of British libel laws (the interview was conducted in New York City for the Financial Times). He is known for his pro-Israel positions; in his book The Secret Knowledge he claimed that "Israelis would like to live in peace within their borders; the Arabs would like to kill them all."
Mamet endorsed Republican Mitt Romney for president in 2012, and wrote an article for The Jewish Journal of Greater Los Angeles imploring fellow Jewish Americans to vote for Romney.
In an essay for Newsweek, published on January 29, 2013, Mamet argued against gun control laws: "It was intended to guard us against this inevitable decay of government that the Constitution was written. Its purpose was and is not to enthrone a Government superior to an imperfect and confused electorate, but to protect us from such a government."
Mamet has described the NFL anthem protests as "absolutely fucking despicable". After Trump lost the election, Mamet appeared to endorse claims that the election had been illegitimate in his 2022 book Recessional: The Death of Free Speech and the Cost of a Free Lunch, though shortly after its publication, he said he "misspoke" on the subject.
In 2022, Mamet made comments in support of Florida's Parental Rights in Education Act, called the "Don't Say Gay" bill by its critics, which restricts what public school teachers in Florida can discuss with children in kindergarten through third grade about sexual orientation and gender identity. In an interview with Fox News, Mamet claimed that the law was necessary because teachers "are abusing [children] mentally and using sex to do so", further alleging that "teachers are inclined, particularly men because men are predators, to pedophilia".Works Theatre
* Lakeboat (1970)
* The Duck Variations (1972)
* Lone Canoe (1972)
* Sexual Perversity in Chicago (1974)
* Squirrels (1974)
* American Buffalo (1975)
* Reunion (1976)
* The Water Engine (1976)
* A Life in the Theatre (1977)
* The Woods (1977)
* The Revenge of the Space Pandas, or Binky Rudich and the Two-Speed Clock (1978)
* Mr. Happiness (1978)
* Prairie du Chien (1978)
* The Blue Hour (1979)
* Lakeboat (revision) (1980)
* Edmond (1982)
* The Frog Prince (1983)
* Glengarry Glen Ross (1983)
* The Shawl (1985)
* Goldberg Street: Short Plays and Monologues (1985)
* The Poet & The Rent (1986)
* Speed-the-Plow (1988)
* Bobby Gould in Hell (1989)
* Oleanna (1992)
* The Cryptogram (1994)
* The Old Neighborhood (1997)
* Boston Marriage (1999)
* Faustus (2004)
* Romance (2005)
* The Voysey Inheritance (adaptation) (2005)
* Keep Your Pantheon (2007)
* November (2007)
* The Vikings and Darwin (2008)
* Race (2009)
* School (2009)
* The Anarchist (2012)
* China Doll (2015)
* The Penitent (2017)
* Bitter Wheat (2019)
* ''The Christopher Boy's Communion (2020)
* Henry Johnson (2023)
Film
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Title
!width=65| Director
!width=65| Writer
! Notes
|-
| 1981
| The Postman Always Rings Twice
|
|
|
|-
| 1982
| The Verdict
|
|
|
|-
|rowspan=2| 1987
| The Untouchables
|
|
|
|-
| House of Games
|
|
|
|-
| 1988
| Things Change
|
|
|
|-
| 1989
| We're No Angels
|
|
|
|-
| 1991
| Homicide
|
|
|
|-
|rowspan=2| 1992
| Glengarry Glen Ross
|
|
| Also based on his play
|-
| Hoffa
|
|
| Also associate producer
|-
|1994
| Oleanna
|
|
| rowspan=2| Also based on his play
|-
| 1996
| American Buffalo
|
|
|-
|rowspan=3| 1997
| The Spanish Prisoner
|
|
|
|-
| The Edge
|
|
|
|-
| Wag the Dog
|
|
|
|-
| 1998
| Ronin
|
|
| Credited as "Richard Weisz"
|-
| 1999
| The Winslow Boy
|
|
|
|-
|rowspan=2| 2000
| Lakeboat
|
|
| Also based on his play
|-
| State and Main
|
|
|
|-
|rowspan=2| 2001
| Hannibal
|
|
|
|-
| Heist
|
|
|
|-
| 2004
| Spartan
|
|
|
|-
| 2005
| Edmond
|
|
| Also based on his play
|-
| 2008
| Redbelt
|
|
|
|-
| 2023
| The Penitent
|
|
| Also based on his play
|-
|TBA
|The Prince
|
|
| Filming
|}
Short film
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Title
!width=65| Director
!width=65| Writer
|-
|2000
|Catastrophe
|
|
|-
|rowspan=5|2010
|Lost Masterpieces of Pornography
|
|
|-
|Inside the Actor's Workshop
|
|
|-
|The Marquee
|
|
|-
|Our Valley
|
|
|-
|Two Painters
|
|
|}
Television
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Title
!width=65| Director
!width=65| Writer
! Executive<br>Producer
! Notes
|-
|1987
|Hill Street Blues
|
|
|
| TV Series<br/>Episode "A Wasted Weekend"
|-
| 1992
| The Water Engine
|
|
|
|rowspan=2| TV Movie<br/>Also based on his play
|-
|1993
|A Life in the Theatre
|
|
|
|-
| 1994
| Texan
|
|
|
| TV Movie
|-
| 1996
| Ricky Jay and His 52 Assistants
|
|
|
|TV Special
|-
| 1999
| Lansky
|
|
|
|TV Movie
|-
|2004
|The Shield
|
|
|
| TV Series<br/>Episode "Strays"
|-
|2006-2009
|The Unit
|
|
|
| TV Series; also creator<br/>Directed 4 episodes and wrote 11 episodes
|-
| 2013
| Phil Spector
|
|
|
|TV Movie
|}
Acting roles
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Title
!width=65| Role
! Notes
|-
| 1987
|Black Widow
|Herb
|Theatrical feature film
|-
| 1992
| The Water Engine
| Brown Haired Man
|TV Movie
|-
| 1996
|Dr. Katz, Professional Therapist
|rowspan="2"| Himself (voice)
| TV animated series<br/>Episode: "New Telephone System"
|-
|2011
|The Simpsons
| TV animated series<br/>Episode: "Homer the Father"
|-
|2023
|Beau is Afraid
| Rabbi (voice)
| Theatrical feature film
|}
Awards and nominations
{|class="wikitable"
|-
!Association
!Year
!Category
!Project
!Result
! Ref.
|-
!colspan=6|Theater Awards
|-
| rowspan=7| Drama Desk Awards
| 1977
| rowspan=7| Outstanding Play
| American Buffalo
|
|
|-
| 1978
| The Water Engine
|
|
|-
|
| Edmond
|
|
|-
| 1984
| Glengarry Glen Ross
|
|
|-
| 1988
| Speed-the-Plow
|
|
|-
| 1993
| Oleanna
|
|
|-
| 1995
| The Cryptogram''
|
|
|-
| rowspan=2|New York Drama Critics' Circle
| 1977
|rowspan=2| Best American Play
| American Buffalo
|
|
|-
| 1984
| Glengarry Glen Ross
|
|
|-
| rowspan=2|Pulitzer Prize
| 1984
|rowspan=2| Drama
| Glengarry Glen Ross
|
|
|-
| 1995
| The Cryptogram
|
|
|-
| rowspan=2|Tony Awards
| 1984
|rowspan=2| Best Play
| Glengarry Glen Ross
|
|
|-
| 1988
| Speed-the-Plow
|
|
|-
!colspan=6|Film and Television Awards
|-
| rowspan=2|Academy Awards
| 1982
| rowspan=2| Best Adapted Screenplay
| The Verdict
|
|
|-
| 1997
| Wag the Dog
|
|
|-
| British Academy Film Awards
| 1998
| Best Adapted Screenplay
| Wag the Dog
|
|
|-
| rowspan=3|Golden Globe Awards
| 1983
| rowspan="3"| Best Screenplay
| The Verdict
|
|
|-
| 1987
| House of Games
|
|
|-
| Outstanding Directing for a Limited Series or Movie
|
|-
| Outstanding Writing for a Limited Series or Movie
|
|-
|}
Bibliography
* Writing in Restaurants (1987)
* Some Freaks (1989)
* On Directing Film (1991)
* The Cabin: Reminiscence and Diversions (1992)
* The Village (1994)
* ''A Whore's Profession (1994)
* Make-Believe Town: Essays and Remembrances (1996)
* The Old Religion (1997)
* Three Uses of the Knife (1998)
* True and False: Heresy and Common Sense for the Actor (1999)
* The Chinaman (1999)
* Jafsie and John Henry: Essays (1999)
* Wilson: A Consideration of the Sources (2000)
* South of the Northeast Kingdom (2002)
* Five Cities of Refuge: Weekly Reflections on Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy (with Lawrence Kushner) (2003)
* The Wicked Son: Anti-Semitism, Self-hatred, and the Jews (2006)
* Bambi Vs. Godzilla: On the Nature, Purpose, and Practice of the Movie Business (2007)
* Theatre (2010)
* The Trials of Roderick Spode (The Human Ant) (2010)
* The Secret Knowledge: On the Dismantling of American Culture (2011)
* Three War Stories (2013)
* Chicago (2018)
* The Diary of a Porn Star by Priscilla Wriston-Ranger: As Told to David Mamet With an Afterword by Mr. Mamet (2019)
* Recessional: The Death of Free Speech and the Cost of a Free Lunch'' (2022)
* Everywhere an Oink Oink: An Embittered, Dyspeptic, and Accurate Report of Forty Years in Hollywood (2023)
Unrealized projects
* Ace in the Hole remake (1990) – Script for Brian De Palma to direct
* The Autobiography of Malcolm X (1992) – Unused early draft
* Ordinary Daylight (1992) – Based on the memoir, for Warner Bros.
* Moby-Dick (1990s) – Based on the novel
* Lolita (1997) – Unused early draft
* Diary of a Young London Physician (1998) – Based on Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde, for Michael Corrente to direct
* Investigation (1999) – Script for USA Films
* Payback (1998) – Based on the novel, for Ted Demme to direct
* Dillinger (2002) – Based on the life of John Dillinger, for Kimberly Peirce to direct
* Joan of Bark: The Dog That Saved France (2004) – Writer/director, for Columbia Pictures
* The Prince of Providence (2004) – Based on the novel, for Michael Corrente to direct
* The Bones (2005) – Based on the novel, for Columbia Pictures
* Whistle (2005) – Based on the novel, for Columbia Pictures
* Come Back to Sorrento (2009) – Based on the novel, for Michael Worth to direct
* Have Gun – Will Travel TV series reboot (2013) – Writer/director, for CBS
* Blackbird (2013) – Writer/director
* 7 Deadly Sins TV miniseries (2013) – Writer/director, for Fox
* Speed-the-Plow film (2016) – Writer/director
* The Force (2017) – Based on the novel, for James Mangold to direct
* Assassination (2023) – Writer/director
References
Further reading
*
* Radavich, David. "Man among Men: David Mamet's Homosocial Order". American Drama 1:1 (Fall 1991): 46–60.
* Radavich, David. "Rabe, Mamet, Shepard, and Wilson: Mid-American Male Dramatists of the 1970s and '80s". The Midwest Quarterly XLVIII: 3 (Spring 2007): 342–58.
External links
* [https://norman.hrc.utexas.edu/fasearch/findingAid.cfm?eadID=00486 David Mamet Papers] at the Harry Ransom Center
*
*
}}
Category:1947 births
Category:Living people
Category:20th-century American Jews
Category:20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
Category:20th-century American male writers
Category:21st-century American Jews
Category:21st-century American dramatists and playwrights
Category:21st-century American male writers
Category:Activists against antisemitism
Category:American Orthodox Jews
Category:American acting theorists
Category:American male dramatists and playwrights
Category:American male screenwriters
Category:American male television writers
Category:American people of Polish-Jewish descent
Category:American television directors
Category:American television writers
Category:Baalei teshuva
Category:Film directors from Vermont
Category:Film producers from Illinois
Category:Goddard College alumni
Category:Jewish American dramatists and playwrights
Category:Jewish film people
Category:Jewish American screenwriters
Category:Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters
Category:Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre alumni
Category:People from Plainfield, Vermont
Category:Pulitzer Prize for Drama winners
Category:Screenwriters from Illinois
Category:Screenwriters from Vermont
Category:Television producers from Illinois
Category:Writers from Chicago
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Mamet
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2025-04-05T18:28:34.641985
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Events
Pre-1600
*1060 – Béla I is crowned king of Hungary.
*1240 – Mongol invasion of Rus': Kyiv, defended by Voivode Dmytro, falls to the Mongols under Batu Khan.
*1492 – After exploring the island of Cuba (which he had mistaken for Japan) for gold, Christopher Columbus lands on an island he names Hispaniola.
*1534 – The city of Quito in Ecuador is founded by Spanish settlers led by Sebastián de Belalcázar.
1601–1900
*1648 – Pride's Purge removes royalist sympathizers from Parliament so that the High Court of Justice could put the King on trial.
*1745 – Charles Edward Stuart's army begins retreat during the second Jacobite Rising.
*1790 – The U.S. Congress moves from New York City to Philadelphia.
*1803 – Five French warships attempting to escape the Royal Naval blockade of Saint-Domingue are all seized by British warships, signifying the end of the Haitian Revolution.
*1865 – Georgia ratifies the 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.
*1882 – Transit of Venus, second and last of the 19th century.
*1884 – The Washington Monument in Washington, D.C., is completed.
*1897 – London becomes the world's first city to host licensed taxicabs.
1901–present
*1904 – Theodore Roosevelt articulated his "Corollary" to the Monroe Doctrine, stating that the U.S. would intervene in the Western Hemisphere should Latin American governments prove incapable or unstable.
*1907 – A coal mine explosion at Monongah, West Virginia, kills 362 workers.
*1912 – The Nefertiti Bust is discovered.
*1916 – World War I: The Central Powers capture Bucharest.
*1917 – Finland declares independence from the Russian Empire.
* 1917 – Halifax Explosion: A munitions explosion near Halifax, Nova Scotia kills more than 1,900 people in the largest artificial explosion up to that time.
* 1917 – World War I: is the first American destroyer to be sunk by enemy action when it is torpedoed by German submarine .
*1921 – The Anglo-Irish Treaty is signed in London by British and Irish representatives.
*1922 – One year to the day after the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty Ireland is partitioned. Northern Ireland and the Irish Free State come into existence.
*1928 – The government of Colombia sends military forces to suppress a month-long strike by United Fruit Company workers, resulting in an unknown number of deaths.
*1933 – In United States v. One Book Called Ulysses Judge John M. Woolsey rules that James Joyce's novel Ulysses is not obscene despite coarse language and sexual content, a leading decision affirming free expression.
*1939 – Winter War: The Red Army's advance on the Karelian Isthmus is stopped by Finns at the Mannerheim Line during the Battle of Taipale.
*1941 – World War II: Camp X opens in Canada to begin training Allied secret agents for the war.
*1956 – A violent water polo match between Hungary and the USSR takes place during the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne, against the backdrop of the Hungarian Revolution of 1956.
*1957 – Project Vanguard: A launchpad explosion of Vanguard TV3 thwarts the first United States attempt to launch a satellite into Earth orbit.
*1967 – Adrian Kantrowitz performs the first human heart transplant in the United States.
*1969 – Altamont Free Concert: At a free concert performed by the Rolling Stones, eighteen-year old Meredith Hunter is stabbed to death by Hells Angels security guards.
*1971 – Pakistan severs diplomatic relations with India, initiating the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971.
*1973 – The Twenty-fifth Amendment: The United States House of Representatives votes 387–35 to confirm Gerald Ford as Vice President of the United States. (On November 27, the Senate confirmed him 92–3.)
*1975 – The Troubles: Fleeing from the police, a Provisional IRA unit takes a British couple hostage in their flat on Balcombe Street, London, beginning a six-day siege.
*1977 – South Africa grants independence to Bophuthatswana, although it is not recognized by any other country.
*1978 – Spain ratifies the Spanish Constitution of 1978 in a referendum.
*1982 – The Troubles: The Irish National Liberation Army bombs a pub frequented by British soldiers in Ballykelly, Northern Ireland, killing eleven soldiers and six civilians.
*1989 – The École Polytechnique massacre (or Montreal Massacre): Marc Lépine, an anti-feminist gunman, murders 14 young women at the École Polytechnique in Montreal.
*1990 – A military jet of the Italian Air Force, abandoned by its pilot after an on-board fire, crashed into a high school near Bologna, Italy, killing 12 students and injuring 88 other people.
*1991 – Yugoslav Wars: In Croatia, forces of the Serb-dominated Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) heaviest bombardment of Dubrovnik during a siege of seven months.
*1992 – The Babri Masjid in Ayodhya, India, is demolished, leading to widespread riots causing the death of over 1,500 people.
*1995 – The United States Food and Drug Administration approves Saquinavir, the first protease inhibitor to treat HIV/AIDS. Within 2 years of its approval, annual deaths from AIDS in the United States fall from over 50,000 to approximately 18,000.
*1998 – in Venezuela, Hugo Chávez is victorious in presidential elections.
*1999 – A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc.: The Recording Industry Association of America sues the peer-to-peer file-sharing service Napster, alleging copyright infringement.
*2005 – An Iranian Air Force C-130 military transport aircraft crashes into a ten-floor apartment building in a residential area of Tehran, killing all 94 on board and 12 more on the ground.
*2006 – NASA reveals photographs taken by Mars Global Surveyor suggesting the presence of liquid water on Mars.
*2015 – Venezuelan parliamentary election: For the first time in 17 years, the United Socialist Party of Venezuela loses its majority in parliament.
*2017 – Donald Trump's administration officially announces the recognition of Jerusalem as the capital of Israel.
Births
Pre-1600
* 846 – Hasan al-Askari, Arabian 11th of the Twelve Imams (d. 874)
*1285 – Ferdinand IV of Castile (d. 1312)
*1421 – Henry VI of England (d. 1471)
*1478 – Baldassare Castiglione, Italian courtier, diplomat, and author (d. 1529)
*1520 – Barbara Radziwiłł, queen of Poland (d. 1551)
*1545 – Janus Dousa, Dutch historian and noble (d. 1604)
*1586 – Niccolò Zucchi, Italian astronomer and physicist (d. 1670)
*1592 – William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle (d. 1676)
1601–1900
*1608 – George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle, English general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (d. 1670)
*1637 – Edmund Andros, English courtier and politician, 4th Colonial Governor of New York (d. 1714)
*1640 – Claude Fleury, French historian and author (d. 1723)
*1645 – Maria de Dominici, Maltese sculptor and painter (d. 1703)
*1685 – Marie Adélaïde of Savoy (d. 1712)
*1721 – Guillaume-Chrétien de Lamoignon de Malesherbes, French minister and politician (d. 1794)
* 1721 – James Elphinston, Scottish philologist and linguist (d. 1809)
*1732 – Warren Hastings, British colonial administrator of India (d. 1818)
*1752 – Gabriel Duvall, American jurist and politician (d. 1844)
*1778 – Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, French physicist and chemist (d. 1850)
*1792 – William II of the Netherlands (d. 1849)
*1803 – Maria Josepha Amalia of Saxony (d. 1829)
*1805 – Richard Hanson, English-Australian politician, 4th Premier of South Australia (d. 1876)
*1812 – Robert Spear Hudson, English businessman and philanthropist (d. 1884)
*1823 – Max Müller, German-English philologist and orientalist (d. 1900)
*1827 – William Arnott, Australian biscuit manufacturer and founder of Arnott's Biscuits (d. 1901)
*1833 – John S. Mosby, American colonel (d. 1916)
*1835 – Wilhelm Rudolph Fittig, German chemist (d. 1910)
*1841 – Frédéric Bazille, French painter and soldier (d. 1870)
*1848 – Johann Palisa, Austrian astronomer (d. 1925)
*1849 – August von Mackensen, German field marshal (d. 1945)
*1853 – Hans Molisch, Czech-Austrian botanist and academic (d. 1937)
* 1853 – Haraprasad Shastri, Indian historian and scholar (d. 1931)
*1863 – Charles Martin Hall, American chemist and engineer (d. 1914)
*1864 – William S. Hart, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1946)
*1875 – Albert Bond Lambert, American golfer and pilot (d. 1946)
* 1875 – Evelyn Underhill, English mystic and author (d. 1941)
*1876 – Fred Duesenberg, German-American businessman, co-founded the Duesenberg Automobile & Motors Company (d. 1932)
*1878 – Elvia Carrillo Puerto, Mexican politician (d. 1968)
*1882 – Warren Bardsley, Australian cricketer (d. 1954)
*1884 – Cornelia Meigs, American author, playwright, and academic (d. 1973)
*1886 – Joyce Kilmer, American soldier, author, and poet (d. 1918)
*1887 – Lynn Fontanne, British actress (d. 1983)
* 1887 – Joseph Lamb, American pianist and composer (d. 1960)
*1888 – Will Hay, English actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1949)
*1890 – Dion Fortune, Welsh occultist, psychologist, and author (d. 1946)
* 1890 – Yoshio Nishina, Japanese physicist and academic (d. 1951)
* 1890 – Rudolf Schlichter, German painter and illustrator (d. 1955)
*1892 – Osbert Sitwell, English-Italian captain, poet, and author (d. 1969)
*1893 – Homer N. Wallin, American admiral (d. 1984)
* 1893 – Sylvia Townsend Warner, English author and poet (d. 1978)
*1896 – Ira Gershwin, American songwriter (d. 1983)
*1898 – Alfred Eisenstaedt, German-American photographer and journalist (d. 1995)
* 1898 – John McDonald, Scottish-Australian politician, 37th Premier of Victoria (d. 1977)
* 1898 – Gunnar Myrdal, Swedish sociologist and economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1987)
* 1898 – Winifred Lenihan, American actress, writer, and director (d. 1964)
*1900 – Agnes Moorehead, American actress (d. 1974)
1901–present
*1901 – Eliot Porter, American photographer and academic (d. 1990)
*1903 – Tony Lazzeri, American baseball player and manager (d. 1946)
*1904 – Ève Curie, French-American journalist and pianist (d. 2007)
*1905 – Elizabeth Yates, American journalist and author (d. 2001)
*1907 – John Barkley Rosser Sr., American logician (d. 1989)
*1908 – Herta Freitag, Austrian-American mathematician (d. 2000)
* 1908 – Pierre Graber, Swiss lawyer and politician, 69th President of the Swiss Confederation (d. 2003)
* 1908 – Baby Face Nelson, American gangster (d. 1934)
* 1908 – Miklós Szabó, Hungarian runner (d. 2000)
*1909 – Rulon Jeffs, American religious leader (d. 2002)
* 1909 – Alan McGilvray, Australian cricketer and sportscaster (d. 1996)
*1910 – David M. Potter, American historian, author, and academic (d. 1971)
*1912 – Eleanor Holm, American swimmer and actress (d. 2004)
*1913 – Karl Haas, German-American pianist, conductor, and radio host (d. 2005)
*1914 – Cyril Washbrook, English cricketer (d. 1999)
*1916 – Yekaterina Budanova, Russian captain and pilot (d. 1943)
* 1916 – Kristján Eldjárn, Icelandic educator and politician, 3rd President of Iceland (d. 1982)
* 1916 – Hugo Peretti, American songwriter and producer (d. 1986)
*1917 – Dean Hess, American minister and colonel (d. 2015)
* 1917 – Kamal Jumblatt, Lebanese lawyer and politician (d. 1977)
* 1917 – Irv Robbins, Canadian-American businessman, co-founded Baskin-Robbins (d. 2008)
*1918 – Tauba Biterman, Polish Holocaust survivor (d. 2019)
*1919 – Skippy Baxter, Canadian-American figure skater and coach (d. 2012)
* 1919 – Paul de Man, Belgian-born philosopher, literary critic and theorist (d. 1983)
*1920 – Dave Brubeck, American pianist and composer (d. 2012)
* 1920 – Peter Dimmock, English sportscaster and producer (d. 2015)
* 1920 – George Porter, English chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2002)
*1921 – Otto Graham, American football player and coach (d. 2003)
* 1921 – Piero Piccioni, Italian lawyer, pianist, and composer (d. 2004)
*1922 – John Brunt, English captain, Victoria Cross recipient (d. 1944)
* 1922 – Benjamin A. Gilman, American soldier and politician (d. 2016)
*1924 – Wally Cox, American actor (d. 1973)
*1927 – Jim Fuchs, American shot putter and discus thrower (d. 2010)
*1928 – Bobby Van, American actor, dancer, and singer (d. 1980)
*1929 – Philippe Bouvard, French journalist and radio host
* 1929 – Nikolaus Harnoncourt, German-Austrian cellist and conductor (d. 2016)
* 1929 – Frank Springer, American comic book illustrator (d. 2009)
* 1929 – Alain Tanner, Swiss director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2022)
*1930 – Daniel Lisulo, Zambian banker and politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Zambia (d. 2000)
*1931 – Zeki Müren, Turkish singer-songwriter and actor (d. 1996)
*1932 – Kamleshwar, Indian author, screenwriter, and critic (d. 2007)
*1933 – Henryk Górecki, Polish composer and academic (d. 2010)
* 1933 – Donald J. Kutyna, American general
*1934 – Nick Bockwinkel, American wrestler, sportscaster, and actor (d. 2015)
*1935 – Jean Lapointe, Canadian actor, singer, and politician (d. 2022)
*1936 – Bill Ashton, English saxophonist and composer
* 1936 – Kenneth Copeland, American evangelist and author
* 1936 – David Ossman, American writer and comedian
*1937 – Alberto Spencer, Ecuadorian-American soccer player (d. 2006)
*1938 – Patrick Bauchau, Belgian-American actor
*1939 – Franco Carraro, Italian politician and sports administrator
*1940 – Lawrence Bergman, Canadian lawyer and politician
* 1940 – Richard Edlund, American visual effects designer and cinematographer
*1941 – Helen Cornelius, American country singer-songwriter and actress
* 1941 – Bruce Nauman, American sculptor and illustrator
* 1941 – Richard Speck, American murderer (d. 1991)
* 1941 – Bill Thomas, American academic and politician
*1942 – Peter Handke, Austrian author and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate
* 1942 – Robb Royer, American guitarist, keyboard player, and songwriter
*1943 – Mike Smith, English singer-songwriter, keyboard player, and producer (d. 2008)
* 1943 – Keith West, English rock singer-songwriter and music producer
*1944 – Jonathan King, English singer-songwriter, record producer, music entrepreneur, television/radio presenter, and convicted sex offender
*1945 – Shekhar Kapur, Indian director, producer, and screenwriter
*1946 – Frankie Beverly, American soul/funk singer-songwriter, musician, and producer (d. 2024)
* 1946 – Willy van der Kuijlen, Dutch footballer and manager (d. 2021)
*1947 – Lawrence Cannon, Canadian businessman and politician, 9th Canadian Minister of Foreign Affairs
* 1947 – Henk van Woerden, Dutch-South African painter and author (d. 2005)
* 1947 – Miroslav Vitouš, Czech-American bassist and songwriter
*1948 – Jean-Paul Ngoupandé, Central African politician, Prime Minister of the Central African Republic (d. 2014)
* 1948 – Don Nickles, American businessman and politician
* 1948 – Keke Rosberg, Finnish racing driver
* 1948 – JoBeth Williams, American actress
*1949 – Linda Barnes, American author, playwright, and educator
* 1949 – Linda Creed, American singer-songwriter (d. 1986)
* 1949 – Doug Marlette, American author and cartoonist (d. 2007)
* 1949 – Peter Willey, English cricketer and umpire
*1950 – Guy Drut, French hurdler and politician
* 1950 – Joe Hisaishi, Japanese pianist, composer, and conductor
* 1950 – Helen Liddell, Baroness Liddell of Coatdyke, Scottish journalist and politician, Secretary of State for Scotland
*1951 – Wendy Ellis Somes, English ballerina and producer
* 1951 – Maurice Hope, Caribbean-English boxer
*1952 – Nicolas Bréhal, French author and critic (d. 1999)
* 1952 – Craig Newmark, American computer programmer and entrepreneur; founded Craigslist
* 1952 – Shio Satō, Japanese illustrator (d. 2010)
*1953 – Sue Carroll, English journalist (d. 2011)
* 1953 – Gary Goodman, Australian cricketer and coach
* 1953 – Geoff Hoon, English academic and politician, Minister of State for Europe
* 1953 – Tom Hulce, American actor
* 1953 – Masami Kurumada, Japanese author and illustrator
*1954 – Nicola De Maria, Italian painter
* 1954 – Chris Stamey, American singer-songwriter, musician, and music producer
*1955 – Anne Begg, Scottish educator and politician
* 1955 – Rick Buckler, English drummer, songwriter, and producer (d. 2025)
* 1955 – Graeme Hughes, Australian cricketer, rugby league player, and sportscaster
* 1955 – Tony Woodcock, English footballer
* 1955 – Steven Wright, American actor, comedian, and screenwriter
*1956 – Peter Buck, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer
* 1956 – Hans Kammerlander, Italian mountaineer and guide
* 1956 – Randy Rhoads, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer (d. 1982)
*1957 – Adrian Borland, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 1999)
* 1957 – Andrew Cuomo, American politician, 56th Governor of New York
* 1957 – Bill Hanzlik, American basketball player and coach
*1958 – Nick Park, English animator, director, producer, and screenwriter
*1959 – Deborah Estrin, American computer scientist and academic
* 1959 – Stephen Hepburn, English politician
* 1959 – Satoru Iwata, Japanese game programmer and businessman (d. 2015)
* 1959 – Stephen Muggleton, English computer scientist and engineer
*1960 – Masahiko Katsuya, Japanese journalist and photographer (d. 2018)
*1961 – David Lovering, American drummer
* 1961 – Jonathan Melvoin, American musician (d. 1996)
* 1961 – Manuel Reuter, German race car driver
*1962 – Janine Turner, American actress
* 1962 – Ben Watt, English singer-songwriter, musician, author, DJ, and radio presenter
*1963 – Ulrich Thomsen, Danish actor and producer
*1964 – Mall Nukke, Estonian painter
*1965 – Gordon Durie, Scottish footballer and manager
*1966 – Natascha Badmann, Swiss triathlete
* 1966 – Per-Ulrik Johansson, Swedish golfer
*1967 – Judd Apatow, American director, producer, and screenwriter
* 1967 – Helen Greiner, American businesswoman and engineer
* 1967 – Arnaldo Mesa, Cuban boxer (d. 2012)
*1968 – Karl Ove Knausgård, Norwegian author
* 1968 – Ali Latifiyan, Iranian writer and political theorist
* 1968 – Akihiro Yano, Japanese baseball player
*1969 – Torri Higginson, Canadian actress
*1970 – Ulf Ekberg, Swedish singer-songwriter, keyboard player, and producer
* 1970 – Adrian Fenty, American lawyer and politician, 6th Mayor of the District of Columbia
* 1970 – Mark Reckless, English politician
* 1970 – Jeff Rouse, American swimmer
*1971 – Craig Brewer, American director, producer, and screenwriter
* 1971 – José Contreras, Cuban baseball player
* 1971 – Richard Krajicek, Dutch tennis player
* 1971 – Naozumi Takahashi, Japanese singer and voice actor
* 1971 – Carole Thate, Dutch field hockey player
* 1971 – Ryan White, American activist (d. 1990)
*1972 – Ewan Birney, English scientist
* 1972 – Heather Mizeur, American lawyer and politician
*1974 – Jens Pulver, American mixed martial artist and boxer
* 1974 – Nick Stajduhar, Canadian ice hockey player
*1975 – Noel Clarke, English actor, director, and screenwriter
* 1975 – Adrian García Arias, Mexican footballer
*1976 – Lindsay Price, American actress
*1977 – Kevin Cash, American baseball player and manager
* 1977 – Andrew Flintoff, English cricketer, coach, and sportscaster
* 1977 – Paul McVeigh, Irish footballer
*1978 – Chris Başak, American baseball player
* 1978 – Darrell Jackson, American football player
* 1978 – Adriana Moisés Pinto, Brazilian basketball player
* 1978 – Ramiro Pez, Argentine rugby player
*1979 – Tim Cahill, Australian footballer
*1980 – Danielle Downey, American golfer and coach (d. 2014)
* 1980 – Steve Lovell, English footballer
* 1980 – Carlos Takam, Cameroonian-French boxer
*1981 – Federico Balzaretti, Italian footballer
*1982 – Ryan Carnes, American actor and producer
* 1982 – Alberto Contador, Spanish cyclist
* 1982 – Sean Ervine, Zimbabwean cricketer
* 1982 – Robbie Gould, American football player
* 1982 – Aaron Sandilands, Australian footballer
* 1982 – Susie Wolff, Scottish race car driver
*1984 – Syndric Steptoe, American football player
* 1984 – Nora Kirkpatrick, American actress and musician
* 1984 – Princess Sofia, Duchess of Värmland
*1985 – Shannon Bobbitt, American basketball player
* 1985 – Aristeidis Grigoriadis, Greek swimmer
* 1985 – R. P. Singh, Indian cricketer
*1986 – Sean Edwards, English race car driver (d. 2013)
* 1986 – Matt Niskanen, American ice hockey player
*1988 – Adam Eaton, American baseball player
* 1988 – Ravindra Jadeja, Indian cricketer
* 1988 – Sandra Nurmsalu, Estonian singer and violinist
* 1988 – Nils Petersen, German footballer
* 1988 – Nobunaga Shimazaki, Japanese voice actor
*1989 – Felix Schiller, German footballer
*1990 – Tamira Paszek, Austrian tennis player
*1991 – Rachel Jarry, Australian basketball player
* 1991 – Milica Mandić, Serbian taekwondo athlete
* 1991 – Coco Vandeweghe, American tennis player
*1992 – Viktor Antipin, Russian ice hockey player
* 1992 – Britt Assombalonga, Congolese footballer
* 1992 – Johnny Manziel, American football player
*1993 – Jasprit Bumrah, Indian cricketer
* 1993 – Elián González, Cuban technician, known for a child custody and immigration case held in 2000
* 1993 – Tautau Moga, Australian-Samoan rugby league player
*1994 – Giannis Antetokounmpo, Greek-Nigerian basketball player
* 1994 – Wakatakakage Atsushi, Japanese sumo wrestler
* 1994 – Shreyas Iyer, Indian cricketer
*1995 – A Boogie wit da Hoodie, American rapper and singer-songwriter
*1996 – Davide Calabria, Italian footballer
* 1996 – Stefanie Scott, American actress and singer
*1997 – Sabrina Ionescu, American basketball player
*1998 – Angelīna Kučvaļska, Latvian figure skater
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Deaths
Pre-1600
* 343 – Saint Nicholas, Greek bishop and saint (b. 270)
* 735 – Prince Toneri of Japan (b. 676)
* 762 – Muhammad al-Nafs al-Zakiyya, Arab rebel leader (b. 710)
*1185 – Afonso I of Portugal (b. 1109)
*1305 – Maximus, Metropolitan of Kyiv
*1306 – Roger Bigod, 5th Earl of Norfolk (b. 1270)
*1352 – Pope Clement VI (b. 1291)
*1562 – Jan van Scorel, Dutch painter (b. 1495)
1601–1900
*1616 – Ahmad Ibn al-Qadi, Moroccan writer, judge and mathematician (b. 1552)
*1618 – Jacques Davy Duperron, French cardinal (b. 1556)
*1658 – Baltasar Gracián, Spanish priest and author (b. 1601)
*1675 – John Lightfoot, English priest, scholar, and academic (b. 1602)
*1686 – Eleonora Gonzaga, Queen consort of Ferdinand III (b. 1630)
*1716 – Benedictus Buns, Dutch priest and composer (b. 1642)
*1718 – Nicholas Rowe, English poet and playwright (b. 1674)
*1746 – Lady Grizel Baillie, Scottish poet and songwriter (b. 1665)
*1771 – Giovanni Battista Morgagni, Italian anatomist and pathologist (b. 1682)
*1779 – Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin, French painter (b. 1699)
*1788 – Jonathan Shipley, English bishop (b. 1714)
*1855 – William Swainson, English ornithologist and entomologist (b. 1789)
*1867 – Jean Pierre Flourens, French physiologist and academic (b. 1794)
*1868 – August Schleicher, German linguist and academic (b. 1821)
*1878 – Theodoros Vryzakis, Greek painter and educator (b. 1814)
*1879 – Erastus Brigham Bigelow, American businessman (b. 1814)
*1882 – Alfred Escher, Swiss businessman and politician, founded Credit Suisse (b. 1819)
* 1882 – Anthony Trollope, English novelist, essayist, and short story writer (b. 1815)
*1889 – Jefferson Davis, American general and politician, President of the Confederate States of America (b. 1808)
*1892 – Werner von Siemens, German engineer and businessman, founded the Siemens Company (b. 1816)
1901–present
*1918 – Alexander Dianin, Russian chemist (b. 1851)
*1921 – Said Halim Pasha, Ottoman politician, 280th Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire (b. 1865)
*1924 – Gene Stratton-Porter, American author and screenwriter (b. 1863)
*1945 – Edmund Dwyer-Gray, Irish-Australian politician, 29th Premier of Tasmania (b. 1870)
*1951 – Harold Ross, American journalist and publisher, founded The New Yorker (b. 1892)
*1955 – Honus Wagner, American baseball player and manager (b. 1874)
*1956 – B. R. Ambedkar, Indian economist and politician, 1st Indian Minister of Justice (b. 1891)
*1961 – Frantz Fanon, Martinique-French psychiatrist and author (b. 1925)
*1964 – Evert van Linge, Dutch footballer and architect (b. 1895)
*1972 – Janet Munro, English actress and singer (b. 1934)
*1974 – Nikolay Kuznetsov, Soviet naval officer (b. 1904)
*1976 – João Goulart, Brazilian lawyer and politician, 24th President of Brazil (b. 1918)
*1980 – Charles Deutsch, French engineer and businessman, co-founded DB (b. 1911)
*1982 – Jean-Marie Seroney, Kenyan activist and politician (b. 1927)
*1983 – Lucienne Boyer, French singer and actress (b. 1903)
* 1983 – Gul Khan Nasir, Pakistani poet, historian, and politician (b. 1914)
*1985 – Burr Tillstrom, American actor and puppeteer (b. 1917)
* 1985 – Burleigh Grimes, American baseball player and manager (b. 1893)
*1985 – Carroll Cole, American serial killer, arsonist, and cannibal (b. 1938)
*1988 – Roy Orbison, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1936)
*1989 – Frances Bavier, American actress (b. 1902)
* 1989 – Sammy Fain, American pianist and composer (b. 1902)
* 1989 – John Payne, American actor, singer, and producer (b. 1912)
*1990 – Pavlos Sidiropoulos, Greek singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1948)
* 1990 – Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaysian lawyer and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Malaysia (b. 1903)
*1991 – Mimi Smith, English nurse (b. 1906)
* 1991 – Richard Stone, English economist and statistician, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1913)
*1993 – Don Ameche, American actor (b. 1908)
*1994 – Heinz Baas, German footballer and manager (b. 1922)
* 1994 – Gian Maria Volonté, Italian actor and director (b. 1933)
*1996 – Pete Rozelle, American businessman (b. 1926)
*1997 – Willy den Ouden, Dutch swimmer (b. 1918)
*1998 – César Baldaccini, French sculptor and educator (b. 1921)
*2000 – Werner Klemperer, German-American actor (b. 1920)
* 2000 – Aziz Mian, Pakistani singer-songwriter and poet (b. 1942)
*2001 – Charles McClendon, American football player and coach (b. 1923)
*2002 – Philip Berrigan, American priest and activist (b. 1923)
*2003 – Carlos Manuel Arana Osorio, Guatemalan general and politician, President of Guatemala (b. 1918)
*2005 – Charly Gaul, Luxembourger cyclist (b. 1932)
* 2005 – Devan Nair, Malaysian-Singaporean union leader and politician, 3rd President of Singapore (b. 1923)
* 2005 – Danny Williams, South African singer (b. 1942)
* 2005 – William P. Yarborough, American general (b. 1912)
*2006 – John Feeney, New Zealand director and producer (b. 1922)
*2010 – Mark Dailey, American-Canadian journalist and actor (b. 1953)
*2011 – Dobie Gray, American singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1940)
*2012 – Miguel Abia Biteo Boricó, Equatoguinean engineer and politician, Prime Minister of Equatorial Guinea (b. 1961)
* 2012 – Jan Carew, Guyanese author, poet, and playwright (b. 1920)
* 2012 – Jeffrey Koo Sr., Taiwanese banker and businessman (b. 1933)
* 2012 – Huw Lloyd-Langton, English guitarist (b. 1951)
* 2012 – Pedro Vaz, Uruguayan lawyer and politician, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Uruguay (b. 1963)
*2013 – Jean-Pierre Desthuilliers, French poet and critic (b. 1939)
* 2013 – Stan Tracey, English pianist and composer (b. 1926)
* 2013 – M. K. Turk, American basketball player and coach (b. 1942)
*2014 – Ralph H. Baer, German-American video game designer, created the Magnavox Odyssey (b. 1922)
* 2014 – Jimmy Del Ray, American wrestler and manager (b. 1962)
* 2014 – Fred Hawkins, American golfer (b. 1923)
* 2014 – Luke Somers, English-American photographer and journalist (b. 1981)
*2015 – Ko Chun-hsiung, Taiwanese actor, director, and politician (b. 1945)
* 2015 – Liu Juying, Chinese general and politician (b. 1917)
* 2015 – Nicholas Smith, British actor (b. 1934)
*2016 – Peter Vaughan, British actor (b. 1923)
*2024 – Maggie Tabberer, Australian fashion model and television personality (b. 1936)
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Holidays and observances
* Anniversary of the Founding of Quito (Ecuador)
* Armed Forces Day (Ukraine)
* Christian feast day:
** Abraham of Kratia
** Aemilianus (Roman Catholic Church)
** Denise and companions
**Blessed János Scheffler
** María del Monte Carmelo Sallés y Barangueras
** Nicholas of Myra, and its related observances:
*** Saint Nicholas Day, where Saint Nicholas/Santa Claus leaves little presents in children's shoes. (International)
** December 6 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
* Constitution Day (Spain)
* Day of the Ministry of Communications and Information Technologies of Azerbaijan
* Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Finland from Russia in 1917.
* National Day of Remembrance and Action on Violence Against Women (Canada)
References
External links
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/6 BBC: On This Day]
*
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/december/6 Historical Events on December 6]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_6
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Events
Pre-1600
63 BC – Cicero gives the fourth and final of the Catiline Orations.
633 – Fourth Council of Toledo opens, presided over by Isidore of Seville.
1033 – The Jordan Rift Valley earthquake destroys multiple cities across the Levant, triggers a tsunami and kills many.
1082 – Ramon Berenguer II, Count of Barcelona is assassinated, most likely by his brother, Berenguer Ramon II.
1408 – Seeking to resubjugate Muscovy, Emir Edigu of the Golden Horde reaches Moscow, burning areas around the city but failing to take the city itself.
1456 – The first of two earthquakes measuring 7.2 strikes Italy, causing extreme destruction and killing upwards of 70,000 people.
1484 – Pope Innocent VIII issues the Summis desiderantes affectibus, a papal bull that deputizes Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger as inquisitors to root out alleged witchcraft in Germany.
1496 – King Manuel I of Portugal issues a decree ordering the expulsion of Jews from the country.
1560 – Thirteen-year-old Charles IX becomes king of France, with Queen Mother Catherine de' Medici as regent.
1578 – Sir Francis Drake, after sailing through Strait of Magellan, raids Valparaiso.
1601–1900
1649 – The town of Raahe () is founded by Count Per Brahe the Younger.
1757 – Seven Years' War: Battle of Leuthen: Frederick II of Prussia leads Prussian forces to a decisive victory over Austrian forces under Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine.
1766 – In London, auctioneer James Christie holds his first sale.
1770 – 29th Regiment of Foot privates Hugh Montgomery and Matthew Kilroy are found guilty for the manslaughter of Crispus Attucks and Samuel Gray respectively in the Boston Massacre.
1775 – At Fort Ticonderoga, Henry Knox begins his historic transport of artillery to Cambridge, Massachusetts.
1776 – Phi Beta Kappa, the oldest academic honor society in the U.S., holds its first meeting at the College of William & Mary.
1831 – Former U.S. President John Quincy Adams takes his seat in the House of Representatives.
1847 – Jefferson Davis is elected to the U.S. Senate.
1848 – California Gold Rush: In a message to the United States Congress, U.S. President James K. Polk confirms that large amounts of gold had been discovered in California.
1865 – Chincha Islands War: Peru allies with Chile against Spain.
1895 – New Haven Symphony Orchestra of Connecticut performs its first concert.
1901–present
1914 – The Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition began in an attempt to make the first land crossing of Antarctica.
1919 – Ukrainian War of Independence: The Polonsky conspiracy is suppressed and its participants are executed by the Kontrrazvedka.
1921 – The Football Association bans women's football in England from league grounds, a ban that stays in place for 50 years.
1933 – The Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution is ratified, repealing Prohibition in the United States.
1934 – Abyssinia Crisis: Italian troops attack Wal Wal in Abyssinia, taking four days to capture the city.
1935 – Mary McLeod Bethune founds the National Council of Negro Women in New York City.
1936 – The Soviet Union adopts a new constitution and the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic is established as a full Union Republic of the USSR.
1941 – World War II: In the Battle of Moscow, Georgy Zhukov launches a massive Soviet counter-attack against the German army.
1941 – World War II: Great Britain declares war on Finland, Hungary and Romania.
1943 – World War II: Allied air forces begin attacking Germany's secret weapons bases in Operation Crossbow.
1945 – Flight 19, a group of TBF Avengers, disappears in the Bermuda Triangle.
1952 – Beginning of the Great Smog in London. A cold fog combines with air pollution and brings the city to a standstill for four days. Later, a Ministry of Health report estimates 4,000 fatalities as a result of it.
1955 – The American Federation of Labor and the Congress of Industrial Organizations merge and form the AFL–CIO.
1955 – E. D. Nixon and Rosa Parks lead the Montgomery bus boycott.
1958 – Subscriber Trunk Dialling (STD) is inaugurated in the United Kingdom by Queen Elizabeth II when she speaks to the Lord Provost in a call from Bristol to Edinburgh.
1958 – The Preston By-pass, the UK's first stretch of motorway, opens to traffic for the first time. (It is now part of the M6 and M55 motorways.)
1964 – Vietnam War: For his heroism in battle earlier in the year, Captain Roger Donlon is awarded the first Medal of Honor of the war.
1964 – Lloyd J. Old discovers the first linkage between the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) and disease—mouse leukemia—opening the way for the recognition of the importance of the MHC in the immune response.
1971 – Battle of Gazipur: Pakistani forces stand defeated as India cedes Gazipur to Bangladesh.
1977 – Egypt breaks diplomatic relations with Syria, Libya, Algeria, Iraq and South Yemen in retaliation to preventing President Anwar el‐Sadat from pursuing negotiations with Israel at the Tripoli confer.
1983 – Dissolution of the Military Junta in Argentina.
1991 – Leonid Kravchuk is elected the first president of Ukraine.
1994 – The Budapest Memorandum is signed at the OSCE conference in Budapest, Hungary.
1995 – Sri Lankan Civil War: Sri Lanka's government announces the conquest of the Tamil stronghold of Jaffna.
1995 – Azerbaijan Airlines Flight A-56 crashes near Nakhchivan International Airport in Nakhchivan, Azerbaijan, killing 52 people.
2001 – Space Shuttle Endeavour launches on STS-108, carrying the Expedition 4 crew to the International Space Station.
2005 – The Civil Partnership Act comes into effect in the United Kingdom, and the first civil partnership is registered there.
2005 – The 6.8 Lake Tanganyika earthquake shakes the eastern provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo with a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme), killing six people.
2006 – Commodore Frank Bainimarama overthrows the government in Fiji.
2007 – Westroads Mall shooting: Nineteen-year-old Robert A. Hawkins kills nine people, including himself, with a WASR-10 at a Von Maur department store in Omaha, Nebraska.
2013 – Militants attack a Defense Ministry compound in Sana'a, Yemen, killing at least 56 people and injuring 200 others.
2014 – Exploration Flight Test-1, the first flight test of Orion, is launched.
2017 – The International Olympic Committee bans Russia from competing at the 2018 Winter Olympics for doping at the 2014 Winter Olympics.
Births
Pre-1600
852 – Zhu Wen, Chinese emperor (d. 912)
1377 – Jianwen Emperor of China (d. 1402)
1389 – Zbigniew Oleśnicki, Polish cardinal and statesman (d. 1455)
1443 – Pope Julius II (d. 1513)
1470 – Willibald Pirckheimer, German lawyer and author (d. 1530)
1495 – Nicolas Cleynaerts, Flemish philologist and lexicographer (d. 1542)
1537 – Ashikaga Yoshiaki, Japanese shōgun (d. 1597)
1539 – Fausto Sozzini, Italian theologian and author (d. 1604)
1547 – Ubbo Emmius, Dutch historian and geographer (d. 1625)
1556 – Anne Cecil, Countess of Oxford, English countess (d. 1588)
1596 – Henry Lawes, English composer (d. 1662)
1601–1900
1661 – Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer, English lawyer and politician, Secretary of State for the Northern Department (d. 1724)
1666 – Francesco Scarlatti, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1741)
1687 – Francesco Geminiani, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1762)
1697 – Giuseppe de Majo, Italian organist and composer (d. 1771)
1782 – Martin Van Buren, American lawyer and politician, 8th President of the United States (d. 1862)
1784 – George Shepherd, English illustrator and painter (d. 1862)
1803 – Fyodor Tyutchev, Russian poet and diplomat (d. 1873)
1820 – Afanasy Fet, Russian poet and author (d. 1892)
1822 – Elizabeth Cabot Agassiz, American philosopher and academic, co-founded Radcliffe College (d. 1907)
1829 – Henri-Gustave Joly de Lotbinière, French-Canadian lawyer and politician, 4th Premier of Quebec (d. 1908)
1830 – Christina Rossetti, English poet and author (d. 1894)
1839 – George Armstrong Custer, American general (d. 1876)
1841 – Marcus Daly, Irish-American businessman (d. 1900)
1849 – Eduard Seler, German anthropologist, ethnohistorian, linguist, and academic (d. 1922)
1855 – Clinton Hart Merriam, American zoologist, ornithologist, entomologist, and ethnographer (d. 1942)
1859 – John Jellicoe, 1st Earl Jellicoe, English admiral and politician, 2nd Governor-General of New Zealand (d. 1935)
1861 – Konstantin Korovin, Russian-French painter and set designer (d. 1939)
1862 – John Henry Leech, English entomologist (d. 1900)
1863 – Paul Painlevé, French mathematician and politician, 84th Prime Minister of France (d. 1933)
1866 – John Beresford, Irish polo player (d. 1944)
1866 – Traian Demetrescu, Romanian poet and author (d. 1896)
1867 – Antti Aarne, Finnish author and academic (d. 1925)
1867 – Józef Piłsudski, Polish field marshal and politician, 15th Prime Minister of Poland (d. 1935)
1868 – Arnold Sommerfeld, German physicist and academic (d. 1951)
1869 – Ellis Parker Butler, American author and poet (d. 1937)
1870 – Vítězslav Novák, Czech composer and educator (d. 1949)
1872 – Harry Nelson Pillsbury, American chess player (d. 1906)
1875 – Arthur Currie, Canadian general (d. 1933)
1879 – Clyde Vernon Cessna, American pilot and businessman, founded the Cessna Aircraft Corporation (d. 1954)
1881 – René Cresté, French actor and director (d. 1922)
1886 – Rose Wilder Lane, American journalist and author (d. 1968)
1886 – Pieter Oud, Dutch historian, academic, and politician, Minister of Finance of the Netherlands (d. 1968)
1886 – Nikolai Uglanov, Soviet politician (d. 1937)
1890 – David Bomberg, English painter, illustrator, and academic (d. 1957)
1890 – Fritz Lang, Austrian-American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1976)
1891 – Paul Kogerman, Estonian chemist and academic (d. 1951)
1894 – Charles Robberts Swart, South African lawyer and politician, 1st State President of South Africa (d. 1982)
1895 – Elbert Frank Cox, American mathematician and academic (d. 1969)
1896 – Ann Nolan Clark, American historian, author, and educator (d. 1995)
1896 – Carl Ferdinand Cori, Czech-American biochemist and pharmacologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1984)
1897 – Nunnally Johnson, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1977)
1897 – Gershom Scholem, German-Israeli philosopher and historian (d. 1982)
1898 – Josh Malihabadi, Indian-Pakistani poet and translator (d. 1982)
1898 – Grace Moore, American soprano and actress (d. 1947)
1900 – Jimmy Dimmock, English footballer (d. 1972)
1901–present
1901 – Walt Disney, American animator, director, producer, and screenwriter, co-founded The Walt Disney Company (d. 1966)
1901 – Milton H. Erickson, American psychiatrist and author (d. 1980)
1901 – Werner Heisenberg, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1976)
1902 – Emeric Pressburger, Hungarian-English director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1988)
1902 – Strom Thurmond, American educator, general, and politician, 103rd Governor of South Carolina (d. 2003)
1914 – Hans Hellmut Kirst, German lieutenant and author (d. 1989)
1916 – Hilary Koprowski, Polish-American virologist and immunologist, created the world's first effective live polio vaccine (d. 2013)
1916 – Walt McPherson, American basketball player and coach (d. 2013)
1917 – Ken Downing, English racing driver (d. 2004)
1919 – Alun Gwynne Jones, Baron Chalfont, English historian and politician (d. 2020)
1921 – Alvy Moore, American actor and producer (d. 1997)
1922 – Casey Ribicoff, American philanthropist (d. 2011)
1922 – Don Robertson, American songwriter and pianist (d. 2015)
1924 – Robert Sobukwe, South African banker and politician (d. 1978)
1925 – Anastasio Somoza Debayle, Nicaraguan politician, 73rd President of Nicaragua (d. 1980)
1926 – Adetoun Ogunsheye, first female Nigerian professor and university dean
1927 – Bhumibol Adulyadej, King of Thailand (d. 2016)
1947 – Jim Messina, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer
1956 – Adam Thorpe, French-English author, poet, and playwright
1956 – Krystian Zimerman, Polish virtuoso pianist
1957 – Raquel Argandoña, Chilean model, actress, and politician
1957 – Art Monk, American football player
1958 – Dynamite Kid, English wrestler (d. 2018)
1959 – Lee Chapman, English footballer
1959 – Oleksandr Yaroslavsky, Ukrainian businessman
1960 – Frans Adelaar, Dutch footballer and manager
1960 – Osvaldo Golijov, Argentinian-American composer and educator
1960 – Jack Russell, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2024)
1960 – Matthew Taylor, English businessman and politician
1961 – Ralf Dujmovits, German mountaineer
1961 – Laura Flanders, British journalist
1962 – José Cura, Argentinian tenor, conductor, and director
1962 – Pablo Morales, American swimmer and coach
1962 – Nivek Ogre, Canadian singer-songwriter
1962 – Fred Rutten, Dutch footballer and manager
1963 – Doctor Dré, American television and radio host
1963 – Carrie Hamilton, American actress and playwright (d. 2002)
1963 – Alberto Nisman, Argentinian lawyer (d. 2015)
1964 – Martin Vinnicombe, Australian cyclist
1965 – Manish Malhotra, Indian fashion designer
1965 – John Rzeznik, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer
1965 – Wayne Smith, Jamaican rapper (d. 2014)
1965 – Valeriy Spitsyn, Russian race walker
1967 – Gary Allan, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
1973 – Argo Arbeiter, Estonian footballer
1973 – Arik Benado, Israeli footballer
1973 – Mikelangelo Loconte, Italian singer-songwriter, producer, and actor
1973 – Luboš Motl, Czech physicist and academic
1974 – Ravish Kumar, Indian journalist and author
1974 – Brian Lewis, American sprinter
1975 – Ronnie O'Sullivan, English snooker player and radio host
1975 – Paula Patton, American actress
1976 – Sachiko Kokubu, Japanese actress and model
1976 – Rachel Komisarz, American swimmer and coach
1977 – Peter van der Vlag, Dutch footballer
1978 – Neil Druckmann, American video game designer and author
1978 – Olli Jokinen, Finnish ice hockey player
1978 – Marcelo Zalayeta, Uruguayan footballer
1979 – Matteo Ferrari, Italian footballer
1979 – Niklas Hagman, Finnish ice hockey player
1979 – Gareth McAuley, Northern Irish footballer
1979 – Nick Stahl, American actor
1982 – Keri Hilson, American singer-songwriter and actress
1984 – Lauren London, American actress
1985 – Frankie Muniz, American actor, drummer, and race car driver
1985 – Danny Wicks, Australian rugby league player
1986 – LeGarrette Blount, American football player
1986 – James Hinchcliffe, Canadian Indycar racing driver
1986 – Justin Smoak, American baseball player
1987 – A. J. Pollock, American baseball player
1988 – Ross Bagley, American actor
1988 – Kyle Long, American football player
1988 – Joanna Rowsell, English cyclist
1989 – Jurrell Casey, American football player
1989 – Kwon Yu-ri, South Korean singer-songwriter and actress
1990 – Montee Ball, American football player
1991 – Cam Fowler, Canadian-American ice hockey player
1991 – Jacopo Sala, Italian footballer
1991 – Christian Yelich, American baseball player
1992 – Ilja Antonov, Estonian footballer
1992 – Natalie Sourisseau, Canadian field hockey player
1993 – Ross Barkley, English footballer
1993 – Luciano Vietto, Argentine footballer
1994 – Ondrej Duda, Slovak footballer
1994 – Semi Ojeleye, American basketball player
1995 – Danny Levi, New Zealand rugby league player
1995 – Anthony Martial, French footballer
1995 – Kaetlyn Osmond, Canadian figure skater
1995 –Levy Rozman, American chess International Master, streamer and YouTuber
1995 – Alexander Sørloth, Norwegian footballer
1997 – Maddie Poppe, American singer-songwriter and musician
1997 – Quinnen Williams, American football player
1998 – Conan Gray, American singer-songwriter
1998 – Randal Kolo Muani, French footballer
Deaths
Pre-1600
63 BC – Publius Cornelius Lentulus Sura, Roman politician (b. 114 BC)
334 – Li Ban, emperor of Cheng Han (b. 288)
902 – Ealhswith, queen consort and wife of Alfred the Great, King of Wessex
1082 – Ramon Berenguer II, Count of Barcelona (b. 1053)
1212 – Dirk van Are, bishop and lord of Utrecht
1244 – Joan, Countess of Flanders and Hainault (b. 1199 or 1200)
1355 – John III, Duke of Brabant (b. 1300)
1560 – Francis II of France (b. 1544)
1570 – Johan Friis, Danish politician (b. 1494)
1601–1900
1624 – Gaspard Bauhin, Swiss botanist and physician (b. 1560)
1654 – Jean François Sarrazin, French author and poet (b. 1611)
1663 – Severo Bonini, Italian organist and composer (b. 1582)
1749 – Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, sieur de La Vérendrye, Canadian commander and explorer (b. 1685)
1758 – Johann Friedrich Fasch, German violinist and composer (b. 1688)
1770 – James Stirling, Scottish mathematician and surveyor (b. 1692)
1784 – Phillis Wheatley, Senegal-born slave, later American poet (b. 1753)
1791 – Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Austrian composer and musician (b. 1756)
1854 – Henry Ross, Canadian-Australian gold miner (b. 1829)
1819 – Friedrich Leopold zu Stolberg-Stolberg, German poet and lawyer (b. 1750)
1870 – Alexandre Dumas, French novelist and playwright (b. 1802)
1887 – Eliza R. Snow, American poet and songwriter (b. 1804)
1891 – Pedro II of Brazil (b. 1825)
1901–present
1918 – Schalk Willem Burger, South African commander, lawyer, and politician, 6th President of the South African Republic (b. 1852)
1925 – Władysław Reymont, Polish novelist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1867)
1926 – Claude Monet, French painter (b. 1840)
1931 – Vachel Lindsay, American poet (b. 1879)
1933 – Alexander Atabekian, Armenian physician and anarchist publisher (b. 1869)
1940 – Jan Kubelík, Czech violinist and composer (b. 1880)
1941 – Amrita Sher-Gil, Hungarian-Pakistani painter (b. 1913)
1942 – Jock Delves Broughton, English captain (b. 1883)
1946 – Louis Dewis, Belgian-French painter and educator (b. 1872)
1951 – Shoeless Joe Jackson, American baseball player and manager (b. 1887)
1951 – Abanindranath Tagore, Indian painter, author, and academic (b. 1871)
1953 – William Sterling Parsons, American admiral (b. 1901)
1955 – Glenn L. Martin, American pilot and businessman, founded the Glenn L. Martin Company (b. 1886)
1961 – Emil Fuchs, German-American lawyer and businessman (b. 1878)
1963 – Karl Amadeus Hartmann, German composer and educator (b. 1905)
1963 – Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, Indian-Pakistani lawyer and politician, 5th Prime Minister of Pakistan (b. 1892)
1964 – V. Veerasingam, Sri Lankan educator and politician (b. 1892)
1965 – Joseph Erlanger, American physiologist, neuroscientist, and academic Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1874)
1968 – Fred Clark, American actor (b. 1914)
1969 – Claude Dornier, German engineer and businessman, founded Dornier Flugzeugwerke (b. 1884)
1969 – Princess Alice of Battenberg (b. 1885)
1973 – Robert Watson-Watt, Scottish engineer, invented the radar (b. 1892)
1975 – Constance McLaughlin Green, American historian and author (b. 1897)
1977 – Katherine Milhous, American author and illustrator (b. 1894)
1977 – Aleksandr Vasilevsky, Russian marshal and politician, Minister of Defence for the Soviet Union (b. 1895)
1979 – Jesse Pearson, American actor, singer, and screenwriter (b. 1930)
1983 – Robert Aldrich, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1918)
1984 – Cecil M. Harden, American politician (b. 1894)
1986 – Edward Youde, Welsh-Chinese sinologist and diplomat, 26th Governor of Hong Kong (b. 1924)
1989 – John Pritchard, English conductor and director (b. 1921)
1990 – Alfonso A. Ossorio, Filipino-American painter and sculptor (b. 1916)
1991 – Richard Speck, American mass murderer (b. 1941)
1994 – Harry Horner, Czech-American director, producer, and production designer (b. 1910)
1995 – L. B. Cole, American illustrator and publisher (b. 1918)
1995 – Charles Evans, English mountaineer, surgeon, and educator (b. 1918)
1995 – Gwen Harwood, Australian poet and playwright (b. 1920)
1995 – Clair Cameron Patterson, American scientist (b. 1922)
1997 – Eugen Cicero, Romanian-German jazz pianist (b. 1940)
1998 – Albert Gore, Sr., American lawyer and politician (b. 1907)
2001 – Franco Rasetti, Italian-American physicist and academic (b. 1901)
2002 – Roone Arledge, American sportscaster and producer (b. 1931)
2002 – Ne Win, Burmese general and politician, 4th President of Burma (b. 1911)
2005 – Edward L. Masry, American lawyer and politician (b. 1932)
2006 – David Bronstein, Ukrainian-Belarusian chess player and theoretician (b. 1924)
2007 – Andrew Imbrie, American composer and academic (b. 1921)
2007 – George Paraskevaides, Greek-Cypriot businessman and philanthropist, co-founded Joannou & Paraskevaides (b. 1916)
2007 – Karlheinz Stockhausen, German composer and academic (b. 1928)
2008 – Patriarch Alexy II of Moscow (b. 1929)
2008 – George Brecht, American chemist and composer (b. 1926)
2008 – Nina Foch, Dutch-American actress (b. 1924)
2008 – Beverly Garland, American actress and businesswoman (b. 1926)
2008 – Anca Parghel, Romanian singer-songwriter and pianist (b. 1957)
2009 – William Lederer, American soldier and author (b. 1912)
2010 – Alan Armer, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1922)
2010 – Don Meredith, American football player, sportscaster, and actor (b. 1938)
2011 – Peter Gethin, English racing driver (b. 1940)
2011 – Gennady Logofet, Russian footballer and manager (b. 1942)
2012 – Dave Brubeck, American pianist and composer (b. 1920)
2012 – Elisabeth Murdoch, Australian philanthropist (b. 1909)
2012 – Oscar Niemeyer, Brazilian architect, designed the United Nations Headquarters and Cathedral of Brasília (b. 1907)
2012 – Ignatius IV of Antioch, Syrian patriarch (b. 1920)
2013 – Fred Bassetti, American architect and academic, founded Bassetti Architects (b. 1917)
2013 – William B. Edmondson, American lawyer and diplomat, United States Ambassador to South Africa (b. 1927)
2013 – Nelson Mandela, South African lawyer and politician, 1st President of South Africa, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1918)
2014 – Ernest C. Brace, American captain and pilot (b. 1931)
2014 – Fabiola, Queen of Belgium (b. 1928)
2014 – Talât Sait Halman, Turkish poet, translator, and historian (b. 1931)
2014 – Jackie Healy-Rae, Irish hurdler and politician (b. 1931)
2014 – Silvio Zavala, Mexican historian and author (b. 1909)
2015 – Vic Eliason, American clergyman and radio host, founded VCY America (b. 1936)
2015 – Tibor Rubin, Hungarian-American soldier, Medal of Honor recipient (b. 1929)
2015 – Chuck Williams, American businessman and author, founded Williams Sonoma (b. 1915)
2016 – Tyruss Himes ("Big Syke"), American rapper (b. 1968)
2017 – Michael I of Romania, fifth and last king of Romania (b. 1921)
2017 – August Ames, Canadian American pornographic actress (b. 1994)
2019 – Robert Walker, American actor (b. 1940)
2020 – Peter Alliss, English professional golfer (b. 1931)
2021 – Bob Dole, American politician (b. 1923)
2022 – Kirstie Alley, American actress and producer (b. 1951)
2023 – Norman Lear, American screenwriter and producer (b. 1922)
2024 – Jacques Roubaud, French poet, writer, and mathematician (b. 1932)
Holidays and observances
Christian feast day:
Abercius
Clement of Alexandria (Episcopal Church)
Crispina
Dalmatius of Pavia
Gerbold
Justinian of Ramsey Island
Nicetius (Nizier)
Pelinus of Brindisi
Sabbas the Sanctified
December 5 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
Children's Day (Suriname)
Day of Military Honour - Battle of Moscow (Russia)
Discovery Day (Haiti and Dominican Republic)
International Volunteer Day for Economic and Social Development
Klozum (Schiermonnikoog, Netherlands)
Saint Nicholas' Eve (Belgium, Czech Republic, Slovakia, the Netherlands, Hungary, Romania, Germany, Poland and the UK)
Krampusnacht (Austria)
The King Bhumibol Adulyadej Memorial Birthday (Thailand)
World Soil Day
References
External links
BBC: On This Day
Historical Events on December 5
Category:Days of December
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_5
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Events
Pre-1600
* 771 – Austrasian king Carloman I dies, leaving his brother Charlemagne as sole king of the Frankish Kingdom.
* 963 – The lay papal protonotary is elected pope and takes the name Leo VIII, being consecrated on 6 December after ordination.
*1110 – An army led by Baldwin I of Jerusalem and Sigurd the Crusader of Norway captures Sidon at the end of the First Crusade.
*1259 – Kings Louis IX of France and Henry III of England agree to the Treaty of Paris, in which Henry renounces his claims to French-controlled territory on continental Europe (including Normandy) in exchange for Louis withdrawing his support for English rebels.
*1563 – The final session of the Council of Trent is held nearly 18 years after the body held its first session on December 13, 1545.
1601–1900
*1619 – Thirty-eight colonists arrive at Berkeley Hundred, Virginia. The group's charter proclaims that the day "be yearly and perpetually kept holy as a day of thanksgiving to Almighty God."
*1623 – 50 Christians are executed in Edo, Japan, during the Great Martyrdom of Edo.
*1676 – The Battle of Lund, becomes the bloodiest battle in Scandinavian history.
*1745 – Charles Edward Stuart's army reaches Derby, its furthest point during the Second Jacobite Rising.
*1783 – At Fraunces Tavern in New York City, U.S. General George Washington bids farewell to his officers.
*1786 – Mission Santa Barbara is dedicated (on the feast day of Saint Barbara).
*1791 – The first edition of The Observer, the world's first Sunday newspaper, is published.
*1804 – The United States House of Representatives adopts articles of impeachment against Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase.
*1808 – Napoleonic Wars: Under the orders by commander Tomás de Morla, the city of Madrid surrenders to French Emperor Napoleon I after a 4 day long siege.
*1829 – In the face of fierce local opposition, British Governor-General Lord William Bentinck issues a regulation declaring that anyone who abets sati in Bengal is guilty of culpable homicide.
*1861 – American Civil War: The 109 electors of the several states of the Confederate States of America unanimously elect Jefferson Davis as President and Alexander H. Stephens as Vice President.
*1863 – American Civil War: Confederate General James Longstreet lifts his unsuccessful siege of Knoxville, Tennessee after failing to capture the city.
*1864 – American Civil War: Sherman's March to the Sea: Union cavalry forces defeat Confederate cavalry in the Battle of Waynesboro, Georgia, opening the way for General William T. Sherman's army to approach the coast.
*1865 – North Carolina ratifies 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, followed two days later by Georgia, and U.S. slaves were legally free within two weeks.
*1867 – Former Minnesota farmer Oliver Hudson Kelley founds the Order of the Patrons of Husbandry (better known today as the Grange).
*1872 – The American brigantine is discovered drifting in the Atlantic. Her crew is never found.
*1875 – Notorious New York City politician Boss Tweed escapes from prison; he is later recaptured in Spain.
*1881 – The first edition of the Los Angeles Times is published.
*1893 – First Matabele War: A patrol of 34 British South Africa Company soldiers is ambushed and annihilated by more than 3,000 Matabele warriors on the Shangani River in Matabeleland.
1901–present
*1906 – Alpha Phi Alpha the first intercollegiate Greek lettered fraternity for African-Americans was founded at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York.
*1909 – In Canadian football, the First Grey Cup game is played. The University of Toronto Varsity Blues defeat the Toronto Parkdale Canoe Club, 26–6.
* 1909 – The Montreal Canadiens ice hockey club, the oldest surviving professional hockey franchise in the world, is founded as a charter member of the National Hockey Association.
*1917 – The Finnish Senate submits to the Parliament of Finland a proposal for the form of government of the Republic of Finland and issued a communication to Parliament declaring the independence of Finland.
*1918 – U.S. President Woodrow Wilson sails for the World War I peace talks in Versailles, becoming the first US president to travel to Europe while in office.
*1919 – Ukrainian War of Independence: The Polonsky conspiracy is initiated, with an attempt to assassinate the high command of the Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine.
*1928 – Cosmo Gordon Lang was enthroned as the Archbishop of Canterbury, the first bachelor to be appointed in 150 years.
*1939 – World War II: is struck by a mine (laid by ) off the Scottish coast and is laid up for repairs until August 1940.
*1942 – World War II: Carlson's patrol during the Guadalcanal Campaign ends.
*1943 – World War II: In Yugoslavia, resistance leader Marshal Josip Broz Tito proclaims a provisional democratic Yugoslav government in-exile.
* 1943 – World War II: U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt closes down the Works Progress Administration, because of the high levels of wartime employment in the United States.
*1945 – By a vote of 65–7, the United States Senate approves United States participation in the United Nations. (The UN had been established on October 24, 1945.)
*1948 – Chinese Civil War: The SS Kiangya, carrying Nationalist refugees from Shanghai, explodes in the Huangpu River.
*1949 – Sir Duncan George Stewart, governor of the Crown Colony of Sarawak, was fatally stabbed by a member of the Rukun 13.
*1950 – Korean War: Jesse L. Brown (the 1st African-American Naval aviator) is killed in action during the Battle of Chosin Reservoir.
*1950 – Korean War: Associated Press photographer Max Desfor photographs hundreds of Korean refugees crossing a downed bridge in the Taedong River: 1951 Pulitzer Prize winner Flight of Refugees Across Wrecked Bridge in Korea.
*1956 – The Million Dollar Quartet (Elvis Presley, Jerry Lee Lewis, Carl Perkins, and Johnny Cash) get together at Sun Studio for the first and last time.
*1964 – Free Speech Movement: Police arrest over 800 students at the University of California, Berkeley, following their takeover and sit-in at the administration building in protest of the UC Regents' decision to forbid protests on UC property.
*1965 – Launch of Gemini 7 with crew members Frank Borman and Jim Lovell. The Gemini 7 spacecraft was the passive target for the first crewed space rendezvous performed by the crew of Gemini 6A.
*1969 – Black Panther Party members Fred Hampton and Mark Clark are shot and killed during a raid by 14 Chicago police officers.
* 1971 – The PNS Ghazi, a Pakistan Navy submarine, sinks during the course of the Indo-Pakistani Naval War of 1971.
* 1971 – During a concert by Frank Zappa and The Mothers of Invention at the Montreux Casino, an audience member fires a flare gun into the ceiling, causing a fire that destroys the venue. The incident served as the inspiration for Deep Purple's 1973 song Smoke on the Water.
*1974 – Martinair Flight 138 crashes into the Saptha Kanya mountain range in Maskeliya, Sri Lanka, killing 191.
*1977 – Jean-Bédel Bokassa, president of the Central African Republic, crowns himself Emperor Bokassa I of the Central African Empire.
* 1977 – Malaysian Airline System Flight 653 is hijacked and crashes in Tanjong Kupang, Johor, killing 100.
*1978 – Following the murder of Mayor George Moscone, Dianne Feinstein becomes San Francisco's first female mayor.
*1979 – The Hastie fire in Hull kills three schoolboys and eventually leads police to arrest Bruce George Peter Lee.
*1981 – South Africa grants independence to the Ciskei "homeland" (not recognized by any government outside South Africa).
*1982 – The People's Republic of China adopts its current constitution.
*1983 – US Navy aircraft from USS John F. Kennedy and USS Independence attack Syrian missile sites in Lebanon in response to an F-14 being fired on by an SA-7. One A-6 Intruder and A-7 Corsair are shot down. One American pilot is killed, one is rescued, and one is captured.
*1984 – Sri Lankan Civil War: Sri Lankan Army soldiers kill 107–150 civilians in Mannar.
*1986 – The MV Amazon Venture oil tanker begins leaking oil while at the port of Savannah in the United States, resulting in an oil spill of approximately .
*1991 – Terry A. Anderson is released after seven years in captivity as a hostage in Beirut; he is the last and longest-held American hostage in Lebanon.
* 1991 – Pan American World Airways ceases its operations after 64 years.
*1992 – Somali Civil War: President George H. W. Bush orders 28,000 U.S. troops to Somalia in Northeast Africa.
*1998 – The Unity Module, the second module of the International Space Station, is launched.
*2005 – Tens of thousands of people in Hong Kong protest for democracy and call on the government to allow universal and equal suffrage.
*2006 – Six black youths assault a white teenager in Jena, Louisiana.
*2014 – Islamic insurgents kill three state police at a traffic circle before taking an empty school and a "press house" in Grozny. Ten state forces die with 28 injured in gun battles ending with ten insurgents killed.
*2015 – A firebomb is thrown into a restaurant in the Egyptian capital of Cairo, killing 17 people.
*2017 – The Thomas Fire starts near Santa Paula in California. It eventually became the largest wildfire in modern California history to date after burning in Ventura and Santa Barbara Counties.
*2021 – Semeru on the Indonesian island of Java erupts, killing at least 68 people.Births<!-- Please do not add yourself or anyone else without a biography in Wikipedia to this list.-->Pre-1600
*AD 34 – Persius, Roman poet (d. 62)
* 846 – Hasan al-Askari 11th Imam of Twelver Shia Islam (d. 874)
*1428 – Bernard VII, Lord of Lippe (d. 1511)
*1506 – Thomas Darcy, 1st Baron Darcy of Chiche (d. 1558)
*1555 – Heinrich Meibom, German poet and historian (d. 1625)
*1575 – Sister Virginia Maria, Italian nun (d. 1650)
*1580 – Samuel Argall, English adventurer and naval officer (d. 1626)
*1585 – John Cotton, English-American minister and theologian (d. 1652)
*1595 – Jean Chapelain, French poet and critic (d. 1674)
1601–1900
*1647 – Daniel Eberlin, German composer (d. 1715)
*1660 – André Campra, French composer and conductor (d. 1744)
*1667 – Michel Pignolet de Montéclair, French composer and educator (d. 1737)
*1670 – John Aislabie, English politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (d. 1742)
*1713 – Gasparo Gozzi, Italian playwright and critic (d. 1786)
*1727 – Johann Gottfried Zinn, German anatomist and botanist (d. 1759)
*1777 – Juliette Récamier, French businesswoman (d. 1849)
*1795 – Thomas Carlyle, Scottish-English historian, philosopher, and academic (d. 1881)
*1798 – Jules Armand Dufaure, French lawyer and politician, 33rd Prime Minister of France (d. 1881)
*1817 – Nikoloz Baratashvili, Georgian poet and author (d. 1845)
*1835 – Samuel Butler, English author and critic (d. 1902)
*1844 – Franz Xavier Wernz, German religious leader, 25th Superior General of the Society of Jesus (d. 1914)
*1861 – Hannes Hafstein, Icelandic poet and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Iceland (d. 1922)
*1865 – Edith Cavell, English nurse, humanitarian, and saint (Anglicanism) (d. 1915)
*1867 – Stanley Argyle, Australian politician, 32nd Premier of Victoria (d. 1940)
*1868 – Jesse Burkett, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 1953)
*1875 – Agnes Forbes Blackadder, Scottish medical doctor (d. 1964)
* 1875 – Joe Corbett, American baseball player and coach (d. 1945)
* 1875 – Rainer Maria Rilke, Austrian-Swiss poet and author (d. 1926)
*1877 – Morris Alexander, South African politician (d. 1946)
*1881 – Erwin von Witzleben, Polish-German field marshal (d. 1944)
*1882 – Constance Davey, Australian psychologist (d. 1963)
*1883 – Katharine Susannah Prichard, Australian author and playwright (d. 1969)
*1884 – R. C. Majumdar, Indian historian (d. 1980)
*1887 – Winifred Carney, Irish suffragist, trade unionist, and Irish republican (d. 1943)
*1892 – Francisco Franco, Spanish general and dictator, Prime Minister of Spain (d. 1975)
* 1892 – Liu Bocheng, Chinese commander and politician (d. 1986)
*1893 – Herbert Read, English poet and critic (d. 1968)
*1895 – Feng Youlan, Chinese philosopher and academic (d. 1990)
*1897 – Robert Redfield, American anthropologist of Mexico (d. 1958)
*1899 – Karl-Günther Heimsoth, German physician and politician (d. 1934)
* 1899 – Charlie Spencer, English footballer and manager (d. 1953)
1901–present
*1903 – Cornell Woolrich, American author (d. 1968)
*1904 – Albert Norden, German journalist and politician (d. 1982)
*1908 – Alfred Hershey, American bacteriologist and geneticist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1997)
*1910 – Alex North, American composer and conductor (d. 1991)
* 1910 – R. Venkataraman, Indian lawyer and politician, 6th President of India (d. 2009)
*1912 – Pappy Boyington, American colonel and pilot, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1988)
*1913 – Mark Robson, Canadian-American director and producer (d. 1978)
*1914 – Rudolf Hausner, Austrian painter and sculptor (d. 1995)
* 1914 – Claude Renoir, French cinematographer (d. 1993)
*1915 – Eddie Heywood, American pianist and composer (d. 1989)
*1916 – Ely Jacques Kahn Jr., American journalist and author (d. 1994)
*1919 – I. K. Gujral, Indian poet and politician, 12th Prime Minister of India (d. 2012)
*1920 – Nadir Afonso, Portuguese painter and architect (d. 2013)
* 1920 – Michael Bates, English actor (d. 1978)
* 1920 – Jeanne Manford, American educator and activist, co-founded PFLAG (d. 2013)
*1921 – Deanna Durbin, Canadian actress and singer (d. 2013)
*1923 – Charles Keating, American lawyer and financier (d. 2014)
* 1923 – Eagle Keys, American-Canadian football player and coach (d. 2012)
* 1923 – John Krish, English director and screenwriter (d. 2016)
*1924 – John C. Portman Jr., American architect, designed the Renaissance Center and Tomorrow Square (d. 2017)
*1925 – Albert Bandura, Canadian-American psychologist and academic (d. 2021)
*1926 – Ned Romero, American actor and opera singer (d. 2017)
*1929 – Şakir Eczacıbaşı, Turkish pharmacist, photographer, and businessman (d. 2010)
*1930 – Ronnie Corbett, Scottish actor and comedian (d. 2016)
* 1930 – Jim Hall, American guitarist and composer (d. 2013)
*1931 – Alex Delvecchio, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and manager
* 1931 – Wally George, American radio and television host (d. 2003)
*1932 – Roh Tae-woo, South Korean general and politician, 6th President of South Korea (d. 2021)
*1933 – Horst Buchholz, German actor (d. 2003)
* 1933 – Wink Martindale, American game show host and producer
*1934 – Bill Collins, Australian film critic and author (d. 2019)
* 1934 – Victor French, American actor and director (d. 1989)
*1935 – Paul O'Neill, American businessman and politician, 72nd United States Secretary of the Treasury (d. 2020)
*1936 – Freddy Cannon, American singer and guitarist
*1945 – Roberta Bondar, Canadian neurologist, academic, and astronaut
*1946 – Karina, Spanish singer/actress
*1947 – Jane Lubchenco, American ecologist, academic, and diplomat
*1948 – Southside Johnny, American singer-songwriter
* 1949 – Jock Stirrup, Baron Stirrup, English air marshal and politician
*1950 – Bjørn Kjellemyr, Norwegian bassist and composer
*1951 – Gary Rossington, American guitarist (d. 2023)
*1955 – Philip Hammond, English businessman and politician, former Chancellor of the Exchequer
* 1955 – Dave Taylor, Canadian-American ice hockey player and manager
* 1955 – Cassandra Wilson, American singer-songwriter and producer
*1958 – Sergei Starikov, Russian ice hockey player and coach
*1960 – David Green, Nicaraguan-American baseball player
* 1960 – Glynis Nunn, Australian heptathlete and hurler
*1961 – Frank Reich, American football player and coach
* 1961 – Naomi Robson, American-Australian television host
*1962 – Vinnie Dombroski, American singer-songwriter and musician
*1974 – Tadahito Iguchi, Japanese baseball player
*1976 – Kristina Groves, Canadian speed skater
* 1976 – Betty Lennox, American basketball player
*1977 – Ajit Agarkar, Indian cricketer
* 1977 – Darvis Patton, American sprinter
* 1977 – Morten Veland, Norwegian guitarist and songwriter
*1978 – Jaclyn Victor, Malaysian singer and actress
*1979 – Ysabella Brave, American singer-songwriter
* 1979 – Jay DeMerit, American soccer player
*1980 – Brian Cook, American basketball player
* 1980 – Viktor, Canadian wrestler and manager
*1981 – Brian Vandborg, Danish cyclist
*1982 – Nathan Douglas, English triple jumper
* 1982 – Waldo Ponce, Chilean footballer
* 1982 – Ho-Pin Tung, Dutch-Chinese race car driver
* 1982 – Nick Vujicic, Australian evangelist
*1983 – Jimmy Bartel, Australian footballer
* 1983 – Chinx, American rapper (d. 2015)
*1984 – Lindsay Felton, American actress
* 1984 – Joe Thomas, American football player
*1985 – Andrew Brackman, American baseball player
* 1985 – Stephen Dawson, Irish footballer
* 1985 – Carlos Gómez, Dominican baseball player
*1986 – Kaija Udras, Estonian skier
* 1986 – Martell Webster, American basketball player
*1987 – Orlando Brown, American actor and rapper
* 1991 – André Roberson, American basketball player
* 1991 – Max Holloway, American mixed martial artist
* 1991 – Reality Winner, American intelligence specialist convicted of espionage
*1992 – Robin Bruyère, Belgian politician
* 1992 – Peta Hiku, New Zealand rugby league player
* 1992 – Jean-Claude Iranzi, Rwandan footballer
* 1992 – Jin, South Korean singer, songwriter and actor
* 1992 – Joe Musgrove, American baseball player
* 1992 – Blake Snell, American baseball player
*1994 – Gabriel Lundberg, Danish basketball player
*1996 – Ivan Belikov, Russian footballer
* 1996 – Diogo Jota, Portuguese footballer
* 1996 – Sebastián Vegas, Chilean footballer
*1999 – Kim Do-yeon, South Korean singer and actress
* 1999 – Kang Mi-na, South Korean actress and singer
*2003 – Jackson Holliday, American baseball player
* 2003 – Kim Do-ah, South Korean singer and actress
<!--Please do not add yourself, non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information.-->
Deaths
Pre-1600
*530 BC – Cyrus the Great, king of Persia (b. 600 BC)
* 749 – John of Damascus, Syrian priest and saint (b. 676)
* 771 – Carloman I, Frankish king (b. 751)
* 870 – Suairlech ind Eidnén mac Ciaráin, Irish bishop
*1075 – Anno II, German archbishop and saint (b. 1010)
*1131 – Omar Khayyám, Persian poet, astronomer, mathematician, and philosopher (b. 1048)
*1214 – William the Lion, Scottish king (b. 1143)
*1260 – Aymer de Valence, Bishop of Winchester (b. 1222)
*1270 – Theobald II of Navarre (b. 1238)
*1334 – Pope John XXII (b. 1249)
*1340 – Henry Burghersh, English bishop and politician, Lord Chancellor of England (b. 1292)
*1341 – Janisław, Archbishop of Gniezno
*1408 – Valentina Visconti, wife of Louis of Valois, Duke of Orléans
*1456 – Charles I, Duke of Bourbon (b. 1401)
*1459 – Adolphus VIII, Count of Holstein (b. 1401)
*1576 – Georg Joachim Rheticus, Austrian-Slovak mathematician and cartographer (b. 1514)
*1585 – John Willock, Scottish minister and reformer (b. 1515)
1601–1900
*1603 – Maerten de Vos, Flemish painter and draughtsman (b. 1532)
*1609 – Alexander Hume, Scottish poet (b. 1560)
*1637 – Nicholas Ferrar, English trader (b. 1592)
*1642 – Cardinal Richelieu, French cardinal and politician, Chief Minister to the French Monarch (b. 1585)
*1649 – William Drummond of Hawthornden, Scottish poet (b. 1585)
*1679 – Thomas Hobbes, English philosopher and theorist (b. 1588)
*1680 – Thomas Bartholin, Danish physician, mathematician, and theologian (b. 1616)
*1696 – Empress Meishō of Japan (b. 1624)
*1732 – John Gay, English poet and playwright (b. 1685)
*1798 – Luigi Galvani, Italian physician, physicist, and philosopher (b. 1737)
*1828 – Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool, English politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1770)
*1839 – John Leamy, Irish–American merchant (b. 1757)
*1841 – David Daniel Davis, Welsh-English physician and academic (b. 1777)
*1845 – Gregor MacGregor, Scottish soldier and explorer (b. 1786)
*1850 – William Sturgeon, English physicist, invented the electric motor (b. 1783)
*1893 – John Tyndall, Irish-English physicist and chemist (b. 1820)
*1897 – Griffith Rhys Jones, Welsh conductor (b. 1834)
1901–present
*1902 – Charles Dow, American journalist and publisher, co-founded the Dow Jones & Company (b. 1851)
*1926 – Ivana Kobilca, Slovenian painter (b. 1861)
*1933 – Stefan George, German-Swiss poet and translator (b. 1868)
*1935 – Johan Halvorsen, Norwegian violinist, composer, and conductor (b. 1864)
* 1935 – Charles Richet, French physiologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1850)
*1938 – Borghild Holmsen, Norwegian pianist, composer and music critic (b. 1865)
* 1938 – Tamanishiki San'emon, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 32nd Yokozuna (b. 1903)
*1942 – Juhan Kukk, Estonian politician, 3rd Head of State of Estonia (b. 1885)
* 1942 – Fritz Löhner-Beda, Jewish Austrian librettist, lyricist and writer (b. 1883)
*1944 – Roger Bresnahan, American baseball player and manager (b. 1879)
*1945 – Thomas Hunt Morgan, American geneticist and biologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1866)
* 1945 – Richárd Weisz, Hungarian Olympic champion wrestler (b. 1879)
*1948 – Frank Benford, American physicist and engineer (b. 1883)
*1950 – Jesse L. Brown, 1st African-American Naval aviator (b. 1926)
*1954 – George Shepherd, 1st Baron Shepherd (b. 1881)
*1955 – József Galamb, Hungarian-American engineer (b. 1881)
*1963 – Constance Davey, Australian psychologist (b. 1882)
*1967 – Bert Lahr, American actor (b. 1895)
*1969 – Fred Hampton, American Black Panthers activist (b. 1948)
*1971 – Shunryū Suzuki, Japanese-American monk and educator, founded the San Francisco Zen Center (b. 1904)
*1975 – Hannah Arendt, German-American historian, theorist, and academic (b. 1906)
*1976 – Tommy Bolin, American guitarist and songwriter (b. 1951)
* 1976 – Benjamin Britten, English pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1913)
* 1976 – W. F. McCoy, Irish soldier, lawyer, and politician (b. 1886)
*1980 – Francisco de Sá Carneiro, Portuguese lawyer and politician, 111th Prime Minister of Portugal (b. 1934)
* 1980 – Stanisława Walasiewicz, Polish-American runner (b. 1911)
* 1980 – Don Warrington, Canadian football player (b. 1948)
*1981 – Jeanne Block, American psychologist (b. 1923)
*1984 – Jack Mercer, American animator, screenwriter, voice actor, and singer (b. 1910)
*1987 – Arnold Lobel, American author and illustrator (b. 1933)
* 1987 – Rouben Mamoulian, Armenian-American director and screenwriter (b. 1897)
*1988 – Osman Achmatowicz, Polish chemist and academic (b. 1899)
*1992 – Henry Clausen, American lawyer and author (b. 1905)
*1993 – Margaret Landon, American missionary and author (b. 1903)
* 1993 – Frank Zappa, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b. 1940)
*1999 – Rose Bird, American academic and judge, 25th Chief Justice of California (b. 1936)
*2000 – Henck Arron, Surinamese banker and politician, 1st Prime Minister of the Republic of Suriname (b. 1936)
*2003 – Iggy Katona, American race car driver (b. 1916)
*2004 – Elena Souliotis, Greek soprano and actress (b. 1943)
*2005 – Errol Brathwaite, New Zealand soldier and author (b. 1924)
* 2005 – Gregg Hoffman, American film producer (b. 1963)
*2006 – K. Ganeshalingam, Sri Lankan accountant and politician, Mayor of Colombo (b. 1938)
* 2006 – Ross A. McGinnis, American soldier, Medal of Honor recipient (b. 1987)
*2007 – Pimp C, American rapper (b. 1973)
*2009 – Liam Clancy, Irish singer, actor, and guitarist (b. 1935)
*2010 – King Curtis Iaukea, American wrestler (b. 1937)
*2011 – Sonia Pierre, Haitian-Dominican activist (b. 1965)
* 2011 – Sócrates, Brazilian footballer and manager (b. 1954)
* 2011 – Hubert Sumlin, American singer and guitarist (b. 1931)
*2012 – Vasily Belov, Russian author, poet, and playwright (b. 1932)
* 2012 – Jack Brooks, American colonel, lawyer, and politician (b. 1922)
* 2012 – Miguel Calero, Colombian footballer and manager (b. 1971)
* 2012 – Anthony Deane-Drummond, English general (b. 1917)
*2013 – Joana Raspall i Juanola, Spanish author and poet (b. 1913)
*2014 – Claudia Emerson, American poet and academic (b. 1957)
* 2014 – V. R. Krishna Iyer, Indian lawyer and judge (b. 1914)
* 2014 – Vincent L. McKusick, American lawyer and judge (b. 1921)
* 2014 – Jeremy Thorpe, English lawyer and politician (b. 1929)
*2015 – Bill Bennett, Canadian lawyer and politician, 27th Premier of British Columbia (b. 1932)
* 2015 – Robert Loggia, American actor and director (b. 1930)
* 2015 – Yossi Sarid, Israeli journalist and politician, 15th Israeli Minister of Education (b. 1940)
*2016 – Patricia Robins, British writer and WAAF officer (b. 1921)
*2017 – Shashi Kapoor, Indian actor (b. 1938)
*2022 – Bob McGrath, American singer and actor (b. 1932)
* 2022 – Patrick Tambay, French race car driver (b. 1949)
* 2024 – Princess Birgitta of Sweden, Swedish royal (b. 1937)
* 2024 – Brian Thompson, American insurance executive (b. 1974)Holidays and observances
*Christian feast day:
**Ada
**Anno II
**Barbara, and its related observances:
***Barbórka, Miners' Day in Poland
***Eid il-Burbara, a holiday similar to Halloween in honor of Saint Barbara. (Russia, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, Turkey)
**Bernardo degli Uberti
**Clement of Alexandria (Anglicanism, Eastern Catholicism)
**Giovanni Calabria
**John of Damascus
**Maruthas
**Nicholas Ferrar (Anglicanism)
**Osmund
**Sigiramnus
**December 4 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*Navy Day (India)
*Thai Environment Day (Thailand)
*Tupou I Day (Tonga)
References
External links
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/4 BBC: On This Day]
*
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/december/4 Historical Events on December 4]
Category:Days of December
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_4
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Events
Pre-1600
* 915 – Pope John X crowns Berengar I of Italy as Holy Roman Emperor (probable date).
1601–1900
*1775 – American Revolutionary War: becomes the first vessel to fly the Grand Union Flag (the precursor to the Stars and Stripes); the flag is hoisted by John Paul Jones.
*1799 – War of the Second Coalition: Battle of Wiesloch: Austrian Lieutenant Field Marshal Anton Sztáray defeats the French at Wiesloch.
*1800 – War of the Second Coalition: Battle of Hohenlinden: French General Jean Victor Marie Moreau decisively defeats the Archduke John of Austria near Munich. Coupled with First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte's earlier victory at Marengo, this will force the Austrians to sign an armistice and end the war.
* 1800 – United States presidential election: The Electoral College casts votes for president and vice president that result in a tie between Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr.
*1818 – Illinois becomes the 21st U.S. state.
*1834 – The Zollverein (German Customs Union) begins the first regular census in Germany.
*1854 – Battle of the Eureka Stockade: More than 20 gold miners at Ballarat, Victoria, are killed by state troopers in an uprising over mining licences.
*1859 – Nigeria's first newspaper, missionary Henry Townsend's Iwe Irohin, was published.
*1881 – The first issue of Tamperean daily newspaper Aamulehti ("Morning Paper") is published.
*1898 – The Duquesne Country and Athletic Club defeats an all-star collection of early football players 16–0, in what is considered to be the first all-star game for professional American football.
1901–present
*1901 – In a State of the Union message, U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt delivers a 20,000-word report to the House of Representatives asking Congress to curb the power of trusts "within reasonable limits". The speech was not delivered in person.
*1904 – The Jovian moon Himalia is discovered by Charles Dillon Perrine at California's Lick Observatory.
*1910 – Modern neon lighting is first demonstrated by Georges Claude at the Paris Motor Show.
*1912 – Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, and Serbia (the Balkan League) sign an armistice with the Ottoman Empire, temporarily halting the First Balkan War. (The armistice will expire on February 3, 1913, and hostilities will resume.)
*1919 – After nearly 20 years of planning and construction, including two collapses causing 89 deaths, the Quebec Bridge opens to traffic.
*1920 – Following more than a month of Turkish–Armenian War, the Turkish-dictated Treaty of Alexandropol is concluded.
*1925 – Final agreement is signed between the Irish Free State, Northern Ireland and the United Kingdom formalizing the Partition of Ireland.
*1929 – President Herbert Hoover delivers his first State of the Union message to Congress. It is presented in the form of a written message rather than a speech.
*1938 – Nazi Germany issues the Decree on the Utilization of Jewish Property forcing Jews to sell real property, businesses, and stocks at below market value as part of Aryanization.
*1944 – Greek Civil War: Fighting breaks out in Athens between the ELAS and government forces supported by the British Army.
*1954 – Väinö Linna's war novel The Unknown Soldier (Tuntematon sotilas) is published.
*1959 – The current flag of Singapore is adopted, six months after Singapore became self-governing within the British Empire.
*1960 – The musical Camelot debuts at the Majestic Theatre on Broadway. It will become associated with the Kennedy administration.
*1965 – Soviet Union, Space probe of the Luna program, called Luna 8, is launched, but crashes on the Moon.
*1967 – At Groote Schuur Hospital in Cape Town, South Africa, a transplant team headed by Christiaan Barnard carries out the first heart transplant on a human (53-year-old Louis Washkansky).
*1971 – Indo-Pakistani War of 1971: Pakistan launches a pre-emptive strike against India and a full-scale war begins.
*1972 – Spantax Flight 275 crashes during takeoff from Tenerife North–Ciudad de La Laguna Airport, killing all 155 people on board.
*1973 – Pioneer program: Pioneer 10 sends back the first close-up images of Jupiter.
*1979 – In Cincinnati, 11 fans are suffocated in a crush for seats on the concourse outside Riverfront Coliseum before a Who concert.
* 1979 – Iranian Revolution: Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini becomes the first Supreme Leader of Iran.
*1982 – A soil sample is taken from Times Beach, Missouri, that will be found to contain 300 times the safe level of dioxin.
*1984 – Bhopal disaster: A methyl isocyanate leak from a Union Carbide pesticide plant in Bhopal, India, kills more than 3,800 people outright and injures 150,000–600,000 others (some 6,000 of whom later died from their injuries) in one of the worst industrial disasters in history.
*1989 – In a meeting off the coast of Malta, U.S. President George H. W. Bush and Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev release statements indicating that the Cold War between NATO and the Warsaw Pact may be coming to an end.
*1992 – The Greek oil tanker Aegean Sea, carrying 80,000 tonnes of crude oil, runs aground in a storm while approaching A Coruña, Spain, and spills much of its cargo.
* 1992 – A test engineer for Sema Group uses a personal computer to send the world's first text message via the Vodafone network to the phone of a colleague.
*1994 – Taiwan holds its first full local elections; James Soong elected as the first and only directly elected Governor of Taiwan, Chen Shui-bian became the first directly elected Mayor of Taipei, Wu Den-yih became the first directly elected Mayor of Kaohsiung.
* 1994 – Sony releases the PlayStation game console in Japan.
*1995 – Cameroon Airlines Flight 3701 crashes on approach to Douala International Airport in Douala, Cameroon, killing 71 of the 76 people on board.
*1997 – In Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, representatives from 121 countries sign the Ottawa Treaty prohibiting manufacture and deployment of anti-personnel landmines. The United States, People's Republic of China, and Russia do not sign the treaty, however.
*1999 – NASA loses radio contact with the Mars Polar Lander moments before the spacecraft enters the Martian atmosphere.
*1999 – In Worcester, Massachusetts, firefighters responded to a fire at the Worcester Cold Storage and Warehouse Co. facility, which takes the lives of 6 firefighters.
*2005 – XCOR Aerospace makes the first crewed rocket aircraft delivery of U.S. Mail in Kern County, California.
*2007 – Winter storms cause the Chehalis River to flood many cities in Lewis County, Washington, and close a portion of Interstate 5 for several days. At least eight deaths and billions of dollars in damages are blamed on the floods.
*2009 – A suicide bombing at a hotel in Mogadishu, Somalia, kills 25 people, including three ministers of the Transitional Federal Government.
*2012 – At least 475 people are killed after Typhoon Bopha makes landfall in the Philippines.
*2014 – The Japanese space agency, JAXA, launches the space explorer Hayabusa2 from the Tanegashima Space Center on a six-year round trip mission to an asteroid to collect rock samples.
*2022 – Massive power outage after Moore County substation attack, that leaves 45,000 people, without power, for five days, leading to a FBI probe.
*2023 – Mount Marapi located in West Sumatra, Indonesia begins a sporadic series of eruptions. 23 people were killed, and 12 were injured.
*2024 – Martial law is declared in South Korea.
Births
<!-- Please do not add yourself or anyone else without a biography in Wikipedia to this list.-->
Pre-1600
*1368 – Charles VI of France (d. 1422)
*1447 – Bayezid II, Ottoman sultan (d. 1512)
*1483 – Nicolaus von Amsdorf, German theologian and Protestant reformer (d. 1565)
*1560 – Jan Gruter, Dutch scholar and critic (d. 1627)
*1590 – Daniel Seghers, Flemish Jesuit brother and painter (d. 1661)
1601–1900
*1616 – John Wallis, English mathematician and cryptographer (d. 1703)
*1684 – Ludvig Holberg, Norwegian historian and writer (d. 1754)
*1722 – Hryhorii Skovoroda, Ukrainian poet, composer, and philosopher (d. 1794)
*1729 – Antonio Soler, Spanish composer and theorist (d. 1783)
*1730 – Mahadaji Shinde, Maratha ruler of Gwalior (d. 1794)
*1755 – Gilbert Stuart, American painter (d. 1828)
*1793 – Clarkson Frederick Stanfield, English painter and academic (d. 1867)
*1798 – Alfred Iverson Sr., American politician (d. 1873)
*1800 – France Prešeren, Slovenian poet and lawyer (d. 1849)
*1810 – Louisa Susannah Cheves McCord, American author and political essayist (d. 1879)
*1826 – George B. McClellan, American general and politician, 24th Governor of New Jersey (d. 1885)
*1827 – Lombe Atthill, Northern Irish obstetrician and gynaecologist (d. 1910)
*1833 – Carlos Finlay, Cuban epidemiologist and physician (d. 1915)
*1838 – Cleveland Abbe, American meteorologist and academic (d. 1916)
* 1838 – Octavia Hill, English activist and author (d. 1912)
* 1838 – Princess Louise of Prussia (d. 1923)
*1842 – Phoebe Hearst, American philanthropist and activist (d. 1919)
* 1842 – Charles Alfred Pillsbury, American businessman, founded the Pillsbury Company (d. 1899)
* 1842 – Ellen Swallow Richards, American chemist, ecologist, and educator (d. 1911)
*1848 – William Shiels, Irish-Australian politician, 16th Premier of Victoria (d. 1904)
*1850 – Richard Butler, English-Australian politician, 23rd Premier of South Australia (d. 1925)
*1856 – George Leake, Australian politician, 3rd Premier of Western Australia (d. 1902)
*1857 – Joseph Conrad, Polish-born British novelist (d. 1924)
* 1857 – Mathilde Kralik, Austrian pianist and composer (d. 1944)
*1863 – Gussie Davis, African-American songwriter (d. 1899)
*1864 – Herman Heijermans, Dutch author and playwright (d. 1924)
*1867 – William John Bowser, Canadian lawyer and politician, 17th Premier of British Columbia (d. 1933)
*1872 – Arthur Charles Hardy, Canadian lawyer and politician, Canadian Speaker of the Senate (d. 1962)
* 1872 – William Haselden, English cartoonist (d. 1953)
*1875 – Max Meldrum, Scottish-Australian painter and educator (d. 1955)
*1878 – Francis A. Nixon, American businessman (d. 1956)
*1879 – Albert Asher, New Zealand rugby player (d. 1965)
* 1879 – Charles Hutchison, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1949)
* 1879 – Kafū Nagai, Japanese author and playwright (d. 1959)
* 1879 – Donald Matheson Sutherland, Canadian physician and politician, 5th Canadian Minister of National Defence (d. 1970)
*1880 – Fedor von Bock, German field marshal (d. 1945)
*1883 – Anton Webern, Austrian composer and conductor (d. 1945)
*1884 – Rajendra Prasad, Indian lawyer and politician, 1st President of India (d. 1963)
* 1884 – Walther Stampfli, Swiss lawyer and politician, 50th President of the Swiss Confederation (d. 1965)
*1886 – Manne Siegbahn, Swedish physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1978)
*1887 – Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni, Japanese general and politician, 43rd Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1990)
*1891 – Thomas Farrell, American general (d. 1967)
*1894 – Deiva Zivarattinam, Indian lawyer and politician (d. 1975)
*1895 – Anna Freud, Austrian-English psychologist and psychoanalyst (d. 1982)
* 1895 – Sheng Shicai, Chinese warlord (d. 1970)
*1897 – William Gropper, American cartoonist and painter (d. 1977)
*1899 – Hayato Ikeda, Japanese politician, 58th Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1965)
* 1899 – Howard Kinsey, American tennis player (d. 1966)
*1900 – Bert Hawke, Australian politician, 18th Premier of Western Australia (d. 1986)
* 1900 – Ulrich Inderbinen, Swiss mountaineer (d. 2004)
* 1900 – Richard Kuhn, Austrian-German biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1967)
1901–present
*1901 – Glenn Hartranft, American shot putter and discus thrower (d. 1970)
* 1901 – Mildred Wiley, American high jumper (d. 2000)
*1902 – Mitsuo Fuchida, Japanese captain and pilot (d. 1976)
* 1902 – Feliks Kibbermann, Estonian chess player and philologist (d. 1993)
*1904 – Edgar Moon, Australian tennis player (d. 1976)
*1905 – Les Ames, English cricketer (d. 1990)
*1907 – Connee Boswell, American jazz singer (d. 1976)
*1911 – Nino Rota, Italian pianist, composer, conductor, and academic (d. 1979)
*1914 – Irving Fine, American composer and academic (d. 1962)
*1918 – Abdul Haris Nasution, Indonesian general and politician, 12th Indonesian Minister of Defence (d. 2000)
*1919 – Charles Lynch, Canadian journalist and author (d. 1994)
*1921 – Phyllis Curtin, American soprano and academic (d. 2016)
* 1921 – John Doar, American lawyer and activist (d. 2014)
*1922 – Len Lesser, American actor (d. 2011)
* 1922 – Eli Mandel, Canadian poet, critic, and academic (d. 1992)
* 1922 – Sven Nykvist, Swedish director and cinematographer (d. 2006)
*1923 – Trevor Bailey, English cricketer and sportscaster (d. 2011)
* 1923 – Stjepan Bobek, Croatian-Serbian footballer and manager (d. 2010)
* 1923 – Moyra Fraser, Australian-English actress, singer, and dancer (d. 2009)
* 1924 – John Backus, American computer scientist, led the team that developed FORTRAN (d. 2007)
*1924 – Wiel Coerver, Dutch footballer and manager (d. 2011)
* 1924 – F. Sionil José, Filipino journalist, writer and author (d. 2022)
* 1924 – Roberto Mieres, Argentinian race car driver and sailor (d. 2012)
*1925 – Ferlin Husky, American country music singer (d. 2011)
*1926 – Bob Rogers, Australian radio and television host (d. 2024)
*1927 – Andy Williams, American singer (d. 2012)
*1928 – Thomas M. Foglietta, American politician and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Italy (d. 2004)
* 1928 – Muhammad Habibur Rahman, Indian-Bangladeshi jurist and politician, Prime Minister of Bangladesh (d. 2014)
*1929 – John S. Dunne, American priest and theologian (d. 2013)
*1930 – Jean-Luc Godard, French-Swiss director and screenwriter (d. 2022)
* 1934 – Abimael Guzmán, Peruvian philosopher and academic (d. 2021)
*1935 – Eddie Bernice Johnson, American nurse and politician (d. 2023)
*1937 – Bobby Allison, American race car driver and businessman
* 1937 – Morgan Llywelyn, American-Irish model and author
*1938 – Jean-Claude Malépart, Canadian lawyer and politician (d. 1989)
* 1938 – Sally Shlaer, American mathematician and engineer (d. 1998)
*1939 – John Paul Sr., Dutch-American race car driver
* 1939 – David Phillips, English chemist and academic
*1940 – Jeffrey R. Holland, American academic and religious leader
*1942 – Mike Gibson, Northern Irish-Irish rugby player
* 1942 – Pedro Rocha, Uruguayan footballer and manager (d. 2013)
* 1942 – Alice Schwarzer, German journalist and publisher, founded EMMA Magazine
* 1942 – David K. Shipler, American journalist and author
*1943 – Joseph Franklin Ada, American lawyer and politician, 5th Governor of Guam
* 1943 – J. Philippe Rushton, English-Canadian psychologist and academic (d. 2012)
*1944 – Ralph McTell, English singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1944 – Craig Raine, English poet, author, and playwright
* 1944 – António Variações, Portuguese musician (d. 1984)
*1948 – Jan Hrubý, Czech violinist and songwriter
* 1948 – Maxwell Hutchinson, English architect and television host
* 1948 – Ozzy Osbourne, English singer-songwriter
*1949 – Heather Menzies, Canadian-American actress (d. 2017)
* 1949 – Mickey Thomas, American singer-songwriter
* 1951 – Ray Candy, American wrestler and trainer (d. 1994)
* 1951 – Rick Mears, American race car driver
*1956 – Ewa Kopacz, Polish physician and politician, 15th Prime Minister of Poland
*1957 – Maxim Korobov, Russian businessman and politician
*1959 – Eamonn Holmes, Irish journalist and game show host
*1960 – Daryl Hannah, American actress and producer
* 1960 – Mike Ramsey, American ice hockey player and coach
* 1961 – Ben Baldanza, American economist and business executive (d. 2024)
*1962 – Richard Bacon, English banker, journalist, and politician
* 1962 – Nataliya Grygoryeva, Ukrainian hurdler
* 1962 – Tammy Jackson, American basketball player
*1963 – Joe Lally, American singer-songwriter and bass player
* 1963 – Terri Schiavo, American medical patient (d. 2005)
*1964 – Darryl Hamilton, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2015)
*1965 – Andrew Stanton, American voice actor, director, producer, screenwriter
* 1965 – Katarina Witt, German figure skater and actress
* 1979 – Sean Parker, American entrepreneur and philanthropist
*1980 – Anna Chlumsky, American actress
*1981 – Ioannis Amanatidis, Greek footballer
* 1981 – Brian Bonsall, American actor and musician
* 1985 – László Cseh, Hungarian swimmer
* 1985 – Mike Randolph, American soccer player
* 1985 – Brian Roberts, American basketball player
* 1985 – Amanda Seyfried, American actress
*1987 – Michael Angarano, American actor, director, and screenwriter
* 1987 – Erik Grönwall, Swedish singer-songwriter
* 1987 – Brian Robiskie, American football player
* 1987 – Alicia Sacramone, American gymnast
*1988 – Melissa Aldana, Chilean saxophonist
*1989 – Selçuk Alibaz, Turkish footballer
* 1989 – Alex McCarthy, English footballer
* 1989 – Tomasz Narkun, Polish mixed martial artist
*1990 – Christian Benteke, Belgian footballer
* 1990 – Sharon Fichman, Canadian-Israeli tennis player
* 1990 – Matt Reynolds, American baseball player
*1991 – Ekaterine Gorgodze, Georgian tennis player
*1992 – Cristian Ceballos, Spanish footballer
* 1992 – Joseph McManners, English singer-songwriter, musician and actor
*1994 – Jake T. Austin, American actor
* 1994 – Solomone Kata, New Zealand rugby league player
* 1994 – Bernarda Pera, American tennis player
*1995 – Julius Honka, Finnish ice hockey player
<!-- Please do not add yourself, non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. -->
Deaths
Pre-1600
*311 – Diocletian, Roman emperor (b. 244)
* 649 – Birinus, French-English bishop and saint (b. 600)
* 860 – Abbo, bishop of Auxerre
* 937 – Siegfried, Frankish nobleman
* 978 – Abraham, Coptic pope of Alexandria
*1038 – Emma of Lesum, Saxon countess and Saint
*1099 – Saint Osmund (b. 1065)
*1154 – Pope Anastasius IV (b. 1073)
*1265 – Odofredus, Italian lawyer and jurist
*1266 – Henry III the White, Duke of Wroclaw
*1309 – Henry III, Duke of Głogów (b. 1251/60)
*1322 – Maud Chaworth, Countess of Leicester (b. 1282)
*1532 – Louis II, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken (b. 1502)
*1533 – Vasili III of Russia (b. 1479)
*1542 – Jean Tixier de Ravisi, French scholar and academic (b. 1470)
*1552 – Francis Xavier, Spanish missionary and saint (b. 1506)
*1592 – Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma (b. 1545)
1601–1900
*1610 – Honda Tadakatsu, Japanese general and daimyō (b. 1548)
*1668 – William Cecil, 2nd Earl of Salisbury (b. 1591)
*1691 – Katherine Jones, Viscountess Ranelagh, British scientist (b. 1615)
*1706 – Countess Emilie Juliane of Barby-Mühlingen (b. 1637)
*1752 – Henri-Guillaume Hamal, Walloon musician and composer (b. 1685)
*1765 – Lord John Sackville, English cricketer and politician (b. 1713)
*1789 – Claude Joseph Vernet, French painter (b. 1714)
*1815 – John Carroll, American archbishop (b. 1735)
*1854 – Edward Thonen, German emigrant to Australia (b. 1827)
*1876 – Samuel Cooper, American general (b. 1798)
*1882 – Archibald Tait, Scottish-English archbishop (b. 1811)
*1888 – Carl Zeiss, German physicist and lens maker, created the optical instrument (b. 1816)
*1890 – Billy Midwinter, English-Australian cricketer (b. 1851)
*1892 – Afanasy Fet, Russian author and poet (b. 1820)
*1894 – Robert Louis Stevenson, Scottish novelist, poet, and essayist (b. 1850)
1901–present
*1902 – Robert Lawson, New Zealand architect, designed the Otago Boys' High School and Knox Church (b. 1833)
*1904 – David Bratton, American water polo player (b. 1869)
*1910 – Mary Baker Eddy, American religious leader and author, founded Christian Science (b. 1821)
*1912 – Prudente de Morais, Brazilian lawyer and politician, 3rd President of Brazil (b. 1841)
*1917 – Harold Garnett, English-French cricketer (b. 1879)
*1919 – Pierre-Auguste Renoir, French painter and sculptor (b. 1841)
*1928 – Ezra Meeker, American farmer and politician (b. 1830)
*1934 – Charles James O'Donnell, Irish lawyer and politician (b. 1849)
*1935 – Princess Victoria of the United Kingdom (b. 1868)
*1937 – William Propsting, Australian politician, 20th Premier of Tasmania (b. 1861)
*1941 – Pavel Filonov, Russian painter and poet (b. 1883)
*1949 – Maria Ouspenskaya, Russian-American actress and educator (b. 1876)
*1952 – Rudolf Margolius, Czech lawyer and politician (b. 1913)
*1956 – Manik Bandopadhyay, Indian author, poet, and playwright (b. 1908)
* 1956 – Alexander Rodchenko, Russian sculptor, photographer, and graphic designer (b. 1891)
*1967 – Harry Wismer, American football player and sportscaster (b. 1913)
*1972 – William Manuel Johnson, American bassist (b. 1872)
*1973 – Emile Christian, American trombonist, cornet player, and composer (b. 1895)
* 1973 – Adolfo Ruiz Cortines, President of Mexico, 1952-1958 (b. 1889)
*1979 – Dhyan Chand, Indian field hockey player and coach (b. 1905)
*1980 – Oswald Mosley, English lieutenant, fascist, and politician, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (b. 1896)
*1981 – Walter Knott, American farmer, founded Knott's Berry Farm (b. 1889)
* 1981 – Joel Rinne, Finnish actor (b. 1897)
*1984 – Vladimir Abramovich Rokhlin, Azerbaijani-Russian mathematician and academic (b. 1919)
*1989 – Fernando Martín Espina, Spanish basketball player (b. 1962)
* 1989 – Connie B. Gay, American businessman, founded the Country Music Association (b. 1914)
*1993 – Lewis Thomas, American physician, etymologist, and academic (b. 1913)
*1996 – Georges Duby, French historian and author (b. 1919)
*1998 – Pierre Hétu, Canadian pianist and conductor (b. 1936)
*1999 – John Archer, American actor (b. 1915)
* 1999 – Scatman John, American singer-songwriter and pianist (b. 1942)
* 1999 – Madeline Kahn, American actress, comedian, and singer (b. 1942)
* 1999 – Horst Mahseli, Polish footballer (b. 1934)
* 1999 – Jarl Wahlström, Finnish 12th General of The Salvation Army (b. 1918)
*2000 – Gwendolyn Brooks, American poet and educator (b. 1917)
* 2000 – Hoyt Curtin, American composer and producer (b. 1922)
*2002 – Adrienne Adams, American illustrator (b. 1906)
* 2002 – Glenn Quinn, Irish-American actor (b. 1970)
*2003 – David Hemmings, English actor (b. 1941)
* 2003 – Sita Ram Goel, Indian historian, publisher and writer (b. 1921)
*2004 – Shiing-Shen Chern, Chinese-American mathematician and academic (b. 1911)
*2005 – Frederick Ashworth, American admiral (b. 1912)
* 2005 – Herb Moford, American baseball player (b. 1928)
* 2005 – Kikka Sirén, Finnish pop/schlager singer (b. 1964)
*2007 – James Kemsley, Australian cartoonist and actor (b. 1948)
*2008 – Robert Zajonc, Polish-American psychologist and author (b. 1923)
*2009 – Leila Lopes, Brazilian actress and journalist (b. 1959)
* 2009 – Richard Todd, Irish-born British soldier and actor (b. 1919)
*2010 – Abdumalik Bahori, Azerbaijani poet and author (b. 1927)
*2011 – Dev Anand, Indian actor, director, and producer (b. 1923)
*2012 – Jules Mikhael Al-Jamil, Iraqi-Lebanese archbishop (b. 1938)
* 2012 – Kuntal Chandra, Bangladeshi cricketer (b. 1984)
* 2012 – Fyodor Khitruk, Russian animator, director, and screenwriter (b. 1917)
* 2012 – Diego Mendieta, Paraguayan footballer (b. 1980)
* 2012 – Janet Shaw, Australian cyclist and author (b. 1966)
*2013 – Paul Aussaresses, French general (b. 1918)
* 2013 – Reda Mahmoud Hafez Mohamed, Egyptian air marshal (b. 1952)
* 2013 – Ahmed Fouad Negm, Egyptian poet and educator (b. 1929)
*2014 – Herman Badillo, Puerto Rican-American lawyer and politician (b. 1929)
* 2014 – Jacques Barrot, French politician, French European Commissioner (b. 1937)
* 2014 – Nathaniel Branden, Canadian–American psychotherapist and author (b. 1930)
* 2014 – Ian McLagan, English-American singer-songwriter and keyboard player (b. 1945)
* 2014 – James Stewart, Canadian mathematician and academic (b. 1941)
*2015 – Gladstone Anderson, Jamaican singer and pianist (b. 1934)
* 2015 – Eevi Huttunen, Finnish speed skater (b. 1922)
* 2015 – Scott Weiland, American singer-songwriter (b. 1967)
*2019 – Ragnar Ulstein, Norwegian journalist and war historian (b. 1920)
*2024 – Mohamed Ali Yusuf, Somali politician (b. 1944)
<!-- Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. -->
Holidays and observances
* Christian feast day:
** Abbo of Auxerre
** Pope Abraham of Alexandria (Coptic, 6 Koiak))
** Adrian (Ethernan)
** Birinus
** Cassian of Tangier
** Emma (of Lesum or of Bremen)
** Francis Xavier
** Blessed Johann Nepomuk von Tschiderer zu Gleifheim
** Zephaniah
** December 3 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
* Doctors' Day (Cuba)
* International Day of Persons with DisabilitiesReferencesExternal links
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/3 BBC: On This Day]
*
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/december/3 Historical Events on December 3]
Category:Days of December
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_3
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Events
Pre-1600
*1244 – Pope Innocent IV arrives at Lyon for the First Council of Lyon.
*1409 – The University of Leipzig opens.1601–1900*1697 – St Paul's Cathedral, rebuilt to the design of Sir Christopher Wren following the Great Fire of London, is consecrated.
*1763 – Dedication of the Touro Synagogue, in Newport, Rhode Island, the first synagogue in what will become the United States.
*1766 – Swedish parliament approves the Swedish Freedom of the Press Act and implements it as a ground law, thus being first in the world with freedom of speech.
*1804 – At Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, Napoleon Bonaparte crowns himself Emperor of the French.
*1805 – War of the Third Coalition: Battle of Austerlitz: French troops under Napoleon decisively defeat a joint Russo-Austrian force.
*1823 – Monroe Doctrine: In a State of the Union message, U.S. President James Monroe proclaims American neutrality in future European conflicts, and warns European powers not to interfere in the Americas.
*1845 – Manifest Destiny: In a State of the Union message, U.S. President James K. Polk proposes that the United States should aggressively expand into the West.
*1848 – Franz Joseph I becomes Emperor of Austria.
*1851 – French President Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte overthrows the Second Republic.
*1852 – Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte becomes Emperor of the French as Napoleon III.
*1859 – Origins of the American Civil War: Militant abolitionist leader John Brown is hanged for his October raid on Harpers Ferry, Virginia (now West Virginia).
*1865 – Alabama ratifies the 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, followed by North Carolina, then Georgia; U.S. slaves were legally free within two weeks.
*1867 – At Tremont Temple in Boston, British author Charles Dickens gives his first public reading in the United States.
*1899 – Philippine–American War: The Battle of Tirad Pass, known as the "Filipino Thermopylae", is fought.
1901–present
*1908 – Puyi becomes Emperor of China at the age of two.
*1917 – World War I: Russia and the Central Powers sign an armistice at Brest-Litovsk, and peace talks leading to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk begin.
*1927 – Following 19 years of Ford Model T production, the Ford Motor Company unveils the Ford Model A as its new automobile.
*1930 – Great Depression: In a State of the Union message, U.S. President Herbert Hoover proposes a $150 million public works program to help generate jobs and stimulate the economy.
*1939 – New York City's LaGuardia Airport opens.
*1942 – World War II: During the Manhattan Project, a team led by Enrico Fermi initiates the first artificial self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction.
*1943 – World War II: A Luftwaffe bombing raid on the harbour of Bari, Italy, sinks numerous cargo and transport ships, including the American , which is carrying a stockpile of mustard gas.
*1947 – Jerusalem Riots of 1947: Arabs riot in Jerusalem in response to the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine.
*1949 – Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others is adopted.
*1950 – Korean War: The Battle of the Ch'ongch'on River ends with a decisive Chinese victory and UN forces are completely expelled from North Korea.
*1954 – Cold War: The United States Senate votes 65 to 22 to censure Joseph McCarthy for "conduct that tends to bring the Senate into dishonor and disrepute".
* 1954 – The Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty, between the United States and Taiwan, is signed in Washington, D.C.
*1956 – The Granma reaches the shores of Cuba's Oriente Province. Fidel Castro, Che Guevara and 80 other members of the 26th of July Movement disembark to initiate the Cuban Revolution.
*1957 – United Nations Security Council Resolution 126 relating to the Kashmir conflict is adopted.
*1961 – In a nationally broadcast speech, Cuban leader Fidel Castro declares that he is a Marxist–Leninist and that Cuba will adopt Communism.
*1962 – Vietnam War: After a trip to Vietnam at the request of U.S. President John F. Kennedy, U.S. Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield becomes the first American official to comment adversely on the war's progress.
*1968 – Wien Consolidated Airlines Flight 55 crashes into Pedro Bay, Alaska, killing all 39 people on board.
*1970 – The United States Environmental Protection Agency begins operations.
*1971 – Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Fujairah, Sharjah, Dubai, and Umm al-Quwain form the United Arab Emirates.
*1972 – Gough Whitlam is elected the 21st Prime Minister of Australia in the 1972 Australian federal election, defeating William McMahon and leading the Australian Labor Party back into office after 23 years in Opposition.
*1975 – Laotian Civil War: The Pathet Lao seizes the Laotian capital of Vientiane, forces the abdication of King Sisavang Vatthana, and proclaims the Lao People's Democratic Republic.
*1976 – Fidel Castro becomes President of Cuba, replacing Osvaldo Dorticós Torrado.
*1977 – A Tupolev Tu-154 crashes near Benghazi, Libya, killing 59.
*1980 – Salvadoran Civil War: Four American missionaries are raped and murdered by a death squad.
*1982 – At the University of Utah, Barney Clark becomes the first person to receive a permanent artificial heart.
*1988 – Benazir Bhutto is sworn in as Prime Minister of Pakistan, becoming the first woman to head the government of a Muslim-majority state.
*1988 – Space Shuttle Atlantis is launched on STS-27, a classified mission for the United States Department of Defense.
*1989 – The Peace Agreement of Hat Yai is signed and ratified by the Malayan Communist Party (MCP) and the governments of Malaysia and Thailand, ending the over two-decade-long communist insurgency in Malaysia.
*1990 – Space Shuttle Columbia is launched on STS-35, carrying the ASTRO-1 spacelab observatory.
*1991 – Canada and Poland become the first nations to recognize the independence of Ukraine from the Soviet Union.
*1992 – Space Shuttle Discovery is launched on STS-53 for the United States Department of Defense.
*1993 – Colombian drug lord Pablo Escobar is shot and killed by police in Medellín.
* 1993 – Space Shuttle program: STS-61: NASA launches the Space Shuttle Endeavour on a mission to repair the Hubble Space Telescope.
*1999 – The United Kingdom devolves political power in Northern Ireland to the Northern Ireland Executive following the Good Friday Agreement.
*2001 – Enron files for Chapter 11 bankruptcy.
*2015 – San Bernardino attack: Syed Rizwan Farook and Tashfeen Malik kill 14 people and wound 22 at the Inland Regional Center in San Bernardino, California.
*2016 – Thirty-six people die in a fire at a converted Oakland, California, warehouse serving as an artist collective.
*2020 – Cannabis is removed from the list of most dangerous drugs of the international drug control treaty by the UN Commission on Narcotic Drugs.BirthsPre-1600
* 503 – Emperor Jianwen of Liang, emperor of the Chinese Liang dynasty (d. 551)
*1501 – Queen Munjeong, Korean queen (d. 1565)
*1578 – Agostino Agazzari, Italian composer and theorist (d. 1641)
*1599 – Thomas Bruce, 1st Earl of Elgin, Scottish nobleman (d. 1663)
1601–1900
*1629 – Wilhelm Egon von Fürstenberg, Catholic cardinal (d. 1704)
*1694 – William Shirley, English-American lawyer and politician, Governor of the province of Massachusetts Bay (d. 1771)
*1703 – Ferdinand Konščak, Croatian missionary and explorer (d. 1759)
*1738 – Richard Montgomery, Irish-American general (d. 1775)
*1754 – William Cooper, American judge and politician, founded Cooperstown, New York (d. 1809)
*1759 – James Edward Smith, English botanist and mycologist, founded the Linnean Society (d. 1828)
*1760 – John Breckinridge, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 5th United States Attorney General (d. 1806)
* 1760 – Joseph Graetz, German organist, composer, and educator (d. 1826)
*1798 – António Luís de Seabra, 1st Viscount of Seabra, Portuguese magistrate and politician (d. 1895)
*1810 – Henry Yesler, American businessman and politician, 7th Mayor of Seattle (d. 1892)
*1811 – Jean-Charles Chapais, Canadian farmer and politician, 1st Canadian Minister of Agriculture (d. 1885)
*1817 – Heinrich von Sybel, German historian, academic, and politician (d. 1895)
*1825 – Pedro II of Brazil (d. 1891)
*1827 – William Burges, English architect and designer (d. 1881)
*1846 – Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau, French lawyer and politician, 68th Prime Minister of France (d. 1904)
*1847 – Deacon White, American baseball player and manager (d. 1939)
*1859 – Kateryna Melnyk-Antonovych, Ukrainian historian and archaeologist (d. 1942)
*1859 – Georges Seurat, French painter (d. 1891)
*1860 – Charles Studd, England cricketer and missionary (d. 1931)
*1863 – Charles Edward Ringling, American businessman, co-founded the Ringling Brothers Circus (d. 1926)
*1866 – Harry Burleigh, American singer-songwriter (d. 1949)
*1876 – Yusuf Akçura, Tatar-Turkish activist and ideologue of Turanism (d. 1935)
*1877 – Cahir Healy, Northern Irish Anti Partitionist, writer and politician (d. 1970)
*1884 – Erima Harvey Northcroft, New Zealand soldier, lawyer, and judge (d. 1953)
* 1884 – Yahya Kemal Beyatlı, Turkish poet and author (d. 1958)
*1885 – George Minot, American physician and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1950)
*1891 – Otto Dix, German painter and illustrator (d. 1969)
* 1891 – Charles H. Wesley, American historian and author (d. 1987)
*1894 – Warren William, American actor (d. 1948)
*1895 – Harriet Cohen, English pianist (d. 1967)
*1897 – Ivan Bagramyan, Russian general (d. 1982)
* 1897 – Rewi Alley, New Zealand writer and political activist (d. 1987)
*1898 – Indra Lal Roy, Indian lieutenant and first Indian fighter aircraft pilot (d. 1918)
*1899 – John Barbirolli, English cellist and conductor (d. 1970)
* 1899 – John Cobb, English race car driver and pilot (d. 1952)
* 1899 – Ray Morehart, American baseball player (d. 1989)
*1900 – Elisa Godínez Gómez de Batista, former First Lady of Cuba (d. 1993)
* 1900 – Herta Hammerbacher, German landscape architect and professor (d. 1985)
1901–present
*1901 – Raimundo Orsi, Argentinian-Italian footballer (d. 1986)
*1906 – Peter Carl Goldmark, Hungarian-American engineer (d. 1977)
*1909 – Arvo Askola, Finnish runner (d. 1975)
* 1909 – Walenty Kłyszejko, Estonian–Polish basketball player and coach (d. 1987)
* 1909 – Joseph P. Lash, American activist and author (d. 1987)
*1910 – Russell Lynes, American photographer, historian, and author (d. 1991)
* 1910 – Taisto Mäki, Finnish runner (d. 1979)
*1912 – George Emmett, English cricketer and coach (d. 1976)
*1913 – Marc Platt, American actor, singer, and dancer (d. 2014)
*1914 – Bill Erwin, American actor (d. 2010)
* 1914 – Adolph Green, American playwright and composer (d. 2002)
*1915 – Takahito, Prince Mikasa of Japan (d. 2016)
*1916 – Howard Finster, American minister and painter (d. 2001)
*1917 – Sylvia Syms, American singer (d. 1992)
*1921 – Carlo Furno, Italian cardinal (d. 2015)
*1922 – Iakovos Kambanelis, Greek author, poet, and screenwriter (d. 2011)
*1923 – Maria Callas, American-Greek soprano and actress (d. 1977)
*1924 – Jonathan Frid, Canadian actor (d. 2012)
* 1924 – Alexander Haig, American general and politician, 59th United States Secretary of State (d. 2010)
*1928 – Guy Bourdin, French photographer (d. 1991)
*1929 – Dan Jenkins, American journalist and author (d. 2019)
* 1929 – Leon Litwack, American historian and author (d. 2021)
*1930 – Gary Becker, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2014)
* 1930 – David Piper, English race car driver
*1931 – Nigel Calder, English journalist, author, and screenwriter (d. 2014)
* 1931 – Masaaki Hatsumi, Japanese martial artist and educator, founded Bujinkan
* 1931 – Wynton Kelly, American pianist and composer (d. 1971)
* 1931 – Edwin Meese, American lawyer, 75th United States Attorney General
*1940 – Willie Brown, American football player, coach, and manager (d. 2019)
*1941 – Mike England, Welsh footballer and manager
* 1941 – Tom McGuinness, English guitarist, songwriter, author, and producer
*1942 – Anna G. Jónasdóttir, Icelandic political scientist and academic
*1943 – Wayne Allard, American veterinarian and politician
*1944 – Cathy Lee Crosby, American actress and tennis player
*1962 – John Dyegh, Nigerian businessman and politician
*1963 – Brendan Coyle, English actor
* 1968 – Darryl Kile, American baseball player (d. 2002)
* 1968 – Lucy Liu, American actress and producer
* 1968 – Nate Mendel, American singer-songwriter and bass player
* 1972 – Sergei Zholtok, Latvian ice hockey player (d. 2004)
*1973 – Graham Kavanagh, Irish footballer and manager
* 1973 – Monica Seles, Serbian-American tennis player
*1981 – Maria Ferekidi, Greek canoe racer
* 1981 – Eric Jungmann, American actor
* 1981 – Thomas Pöck, Austrian ice hockey player
* 1981 – Danijel Pranjić, Croatian footballer
* 1981 – Britney Spears, American singer-songwriter, dancer, and actress
*1983 – Action Bronson, American rapper, songwriter, chef, and television host
* 1983 – Chris Burke, Scottish footballer
* 1983 – Bibiana Candelas, Mexican volleyball player
* 1983 – Jaime Durán, Mexican footballer
* 1983 – Eugene Jeter, American-Ukrainian basketball player, coach, and executive
* 1983 – Jana Kramer, American actress and singer
* 1986 – Tal Wilkenfeld, Australian bass player and composer
*1988 – Alfred Enoch, English actor
*1990 – Emmanuel Agyemang-Badu, Ghanaian footballer
* 1990 – Gastón Ramírez, Uruguayan footballer
*1991 – Chloé Dufour-Lapointe, Canadian skier
* 1991 – Brandon Knight, American basketball player
* 1991 – Charlie Puth, American singer-songwriter and pianist
* 1992 – Gary Sánchez, Dominican baseball player
*1993 – Haruka Ishida, Japanese singer and actress
* 1993 – Kostas Stafylidis, Greek footballer
*1994 – Zach Cunningham, American football player
* 1994 – Aaron Jones, American football player
* 1994 – Elias Lindholm, Swedish ice hockey player
* 1994 – Fumika Shimizu, Japanese actress and model
* 1994 – Tomokaze Yūta, Japanese sumo wrestler
*1995 – Uladzislau Hancharou, Belarusian trampolinist
* 1995 – Inori Minase, Japanese actress, voice actress and singer
*1996 – Jake Doran, Australian cricketer
*1997 – De'Andre Hunter, American basketball player
*1998 – Annalise Basso, American actress
* 1998 – Juice Wrld, American rapper, singer and songwriter (d. 2019)
*2003 – Neil Erasmus, South African-Australian footballer
*2004 – Ilia Malinin, American competitive figure skater
<!-- Please do not add yourself, non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. -->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 537 – Pope Silverius
* 930 – Ma Yin, Chinese warlord, king of Chu (Ten Kingdoms) (b. 853)
* 949 – Odo of Wetterau, German nobleman
*1022 – Elvira Menéndez, queen of Alfonso V of Castile (b. 996)
*1255 – Muhammad III of Alamut, Nizari Ismaili Imam
*1340 – Geoffrey le Scrope, Chief Justice of King Edward III of England
*1348 – Emperor Hanazono of Japan (b. 1297)
*1381 – John of Ruusbroec, Flemish priest and mystic (b. 1293)
*1455 – Isabel of Coimbra, queen of Portugal (b. 1432)
*1463 – Albert VI, Archduke of Austria (b. 1418)
*1469 – Piero di Cosimo de' Medici, Italian banker and politician (b. 1416)
*1510 – Muhammad Shaybani, Khan of Bukhara (b. 1451)
*1515 – Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, Spanish general (b. 1453)
*1547 – Hernán Cortés, Spanish general and explorer (b. 1485)
*1594 – Gerardus Mercator, Flemish mathematician, cartographer, and philosopher (b. 1512)
1601–1900
*1615 – Louis des Balbes de Berton de Crillon, French general (b. 1541)
*1665 – Catherine de Vivonne, marquise de Rambouillet, French author (b. 1588)
*1694 – Pierre Puget, French painter, sculptor, and architect (b. 1622)
*1719 – Pasquier Quesnel, French theologian and author (b. 1634)
*1723 – Philippe II, Duke of Orléans (b. 1674)
*1726 – Samuel Penhallow, English-American historian and author (b. 1665)
*1747 – Vincent Bourne, English poet and scholar (b. 1695)
*1748 – Charles Seymour, 6th Duke of Somerset, English politician, Lord President of the Council (b. 1662)
*1774 – Johann Friedrich Agricola, German organist and composer (b. 1720)
*1814 – Marquis de Sade, French philosopher, author, and politician (b. 1740)
*1844 – Eustachy Erazm Sanguszko, Polish general and politician (b. 1768)
*1849 – Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen (b. 1792)
*1859 – John Brown, American abolitionist (b. 1800)
*1881 – Jenny von Westphalen, German author (b. 1814)
*1885 – Allen Wright, Principal chief of the Choctaw Nation (1866–1870); proposed the name "Oklahoma", from Choctaw words okra and umma, meaning "Territory of the Red People." (b. 1826)
*1888 – Namık Kemal, Turkish journalist, poet, and playwright (b. 1840)
*1892 – Jay Gould, American businessman and financier (b. 1836)
*1899 – Gregorio del Pilar, Filipino general and politician, 1st Governor of Bulacan (b. 1875)
1901–present
*1918 – Edmond Rostand, French poet and playwright (b. 1868)
*1924 – Kazimieras Būga, Lithuanian linguist and philologist (b. 1879)
*1927 – Paul Heinrich von Groth, German scientist who systematically classified minerals and founded the journal Zeitschrift für Krystallographie und Mineralogie (b. 1843)
*1931 – Vincent d'Indy, French composer and educator (b. 1851)
*1936 – John Ringling, American businessman, co-founded Ringling Brothers Circus (b. 1866)
*1943 – Nordahl Grieg, Norwegian journalist and author (b. 1902)
*1944 – Josef Lhévinne, Russian pianist and educator (b. 1874)
* 1944 – Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Egyptian-Italian poet and composer (b. 1876)
* 1944 – Eiji Sawamura, Japanese baseball player and soldier (b. 1917)
*1950 – Dinu Lipatti, Romanian pianist and composer (b. 1917)
*1953 – Reginald Baker, Australian rugby player (b. 1884)
* 1953 – Trần Trọng Kim, Vietnamese historian, scholar, and politician, Prime Minister of Vietnam (b. 1883)
*1957 – Harrison Ford, American actor (b. 1884)
* 1957 – Manfred Sakel, Ukrainian-American neurophysiologist and psychiatrist (b. 1902)
*1966 – L. E. J. Brouwer, Dutch mathematician and philosopher (b. 1881)
* 1966 – Giles Cooper, Irish author, playwright, and screenwriter (b. 1918)
*1967 – Francis Spellman, American cardinal (b. 1889).
*1969 – José María Arguedas, Peruvian anthropologist, author, and poet (b. 1911)
* 1969 – Kliment Voroshilov, Ukrainian-Russian marshal and politician, 3rd Head of State of The Soviet Union (b. 1881)
*1974 – Sylvi Kekkonen, Finnish writer and wife of President of Finland Urho Kekkonen (b. 1900)
* 1974 – Max Weber, Swiss lawyer and politician (b. 1897)
*1976 – Danny Murtaugh, American baseball player and manager (b. 1917)
*1980 – Chaudhry Muhammad Ali, Indian-Pakistani lawyer and politician, 4th Prime Minister of Pakistan (b. 1905)
* 1980 – Romain Gary, Lithuanian-French author, director, and screenwriter (b. 1914)
*1981 – Wallace Harrison, American architect, co-founded Harrison & Abramovitz (b. 1895)
*1982 – Marty Feldman, English actor and comedian (b. 1934)
* 1982 – Giovanni Ferrari, Italian footballer and manager (b. 1907)
*1983 – Fifi D'Orsay, Canadian-American actress and singer (b. 1904)
*1985 – Philip Larkin, English poet, author, and librarian (b. 1922)
*1986 – Desi Arnaz, Cuban-American actor, singer, businessman, and television producer (b. 1917)
* 1986 – John Curtis Gowan, American psychologist and academic (b. 1912)
*1987 – Luis Federico Leloir, French-Argentinian physician and biochemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1906)
* 1987 – Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich, Belarusian physicist, astronomer, and cosmologist (b. 1914)
*1988 – Karl-Heinz Bürger, German colonel (b. 1904)
* 1988 – Tata Giacobetti, Italian singer-songwriter (b. 1922)
*1990 – Aaron Copland, American composer and conductor (b. 1900)
* 1990 – Robert Cummings, American actor, director, and producer (b. 1908)
*1993 – Pablo Escobar, Colombian drug lord (b. 1949)
*1995 – Robertson Davies, Canadian author, playwright, and critic (b. 1913)
* 1995 – Roxie Roker, American actress (b. 1929)
* 1995 – Mária Telkes, Hungarian–American biophysicist and chemist (b. 1900)
*1997 – Shirley Crabtree, English wrestler (b. 1930)
* 1997 – Michael Hedges, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1953)
*1999 – Charlie Byrd, American guitarist (b. 1925)
*2000 – Gail Fisher, American actress (b. 1935)
*2002 – Ivan Illich, Austrian priest and philosopher (b. 1926)
* 2002 – Arno Peters, German cartographer and historian (b. 1916)
*2003 – Alan Davidson, British soldier, historian, and author (b. 1924)
*2004 – Alicia Markova, English ballerina and choreographer (b. 1910)
* 2004 – Mona Van Duyn, American poet and academic (b. 1921)
*2005 – William P. Lawrence, American admiral and pilot (b. 1930)
* 2005 – Van Tuong Nguyen, Australian convicted drug trafficker (b. 1980)
*2006 – Mariska Veres, Dutch singer (b. 1947)
*2007 – Jennifer Alexander, Canadian-American ballerina and actress (b. 1972)
* 2007 – Elizabeth Hardwick, American literary critic, novelist, and short story writer (b. 1916)
*2008 – Odetta, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actress (b. 1930)
* 2008 – Henry Molaison, American memory disorder patient (b. 1926)
* 2008 – Edward Samuel Rogers, Canadian lawyer and businessman (b. 1933)
* 2008 – Renato de Grandis, Italian composer, musicologist, and writer (b. 1927)
*2009 – Foge Fazio, American football player and coach (b. 1938)
* 2009 – Eric Woolfson, Scottish singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer (b. 1945)
*2012 – Tom Hendry, Canadian playwright, co-founded the Manitoba Theatre Centre (b. 1929)
* 2012 – Ehsan Naraghi, Iranian sociologist and author (b. 1926)
*2013 – William Allain, American soldier and politician, 58th Governor of Mississippi (b. 1928)
* 2013 – Jean-Claude Beton, Algerian-French engineer and businessman, founded Orangina (b. 1925)
* 2013 – Marcelo Déda, Brazilian lawyer and politician (b. 1960)
* 2013 – Junior Murvin, Jamaican singer-songwriter (b. 1946)
*2014 – A. R. Antulay, Indian lawyer and politician, 8th Chief Minister of Maharashtra (b. 1929)
* 2014 – Jean Béliveau, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1931)
* 2014 – Josie Cichockyj, English basketball player and coach (b. 1964)
* 2014 – Bobby Keys, American saxophonist (b. 1943)
* 2014 – Don Laws, American figure skater and coach (b. 1929)
*2015 – Sandy Berger, American lawyer and politician, 19th United States National Security Advisor (b. 1945)
* 2015 – Will McMillan, American actor, director, and producer (b. 1944)
* 2015 – George T. Sakato, American soldier, Medal of Honor recipient (b. 1921)
*2020 – Pat Patterson, American wrestler (b. 1941)
*2024 – Ed Botterell, Canadian Olympic sailor (b. 1931)
*2024 – Helmut Duckadam, Romanian footballer (b. 1959)
*2024 – Neale Fraser, Australian tennis player (b. 1933)
*2024 – Paul Maslansky, American film producer and writer (b. 1933)
*2024 – Debbie Mathers, Mother of Eminem (b. 1955)
*2024 – Israel Vázquez, Mexican boxer (b. 1977)
Holidays and observances
*Armed Forces Day (Cuba)
*Christian feast day:
**Avitus of Rouen
**Bibiana
**Channing Moore Williams (Anglicanism)
**Chromatius
**Habakkuk (Eastern Orthodox)
**December 2 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*International Day for the Abolition of Slavery (United Nations)
*Lao National Day
*National Day (United Arab Emirates)
References
External links
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/2 BBC: On This Day]
*
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/december/2 Historical Events on December 2]
Category:Days of December
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_2
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2025-04-05T18:28:35.100455
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December 1
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Events
Pre-1600
* 800 – A council is convened in the Vatican, at which Charlemagne is to judge the accusations against Pope Leo III.
*1420 – Henry V of England enters Paris alongside his father-in-law King Charles VI of France.
*1577 – Courtiers Christopher Hatton and Thomas Heneage are knighted by Queen Elizabeth I of England.1601–1900
*1640 – End of the Iberian Union: Portugal acclaims as King João IV of Portugal, ending 59 years of personal union of the crowns of Portugal and Spain and the end of the rule of the Philippine Dynasty.
*1662 – Diarist John Evelyn records skating on the frozen lake in St James's Park, London, watched by Charles II and Queen Catherine.
*1768 – The former slave ship Fredensborg sinks off Tromøya in Norway.
*1821 – José Núñez de Cáceres wins the independence of the Dominican Republic from Spain and names the new territory the Republic of Spanish Haiti.
*1822 – Pedro I is crowned Emperor of Brazil.
*1824 – United States presidential election: Since no candidate received a majority of the total electoral college votes in the election, the United States House of Representatives is given the task of deciding the winner in accordance with the Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution.
*1828 – Argentine general Juan Lavalle makes a coup against governor Manuel Dorrego, beginning the Decembrist revolution.
*1834 – Slavery is abolished in the Cape Colony in accordance with the Slavery Abolition Act 1833.
*1862 – American Civil War: In his second State of the Union Address, President Abraham Lincoln reaffirms the necessity of ending slavery as ordered ten weeks earlier in the Emancipation Proclamation.
*1865 – Shaw University, the first historically black university in the southern United States, is founded in Raleigh, North Carolina.
*1878 – President Rutherford B. Hayes gets the first telephone installed in the White House.
*1900 – Nicaragua sells canal rights to U.S. for $5 million. The canal agreement fails in March 1901. Great Britain rejects amended treaty1901–present*1913 – The Buenos Aires Metro, the first underground railway system in the Southern Hemisphere and in Latin America, begins operation.
* 1913 – Crete, having obtained self rule from Turkey after the First Balkan War, is annexed by Greece.
*1918 – Transylvania unites with Romania, following the incorporation of Bessarabia (March 27) and Bukovina (November 28) and thus concluding the Great Union.
* 1918 – Iceland becomes a sovereign state, yet remains a part of the Danish kingdom.
* 1918 – The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later known as the Kingdom of Yugoslavia) is proclaimed.
*1919 – Lady Astor becomes the first female Member of Parliament (MP) to take her seat in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom. (She had been elected to that position on November 28.)
*1924 – The National Hockey League's first United States–based franchise, the Boston Bruins, plays their first game in league play at home, at the still-extant Boston Arena indoor hockey facility.
* 1924 – A Soviet-backed communist 1924 Estonian coup d'état attempt fails in Estonia.
*1934 – Sergei Kirov is assassinated, paving way for the repressive Great Purge, and Vinnytsia massacre by General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Joseph Stalin.
*1939 – World War II: A day after the beginning of the Winter War in Finland, the Cajander III Cabinet resigns and is replaced by the Ryti I Cabinet, while the Finnish Parliament move from Helsinki to Kauhajoki to escape the Soviet airstrikes.
* 1939 – The Soviet Union establishes the Finnish Democratic Republic puppet state in Terijoki.
*1941 – World War II: Emperor Hirohito of Japan gives his tacit approval to the decision of the imperial council to initiate war against the United States.
* 1941 – World War II: Fiorello La Guardia, Mayor of New York City and Director of the Office of Civilian Defense, signs Administrative Order 9, creating the Civil Air Patrol.
*1952 – The New York Daily News reports the news of Christine Jorgensen, the first notable case of sex reassignment surgery.
*1955 – American Civil Rights Movement: In Montgomery, Alabama, seamstress Rosa Parks refuses to give up her bus seat to a white man and is arrested for violating the city's racial segregation laws, an incident which leads to that city's bus boycott.
*1958 – The Central African Republic attains self-rule within the French Union.
* 1958 – The Our Lady of the Angels School fire in Chicago kills 92 children and three nuns.
*1959 – Cold War: Opening date for signature of the Antarctic Treaty, which sets aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve and bans military activity on the continent.
*1960 – Patrice Lumumba is arrested by Mobutu Sese Seko's men on the banks of the Sankuru River, for inciting the army to rebellion.
*1963 – Nagaland, became the 16th state of India.
*1964 – Vietnam War: U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson and his top-ranking advisers meet to discuss plans to bomb North Vietnam.
*1969 – Vietnam War: The first draft lottery in the United States is held since World War II.
*1971 – Cambodian Civil War: Khmer Rouge rebels intensify assaults on Cambodian government positions, forcing their retreat from Kompong Thmar and nearby Ba Ray.
* 1971 – Purge of Croatian Spring leaders starts in Yugoslavia at the meeting of the League of Communists at the Karađorđevo estate.
*1973 – Papua New Guinea gains self-government from Australia.
*1974 – TWA Flight 514, a Boeing 727, crashes northwest of Dulles International Airport, killing all 92 people on board.
* 1974 – Northwest Orient Airlines Flight 6231, another Boeing 727, crashes northwest of John F. Kennedy International Airport.
*1981 – Inex-Adria Aviopromet Flight 1308, a McDonnell Douglas MD-80, crashes in Corsica, killing all 180 people on board.
*1984 – NASA conducts the Controlled Impact Demonstration, wherein an airliner is deliberately crashed in order to test technologies and gather data to help improve survivability of crashes.
*1988 – World AIDS Day is proclaimed worldwide by the UN member states.
* 1988 – Benazir Bhutto, is named as the Prime Minister of Pakistan, becoming the first female leader to lead a Muslim nation.
*1989 – Philippine coup attempt: The right-wing military rebel Reform the Armed Forces Movement attempts to oust Philippine President Corazon Aquino in a failed bloody coup d'état.
* 1989 – Cold War: East Germany's parliament abolishes the constitutional provision granting the Communist Party the leading role in the state.
*1990 – Channel Tunnel sections started from the United Kingdom and France meet beneath the seabed.
*1991 – Cold War: Ukrainian voters overwhelmingly approve a referendum for independence from the Soviet Union.
*1997 – In the Indian state of Bihar, Ranvir Sena attacks the CPI (ML) Party Unity stronghold Lakshmanpur-Bathe, killing 63 lower caste people.
* 1997 – Fourteen-year-old Michael Carneal opens fire at a group of students in Heath High School in West Paducah, Kentucky, killing three and injuring five.
*2000 – Vicente Fox Quesada is inaugurated as the president of Mexico, marking the first peaceful transfer of executive federal power to an opposing political party following a free and democratic election in Mexico's history.
*2001 – The United Russia political party was founded.
*2005 – As a result of the merger of the Perm Oblast and the Komi-Permyak Autonomous Okrug, a new subject of the Russian Federation, the Perm Krai, was created.
*2006 – The law on same-sex marriage comes into force in South Africa, legalizing same-sex marriage for the first time on the African continent.
*2009 – The Treaty of Lisbon entered into force in the European Union.
*2011 – The Alma-Ata Metro was opened.
*2018 – The Oulu Police informed the public about the first offence of the much larger child sexual exploitation in Oulu, Finland.
*2019 – Arsenal Women 11–1 Bristol City Women breaks the record for most goals scored in a FA Women's Super League match, with Vivianne Miedema involved in ten of the eleven Arsenal goals.
*2019 – The outbreak of coronavirus infection began in Wuhan.
*2020 – The Arecibo Telescope collapsed.BirthsPre-1600* 624 – Hasan ibn Ali, the second Shia Imam (d. 670)
*1081 – Louis VI, French king (d. 1137)
*1083 – Anna Komnene, Byzantine physician and scholar (d. 1153)
*1415 – Jan Długosz, Polish historian (d. 1480)
*1438 – Peter II, Duke of Bourbon, son of Charles I (d. 1503)
*1443 – Magdalena of France, French princess (d. 1495)
*1521 – Takeda Shingen, Japanese daimyō (d. 1573)
*1525 – Tadeáš Hájek, Czech physician and astronomer (d. 1600)
*1530 – Bernardino Realino, Italian Jesuit (d. 1616)
*1561 – Sophie Hedwig of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, Duchess consort of Pomerania-Wolgast (d. 1631)
*1580 – Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc, French astronomer and historian (d. 1637)
1601–1900
*1690 – Philip Yorke, 1st Earl of Hardwicke, English lawyer and politician, Lord Chancellor of the United Kingdom (d. 1764)
*1709 – Franz Xaver Richter, Czech composer, violinist, and conductor (d. 1789)
*1716 – Étienne Maurice Falconet, French sculptor (d. 1791)
*1743 – Martin Heinrich Klaproth, German chemist and academic (d. 1817)
*1761 – Marie Tussaud, French-English sculptor, founded Madame Tussauds Wax Museum (d. 1850)
*1792 – Nikolai Lobachevsky, Russian mathematician and geometer (d. 1856)
*1800 – Mihály Vörösmarty, Hungarian poet (d. 1855)
*1805 – 9th Dalai Lama, Tibetan Buddhist spiritual leader (d. 1815)
*1844 – Alexandra of Denmark (d. 1925)
*1846 – Ledi Sayadaw, Burmese monk and philosopher (d. 1923)
*1847 – Julia A. Moore, American poet (d. 1920)
*1855 – John Evans, English-Australian politician, 21st Premier of Tasmania (d. 1943)
*1869 – Eligiusz Niewiadomski, Polish painter and critic (d. 1923)
*1871 – Archie MacLaren, English cricketer (d. 1944)
*1883 – Henry Cadbury, American historian, scholar, and academic (d. 1974)
*1884 – Karl Schmidt-Rottluff, German painter and etcher (d. 1976)
*1886 – Rex Stout, American detective novelist (d. 1975)
* 1886 – Zhu De, Chinese general and politician, 1st Vice Chairman of the People's Republic of China (d. 1976)
*1894 – Afrânio Pompílio Gastos do Amaral, Brazilian herpetologist (d. 1982)
*1895 – Henry Williamson, English farmer, soldier, and author (d. 1977)
*1896 – Georgy Zhukov, Russian general and politician, 2nd Minister of Defence for the Soviet Union (d. 1974)
*1898 – Stuart Garson, Canadian lawyer and politician, 12th Premier of Manitoba (d. 1977)
* 1898 – Cyril Ritchard, Australian-American actor and singer (d. 1977)
*1900 – Karna Maria Birmingham, Australian artist, illustrator and print maker (d. 1987)
1901–present
*1901 – Ilona Fehér, Hungarian-Israeli violinist and educator (d. 1988)
*1903 – Nikolai Voznesensky, Soviet economic planner, member of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (d. 1950)
*1905 – Alex Wilson, Canadian sprinter and coach (d. 1994)
*1910 – Alicia Markova, English ballerina and choreographer (d. 2004)
*1911 – Walter Alston, American baseball player and manager (d. 1984)
* 1911 – Calvin Griffith, Canadian-American businessman (d. 1999)
*1912 – Billy Raimondi, American baseball player (d. 2010)
* 1912 – Minoru Yamasaki, American architect, designed the World Trade Center (d. 1986)
*1913 – Mary Martin, American actress and singer (d. 1990)
*1916 – Wan Li, Chinese educator and politician, 4th Vice Premier of the People's Republic of China (d. 2015)
*1917 – Thomas Hayward, American tenor and actor (d. 1995)
* 1917 – Marty Marion, American baseball player and manager (d. 2011)
*1920 – Peter Baptist Tadamaro Ishigami, Japanese priest, 1st Bishop of Naha (d. 2014)
*1921 – Vernon McGarity, American sergeant, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 2013)
*1922 – Vsevolod Bobrov, Russian ice hockey player, footballer, and manager (d. 1979)
*1923 – Dick Shawn, American actor (d. 1987)
* 1923 – Stansfield Turner, American admiral and academic, 12th Director of Central Intelligence (d. 2018)
*1924 – Masao Horiba, Japanese businessman, founded Horiba (d. 2015)
*1925 – Martin Rodbell, American biochemist and endocrinologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1998)
*1926 – Mother Antonia, American-Mexican nun and activist (d. 2013)
* 1926 – Allyn Ann McLerie, Canadian-American actress, singer, and dancer (d. 2018)
* 1926 – Keith Michell, Australian actor (d. 2015)
* 1926 – Robert Symonds, American actor (d. 2007)
* 1926 – Colin Tennant, 3rd Baron Glenconner, Scottish businessman (d. 2010)
*1927 – Micheline Bernardini, French dancer and model
*1928 – Emily McLaughlin, American actress (d. 1991)
* 1928 – Malachi Throne, American actor (d. 2013)
*1929 – David Doyle, American actor (d. 1997)
*1930 – Marie Bashir, Australian psychiatrist, academic, and politician, 37th Governor of New South Wales
* 1930 – Joachim Hoffmann, German historian and author (d. 2002)
*1931 – Jimmy Lyons, American saxophonist (d. 1986)
* 1931 – Jim Nesbitt, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2007)
* 1931 – George Maxwell Richards, Trinidadian politician, 4th President of Trinidad and Tobago (d. 2018)
*1933 – Lou Rawls, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actor (d. 2006)
* 1933 – Violette Verdy, French ballerina (d. 2016)
*1934 – Billy Paul, American soul singer (d. 2016)
*1935 – Sola Sierra, Chilean human rights activist (d. 1999)
*1936 – Igor Rodionov, Russian general and politician, 3rd Russian Minister of Defence (d. 2014)
*1937 – Muriel Costa-Greenspon, American soprano and actress (d. 2005)
* 1937 – Gordon Crosse, English composer and academic (d. 2021)
* 1937 – Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga, Latvian psychologist and politician, President of Latvia
*1938 – Sandy Nelson, American rock and roll drummer (d. 2022)
*1939 – Lee Trevino, American golfer and sportscaster
*1940 – Mike Denness, Scottish cricketer and referee (d. 2013)
* 1940 – Jerry Lawson, American electronic engineer and inventor (d. 2011)
* 1940 – Richard Pryor, American comedian, actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2005)
* 1940 – Tasso Wild, German footballer
*1942 – Mohamed Kamel Amr, Egyptian politician, Egyptian Minister of Foreign Affairs
* 1942 – John Crowley, American author and academic
* 1942 – Ross Edwards, Australian cricketer
*1943 – Kenny Moore, American runner and journalist (d. 2022)
*1944 – Eric Bloom, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1944 – John Densmore, American drummer and songwriter
* 1944 – Michael Hagee, American general
* 1944 – Tahar Ben Jelloun, Moroccan author and poet
*1945 – Ásta B. Þorsteinsdóttir, Icelandic politician
* 1945 – Lyle Bien, American vice admiral in the United States Navy
* 1945 – Bette Midler, American singer-songwriter, actress and producer
*1946 – Jonathan Katz, American comedian and actor
* 1946 – Kemal Kurspahić, Bosnian journalist and author (d. 2021)
* 1946 – Gilbert O'Sullivan, Irish singer-songwriter and pianist
*1947 – Alain Bashung, French singer-songwriter and actor (d. 2009)
* 1947 – Bob Fulton, English-Australian rugby league player, coach, and sportscaster (d. 2021)
*1948 – George Foster, American baseball player and radio host
* 1948 – Sarfraz Nawaz, Pakistani cricketer and politician
* 1948 – John Roskelley, American mountaineer and author
* 1948 – Neil Warnock, English footballer and manager
* 1948 – N. T. Wright, English bishop and scholar
* 1948 – Patrick Ibrahim Yakowa, Nigerian civil servant and politician, Governor of Kaduna State (d. 2012)
*1949 – Jan Brett, American author and illustrator
* 1949 – Pablo Escobar, Colombian drug lord and narcoterrorist (d. 1993)
* 1949 – Sebastián Piñera, Chilean businessman and politician, 35th President of Chile (d. 2024)
*1950 – Manju Bansal, Indian biologist and academic
* 1950 – Ross Hannaford, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2016)
* 1950 – Richard Keith, American actor and drummer
* 1950 – Gary Panter, American illustrator and painter
* 1950 – Filippos Petsalnikos, Greek lawyer and politician, Greek Minister of Justice (d. 2020)
*1951 – Aleksandr Panayotov Aleksandrov, Bulgarian cosmonaut
* 1951 – Obba Babatundé, American actor, director, and producer
* 1951 – Doug Mulray, Australian radio and television host (d. 2023)
* 1951 – Jaco Pastorius, American bass player, songwriter, and producer (d. 1987)
* 1951 – Nozipho Schroeder, South African lawn bowler
* 1951 – Treat Williams, American actor (d. 2023)
*1952 – Stephen Poliakoff, English director, producer, and playwright
*1954 – Alan Dedicoat, English journalist
* 1954 – Judith Hackitt, English chemist and engineer
* 1954 – François Van der Elst, Belgian footballer (d. 2017)
*1955 – Veikko Aaltonen, Finnish actor, director, and screenwriter
* 1955 – Verónica Forqué, Spanish actress (d. 2021)
* 1955 – Udit Narayan, Indian playback singer
* 1955 – Pat Spillane, Irish footballer and sportscaster
* 1955 – Karen Tumulty, American journalist
*1956 – Julee Cruise, American singer-songwriter, musician, and actress (d. 2022)
*1957 – Chris Poland, American guitarist and songwriter
* 1957 – Deep Roy, Kenyan-British actor
* 1957 – Vesta Williams, American singer-songwriter and actress (d. 2011)
*1958 – Javier Aguirre, Mexican footballer and manager
* 1958 – Candace Bushnell, American journalist and author
* 1958 – Alberto Cova, Italian runner
* 1958 – Gary Peters, American politician
* 1958 – Charlene Tilton, American actress and singer
*1959 – Billy Childish, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and painter
* 1959 – Wally Lewis, Australian rugby league player, coach, and sportscaster
*1960 – Carol Alt, American model and actress
* 1960 – Shirin M. Rai, Indian-English political scientist and academic
* 1960 – Jane Turner, Australian actress and producer
*1961 – Safra Catz, Israeli-American businesswoman and boss of Oracle
* 1961 – Raymond E. Goldstein, American biophysicist and academic
* 1961 – Jeremy Northam, English actor
*1962 – Sylvie Daigle, Canadian speed skater
* 1962 – Pamela McGee, American basketball player and coach
*1963 – Marco Greco, Brazilian race car driver
* 1963 – Nathalie Lambert, Canadian speed skater
* 1963 – Arjuna Ranatunga, Sri Lankan cricketer and politician
*1964 – Salvatore Schillaci, Italian footballer (d. 2024)
* 1964 – Jo Walton, Welsh-Canadian author and poet
*1965 – Henry Honiball, South African rugby player
* 1965 – Magnifico, Slovenian singer
*1966 – Andrew Adamson, New Zealand director, producer, and screenwriter
* 1966 – Katherine LaNasa, American actress, ballet dancer, and choreographer
* 1966 – Larry Walker, Canadian baseball player and coach
*1967 – Nestor Carbonell, American actor
* 1967 – Reggie Sanders, American baseball player
*1968 – Justin Chadwick, English actor and director
* 1968 – Sarah Fitzgerald, Australian squash player
* 1968 – Anders Holmertz, Swedish swimmer
*1969 – Richard Carrier, American author and blogger
*1970 – Golden Brooks, American actress
* 1970 – Jonathan Coulton, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1970 – Kirk Rueter, American baseball player
* 1970 – Sarah Silverman, American comedian, actress, and singer
* 1970 – Tisha Waller, American high jumper and educator
*1971 – Christian Pescatori, Italian race car driver
* 1971 – Mika Pohjola, Finnish-American pianist and composer
* 1971 – John Schlimm, American author and educator
*1972 – Stanton Barrett, American race car driver and stuntman
* 1972 – Bart Millard, American singer-songwriter
*1973 – Steve Gibb, English singer-songwriter and guitarist
*1974 – Costinha, Portuguese footballer and manager
*1975 – Matt Fraction, American author
* 1975 – Isaiah "Ikey" Owens, American keyboard player and producer (d. 2014)
* 1975 – Thomas Schie, Norwegian racing driver and sportscaster
* 1975 – Farah Shah, Pakistani actress and host
* 1975 – Sophia Skou, Danish swimmer
*1976 – Tomasz Adamek, Polish boxer
* 1976 – Laura Ling, American journalist and author
* 1976 – Dean O'Gorman, New Zealand actor, artist, and photographer
* 1976 – Matthew Shepard, American hate crime victim (d. 1998)
* 1976 – Evangelos Sklavos, Greek basketball player
*1977 – Brad Delson, American guitarist and producer
* 1977 – Sophie Guillemin, French actress
* 1977 – Lee McKenzie, Scottish journalist
* 1977 – Nate Torrence, American actor and comedian
*1978 – Mat Kearney, American musician
*1979 – Stephanie Brown Trafton, American discus thrower
* 1979 – Ryan Malone, American ice hockey player
* 1979 – Richard James, Jamaican sprinter
*1980 – Iftikhar Anjum, Pakistani cricketer
* 1980 – Mohammad Kaif, Indian cricketer and politician
* 1980 – Mubarak Hassan Shami, Kenyan-Qatari runner
* 1980 – Gianna Terzi, Greek singer
*1981 – Park Hyo-shin, South Korean singer-songwriter and actor
* 1981 – Luke McPharlin, Australian footballer
* 1981 – I Made Wirawan, Indonesian footballer
*1982 – Riz Ahmed, English actor and rapper
* 1982 – Christos Kalantzis, Greek footballer
* 1982 – Christos Melissis, Greek footballer
*1984 – Charles Michael Davis, American actor
* 1984 – Yolandi Visser, South African rapper and actress
*1985 – Philip DeFranco, American media host and YouTube personality
* 1985 – Ilfenesh Hadera, American actress
* 1985 – Janelle Monáe, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress
* 1985 – Emiliano Viviano, Italian footballer
*1986 – DeSean Jackson, American football player
*1987 – Simon Dawkins, English footballer
* 1987 – Tabarie Henry, Virgin Islander sprinter
* 1987 – Vance Joy, Australian singer-songwriter
* 1987 – Brett Williams, English footballer
*1988 – Tyler Joseph, American musician and singer
* 1988 – Zoë Kravitz, American actress, singer, and model
* 1988 – Dan Mavraides, Greek-American basketball player
* 1988 – Michael Raffl, Austrian ice hockey player
*1989 – Sotelúm, Mexican trumpet player, composer, and producer
*1990 – Tomáš Tatar, Slovak ice hockey player
*1991 – Rakeem Christmas, American basketball player
* 1991 – Hilda Melander, Swedish tennis player
* 1991 – Sun Yang, Chinese swimmer
*1992 – Masahudu Alhassan, Ghanaian footballer
* 1992 – Javier Báez, Puerto Rican baseball player
* 1992 – Linos Chrysikopoulos, Greek basketball player
* 1992 – Gary Payton II, American basketball player
* 1992 – Marco van Ginkel, Dutch footballer
*1993 – Reena Pärnat, Estonian archer
* 1993 – Beau Webster, Australian cricketer
*1994 – Seedy Njie, English footballer
*1995 – Agnė Čepelytė, Lithuanian tennis player
* 1995 – Jenna Fife, Scottish footballer
* 1995 – James Wilson, English footballer
*1997 – Sada Williams, Barbadian sprinter
*1997 – Jung Chae-yeon, South Korean actress and singer
*1999 – Nico Schlotterbeck, German footballer
*2001 – Carole Monnet, French tennis player
<!-- Please do not add yourself, non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. -->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 217 – Yehudah HaNasi, 'Nasi', Rabbi and editor of the Mishnah (b. 135)
* 660 – Eligius, Frankish bishop and saint (b. 588)
* 948 – Gao Conghui, Chinese governor and prince (b. 891)
* 969 – Fujiwara no Morotada, Japanese statesman (b. 920)
*1018 – Thietmar of Merseburg, German bishop (b. 975)
*1135 – Henry I, king of England (b. 1068)
*1241 – Isabella of England, Holy Roman Empress (b. 1214)
*1255 – Muhammad III of Alamut, Nizari Ismaili Imam
*1335 – Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan, Mongol ruler of the Ilkhanate (b. 1305)
*1374 – Magnus Eriksson, king of Sweden (b. 1316)
*1433 – Go-Komatsu, emperor of Japan (b. 1377)
*1455 – Lorenzo Ghiberti, Italian goldsmith and sculptor (b. 1378)
*1521 – Leo X, pope of the Catholic Church (b. 1475)
*1530 – Margaret of Austria, duchess of Savoy (b. 1480)
*1580 – Giovanni Morone, Italian cardinal (b. 1509)
*1581 – Alexander Briant, English Roman Catholic priest, martyr and saint (b. 1556)
* 1581 – Edmund Campion, English Roman Catholic priest, martyr, and saint (b. 1540)
* 1581 – Ralph Sherwin, English Roman Catholic priest, martyr, and saint (b. 1550)
1601–1900
*1633 – Isabella Clara Eugenia, infanta of Spain (b. 1566)
*1640 – Miguel de Vasconcelos, Portuguese politician, Prime Minister of Portugal (b. 1590)
*1660 – Pierre d'Hozier, French genealogist and historian (b. 1592)
*1729 – Giacomo F. Maraldi, French-Italian astronomer and mathematician (b. 1665)
*1750 – Johann Gabriel Doppelmayr, German mathematician, astronomer, and cartographer (b. 1671)
*1755 – Maurice Greene, English organist and composer (b. 1696)
*1767 – Henry Erskine, 10th Earl of Buchan, Scottish politician (b. 1710)
*1825 – Alexander I, emperor and autocrat of Russia (b. 1777)
*1865 – Abraham Emanuel Fröhlich, Swiss pastor, poet, and educator (b. 1796)
*1866 – George Everest, Welsh geographer and surveyor (b. 1790)
*1867 – Charles Gray Round, English lawyer and politician (b. 1797)
*1884 – William Swainson, English-New Zealand lawyer and politician, Attorney-General of the Crown Colony of New Zealand (b. 1809)
1901–present
*1913 – Juhan Liiv, Estonian poet and author (b. 1864)
*1914 – Alfred Thayer Mahan, American captain and historian (b. 1840)
*1916 – Charles de Foucauld, French priest and martyr (b. 1858)
*1923 – Virginie Loveling, Belgian author and poet (b. 1836)
*1928 – José Eustasio Rivera, Colombian-American lawyer and poet (b. 1888)
*1933 – Pekka Halonen, Finnish painter (b. 1865)
*1934 – Sergey Kirov, Russian engineer and politician (b. 1886)
*1935 – Bernhard Schmidt, Estonian-German optician, invented the Schmidt camera (b. 1879)
*1942 – Leon Wachholz, Polish scientist and medical examiner (b. 1867)
*1943 – Damrong Rajanubhab, Thai historian and educator (b. 1862)
*1944 – Charlie Kerins, Irish Republican executed by hanging (b. 1918)
*1947 – Aleister Crowley, English magician, poet, and mountaineer (b. 1875)
* 1947 – G. H. Hardy, English mathematician and theorist (b. 1877)
*1950 – Ernest John Moeran, English pianist and composer (b. 1894)
*1954 – Fred Rose, American pianist, composer, and publisher (b. 1898)
*1958 – Elizabeth Peratrovich, American civil rights activist (b. 1911)
*1964 – J. B. S. Haldane, English-Indian geneticist and biologist (b. 1892)
* 1964 – Charilaos Vasilakos, Greek runner (b. 1877)
*1968 – Nicolae Bretan, Romanian opera singer, composer, and conductor (b. 1887)
* 1968 – Darío Moreno, Turkish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor (b. 1921)
*1973 – David Ben-Gurion, Israeli politician, 1st Prime Minister of Israel (b. 1886)
*1975 – Nellie Fox, American baseball player and coach (b. 1927)
* 1975 – Ernesto Maserati, Italian race car driver and engineer (b. 1898)
* 1975 – Anna Roosevelt Halsted, American journalist (b. 1906)
*1981 – Russ Manning, American author and illustrator (b. 1929)
*1984 – Roelof Frankot, Dutch painter and photographer (b. 1911)
*1986 – Frank McCarthy, American general and film producer (b. 1912)
*1987 – James Baldwin, American novelist, poet, and critic (b. 1924)
* 1987 – Punch Imlach, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and manager (b. 1918)
*1988 – J. Vernon McGee, American pastor and theologian (b. 1904)
*1989 – Alvin Ailey, American dancer and choreographer (b. 1931)
*1990 – Carla Lehmann, Canadian-English actress (b. 1917)
*1991 – Pat O'Callaghan, Irish athlete (b. 1906)
* 1991 – George Stigler, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1911)
*1993 – Ray Gillen, American singer-songwriter (b. 1959)
*1995 – Hopper Levett, English cricketer (b. 1908)
* 1995 – Colin Tapley, New Zealand-English actor (b. 1907)
* 1995 – Maxwell R. Thurman, American general (b. 1931)
*1996 – Peter Bronfman, Canadian businessman (b. 1928)
*1997 – Michel Bélanger, Canadian banker and businessman (b. 1929)
* 1997 – Stéphane Grappelli, French violinist (b. 1908)
* 1997 – Endicott Peabody, American lieutenant, lawyer, and politician, 62nd Governor of Massachusetts (b. 1920)
*1998 – Janet Lewis, American poet and novelist (b. 1899)
*2001 – Ellis R. Dungan, American director and producer (b. 1909)
*2002 – Edward L. Beach Jr., American captain and author (b. 1918)
* 2002 – Dave McNally, American baseball player (b. 1942)
*2003 – Clark Kerr, American economist and academic (b. 1911)
* 2003 – Eugenio Monti, Italian bobsledder (b. 1928)
*2004 – Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld (b. 1911)
* 2004 – Bill Brown, Scottish footballer (b. 1931)
*2005 – Gust Avrakotos, American CIA officer (b. 1938)
* 2005 – Mary Hayley Bell, English actress and playwright (b. 1911)
* 2005 – Freeman V. Horner, American soldier, Medal of Honor recipient (b. 1922)
*2006 – Claude Jade, French actress (b. 1948)
* 2006 – Bruce Trigger, Canadian archaeologist, anthropologist, and historian (b. 1937)
*2007 – Ken McGregor, Australian tennis player and footballer (b. 1929)
* 2007 – Anton Rodgers, British actor (b. 1933)
* 2007 – Ivo Rojnica, Croatian-Argentine war crimes suspect, businessman, diplomat, and intelligence agent (b. 1915)
*2008 – Paul Benedict, American actor (b. 1938)
* 2008 – Joseph B. Wirthlin, American businessman and religious leader (b. 1917)
*2010 – Adriaan Blaauw, Dutch astronomer and academic (b. 1914)
* 2010 – Hillard Elkins, American actor and producer (b. 1929)
*2011 – Christa Wolf, German author and critic (b. 1929)
*2012 – Jovan Belcher, American football player (b. 1987)
* 2012 – Arthur Chaskalson, South African lawyer and judge, 18th Chief Justice of South Africa (b. 1931)
* 2012 – Rick Majerus, American basketball player and coach (b. 1948)
* 2012 – Ed Price, American soldier, pilot, and politician (b. 1918)
*2013 – Richard Coughlan, English drummer (b. 1947)
* 2013 – Stirling Colgate, American physicist and academic (b. 1925)
* 2013 – Edward Heffron, American soldier (b. 1923)
* 2013 – Martin Sharp, Australian cartoonist and songwriter (b. 1942)
*2014 – Mario Abramovich, Argentinian violinist and composer (b. 1926)
* 2014 – Dimitrios Trichopoulos, Greek epidemiologist, oncologist, and academic (b. 1938)
* 2014 – Rocky Wood, New Zealand-Australian author (b. 1959)
*2015 – Rob Blokzijl, Dutch physicist and computer scientist (b. 1943)
* 2015 – Joseph Engelberger, American physicist and engineer (b. 1925)
* 2015 – John F. Kurtzke, American neurologist and academic (b. 1926)
* 2015 – Jim Loscutoff, American basketball player (b. 1930)
* 2015 – Trevor Obst, Australian footballer and coach (b. 1940)
*2018 – Vivian Lynn, New Zealand artist (b. 1931)
* 2018 – Ken Berry, American actor, dancer, and singer (b. 1933)
*2019 – Paula Tilbrook, English actress (b. 1930)
*2020 – Arnie Robinson, American athlete (b. 1948)
*2022 – Gaylord Perry, American baseball player and coach (b. 1938)
*2023 – Sandra Day O'Connor, first female U.S. Supreme Court Justice (1981–2006) (b. 1930)
*2024 – Terry Griffiths, Welsh snooker player and coach (b. 1947)
* 2024 – Ian Redpath, Australian cricketer and coach (b. 1941)
<!--Do not add your own name or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Holidays and observances
*Battle of the Sinop Day (Russia)
*Christian feast day:
**Alexander Briant
**Ansanus
**Blessed Bruna Pellesi
**Castritian
**Charles de Foucauld
**Edmund Campion
**Eligius
**Evasius
**Grwst
**Nahum
**Nicholas Ferrar (Episcopal Church)
**Ralph Sherwin
**Ursicinus of Brescia
**December 1 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*Damrong Rajanubhab Day (Thailand)
*Earliest day on which Farmer's Day can fall, while December 7 is the latest; celebrated on the first Friday in December. (Ghana)
*Earliest day on which Good Neighborliness Day can fall, while December 7 is the latest; celebrated on the first Sunday in December. (Turkmenistan)
*Earliest day on which Sindhi Cultural Day can fall, while December 7 is the latest; celebrated on the first Sunday in December. (Sindhi diaspora)
*First President Day (Kazakhstan)
*Freedom and Democracy Day (Chad)
*Great Union Day, celebrates the union of Transylvania with Romania in 1918 (Romania)
*Military Abolition Day (Costa Rica)
*National Day (Myanmar)
*Republic Day (Central African Republic)
*Restoration of Independence Day (Portugal)
*Rosa Parks Day (Ohio and Oregon, United States)
*Self-governance Day or Fullveldisdagurinn (Iceland)
*Teachers' Day (Panama)
*World AIDS Day,<ref name=Hewitt /> and its related observances:
**Day Without Art<ref nameHewitt />ReferencesExternal links
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/1 BBC: On This Day]
*
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/december/1 Historical Events on December 1]
Category:Days of December
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Events
Pre-1600
* 502 – Chinese emperor Xiao Yan names Xiao Tong his heir designate.
* 640 – Pope John IV is elected, several months after his predecessor's death.
* 759 – Tang dynasty poet Du Fu departs for Chengdu, where he is hosted by fellow poet Pei Di.
* 971 – Battle of Ayn Shams: The Fatimids under Jawhar defeat the Qarmatians at the gates of Cairo, putting an end to the First Qarmatian invasion of Egypt.
*1144 – The capital of the crusader County of Edessa falls to Imad ad-Din Zengi, the atabeg of Mosul and Aleppo.
*1294 – Pope Boniface VIII is elected, replacing St. Celestine V, who had resigned.
*1500 – A joint Venetian–Spanish fleet captures the Castle of St. George on the island of Cephalonia.
1601–1900
*1737 – The Marathas defeat the combined forces of the Mughal Empire, Rajputs of Jaipur, Nizam of Hyderabad, Nawab of Awadh and Nawab of Bengal in the Battle of Bhopal.
*1777 – Kiritimati, also called Christmas Island, is discovered by James Cook.
*1800 – The Plot of the rue Saint-Nicaise fails to kill Napoleon Bonaparte.
*1814 – Representatives of the United Kingdom and the United States sign the Treaty of Ghent, ending the War of 1812.
*1818 – The first performance of "Silent Night" takes place in the Nikolauskirche in Oberndorf, Austria.
*1826 – The Eggnog Riot at the United States Military Academy begins that night, wrapping up the following morning.
*1846 – British acquired Labuan from the Sultanate of Brunei for Great Britain.
*1865 – Former Confederate officers Frank McCord, Richard Reed, John Lester, John Kennedy, J. Calvin Jones, and James Crowe form the Ku Klux Klan.
*1868 – The Greek Presidential Guard is established as the royal escort by King George I.
*1871 – The opera Aida premieres in Cairo, Egypt.
1901–present
*1906 – Reginald Fessenden transmits the first radio broadcast; consisting of a poetry reading, a violin solo, and a speech.
*1913 – The Italian Hall disaster in Calumet, Michigan results in the deaths of 73 striking workers families at a Christmas party participants (including 59 children) when someone falsely yells "fire".
*1914 – World War I: The "Christmas truce" begins.
*1918 – Region of Međimurje is captured by the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes from Hungary.
*1920 – Gabriele D'Annunzio surrendered the Italian Regency of Carnaro in the city of Fiume to Italian Armed Forces.
*1924 – Albania becomes a republic.
*1929 – Assassination attempt on Argentine President Hipólito Yrigoyen.
* 1929 – A four alarm fire breaks out in the West Wing of the White House in Washington, D.C.
*1939 – World War II: Pope Pius XII makes a Christmas Eve appeal for peace.
*1941 – World War II: Kuching is conquered by Japanese forces.
* 1941 – World War II: Benghazi is conquered by the British Eighth Army.
*1942 – World War II: French monarchist, Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle, assassinates Vichy French Admiral François Darlan in Algiers, Algeria.
*1943 – World War II: U.S. General Dwight D. Eisenhower is named Supreme Allied Commander for Operation Overlord.
*1944 – World War II: The Belgian Troopship Leopoldville was torpedoed and sank with the loss of 763 soldiers and 56 crew.
*1945 – Five of nine children become missing after their home in Fayetteville, West Virginia, is burned down.
*1951 – Libya becomes independent. Idris I is proclaimed King of Libya.
*1952 – First flight of Britain's Handley Page Victor strategic bomber.
*1953 – Tangiwai disaster: In New Zealand's North Island, at Tangiwai, a railway bridge is damaged by a lahar and collapses beneath a passenger train, killing 151 people.
*1964 – Vietnam War: Viet Cong operatives bomb the Brinks Hotel in Saigon, South Vietnam to demonstrate they can strike an American installation in the heavily guarded capital.
* 1964 – Flying Tiger Line Flight 282 crashes after takeoff from San Francisco International Airport, killing three.
*1966 – A Canadair CL-44 chartered by the United States military crashes into a small village in South Vietnam, killing 111.
*1968 – Apollo program: The crew of Apollo 8 enters into orbit around the Moon, becoming the first humans to do so. They performed ten lunar orbits, took the Earthrise photograph, broadcast live TV pictures, and read the first ten verses of Genesis.
*1969 – Nigerian troops capture Umuahia, the Biafran capital.
*1971 – LANSA Flight 508 is struck by lightning and crashes in the Puerto Inca District in the Department of Huánuco in Peru, killing 91.
*1973 – District of Columbia Home Rule Act is passed, allowing residents of Washington, D.C. to elect their own local government.
*1974 – Cyclone Tracy devastates Darwin, Australia.
*1983 – Aeroflot Flight 601 crashes during takeoff from Leshukonskoye Airport, Russia, killing 44 of the 49 people on board.
*1994 – Air France Flight 8969 is hijacked on the ground at Houari Boumediene Airport, Algiers, Algeria. Over the course of three days three passengers are killed, as are all four terrorists.
*1996 – A Learjet 35 crashes into Smarts Mountain near Dorchester, New Hampshire, killing both pilots on board.
*1997 – The Sid El-Antri massacre in Algeria kills between 50 and 100 people.
*1999 – Indian Airlines Flight 814 is hijacked in Indian airspace between Kathmandu, Nepal, and Delhi, India. The aircraft landed at Kandahar in Afghanistan. The incident ended on December 31 with the release of 190 survivors (one passenger is killed).
*2003 – The Spanish police thwart an attempt by ETA to detonate 50 kg of explosives at 3:55 p.m. inside Madrid's busy Chamartín Station.
*2005 – Chad–Sudan relations: Chad declares a state of belligerence against Sudan following a December 18 attack on Adré, which left about 100 people dead.
*2008 – The Lord's Resistance Army, a Ugandan rebel group, begins a series of attacks against civilians in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, massacring more than 400.
*2018 – A helicopter crash kills Martha Érika Alonso, first female Governor of Puebla, Mexico, and her husband Rafael Moreno Valle Rosas, former governor.
*2021 – Burmese military forces commit the Mo So massacre, killing at least 44 civilians.
Births
Pre-1600
*3 BC – Galba, Roman emperor (d. 69)
*1166 – John, King of England (d. 1216)
*1389 – John V, Duke of Brittany (d. 1442)
*1474 – Bartolomeo degli Organi, Italian musician (d. 1539)
*1475 – Thomas Murner, German poet and translator (d. 1537)
*1508 – Pietro Carnesecchi, Italian scholar (d. 1567)
*1520 – Martha Leijonhufvud, Swedish noble (d. 1584)
*1537 – Willem IV van den Bergh, Stadtholder of Guelders and Zutphen (d. 1586)
*1549 – Kaspar Ulenberg, German theologian (d. 1617)
*1588 – Constance of Austria (d. 1631)
*1596 – Leonaert Bramer, Dutch painter (d. 1674)
*1597 – Honoré II, Prince of Monaco (d. 1662)
1601–1900
*1625 – Johann Rudolph Ahle, German organist, composer, and theorist (d. 1673)
*1635 – Mariana of Austria (d. 1696)
*1679 – Domenico Sarro, Italian composer and educator (d. 1744)
*1698 – William Warburton, English bishop (d. 1779)
*1726 – Johann Hartmann, Danish composer (d. 1793)
*1731 – Julie Bondeli, Swiss salonist and lady of letters (d. 1778)
*1754 – George Crabbe, English priest, surgeon, and poet (d. 1832)
*1761 – Selim III, Ottoman sultan (d. 1808)
* 1761 – Jean-Louis Pons, French astronomer (d. 1831)
*1797 – Carl Georg von Wächter, German jurist (d. 1880)
*1798 – Adam Mickiewicz, Polish poet and playwright (d. 1855)
*1809 – Kit Carson, American general (d. 1868)
*1810 – Wilhelm Marstrand, Danish painter and illustrator (d. 1873)
*1812 – Karl Eduard Zachariae von Lingenthal, German lawyer and jurist (d. 1894)
*1818 – James Prescott Joule, English physicist and brewer (d. 1889)
*1822 – Matthew Arnold, English poet and critic (d. 1888)
*1827 – Alexander von Oettingen, German theologian and statistician (d. 1905)
*1837 – Empress Elisabeth of Austria (d. 1898)
*1843 – Lydia Koidula, Estonian poet and playwright (d. 1886)
*1845 – George I of Greece (d. 1913)
*1865 – Szymon Askenazy, Polish historian, educator, and diplomat, founded the Askenazy school (d. 1935)
*1867 – Tevfik Fikret, Turkish poet and educator (d. 1915)
*1868 – Charles Harvey Bollman, American naturalist (d. 1889)
* 1868 – Emanuel Lasker, German chess player, mathematician, and philosopher (d. 1941)
*1869 – Henriette Roland Holst, Dutch poet, playwright, and politician (d. 1952)
*1872 – Frederick Semple, American golfer and tennis player (d. 1927)
*1875 – Émile Wegelin, French rower (d. 1962)
*1877 – Sigrid Schauman, Finnish painter and critic (d. 1979)
*1879 – Émile Nelligan, Canadian poet (d. 1941)
* 1879 – Alexandrine of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (d. 1952)
*1880 – Johnny Gruelle, American author and illustrator (d. 1939)
*1881 – Charles Wakefield Cadman, American composer and critic (d. 1946)
*1882 – Hans Rebane, Estonian journalist and politician, 8th Estonian Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 1961)
* 1882 – Georges Legagneux, French aviator (d. 1914)
*1883 – Stefan Jaracz, Polish actor and producer (d. 1945)
*1885 – Paul Manship, American sculptor (d. 1966)
*1886 – Michael Curtiz, Hungarian-American actor, director, and producer (d. 1962)
*1887 – Louis Jouvet, French actor and producer (d. 1951)
* 1887 – Axel Revold, Norwegian painter (d. 1962)
*1891 – Feodor Stepanovich Rojankovsky, Russian illustrator and painter (d. 1970)
*1892 – Ruth Chatterton, American actress (d. 1961)
* 1893 – Harry Warren, American pianist and composer (d. 1981)
*1894 – Georges Guynemer, French captain and pilot (d. 1917)
* 1894 – Jack Thayer, American businessman (d. 1945)
*1895 – E. Roland Harriman, American financier and philanthropist (d. 1978)
* 1895 – Noel Streatfeild, English author (d. 1986)
* 1895 – Marguerite Williams, American geologist (d. 1991)
*1897 – Ville Pörhölä, Finnish shot putter and discus thrower (d. 1964)
* 1897 – Väinö Sipilä, Finnish runner (d. 1987)
*1898 – Baby Dodds, American drummer (d. 1959)
*1900 – Joey Smallwood, Canadian journalist and politician, 1st Premier of Newfoundland (d. 1991)
* 1900 – Hawayo Takata, Japanese-American teacher and master practitioner of Reiki (d. 1980)
1901–present
*1903 – Joseph Cornell, American sculptor and director (d. 1972)
* 1903 – Ernst Krenkel, Polish-Russian geographer and explorer (d. 1971)
* 1903 – Ava Helen Pauling, American humanitarian and activist (d. 1981)
*1904 – Joseph M. Juran, Romanian-American engineer and businessman (d. 2008)
*1905 – Howard Hughes, American businessman, engineer, and pilot (d. 1976)
*1906 – Franz Waxman, German-American composer and conductor (d. 1967)
*1907 – I. F. Stone, American journalist and author (d. 1989)
*1910 – Ellen Braumüller, German javelin thrower and triathlete (d. 1991)
* 1910 – Fritz Leiber, American author and poet (d. 1992)
* 1910 – Max Miedinger, Swiss typeface designer, created Helvetica (d. 1980)
*1913 – Ad Reinhardt, American painter and academic (d. 1967)
*1914 – Ralph Marterie, Italian-American trumpet player and bandleader (d. 1978)
* 1914 – Herbert Reinecker, German author and screenwriter (d. 2007)
*1918 – Dave Bartholomew, American bandleader, composer and arranger (d. 2019)
*1919 – Qateel Shifai, Pakistani poet and songwriter (d. 2001)
* 1919 – Pierre Soulages, French artist (d. 2022)
*1920 – Franco Lucentini, Italian author and screenwriter (d. 2002)
* 1920 – Yevgeniya Rudneva, Ukrainian-Russian lieutenant and navigator (d. 1944)
*1922 – Ava Gardner, American actress (d. 1990)
* 1928 – Lev Vlassenko, Georgian-Australian pianist and educator (d. 1996)
*1929 – Lennart Skoglund, Swedish footballer (d. 1975)
* 1929 – Red Sullivan, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2019)
*1930 – Robert Joffrey, American dancer and choreographer (d. 1988)
* 1930 – John J. Kelley, American runner (d. 2011)
*1931 – Ray Bryant, American pianist and composer (d. 2011)
* 1931 – Mauricio Kagel, Argentinian-German composer and scholar (d. 2008)
*1932 – Colin Cowdrey, Indian-English cricketer (d. 2000)
* 1932 – On Kawara, Japanese-American painter (d. 2014)
*1934 – Stjepan Mesić, Croatian lawyer and politician, 2nd President of Croatia
*1936 – Ivan Lawrence, English lawyer and politician
*1937 – Félix, Brazilian footballer and manager (d. 2012)
*1938 – Valentim Loureiro, Portuguese soldier and politician
*1940 – Janet Carroll, American actress and singer (d. 2012)
* 1940 – Anthony Fauci, American physician, Director of National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases
*1941 – Mike Hazlewood, English singer-songwriter (d. 2001)
*1942 – Indra Bania, Indian actor, director, and playwright (d. 2015)
* 1942 – Jonathan Borofsky, American sculptor and painter
* 1942 – Đoàn Viết Hoạt, Vietnamese journalist, educator, and activist
*1943 – Tarja Halonen, Finnish lawyer and politician, 11th President of Finland
*1944 – Mike Curb, American businessman and politician, 42nd Lieutenant Governor of California
* 1944 – Daniel Johnson, Jr., Canadian lawyer and politician, 25th Premier of Quebec
* 1944 – Erhard Keller, German speed skater
* 1944 – Bob Shaw, Australian golfer
* 1944 – Woody Shaw, American trumpeter (d. 1989)
*1945 – Lemmy, English hard rock singer-songwriter and bass player (d. 2015)
* 1950 – Tommy Turtle, British soldier (d. 2020)
*1951 – John D'Acquisto, American baseball player
*1953 – Timothy Carhart, American actor
*1954 – Yves Debay, Congolese-French commander and journalist (d. 2013)
* 1954 – José María Figueres, Costa Rican businessman and politician, President of Costa Rica (1994–1998)
*1955 – Grand L. Bush, American actor
*1967 – Mikhail Shchennikov, Russian race walker
* 1967 – Pernilla Wahlgren, Swedish singer and actress
*1968 – Marleen Renders, Belgian runner
*1969 – Milan Blagojevic, Australian footballer and manager
* 1969 – Pernille Fischer Christensen, Danish director and screenwriter
* 1969 – Ed Miliband, English academic and politician, Minister for the Cabinet Office
* 1969 – Luis Musrri, Chilean footballer and manager
* 1969 – Oleg Skripochka, Russian astronaut and engineer
* 1969 – Gintaras Staučė, Lithuanian footballer and manager
*1970 – Adam Haslett,Amaury Nolasco, Puerto Rican actor
*1980 – Stephen Appiah, Ghanaian footballer
* 1980 – Tomas Kalnoky, Czech-American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1980 – Maarja-Liis Ilus, Estonian pop musician
*1981 – Dima Bilan, Russian singer-songwriter and actor
*1983 – Gregor Blanco, Venezuelan baseball player
* 1983 – Tim Jennings, American football player
*1984 – Isaac De Gois, Australian rugby league player
* 1984 – Austin Stowell, American actor
*1990 – Brigetta Barrett, American high jumper
* 1990 – Ryo Miyake, Japanese fencer
*1991 – Sofia Black-D'Elia, American actress
* 1991 – Eric Moreland, American basketball player
* 1991 – Louis Tomlinson, English singer
* 1991 – Taylor Zakhar Perez, American actor
*1992 – Davante Adams, American football player
* 1992 – Serge Aurier, Ivorian footballer
* 1992 – P. J. Hairston, American basketball player
*1994 – Fa'amanu Brown, New Zealand rugby league player
* 1994 – Miguel Castro, Dominican baseball player
* 1994 – Matt Frawley, Australian rugby league player
* 1994 – Han Seung-woo, South Korean singer
*1995 – Anett Kontaveit, Estonian tennis player
*1997 – William Contreras, Venezuelan baseball player
*1998 – Alexis Mac Allister, Argentine footballer
*2002 – Joshua Primo, Canadian basketball player
* 2002 – Jeremiah Trotter Jr., American football player
<!-- Please do not add yourself, non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. -->
Deaths
Pre-1600
*36 – Gongsun Shu, emperor of Chengjia
* 427 – Archbishop Sisinnius I of Constantinople
* 903 – Hedwiga, duchess of Saxony
* 950 – Shi Hongzhao, Chinese general
* 950 – Wang Zhang, Chinese official
* 950 – Yang Bin, Chinese chancellor
*1193 – Roger III of Sicily (b. 1175)
*1257 – John I, Count of Hainaut (b. 1218)
*1263 – Hōjō Tokiyori, regent of Japan (b. 1227)
*1281 – Henry V of Luxembourg (b. 1216)
*1449 – Walter Bower, Scottish chronicler (b. 1385)
*1453 – John Dunstaple, English composer (b. 1390)
*1456 – Đurađ Branković, Despot of Serbia (b. 1377)
*1473 – John Cantius, Polish scholar and theologian (b. 1390)
*1524 – Vasco da Gama, Portuguese explorer and politician, Governor of Portuguese India (b. 1469)
*1541 – Andreas Karlstadt, Christian theologian and reformer (b. 1486)
1601–1900
*1635 – Hester Jonas, German nurse (b. 1570)
*1660 – Mary, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange (b. 1631)
*1707 – Noël Coypel, French painter and educator (b. 1628)
*1813 – Empress Go-Sakuramachi of Japan (b. 1740)
*1844 – Friedrich Bernhard Westphal, Danish-German painter (b. 1803)
*1863 – William Makepeace Thackeray, English author and poet (b. 1811)
*1865 – Charles Lock Eastlake, English painter and historian (b. 1793)
*1867 – José Mariano Salas, Mexican general and politician. President of Mexico (1846, 1859) and regent of the Second Mexican Empire (b. 1797)
*1868 – Adolphe d'Archiac, French paleontologist and geologist (b. 1802)
*1872 – William John Macquorn Rankine, Scottish physicist and engineer (b. 1820)
*1873 – Johns Hopkins, American businessman and philanthropist (b. 1795)
*1879 – Anna Bochkoltz, German operatic soprano, voice teacher and composer (b. 1815)
*1889 – Jan Jakob Lodewijk ten Kate, Dutch pastor and poet (b. 1819)
*1893 – B. T. Finniss, Australian politician, 1st Premier of South Australia (b. 1807)
*1898 – Charbel Makhluf, Lebanese priest and saint (b. 1828)
1901–present
*1914 – John Muir, Scottish-American geologist, botanist, and author, founded Sierra Club (b. 1838)
*1920 – Stephen Mosher Wood, American lieutenant and politician (b. 1832)
*1923 – Joe Lacey, Irish Hunger Striker died during the 1923 Irish hunger strikes (b. 1895)
*1926 – Wesley Coe, American shot putter, hammer thrower, and discus thrower (b. 1879)
*1931 – Carlo Fornasini, micropalaeontologist (b. 1854)
* 1931 – Flying Hawk, American warrior, educator and historian (b. 1854)
*1935 – Alban Berg, Austrian composer and educator (b. 1885)
*1938 – Bruno Taut, German architect and urban planner (b. 1880)
*1941 – Siegfried Alkan, German composer (b. 1858)
*1942 – François Darlan, French admiral and politician, 122nd Prime Minister of France (b. 1881)
*1945 – Josephine Sabel, American singer and comedian (b. 1866)
*1947 – Charles Gondouin, French rugby player and tug of war competitor (b. 1875)
*1957 – Norma Talmadge, American actress and producer (b. 1894)
*1961 – Robert Hillyer, American poet and academic (b. 1895)
*1962 – Wilhelm Ackermann, German mathematician (b. 1896)
* 1962 – Eveline Adelheid von Maydell, German illustrator (b. 1890)
*1964 – Claudia Jones, Trinidad-British journalist and activist (b. 1915)
*1965 – John Black, English businessman (b. 1895)
* 1965 – William M. Branham, American minister and theologian (b. 1906)
*1967 – Burt Baskin, American businessman, co-founded Baskin-Robbins (b. 1913)
*1969 – Stanisław Błeszyński, Polish-German entomologist and lepidopterist (b. 1927)
* 1969 – Cortelia Clark, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1907)
* 1969 – Olivia FitzRoy, English soldier and author (b. 1921)
* 1969 – Alfred B. Skar, Norwegian journalist and politician (b. 1896)
*1971 – Maria Koepcke, German-Peruvian ornithologist and zoologist (b. 1924)
*1972 – Gisela Richter, English-American archaeologist and historian (b. 1882)
*1973 – Fritz Gause, German historian and author (b. 1893)
*1975 – Bernard Herrmann, American composer and conductor (b. 1911)
*1977 – Samael Aun Weor, Colombian author and educator (b. 1917)
*1980 – Karl Dönitz, German admiral and politician, President of Germany (b. 1891)
*1982 – Louis Aragon, French author and poet (b. 1897)
*1984 – Peter Lawford, English-American actor (b. 1923)
*1985 – Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith, American lawyer (b. 1904)
* 1985 – Camille Tourville, Canadian-American wrestler and manager (b. 1927)
*1986 – Gardner Fox, American author (b. 1911)
*1987 – Joop den Uyl, Dutch journalist, economist, and politician, 45th Prime Minister of the Netherlands (b. 1919)
* 1987 – M. G. Ramachandran, Sri Lankan-Indian actor, producer, and politician, 5th Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu (b. 1917)
*1988 – Jainendra Kumar, Indian author (b. 1905)
*1990 – Thorbjørn Egner, Norwegian playwright and songwriter (b. 1922)
*1991 – Virginia Sorensen, American author (b. 1912)
*1992 – Bobby LaKind, American singer-songwriter and conga player (b. 1945)
* 1992 – James Mathews, Australian rugby league player (b. 1968)
* 1992 – Peyo, Belgian cartoonist, created The Smurfs (b. 1928)
*1993 – Norman Vincent Peale, American minister and author (b. 1898)
*1994 – John Boswell, American historian, author, and academic (b. 1947)
* 1994 – Rossano Brazzi, Italian actor (b. 1916)
*1997 – James Komack, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1930)
* 1997 – Toshiro Mifune, Chinese-Japanese actor and producer (b. 1920)
* 1997 – Pierre Péladeau, Canadian businessman, founded Quebecor (b. 1925)
*1998 – Syl Apps, Canadian ice hockey player and pole vaulter (b. 1915)
*1999 – Bill Bowerman, American runner, coach, and businessman, co-founded Nike, Inc. (b. 1911)
* 1999 – Maurice Couve de Murville, French soldier and politician, 152nd Prime Minister of France (b. 1907)
* 1999 – João Figueiredo, Brazilian general and politician, 30th President of Brazil (b. 1918)
* 1999 – William C. Schneider, American aerospace engineer (b. 1923)
*2000 – John Cooper, English businessman, co-founded the Cooper Car Company (b. 1923)
*2002 – Kjell Aukrust, Norwegian author and poet (b. 1920)
* 2002 – Jake Thackray, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1938)
*2004 – Johnny Oates, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b. 1946)
*2006 – Braguinha, Brazilian singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1907)
* 2006 – Kenneth Sivertsen, Norwegian guitarist and composer (b. 1961)
* 2006 – Frank Stanton, American businessman (b. 1908)
*2007 – Nicholas Pumfrey, English lawyer and judge (b. 1951)
* 2007 – George Warrington, American businessman (b. 1952)
*2008 – Ralph Harris, British journalist (b. 1921)
* 2008 – Harold Pinter, English playwright, screenwriter, director, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1930)
*2009 – Marcus Bakker, Dutch journalist and politician (b. 1923)
* 2009 – Rafael Caldera, Venezuelan lawyer and politician, 65th President of Venezuela (b. 1916)
* 2009 – George Michael, American sportscaster (b. 1939)
* 2009 – Gero von Wilpert, German author and academic (b. 1933)
*2010 – Elisabeth Beresford, English journalist and author (b. 1926)
* 2010 – Frans de Munck, Dutch footballer and manager (b. 1922)
* 2010 – Orestes Quércia, Brazilian journalist, lawyer, and politician, 28th Governor of São Paulo State (b. 1938)
* 2010 – Eino Tamberg, Estonian composer and educator (b. 1930)
*2011 – Johannes Heesters, Dutch-German entertainer (b. 1903)
*2012 – Richard Rodney Bennett, English-American composer and academic (b. 1936)
* 2012 – Charles Durning, American soldier and actor (b. 1923)
* 2012 – Jack Klugman, American actor (b. 1922)
* 2012 – Dennis O'Driscoll, Irish poet and critic (b. 1954)
*2013 – Frédéric Back, German-Canadian director, animator, and screenwriter (b. 1924)
* 2013 – Ian Barbour, Chinese-American author and scholar (b. 1923)
* 2013 – John M. Goldman, English haematologist and oncologist (b. 1938)
* 2013 – Allan McKeown, English-American screenwriter and producer (b. 1946)
*2014 – Buddy DeFranco, American clarinet player (b. 1923)
* 2014 – Edward Greenspan, Canadian lawyer and author (b. 1944)
* 2014 – Herbert Harris, American lawyer and politician (b. 1926)
* 2014 – Krzysztof Krauze, Polish director and screenwriter (b. 1953)
*2015 – Turid Birkeland, Norwegian businesswoman and politician, Norwegian Minister of Culture (b. 1962)
* 2015 – Letty Jimenez Magsanoc, Filipino journalist (b. 1941)
* 2015 – Adriana Olguín, Chilean lawyer and politician, Chilean Minister of Justice (b. 1911)
*2016 – Rick Parfitt, British musician (b. 1948)
* 2016 – Liz Smith, English actress (b. 1921)
* 2016 – Richard Adams, English author (b. 1920)
* 2016 – Ben Xi, Chinese singer (b.1994)
*2017 – Jerry Kindall, American baseball player and coach (b. 1935)
* 2017 – Heather Menzies, Canadian-American model and actress (b. 1949)
*2018 – Martha Érika Alonso, Governor of Puebla (b. 1973)
* 2018 – Rafael Moreno Valle Rosas, former governor of Puebla (b. 1968)
* 2023 – Richard Bowes, American science fiction author (b. 1944)
* 2023 – Troy Dargan, Cook Islands rugby league footballer (b. 1997)
* 2024 – Richard Perry, American record producer (b. 1942)
<!--Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Holidays and observances
* Christian feast day:
** Adela and Irmina
** Paola Elisabetta Cerioli
** Adam and Eve
** December 24 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
* Christmas Eve (Christianity) and its related observances:
** Aðfangadagskvöld, the day when the 13th and the last Yule Lad arrives to towns. (Iceland)
** Feast of the Seven Fishes (Italian Americans)
** Juleaften (Denmark)/Julaften (Norway)/Julafton (Sweden)
** Nittel Nacht (certain Orthodox Jewish denominations)
** Nochebuena (Spain and Spanish-speaking countries)
** The Declaration of Christmas Peace (Old Great Square of Turku, Finland's official Christmas City)
** Wigilia (Poland)
** Quviasukvik, the Inuit new year (Alaska, Canada, Greenland and Russia)
* Kūčios (Lithuania)
* Independence Day (Libya)
* Day of Military Honour – Siege of Ismail (Russia)
References
<references />
External links
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/24 BBC: On This Day]
*
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/december/24 Historical Events on December 24]
Category:Days of December
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_24
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2025-04-05T18:28:35.250086
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December 26
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Events
Pre-1600
* 887 – Berengar I is elected as king of Italy by the lords of Lombardy. He is crowned with the Iron Crown of Lombardy at Pavia.
*1481 – Battle of Westbroek: An army of 4,000 to 5,000 soldiers raised by David of Burgundy, Bishop of Utrecht, attacks an armed mob of people from nearby Utrecht who were trying to avenge the massacre of the inhabitants of Westbroek.
1601–1900
*1704 – Second Battle of Anandpur: In the Second Battle of Anandpur, Aurangzeb's two generals, Wazir Khan and Zaberdast Khan executed two children of Guru Gobind Singh, Zorawar Singh aged eight and Fateh Singh aged five, by burying them alive into a wall.
*1709 – The opera Agrippina by George Frideric Handel premiered in Venice.
*1723 – Bach led the first performance of Darzu ist erschienen der Sohn Gottes'', BWV 40, his first Christmas Cantata composed for Leipzig.
*1776 – American Revolutionary War: In the Battle of Trenton, the Continental Army under General George Washington executes a successful surprise attack and defeats a garrison of Hessian forces serving Great Britain.
*1790 – Louis XVI of France gives his public assent to Civil Constitution of the Clergy during the French Revolution.
*1793 – Second Battle of Wissembourg: France defeats Austria.
*1799 – Henry Lee III's eulogy to George Washington in congress declares him as "first in war, first in peace and first in the hearts of his countrymen".
*1805 – Austria and France sign the Treaty of Pressburg.
*1806 – Battles of Pultusk and Golymin: Russian forces hold French forces under Napoleon.
*1811 – A theater fire in Richmond, Virginia kills 72 people, including the Governor of Virginia George William Smith and the president of the First National Bank of Virginia Abraham B. Venable.
*1825 – Advocates of liberalism in Russia rise up against Czar Nicholas I in the Decembrist revolt, but are later suppressed.
*1843 – The discovery of octonions by John T. Graves, who denoted them with a boldface O, was announced to his mathematician friend William Hamilton, discoverer of quaternions, in a letter on this date.
*1860 – First Rules derby is held between Sheffield F.C. and Hallam F.C., the oldest football fixture in the world.
*1861 – American Civil War: The Trent Affair: Confederate diplomatic envoys James Murray Mason and John Slidell are freed by the United States government, thus easing tensions between the U.S. and the United Kingdom.
*1862 – American Civil War: The Battle of Chickasaw Bayou begins as Union General William T. Sherman starts landing his troops in an attempt to advance on Vicksburg, Mississippi.
* 1862 – Dakota War of 1862: The largest mass-hanging in U.S. history takes place in Mankato, Minnesota, where 38 Native American prisoners are hanged.
*1871 – Thespis, the first Gilbert and Sullivan collaboration, debuts.
*1898 – Marie and Pierre Curie announce the isolation of radium.
1901–present
*1919 – Babe Ruth of the Boston Red Sox is sold to the New York Yankees by owner Harry Frazee, allegedly establishing the Curse of the Bambino superstition.
*1926 – World premiere of Sibelius's tone poem Tapiola.
*1941 – U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt signs a bill establishing the fourth Thursday in November as Thanksgiving Day in the United States.
*1941 – British Prime Minister Winston Churchill addresses a joint meeting of the U.S. Congress.
*1943 – World War II: German warship Scharnhorst is sunk off Norway's North Cape after a battle against major Royal Navy forces.
*1944 – World War II: George S. Patton's Third Army breaks the encirclement of surrounded U.S. forces at Bastogne, Belgium.
*1948 – Cardinal József Mindszenty is arrested in Hungary and accused of treason and conspiracy.
* 1948 – The last Soviet troops withdraw from North Korea.
*1963 – The Beatles' "I Want to Hold Your Hand" and "I Saw Her Standing There" are released in the United States, marking the beginning of Beatlemania on an international level.
*1966 – The first Kwanzaa is celebrated by Maulana Karenga, the chair of Black Studies at California State University, Long Beach.
*1968 – The Communist Party of the Philippines is established by Jose Maria Sison, breaking away from the Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas-1930.
*1972 – Vietnam War: As part of Operation Linebacker II, 120 American B-52 Stratofortress bombers attacked Hanoi, including 78 launched from Andersen Air Force Base in Guam, the largest single combat launch in Strategic Air Command history.
*1975 – Tu-144, the world's first commercial supersonic aircraft, surpassing Mach 2, goes into service.
*1978 – The inaugural Paris-Dakar Rally begins.
*1980 – Witnesses report the first of several sightings of unexplained lights near RAF Woodbridge, in Rendlesham Forest, Suffolk, England, United Kingdom, an incident called "Britain's Roswell".
*1989 – United Express Flight 2415 crashes on approach to the Tri-Cities Airport in Pasco, Washington, killing all six people on board.
*1991 – The Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union meets and formally dissolves the Soviet Union, ending the Cold War.
*1994 – Four Armed Islamic Group hijackers seize control of Air France Flight 8969. When the plane lands at Marseille, a French Gendarmerie assault team boards the aircraft and kills the hijackers.
*1998 – Iraq announces its intention to fire upon U.S. and British warplanes that patrol the northern and southern no-fly zones.
*1999 – The storm Lothar sweeps across Central Europe, killing 137 and causing US$1.3 billion in damage.
*2003 – The 6.6 Bam earthquake shakes southeastern Iran with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent), leaving more than 26,000 dead and 30,000 injured.
*2004 – The 9.1–9.3 Indian Ocean earthquake shakes northern Sumatra with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent). One of the largest observed tsunamis, it affected coastal and partially mainland areas of Thailand, India, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, Malaysia, Myanmar, Bangladesh, and Indonesia; death toll is estimated at 227,898.
* 2004 – Orange Revolution: The final run-off election in Ukraine is held under heavy international scrutiny.
*2006 – Two earthquakes in Hengchun, Taiwan measuring 7.0 and 6.9 on the moment magnitude scale kill two and disrupt telecommunications across Asia.
*2012 – China opens the world's longest high-speed rail route, which links Beijing and Guangzhou.
*2015 – A violent EF-4 tornado hits Garland, Texas, killing nine and injuring almost 500 others.
*2021 – Three people are killed when a 13-year-old opens fire on civilians at a Texaco convenience store in Garland, Texas.
Births
Pre-1600
*1194 – Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1250)
*1446 – Charles de Valois, Duke de Berry, French noble (d. 1472)
*1526 – Rose Lok, businesswoman and Protestant exile (d. 1613)
*1532 – Wilhelm Xylander, German scholar and academic (d. 1576)
*1536 – Yi I, Korean philosopher and scholar (d. 1584)
*1537 – Albert, Count of Nassau-Weilburg (d. 1593)
*1581 – Philip III, Landgrave of Hesse-Butzbach (d. 1643)
1601–1900
*1618 – Elisabeth of the Palatinate, German princess, philosopher, and Calvinist (d. 1680)
*1628 – John Page, English Colonial<!-- He was not American, as America was not a country until decades after his death, as shown by the reference. --> politician (d. 1692)
*1646 – Robert Bolling, English/English Colonial
*1785 – Étienne Constantin de Gerlache, Belgian lawyer and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Belgium (d. 1871)
*1782 – Philaret Drozdov, Russian metropolitan and saint (d. 1867)
*1791 – Charles Babbage, English mathematician and engineer, invented the Difference engine (d. 1871)
*1803 – Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald, Estonian physician and author (d. 1882)
*1819 – E. D. E. N. Southworth, American author and educator (d. 1899)
*1820 – Dion Boucicault, Irish actor and playwright (d. 1890)
*1837 – Morgan Bulkeley, American soldier and politician, 54th Governor of Connecticut (d. 1922)
* 1837 – George Dewey, American admiral (d. 1917)
*1852 – Johannes François Snelleman, Dutch zoologist, orientalist, and ethnographer (d. 1938)
*1853 – René Bazin, French author and academic (d. 1932)
*1854 – José Yves Limantour, Mexican financier and politician, Mexican Secretary of Finance (d. 1935)
*1859 – William Stephens, American lawyer and politician, 24th Governor of California (d. 1944)
*1863 – Charles Pathé, French record producer, co-founded Pathé Records (d. 1957)
*1864 – Yun Chi-ho, Korean activist and politician (d. 1945)
*1867 – Phan Bội Châu, Vietnamese activist (d. 1940)
*1869 – Mathieu Cordang, Dutch cyclist (d. 1942)
*1870 – Virginia Bolten, Argentine feminist and trade unionist (d. 1960)
*1872 – Norman Angell, English journalist, academic, and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1967)
*1873 – Thomas Wass, English cricketer (d. 1953)
*1874 – Khan Bahadur Ahsanullah, Bangladeshi theologian and academic (d. 1965)
*1883 – Maurice Utrillo, French painter (d. 1955)
*1885 – Bazoline Estelle Usher, African-American educator (d. 1992)
*1887 – Arthur Percival, English general (d. 1966)
*1888 – Marius Canard, French orientalist and historian (d. 1982)
*1889 – Ragnhild Kaarbø, Norwegian painter (d. 1949)
*1890 – Konstantinos Georgakopoulos, Greek lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1973)
* 1890 – Percy Hodge, English runner (d. 1967)
*1891 – Henry Miller, American author and painter (d. 1980)
*1892 – Don Barclay, American actor and illustrator (d. 1975)
*1893 – Mao Zedong, Chinese politician, Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party (d. 1976)
*1894 – Jean Toomer, American author and poet (d. 1967)
*1900 – Evelyn Bark, leading member of the British Red Cross, first female recipient of the CMG (d. 1993)1901–present
*1901 – Elmar Muuk, Estonian linguist and author (d. 1941)
*1902 – Anatoli Lvovich Kaplan, Russian painter and sculptor (d. 1980)
*1903 – Elisha Cook, Jr., American actor (d. 1995)
*1904 – Alejo Carpentier, Swiss-Cuban musicologist and author (d. 1980)
*1905 – William Loeb III, American publisher (d. 1981)
*1907 – Albert Gore, Sr., American lawyer and politician (d. 1998)
*1908 – Ralph Hill, American runner (d. 1994)
*1909 – Matt Gordy, American pole vaulter (d. 1989)
*1910 – Imperio Argentina, Argentine-Spanish actress and singer (d. 2003)
* 1910 – Marguerite Churchill, American actress (d. 2000)
*1912 – Arsenio Lacson, Filipino journalist and politician, Mayor of Manila (d. 1962)
*1913 – Frank Swift, English footballer and journalist (d. 1958)
*1914 – Richard Widmark, American actor (d. 2008)
*1915 – Rolf Botvid, Swedish actor and screenwriter (d. 1998)
*1918 – Olga Lopes-Seale, Guyanese-Barbadian singer and radio host (d. 2011)
* 1918 – Georgios Rallis, Greek lieutenant and politician, 173rd Prime Minister of Greece (d. 2006)
*1921 – Steve Allen, American actor, singer, talk show host, and screenwriter (d. 2000)
* 1921 – John Severin, American illustrator (d. 2012)
*1922 – Richard Mayes, English actor (d. 2006)
*1923 – Richard Artschwager, American painter, illustrator, and sculptor (d. 2013)
*1924 – Frank Broyles, American football player, coach, and sportscaster (d. 2017)
*1926 – Earle Brown, American composer (d. 2002)
*1927 – Denis Gifford, English journalist and historian (d. 2000)
* 1927 – Alan King, American actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2004)
* 1927 – Stu Miller, American baseball player (d. 2015)
* 1927 – Denis Quilley, English actor (d. 2003)
*1928 – Martin Cooper, American engineer, invented the mobile phone
*1929 – Kathleen Crowley, American actress (d. 2017)
* 1929 – Régine Zylberberg, Belgian-French singer and actress (d. 2022)
*1930 – Jean Ferrat, French singer-songwriter and poet (d. 2010)
* 1930 – Harry Gamble, American football player, coach, and manager (d. 2014)
* 1930 – Donald Moffat, English-American actor (d. 2018)
*1933 – Caroll Spinney, American puppeteer and voice actor (d. 2019)
*1935 – Rohan Kanhai, Guyanese cricketer
* 1935 – Norm Ullman, Canadian ice hockey player
*1936 – Peep Jänes, Estonian architect
* 1936 – Trevor Taylor, English race car driver (d. 2010)
*1937 – John Horton Conway, English mathematician, known for Conway's Game of Life (d. 2020)
*1938 – Bahram Beyzai, Iranian director, producer, and screenwriter
* 1938 – Robert Hamerton-Kelly, South African-American pastor, scholar, and author (d. 2013)
* 1938 – Alamgir Kabir, Bangladeshi director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1989)
* 1938 – Mirko Kovač, Yugoslav-Croatian author, playwright, and screenwriter (d. 2013)
*1939 – Fred Schepisi, Australian director and screenwriter
* 1939 – Phil Spector, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2021)
*1940 – Edward C. Prescott, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2022)
* 1940 – Ray Sadecki, American baseball player (d. 2014)
*1941 – Daniel Schmid, Swiss actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2006)
*1942 – Vinicio Cerezo, Guatemalan politician, 28th President of Guatemala
* 1942 – Catherine Coulter, American author
* 1942 – Gray Davis, American captain, lawyer, and politician, 37th Governor of California
*1944 – William Ayers, American academic and activist
*1945 – John Walsh, American television host, producer, and activist, created ''America's Most Wanted''
*1946 – Alan Frumin, American lawyer and politician
* 1946 – Tiit Rosenberg, Estonian historian and academic
*1947 – James T. Conway, American general
* 1947 – Jean Echenoz, French author
* 1947 – Carlton Fisk, American baseball player
* 1947 – Josef Janíček, Czech singer-songwriter, guitarist, and keyboard player
* 1947 – Liz Lochhead, Scottish poet and playwright
* 1947 – Richard Levis McCormick, American historian and academic
*1948 – Candy Crowley, American journalist
*1949 – José Ramos-Horta, East Timorese lawyer and politician, 2nd President of East Timor, Nobel Prize laureate
*1950 – Raja Pervaiz Ashraf, Pakistani businessman and politician, 17th Prime Minister of Pakistan
* 1950 – Mario Mendoza, Mexican baseball player and manager
*1953 – Leonel Fernández, Dominican lawyer and politician, 51st President of the Dominican Republic
* 1953 – Toomas Hendrik Ilves, Swedish-Estonian journalist and politician, 4th President of Estonia
* 1953 – Makis Katsavakis, Greek footballer and manager
* 1953 – Henning Schmitz, German drummer
*1954 – Peter Hillary, New Zealand mountaineer and philanthropist
* 1954 – Ozzie Smith, American baseball player and sportscaster
*1955 – Evan Bayh, American lawyer and politician, 46th Governor of Indiana
*1956 – David Sedaris, American comedian, author, and radio host
*1957 – Dermot Murnaghan, English-Northern Irish journalist and game show host
*1958 – Adrian Newey, English aerodynamicist and engineer
*1959 – Wang Lijun, Chinese police officer and politician
* 1959 – Kōji Morimoto, Japanese animator and director
* 1959 – Hans Nielsen, Danish motorcycle racer
*1960 – Keith Martin Ball, American mathematician and academic
* 1960 – Ruud Kaiser, Dutch footballer and manager
* 1960 – Cem Uzan, Turkish businessman and politician
*1961 – Andrew Lock, Australian mountaineer
*1962 – James Kottak, American drummer (d. 2024)
* 1962 – Mark Starr, English wrestler (d. 2013)
*1963 – Craig Teitzel, Australian rugby league player
* 1963 – Lars Ulrich, Danish-American drummer, songwriter, and producer
*1964 – Elizabeth Kostova, American author
*1966 – Jay Farrar, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1966 – Tim Legler, American basketball player and sportscaster
*1968 – Matt Zoller Seitz, American film critic and author
*1969 – Isaac Viciosa, Spanish runner
*1970 – James Mercer, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
*1971 – Jared Leto, American actor and musician
* 1971 – Mika Nurmela, Finnish footballer
* 1971 – Tatiana Sorokko, Russian-American model and journalist
*1972 – Gaby Colebunders, Belgian politician
* 1972 – Esteban Fuertes, Argentinian footballer
* 1972 – Robert Muchamore, English author
*1973 – Paulo Frederico Benevenute, Brazilian footballer
* 1973 – Gianluca Faliva, Italian rugby player
* 1973 – Nobuhiko Matsunaka, Japanese baseball player
* 1973 – Steve Prescott, English rugby player (d. 2013)
*1974 – Joshua John Miller, American actor, director, and screenwriter
*1975 – Chris Calaguio, Filipino basketball player
* 1975 – Marcelo Ríos, Chilean tennis player
* 1975 – María Vasco, Spanish race walker
*1976 – Simon Goodwin, Australian footballer and coach
*1977 – Fatih Akyel, Turkish footballer and manager
* 1977 – Adrienn Hegedűs, Hungarian tennis player
*1978 – Karel Rüütli, Estonian lawyer and politician
* 1978 – Kaoru Sugayama, Japanese volleyball player
*1979 – Fabián Carini, Uruguayan footballer
* 1979 – Chris Daughtry, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1979 – Dimitry Vassiliev, Russian ski jumper
* 1979 – Craig Wing, Australian rugby player
*1980 – Todd Dunivant, American soccer player
* 1980 – Ceylan Ertem, Turkish singer
*1981 – Pablo Canavosio, Argentine-Italian rugby player
* 1981 – Omar Infante, Venezuelan baseball player
*1982 – Kenneth Darby, American football player
* 1982 – Noel Hunt, Irish footballer
* 1982 – Aksel Lund Svindal, Norwegian skier
*1983 – Jeroen Soete, Belgian politician
* 1983 – Yu Takahashi, Japanese singer-songwriter
* 1983 – Alexander Wang, American fashion designer
*1984 – Ahmed Barusso, Ghanaian footballer
* 1984 – Leonardo Ghiraldini, Italian rugby player
* 1984 – Alex Schwazer, Italian race walker
*1985 – Damir Markota, Croatian basketball player
*1986 – Joe Alexander, American-Israeli basketball player
* 1986 – Kit Harington, English actor
* 1986 – Hugo Lloris, French footballer
* 1986 – Selen Soyder, Turkish actress and beauty queen
*1987 – Oskar Osala, Finnish ice hockey player
*1989 – Yohan Blake, Jamaican sprinter
* 1989 – Sofiane Feghouli, Algerian footballer
* 1989 – Tomáš Kundrátek, Czech ice hockey player
*1990 – Denis Cheryshev, Russian footballer
* 1990 – Cory Jefferson, American basketball player
* 1990 – Aaron Ramsey, Welsh footballer
*1991 – Brandon Scherff, American football player
* 1991 – Eden Sher, American actress
* 1991 – Trevor Siemian, American football player
*1992 – Cecilia Costa Melgar, Chilean tennis player
* 1992 – Jade Thirlwall, English singer
*1994 – Colby Cave, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2020)
* 1994 – Souleymane Coulibaly, Ivorian footballer
*1997 – Tamara Zidanšek, Slovenian tennis player
*2001 – Aleksej Pokuševski, Serbian basketball player
*2002 – Josh Wilson-Esbrand, English footballer
<!-- Do not add your own name or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. -->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 268 – Dionysius, pope of the Catholic Church
* 418 – Zosimus, pope of the Catholic Church
* 831 – Euthymius of Sardis, Byzantine bishop and saint (b. 754)
* 865 – Zheng, empress of the Tang Dynasty
* 893 – Masrur al-Balkhi, Abbasid general
*1006 – Gao Qiong, Chinese general (b. 935)
*1191 – Reginald Fitz Jocelin, archbishop-elect of Canterbury
*1302 – Valdemar, king of Sweden (b. 1239)
*1331 – Philip I, Prince of Taranto, titular Latin Emperor (b. 1278)
*1350 – Jean de Marigny, French archbishop
*1352 – John, 3rd Earl of Kent, English politician (b. 1330)
*1360 – Thomas Holland, 1st Earl of Kent, English commander (b. 1314)
*1413 – Michele Steno, doge of Venice (b. 1331)
*1441 – Niccolò III d'Este, marquess of Ferrara
*1458 – Arthur III, duke of Brittany (b. 1393)
*1476 – Galeazzo Maria Sforza, duke of Milan (b. 1444)
*1530 – Babur, Mughal emperor (b. 1483)
*1574 – Charles de Lorraine, French cardinal (b. 1524)
1601–1900
*1646 – Henri de Bourbon, prince of Condé (b. 1588)
*1731 – Antoine Houdar de la Motte, French author (b. 1672)
*1771 – Claude Adrien Helvétius, French philosopher and activist (b. 1715)
*1780 – John Fothergill, English physician and botanist (b. 1712)
*1784 – Seth Warner, American colonel (b. 1743)
*1786 – Gasparo Gozzi, Italian playwright and critic (b. 1713)
*1863 – Francis Caulfeild, 2nd Earl of Charlemont, Irish politician, Lord Lieutenant of Tyrone (b. 1775)
*1869 – Jean Léonard Marie Poiseuille, French physician and physiologist (b. 1797)
*1890 – Heinrich Schliemann, German-Italian archaeologist and author (b. 1822)
1901–present
*1902 – Mary Hartwell Catherwood, American author and poet (b. 1849)
*1909 – Frederic Remington, American painter and illustrator (b. 1861)
*1923 – Dietrich Eckart, German journalist, poet, and politician (b. 1868)
*1925 – Jan Letzel, Czech architect, designed the Hiroshima Peace Memorial (b. 1880)
*1929 – Albert Giraud, Belgian poet (b. 1860)
*1931 – Melvil Dewey, American librarian and educator, created the Dewey Decimal Classification (b. 1851)
*1933 – Mary Ann Bevan, English nurse who, after developing acromegaly, toured the circus sideshow circuit as "the ugliest woman in the world" (b. 1874)
* 1933 – Anatoly Lunacharsky, Russian journalist and politician (b. 1875)
* 1933 – Henry Watson Fowler, English lexicographer and educator (b. 1858)
*1959 – Jack Tresadern, English footballer and manager (b. 1890)
*1960 – Tetsuro Watsuji, Japanese historian and philosopher (b. 1889)
*1963 – Gorgeous George, American wrestler (b. 1915)
*1966 – Ina Boudier-Bakker, Dutch author (b. 1875)
* 1966 – Herbert Otto Gille, German general (b. 1897)
* 1966 – Guillermo Stábile, Argentinian footballer and manager (b. 1905)
*1968 – Weegee, Ukrainian-American photographer and journalist (b. 1898)
*1970 – Lillian Board, South African-English runner (b. 1948)
*1972 – Harry S. Truman, American colonel and politician, 33rd President of the United States (b. 1884)
*1973 – Harold B. Lee, American religious leader, 11th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1899)
*1974 – Farid al-Atrash, Syrian-Egyptian singer-songwriter, oud player, and actor (b. 1915)
* 1974 – Jack Benny, American comedian, vaudevillian, actor, and violinist (b. 1894)
* 1974 – Frederick Dalrymple-Hamilton, Scottish admiral (b. 1890)
*1977 – Howard Hawks, American director and screenwriter (b. 1896)
*1980 – Tony Smith, American sculptor and educator (b. 1912)
*1980 – Richard Chase, American cannibalistic serial killer and necrophile (b. 1950)
*1981 – Amber Reeves, New Zealand-English author and scholar (b. 1887)
* 1981 – Suat Hayri Ürgüplü, Turkish politician, Prime Minister of Turkey (b. 1903)
* 1981 – Savitri, Indian actress, playback singer, dancer, director and producer (b. 1936)
*1983 – Hans Liska, Austrian-German artist (b. 1907)
*1986 – Elsa Lanchester, English-American actress (b. 1902)
*1987 – Dorothy Bliss, American invertebrate zoologist, curator at the American Museum of Natural History (b. 1916)
*1988 – Glenn McCarthy, American businessman, founded the Shamrock Hotel (b. 1907)
* 1988 – Pablo Sorozábal, German-Spanish composer and conductor (b. 1897)
*1989 – Doug Harvey, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1924)
*1990 – Gene Callahan, American art director and production designer (b. 1923)
*1994 – Sylva Koscina, Italian actress (b. 1933)
*1997 – Cahit Arf, Turkish mathematician and academic (b. 1910)
* 1997 – Cornelius Castoriadis, Greek economist and philosopher (b. 1922)
*1998 – Ram Swarup, Indian writer on Hindu philosophy and religion (b. 1920)
*1999 – Curtis Mayfield, American singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1942)
* 1999 – Shankar Dayal Sharma, Indian academic and politician, 9th President of India (b. 1918)
*2000 – Jason Robards, American actor (b. 1922)
*2001 – Nigel Hawthorne, English actor (b. 1929)
*2002 – Herb Ritts, American photographer and director (b. 1952)
* 2002 – Armand Zildjian, American businessman, founded the Avedis Zildjian Company (b. 1921)
*2003 – Virginia Coffey, American civil rights activist (b. 1904)
*2004 – Jonathan Drummond-Webb, South African surgeon and academic (b. 1959)
* 2004 – Angus Ogilvy, English businessman (b. 1928)
* 2004 – Reggie White, American football player and wrestler (b. 1961)
*Casualties of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami:
** Troy Broadbridge, Australian footballer (b. 1980)
** Sigurd Køhn, Norwegian saxophonist and composer (b. 1959)
** Mieszko Talarczyk, Polish-Swedish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b. 1974)
*2005 – Muriel Costa-Greenspon, American soprano (b. 1937)
* 2005 – Ted Ditchburn, English footballer and manager (b. 1921)
* 2005 – Kerry Packer, Australian publisher and businessman (b. 1937)
* 2005 – Viacheslav Platonov, Russian volleyball player and coach (b. 1939)
* 2005 – Vincent Schiavelli, American actor (b. 1948)
* 2005 – Erich Topp, German commander (b. 1914)
*2006 – Gerald Ford, American commander, lawyer, and politician, 38th President of the United States (b. 1913)
* 2006 – Ivar Formo, Norwegian skier and engineer (b. 1951)
* 2006 – Munir Niazi, Pakistani poet (b. 1923)
*2009 – Felix Wurman, American cellist and composer (b. 1958)
*2010 – Salvador Jorge Blanco, 48th President of the Dominican Republic (b. 1926)
* 2010 – Edward Bhengu, South African activist (b. 1934)
* 2010 – Teena Marie, American singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1956)
*2011 – Houston Antwine, American football player (b. 1939)
* 2011 – Pedro Armendáriz, Jr., Mexican-American actor and producer (b. 1940)
* 2011 – Sarekoppa Bangarappa, Indian politician, 15th Chief Minister of Karnataka (b. 1932)
* 2011 – Joe Bodolai, American screenwriter and producer (b. 1948)
* 2011 – James Rizzi, American painter and illustrator (b. 1950)
*2012 – Gerry Anderson, English director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1929)
* 2012 – Gerald McDermott, American author and illustrator (b. 1941)
* 2012 – Ibrahim Tannous, Lebanese general (b. 1929)
*2013 – Paul Blair, American baseball player and coach (b. 1944)
* 2013 – Marta Eggerth, Hungarian-American actress and singer (b. 1912)
*2014 – Stanisław Barańczak, Polish-American poet, critic, and scholar (b. 1946)
* 2014 – James B. Edwards, American dentist, soldier, and politician, 3rd United States Secretary of Energy (b. 1927)
* 2014 – Leo Tindemans, Belgian politician, 43rd Prime Minister of Belgium (b. 1922)
*2015 – Sidney Mintz, American anthropologist and academic (b. 1922)
* 2015 – Jim O'Toole, American baseball player (b. 1937)
*2016 – Ricky Harris, American comedian, actor (b. 1962)
* 2016 – George S. Irving, American actor, singer and dancer (b. 1922)
*2017 – Irv Weinstein, American broadcaster and television news anchor (b. 1930)
*2020 – Brodie Lee, American Professional Wrestler (b. 1979)
*2021 – Giacomo Capuzzi, Italian Roman Catholic prelate, bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Lodi (b. 1929)
* 2021 – Paul B. Kidd, Australian author, journalist, and radio show host (b. 1945)
* 2021 – Karolos Papoulias, Greek politician, President of Greece from 2005 to 2015 (b. 1929)
* 2021 – Desmond Tutu, South African Anglican bishop, theologian and anti-apartheid and human rights activist (b. 1931)
* 2021 – Edward O. Wilson, American biologist (b. 1929)
*2023 – Lukas Enembe, Indonesian politician, Governor of Papua from 2013 to 2023 (b.1967)
* 2023 – Tom Smothers, American comedian, actor, and activist (b. 1937)
* 2024 – Richard Parsons, American business executive (b. 1948)
* 2024 – Manmohan Singh, Indian economist and politician, 13th Prime Minister of India (b. 1932)
<!-- Do not add your own name or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. -->
Holidays and observances
*Boxing Day, except when December 26 is a Sunday. If it is a Sunday, Boxing Day is transferred to December 27 by Royal Proclamation. (Commonwealth of Nations), and its related observances:
**Day of Good Will (South Africa and Namibia)
**Family Day (Vanuatu)
**Thanksgiving (Solomon Islands)
*Christian feast day:
**Abadiu of Antinoe (Coptic Church)
**Earliest day on which Feast of the Holy Family can fall, celebrated on Sunday after Christmas or 30 if Christmas falls on a Sunday.
**James the Just (Eastern Orthodox Church)
**Saint Stephen (Western Church)
**Synaxis of the Theotokos (Eastern Orthodox Church)
**December 26 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*Independence and Unity Day (Slovenia)
*Mauro Hamza Day (Houston, Texas)
*Mummer's Day (Padstow, Cornwall)
*Saint Stephen's Day (public holiday in Alsace, Austria, Catalonia, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hong Kong, Italy, Ireland, Luxembourg, Poland, Slovakia and Switzerland), and its related observances:
**Father's Day (Bulgaria)
*The first day of Kwanzaa, celebrated until January 1 (United States)
*The first day of Junkanoo street parade, the second day is on the New Year's Day (The Bahamas)
*The second day of the Twelve Days of Christmas (Western Christianity)
**Second day of Christmas (Public holiday in the Netherlands, Poland and Slovakia)
*Wren Day (Ireland and the Isle of Man)
References
External links
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/26 BBC: On This Day]
*
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/december/26 Historical Events on December 26]
Category:Days of December
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_26
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2025-04-05T18:28:35.314849
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Definable real number
|
is equal to the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle with legs of length 1 and is therefore a constructible number]]
Informally, a definable real number is a real number that can be uniquely specified by its description. The description may be expressed as a construction or as a formula of a formal language. For example, the positive square root of 2, <math>\sqrt{2}</math>, can be defined as the unique positive solution to the equation <math>x^2 = 2</math>, and it can be constructed with a compass and straightedge.
Different choices of a formal language or its interpretation give rise to different notions of definability. Specific varieties of definable numbers include the constructible numbers of geometry, the algebraic numbers, and the computable numbers. Because formal languages can have only countably many formulas, every notion of definable numbers has at most countably many definable real numbers. However, by Cantor's diagonal argument, there are uncountably many real numbers, so almost every real number is undefinable.
Constructible numbers
One way of specifying a real number uses geometric techniques. A real number <math>r</math> is a constructible number if there is a method to construct a line segment of length <math>r</math> using a compass and straightedge, beginning with a fixed line segment of length 1.
Each positive integer, and each positive rational number, is constructible. The positive square root of 2 is constructible. However, the cube root of 2 is not constructible; this is related to the impossibility of doubling the cube.
Real algebraic numbers
colored by degree (red1, green2, blue3, yellow4)]]
A real number <math>r</math> is called a real algebraic number if there is a polynomial <math>p(x)</math>, with only integer coefficients, so that <math>r</math> is a root of <math>p</math>, that is, <math>p(r)=0</math>.
Each real algebraic number can be defined individually using the order relation on the reals. For example, if a polynomial <math>q(x)</math> has 5 real roots, the third one can be defined as the unique <math>r</math> such that <math>q(r)=0</math> and such that there are two distinct numbers less than <math>r</math> at which <math>q</math> is zero.
All rational numbers are constructible, and all constructible numbers are algebraic. There are numbers such as the cube root of 2 which are algebraic but not constructible.
The real algebraic numbers form a subfield of the real numbers. This means that 0 and 1 are algebraic numbers and, moreover, if <math>a</math> and <math>b</math> are algebraic numbers, then so are <math>a+b</math>, <math>a-b</math>, <math>ab</math> and, if <math>b</math> is nonzero, <math>a/b</math>.
The real algebraic numbers also have the property, which goes beyond being a subfield of the reals, that for each positive integer <math>n</math> and each real algebraic number <math>a</math>, all of the <math>n</math>th roots of <math>a</math> that are real numbers are also algebraic.
There are only countably many algebraic numbers, but there are uncountably many real numbers, so in the sense of cardinality most real numbers are not algebraic. This nonconstructive proof that not all real numbers are algebraic was first published by
Georg Cantor in his 1874 paper "On a Property of the Collection of All Real Algebraic Numbers".
Non-algebraic numbers are called transcendental numbers. The best known transcendental numbers are and .
Computable real numbers
A real number is a computable number if there is an algorithm that, given a natural number <math>n</math>, produces a decimal expansion for the number accurate to <math>n</math> decimal places. This notion was introduced by Alan Turing in 1936.
The computable numbers include the algebraic numbers along with many transcendental numbers including <math>\pi</math> Like the algebraic numbers, the computable numbers also form a subfield of the real numbers, and the positive computable numbers are closed under taking <math>n</math>th roots for each
Not all real numbers are computable. Specific examples of noncomputable real numbers include the limits of Specker sequences, and algorithmically random real numbers such as Chaitin's Ω numbers.
Definability in arithmetic
Another notion of definability comes from the formal theories of arithmetic, such as Peano arithmetic. The language of arithmetic has symbols for 0, 1, the successor operation, addition, and multiplication, intended to be interpreted in the usual way over the natural numbers. Because no variables of this language range over the real numbers, a different sort of definability is needed to refer to real numbers. A real number <math>a</math> is definable in the language of arithmetic (or arithmetical) if its Dedekind cut can be defined as a predicate in that language; that is, if there is a first-order formula <math>\varphi</math> in the language of arithmetic, with three free variables, such that
<math display=block>\forall m \, \forall n \, \forall p \left (\varphi(n,m,p)\iff\frac{(-1)^p\cdot n}{m+1}<a \right ).</math>
Here m, n, and p range over nonnegative integers.
The second-order language of arithmetic is the same as the first-order language, except that variables and quantifiers are allowed to range over sets of naturals. A real that is second-order definable in the language of arithmetic is called analytical.
Every computable real number is arithmetical, and the arithmetical numbers form a subfield of the reals, as do the analytical numbers. Every arithmetical number is analytical, but not every analytical number is arithmetical. Because there are only countably many analytical numbers, most real numbers are not analytical, and thus also not arithmetical.
Every computable number is arithmetical, but not every arithmetical number is computable. For example, the limit of a Specker sequence is an arithmetical number that is not computable.
The definitions of arithmetical and analytical reals can be stratified into the arithmetical hierarchy and analytical hierarchy. In general, a real is computable if and only if its Dedekind cut is at level <math>\Delta^0_1</math> of the arithmetical hierarchy, one of the lowest levels. Similarly, the reals with arithmetical Dedekind cuts form the lowest level of the analytical hierarchy.
Definability in models of ZFC
A real number <math>a</math> is first-order definable in the language of set theory, without parameters, if there is a formula <math>\varphi</math> in the language of set theory, with one free variable, such that <math>a</math> is the unique real number such that <math>\varphi(a)</math> holds. This notion cannot be expressed as a formula in the language of set theory.
All analytical numbers, and in particular all computable numbers, are definable in the language of set theory. Thus the real numbers definable in the language of set theory include all familiar real numbers such as 0, 1, <math>\pi</math>, <math>e</math>, et cetera, along with all algebraic numbers. Assuming that they form a set in the model, the real numbers definable in the language of set theory over a particular model of ZFC form a field.
Each set model <math>M</math> of ZFC set theory that contains uncountably many real numbers must contain real numbers that are not definable within <math>M</math> (without parameters). This follows from the fact that there are only countably many formulas, and so only countably many elements of <math>M</math> can be definable over <math>M</math>. Thus, if <math>M</math> has uncountably many real numbers, one can prove from "outside" <math>M</math> that not every real number of <math>M</math> is definable over <math>M</math>.
This argument becomes more problematic if it is applied to class models of ZFC, such as the von Neumann universe. The assertion "the real number <math>x</math> is definable over the class model <math>N</math>" cannot be expressed as a formula of ZFC. Similarly, the question of whether the von Neumann universe contains real numbers that it cannot define cannot be expressed as a sentence in the language of ZFC. Moreover, there are countable models of ZFC in which all real numbers, all sets of real numbers, functions on the reals, etc. are definable.
See also
* Berry's paradox
* Constructible universe
* Entscheidungsproblem
* Ordinal definable set
* Richard's paradox
* Tarski's undefinability theorem
References
Category:Set theory
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definable_real_number
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Diego de Almagro
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1475
|birth_place Malagón
or Almagro, Crown of Castile
|death_date = July 8,
|death_place = Cuzco, New Castile, Spanish Empire
|known_for = Exploration of the Kuna<br>Conquest of Peru<br>Discovery of Chile
|occupation = Conquistador
|nationality = Castilian
|father = Juan de Montenegro
|mother = Elvira Gutiérrez
|spouse = Ana Martínez<br>Mencia
|children = Diego de Almagro II (son)<br>Isabel de Almagro (daughter)
|battles =Conquest of Peru
*Battle of Cajamarca
*Battle of Vilcaconga
*Battle of Abancay
*Battle of Las Salinas
|footnotes
}}
Diego de Almagro (; – July 8, 1538), also known as El Adelantado and El Viejo, was a Spanish conquistador known for his exploits in western South America. He participated with Francisco Pizarro in the Spanish conquest of Peru. While subduing the Inca Empire he laid the foundation for Quito and Trujillo as Spanish cities in present-day Ecuador and Peru, respectively. From Peru, Almagro led the first Spanish military expedition to central Chile. Back in Peru, a longstanding conflict with Pizarro over the control of the former Inca capital of Cuzco erupted into a civil war between the two bands of conquistadores. In the battle of Las Salinas in 1538, Almagro was defeated by the Pizarro brothers and months later he was executed. Early years The origins of Diego de Almagro were humble. He was born in 1475 in the village of Almagro or in Malagón, in Ciudad Real, where he was given the name of the village for his surname as he was the illegitimate son of Juan de Montenegro and Elvira Gutiérrez. In order to preserve the honor of his mother, her relatives took the infant Diego to the nearby town of Bolaños de Calatrava, where he was raised by Sancha López del Peral, later moving to Aldea del Rey.
At the age of four he returned to Almagro, and was placed under the tutelage of an uncle named Hernán Gutiérrez. At age fifteen he ran away from home because of his uncle's harshness. He went to the home of his mother, who was now living with her new husband, to tell her what had happened and that he was going to travel the world, and asked for some bread. His mother, anguished, gave him a piece of bread and some coins and said: "Take, son, and do not give me more trouble, and go, and God help you in your adventure."
He went to Seville and after probably stealing to survive, Almagro became a criado or servant of Don Luis Gonzalez de Polanco, one of the four Alcaldes de la Casa y Corte de Su Majestad and later a Counselor of the Catholic Monarchs. While living in Seville, Almagro stabbed another servant in an argument, inflicting serious enough injuries that he was to be tried in court.
Don Luis, using his influence, prevailed upon Don Pedro Arias Dávila to allow Almagro to embark in one of the ships going to the New World from the port of Sanlucar de Barrameda. The Casa de Contratacion (royal agency for the Spanish Empire) required that the men who crossed the Atlantic provide their own weapons, clothes, and farming tools, which Don Polanco provided to his servant.
Arrival in America
Diego de Almagro, now in his late thirties, arrived in the New World on June 30, 1514, with the expedition that Ferdinand II of Aragon had sent under the leadership of Dávila. The expedition arrived at the city of Santa María la Antigua del Darién, Panama, where many other future conquistadors were already assembled, among them Francisco Pizarro.
There are not many details of Almagro's activities during this period, but it is known that he accompanied various sailors who departed from Darien between 1514 and 1515. He eventually returned and settled in Darien, where he was granted an encomienda, building a house and making a living from agriculture.
Almagro undertook his first independent conquest on November 1515, commanding 260 men as he founded Villa del Acla, named after the Indian place. Due to illness he had to hand over command to Gaspar de Espinosa.
Espinosa decided to undertake a new expedition, which departed in December 1515 with 200 men, including Almagro and Francisco Pizarro, who for the first time was designated as a captain. During this expedition, which lasted 14 months, Almagro, Pizarro and Hernando de Luque became close friends.
Also during this time Almagro established a friendship with Vasco Núñez de Balboa, who was in charge of Acla. Almagro wanted to have a ship built with the remaining materials of the Espinosa expedition, to be finished on the coast of the "Great South Sea", as the Pacific Ocean was first called by the Spanish. Current historians do not believe that Almagro was expected to participate in Balboa's expedition and probably returned to Darien.
Almagro took part in the various expeditions that took place in the Gulf of Panama, including those of Espinosa, which were supported by Balboa's ships. Almagro was recorded as a witness on the lists of natives whom Espinosa ordered to be carried. He remained as an early settler in the newly founded city of Panama, staying there for four years, managing his properties and those of Pizarro. He took Ana Martínez, an indigenous woman, as a common-law wife. In this period, his first son, El Mozo, was born to them. By some accounts it was Almagro's former black African slave Malgarida who was the mother of Diego de Almagro II. Conquest of Peru
By 1524 an association of conquest regarding South America was formalized among De Almagro, Pizarro and Luque. By the beginning of August 1524, they had received the requisite permission to discover and conquer lands further south. In the first expedition, De Almagro lost his eye to an arrow shot at the Battle of Punta Quemada. He subsequently remained in Panama to recruit men and gather supplies for the expeditions led by Pizarro. During Pizarro's continued exploration of Incan territory, he and his men succeeded in defeating the Inca army under Emperor Atahualpa during the Battle of Cajamarca in 1532. De Almagro joined Pizarro soon afterward, bringing more men and arms.
After Peru fell to the Spanish, both Pizarro and De Almagro initially worked together in the founding of new cities to consolidate their dominions. As such, Pizarro dispatched De Almagro to pursue Quizquiz, fleeing to the Inca Empire's northern city of Quito. Their fellow conquistador Sebastián de Belalcázar, who had gone forth without Pizarro's approval, had already reached Quito and witnessed the destruction of the city by Inca general Rumiñawi. The Inca warrior had ordered the city to be burned and its gold to be buried at an undisclosed location where the Spanish could never find it. The arrival of Pedro de Alvarado from Guatemala, in search of Inca gold further complicated the situation for Almagro and Belalcázar. Alvarado's presence, however, did not last long as he left South America in exchange for monetary compensation from Pizarro.Following the Inca Trail and crossing the Andes
Almagro left Cuzco on July 3, 1535, with his supporters and stopped at Moina until the 20th of that month. Meanwhile, Francisco Pizarro's brother, Juan Pizarro, had arrested Inca Manco Inca Yupanqui, further complicating De Almagro's plans as it heavily increased the dissatisfaction of the Indians submitted to Spanish rule. Not having formally been appointed governor of any territories in the Capitulation of Toledo in 1528, however, forcing him to declare himself adelantado (governor) of Nueva Toledo, or southern Peru and present-day Chile. Some sources suggest Almagro received such a requirement in 1534 by the Spanish king and was officially declared governor of New Toledo.
Once he left Moina, De Almagro followed the Inca trail followed by 750 Spaniards deciding to join him in quest for the gold lost in the ransom of Atahualpa, which had mainly benefited the Pizarro brothers and their supporters. After crossing the Bolivian mountain range and traveling past Lake Titicaca, Almagro arrived on the shores of the Desaguadero River and finally set up camp in Tupiza. From there, the expedition stopped at Chicoana and then turned to the southeast to cross the Andes mountains.
The expedition turned out to be a difficult and exhausting endeavor. The hardest phase was the crossing of the Andean cordilleras: the cold, hunger and tiredness meant the death of various Spanish and natives, but mainly slaves who were not accustomed to such rigorous climate.
During this time De Almagro fell ill, and Pizarro and his brothers grabbed the opportunity to defeat him and his followers. The Almagristas were defeated at Las Salinas in April 1538, with Orgóñez being killed on the field of battle. De Almagro fled to Cuzco, still in the hands of his loyal supporters, but found only temporary refuge; the forces of the Pizarro brothers entered the city without resistance. Once captured, Almagro was humiliated by Hernando Pizarro and his requests to appeal to the King were ignored.
When Diego de Almagro begged for his life, Hernando responded:<ref name=Prescott/>
<blockquote>"-he was surprised to see Almagro demean himself in a manner so unbecoming a brave cavalier, that his fate was no worse than had befallen many a soldier before him; and that, since God had given him the grace to be a Christian, he should employ his remaining moments in making up his account with Heaven!"</blockquote>
Almagro was condemned to death and executed by garrote in his dungeon, and then decapitated, on July 8, 1538. His corpse was taken to the public Plaza Mayor of Cuzco, where a herald proclaimed his crimes. Hernán Ponce de León took his body and buried him in the church of Our Lady of Mercy in Cuzco.<ref namePrescott/> El Mozo Diego de Almagro II (1520–1542), known as El Mozo (The Lad), son of Diego de Almagro I, whose mother was an Indian girl of Panama, became the foil of the conspirators who had put Pizarro to the sword. Pizarro was murdered on June 26, 1541; the conspirators promptly proclaimed the lad De Almagro Governor of Peru. From various causes, all of the conspirators either died or were killed except for one, who was executed after the lad Almagro gave an order. The lad De Almagro fought the desperate battle of Chupas on September 16, 1542, escaped to Cuzco, but was arrested, immediately condemned to death, and executed in the great square of the city. See also
*History of Cusco
*List of conquistadors in Colombia
*Spanish conquest of the Muisca
*Spanish conquest of the Kuna
*Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire
*History of Chile
*Pedro de Valdivia, Alonso de Ojeda
References
Further reading
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
* External links
* [http://www.historia.uchile.cl Documental sources and bibliographies for the study of the History of Chile] by the University of Chile
* [http://www.puc.cl/sw_educ/historia/conquista/parte3/html/h51.html The conquistadores], description of the profile of the conquistadors that arrived in America in search of honor and fortune in the name of the Spanish monarchy and the Roman Catholic Church
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060901033707/http://www.er.uqam.ca/nobel/r27020/id27.htm History of Chile] by José Del Pozo
Category:1470s births
Category:1538 deaths
Category:People from the Province of Ciudad Real
Category:Castilian-Manchegan conquistadors
Category:Spanish explorers of South America
Category:Spanish generals
Category:Spanish city founders
Category:People of colonial Peru
Category:Explorers of Chile
Category:Executed Spanish people
Category:People executed by Spain by decapitation
Category:16th-century executions by Spain
Category:Spanish people in the Viceroyalty of Peru
Category:16th-century Spanish military personnel
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Divinity
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}}
, Minerva, and Venus), by Isaac Oliver, ]]
Divinity or the divine are things that are either related to, devoted to, or proceeding from a deity. What is or is not divine may be loosely defined, as it is used by different belief systems. Under monotheism and polytheism this is clearly delineated. However, in pantheism and animism this becomes synonymous with concepts of sacredness and transcendence.
Etymology
The root of the word divinity is the Latin meaning of or belonging to a God (deus). The word entered English from Medieval Latin in the 14th century.Usages
Divinity as a quality has two distinct usages:
*Divine force or power – Powers or forces that are universal, or transcend human capacities
*Divinity applied to mortals – Qualities of individuals who are considered to have some special access or relationship to the divine.
Overlap occurs between these usages because deities or godly entities are often identical with or identified by the powers and forces that are credited to them—in many cases, a deity is merely a power or force personified—and these powers and forces may then be extended or granted to mortal individuals. For instance, Jehovah is closely associated with storms and thunder throughout much of the Old Testament. He is said to speak in thunder, and thunder is seen as a token of his anger. This power was then extended to prophets like Moses and Samuel, who caused thunderous storms to rain down on their enemies. Divinity always carries connotations of goodness, beauty, beneficence, justice, and other positive, pro-social attributes. In monotheistic faiths there is an equivalent cohort of malefic supernatural beings and powers, such as demons, devils, afreet, etc., which are not conventionally referred to as divine; demonic is often used instead. Polytheistic and animistic systems of belief make no such distinction; gods and other beings of transcendent power often have complex, ignoble, or even incomprehensible motivations for their acts. Note that while the terms demon and demonic are used in monotheistic faiths as antonyms to divine, they are in fact derived from the Greek word daimón (δαίμων), which itself translates as divinity.
Uses in religious discourse
There are three distinct usages of divinity and divine in religious discourse:
Entity
In monotheistic faiths, the word divinity is often used to refer to the singular God central to that faith. Often the word takes the definite article and is capitalized—"the Divinity"—as though it were a proper name or definitive honorific.
Divine—capitalized—may be used as an adjective to refer to the manifestations of such a Divinity or its powers: e.g. "basking in the Divine presence..."
The terms divinity and divine—uncapitalized, and lacking the definite article—are sometimes used to denote 'god(s) or certain other beings and entities which fall short of absolute Godhood but lie outside the human realm.
Divine force or power
As previously noted, divinities are closely related to the transcendent force(s) or power(s) credited to them, so much so that in some cases the powers or forces may themselves be invoked independently. This leads to the second usage of the word divine (and less common usage of divinity): to refer to the operation of transcendent power in the world.
In its most direct form, the operation of transcendent power implies some form of divine intervention. For monotheistic and polytheistic faiths this usually implies the direct action of one god or another on the course of human events. In Greek legend, for instance, it was Poseidon (god of the sea) who raised the storms that blew Odysseus's craft off course on his return journey, and Japanese tradition holds that a god-sent wind saved them from Mongol invasion. Prayers or propitiations are often offered to specific gods to garner favorable interventions in particular enterprises: e.g. safe journeys, success in war, or a season of bountiful crops. Many faiths around the world—from Japanese Shinto and Chinese traditional religion, to certain African practices and the faiths derived from those in the Caribbean, to Native American beliefs—hold that ancestral or household deities offer daily protection and blessings. In monotheistic religions, divine intervention may take very direct forms: miracles, visions, or intercessions by blessed figures.
Transcendent force or power may also operate through more subtle and indirect paths. Monotheistic faiths generally support some version of divine providence, which acknowledges that the divinity of the faith has a profound but unknowable plan always unfolding in the world. Unforeseeable, overwhelming, or seemingly unjust events are often thrown on 'the will of the Divine', in deferences like the Muslim inshallah ('as God wills it') and Christian 'God works in mysterious ways'. Often such faiths hold out the possibility of divine retribution as well, where the divinity will unexpectedly bring evil-doers to justice through the conventional workings of the world; from the subtle redressing of minor personal wrongs to such large-scale havoc as the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah or the biblical Great Flood. Other faiths are even more subtle: the doctrine of karma shared by Buddhism and Hinduism is a divine law similar to divine retribution but without the connotation of punishment: our acts, good or bad, intentional or unintentional, reflect back on us as part of the natural working of the universe. Philosophical Taoism also proposes a transcendent operant principle—transliterated in English as tao or dao, meaning 'the way'—which is neither an entity nor a being per se, but reflects the natural ongoing process of the world. Modern western mysticism and new age philosophy often use the term 'the Divine' as a noun in this latter sense: a non-specific principle or being that gives rise to the world, and acts as the source or wellspring of life. In these latter cases, the faiths do not promote deference, as happens in monotheisms; rather each suggests a path of action that will bring the practitioner into conformance with the divine law: ahimsa—'no harm'—for Buddhist and Hindu faiths; de or te—'virtuous action'—in Taoism; and any of numerous practices of peace and love in new age thinking.Mortal
In the third usage, extensions of divinity and divine power are credited to living, mortal individuals. Political leaders are known to have claimed actual divinity in certain early societies—the ancient Egyptian Pharaohs being the premier case—taking a role as objects of worship and being credited with superhuman status and powers. More commonly, and more pertinent to recent history, leaders merely claim some form of divine mandate, suggesting that their rule is in accordance with the will of God. The doctrine of the divine right of kings was introduced as late as the 17th century, proposing that kings rule by divine decree; Japanese Emperors ruled by divine mandate until the inception of the Japanese constitution after World War II.
Less politically, most faiths have any number of people that are believed to have been touched by divine forces: saints, prophets, heroes, oracles, martyrs, and enlightened beings, among others. Saint Francis of Assisi, in Catholicism, is said to have received instruction directly from God and it is believed that he grants plenary indulgence to all who confess their sins and visit his chapel on the appropriate day. In Greek mythology, Achilles' mother bathed him in the river Styx to give him immortality, and Hercules—as the son of Zeus—inherited near-godly powers. In religious Taoism, Laozi is venerated as a saint with his own powers. Various individuals in the Buddhist faith, beginning with Siddhartha, are considered to be enlightened, and in religious forms of Buddhism they are credited with divine powers. Christ in the Bible is said to be God's Son and is said to have performed divine miracles.
In general, mortals with divine qualities are carefully distinguished from the deity or deities in their religion's main pantheon. Even the Christian faith, which generally holds Christ to be identical to God, distinguishes between God the Father and Christ the begotten Son. There are, however, certain esoteric and mystical schools of thought, present in many faiths—Sufis in Islam, Gnostics in Christianity, Advaitan Hindus, Zen Buddhists, as well as several non-specific perspectives developed in new age philosophy—which hold that all humans are in essence divine, or unified with the Divine in a non-trivial way. Such divinity, in these faiths, would express itself naturally if it were not obscured by the social and physical worlds we live in; it needs to be brought to the fore through appropriate spiritual practices.
In religions
Christianity
In the New Testament the Greek word θεῖον (theion) in the Douay Version, is translated as "divinity". Examples are below:
*Acts 17:29
:"Being therefore the offspring of God, we must not suppose the divinity to be like unto gold, or silver, or stone, the graving of art, and device of man."
*Romans 1:20
:"For the invisible things of him, from the creation of the world, are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made; his eternal power also, and divinity: so that they are inexcusable."
*Revelation 5:12
:"Saying with a loud voice: The Lamb that was slain is worthy to receive power, and divinity, and wisdom, and strength, and honour, and glory, and benediction."
The word translated as either "deity", "Godhead", or "divinity" in the Greek New Testament is also the Greek word θεότητος (theotētos), and the one verse that contains it is this:
Colossians 2:9
:"Quia in ipso inhabitat omnis plenitudo divinitatis [divinity] corporaliter." (Vulgate)
:"For in him dwelleth all the fulness of the Godhead bodily." (KJV)
:"Because it is in him that all the fullness of the divine quality dwells bodily." (NWT)
:"For in him all the fullness of deity lives in bodily form." (NET)
:"For the full content of divine nature lives in Christ." (TEV)
The word "divine" in the New Testament is the Greek word θείας (theias), and is the adjective form of "divinity". Biblical examples from the King James Bible are below:
*2 Peter 1:3
:"According as his divine power hath given unto us all things that pertain unto life and godliness, through the knowledge of him that hath called us to glory and virtue."
*2 Peter 1:4
:"Whereby are given unto us exceeding great and precious promises: that by these ye might be partakers of the divine nature, having escaped the corruption that is in the world through lust."
Latter-day Saints
The most prominent conception of divine entities in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) is the Godhead, a divine council of three distinct beings: Elohim (the Father), Jehovah (the Son, or Jesus), and the Holy Spirit. Joseph Smith described a nontrinitarian Godhead, with God the Father and Jesus Christ each having individual physical bodies, and the Holy Spirit as a distinct personage with a spirit body. Smith also introduced the existence of a Heavenly Mother in the King Follett Discourse, but very little is acknowledged or known beyond her existence.
Mormons hold a belief in the divine potential of humanity; Smith taught a form of divinization where mortal men and women can become like god through salvation and exaltation. Lorenzo Snow succinctly summarized this using a couplet, which is often repeated within the LDS Church: "As man now is, God once was: As God now is, man may be."Wicca
Wiccan views of divinity are generally theistic, and revolve around a Goddess and a Horned God, thereby being generally dualistic. In traditional Wicca, as expressed in the writings of Gerald Gardner and Doreen Valiente, the emphasis is on the theme of divine gender polarity, and the God and Goddess are regarded as equal and opposite divine cosmic forces. In some newer forms of Wicca, such as feminist or Dianic Wicca, the Goddess is given primacy or even exclusivity. In some forms of traditional witchcraft that share a similar duotheistic theology, the Horned God is given precedence over the Goddess.
See also
*Apotheosis
*Christology
*Deity
*Divinization (Christian)
*Ho'oponopono (Morrnah section)
*List of deities
*Sacred
References
External links
*
Category:Conceptions of God
Category:Religious belief and doctrine
Category:Deities
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Depth of field
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showing the defocused effect of a shallow depth of field on a tilted page of text]]
The depth of field (DOF) is the distance between the nearest and the farthest objects that are in acceptably sharp focus in an image captured with a camera. See also the closely related depth of focus.
Factors affecting depth of field
. Decreasing the aperture size (4) reduces the size of the blur spots for points not in the focused plane, so that the blurring is imperceptible, and all points are within the .]]
For cameras that can only focus on one object distance at a time, depth of field is the distance between the nearest and the farthest objects that are in acceptably sharp focus in the image. "Acceptably sharp focus" is defined using a property called the "circle of confusion".
The depth of field can be determined by focal length, distance to subject (object to be imaged), the acceptable circle of confusion size, and aperture. Limitations of depth of field can sometimes be overcome with various techniques and equipment. The approximate depth of field can be given by:
<math display="block">
\text{DOF} \approx \frac{2u^2Nc}{f^2}
</math>
for a given maximum acceptable circle of confusion , focal length , f-number , and distance to subject .
As distance or the size of the acceptable circle of confusion increases, the depth of field increases; however, increasing the size of the aperture (i.e., reducing ) or increasing the focal length reduces the depth of field. Depth of field changes linearly with and circle of confusion, but changes in proportion to the square of the distance to the subject and inversely in proportion to the square of the focal length. As a result, photos taken at extremely close range (i.e., so small ) have a proportionally much smaller depth of field.
Rearranging the equation shows that it is the ratio between distance and focal length that affects ;
<math display="block">
\text{DOF} \approx 2Nc\left(\frac{u}{f}\right)^2=2Nc\left(1 - \frac{1}{M_T}\right)^2
</math>
Note that <math display"inline">M_T -\frac{f}{u - f}</math> is the transverse magnification which is the ratio of the lateral image size to the lateral subject size.
Image sensor size affects in counterintuitive ways. Because the circle of confusion is directly tied to the sensor size, decreasing the size of the sensor while holding focal length and aperture constant will the depth of field (by the crop factor). The resulting image however will have a different field of view. If the focal length is altered to maintain the field of view, while holding the , the change in focal length will counter the decrease of from the smaller sensor and the depth of field (also by the crop factor). However, if the focal length is altered to maintain the field of view, while holding the , the will remain constant. Effect of lens apertureFor a given subject framing and camera position, the is controlled by the lens aperture diameter, which is usually specified as the f-number (the ratio of lens focal length to aperture diameter). Reducing the aperture diameter (increasing the ) increases the because only the light travelling at shallower angles passes through the aperture so only cones of rays with shallower angles reach the image plane. In other words, the circles of confusion are reduced or increasing the .
For a given size of the subject's image in the focal plane, the same on any focal length lens will give the same depth of field. This is evident from the above equation by noting that the ratio is constant for constant image size. For example, if the focal length is doubled, the subject distance is also doubled to keep the subject image size the same. This observation contrasts with the common notion that "focal length is twice as important to defocus as f/stop", which applies to a constant subject distance, as opposed to constant image size.
Motion pictures make limited use of aperture control; to produce a consistent image quality from shot to shot, cinematographers usually choose a single aperture setting for interiors (e.g., scenes inside a building) and another for exteriors (e.g., scenes in an area outside a building), and adjust exposure through the use of camera filters or light levels. Aperture settings are adjusted more frequently in still photography, where variations in depth of field are used to produce a variety of special effects.
mm objective lens and full-frame DSLR camera. Focus point is on the first blocks column.
| image1 = Dof blocks f1_4.jpg
| caption1 Aperture . = 0.8cm
| image2 = Dof blocks f4_0.jpg
| caption2 Aperture . = 2.2cm
| image3 = Dof blocks f22.jpg
| caption3 Aperture . = 12.4cm
}}
Effect of circle of confusion
Precise focus is only possible at an exact distance from a lens; at that distance, a point object will produce a small spot image. Otherwise, a point object will produce a larger or blur spot image that is typically and approximately a circle. When this circular spot is sufficiently small, it is visually indistinguishable from a point, and appears to be in focus. The diameter of the largest circle that is indistinguishable from a point is known as the acceptable circle of confusion, or informally, simply as the circle of confusion.
The acceptable circle of confusion depends on how the final image will be used. The circle of confusion as 0.25 mm for an image viewed from 25 cm away is generally accepted.
For 35mm motion pictures, the image area on the film is roughly 22 mm by 16 mm. The limit of tolerable error was traditionally set at diameter, while for 16 mm film, where the size is about half as large, the tolerance is stricter, . More modern practice for 35 mm productions set the circle of confusion limit at .Camera movements
The term "camera movements" refers to swivel (swing and tilt, in modern terminology) and shift adjustments of the lens holder and the film holder. These features have been in use since the 1800s and are still in use today on view cameras, technical cameras, cameras with tilt/shift or perspective control lenses, etc. Swiveling the lens or sensor causes the plane of focus (POF) to swivel, and also causes the field of acceptable focus to swivel with the ; and depending on the criteria, to also change the shape of the field of acceptable focus. While calculations for of cameras with swivel set to zero have been discussed, formulated, and documented since before the 1940s, documenting calculations for cameras with non-zero swivel seem to have begun in 1990.
More so than in the case of the zero swivel camera, there are various methods to form criteria and set up calculations for when swivel is non-zero. There is a gradual reduction of clarity in objects as they move away from the , and at some virtual flat or curved surface the reduced clarity becomes unacceptable. Some photographers do calculations or use tables, some use markings on their equipment, some judge by previewing the image.
When the is rotated, the near and far limits of may be thought of as wedge-shaped, with the apex of the wedge nearest the camera; or they may be thought of as parallel to the .
Object-field calculation methods
Traditional depth-of-field formulas can be hard to use in practice. As an alternative, the same effective calculation can be done without regard to the focal length and . is derived from the focal length.}} Moritz von Rohr and later Merklinger observe that the effective absolute aperture diameter can be used for similar formula in certain circumstances.
Moreover, traditional depth-of-field formulas assume equal acceptable circles of confusion for near and far objects. Merklinger suggested that distant objects often need to be much sharper to be clearly recognizable, whereas closer objects, being larger on the film, do not need to be so sharp. The loss of detail in distant objects may be particularly noticeable with extreme enlargements. Achieving this additional sharpness in distant objects usually requires focusing beyond the hyperfocal distance, sometimes almost at infinity. For example, if photographing a cityscape with a traffic bollard in the foreground, this approach, termed the object field method by Merklinger, would recommend focusing very close to infinity, and stopping down to make the bollard sharp enough. With this approach, foreground objects cannot always be made perfectly sharp, but the loss of sharpness in near objects may be acceptable if recognizability of distant objects is paramount.
Other authors such as Ansel Adams have taken the opposite position, maintaining that slight unsharpness in foreground objects is usually more disturbing than slight unsharpness in distant parts of a scene.Overcoming DOF limitations
Some methods and equipment allow altering the apparent , and some even allow the to be determined after the image is made. These are based or supported by computational imaging processes. For example, focus stacking combines multiple images focused on different planes, resulting in an image with a greater (or less, if so desired) apparent depth of field than any of the individual source images. Similarly, in order to reconstruct the 3-dimensional shape of an object, a depth map can be generated from multiple photographs with different depths of field. Xiong and Shafer concluded, in part, "...the improvements on precisions of focus ranging and defocus ranging can lead to efficient shape recovery methods."
Another approach is focus sweep. The focal plane is swept across the entire relevant range during a single exposure. This creates a blurred image, but with a convolution kernel that is nearly independent of object depth, so that the blur is almost entirely removed after computational deconvolution. This has the added benefit of dramatically reducing motion blur.
Light Scanning Photomacrography (LSP) is another technique used to overcome depth of field limitations in macro and micro photography. This method allows for high-magnification imaging with exceptional depth of field. LSP involves scanning a thin light plane across the subject that is mounted on a moving stage perpendicular to the light plane. This ensures the entire subject remains in sharp focus from the nearest to the farthest details, providing comprehensive depth of field in a single image. Initially developed in the 1960s and further refined in the 1980s and 1990s, LSP was particularly valuable in scientific and biomedical photography before digital focus stacking became prevalent.
Other technologies use a combination of lens design and post-processing: Wavefront coding is a method by which controlled aberrations are added to the optical system so that the focus and depth of field can be improved later in the process.
The lens design can be changed even more: in colour apodization the lens is modified such that each colour channel has a different lens aperture. For example, the red channel may be , green may be , whilst the blue channel may be . Therefore, the blue channel will have a greater depth of field than the other colours. The image processing identifies blurred regions in the red and green channels and in these regions copies the sharper edge data from the blue channel. The result is an image that combines the best features from the different .
At the extreme, a plenoptic camera captures 4D light field information about a scene, so the focus and depth of field can be altered after the photo is taken.
Diffraction and DOF
Diffraction causes images to lose sharpness at high (i.e., narrow aperture stop opening sizes), and hence limits the potential depth of field. (This effect is not considered in the above formula giving approximate values.) In general photography this is rarely an issue; because large typically require long exposure times to acquire acceptable image brightness, motion blur may cause greater loss of sharpness than the loss from diffraction. However, diffraction is a greater issue in close-up photography, and the overall image sharpness can be degraded as photographers are trying to maximize depth of field with very small apertures.
Hansma and Peterson have discussed determining the combined effects of defocus and diffraction using a root-square combination of the individual blur spots. Hansma's approach determines the that will give the maximum possible sharpness; Peterson's approach determines the minimum that will give the desired sharpness in the final image and yields a maximum depth of field for which the desired sharpness can be achieved., though such an expression obtains from simple algebraic manipulation of his Equation 3.}} In combination, the two methods can be regarded as giving a maximum and minimum for a given situation, with the photographer free to choose any value within the range, as conditions (e.g., potential motion blur) permit. Gibson gives a similar discussion, additionally considering blurring effects of camera lens aberrations, enlarging lens diffraction and aberrations, the negative emulsion, and the printing paper. Couzin gave a formula essentially the same as Hansma's for optimal , but did not discuss its derivation.
Hopkins, Stokseth, and Williams and Becklund have discussed the combined effects using the modulation transfer function.
DOF scales
Many lenses include scales that indicate the for a given focus distance and ; the 35 mm lens in the image is typical. That lens includes distance scales in feet and meters; when a marked distance is set opposite the large white index mark, the focus is set to that distance. The scale below the distance scales includes markings on either side of the index that correspond to . When the lens is set to a given , the extends between the distances that align with the markings.
Photographers can use the lens scales to work backwards from the desired depth of field to find the necessary focus distance and aperture. For the 35 mm lens shown, if it were desired for the to extend from 1 m to 2 m, focus would be set so that index mark was centered between the marks for those distances, and the aperture would be set to . extend between given near and far object distances is the harmonic mean of the object conjugates. Most helicoid-focused lenses are marked with image plane-to-subject distances, so the focus determined from the lens distance scale is not exactly the harmonic mean of the marked near and far distances.}}
On a view camera, the focus and can be obtained by measuring the depth of field and performing simple calculations. Some view cameras include calculators that indicate focus and without the need for any calculations by the photographer.
<gallery widths"200px" heights"200px">
File:DOF scale detail.png|Detail from a lens set to . The point half-way between the 1 m and 2 m marks, the limits at , represents the focus distance of approximately 1.33 m (the reciprocal of the mean of the reciprocals of 1 and 2 being 4/3).
File:TessinaDOF.jpg| scale on Tessina focusing dial
</gallery>
Hyperfocal distance
Near:far distribution
The beyond the subject is always greater than the in front of the subject. When the subject is at the hyperfocal distance or beyond, the far is infinite, so the ratio is 1:∞; as the subject distance decreases, near:far ratio increases, approaching unity at high magnification. For large apertures at typical portrait distances, the ratio is still close to 1:1.
DOF formulae
This section covers some additional formula for evaluating depth of field; however they are all subject to significant simplifying assumptions: for example, they assume the paraxial approximation of Gaussian optics. They are suitable for practical photography, lens designers would use significantly more complex ones.
Focus and f-number from DOF limits
For given near and far limits }} and }}, the required f-number is smallest when focus is set to
<math display"block">s \frac{2 D_{\mathrm N} D_{\mathrm F}}{D_{\mathrm N} + D_{\mathrm F}},</math>
the harmonic mean of the near and far distances. In practice, this is equivalent to the arithmetic mean for shallow depths of field. Sometimes, view camera users refer to the difference − v}} as the focus spread.Foreground and background blur
If a subject is at distance and the foreground or background is at distance , let the distance between the subject and the foreground or background be indicated by
<math display"block">x_{\mathrm d} |D - s|.</math>
The blur disk diameter of a detail at distance }} from the subject can be expressed as a function of the subject magnification }}, focal length , f-number , or alternatively the aperture , according to
<math display"block">b \frac{fm_\mathrm s}{N} \frac{x_\mathrm{d}}{s \pm x_\mathrm{d}} = dm_\mathrm{s} \frac{x_\mathrm{d}}{D}.</math>
The minus sign applies to a foreground object, and the plus sign applies to a background object.
The blur increases with the distance from the subject; when is less than the circle of confusion, the detail is within the depth of field.
See also
* Angle of view
* Bokeh
* Camera angle
* Depth of focus
* Depth-of-field adapter
* Frazier lens (very deep depth of field)
* Light-field camera
* Miniature faking
* Numerical aperture
* Perspective distortion
Explanatory notes
References
Citations
General and cited references
*
* Available in PDF [https://sites.google.com/site/cinetechinfo/atts/dof_82.pdf online].
*
* "Available as GIF images on the [https://web.archive.org/web/20070101000000*/http://www.largeformatphotography.info/ Large Format page]"<!-- Not found in the archived version -->.
*
*
*
* Version 1.03e available in [http://www.trenholm.org/hmmerk/TIAOOFe.pdf PDF] at http://www.trenholm.org/hmmerk/ .
* Version 1.6.1 available in [http://www.trenholm.org/hmmerk/FVC161.pdf PDF] at http://www.trenholm.org/hmmerk/.
* Available as GIF images on the [http://www.largeformatphotography.info/ Large Format page].
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
* Reprinted 2002, Bellingham, WA: SPIE Press, .
*
Further reading
* External links
* [https://www.naturettl.com/depth-of-field/ Depth of Field in Photography—Beginner's Guide]
* [http://www.dofmaster.com/dofjs.html Online Depth of Field Calculator] Simple depth of field and hyperfocal distance calculator
* [http://www.photoskop.com/player.html?lall&ch3&sec=0 photoskop: Interactive Photography Lessons]—Interactive depth of field
* [http://dofsimulator.net/en/ Bokeh simulator and depth of field calculator]—Interactive depth of field calculator with background blur simulation feature
* [http://mhmyers.com/1.4dg.html Lens Comparison: Nikon 50mm f/1.4D vs. 50mm f/1.4G]—Demonstration of varying apertures on depth of field
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s0d-r_1NgfE Depth of Field for Beginners]—A quick explainer video for DOF
Category:Geometrical optics
Category:Photographic techniques
Category:Science of photography
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_field
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Dumnonii
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The Dumnonii or Dumnones were a British tribe who inhabited Dumnonia, the area now known as Cornwall and Devon (and some areas of present-day Dorset and Somerset) in the further parts of the South West peninsula of Britain, from at least the Iron Age up to the early Saxon period. They were bordered to the east by the Durotriges tribe.
Etymology
William Camden, in his 1607 edition of Britannia, describes Cornwall and Devon as being two parts of the same 'country' which:
Camden had learnt some Welsh during the course of his studies and it would appear that he is the origin of the interpretation of Dumnonii as "deep valley dwellers" from his understanding of the Welsh of his time. The modern Welsh term is Dyfnaint. John Rhŷs later theorized that the tribal name was derived from the name of a goddess, Domnu, probably meaning "the goddess of the deep". The proto-Celtic root *dubno- or *dumno- meaning "the deep" or "the earth" (or alternatively meaning "dark" or "gloomy") appears in personal names such as Dumnorix and Dubnovellaunus. Another group with a similar name but with no known links were the Fir Domnann of Connacht.
The Roman name of the town of Exeter, Isca Dumnoniorum ("Isca of the Dumnonii"), contains the root *iska- "water" for "Water of the Dumnonii". The Latin name suggests that the city was already an oppidum, or walled town, on the banks on the River Exe before the foundation of the Roman city, in about AD 50. The Dumnonii gave their name to the English county of Devon, and their name is represented in Britain's two extant Brythonic languages as Dewnens in Cornish and Dyfnaint in Welsh. Amédée Thierry (Histoire des Gaulois, 1828), one of the inventors of the historic race of Gauls, could confidently equate them with the Cornish ("les Cornouailles").
Victorian historians often referred to the tribe as the Damnonii, which is also the name of another people from lowland Scotland, although there are no known links between the two populations.
Language
The people of Dumnonia spoke a Southwestern Brythonic dialect of Celtic similar to the forerunner of more recent Cornish and Breton. Irish immigrants, the Déisi, are evidenced by the Ogham-inscribed stones they have left behind, confirmed and supplemented by toponymical studies. The stones are sometimes inscribed in Latin, sometimes in both scripts.
In the sub-Roman period a Brythonic kingdom called Dumnonia emerged, covering the entire peninsula, although it is believed by some to have effectively been a collection of sub-kingdoms.
A kingdom of Domnonée (and of Cornouaille alongside) was established in the province of Armorica directly across the English Channel, and has apparent links with the British population, suggesting an ancient connection of peoples along the western Atlantic seaboard which is also borne out by the modern genetics of Devonian and Cornish populations.
Settlements
Isca Dumnoniorum
The Latin name for Exeter is Isca Dumnoniorum ("Water of the Dumnonii"). This oppidum (a Latin term meaning an important town) on the banks of River Exe certainly existed prior to the foundation of the Roman city in about AD 50. Isca is derived from the Brythonic word for flowing water, which was given to the River Exe. The Gaelic term for water is uisce/uisge. This is reflected in the Welsh name for Exeter: Caerwysg meaning "fortified settlement on the river Uisc".
Isca Dumnoniorum originated with a settlement that developed around the Roman fortress of the Legio II Augusta and is one of the four poleis (cities) attributed to the tribe by Ptolemy. It is also listed in two routes of the late 2nd century Antonine Itinerary.
A legionary bath-house was built inside the fortress sometime between 55 and 60 and underwent renovation shortly afterwards (c. 60-65) but by c. 68 (perhaps even 66) the legion had transferred to a newer fortress at Gloucester. This saw the dismantling of the Isca fortress, and the site was then abandoned. Around AD 75, work on the civitas forum and basilica had commenced on the site of the former principia and by the late 2nd century the civitas walls had been completed. They were 3 metres thick and 6 metres high and enclosed exactly the same area as the earlier fortress. However, by the late 4th century the civitas was in decline.
Further reading
*Ptolemy. [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Periods/Roman/_Texts/Ptolemy/2/2*.html Geography]
*Piguet, Marie-France. [https://web.archive.org/web/20041104211523/http://lhomme.revues.org/document.html?id=6 "Observation et histoire: Race chez Amédée Thierry et William F. Edwards"] in ''L'Homme 153 (in French)
*Thierry, Amédée. [http://perso.wanadoo.fr/fdomi.fournier/H%20antique/Gaule/H_Gaulois/HG_302.htm L'Histoire des Gaulois pt iii, chapter II] (in French)
*Wacher, John. The Towns of Roman Britain, II ed. BCA, London, 1995, p. 335-343; fig. 151
*Webster, Graham. The Roman Invasion of Britain. London, 1993, p. 159.
*[http://www.ucl.ac.uk/archaeology/cisp/database/stone/biscv_1.html Celtic Inscribed Stones Project (CISP) online database]
*Bede. Ecclesiastical History of England: [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/bede-book1.html Book I], [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/bede-book2.html Book II], [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/bede-book3.html Book III], [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/bede-book4.html Book IV], [https://web.archive.org/web/20140814160844/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/bede-book5.html Book V]
Annales Cambriae
*Phillimore, Egerton, ed., "The Annales Cambriae and Old Welsh Genealogies from Harleian MS. 3859", Y Cymmrodor; 9 (1888) pp. 141–183.
*Remfry, P. M., Annales Cambriae: a Translation of Harleian 3859; PRO E.164/1; Cottonian Domitian, A 1; Exeter Cathedral Library MS. 3514 and MS Exchequer DB Neath, PRO E ()
*Williams (ab Ithel), John, ed. (1860), Annales Cambriae (4441288)'', London: Longman, Green, Longman, and Roberts.
External links
*http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/G100002/index.html
*Biographies of monarchs & other royalty from those little known kingdoms that existed in Britain during the Age of King Arthur at-
*https://web.archive.org/web/20090812235920/http://www.trevithick-society.org.uk/industry/cornish_history.htm
*[http://www.roman-britain.co.uk/tribes/dumnonii/ Dumnonii] at [http://www.roman-britain.co.uk/ Roman-Britain.co.uk]
Category:Celtic Britons
Category:West Country
Category:Dumnonia
Category:Historical Celtic peoples
de:Dumnonia
ru:Думнония
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dumnonii
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Declaration of independence
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A declaration of independence is an assertion by a polity in a defined territory that it is independent and constitutes a state. Such places are usually declared from part or all of the territory of another state or failed state, or are breakaway territories from within the larger state. In 2010, the UN's International Court of Justice ruled in an advisory opinion in Kosovo that "International law contains no prohibition on declarations of independence", though the state from which the territory wishes to secede may regard the declaration as rebellion, which may lead to a war of independence or a constitutional settlement to resolve the crisis.
List of declarations of independence
<!-- Some current states have no first recognition. -->
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!State
!width=220pt|Declaration
!Date
! width="150pt" |Association
!class"unsortable" width220pt|Signatories!!First recognizing state(s)
|-
| Albania ||Albanian Declaration of Independence
|||||Assembly of Vlorë||
|-
|||Declaration of Independence of Armenia
|||||Armenian National Congress (1917), Armenian Revolutionary Federation||
|-
|
|Declaration of State Sovereignty of Armenia
|
|
|Levon Ter-Petrosyan and Supreme Council of Armenia secretary Ara Sahakian
|
|-
|
|Proclamation of the Nagorno Karabakh Republic
|
|
|Nagorno-Karabakh Regional and Shahumyan District Councils of People's Deputies of the Azerbaijan SSR
|
|-
|
|Azawadi Declaration of Independence
|
|
|National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad
|
|-
|
|Declaration of Independence of Azerbaijan
|
|
|Azerbaijani National Council||
|-
|
|Act on Restoration of State Independence of Azerbaijan
|
|
|Supreme Council of Azerbaijan
|
|-
|||Proclamation of Bangladeshi Independence
|
|
|Constituent Assembly of Bangladesh
|
|-
|
|Third Constituent Charter
|
|
|Rada of the Belarusian Democratic Republic
|
|-
|
|Announcement of the Declaration of Independence of the Soviet Socialist Republic of Byelorussia
|
|
|Communist Party (Bolsheviks) of Byelorussia, trade unions
|
|-
|
|Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic
|
|
|Supreme Soviet of the BSSR
|
|-
|||Belgian Declaration of Independence
| ||||Provisional Government of Belgium||
|-
|||Bosnian Declaration of Independence
| || || ||
|-
| Bougainville||Bougainville Declaration of Independence
| ||||Bougainville Interim Government||
|-
|||Declaration of the Independence of Brazil
| || ||Pedro I of Brazil||
|-
|||Bulgarian Declaration of Independence
| || ||Ferdinand of Bulgaria and the Government of Bulgaria||
|-
|||Burmese Declaration of Independence
| || || ||
|-
|||Declaration of the Catalan Republic as a state of the Iberian Federation
| || Spain||Francesc Macià, Generalitat Government of Catalonia||
|-
|||Declaration of the Catalan state within the Federal Republic of Spain
| || Spain||Lluís Companys, Generalitat Government of Catalonia||
|-
|||Declaration from the representatives of Catalonia as the Catalan Republic
| || || ||
|-
|<small>(present day</small> <br><small> <br> <br> <br> <br> </small>)
||Act of Independence of Central America
| || Spain|| ||
|-
|||Chilean Declaration of Independence
| || Spain||National Congress||
|-
|||Colombian Declaration of Independence
| || Spain|| ||
|-
| Comoros ||Comorian Declaration of Independence
| |||| ||
|-
|||Declaration of Independence of the Republic of Crimea
| ||||Supreme Council of Crimea||
|-
|||Declaration of the Establishment of the Sovereign and Independent Republic of Croatia
| || || ||
|-
|||Czechoslovak Declaration of Independence
| || ||Czechoslovak National Council||
|-
||||Dominican Declaration of Independence
| || Haiti || ||
|-
||||East Timorese declaration of independence
| |||| ||
|-
||||Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence
| ||||Unilateral grant of independence by the British government||
|-
|||Estonian Declaration of Independence
| ||<br />||Estonian Salvation Committee||
|-
|||Estonian Reconfirmation of Independence
| ||||Congress of Estonia|| (reconfirmed earlier recognition)
|-
||||Finnish Declaration of Independence
| ||||Parliament of Finland||
|-
|<br><small>(present day</small> <small></small>)||Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire<br><small>(real independence)</small>
| ||||Supreme Provisional Governmental Board||
|-
|| Florida||Florida's Constitution of 1861
| ||||Florida State Legislature||
|-
| Galicia||Declaration of the Republic of Galicia
| || Spain|| ||
|-
|||Georgian Declaration of Independence, 1918
| |||| Georgian National Council||
|-
||| Act of Restoration of State Independence of Georgia
| |||| Supreme Council of the Republic of Georgia||
|-
| Georgia, State of ||Georgia's secession declaration
| |||| ||
|-
| ||Greek Declaration of Independence
| || ||First National Assembly||
|-
|||Guinea-Bissau Declaration of Independence
| |||| ||
|-
|||Haitian Declaration of Independence
| ||||Jean-Jacques Dessalines|| France
|-
| Hungary||Hungarian Declaration of Independence
| || Habsburgs||||
|-
|||Icelandic Declaration of Independence
| |||| ||
|-
|||Declaration of the Independence of India
| |||| ||
|-
|||Proclamation of Indonesian Independence
| || ||Sukarno & Mohammad Hatta||
|-
|||Iraq Declaration of Independence
| |||| ||
|-
|||Proclamation of the Irish Republic
| ||||Provisional Government of the Irish Republic||
|-
| Irish Republic||Irish Declaration of Independence
| ||||Dáil Éireann||
|-
|||Israeli Declaration of Independence
| ||||Jewish People's Council||
|-
| Katanga||Katangan Declaration of Independence
| || Congo-Léopoldville|| ||
|-
|||Korean Declaration of Independence
| ||||Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea||
|-
|||Proclamation of the Republic of Kosova
| ||||Assembly of Kosovo||
|-
|||Kosovo declaration of independence
| ||<br /> Administration ||"Democratically elected leaders of our people"||
|-
|||Latvian Declaration of Independence
| ||<br />
|People's Council of Latvia||
|-
|||On the Restoration of Independence of the Republic of Latvia
| || ||Supreme Soviet of the Latvian SSR||
|-
|||Liberian Declaration of Independence
| || American Colonization Society||Liberian Constitutional Convention||
|-
|||Act of Independence of Lithuania
| ||<br />
|Council of Lithuania||
|-
|||Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania
| || ||Supreme Council of Lithuania||
|-
| Lower Canada||Declaration of Independence of Lower Canada
| ||||Robert Nelson||
|-
| Macedonia||Independence of the Republic of Macedonia
| || || ||
|-
|<br /> <small>(present day Malaysia)</small>||Federation of Malaya Independence Act 1957
| ||||Tunku Abdul Rahman, Prime Minister of Malaysia||
|-
| Mississippi||A Declaration of the Immediate Causes which Induce and Justify the Secession of the State of Mississippi from the Federal Union
| |||| ||
|-
|||Declaration of Independence of the Republic of Moldova
| || ||Parliament of the Republic of Moldova||
|-
|||Montenegro declaration of independence
| ||||Assembly of the Republic of Montenegro||
|-
| ||Moroccan Declaration of Independence
| || France||Istiqlal Party||
|-
|||Act of Abjuration
| ||||Union of Utrecht||
|-
| Northern America<br /> <small>(present day)</small> <small></small>||Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America
| ||||Congress of Anáhuac||
|-
|||Declaration of Independence of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus
| |||| ||
|-
| Northern Epirus||Northern Epirote Declaration of Independence
| || Albania||Provisional Government of Northern Epirus||
|-
| North Solomons||Declaration of Independence of the Republic of the North Solomons
| || Territory of Papua and New Guinea (Australia)||Unknown||
|-
| <br/>||Declaration of Independence of Norway , sovereign under the Swedish monarchy)}}, and the Constitution of Norway
| ||<br/>||Norwegian Constituent Assembly||
|-
|||National Liberation Day of Korea
| ||||Kim Il Sung||
|-
|||Padanian Declaration of Independence
| || Italy|| ||
|-
|||Lahore Resolution
| ||||Muslim League (Pakistan)||
|-
|||Palestinian Declaration of Independence
| || Palestinian territories
(claimed the West Bank until 1988)
|Palestinian National Council||
|-
| Peru||Act of the Declaration of Independence of Peru
| ||||José de San Martín||
|-
| Philippines||Philippine Declaration of Independence
| || Spain
|98 representatives of Dictatorial Government of the Philippines (ratified on September 29, 1898, by the Malolos Congress) ||
|-
| Provinces of the Río de la Plata<br /><small>(present-day <br><br> <br> )</small>||Argentine Declaration of Independence
| || Spain||Congress of Tucumán||
|-
|||Rhodesian Unilateral Declaration of Independence
| ||||Ian Smith and the rest of the Cabinet||
|-
|||Romanian Declaration of Independence
| ||||King Carol I||
|-
|||Belovezha Accords
| ||||Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR||
|-
|||Bir Lehlou Declaration
| ||||Polisario Front||
|-
|||Declaration of Arbroath
| ||||Scottish leaders||
|-
| Serbia||The Proclamation (Proglašenije/Проглашеније)
| ||||Karađorđe Petrović and Serbian MPs||
|-
|||Proclamation of Singapore
| ||||Lee Kuan Yew, Prime Minister of Singapore||
|-
|||Martin Declaration
| ||||Slovak National Council||
|-
|||Slovak National Council's Declaration of Independence of the Slovak Nation
| || ||Slovak National Council||
|-
|||Slovenian Declaration of Independence
| || || ||
|-
|||Somaliland Declaration of Independence
| || || ||
|-
|||National Liberation Day of Korea
| ||||Syngman Rhee||
|-
| South Carolina||Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union
| ||||South Carolinians in Charleston||
|-
|||Declaration of Independence of Sri Lanka (Then known as "Ceylon")
| |||| ||
|-
|||Texas Declaration of Independence
| || Mexico|| ||
|-
| Texas, State of||A Declaration of the Causes which Impel the State of Texas to Secede from the Federal Union
| ||||Texas Legislature||
|-
|||Tibet's Declaration of Independence
| || China||13th Dalai Lama||
|-
|||About Independence and Bases of a State System of Turkmenistan
| ||||none||
|-
|||IV Universal
| ||||Central Council of Ukraine||
|-
|||Declaration of Independence of Ukraine
| ||||Verkhovna Rada||<br />
|-
|||United States Declaration of Independence
| }}|||| Second Continental Congress||
|-
| United Tribes of New Zealand||Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand
| ||—||Māori chiefs||
|-
|||Declaration of Independence
| ||||Supreme Council of Uzbekistan||
|-
|||Venezuelan Declaration of Independence
| ||||National Congress||
|-
|||Vermont Declaration of Independence
| ||
British Quebec
|
|
|-
|||Proclamation of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam
| ||||Hồ Chí Minh||
|-
|Democratic Republic of the Yorubaland
|Declaration of Independence
| ||
|Modupe Onitiri-Abiola and Ominira Yoruba Group
|
|}
See also
* Independence referendum
* List of national independence days
* List of sovereign states by date of formation
* Political history of the world
* Separatism
* Unilateral declaration of independence
Explanatory notes
References
External links
*
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaration_of_independence
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8373
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Drag racing
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300px|thumb|The Christmas tree counting down at Saskatchewan International Raceway, outside Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. Note the blinder, to prevent the driver from being distracted by the lights from the other lane.
Drag racing is a type of motor racing in which automobiles or motorcycles compete, usually two at a time, to be first to cross a set finish line. The race follows a short, straight course from a standing start over a measured distance, most commonly , with a shorter, distance becoming increasingly popular, as it has become the standard for Top Fuel dragsters and Funny Cars, where some major bracket races and other sanctioning bodies have adopted it as the standard. The is also popular in some circles. Electronic timing and speed sensing systems have been used to record race results since the 1960s.
The history of automobiles and motorcycles being used for drag racing is nearly as long as the history of motorized vehicles themselves, and has taken the form of both illegal street racing and as a regulated motorsport.
thumb|upright=1.4|Top Fuel drag race between Don Prudhomme and Kenny Bernstein in 1991 in which Prudhomme's dragster caught fire
thumb|upright=1.4|Drag racing is a sport in which vehicles compete to see which can travel a specific distance the fastest from a standing start. To achieve high acceleration, drag racers have large tires, and the tires often "burn rubber" by friction with the pavement before the start, in order to heat and soften the tread surface of the tires. Tony Schumacher in 2006 race.
History
Drag racing started in the 1940s. World War II veterans were prominently involved, and some early drag races were done at decommissioned aircraft bases with landing strips that made them an ideal place for the sport. In 1951, Wally Parks formed the National Hot Rod Association (NHRA). The organization banned the use of nitromethane in 1957, calling it unsafe, in part through the efforts of C. J. Hart; the ban would be lifted in 1963.
Several other racing organizations were created over the past several decades, such as the Professional Drag Racers Association (PDRA) founded in 2014.
Thanks, in part, to the Discovery series Street Outlaws, fandom for drag racing has seen a resurgence in the past decade.
Basics of drag racing
thumb|A drag race wheelie
Starting
Push starts to get engines running were necessary until the National Hot Rod Association (NHRA) mandated self-starters in 1976. After burnouts, cars would be pushed back by crews; this persisted until NHRA required reversing systems in 1980. Each driver then backs up to and stages at the starting line.
Prerace preparations
Before each race (commonly known as a pass), each driver is allowed to perform a burnout, which heats the driving tires and lays rubber down at the beginning of the track, improving traction. The cars run through a "water box" (formerly a "bleach box", before bleach was replaced by flammable traction compound, which produced spectacular, and dangerous, flame burnouts; the hazard led NHRA to mandate use of water in the 1970s When the first light beam is broken by a vehicle's front tire(s), the vehicle is "pre-staged" (approximately from the starting line), and the pre-stage indicator on the tree is lit. When the second light beam is broken, the vehicle is "staged", and the stage indicator on the tree is lit. Vehicles may then leave the pre-stage beam, but must remain in the stage beam until the race starts.
Staging
Once one competitor is staged, their opponent has a set amount of time to stage or they will be instantly disqualified, indicated by a red light on the tree. Otherwise, once both drivers are staged, the system chooses a short delay at random (to prevent a driver being able to anticipate the start), then starts the race. The light sequence at this point varies slightly. For example, in NHRA Professional classes, three amber lights on the tree flash simultaneously, followed 0.4 seconds later by a green light (this is also known as a "pro tree"). In NHRA Sportsman classes, the amber lights illuminate in sequence from top to bottom, 0.5 seconds apart, followed 0.5 seconds later by the green light (this is also known as a "sportsman tree" or "full tree"). If a vehicle leaves the starting line before the green light illuminates, the red light for that lane illuminates instead, and the driver is disqualified (also known as red lighting). In a handicap start, the green light automatically lights up for the first driver, and the red light is only lit in the proper lane after both cars have launched if one driver leaves early, or if both drivers left early, the driver whose reaction time is worse (if one lane has a -.015 and the other lane has a -.022, the lane of the driver who committed a 0.022 is given the red light after both cars have left), as a red light infraction is only assessed to the driver with the worse infraction, if both drivers leave early. Even if both drivers leave early, the green light is automatically lit for the driver that left last, and they still may win the pass (as in the 2014 NHRA Auto Club Pro Stock final, Erica Enders-Stevens and Jason Line both committed red light infractions; only Line was assessed with a red light, as he was -.011 versus Enders-Stevens' -.002).
Measurements
Several measurements are taken for each race: reaction time, elapsed time, and speed. Reaction time is the period from the green light illuminating to the vehicle leaving the staging beams or breaking the guard beam. Elapsed time is the period from the vehicle leaving the starting line to crossing the finish line. Speed is measured through a speed trap covering the final to the finish line, indicating average speed of the vehicle in that distance.
Except where a breakout rule is in place, the winner is the first vehicle to cross the finish line, and therefore the driver with the lowest combined reaction time and elapsed time. Because these times are measured separately, a driver with a slower elapsed time can actually win if that driver's advantage in reaction time exceeds the elapsed time difference. In heads-up racing, this is known as a holeshot win. In categories where a breakout rule is in effect (for example, NHRA Junior Dragster, Super Comp, Super Gas, Super Stock, and Stock classes, as well as some dial-in classes), if a competitor is faster than his or her predetermined time (a "breakout"), that competitor loses. If both competitors are faster than their predetermined times, the competitor who breaks out by less time wins. Regardless, a red light foul is worse than a breakout, except in Junior Dragster where exceeding the absolute limit is a cause for disqualification.
Bracket system
Most race events use a traditional bracket system, where the losing car and driver are eliminated from the event while the winner advances to the next round, until a champion is crowned. Events can range from 16 to over 100 car brackets. Drivers are typically seeded by elapsed times in qualifying. In bracket racing without a breakout (such as NHRA Competition Eliminator), pairings are based on times compared to their index (faster than index for class is better). In bracket racing with a breakout (Stock, Super Stock, but also the NHRA's Super classes), the closest to the index is favorable.
A popular alternative to the standard eliminations format is the Chicago Style format (also called the Three Round format in Australia), named for the US 30 Dragstrip near Merrillville, Indiana where a midweek meet featured this format. All entered cars participate in one qualifying round, and then are paired for the elimination round. The two fastest times among winners from this round participate in the championship round. Depending on the organization, the next two fastest times may play for third, then fifth, and so forth, in consolation rounds. Currently, the National Drag Racing Championship in Australia uses the format for major categories.
Distances
The standard distance of a drag race is 1,320 feet, 402 m, or 1/4 mile (±0.2% FIA & NHRA rules). However, due to safety concerns, certain sanctioning bodies (notably the NHRA for its Top Fuel and Funny Car classes) have shortened races to 1,000 feet. Some drag strips are even shorter and run 660 feet, 201 m, or 1/8 mile. The 1,000 foot distance is now also popular with bracket racing, especially in meets where there are 1/8 mile cars and 1/4 mile cars racing together, and is used by the revived American Drag Racing League for its primary classes (not Jr Dragster). Some organizations that deal with Pro Modified and "Mountain Motor" Pro Stock cars (Professional Drag Racers Association) use the 1/8 mile distance, even if the tracks are 1/4 mile tracks.
thumb|An early example, a 1958 Fuel dragster (technically, a rail), on display at the California Automobile Museum
thumb|Funny Car with body up
Racing organizations
thumb|Chief Timer delivering timeslips to competitors after their passes
thumb|Blown altered doing a burnout at Interlake Dragways, Gimli, Manitoba
North America
The National Hot Rod Association (NHRA) oversees the majority of drag racing events in North America. The next largest organization is the International Hot Rod Association (IHRA). One of the major sanctioning bodies in drag racing.
The World Drag Racing Alliance (WDRA) WDRA is the first fully functioning sanctioning body created (one that actually sanctions facilities) since 1970.
Besides NHRA, IHRA, and WDRA, there are several other racing organizations were created over the past several decades. The Professional Drag Racers Association (PDRA), founded in 2014, races 1/8 mile with events throughout the US. The National Mustang Racers Association (NMRA), started in 1999, is considered the leader in Ford motorsports events. The National Muscle Car Association (NMCA), is the longest running major street-legal drag racing association. The NMCA provides competitive and organized national event competitions from grassroots drag racers all the way to the powerful and fast VP Racing Fuels Xtreme Pro Mod racers.
There are also niche organizations for muscle cars and nostalgia vehicles. The Nostalgia Drag Racing League (NDRL) based in Brownsburg, IN, runs a series of 1/4 mile (402 m) drag races in the Midwest for 1979 and older nostalgic appearing cars, with four classes of competition running in an index system. Pro 7.0 and Pro 7.50 run heads up 200 mile per hour (320 kilometre per hour) passes, while Pro Comp and Pro Gas run 8.0 to 10.0 indices. NDRL competition vehicles typically include Front Engine Dragsters, Altereds, Funny Cars, early Pro Stock clones, Super Stocks and Gassers.
The National Electric Drag Racing Association (NEDRA) races electric vehicles against high performance gasoline-powered vehicles such as Dodge Vipers or classic muscle cars in 1/4 and 1/8 mile (402 m & 201 m) races. The current electric drag racing record is 6.940 seconds at 201.37 mph (324.0736 km/h) for a quarter mile (402 m). Another niche organization is the VWDRC which run a VW-only championship with vehicles running under 7 seconds.
Prior to the founding of the NHRA and IHRA, smaller organizations sanctioned drag racing in the early years, which included the competing AHRA in the United States and Canada from 1955 to 2005.
Australia
The first Australian Nationals event was run in 1965 at Riverside raceway, near Melbourne. The Australian National Drag Racing Association (ANDRA) was established in 1973, and today they claim they are the "best in the world outside the United States". ANDRA sanctions races throughout Australia and throughout the year at all levels, from Junior Dragster to Top Fuel.
The ANDRA Drag Racing Series is for professional drivers and riders and includes Top Fuel, Top Alcohol, Top Doorslammer (similar to the USA Pro Modified class), Pro Stock (using 400 cubic inch engines (6.5 litres)), Top Bike and Pro Stock Motorcycle.
The Summit Sportsman Series is for ANDRA sportsman drivers and riders and includes Competition, Super Stock, Super Compact, Competition Bike, Supercharged Outlaws, Top Sportsman, Modified, Super Sedan, Modified Bike, Super Street and Junior Dragster.
In 2015, after a dispute with ANDRA, Sydney Dragway, Willowbank Raceway and the Perth Motorplex invited the International Hot Rod Association (IHRA) to sanction events at their tracks. Shortly thereafter the Perth Motorplex reverted to ANDRA sanction. Although greatly assisted by ANDRA prior
to its construction, Springmount Raceway opted for IHRA sanction. The 400 Thunder Series targets professional racers to its races. Intended to be the premier Drag racing series in Australia it has never been able
to run a truly National series and has been on a steady decline since its inception. Most recently Top Fuel Australia (the organization that represents the Top Fuel owners) recently extracted itself from the 400 Thunder series. ANDRA recently launched a new National series that will initially cater for Top Doorslammer and Top Fue Motorcycle. This series will provide a greater National coverage than the 400 Thunder Series did and will soon add other Professional categories.
In 2021 Heathcote Park Raceway in Victoria was sold to new ownership and has since been sanctioned by IHRA for small regional events.
Europe
Drag racing was imported to Europe by American NATO troops during the Cold War. Races were held in West Germany beginning in the 1960s at the airbases at Ramstein and Sembach and in the UK at various airstrips and racing circuits before the opening of Europe's first permanent drag strip at Santa Pod Raceway in 1966. In the 1990s some former russian and NVA airfields in former GDR were used for dragracing events.
The FIA organises a Europe-wide four wheeled championship for the Top Fuel, Top Methanol Dragster, Top Methanol Funny Car, Pro Modified and Pro Stock classes. FIM Europe organises a similar championship for bike classes. In addition, championships are run for sportsman classes in many countries throughout Europe by the various national motorsport governing bodies.
One of the greatest tournament is the yearly NitrolympiX on the Hockenheim racetrac.
New Zealand
Drag racing in New Zealand started in the 1960s. The New Zealand Hot Rod Association (NZHRA) sanctioned what is believed to have been the first drag meeting at an open cut coal mine at Kopuku, south of Auckland, sometime in 1966. In 1973, the first and only purpose built drag strip opened in Meremere by the Pukekohe Hot Rod Club. In April 1993 the governance of drag racing was separated from the NZHRA and the New Zealand Drag Racing Association (NZDRA) was formed. In 2014, New Zealand's second purpose built drag strip – Masterton Motorplex – opened.
The first New Zealand Drag Racing Nationals was held in the 1966/67 season at Kopuku, near Auckland.
There are now two governing bodies operating drag racing in New Zealand with the Florida-based International Hot Rod Association sanctioning both of New Zealands major tracks at Ruapuna (Pegasus Bay Drag Racing Association) in the South Island and Meremere Dragway Inc in the North Island which is now become the best drag strip in NZ. However, the official ASN of the sport, per FIA regulations, is the New Zealand Drag Racing Association.
South America
Many countries in South America are eighth-mile tracks.
Organized drag racing in Brazil is the responsibility of Club G3, a private organization. The events take place at Autódromo de Tocancipá.
Brazil
In Brazil, local cars like Volkswagen Gol, Chevrolet Opala and Chevrolet Chevette are the show makers for Brazilian dragstrips.
Caribbean
Curaçao
On the island of Curaçao, organization of drag racing events is handled by the Curaçao Autosport Foundation (FAC)
All racing events, including street legal competitions, happen at the Curaçao International Raceway.
Aruba
On the island of Aruba, all racing events, including street legal competitions, happen at Palomarga International Raceway.
Barbados
On the island of Barbados, organization of drag racing events is done by the Barbados Association of Dragsters and Drifters. Currently the drag racing is done at Bushy Park racing circuit over 1/8 mile, while "acceleration tests" of 1/4 mile are done at the Paragon military base.
Saint Lucia
On the Island of Saint Lucia, organization of drag racing events is done by no-one. All local groups are tie ups. Currently races are held at the US Old military base also known as the "Ca Ca Beff", "The Base" near the Hewanorra International Airport in Vieux Fort.
Dominican Republic
On Santo Domingo, organization of drag racing events is done by Autodromo Sunix and they happen at the Autodromo Sunix, close to the Airport SDQ.
South Asia
Organized drag racing is rapidly growing in India. The country's first drag race meet was organized by Autocar India in Mumbai in 2002. Since then there have been many drag racing events in India. The most popular event is Elite Octanes' Valley Run which is held at Ambey Valley air strip in Loanavla every year.
The biggest drag series event was organized by India Speed Week with three different locations around India. After the series two riders were chosen to represent the country 2017 initiative to bring 11 times world drag racing champion Rickey Gadson to India. The initiative was executed during the Valley Run 2017 event, which gave the participants a platform to perform at the highest level globally. Rickey Gadson, as an extension of the initiative invited two of the top performing drag racers to visit USA to train and get an opportunity to represent India at the World Finals of drag racing held on 16–18 November 2018 in Valdosta GA, USA. As a result, the two riders performed in their maiden event outside India. Also during the event, Amit Sharma, the fastest drag racer in Indian drag racing history, produced a time slip of 8.87 sec's – the fastest ever by any Indian.
Drag racing is also gaining popularity in Pakistan, with private organizations sponsoring such events. The Bahria Town housing project recently organized a drag racing event in Rawalpindi with the help of some of the country's best drivers.
Sri Lanka has seen an immense growth in drag racing due to legal meets held by the Ceylon Motor Sports Club, an FIA sanctioned body. In recent years, exotic cars and Japanese power houses have been taking part in these popular events.
Japan
Drag racing is widely performed in Japan as the racing sport.
South Africa
Drag racing is an established sport in South Africa, with a number of strips around the country including Tarlton International Raceway and ODI Raceway. Drag racing is controlled by Motorsport South Africa and all drivers are required to hold a valid Motorsport South Africa license. Drivers can compete in a number of categories including Top Eliminator, Senior Eliminator, Super Competition Eliminator, Competition Eliminator, Pro Street Bikes, Superbike Eliminator, Supersport Shootout (motorcycle), Street Modified, and Factory Stock.
Stick Shift. Reserved for vehicles with a manual transmission. The rising popularity of automatic transmissions in drag racing created the demand for these classes. Popular sanctioning bodies include United Manual Transmission Racers, Pro Stick Racing, Rocky Mountain Stick Shifters, and Ozark Mountain Super Shifters.
Super Comp/Quick Rod. The quickest of the heads-up Super classes (8.90 index) is composed primarily of dragsters. Most cars are capable of running well under the index but use electronic aids to run close to it without breaking out.
thumb|Super Gas Probe
Super Gas/Super Rod. Super Gas entries, which run on a 9.90 index, are primarily full-bodied cars and street roadsters. No dragsters or altereds are permitted. As in Super Comp, competitors use electronic aids to run as close to the class standard without going under.
Super Street/Hot Rod. Racers compete on a fixed 10.90 index. All vehicles must be full-bodied cars and weigh no less than 2,800 pounds except for six-cylinder cars (2,000) and four-cylinder and rotary-powered cars (1,200). Engine and chassis modifications are virtually unlimited.
thumb|Super Street Mustang
thumb|A typical Super Stock car
Super Stock. Super Stock vehicles resemble ordinary passenger cars, but are actually heavily modified. Entries are classified using factory shipping weight and horsepower and compete on indexes. The breakout rule is enforced.
Stock. Stock cars are similar to Super Stockers, but rules regarding everything from engine modifications to body alterations are much stricter. Virtually any car is eligible to compete, and entries are classified using factory shipping weight and horsepower.
Sport Compact
Top Sportsman (NHRA, IHRA, ANDRA). Competitors in these full-bodied entries may choose their own dial-in for eliminations, generally from 6.00 to 7.99 seconds. Full Tree starts are used, and the breakout rule is enforced. Cars can run in the sixes at more than .
thumb|Blown Top Dragster
Top Dragster (T/D) (NHRA, IHRA, ANDRA). Competitors in these open-wheel entries may choose their own dial-in for eliminations, generally from 6.00 to 7.70 seconds. Full tree starts are used, and the breakout rule is enforced. Cars can run in the sixes at more than . Cars can run any combination of motor: blown, turbo, nitrous or just all motor.
Top Fuel Funny Bike (high performance 5 second bikes)
Nostalgia Super Stock
NHRA and ANDRA Summit Racing series Super Pro, Pro, and bike.
Junior Dragster (racers between the ages of 8 and 18 may race a half scale version of the sport's fastest car, Top Fuel Dragster. Juniors run as follows: 12.90-slower for 8-9 year olds, 10-12 year olds at 8.90, and 13-18 year olds 7.90 and slower at a top speed of 85 mph). These cars race at 1/8 mile or 1/16 mile.
NHRA new class for Juniors is JR COMP running 6.90s at a top speed of (1/8 mile or 1/16 mile).
A complete listing of all classes can be found on the respective NHRA and IHRA official websites.
thumb|left|Dragster engine with dual-plug heads, dual ignition magnetos, and intake snorkel
The UEM also has a different structure of professional categories with Top Fuel Bike, Super Twin Top Fuel Bike, and Pro Stock Bike contested, leaving the entire European series with a total of 8 professional categories.
To allow different cars to compete against each other, some competitions are raced on a handicap basis, with faster cars delayed on the starting line enough to theoretically even things up with the slower car. This may be based on rule differences between the cars in stock, super stock, and modified classes, or on a competitor's chosen "dial-in" in bracket racing.
For a list of drag racing world records in each class, see Dragstrip#Quarter mile times.
Dial-in
A 'dial-in' is a time the driver estimates it will take their car to cross the finish line, and is generally displayed on one or more windows so the starter can adjust the starting lights on the tree accordingly. The slower car will then get a head start equal to the difference in the two dial-ins, so if both cars perform perfectly, they would cross the finish line dead even. If either car goes faster than its dial-in (called breaking out), it is disqualified regardless of who has the lower elapsed time; if both cars break out, the one who breaks out by the smallest amount wins. However, if a driver had jump-started (red light) or crossed a boundary line, both violations override any break out (except in some classes with an absolute break out rule such as Junior classes).
The effect of the bracket racing rules is to place a premium on consistency of performance of the driver and car rather than on raw speed, in that victory goes to the driver able to precisely predict elapsed time, whether it is fast or slow. This in turn makes victory much less dependent on budget, and more dependent on skill, making it popular with casual weekend racers.
thumb|Blazing Angel Jet Dragster
Historic cars
thumb|Smokin' White Owl, built by "Ollie" Morris in 1954
1954 - first slingshot, built by Mickey Thompson; Smokin' White Owl built by Ollie Morris, first purpose-built rear-engined dragster and first to use a Chevrolet V8 engine.
1962 - the Greer–Black–Prudhomme dragster, with the best win record in NHRA history. Ed Donovan introduces the 417 Donovan hemi, an aluminum copy of the Chrysler.
1974 - first tube chassis Pro Stock car, Bill Jenkins' 1972 Chevrolet Vega.
1979 - Vanishing Point, rocket-powered funny car built by Sammy Miller, set current standing world record for fastest quarter-mile time (3.58 seconds) in 1984.
Glossary
Back half – the second half of a track, e.g. from the 1/8 mile to mark to the 1,000 foot or 1/4 mile mark for a standard track
Beam – electronic device (e.g. an optical beam) at the starting line to detect a car's staging position
Big tire – Car with a set of rear tires taller than 28.5 inches tall and or wider than 12.5 inches of tread. Car may have modifications to the rear frame rails and suspension system to allow the large tires to fit under the car. Compare Small tire.
Bottle – nitrous system; also known as the jug.
Blanket – a ballistic cover, typically over the supercharged intake manifold assembly to contain shrapnel, in the case of an explosion.
Blow – see Blown.
Blower – supercharger (occasionally turbocharger); in '90s, generally grouped as "power adder" with turbocharger and nitrous
Blown – supercharged, when describing a functioning engine; wrecked, when describing an engine failure.
Blowover – flipping of a car, due to air under car lifting front wheels
Breakout – in bracket racing, running quicker than dial-in; also "breaking out".
Bulb(ed) – synonym for "redlight"
Bump – (also called on the bump or in the bubble) a driver is ranked by qualifying order if they are ranked 15 or 16 in most skill classes they are placed "on the bump" if the next driver improves and gets a better score that driver is eliminated and has to do another run to requalify. If they mess up on all qualification days, do not make it to elimination, or lose the first or second round that driver is eliminated and "placed on the trailer" and sent home.
Burnout – intentionally spinning and smoking the tires to build heat for better traction
Christmas tree (or "tree") – device at the starting line containing signal lights, used to start a race in addition to showing starting violations
DA – density altitude; a reference to qualities in the air.
Dial-in (bracket racing) – a car's pre-estimated ET for a pass, used for handicapping the start
Diaper – an absorbent containment blanket under the engine to prevent/reduce oil contact with the track, in the event of parts breakage
Dope (Southern U.S.) – nitrous or propane injection in a diesel engine
Doped – a car with a hidden nitrous system.
Digger – dragster (as distinct from a bodied car or flopper)
ET – Elapsed time. Time from a car leaving the starting line to crossing the finish line.
First or worst – if both drivers commit a foul, the driver who commits the foul first loses, unless it is two separate fouls, where the loser is the driver who committed the worse foul (lane violation is worse than foul start, and failure to participate in a post-run inspection is worst).
Flopper
commonly, Funny Car
any flip-top car Coined by dragster crews in the late 1960s to separate Funny Cars, which had fiberglass bodies with fenders, from dragsters.
Fuel – shorthand for "top fuel", a mix of methanol and nitromethane ("pop", nitro)
Fueler – any car running top fuel or in a top fuel class (most often, TFD or TF/FC)
Grenade – an engine destroyed (the engine "grenaded") due to internal failure. Distinct from "popping a blower".
Heads-up racing – a non-handicapped racing style where both drivers are started at the same time. Used in all professional ("pro") classes.
Holeshot – gaining an advantage by a faster reaction time at the start. The other driver gets "holeshotted" or "left at the tree".
Holeshot win – a race won by a driver with a slower elapsed time but a faster reaction time.
Hook[ed] up – good traction between tires and track resulting in increased acceleration and reduced slipping or smoking of tires.
James Bond – when a driver's reaction time is seven thousandths of a second after the green light (.007). A "James Bond Red" is a reaction time of -.007 seconds (red light), which is disqualification unless the opponent commits a more serious violation.
Kit – turbo or nitrous kit
Lit the tires – lost traction, causing burning rubber
Meth – methanol injection used in conjunction with gasoline (non-leaded pump) (Not to be confused with Methamphetamine)
Mill – any internal combustion engine used in a drag car, or hot rod
Nitro – nitromethane
Nitrous – nitrous oxide system; the gas used in such a system
No prep – a style of racing where the track has not been pre-treated to improve traction
Overdrive – ratio between the revolutions of the supercharger drive to the revolutions of the engine, controlling amount of boost; see underdrive
Oildown – when a car's engine or lubrication breaks during a run, leaving a streak of oil and other fluids on the track. This is punishable by fines, point penalties, and/or suspension.
Pedalfest – race won by pedalling; or poor track conditions that necessitate pedalling
Pedalling – working the throttle to maintain traction, or as a way to sandbag; "pedalled" it, had to "pedal" it
Pro tree – style of starting a race where the timing lights flash all three yellow lights simultaneously, and after four tenths of a second, turn green. Compare to "Standard tree".
Put on the trailer – lost (got "put on the trailer") or won (put the other driver on the trailer)
Quad - when a drag racing event features four cars in a single race, each race is called a Quad.
Quick 8 (Q8) – quickest eight cars in a defined race
Rail – dragster (as distinct from bodied car or flopper). From the exposed frame rails of early cars.
Redlight(ed) – jump(ed) the start, left before tree turned green. This is a loss unless the opponent commits a more serious foul (boundary lines or failed inspection).
Red Cherry – red light
Sandbagging – releasing the throttle or using the brakes at the end of the track during a bracket race after dialing a purposely slow time. Considered a dirty trick or tantamount to cheating in amateur classes.
Scattershield – metal sheet protecting driver in case of transmission failure
Slapper bar – traction bar
Slicks – rear tires with no tread pattern and softer rubber compound, for increased traction
Slingshot – early front-engined dragster, named for the driving position behind the rear wheels (erroneously attributed to launch speed).
Small Tire – Class of car where rear tires are shorter than or equal to 28.5 in and or equal 12.5 in of tread. This type of racing usually assumes that the rear frame rails and suspension are not radically modified.
Standard tree – style of starting a race where the timing lights flash in sequence five tenths of a second between each yellow light before turning green. Original starting method before introduction of pro tree.
Struck the tires – (also called hazing the tires, smoking the tires, or smoking out) loss of traction, causing them to smoke
Throw a belt – losing the drive belt connecting the engine's crankshaft to the supercharger
Top end – finish line of strip; high part of engine's rev band.
Traction bars – rear struts fixed to rear axle to keep rear axle from twisting, causing wheel hop and loss of traction; slapper bars.
Trap(s) – the speed trap near the finish line to measure speed & E.T.
Trap speed – the speed measured by the 60 foot speed trap near the finish line, indicating maximum speed reached in a run.
Tire shake – violent shaking of the car as the tires lose and regain traction in quick succession.
Wheelie bars – rear struts fixed to rear axle, which protrude out to rear of car to help prevent car's front from raising too high or flipping over on launch.
See also
Australian National Drag Racing Association (ANDRA)
Electric dragbike
Electric dragster
Fremont Dragstrip
Jet dragster
Land speed racing
National Hot Rod Association (NHRA)
Nostalgia drag racing
Rocket dragster
Santa Ana Drags
Drag boat racing
References
Robert C. Post. High Performance: The Culture and Technology of Drag Racing, 1950–2000. Johns Hopkins University Press, revised edition 2001.
External links
Australian National Drag Racing Association (ANDRA)
European Championship Drag Racing (FIA/UEM)
International Hot Rod Association (IHRA)
International Hot Rod Association (IHRA Australia)
International Hot Rod Association (IHRA New Zealand)
National Hot Rod Association (NHRA)
New Zealand Drag Racing Association (NZDRA)
No Prep Racing
Pro Racing Association – Championship Volkswagen Drag Racing
Drag Racing's Internet Magazine
Drag Racing Forum, Race Cars & Racing Events from around the world
EuroDragster – European Drag Racing News and Events
DragTimes – Database of Drag Racing Timeslips
Dragbike.com – Motorcycle Drag Racing News
Drag News Australia – Australian Drag Racing News
Race Pages
Category:Auto racing by type
Category:Motorcycle racing by type
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drag_racing
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Draugr
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The draugr or draug (; ; ; Danish and ; , drög)
In the Icelandic sagas, from which most modern interest is garnered, draugrs live in their graves or royal palaces, often guarding treasure buried in their burial mound. They are revenants, or animated corpses, rather than ghosts, which possess intangible spiritual bodies.
Etymology
The Old Norse word draugr (initially draugʀ, see ʀ), in the sense of the undead creature, is hypothetically traced to an unrecorded , meaning "delusion, illusion, mirage" etc, from a *dreuganą ("to mislead, deceive"), ultimately from a Proto-Indo European stem ("phantom"), from ~ ("deceive"). Cognates includes ("to deceive"), ("impostor, scoundrel"), ("to deceive"), ("delusion"), ("illusion, mirage, ghost"), ("deception, delusion, illusion"), ("deceit, deception"), ("delusion"), ("bad, evil"), ("bad, evil"), , ("bad, evil"), , drúh ("injury, harm, offence"), , drógha ("deceitful, untrue, misleading"), , drauga ("deceit, deception"), , draujana ("deceptive, deceitful, misleading"), ultimately from the same root as 'dream', from a Proto-Indo European * ("deceit, illusion").
, ("evil spirit, troll"), appears related, possibly via a unrecorded ("draugr"), but also effected by ("troll"), which at the time was different and more ambiguous than today and rather meant something akin to magical creature of ill will, even being used figuratively for draugr. Further, the Swedish form drög has also acquired the meaning of "nut" (idiot);
Terminology
Dictionaries
One of the earliest dictionaries for draugr, or rather its descendants, was Swedish linguist and priest Johan Ernst Rietz's (1815–1868) dialect dictionary of Swedish vernacular (1862–1867), which listed the Swedish descendants of as and (compare vs , vs ), including the archaic form in the province of Närke. He also included , and for comparison, giving the definition for both Swedish and Norwegian as:
Around the same time, although published a few years later, English philologist Richard Cleasby (1797–1847), and Icelandic scholar Guðbrandur Vigfússon (1827–1889), in "An Icelandic-English dictionary" (1873), defined (old form to ) as:
This decription was repeated almost word for word by Icelandic linguist Geir T. Zoëga (1857-1928), in his book "A concise dictionary of old Icelandic" (1910).
Norwegian journalist, author, and editor Johan Christian Johnsen (1815–1898), in his Norwegian dictionary (1881–1888), gave a different, more specific definition for than Rietz did in the 1860s, defining it as:
Written corpus In the written corpus, the draugr is regarded not so much as a ghost, but a corporeal undead creature, or revenant, since Old Norse poetry often used terms for trees to represent humans, especially in kennings, referencing the myth that the god Odin and his brothers created the first humans Ask and Embla from trees. There was thus a connection between the idea of a felled tree's trunk and that of a dead man's corpse. Haugbúi (mound-dweller) The haugbúi, meaning "mound-dweller" or "howe-dweller" (composite of , "mound", cognate to English "how, howe, height", and búi, "dweller", from búa, "reside"), the dead body living within its tomb, is a variation of the draugr. The notable difference between the two was that the haugbui cannot leave its grave site and only attacks those who trespass upon their territory.
A modern rendering is also barrow-wight, popularized by J. R. R. Tolkien in his novels, however, initially used for the draugr in Eiríkur Magnússon's and William Morris' 1869 translation of Grettis saga, long before Tolkien employed the term;
A more speculative case of vampirism is that of Glámr, who was asked to tend sheep for a haunted farmstead and was subsequently found dead with his neck and every bone in his body broken. It has been surmised by commentators that Glámr, by "contamination," was turned into an undead (draugr) by whatever being was haunting the farm. Physical traits Draugrs usually possessed superhuman strength, and were "generally hideous to look at", bearing a necrotic black or blue color, and were associated with a "reek of decay" or more precisely inhabited haunts that often issued foul stench.
Draugrs were said to be either hel-blár "death-blue" or nár-fölr "corpse-pale". Glámr when found dead was described as "blár sem Hel en digr sem naut (black as hell and bloated to the size of a bull)"., .}} Þórólfr Lame-foot, when lying dormant, looked "uncorrupted" and also "was black as death [ie, bruised black and blue] and swollen to the size of an ox". The close similarity of these descriptions have been noted.
Þráinn (Thrain), the berserker of Valland, "turned himself into a troll" in Hrómundar saga Gripssonar, was a fiend (dólgr) which was "black and huge.. roaring loudly and blowing fire", and possessed long scratching claws, and the claws stuck in the neck, prompting the hero Hrómundr to refer to the draugur as a sort of cat (). The possession of long claws features also in the case of another revenant, Ásviðr (Aswitus) who came to life in the night and attacked his foster-brother Ásmundr (Asmundus) with them, scratching his face and tearing one of his ears.
Draugrs often give off a morbid stench, not unlike the smell of a decaying body. The mound where Kárr the Old was entombed reeked horribly. In Harðar saga Hörðr Grímkelsson's two underlings die even before entering Sóti the Viking's mound, due to the "gust and stink ()" wafting out of it. , which initially meant something akin to "malevolent esoteric supernatural being" (demon, devil, ghost, jötunn etc), was by extension, specifically in compounds, also a word for the sorcery and dark arts of said beings;
Icelandic linguist Geir T. Zoëga (1857-1928), in his book "A concise dictionary of old Icelandic" (1910), defined Old Icelandic: as:
The Swedish Academy gives the following description for the word in Swedish:
Synonyms to and include: Old Icelandic: vs , and etc ("sorcery").
Shape-shifting
The undead Víga-Hrappr Sumarliðason of Laxdaela saga, unlike the typical guardian of a treasure hoard, does not stay put in his burial place but roams around his farmstead of Hrappstaðir, menacing the living. Víga-Hrappr's ghost, it has been suggested, was capable of transforming into the seal with human-like eyes which appeared before Þorsteinn svarti/surt (Thorsteinn the Black) sailing by ship, and was responsible for the sinking of the vessel to prevent the family from reaching Hrappstaðir. The ability to shape-shift has been ascribed to Icelandic ghosts generally, particularly into the shape of a seal.
A draugr in Icelandic folktales collected in the modern age can also change into a great flayed bull, a grey horse with a broken back but no ears or tail, and a cat that would sit upon a sleeper's chest and grow steadily heavier until their victim suffocated. Other magical abilities Draugrs have the ability to enter into the dreams of the living, This fire would form a barrier between the land of the living and that of the dead.
The undead Víga-Hrappr exhibited the ability to <!--"swim" through solid rock-->sink into the ground to escape from Óláfr Hǫskuldsson the Peacock.
Some draugrs are immune to weapons, and only a hero has the strength and courage to stand up to a formidable opponent. In legends, the hero often wrestled a draugr back to his grave to defeat them since weapons would do no good. A good example of this is found in Hrómundar saga Gripssonar. Iron could injure a draugr, as with many supernatural creatures, although it would not be sufficient to stop it. Sometimes, the hero must dispose of the body in unconventional ways. The preferred method is to cut off the draugr's head, burn the body, and dump the ashes in the sea—the emphasis being on making sure that the draugr was dead and gone. Behaviour and character Any mean, nasty, or greedy person can become a draugr. As Ármann Jakobsson notes, "most medieval Icelandic ghosts are evil or marginal people. If not dissatisfied or evil, they are unpopular".
Greed
The draugr's motivation was primarily envy and greed. Greed causes it to attack any would-be grave robbers viciously, but the draugr also expresses an innate envy of the living stemming from a longing for the things of life which it once had. They also exhibit an immense and nearly insatiable appetite, as shown in the encounter of Aran and Asmund, sword brothers who swore that, if one died, the other would sit vigil with him for three days inside the burial mound. When Aran died, Asmund brought his possessions into the barrow—banners, armor, hawk, hound, and horse—then set himself to wait the three days:
Bloodthirst
The draugr's victims were not limited to trespassers in its home. The roaming undead devastated livestock by running the animals to death either by riding them or pursuing them in some hideous, half-flayed form. Shepherds' duties kept them outdoors at night, and they were particular targets for the hunger and hatred of the undead:
Animals feeding near the grave of a draugr might be driven mad by the creature's influence. They may also die from being driven mad. Thorolf, for example, caused birds to drop dead when they flew over his bowl barrow.
Sitting posture and evil eye
The main indication that a deceased person will become a draugr is that the corpse is not horizontal. It is found standing upright (as with Víga-Hrappr), or in a sitting position (Þórólfr), indicating that the dead might return. Ármann Jakobsson suggests further that breaking the draugr's posture is a necessary or helpful step in destroying the draugr, but this is fraught with the risk of being inflicted with the evil eye, whether this is explicitly told in the case of Grettir who receives the curse from Glámr, or only implied in the case of Þórólfr, whose son warns the others to beware while they unbend Þórólfr's seated posture.
Annihilating
The draugr needing to be decapitated to hinder them from further hauntings is a common theme in the family sagas. The big toes were tied together or needles were driven through the soles of the feet to keep the dead from being able to walk. Tradition also held that the coffin should be lifted and lowered in three directions as it was carried from the house to confuse a possible draugr's sense of direction.
The most effective means of preventing the return of the dead was believed to be a corpse door, a special door through which the corpse was carried feet-first with people surrounding it so that the corpse couldn't see where it was going. The door was then bricked up to prevent a return. It is speculated that this belief began in Denmark and spread throughout the Norse culture, founded on the idea that the dead could only leave through the way they entered.
In the "Eyrbyggja saga," draugrs are driven off by holding a "door-doom." One by one, they are summoned to the door-doom, given judgment, and forced out of the home by this legal method. The home is then purified with holy water to ensure that they never come back.
Folklore
Icelandic sagas
One of the best-known revenants in the sagas is Glámr, who is defeated by the hero in Grettis saga. After Glámr dies on Christmas Eve, "people became aware that Glámr was not resting in peace. He wrought such havoc that some people fainted at the sight of him, while others went out of their minds". After a battle, Grettir eventually gets Glámr on his back. Just before Grettir kills him, Glámr curses Grettir because "Glámr was endowed with more evil force than most other ghosts", and thus he was able to speak and leave Grettir with his curse after his death. (Note that the saga does not actually use the term draugr for Glámr, per above.)
A somewhat ambivalent, alternative view of the draugr is presented by the example of Gunnar Hámundarson in Njáls saga: "It seemed as though the howe was agape, and that Gunnar had turned within the howe to look upwards at the moon. They thought that they saw four lights within the howe, but not a shadow to be seen. Then they saw that Gunnar was merry, with a joyful face."
In the Eyrbyggja saga, a shepherd is assaulted by a blue-black draugr. The shepherd's neck is broken during the ensuing scuffle. The shepherd rises the next night as a draugr.
In Norway, however, the term draugr instead became associated with ghosts (and thereof) of people lost at sea, sometimes specified as "sea draugr" (, sjødraug) relative to "land draugr". The sea draugr occurs in legends along the coast of Norway, either at sea or along the beach. In later folklore, it became common to limit the figure to a ghost of a dead fisherman who had drifted at sea and who was not buried in Christian soil. It was said that he wore a leather jacket or was dressed in oilskin, but had a bundle of seaweed for his head. He sailed in a half-boat with blocked sails (Bø Municipality in Norway has the half-boat in its coat of arms) and announced death for those who saw him or even wanted to pull them down. This trait is common in the northernmost part of Norway, where life and culture was based on fishing more than anywhere else. The reason for this may be that the fishermen often drowned in great numbers, and the stories of restless dead coming in from sea were more common in the north than any other region of the country.
A recorded legend from Trøndelag tells how a corpse lying on a beach became the object of a quarrel between the two types of draug (headless and seaweed-headed). A similar source even tells of a third type, the gleip, known to hitch themselves to sailors walking ashore and make them slip on the wet rocks.
But, though the draug usually presages death, there is an amusing account in Northern Norway of a northerner who managed to outwit him:
]]
The cultural link between draugrs and Christmas in Norway goes back to at least the early 1900s, probably much earlier. Sea draugrs and drowned people are mentioned as being part of the Wild Hunt in Norway, and the old Nordic Christmas tradition of leaving out food and beer on Christmas night, as to wellcome spirits of the deceased, household spirits and thereof into the house, includes draugrs in Norway; the beer left out being called "draug-beer" (, from the form drauv).
Arne Garborg describes land-draugs coming fresh from the graveyards, and the term draug is even used of vampires. The notion of draugrs who live in the mountains is present in the poetic works of Henrik Ibsen (Peer Gynt), and Aasmund Olavsson Vinje. Use in popular culture The exoplanet PSR B1257+12 A has been named "Draugr". Literature The Nynorsk translation of The Lord of the Rings used the term for both Nazgûl and the dead men of Dunharrow. Tolkien's barrow-wights bear obvious similarity to, and were inspired by the haugbúi. Video games
In video game series such as The Elder Scrolls, draugr are the undead mummified corpses of fallen warriors that inhabit the ancient burial sites of a Nordic-inspired race of man. They first appeared in the Bloodmoon expansion to The Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind, and would later go on to appear all throughout The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim.
Draugrs are a common enemy, the first encountered by the player, in the 2018 video game God of War, with a variety of different powers and abilities.
In 2019, a spaceship named Draugur was added to the game Eve Online, as the command destroyer of the Triglavian faction. Draugr appear as an enemies in the 2021 early access game Valheim, where they take the more recent, seaweed version of the Draug.
The Draugr is one of the Norse myth units of the New Gods Pack: Freyr DLC of 2024 video game Age of Mythology: Retold, associated to the god Ullr, fighting with bows and arrows.
Cinema
Season two episode two of the 2018 TV-series Hilda, entitled "The Draugen", involved draugen as the ghosts of sailors who died at sea. While their form was ghostly, the captain could wear a coat, and had a shock of seaweed for hair.
In the 2018 film Draug, a group of Viking warriors encounter the draugr while searching for a missing person inside a vast forest. The draugr are depicted as blue-black animated corpses wielding many magical abilities.
In the 2022 movie The Northman, Amleth enters a burial mound, in search of a magical sword named "Draugr". Amleth encounters an undead Mound Dweller inside the grave chamber, which he has to fight to obtain the blade.
The 2024 Icelandic horror film The Damned features a draugr tormenting the inhabitants of an isolated, winter, fishing post after they let the survivors of a shipwreck drown.
See also
* Gjenganger
* Norse funeral
* Selkolla
* Spriggan
* Wiedergänger
Explanatory notes
References
Citations
General and cited references
Primary sources
* |editor-lastBoer |editor-firstRichard Constant |editor-linkRichard Constant Boer |titleGrettis saga Ásmundarsonar |locationHalle an der Saale |publisherMax Niemeyer |year1900 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idT-UOAAAAQAAJ }}
* Kershaw, Nora |chapterThe Saga of Hromund Greipsson |titleStories and Ballads of the Far Past |publisherCambridge University Press |year1921|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idsAEzAQAAMAAJ&pgPA68 |pages=58–78}}
* |author1Eiríkur Magnússon |author1-linkEiríkur Magnússon |last2Morris |first2William |author2-linkWilliam Morris |author1-maskEiríkur Magnússon; |author2-maskMorris, William (trr.) |titleGrettis Saga. The Story of Grettir the Strong, translated from the Icelandic |locationLondon |publisherF. S. Ellis |year1869 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idGtdUAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA48 }}
* |last1Fox |first1Denton |author1-linkDenton Fox |author1-maskFox, Denton; |last2Pálsson|first2Hermann |author2-linkHermann Pálsson |author2-maskPálsson, Hermann (trr.) |titleGrettir's Saga |publisherUniversity of Toronto Press |year1974 }}
* |last1Pálsson |first1Hermann |author1-linkHermann Pálsson |author1-maskPálsson, Hermannn; |last2Edwards |first2Paul |author2-linkPaul Edwards (literary scholar)|author2-maskEdwards, Paul (trr.) |titleEyrbyggja Saga |locationEdinburgh |publisherSouthside Publishers |year1973 |isbn9780900025075 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id6gbXAAAAMAAJ }}
* |last1Magnusson |first1Magnus |author1-linkMagnus Magnusson |author1-maskFox, Denton; |last2Pálsson|first2Hermann |author2-linkHermann Pálsson |author2-maskPálsson, Hermann (trr.) |titleLaxdaela Saga |publisherPenguin |year1969 |isbn9780140442182 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=um91wPf9c7MC }}
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* |lastScudder |firstBernard |author-maskScudder, Bernard (tr.) |titleThe Saga of Grettir the Strong |publisherPenguin |year2005 |isbn9780141937922 |orig-year1997 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=0DrV1rWimgwC}}
Secondary sources
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Category:Creatures in Norse mythology
Category:Corporeal undead
Category:Circumpolar mythology
Category:Icelandic folklore
Category:Scandinavian folklore
Category:Scandinavian legendary creatures
Category:Undead
Category:Vampires
Category:Ghosts
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draugr
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Day
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A day is the time period of a full rotation of the Earth with respect to the Sun. On average, this is 24 hours (86,400 seconds). As a day passes at a given location it experiences morning, afternoon, evening, and night. This daily cycle drives circadian rhythms in many organisms, which are vital to many life processes.
A collection of sequential days is organized into calendars as dates, almost always into weeks, months and years. A solar calendar organizes dates based on the Sun's annual cycle, giving consistent start dates for the four seasons from year to year. A lunar calendar organizes dates based on the Moon's lunar phase.
In common usage, a day starts at midnight, written as 00:00 or 12:00 am in 24- or 12-hour clocks, respectively. Because the time of midnight varies between locations, time zones are set up to facilitate the use of a uniform standard time. Other conventions are sometimes used, for example the Jewish religious calendar counts days from sunset to sunset, so the Jewish Sabbath begins at sundown on Friday. In astronomy, a day begins at noon so that observations throughout a single night are recorded as happening on the same day.
In specific applications, the definition of a day is slightly modified, such as in the SI day (exactly 86,400 seconds) used for computers and standards keeping, local mean time accounting of the Earth's natural fluctuation of a solar day, and stellar day and sidereal day (using the celestial sphere) used for astronomy. In some countries outside of the tropics, daylight saving time is practiced, and each year there will be one 23-hour civil day and one 25-hour civil day. Due to slight variations in the rotation of the Earth, there are rare times when a leap second will get inserted at the end of a UTC day, and so while almost all days have a duration of 86,400 seconds, there are these exceptional cases of a day with 86,401 seconds (in the half-century spanning 1972 through 2022, there have been a total of 27 leap seconds that have been inserted, so roughly once every other year). It is a non-SI unit that is accepted for use with SI.
Etymology
The term comes from the Old English term dæġ (), with its cognates such as dagur in Icelandic, Tag in German, and dag in Norwegian, Danish, Swedish and Dutch – all stemming from a Proto-Germanic root *dagaz.
Definitions
Apparent and mean solar day
thumb|Earth's rotation imaged by Deep Space Climate Observatory, showing axis tilt
Several definitions of this universal human concept are used according to context, need, and convenience. Besides the day of 24 hours (86,400 seconds), the word day is used for several different spans of time based on the rotation of the Earth around its axis. An important one is the solar day, the time it takes for the Sun to return to its culmination point (its highest point in the sky). Due to an orbit's eccentricity, the Sun resides in one of the orbit's foci instead of the middle. Consequently, due to Kepler's second law, the planet travels at different speeds at various positions in its orbit, and thus a solar day is not the same length of time throughout the orbital year. Because the Earth moves along an eccentric orbit around the Sun while the Earth spins on an inclined axis, this period can be up to 7.9 seconds more than (or less than) 24 hours. In recent decades, the average length of a solar day on Earth has been about 86,400.002 seconds (24.000 000 6 hours). There are currently about 365.2421875 solar days in one mean tropical year.
Ancient custom has a new day starting at either the rising or setting of the Sun on the local horizon (Italian reckoning, for example, being 24 hours from sunset, old style). The exact moment of, and the interval between, two sunrises or sunsets depends on the geographical position (longitude and latitude, as well as altitude), and the time of year (as indicated by ancient hemispherical sundials).
A more constant day can be defined by the Sun passing through the local meridian, which happens at local noon (upper culmination) or midnight (lower culmination). The exact moment is dependent on the geographical longitude, and to a lesser extent on the time of the year. The length of such a day is nearly constant (24 hours ± 30 seconds). This is the time as indicated by modern sundials.
A further improvement defines a fictitious mean Sun that moves with constant speed along the celestial equator; the speed is the same as the average speed of the real Sun, but this removes the variation over a year as the Earth moves along its orbit around the Sun (due to both its velocity and its axial tilt).
In terms of Earth's rotation, the average day length is about 360.9856°. A day lasts for more than 360° of rotation because of the Earth's revolution around the Sun. With a full year being slightly more than 360 days, the Earth's daily orbit around the Sun is slightly less than 1°, so the day is slightly less than 361° of rotation.
Elsewhere in the Solar System or other parts of the universe, a day is a full rotation of other large astronomical objects with respect to its star.
Civil day
For civil purposes, a common clock time is typically defined for an entire region based on the local mean solar time at a central meridian. Such time zones began to be adopted about the middle of the 19th century when railroads with regularly occurring schedules came into use, with most major countries having adopted them by 1929. As of 2015, throughout the world, 40 such zones are now in use: the central zone, from which all others are defined as offsets, is known as UTC+00, which uses Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).
The most common convention starts the civil day at midnight: this is near the time of the lower culmination of the Sun on the central meridian of the time zone. Such a day may be called a calendar day.
A day is commonly divided into 24 hours, with each hour being made up of 60 minutes, and each minute composed of 60 seconds.
Sidereal day
thumb|Rotation of the dwarf planet Ceres
A sidereal day or stellar day is the span of time it takes for the Earth to make one entire rotation with respect to the celestial background or a distant star (assumed to be fixed). Measuring a day as such is used in astronomy. There are about 366.2422 stellar days in one mean tropical year (one stellar day more than the number of solar days).
Besides a stellar day on Earth, other bodies in the Solar System have day times, the durations of these being:
NameDaylength (hours)MercuryVenusEarth's Moon708.7Mars24.7Ceres9–9.1Jupiter9.9Saturn10.7Uranus17.2Neptune16.1Pluto153.3
In the International System of Units
In the International System of Units (SI), a day not an official unit, but is accepted for use with SI. A day, with symbol d, is defined using SI units as 86,400 seconds; the second is the base unit of time in SI units. In 1967–68, during the 13th CGPM (Resolution 1), the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) redefined a second as "the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom". This makes the SI-based day last exactly 794,243,384,928,000 of those periods.
In decimal and metric time
thumb|Decimal clock face, made in around the start of the 19th century
Various decimal or metric time proposals have been made, but do not redefine the day, and use the day or sidereal day as a base unit. Metric time uses metric prefixes to keep time. It uses the day as the base unit, and smaller units being fractions of a day: a metric hour (deci) is of a day; a metric minute (milli) is of a day; etc. Similarly, in decimal time, the length of a day is static to normal time. A day is also split into 10 hours, and 10 days comprise a décade – the equivalent of a week. 3 décades make a month. Various decimal time proposals which do not redefine the day: Henri de Sarrauton's proposal kept days, and subdivided hours into 100 minutes; or more colloquially the term . In other languages, is also often used. Other languages also have a separate word for a full day.
Part of a date: the day of the year (doy) in ordinal dates, day of the month (dom) in calendar dates or day of the week (dow) in week dates.
Time regularly spend at paid work on a single work day, cf. man-day and workweek.
Daytime
The period of light when the Sun is above the local horizon (that is, the time period from sunrise to sunset)
The time period from 06:00–18:00 (6:00 am – 6:00 pm) or 21:00 (9:00 pm) or another fixed clock period overlapping or offset from other time periods such as "morning", "afternoon", or "evening".
The time period from first-light "dawn" to last-light "dusk".
Other
A specific period of the day, which may vary by context, such as "the school day" or "the work day".
Variations in length
Mainly due to tidal deceleration – the Moon's gravitational pull slowing down the Earth's rotation – the Earth's rotational period is slowing. Because of the way the second is defined, the mean length of a solar day is now about 86,400.002 seconds, and is increasing by about 2 milliseconds per century.
Since the rotation rate of the Earth is slowing, the length of a second fell out of sync with a second derived from the rotational period. Leap seconds are announced in advance by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS), which measures the Earth's rotation and determines whether a leap second is necessary.
Geological day lengths
Discovered by paleontologist John W. Wells, the day lengths of geological periods have been estimated by measuring sedimentation rings in coral fossils, Duration of the day Present Current 365 24 hours −100 million years Cretaceous 380 23 hours and 20 minutes −200 million years Triassic 390 22 hours and 40 minutes −300 million years Carboniferous 400 22 hours −400 million years Devonian 410 21 hours and 20 minutes −500 million years Cambrian 425 20 hours and 40 minutes
Boundaries
thumb|208px|Sun and Moon, Hartmann Schedel's Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493
For most diurnal animals, the day naturally begins at dawn and ends at sunset. Humans, with their cultural norms and scientific knowledge, have employed several different conceptions of the day's boundaries.
In the Hebrew Bible, Genesis 1:5 defines a day in terms of "evening" and "morning" before recounting the creation of the Sun to illuminate it: "And God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night. And the evening and the morning were the first day."
The Jewish day begins at either sunset or nightfall (when three second-magnitude stars appear).
Medieval Europe also followed this tradition, known as Florentine reckoning: In this system, a reference like "two hours into the day" meant two hours after sunset and thus times during the evening need to be shifted back one calendar day in modern reckoning.
Days such as Christmas Eve, Halloween (“All Hallows’ Eve”), and the Eve of Saint Agnes are remnants of the older pattern when holidays began during the prior evening.
The common convention among the ancient Romans, ancient Chinese and in modern times is for the civil day to begin at midnight, i.e. 00:00, and to last a full 24 hours until 24:00, i.e. 00:00 of the next day. The International Meridian Conference of 1884 resolved
That the Conference expresses the hope that as soon as may be practicable the astronomical and nautical days will be arranged everywhere to begin at midnight.
In ancient Egypt the day was reckoned from sunrise to sunrise.
Prior to 1926, Turkey had two time systems: Turkish, counting the hours from sunset, and French, counting the hours from midnight.
Parts
Humans have divided the day in rough periods, which can have cultural implications, and other effects on humans' biological processes. The parts of the day do not have set times; they can vary by lifestyle or hours of daylight in a given place.
Daytime
Daytime is the part of the day during which sunlight directly reaches the ground, assuming that there are no obstacles. The length of daytime averages slightly more than half of the 24-hour day. Two effects make daytime on average longer than night. The Sun is not a point but has an apparent size of about 32 minutes of arc. Additionally, the atmosphere refracts sunlight in such a way that some of it reaches the ground even when the Sun is below the horizon by about 34 minutes of arc. So the first light reaches the ground when the centre of the Sun is still below the horizon by about 50 minutes of arc. Thus, daytime is on average around 7 minutes longer than 12 hours.
Daytime is further divided into morning, afternoon, and evening. Morning occurs between sunrise and noon. Afternoon occurs between noon and sunset, or between noon and the start of evening. This period of time sees human's highest body temperature, an increase of traffic collisions, and a decrease of productivity. Evening begins around 5 or 6 pm, or when the sun sets, and ends when one goes to bed.
Twilight
thumb|right
Twilight is the period before sunrise and after sunset in which there is natural light but no direct sunlight. The morning twilight begins at dawn and ends at sunrise, while the evening twilight begins at sunset and ends at dusk. Both periods of twilight can be divided into civil twilight, nautical twilight, and astronomical twilight. Civil twilight is when the sun is up to 6 degrees below the horizon; nautical when it is up to 12 degrees below, and astronomical when it is up to 18 degrees below.
thumb|Night in art
Night
Night is the period in which the sky is dark; the period between dusk and dawn when no light from the sun is visible. Light pollution during night can impact human and animal life, for example by disrupting sleep.
See also
Determination of the day of the week
Holiday
ISO 8601
Season, for a discussion of daylight and darkness at various latitudes
Synodic day
World Meteorological day
References
External links
Category:Orders of magnitude (time)
Category:Units of time
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Day
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2025-04-05T18:28:35.954254
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Database
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select statement and its result|upright=1.35]]
In computing, a database is an organized collection of data or a type of data store based on the use of a database management system (DBMS), the software that interacts with end users, applications, and the database itself to capture and analyze the data. The DBMS additionally encompasses the core facilities provided to administer the database. The sum total of the database, the DBMS and the associated applications can be referred to as a database system. Often the term "database" is also used loosely to refer to any of the DBMS, the database system or an application associated with the database.
Small databases can be stored on a file system, while large databases are hosted on computer clusters or cloud storage. The design of databases spans formal techniques and practical considerations, including data modeling, efficient data representation and storage, query languages, security and privacy of sensitive data, and distributed computing issues, including supporting concurrent access and fault tolerance.
Computer scientists may classify database management systems according to the database models that they support. Relational databases became dominant in the 1980s. These model data as rows and columns in a series of tables, and the vast majority use SQL for writing and querying data. In the 2000s, non-relational databases became popular, collectively referred to as NoSQL, because they use different query languages.
Terminology and overview
Formally, a "database" refers to a set of related data accessed through the use of a "database management system" (DBMS), which is an integrated set of computer software that allows users to interact with one or more databases and provides access to all of the data contained in the database (although restrictions may exist that limit access to particular data). The DBMS provides various functions that allow entry, storage and retrieval of large quantities of information and provides ways to manage how that information is organized.
Because of the close relationship between them, the term "database" is often used casually to refer to both a database and the DBMS used to manipulate it.
Outside the world of professional information technology, the term database is often used to refer to any collection of related data (such as a spreadsheet or a card index) as size and usage requirements typically necessitate use of a database management system.
Existing DBMSs provide various functions that allow management of a database and its data which can be classified into four main functional groups:
* Data definition – Creation, modification and removal of definitions that detail how the data is to be organized.
* Update – Insertion, modification, and deletion of the data itself.
* Retrieval – Selecting data according to specified criteria (e.g., a query, a position in a hierarchy, or a position in relation to other data) and providing that data either directly to the user, or making it available for further processing by the database itself or by other applications. The retrieved data may be made available in a more or less direct form without modification, as it is stored in the database, or in a new form obtained by altering it or combining it with existing data from the database.
* Administration – Registering and monitoring users, enforcing data security, monitoring performance, maintaining data integrity, dealing with concurrency control, and recovering information that has been corrupted by some event such as an unexpected system failure.
Both a database and its DBMS conform to the principles of a particular database model. "Database system" refers collectively to the database model, database management system, and database.
Physically, database servers are dedicated computers that hold the actual databases and run only the DBMS and related software. Database servers are usually multiprocessor computers, with generous memory and RAID disk arrays used for stable storage. Hardware database accelerators, connected to one or more servers via a high-speed channel, are also used in large-volume transaction processing environments. DBMSs are found at the heart of most database applications. DBMSs may be built around a custom multitasking kernel with built-in networking support, but modern DBMSs typically rely on a standard operating system to provide these functions.
Since DBMSs comprise a significant market, computer and storage vendors often take into account DBMS requirements in their own development plans.
Databases and DBMSs can be categorized according to the database model(s) that they support (such as relational or XML), the type(s) of computer they run on (from a server cluster to a mobile phone), the query language(s) used to access the database (such as SQL or XQuery), and their internal engineering, which affects performance, scalability, resilience, and security.
History
The sizes, capabilities, and performance of databases and their respective DBMSs have grown in orders of magnitude. These performance increases were enabled by the technology progress in the areas of processors, computer memory, computer storage, and computer networks. The concept of a database was made possible by the emergence of direct access storage media such as magnetic disks, which became widely available in the mid-1960s; earlier systems relied on sequential storage of data on magnetic tape. The subsequent development of database technology can be divided into three eras based on data model or structure: navigational, SQL/relational, and post-relational.
The two main early navigational data models were the hierarchical model and the CODASYL model (network model). These were characterized by the use of pointers (often physical disk addresses) to follow relationships from one record to another.
The relational model, first proposed in 1970 by Edgar F. Codd, departed from this tradition by insisting that applications should search for data by content, rather than by following links. The relational model employs sets of ledger-style tables, each used for a different type of entity. Only in the mid-1980s did computing hardware become powerful enough to allow the wide deployment of relational systems (DBMSs plus applications). By the early 1990s, however, relational systems dominated in all large-scale data processing applications, and they remain dominant: IBM Db2, Oracle, MySQL, and Microsoft SQL Server are the most searched DBMS. The dominant database language, standardized SQL for the relational model, has influenced database languages for other data models.
Object databases were developed in the 1980s to overcome the inconvenience of object–relational impedance mismatch, which led to the coining of the term "post-relational" and also the development of hybrid object–relational databases.
The next generation of post-relational databases in the late 2000s became known as NoSQL databases, introducing fast key–value stores and document-oriented databases. A competing "next generation" known as NewSQL databases attempted new implementations that retained the relational/SQL model while aiming to match the high performance of NoSQL compared to commercially available relational DBMSs.
1960s, navigational DBMS
database model]]
The introduction of the term database coincided with the availability of direct-access storage (disks and drums) from the mid-1960s onwards. The term represented a contrast with the tape-based systems of the past, allowing shared interactive use rather than daily batch processing. The Oxford English Dictionary cites a 1962 report by the System Development Corporation of California as the first to use the term "data-base" in a specific technical sense.
As computers grew in speed and capability, a number of general-purpose database systems emerged; by the mid-1960s a number of such systems had come into commercial use. Interest in a standard began to grow, and Charles Bachman, author of one such product, the Integrated Data Store (IDS), founded the Database Task Group within CODASYL, the group responsible for the creation and standardization of COBOL. In 1971, the Database Task Group delivered their standard, which generally became known as the CODASYL approach, and soon a number of commercial products based on this approach entered the market.
The CODASYL approach offered applications the ability to navigate around a linked data set which was formed into a large network. Applications could find records by one of three methods:
#Use of a primary key (known as a CALC key, typically implemented by hashing)
#Navigating relationships (called sets) from one record to another
#Scanning all the records in a sequential order
Later systems added B-trees to provide alternate access paths. Many CODASYL databases also added a declarative query language for end users (as distinct from the navigational API). However, CODASYL databases were complex and required significant training and effort to produce useful applications.
IBM also had its own DBMS in 1966, known as Information Management System (IMS). IMS was a development of software written for the Apollo program on the System/360. IMS was generally similar in concept to CODASYL, but used a strict hierarchy for its model of data navigation instead of CODASYL's network model. Both concepts later became known as navigational databases due to the way data was accessed: the term was popularized by Bachman's 1973 Turing Award presentation The Programmer as Navigator. IMS is classified by IBM as a hierarchical database. IDMS and Cincom Systems' TOTAL databases are classified as network databases. IMS remains in use .1970s, relational DBMS
Edgar F. Codd worked at IBM in San Jose, California, in one of their offshoot offices that were primarily involved in the development of hard disk systems. He was unhappy with the navigational model of the CODASYL approach, notably the lack of a "search" facility. In 1970, he wrote a number of papers that outlined a new approach to database construction that eventually culminated in the groundbreaking A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks.
In this paper, he described a new system for storing and working with large databases. Instead of records being stored in some sort of linked list of free-form records as in CODASYL, Codd's idea was to organize the data as a number of "tables", each table being used for a different type of entity. Each table would contain a fixed number of columns containing the attributes of the entity. One or more columns of each table were designated as a primary key by which the rows of the table could be uniquely identified; cross-references between tables always used these primary keys, rather than disk addresses, and queries would join tables based on these key relationships, using a set of operations based on the mathematical system of relational calculus (from which the model takes its name). Splitting the data into a set of normalized tables (or relations) aimed to ensure that each "fact" was only stored once, thus simplifying update operations. Virtual tables called views could present the data in different ways for different users, but views could not be directly updated.
Codd used mathematical terms to define the model: relations, tuples, and domains rather than tables, rows, and columns. The terminology that is now familiar came from early implementations. Codd would later criticize the tendency for practical implementations to depart from the mathematical foundations on which the model was based.
, records are "linked" using virtual keys not stored in the database but defined as needed between the data contained in the records.]]
The use of primary keys (user-oriented identifiers) to represent cross-table relationships, rather than disk addresses, had two primary motivations. From an engineering perspective, it enabled tables to be relocated and resized without expensive database reorganization. But Codd was more interested in the difference in semantics: the use of explicit identifiers made it easier to define update operations with clean mathematical definitions, and it also enabled query operations to be defined in terms of the established discipline of first-order predicate calculus; because these operations have clean mathematical properties, it becomes possible to rewrite queries in provably correct ways, which is the basis of query optimization. There is no loss of expressiveness compared with the hierarchic or network models, though the connections between tables are no longer so explicit.
In the hierarchic and network models, records were allowed to have a complex internal structure. For example, the salary history of an employee might be represented as a "repeating group" within the employee record. In the relational model, the process of normalization led to such internal structures being replaced by data held in multiple tables, connected only by logical keys.
For instance, a common use of a database system is to track information about users, their name, login information, various addresses and phone numbers. In the navigational approach, all of this data would be placed in a single variable-length record. In the relational approach, the data would be normalized into a user table, an address table and a phone number table (for instance). Records would be created in these optional tables only if the address or phone numbers were actually provided.
As well as identifying rows/records using logical identifiers rather than disk addresses, Codd changed the way in which applications assembled data from multiple records. Rather than requiring applications to gather data one record at a time by navigating the links, they would use a declarative query language that expressed what data was required, rather than the access path by which it should be found. Finding an efficient access path to the data became the responsibility of the database management system, rather than the application programmer. This process, called query optimization, depended on the fact that queries were expressed in terms of mathematical logic.
Codd's paper was picked up by two people at Berkeley, Eugene Wong and Michael Stonebraker. They started a project known as INGRES using funding that had already been allocated for a geographical database project and student programmers to produce code. Beginning in 1973, INGRES delivered its first test products which were generally ready for widespread use in 1979. INGRES was similar to System R in a number of ways, including the use of a "language" for data access, known as QUEL. Over time, INGRES moved to the emerging SQL standard.
IBM itself did one test implementation of the relational model, PRTV, and a production one, Business System 12, both now discontinued. Honeywell wrote MRDS for Multics, and now there are two new implementations: Alphora Dataphor and Rel. Most other DBMS implementations usually called relational are actually SQL DBMSs.
In 1970, the University of Michigan began development of the MICRO Information Management System based on D.L. Childs' Set-Theoretic Data model. MICRO was used to manage very large data sets by the US Department of Labor, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and researchers from the University of Alberta, the University of Michigan, and Wayne State University. It ran on IBM mainframe computers using the Michigan Terminal System. The system remained in production until 1998.
Integrated approach
In the 1970s and 1980s, attempts were made to build database systems with integrated hardware and software. The underlying philosophy was that such integration would provide higher performance at a lower cost. Examples were IBM System/38, the early offering of Teradata, and the Britton Lee, Inc. database machine.
Another approach to hardware support for database management was ICL's CAFS accelerator, a hardware disk controller with programmable search capabilities. In the long term, these efforts were generally unsuccessful because specialized database machines could not keep pace with the rapid development and progress of general-purpose computers. Thus most database systems nowadays are software systems running on general-purpose hardware, using general-purpose computer data storage. However, this idea is still pursued in certain applications by some companies like Netezza and Oracle (Exadata).
Late 1970s, SQL DBMS
IBM started working on a prototype system loosely based on Codd's concepts as System R in the early 1970s. The first version was ready in 1974/5, and work then started on multi-table systems in which the data could be split so that all of the data for a record (some of which is optional) did not have to be stored in a single large "chunk". Subsequent multi-user versions were tested by customers in 1978 and 1979, by which time a standardized query language – SQL – had been added. Codd's ideas were establishing themselves as both workable and superior to CODASYL, pushing IBM to develop a true production version of System R, known as SQL/DS, and, later, Database 2 (IBM Db2).
Larry Ellison's Oracle Database (or more simply, Oracle) started from a different chain, based on IBM's papers on System R. Though Oracle V1 implementations were completed in 1978, it was not until Oracle Version 2 when Ellison beat IBM to market in 1979.
Stonebraker went on to apply the lessons from INGRES to develop a new database, Postgres, which is now known as PostgreSQL. PostgreSQL is often used for global mission-critical applications (the .org and .info domain name registries use it as their primary data store, as do many large companies and financial institutions).
In Sweden, Codd's paper was also read and Mimer SQL was developed in the mid-1970s at Uppsala University. In 1984, this project was consolidated into an independent enterprise.
Another data model, the entity–relationship model, emerged in 1976 and gained popularity for database design as it emphasized a more familiar description than the earlier relational model. Later on, entity–relationship constructs were retrofitted as a data modeling construct for the relational model, and the difference between the two has become irrelevant.1980s, on the desktopThe 1980s ushered in the age of desktop computing. The new computers empowered their users with spreadsheets like Lotus 1-2-3 and database software like dBASE. The dBASE product was lightweight and easy for any computer user to understand out of the box. C. Wayne Ratliff, the creator of dBASE, stated: "dBASE was different from programs like BASIC, C, FORTRAN, and COBOL in that a lot of the dirty work had already been done. The data manipulation is done by dBASE instead of by the user, so the user can concentrate on what he is doing, rather than having to mess with the dirty details of opening, reading, and closing files, and managing space allocation." dBASE was one of the top selling software titles in the 1980s and early 1990s.1990s, object-orientedThe 1990s, along with a rise in object-oriented programming, saw a growth in how data in various databases were handled. Programmers and designers began to treat the data in their databases as objects. That is to say that if a person's data were in a database, that person's attributes, such as their address, phone number, and age, were now considered to belong to that person instead of being extraneous data. This allows for relations between data to be related to objects and their attributes and not to individual fields. The term "object–relational impedance mismatch" described the inconvenience of translating between programmed objects and database tables. Object databases and object–relational databases attempt to solve this problem by providing an object-oriented language (sometimes as extensions to SQL) that programmers can use as alternative to purely relational SQL. On the programming side, libraries known as object–relational mappings (ORMs) attempt to solve the same problem.2000s, NoSQL and NewSQL
XML databases are a type of structured document-oriented database that allows querying based on XML document attributes. XML databases are mostly used in applications where the data is conveniently viewed as a collection of documents, with a structure that can vary from the very flexible to the highly rigid: examples include scientific articles, patents, tax filings, and personnel records.
NoSQL databases are often very fast, do not require fixed table schemas, avoid join operations by storing denormalized data, and are designed to scale horizontally.
In recent years, there has been a strong demand for massively distributed databases with high partition tolerance, but according to the CAP theorem, it is impossible for a distributed system to simultaneously provide consistency, availability, and partition tolerance guarantees. A distributed system can satisfy any two of these guarantees at the same time, but not all three. For that reason, many NoSQL databases are using what is called eventual consistency to provide both availability and partition tolerance guarantees with a reduced level of data consistency.
NewSQL is a class of modern relational databases that aims to provide the same scalable performance of NoSQL systems for online transaction processing (read-write) workloads while still using SQL and maintaining the ACID guarantees of a traditional database system.
Use cases
Databases are used to support internal operations of organizations and to underpin online interactions with customers and suppliers (see Enterprise software).
Databases are used to hold administrative information and more specialized data, such as engineering data or economic models. Examples include computerized library systems, flight reservation systems, computerized parts inventory systems, and many content management systems that store websites as collections of webpages in a database.
Classification
One way to classify databases involves the type of their contents, for example: bibliographic, document-text, statistical, or multimedia objects. Another way is by their application area, for example: accounting, music compositions, movies, banking, manufacturing, or insurance. A third way is by some technical aspect, such as the database structure or interface type. This section lists a few of the adjectives used to characterize different kinds of databases.
* An in-memory database is a database that primarily resides in main memory, but is typically backed-up by non-volatile computer data storage. Main memory databases are faster than disk databases, and so are often used where response time is critical, such as in telecommunications network equipment.
* An active database includes an event-driven architecture which can respond to conditions both inside and outside the database. Possible uses include security monitoring, alerting, statistics gathering and authorization. Many databases provide active database features in the form of database triggers.
* A cloud database relies on cloud technology. Both the database and most of its DBMS reside remotely, "in the cloud", while its applications are both developed by programmers and later maintained and used by end-users through a web browser and Open APIs.
* Data warehouses archive data from operational databases and often from external sources such as market research firms. The warehouse becomes the central source of data for use by managers and other end-users who may not have access to operational data. For example, sales data might be aggregated to weekly totals and converted from internal product codes to use UPCs so that they can be compared with ACNielsen data. Some basic and essential components of data warehousing include extracting, analyzing, and mining data, transforming, loading, and managing data so as to make them available for further use.
* A deductive database combines logic programming with a relational database.
* A distributed database is one in which both the data and the DBMS span multiple computers.
* A document-oriented database is designed for storing, retrieving, and managing document-oriented, or semi structured, information. Document-oriented databases are one of the main categories of NoSQL databases.
* An embedded database system is a DBMS which is tightly integrated with an application software that requires access to stored data in such a way that the DBMS is hidden from the application's end-users and requires little or no ongoing maintenance.
*End-user databases consist of data developed by individual end-users. Examples of these are collections of documents, spreadsheets, presentations, multimedia, and other files. Several products exist to support such databases.
* A federated database system comprises several distinct databases, each with its own DBMS. It is handled as a single database by a federated database management system (FDBMS), which transparently integrates multiple autonomous DBMSs, possibly of different types (in which case it would also be a heterogeneous database system), and provides them with an integrated conceptual view.
* Sometimes the term multi-database is used as a synonym for federated database, though it may refer to a less integrated (e.g., without an FDBMS and a managed integrated schema) group of databases that cooperate in a single application. In this case, typically middleware is used for distribution, which typically includes an atomic commit protocol (ACP), e.g., the two-phase commit protocol, to allow distributed (global) transactions across the participating databases.
* A graph database is a kind of NoSQL database that uses graph structures with nodes, edges, and properties to represent and store information. General graph databases that can store any graph are distinct from specialized graph databases such as triplestores and network databases.
* An array DBMS is a kind of NoSQL DBMS that allows modeling, storage, and retrieval of (usually large) multi-dimensional arrays such as satellite images and climate simulation output.
* In a hypertext or hypermedia database, any word or a piece of text representing an object, e.g., another piece of text, an article, a picture, or a film, can be hyperlinked to that object. Hypertext databases are particularly useful for organizing large amounts of disparate information. For example, they are useful for organizing online encyclopedias, where users can conveniently jump around the text. The World Wide Web is thus a large distributed hypertext database.
* A knowledge base (abbreviated KB, kb or Δ) is a special kind of database for knowledge management, providing the means for the computerized collection, organization, and retrieval of knowledge. Also a collection of data representing problems with their solutions and related experiences.
* A mobile database can be carried on or synchronized from a mobile computing device.
* Operational databases store detailed data about the operations of an organization. They typically process relatively high volumes of updates using transactions. Examples include customer databases that record contact, credit, and demographic information about a business's customers, personnel databases that hold information such as salary, benefits, skills data about employees, enterprise resource planning systems that record details about product components, parts inventory, and financial databases that keep track of the organization's money, accounting and financial dealings.
* A parallel database seeks to improve performance through parallelization for tasks such as loading data, building indexes and evaluating queries.
::The major parallel DBMS architectures which are induced by the underlying hardware architecture are:
::* Shared memory architecture, where multiple processors share the main memory space, as well as other data storage.
::* Shared disk architecture, where each processing unit (typically consisting of multiple processors) has its own main memory, but all units share the other storage.
::* Shared-nothing architecture, where each processing unit has its own main memory and other storage.
* Probabilistic databases employ fuzzy logic to draw inferences from imprecise data.
* Real-time databases process transactions fast enough for the result to come back and be acted on right away.
* A spatial database can store the data with multidimensional features. The queries on such data include location-based queries, like "Where is the closest hotel in my area?".
* A temporal database has built-in time aspects, for example a temporal data model and a temporal version of SQL. More specifically the temporal aspects usually include valid-time and transaction-time.
* A terminology-oriented database builds upon an object-oriented database, often customized for a specific field.
* An unstructured data database is intended to store in a manageable and protected way diverse objects that do not fit naturally and conveniently in common databases. It may include email messages, documents, journals, multimedia objects, etc. The name may be misleading since some objects can be highly structured. However, the entire possible object collection does not fit into a predefined structured framework. Most established DBMSs now support unstructured data in various ways, and new dedicated DBMSs are emerging.<!-- Isn't this a document-oriented database? If not, clearly distinguish. -->
Database management system
Connolly and Begg define database management system (DBMS) as a "software system that enables users to define, create, maintain and control access to the database." Examples of DBMS's include MySQL, MariaDB, PostgreSQL, Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle Database, and Microsoft Access.
The DBMS acronym is sometimes extended to indicate the underlying database model, with RDBMS for the relational, OODBMS for the object (oriented) and ORDBMS for the object–relational model. Other extensions can indicate some other characteristics, such as DDBMS for a distributed database management systems.
The functionality provided by a DBMS can vary enormously. The core functionality is the storage, retrieval and update of data. Codd proposed the following functions and services a fully-fledged general purpose DBMS should provide:
* Data storage, retrieval and update
* User accessible catalog or data dictionary describing the metadata
* Support for transactions and concurrency
* Facilities for recovering the database should it become damaged
* Support for authorization of access and update of data
* Access support from remote locations
* Enforcing constraints to ensure data in the database abides by certain rules
It is also generally to be expected the DBMS will provide a set of utilities for such purposes as may be necessary to administer the database effectively, including import, export, monitoring, defragmentation and analysis utilities. The core part of the DBMS interacting between the database and the application interface sometimes referred to as the database engine.
Often DBMSs will have configuration parameters that can be statically and dynamically tuned, for example the maximum amount of main memory on a server the database can use. The trend is to minimize the amount of manual configuration, and for cases such as embedded databases the need to target zero-administration is paramount.
The large major enterprise DBMSs have tended to increase in size and functionality and have involved up to thousands of human years of development effort throughout their lifetime.}}
Early multi-user DBMS typically only allowed for the application to reside on the same computer with access via terminals or terminal emulation software. The client–server architecture was a development where the application resided on a client desktop and the database on a server allowing the processing to be distributed. This evolved into a multitier architecture incorporating application servers and web servers with the end user interface via a web browser with the database only directly connected to the adjacent tier.
A general-purpose DBMS will provide public application programming interfaces (API) and optionally a processor for database languages such as SQL to allow applications to be written to interact with and manipulate the database. A special purpose DBMS may use a private API and be specifically customized and linked to a single application. For example, an email system performs many of the functions of a general-purpose DBMS such as message insertion, message deletion, attachment handling, blocklist lookup, associating messages an email address and so forth however these functions are limited to what is required to handle email.
Application
External interaction with the database will be via an application program that interfaces with the DBMS. This can range from a database tool that allows users to execute SQL queries textually or graphically, to a website that happens to use a database to store and search information.Application program interfaceA programmer will code interactions to the database (sometimes referred to as a datasource) via an application program interface (API) or via a database language. The particular API or language chosen will need to be supported by DBMS, possibly indirectly via a preprocessor or a bridging API. Some API's aim to be database independent, ODBC being a commonly known example. Other common API's include JDBC and ADO.NET.Database languages
Database languages are special-purpose languages, which allow one or more of the following tasks, sometimes distinguished as sublanguages:
* Data control language (DCL) – controls access to data;
* Data definition language (DDL) – defines data types such as creating, altering, or dropping tables and the relationships among them;
* Data manipulation language (DML) – performs tasks such as inserting, updating, or deleting data occurrences;
* Data query language (DQL) – allows searching for information and computing derived information.
Database languages are specific to a particular data model. Notable examples include:
* SQL combines the roles of data definition, data manipulation, and query in a single language. It was one of the first commercial languages for the relational model, although it departs in some respects from the relational model as described by Codd (for example, the rows and columns of a table can be ordered). SQL became a standard of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in 1986, and of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1987. The standards have been regularly enhanced since and are supported (with varying degrees of conformance) by all mainstream commercial relational DBMSs.
* OQL is an object model language standard (from the Object Data Management Group). It has influenced the design of some of the newer query languages like JDOQL and EJB QL.
* XQuery is a standard XML query language implemented by XML database systems such as MarkLogic and eXist, by relational databases with XML capability such as Oracle and Db2, and also by in-memory XML processors such as Saxon.
* SQL/XML combines XQuery with SQL.
A database language may also incorporate features like:
* DBMS-specific configuration and storage engine management
* Computations to modify query results, like counting, summing, averaging, sorting, grouping, and cross-referencing
* Constraint enforcement (e.g. in an automotive database, only allowing one engine type per car)
* Application programming interface version of the query language, for programmer convenience
Storage
Database storage is the container of the physical materialization of a database. It comprises the internal (physical) level in the database architecture. It also contains all the information needed (e.g., metadata, "data about the data", and internal data structures) to reconstruct the conceptual level and external level from the internal level when needed. Databases as digital objects contain three layers of information which must be stored: the data, the structure, and the semantics. Proper storage of all three layers is needed for future preservation and longevity of the database. Putting data into permanent storage is generally the responsibility of the database engine a.k.a. "storage engine". Though typically accessed by a DBMS through the underlying operating system (and often using the operating systems' file systems as intermediates for storage layout), storage properties and configuration settings are extremely important for the efficient operation of the DBMS, and thus are closely maintained by database administrators. A DBMS, while in operation, always has its database residing in several types of storage (e.g., memory and external storage). The database data and the additional needed information, possibly in very large amounts, are coded into bits. Data typically reside in the storage in structures that look completely different from the way the data look at the conceptual and external levels, but in ways that attempt to optimize (the best possible) these levels' reconstruction when needed by users and programs, as well as for computing additional types of needed information from the data (e.g., when querying the database).
Some DBMSs support specifying which character encoding was used to store data, so multiple encodings can be used in the same database.
Various low-level database storage structures are used by the storage engine to serialize the data model so it can be written to the medium of choice. Techniques such as indexing may be used to improve performance. Conventional storage is row-oriented, but there are also column-oriented and correlation databases.
Materialized views
Often storage redundancy is employed to increase performance. A common example is storing materialized views, which consist of frequently needed external views or query results. Storing such views saves the expensive computing them each time they are needed. The downsides of materialized views are the overhead incurred when updating them to keep them synchronized with their original updated database data, and the cost of storage redundancy.
Replication
Occasionally a database employs storage redundancy by database objects replication (with one or more copies) to increase data availability (both to improve performance of simultaneous multiple end-user accesses to the same database object, and to provide resiliency in a case of partial failure of a distributed database). Updates of a replicated object need to be synchronized across the object copies. In many cases, the entire database is replicated.
Virtualization
With data virtualization, the data used remains in its original locations and real-time access is established to allow analytics across multiple sources. This can aid in resolving some technical difficulties such as compatibility problems when combining data from various platforms, lowering the risk of error caused by faulty data, and guaranteeing that the newest data is used. Furthermore, avoiding the creation of a new database containing personal information can make it easier to comply with privacy regulations. However, with data virtualization, the connection to all necessary data sources must be operational as there is no local copy of the data, which is one of the main drawbacks of the approach.Security
Database security deals with all various aspects of protecting the database content, its owners, and its users. It ranges from protection from intentional unauthorized database uses to unintentional database accesses by unauthorized entities (e.g., a person or a computer program).
Database access control deals with controlling who (a person or a certain computer program) are allowed to access what information in the database. The information may comprise specific database objects (e.g., record types, specific records, data structures), certain computations over certain objects (e.g., query types, or specific queries), or using specific access paths to the former (e.g., using specific indexes or other data structures to access information). Database access controls are set by special authorized (by the database owner) personnel that uses dedicated protected security DBMS interfaces.
This may be managed directly on an individual basis, or by the assignment of individuals and privileges to groups, or (in the most elaborate models) through the assignment of individuals and groups to roles which are then granted entitlements. Data security prevents unauthorized users from viewing or updating the database. Using passwords, users are allowed access to the entire database or subsets of it called "subschemas". For example, an employee database can contain all the data about an individual employee, but one group of users may be authorized to view only payroll data, while others are allowed access to only work history and medical data. If the DBMS provides a way to interactively enter and update the database, as well as interrogate it, this capability allows for managing personal databases.
Data security in general deals with protecting specific chunks of data, both physically (i.e., from corruption, or destruction, or removal; e.g., see physical security), or the interpretation of them, or parts of them to meaningful information (e.g., by looking at the strings of bits that they comprise, concluding specific valid credit-card numbers; e.g., see data encryption).
Change and access logging records who accessed which attributes, what was changed, and when it was changed. Logging services allow for a forensic database audit later by keeping a record of access occurrences and changes. Sometimes application-level code is used to record changes rather than leaving this in the database. Monitoring can be set up to attempt to detect security breaches. Therefore, organizations must take database security seriously because of the many benefits it provides. Organizations will be safeguarded from security breaches and hacking activities like firewall intrusion, virus spread, and ransom ware. This helps in protecting the company's essential information, which cannot be shared with outsiders at any cause.
Transactions and concurrency
Database transactions can be used to introduce some level of fault tolerance and data integrity after recovery from a crash. A database transaction is a unit of work, typically encapsulating a number of operations over a database (e.g., reading a database object, writing, acquiring or releasing a lock, etc.), an abstraction supported in database and also other systems. Each transaction has well defined boundaries in terms of which program/code executions are included in that transaction (determined by the transaction's programmer via special transaction commands).
The acronym ACID describes some ideal properties of a database transaction: atomicity, consistency, isolation, and durability.
Migration
A database built with one DBMS is not portable to another DBMS (i.e., the other DBMS cannot run it). However, in some situations, it is desirable to migrate a database from one DBMS to another. The reasons are primarily economical (different DBMSs may have different total costs of ownership or TCOs), functional, and operational (different DBMSs may have different capabilities). The migration involves the database's transformation from one DBMS type to another. The transformation should maintain (if possible) the database related application (i.e., all related application programs) intact. Thus, the database's conceptual and external architectural levels should be maintained in the transformation. It may be desired that also some aspects of the architecture internal level are maintained. A complex or large database migration may be a complicated and costly (one-time) project by itself, which should be factored into the decision to migrate. This is in spite of the fact that tools may exist to help migration between specific DBMSs. Typically, a DBMS vendor provides tools to help import databases from other popular DBMSs.
Building, maintaining, and tuning
After designing a database for an application, the next stage is building the database. Typically, an appropriate general-purpose DBMS can be selected to be used for this purpose. A DBMS provides the needed user interfaces to be used by database administrators to define the needed application's data structures within the DBMS's respective data model. Other user interfaces are used to select needed DBMS parameters (like security related, storage allocation parameters, etc.).
When the database is ready (all its data structures and other needed components are defined), it is typically populated with initial application's data (database initialization, which is typically a distinct project; in many cases using specialized DBMS interfaces that support bulk insertion) before making it operational. In some cases, the database becomes operational while empty of application data, and data are accumulated during its operation.
After the database is created, initialized and populated it needs to be maintained. Various database parameters may need changing and the database may need to be tuned (tuning) for better performance; application's data structures may be changed or added, new related application programs may be written to add to the application's functionality, etc.
Backup and restore
Sometimes it is desired to bring a database back to a previous state (for many reasons, e.g., cases when the database is found corrupted due to a software error, or if it has been updated with erroneous data). To achieve this, a backup operation is done occasionally or continuously, where each desired database state (i.e., the values of its data and their embedding in database's data structures) is kept within dedicated backup files (many techniques exist to do this effectively). When it is decided by a database administrator to bring the database back to this state (e.g., by specifying this state by a desired point in time when the database was in this state), these files are used to restore that state.
Static analysis
Static analysis techniques for software verification can be applied also in the scenario of query languages. In particular, the *Abstract interpretation framework has been extended to the field of query languages for relational databases as a way to support sound approximation techniques. The semantics of query languages can be tuned according to suitable abstractions of the concrete domain of data. The abstraction of relational database systems has many interesting applications, in particular, for security purposes, such as fine-grained access control, watermarking, etc.
Miscellaneous features
Other DBMS features might include:
* Database logs – This helps in keeping a history of the executed functions.
* Graphics component for producing graphs and charts, especially in a data warehouse system.
* Query optimizer – Performs query optimization on every query to choose an efficient query plan (a partial order (tree) of operations) to be executed to compute the query result. May be specific to a particular storage engine.
* Tools or hooks for database design, application programming, application program maintenance, database performance analysis and monitoring, database configuration monitoring, DBMS hardware configuration (a DBMS and related database may span computers, networks, and storage units) and related database mapping (especially for a distributed DBMS), storage allocation and database layout monitoring, storage migration, etc.
Increasingly, there are calls for a single system that incorporates all of these core functionalities into the same build, test, and deployment framework for database management and source control. Borrowing from other developments in the software industry, some market such offerings as "DevOps for database".Design and modeling
The first task of a database designer is to produce a conceptual data model that reflects the structure of the information to be held in the database. A common approach to this is to develop an entity–relationship model, often with the aid of drawing tools. Another popular approach is the Unified Modeling Language. A successful data model will accurately reflect the possible state of the external world being modeled: for example, if people can have more than one phone number, it will allow this information to be captured. Designing a good conceptual data model requires a good understanding of the application domain; it typically involves asking deep questions about the things of interest to an organization, like "can a customer also be a supplier?", or "if a product is sold with two different forms of packaging, are those the same product or different products?", or "if a plane flies from New York to Dubai via Frankfurt, is that one flight or two (or maybe even three)?". The answers to these questions establish definitions of the terminology used for entities (customers, products, flights, flight segments) and their relationships and attributes.
Producing the conceptual data model sometimes involves input from business processes, or the analysis of workflow in the organization. This can help to establish what information is needed in the database, and what can be left out. For example, it can help when deciding whether the database needs to hold historic data as well as current data.
Having produced a conceptual data model that users are happy with, the next stage is to translate this into a schema that implements the relevant data structures within the database. This process is often called logical database design, and the output is a logical data model expressed in the form of a schema. Whereas the conceptual data model is (in theory at least) independent of the choice of database technology, the logical data model will be expressed in terms of a particular database model supported by the chosen DBMS. (The terms data model and database model are often used interchangeably, but in this article we use data model for the design of a specific database, and database model for the modeling notation used to express that design).
The most popular database model for general-purpose databases is the relational model, or more precisely, the relational model as represented by the SQL language. The process of creating a logical database design using this model uses a methodical approach known as normalization. The goal of normalization is to ensure that each elementary "fact" is only recorded in one place, so that insertions, updates, and deletions automatically maintain consistency.
The final stage of database design is to make the decisions that affect performance, scalability, recovery, security, and the like, which depend on the particular DBMS. This is often called physical database design, and the output is the physical data model. A key goal during this stage is data independence, meaning that the decisions made for performance optimization purposes should be invisible to end-users and applications. There are two types of data independence: Physical data independence and logical data independence. Physical design is driven mainly by performance requirements, and requires a good knowledge of the expected workload and access patterns, and a deep understanding of the features offered by the chosen DBMS.
Another aspect of physical database design is security. It involves both defining access control to database objects as well as defining security levels and methods for the data itself.
Models
A database model is a type of data model that determines the logical structure of a database and fundamentally determines in which manner data can be stored, organized, and manipulated. The most popular example of a database model is the relational model (or the SQL approximation of relational), which uses a table-based format.
Common logical data models for databases include:
*Navigational databases
**Hierarchical database model
**Network model
**Graph database
*Relational model
*Entity–relationship model
**Enhanced entity–relationship model
*Object model
*Document model
*Entity–attribute–value model
*Star schema
An object–relational database combines the two related structures.
Physical data models include:
*Inverted index
*Flat file
Other models include:
*Multidimensional model
*Array model
*Multivalue model
Specialized models are optimized for particular types of data:
*XML database
*Semantic model
*Content store
*Event store
*Time series model
External, conceptual, and internal views
A database management system provides three views of the database data:
* The external level defines how each group of end-users sees the organization of data in the database. A single database can have any number of views at the external level.
* The conceptual level (or logical level) unifies the various external views into a compatible global view. It provides the synthesis of all the external views. It is out of the scope of the various database end-users, and is rather of interest to database application developers and database administrators.
* The internal level (or physical level) is the internal organization of data inside a DBMS. It is concerned with cost, performance, scalability and other operational matters. It deals with storage layout of the data, using storage structures such as indexes to enhance performance. Occasionally it stores data of individual views (materialized views), computed from generic data, if performance justification exists for such redundancy. It balances all the external views' performance requirements, possibly conflicting, in an attempt to optimize overall performance across all activities.
While there is typically only one conceptual and internal view of the data, there can be any number of different external views. This allows users to see database information in a more business-related way rather than from a technical, processing viewpoint. For example, a financial department of a company needs the payment details of all employees as part of the company's expenses, but does not need details about employees that are in the interest of the human resources department. Thus different departments need different views of the company's database.
The three-level database architecture relates to the concept of data independence which was one of the major initial driving forces of the relational model. The idea is that changes made at a certain level do not affect the view at a higher level. For example, changes in the internal level do not affect application programs written using conceptual level interfaces, which reduces the impact of making physical changes to improve performance.
The conceptual view provides a level of indirection between internal and external. On the one hand it provides a common view of the database, independent of different external view structures, and on the other hand it abstracts away details of how the data are stored or managed (internal level). In principle every level, and even every external view, can be presented by a different data model. In practice usually a given DBMS uses the same data model for both the external and the conceptual levels (e.g., relational model). The internal level, which is hidden inside the DBMS and depends on its implementation, requires a different level of detail and uses its own types of data structure types.
Research
Database technology has been an active research topic since the 1960s, both in academia and in the research and development groups of companies (for example IBM Research). Research activity includes theory and development of prototypes. Notable research topics have included models, the atomic transaction concept, related concurrency control techniques, query languages and query optimization methods, RAID, and more.
The database research area has several dedicated academic journals (for example, ACM Transactions on Database Systems-TODS, Data and Knowledge Engineering-DKE) and annual conferences (e.g., ACM SIGMOD, ACM PODS, VLDB, IEEE ICDE).
See also
* Comparison of database tools
* Comparison of object database management systems
* Comparison of object–relational database management systems
* Comparison of relational database management systems
* Data hierarchy
* Data bank
* Data store
* Database theory
* Database testing
* Database-centric architecture
* Datalog
* Database-as-IPC
* DBOS
* Flat-file database
* INP (database)
* Journal of Database Management
* Question-focused dataset
Notes
References
Sources
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Further reading
* Ling Liu and Tamer M. Özsu (Eds.) (2009). "[https://www.springer.com/computer/database+management+&+information+retrieval/book/978-0-387-49616-0 Encyclopedia of Database Systems], 4100 p. 60 illus. .
* Gray, J. and Reuter, A. Transaction Processing: Concepts and Techniques, 1st edition, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, 1992.
* Kroenke, David M. and David J. Auer. Database Concepts. 3rd ed. New York: Prentice, 2007.
* Raghu Ramakrishnan and Johannes Gehrke, [http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~dbbook/ Database Management Systems].
* Abraham Silberschatz, Henry F. Korth, S. Sudarshan, [http://www.db-book.com/ Database System Concepts].
*
* Teorey, T.; Lightstone, S. and Nadeau, T. Database Modeling & Design: Logical Design, 4th edition, Morgan Kaufmann Press, 2005. .
* [https://www.youtube.com/@CMUDatabaseGroup/playlists CMU Database courses playlist]
* [https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-830-database-systems-fall-2010/ MIT OCW 6.830 | Fall 2010 | Database Systems]
* [https://cs186berkeley.net Berkeley CS W186]
External links
*[http://www.fileextension.org/DB DB File extension] – information about files with the DB extension
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Dipole
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has a south magnetic pole near its north geographic pole and a north magnetic pole near its South Pole.]]
In physics, a dipole ( ()|twice|| ()|axis}}) is an electromagnetic phenomenon which occurs in two ways:
* An electric dipole deals with the separation of the positive and negative electric charges found in any electromagnetic system. A simple example of this system is a pair of charges of equal magnitude but opposite sign separated by some typically small distance. (A permanent electric dipole is called an electret.)
* A magnetic dipole is the closed circulation of an electric current system. A simple example is a single loop of wire with constant current through it. A bar magnet is an example of a magnet with a permanent magnetic dipole moment.
Dipoles, whether electric or magnetic, can be characterized by their dipole moment, a vector quantity. For the simple electric dipole, the electric dipole moment points from the negative charge towards the positive charge, and has a magnitude equal to the strength of each charge times the separation between the charges. (To be precise: for the definition of the dipole moment, one should always consider the "dipole limit", where, for example, the distance of the generating charges should converge to 0 while simultaneously, the charge strength should diverge to infinity in such a way that the product remains a positive constant.)
For the magnetic (dipole) current loop, the magnetic dipole moment points through the loop (according to the right hand grip rule), with a magnitude equal to the current in the loop times the area of the loop.
Similar to magnetic current loops, the electron particle and some other fundamental particles have magnetic dipole moments, as an electron generates a magnetic field identical to that generated by a very small current loop. However, an electron's magnetic dipole moment is not due to a current loop, but to an intrinsic property of the electron. The electron may also have an electric dipole moment though such has yet to be observed (see electron electric dipole moment).
of a horizontally oriented electrical dipole of infinitesimal size. Strong colors indicate highest and lowest potential (where the opposing charges of the dipole are located).]]
A permanent magnet, such as a bar magnet, owes its magnetism to the intrinsic magnetic dipole moment of the electron. The two ends of a bar magnet are referred to as poles (not to be confused with monopoles, see Classification below) and may be labeled "north" and "south". In terms of the Earth's magnetic field, they are respectively "north-seeking" and "south-seeking" poles: if the magnet were freely suspended in the Earth's magnetic field, the north-seeking pole would point towards the north and the south-seeking pole would point towards the south. The dipole moment of the bar magnet points from its magnetic south to its magnetic north pole. In a magnetic compass, the north pole of a bar magnet points north. However, that means that Earth's geomagnetic north pole is the south pole (south-seeking pole) of its dipole moment and vice versa.
The only known mechanisms for the creation of magnetic dipoles are by current loops or quantum-mechanical spin since the existence of magnetic monopoles has never been experimentally demonstrated.
Classification
A physical dipole consists of two equal and opposite point charges: in the literal sense, two poles. Its field at large distances (i.e., distances large in comparison to the separation of the poles) depends almost entirely on the dipole moment as defined above. A point (electric) dipole is the limit obtained by letting the separation tend to 0 while keeping the dipole moment fixed. The field of a point dipole has a particularly simple form, and the order-1 term in the multipole expansion is precisely the point dipole field.
Although there are no known magnetic monopoles in nature, there are magnetic dipoles in the form of the quantum-mechanical spin associated with particles such as electrons (although the accurate description of such effects falls outside of classical electromagnetism). A theoretical magnetic point dipole has a magnetic field of exactly the same form as the electric field of an electric point dipole. A very small current-carrying loop is approximately a magnetic point dipole; the magnetic dipole moment of such a loop is the product of the current flowing in the loop and the (vector) area of the loop.
Any configuration of charges or currents has a 'dipole moment', which describes the dipole whose field is the best approximation, at large distances, to that of the given configuration. This is simply one term in the multipole expansion when the total charge ("monopole moment") is 0—as it always is for the magnetic case, since there are no magnetic monopoles. The dipole term is the dominant one at large distances: Its field falls off in proportion to , as compared to for the next (quadrupole) term and higher powers of for higher terms, or for the monopole term.
Molecular dipoles
<!-- This section is linked from Ammonia and redirects from Molecular dipole -->
Many molecules have such dipole moments due to non-uniform distributions of positive and negative charges on the various atoms. Such is the case with polar compounds like hydrogen fluoride (HF), where electron density is shared unequally between atoms. Therefore, a molecule's dipole is an electric dipole with an inherent electric field that should not be confused with a magnetic dipole, which generates a magnetic field.
The physical chemist Peter J. W. Debye was the first scientist to study molecular dipoles extensively, and, as a consequence, dipole moments are measured in the non-SI unit named debye in his honor.
For molecules there are three types of dipoles:
; Permanent dipoles: These occur when two atoms in a molecule have substantially different electronegativity : One atom attracts electrons more than another, becoming more negative, while the other atom becomes more positive. A molecule with a permanent dipole moment is called a polar molecule. See dipole–dipole attractions.
; Instantaneous dipoles : These occur due to chance when electrons happen to be more concentrated in one place than another in a molecule, creating a temporary dipole. These dipoles are smaller in magnitude than permanent dipoles, but still play a large role in chemistry and biochemistry due to their prevalence. See instantaneous dipole.
; Induced dipoles : These can occur when one molecule with a permanent dipole repels another molecule's electrons, inducing a dipole moment in that molecule. A molecule is polarized when it carries an induced dipole. See induced-dipole attraction.
More generally, an induced dipole of any polarizable charge distribution ρ (remember that a molecule has a charge distribution) is caused by an electric field external to ρ. This field may, for instance, originate from an ion or polar molecule in the vicinity of ρ or may be macroscopic (e.g., a molecule between the plates of a charged capacitor). The size of the induced dipole moment is equal to the product of the strength of the external field and the dipole polarizability of ρ.
Dipole moment values can be obtained from measurement of the dielectric constant. Some typical gas phase values given with the unit debye are:
* carbon dioxide: 0
* carbon monoxide: 0.112 D
* ozone: 0.53 D
* phosgene: 1.17 D
* ammonia: 1.42 D
* water vapor: 1.85 D
* hydrogen cyanide: 2.98 D
* cyanamide: 4.27 D
* potassium bromide: 10.41 D
Potassium bromide (KBr) has one of the highest dipole moments because it is an ionic compound that exists as a molecule in the gas phase.
The overall dipole moment of a molecule may be approximated as a vector sum of bond dipole moments. As a vector sum it depends on the relative orientation of the bonds, so that from the dipole moment information can be deduced about the molecular geometry.
For example, the zero dipole of CO<sub>2</sub> implies that the two C=O bond dipole moments cancel so that the molecule must be linear. For H<sub>2</sub>O the O−H bond moments do not cancel because the molecule is bent. For ozone (O<sub>3</sub>) which is also a bent molecule, the bond dipole moments are not zero even though the O−O bonds are between similar atoms. This agrees with the Lewis structures for the resonance forms of ozone which show a positive charge on the central oxygen atom.
An example in organic chemistry of the role of geometry in determining dipole moment is the cis and trans isomers of 1,2-dichloroethene. In the cis isomer the two polar C−Cl bonds are on the same side of the CC double bond and the molecular dipole moment is 1.90 D. In the trans isomer, the dipole moment is zero because the two C−Cl bonds are on opposite sides of the CC and cancel (and the two bond moments for the much less polar C−H bonds also cancel).
Another example of the role of molecular geometry is boron trifluoride, which has three polar bonds with a difference in electronegativity greater than the traditionally cited threshold of 1.7 for ionic bonding. However, due to the equilateral triangular distribution of the fluoride ions centered on and in the same plane as the boron cation, the symmetry of the molecule results in its dipole moment being zero.
Quantum-mechanical dipole operator
Consider a collection of N particles with charges q<sub>i</sub> and position vectors r<sub>i</sub>. For instance, this collection may be a molecule consisting of electrons, all with charge −e, and nuclei with charge eZ<sub>i</sub>, where Z<sub>i</sub> is the atomic number of the i th nucleus.
The dipole observable (physical quantity) has the quantum mechanical dipole operator:
: <math>\mathfrak{p} \sum_{i1}^N \, q_i \, \mathbf{r}_i \, .</math>
Notice that this definition is valid only for neutral atoms or molecules, i.e. total charge equal to zero. In the ionized case, we have
: <math>\mathfrak{p} \sum_{i1}^N \, q_i \, (\mathbf{r}_i - \mathbf{r}_c) ,</math>
where <math> \mathbf{r}_c</math> is the center of mass of the molecule/group of particles.
Atomic dipoles
<!-- This section is linked from Intermolecular force -->
A non-degenerate (S-state) atom can have only a zero permanent dipole. This fact follows quantum mechanically from the inversion symmetry of atoms. All 3 components of the dipole operator are antisymmetric under inversion with respect to the nucleus,
: <math> \mathfrak{I} \;\mathfrak{p}\; \mathfrak{I}^{-1} = -\mathfrak{p}, </math>
where <math>\mathfrak{p}</math> is the dipole operator and <math>\mathfrak{I}</math> is the inversion operator.
The permanent dipole moment of an atom in a non-degenerate state (see degenerate energy level) is given as the expectation (average) value of the dipole operator,
: <math>\left\langle \mathfrak{p} \right\rangle = \left\langle\, S\, | \mathfrak{p} |\, S \,\right\rangle,</math>
where <math> |\, S\, \rangle </math> is an S-state, non-degenerate, wavefunction, which is symmetric or antisymmetric under inversion: <math> \mathfrak{I}\, |\, S\, \rangle = \pm|\, S\, \rangle</math>. Since the product of the wavefunction (in the ket) and its complex conjugate (in the bra) is always symmetric under inversion and its inverse,
: <math>
\left\langle \mathfrak{p} \right\rangle \left\langle\, \mathfrak{I}^{-1}\, S\, | \mathfrak{p} |\, \mathfrak{I}^{-1}\, S\, \right\rangle
\left\langle\, S\, | \mathfrak{I}\, \mathfrak{p}\, \mathfrak{I}^{-1} |\, S\, \right\rangle =
-\left\langle \mathfrak{p} \right\rangle
</math>
it follows that the expectation value changes sign under inversion. We used here the fact that <math> \mathfrak{I}</math>, being a symmetry operator, is unitary: <math> \mathfrak{I}^{-1} \mathfrak{I}^{*}\,</math> and by definition the Hermitian adjoint <math> \mathfrak{I}^*\,</math> may be moved from bra to ket and then becomes <math> \mathfrak{I}^{**} \mathfrak{I}\,</math>. Since the only quantity that is equal to minus itself is the zero, the expectation value vanishes,
: <math>\left\langle \mathfrak{p} \right\rangle = 0.</math>
In the case of open-shell atoms with degenerate energy levels, one could define a dipole moment by the aid of the first-order Stark effect. This gives a non-vanishing dipole (by definition proportional to a non-vanishing first-order Stark shift) only if some of the wavefunctions belonging to the degenerate energies have opposite parity; i.e., have different behavior under inversion. This is a rare occurrence, but happens for the excited H-atom, where 2s and 2p states are "accidentally" degenerate (see article Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector for the origin of this degeneracy) and have opposite parity (2s is even and 2p is odd).
Field of a static magnetic dipole
Magnitude
The far-field strength, B, of a dipole magnetic field is given by
: <math>B(m, r, \lambda) = \frac{\mu_0}{4\pi} \frac{m}{r^3} \sqrt{1 + 3\sin^2(\lambda)} \, ,</math>
where
: B is the strength of the field, measured in teslas
: r is the distance from the center, measured in metres
: λ is the magnetic latitude (equal to 90° − θ) where θ is the magnetic colatitude, measured in radians or degrees from the dipole axis
: m is the dipole moment, measured in ampere-square metres or joules per tesla
: μ<sub>0</sub> is the permeability of free space, measured in henries per metre.
Conversion to cylindrical coordinates is achieved using z<sup>2</sup> + ρ<sup>2</sup>}} and
: <math>\lambda = \arcsin\left(\frac{z}{\sqrt{z^2 + \rho^2}}\right)</math>
where ρ is the perpendicular distance from the z-axis. Then,
: <math>B(\rho, z) \frac{\mu_0 m}{4 \pi \left(z^2 + \rho^2\right)^\frac32} \sqrt{1 + \frac{3 z^2}{z^2 + \rho^2}}</math> Vector form
The field itself is a vector quantity:
: <math>\mathbf{B}(\mathbf{m}, \mathbf{r}) =
\frac{\mu_0}{4\pi} \ \frac{3(\mathbf{m} \cdot \hat{\mathbf{r}}) \hat{\mathbf{r}} - \mathbf{m}}{r^3}
</math>
where
: B is the field
: r is the vector from the position of the dipole to the position where the field is being measured
: r is the absolute value of r: the distance from the dipole
: r̂ = is the unit vector parallel to r;
: m is the (vector) dipole moment
: μ<sub>0</sub> is the permeability of free space
This is exactly the field of a point dipole, exactly the dipole term in the multipole expansion of an arbitrary field, and approximately the field of any dipole-like configuration at large distances.
Magnetic vector potential
The vector potential A of a magnetic dipole is
: <math>\mathbf{A}(\mathbf{r}) = \frac{\mu_0}{4\pi} \frac{\mathbf{m} \times \hat{\mathbf{r}}}{r^2}</math>
with the same definitions as above.
Field from an electric dipole
<!-- This section is linked from Intermolecular force -->
The electrostatic potential at position r due to an electric dipole at the origin is given by:
: <math> \Phi(\mathbf{r}) = \frac{1}{4\pi\epsilon_0}\,\frac{\mathbf{p}\cdot\hat{\mathbf{r}}}{r^2}</math>
where p is the (vector) dipole moment, and є<sub>0</sub> is the permittivity of free space.
This term appears as the second term in the multipole expansion of an arbitrary electrostatic potential Φ(r). If the source of Φ(r) is a dipole, as it is assumed here, this term is the only non-vanishing term in the multipole expansion of Φ(r). The electric field from a dipole can be found from the gradient of this potential:
: <math> \mathbf{E} - \nabla \Phi\frac {1} {4\pi\epsilon_0} \ \frac{3(\mathbf{p}\cdot\hat{\mathbf{r}})\hat{\mathbf{r}}-\mathbf{p}}{r^3} - \delta^3(\mathbf{r})\frac{\mathbf{p}}{3\epsilon_0}.</math>
This is of the same form of the expression for the magnetic field of a point magnetic dipole, ignoring the delta function.
In a real electric dipole, however, the charges are physically separate and the electric field diverges or converges at the point charges.
This is different to the magnetic field of a real magnetic dipole which is continuous everywhere. The delta function represents the strong field pointing in the opposite direction between the point charges, which is often omitted since one is rarely interested in the field at the dipole's position.
For further discussions about the internal field of dipoles, see or .
Torque on a dipole
Since the direction of an electric field is defined as the direction of the force on a positive charge, electric field lines point away from a positive charge and toward a negative charge.
When placed in a homogeneous electric or magnetic field, equal but opposite forces arise on each side of the dipole creating a torque }:
: <math> \boldsymbol{\tau} = \mathbf{p} \times \mathbf{E}</math>
for an electric dipole moment p (in coulomb-meters), or
: <math> \boldsymbol{\tau} = \mathbf{m} \times \mathbf{B}</math>
for a magnetic dipole moment m (in ampere-square meters).
The resulting torque will tend to align the dipole with the applied field, which in the case of an electric dipole, yields a potential energy of
: <math> U = -\mathbf{p} \cdot \mathbf{E}</math>.
The energy of a magnetic dipole is similarly
: <math> U -\mathbf{m} \cdot \mathbf{B}</math>. Dipole radiation
<!-- use of the far-field approximation for the near field yielded incorrect results, see archived discussion
is the z-component of the field. Cyan is zero magnitude, green–yellow–red and blue–pink–red are increasing strengths in opposing directions.]] -->
In addition to dipoles in electrostatics, it is also common to consider an electric or magnetic dipole that is oscillating in time. It is an extension, or a more physical next-step, to spherical wave radiation.
In particular, consider a harmonically oscillating electric dipole, with angular frequency ω and a dipole moment p<sub>0</sub> along the ẑ direction of the form
: <math>\mathbf{p}(\mathbf{r}, t) \mathbf{p}(\mathbf{r})e^{-i\omega t} p_0\hat{\mathbf{z}}e^{-i\omega t} .</math>
In vacuum, the exact field produced by this oscillating dipole can be derived using the retarded potential formulation as:
: <math>\begin{align}
\mathbf{E} &= \frac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0} \left\{
\frac{\omega^2}{c^2 r} \left( \hat{\mathbf{r}} \times \mathbf{p} \right) \times \hat{\mathbf{r}} +
\left( \frac{1}{r^3} - \frac{i\omega}{cr^2} \right)
\left( 3\hat{\mathbf{r}} \left[\hat{\mathbf{r}} \cdot \mathbf{p}\right] - \mathbf{p} \right)
\right\} e^\frac{i\omega r}{c} e^{-i\omega t} \\
\mathbf{B} &= \frac{\omega^2}{4\pi\varepsilon_0 c^3} (\hat{\mathbf{r}} \times \mathbf{p}) \left( 1 - \frac{c}{i\omega r} \right) \frac{e^{i\omega r/c}}{r} e^{-i\omega t}.
\end{align}</math>
For ≫ 1, the far-field takes the simpler form of a radiating "spherical" wave, but with angular dependence embedded in the cross-product:
: <math>\begin{align}
\mathbf{B}
&\frac{\omega^2}{4\pi\varepsilon_0 c^3} (\hat{\mathbf{r}} \times \mathbf{p}) \frac{e^{i\omega (r/c - t)}}{r} \frac{\omega^2 \mu_0 p_0 }{4\pi c} (\hat{\mathbf{r}} \times \hat{\mathbf{z}}) \frac{e^{i\omega (r/c - t)}}{r}
= -\frac{\omega^2 \mu_0 p_0 }{4\pi c} \sin(\theta) \frac{e^{i\omega (r/c - t)}}{r} \mathbf{\hat{\phi}} \\
\mathbf{E}
&c \mathbf{B} \times \hat{\mathbf{r}} -\frac{\omega^2 \mu_0 p_0}{4\pi} \sin(\theta) \left(\hat{\phi} \times \mathbf{\hat{r}}\right) \frac{e^{i\omega (r/c - t)}}{r}
= -\frac{\omega^2 \mu_0 p_0}{4\pi} \sin(\theta) \frac{e^{i\omega (r/c - t)}}{r} \hat{\theta}.
\end{align}</math>
The time-averaged Poynting vector
: <math>\langle \mathbf{S} \rangle = \left(\frac{\mu_0 p_0^2\omega^4}{32\pi^2 c}\right) \frac{\sin^2(\theta)}{r^2} \mathbf{\hat{r}}</math>
is not distributed isotropically, but concentrated around the directions lying perpendicular to the dipole moment, as a result of the non-spherical electric and magnetic waves. In fact, the spherical harmonic function (sin θ) responsible for such toroidal angular distribution is precisely the l = 1 "p" wave.
The total time-average power radiated by the field can then be derived from the Poynting vector as
: <math>P = \frac{\mu_0 \omega^4 p_0^2}{12\pi c}.</math>
Notice that the dependence of the power on the fourth power of the frequency of the radiation is in accordance with the Rayleigh scattering, and the underlying effects why the sky consists of mainly blue colour.
A circular polarized dipole is described as a superposition of two linear dipoles.
See also
* Polarization density
* Magnetic dipole models
* Dipole model of the Earth's magnetic field
* Electret
* Indian Ocean Dipole and Subtropical Indian Ocean Dipole, two oceanographic phenomena
* Magnetic dipole–dipole interaction
* Spin magnetic moment
* Monopole
* Solid harmonics
* Axial multipole moments
* Cylindrical multipole moments
* Spherical multipole moments
* Laplace expansion
* Molecular solid
* Magnetic moment#Internal magnetic field of a dipole
Notes
References External links
* [https://geomag.usgs.gov USGS Geomagnetism Program]
* [https://lightandmatter.com/html_books/4em/ch05/ch05.html Fields of Force] : a chapter from an online textbook
* [https://demonstrations.wolfram.com/ElectricDipolePotential/ Electric Dipole Potential] by Stephen Wolfram and [http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/EnergyDensityOfAMagneticDipole/ Energy Density of a Magnetic Dipole] by Franz Krafft. Wolfram Demonstrations Project.
Category:Electromagnetism
Category:Potential theory
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Dynamics
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Dynamics (from Greek δυναμικός dynamikos "powerful", from δύναμις dynamis "power") or dynamic may refer to:
Physics and engineering
Dynamics (mechanics), the study of forces and their effect on motion
Brands and enterprises
Dynamic (record label), an Italian record label in Genoa
Mathematics
Dynamical system, a concept describing a point's time dependency
Topological dynamics, the study of dynamical systems from the viewpoint of general topology
Symbolic dynamics, a method to model dynamical systems
Social science
Group dynamics, the study of social group processes especially
Population dynamics, in life sciences, the changes in the composition of a population
Psychodynamics, the study of psychological forces driving human behavior
Social dynamics, the ability of a society to react to changes
Spiral Dynamics, a social development theory
Other uses
Dynamics (music), the softness or loudness of a sound or note
DTA Dynamic, a French ultralight trike wing design
Force dynamics, a semantic concept about how entities interact with reference to force
Dynamics (album)
The Dynamics, American R&B group
See also
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
Kinetics (disambiguation)
Power (disambiguation)
Static (disambiguation)
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Draught beer
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Draught beer, also spelt<!---This is the correct spelling in British English, in which this article is written, please do not change or remove this note.--> draft, is beer served from a cask or keg rather than from a bottle or can. Draught beer served from a pressurised keg is also known as
Name
Until Joseph Bramah patented the beer engine in 1785, beer was served directly from the barrel and carried to the customer. The Old English }} ("carry; pull") developed into a series of related words including drag, draw, and draught. By the time Bramah's beer pumps became popular, the use of the term draught to refer to the acts of serving or drinking beer was well established and transferred easily to beer served via the hand pumps. In time, the word came to be restricted to only such beer. The usual spelling is now "draught" in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, and New Zealand and more commonly "draft" in North America, although it can be spe<!--British English-->lt<!--not an error--> either way. Regardless of spelling, the word is pronounced or depending on the region the speaker is from.
Canned draught is beer served from a pressurised container featuring a widget. Smooth flow (also known as cream flow, nitrokeg, or smooth) is the name brewers give to draught beers pressurised with a partial nitrogen gas blend. History
In 1691, an article in the London Gazette mentioned John Lofting, who held a patent for a fire engine: "The said patentee has also projected a very useful engine for starting of beer, and other liquors which will draw from 20 to 30 barrels an hour, which are completely fixed with brass joints and screws at reasonable rates".
In the early 20th century, draught beer started to be served from pressurised containers. Artificial carbonation was introduced in the United Kingdom in 1936, with Watney's experimental pasteurised beer Red Barrel. Though this method of serving beer did not take hold in the UK until the late 1950s, it did become the favoured method in the rest of Europe, where it is known by such terms as en pression. The carbonation method of serving beer subsequently spread to the rest of the world; by the early 1970s the term "draught beer" almost exclusively referred to beer served under pressure as opposed to the traditional cask or barrel beer.
In Britain, the Campaign for Real Ale (CAMRA) was founded in 1971 to protect traditional—unpressurised—beer and brewing methods. The group devised the term real ale to differentiate between beer served from the cask and beer served under pressure. The term real ale has since been expanded to include bottle-conditioned beer.
Keg beer
Keg beer is often filtered and/or pasteurised, both of which are processes that render the yeast inactive.
In brewing parlance, a keg is different from a cask. A cask has a tap hole near the edge of the top, and a spile hole on the side used for conditioning the unfiltered and unpasteurised beer. A keg has a single opening in the centre of the top to which a flow pipe is attached. Kegs are artificially pressurised after fermentation with carbon dioxide or a mixture of carbon dioxide and nitrogen gas or especially in Czech Republic solely compressed air.
Keg has become a term of contempt used by some, particularly in the UK, since the 1960s when pasteurised draught beers started replacing traditional cask beers.
Keg beer was replacing traditional cask ale in all parts of the UK, primarily because it requires less care to handle. Since 1971, CAMRA has conducted a consumer campaign on behalf of those who prefer traditional cask beer. CAMRA has lobbied the British Parliament to ensure support for cask ale and microbreweries have sprung up to serve those consumers who prefer traditional cask beer.
Pressurised CO<sub>2</sub> in the keg's headspace maintains carbonation in the beer. The CO<sub>2</sub> pressure varies depending on the amount of CO<sub>2</sub> already in the beer and the keg storage temperature. Occasionally the CO<sub>2</sub> gas is blended with nitrogen gas. CO<sub>2</sub> / nitrogen blends are used to allow a higher operating pressure in complex dispensing systems.
Nitrogen is used under high pressure when dispensing dry stouts (such as Guinness) and other creamy beers because it displaces CO<sub>2</sub> to (artificially) form a rich tight head and a less carbonated taste. This makes the beer feel smooth on the palate and gives a foamy appearance. Premixed bottled gas for creamy beers is usually 75% nitrogen and 25% CO<sub>2</sub>. This premixed gas, which only works well with creamy beers, is often referred to as Guinness Gas, Beer Gas, or Aligal (an Air Liquide brand name). Using "Beer Gas" with other beer styles can cause the last 5% to 10% of the beer in each keg to taste very flat and lifeless. In the UK, the term keg beer would imply the beer is pasteurised, in contrast to unpasteurised cask ale. Some of the newer microbreweries may offer a nitro keg stout which is filtered but not pasteurised. Storage and serving temperature Cask beer should be stored and served at a cellar temperature of . Once a cask is opened, it should be consumed within three days. Keg beer is given additional cooling just prior to being served either by flash coolers or a remote cooler in the cellar. This chills the beer to temperatures between .
Canned and bottled "draught"
The words "draft" and "draught" have been used as marketing terms to describe canned or bottled beers, implying that they taste and appear like beers from a cask or keg. Commercial brewers use this as a marketing tool although it is incorrect to call any beer not drawn from a cask or keg "draught". Two examples are Miller Genuine Draft, a pale lager which is produced using a cold filtering system, and Guinness stout in patented "Draught-flow" cans and bottles. Guinness is an example of beers that use a nitrogen widget to create a smooth beer with a dense head. Guinness has recently replaced the widget system from their bottled "draught" beer with a coating of cellulose fibres on the inside of the bottle. Statements indicate a new development in bottling technology that enables the mixture of nitrogen and carbon dioxide to be present in the beer without using a widget, making it according to Guinness "more drinkable" from the bottle.
In East Asian countries, such as China and Japan, the term "draft beer" () applied to canned or bottled beer indicates that the beer is not pasteurised (though it may be filtered), giving it a fresher taste but shorter shelf-life than conventional packaged beers.
See also
* Cask ale
* Beer tap
* Cask breather
* Growler (jug)
References
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071121184425/http://www.alabev.com/draught.htm Draught Beer Information]: Much information regarding draught beer storage and equipment.
* [http://www.heinekenireland.com/content/live/Downloads/Draught%20Product%20Suppliers%20Cooling%20Specification.pdf Irish Specification]: PDF version of The Irish Draught Beer Specification
* [http://www.1001-beers.com/index-choix-game-draft-beer.html Serving a draught beer] - Information about how to use properly a draught beer dispensing device
Category:Types of beer
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Director
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Director may refer to:
Literature
Director (magazine), a British magazine
The Director (novel), a 1971 novel by Henry Denker
The Director (play), a 2000 play by Nancy Hasty
Music
Director (band), an Irish rock band
Director (Avant album) (2006)
Director (Yonatan Gat album)
Occupations and positions
Arts and design
Animation director
Artistic director
Creative director
Design director
Film director
Music director
Music video director
Television director
Theatre director
Positions in other fields
Director (business), a senior-level management position
Director (colonial), head of chartered company's colonial administration for a territory
Director (education), head of a university or other educational body
Company director, a member of (for example) a board of directors
Cruise director
Executive director, senior operating officer or manager of an organization or corporation, usually at a nonprofit
Finance director or chief financial officer
Funeral director
Managing director
Non-executive director
Technical director
Tournament director
Science and technology
Director (military), a device that continuously calculates firing data
Adobe Director, multimedia authoring software
Fibre Channel director, a large switch for computer storage networks
Director telephone system, or Director exchange
GCR Class 11E or Directors, a class of locomotive
Director, the spatial and temporal average of the orientation of the long molecular axis within a small volume element of liquid crystal
Other uses
Director (1969 film), a Soviet film directed by Alexey Saltykov
Director (2009 film), an American film directed by Aleks Rosenberg
The Director, an artificial intelligence system in the video game Left 4 Dead
HMS Director (1784), a ship of the British Royal Navy
Directors beer, by Courage Brewery
People with the surname
Aaron Director (1901–2004), professor at the University of Chicago Law School
Kim Director (born 1974), American actress
See also
Deputy Director (disambiguation)
Directeur sportif, a person directing a cycling team during a road bicycle racing event
Director-general
Director string, a way of tracking free variables in computation
French Directory, the executive committee of the French Revolutionary government between 1795 and 1799
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Major depressive disorder
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}}
Risk factors include a family history of the condition, major life changes, childhood traumas, environmental lead exposure, certain medications, chronic health problems, and substance use disorders. Depressed people may be preoccupied with or ruminate over thoughts and feelings of worthlessness, inappropriate guilt or regret, helplessness or hopelessness.
Other symptoms of depression include poor concentration and memory, withdrawal from social situations and activities, reduced sex drive, irritability, and thoughts of death or suicide. Insomnia is common; in the typical pattern, a person wakes very early and cannot get back to sleep. Hypersomnia, or oversleeping, can also happen, as well as day-night rhythm disturbances, such as diurnal mood variation.<!-- cites 3 previous sentences --> Some antidepressants may also cause insomnia due to their stimulating effect. In severe cases, depressed people may have psychotic symptoms. These symptoms include delusions or, less commonly, hallucinations, usually unpleasant. People who have had previous episodes with psychotic symptoms are more likely to have them with future episodes.
A depressed person may report multiple physical symptoms such as fatigue, headaches, or digestive problems; physical complaints are the most common presenting problem in developing countries, according to the World Health Organization's criteria for depression. Appetite often decreases, resulting in weight loss, although increased appetite and weight gain occasionally occur. Family and friends may notice agitation or lethargy. Older depressed people may have cognitive symptoms of recent onset, such as forgetfulness, and a more noticeable slowing of movements.
Depressed children may often display an irritable rather than a depressed mood; most lose interest in school and show a steep decline in academic performance. Diagnosis may be delayed or missed when symptoms are interpreted as "normal moodiness". Elderly people may not present with classical depressive symptoms.]]
The etiology of depression is not yet fully understood. The biopsychosocial model proposes that biological, psychological, and social factors all play a role in causing depression. The diathesis–stress model specifies that depression results when a preexisting vulnerability, or diathesis, is activated by stressful life events. The preexisting vulnerability can be either genetic, implying an interaction between nature and nurture, or schematic, resulting from views of the world learned in childhood. American psychiatrist Aaron Beck suggested that a triad of automatic and spontaneous negative thoughts about the self, the world or environment, and the future may lead to other depressive signs and symptoms.
Genetics
Genes play a major role in the development of depression. Family and twin studies suggest that genetic factors account for nearly 40% of the variation in risk for major depressive disorder. Like most psychiatric disorders, major depression is likely shaped by a combination of many individual genetic influences. In 2018, a genome-wide association study discovered 44 genetic variants linked to risk for major depression; a 2019 study found 102 variants in the genome linked to depression. However, it appears that major depression is less heritable compared to bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Research focusing on specific candidate genes has been criticized for its tendency to generate false positive findings. There are also other efforts to examine interactions between life stress and polygenic risk for depression.Other health problemsDepression can also arise after a chronic or terminal medical condition, such as HIV/AIDS or asthma, and may be labeled "secondary depression". It is unknown whether the underlying diseases induce depression through effect on quality of life, or through shared etiologies (such as degeneration of the basal ganglia in Parkinson's disease or immune dysregulation in asthma). Depression may also be iatrogenic (the result of healthcare), such as drug-induced depression. Therapies associated with depression include interferons, beta-blockers, isotretinoin, contraceptives, anticonvulsants, and hormonal agents. Celiac disease is another possible contributing factor.
Substance use in early age is associated with increased risk of developing depression later in life. Depression occurring after giving birth is called postpartum depression and is thought to be the result of hormonal changes associated with pregnancy. Seasonal affective disorder, a type of depression associated with seasonal changes in sunlight, is thought to be triggered by decreased sunlight.
Vitamin B<sub>2</sub>, B<sub>6</sub> and B<sub>12</sub> deficiency may cause depression in females.
A 2025 study found that, among more than 172,500 adults in the UK aged 39 and older, those with a history of depression experienced the onset of chronic illnesses approximately 30% earlier than those without depression.
Environmental
Adverse childhood experiences (incorporating childhood abuse, neglect and family dysfunction) markedly increase the risk of major depression, especially if more than one type. Childhood trauma also correlates with severity of depression, poor responsiveness to treatment and length of illness. Some are more susceptible than others to developing mental illness such as depression after trauma, and various genes have been suggested to control susceptibility. Couples in unhappy marriages have a higher risk of developing clinical depression.
There appears to be a link between air pollution and depression and suicide. There may be an association between long-term PM2.5 exposure and depression, and a possible association between short-term PM10 exposure and suicide.
Living alone has been found to increase the risk of depression by 42%.Pathophysiology
The pathophysiology of depression is not completely understood, but current theories center around monoaminergic systems, the circadian rhythm, immunological dysfunction, HPA-axis dysfunction, and structural or functional abnormalities of emotional circuits.
Derived from the effectiveness of monoaminergic drugs in treating depression, the monoamine theory posits that insufficient activity of monoamine neurotransmitters is the primary cause of depression. Evidence for the monoamine theory comes from multiple areas. First, acute depletion of tryptophan—a necessary precursor of serotonin and a monoamine—can cause depression in those in remission or relatives of people who are depressed, suggesting that decreased serotonergic neurotransmission is important in depression. Second, the correlation between depression risk and polymorphisms in the 5-HTTLPR gene, which codes for serotonin receptors, suggests a link. Third, decreased size of the locus coeruleus, reduced activity of tyrosine hydroxylase, increased density of alpha-2 adrenergic receptor, and evidence from rat models suggest decreased adrenergic neurotransmission in depression. Furthermore, decreased levels of homovanillic acid, altered response to dextroamphetamine, responses of depressive symptoms to dopamine receptor agonists, decreased dopamine receptor D1 binding in the striatum, and polymorphism of dopamine receptor genes implicate dopamine, another monoamine, in depression. Lastly, increased activity of monoamine oxidase, which degrades monoamines, has been associated with depression. However, the monoamine theory is inconsistent with observations that serotonin depletion does not cause depression in healthy persons, that antidepressants instantly increase levels of monoamines but take weeks to work, and the existence of atypical antidepressants which can be effective despite not targeting this pathway.
One proposed explanation for the therapeutic lag, and further support for the deficiency of monoamines, is a desensitization of self-inhibition in raphe nuclei by the increased serotonin mediated by antidepressants. However, disinhibition of the dorsal raphe has been proposed to occur as a result of decreased serotonergic activity in tryptophan depletion, resulting in a depressed state mediated by increased serotonin. Further countering the monoamine hypothesis is the fact that rats with lesions of the dorsal raphe are not more depressive than controls; the finding of increased jugular 5-HIAA in people who are depressed that normalized with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) treatment, and the preference for carbohydrates in people who are depressed. Already limited, the monoamine hypothesis has been further oversimplified when presented to the general public. A 2022 review found no consistent evidence supporting the serotonin hypothesis linking serotonin levels and depression.
HPA-axis abnormalities have been suggested in depression given the association of CRHR1 with depression and the increased frequency of dexamethasone test non-suppression in people who are depressed. However, this abnormality is not adequate as a diagnosis tool because its sensitivity is only 44%. These stress-related abnormalities are thought to be the cause of hippocampal volume reductions seen in people who are depressed. Furthermore, a meta-analysis yielded decreased dexamethasone suppression, and increased response to psychological stressors. Further abnormal results have been obscured with the cortisol awakening response, with increased response being associated with depression.
There is also a connection between the gut microbiome and the central nervous system, otherwise known as the Gut-Brain axis, which is a two-way communication system between the brain and the gut. Experiments have shown that microbiota in the gut can play an important role in depression, as people with MDD often have gut-brain dysfunction. One analysis showed that those with MDD have different bacteria in their guts. Bacteria Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes were most affected in people with MDD, and they are also impacted in people with irritable bowel syndrome. Another study showed that people with IBS have a higher chance of developing depression, which shows the two are connected. There is even evidence suggesting that altering the microbes in the gut can have regulatory effects on developing depression. Another model, the cortico-striatal model, suggests that abnormalities of the prefrontal cortex in regulating striatal and subcortical structures result in depression. Another model proposes hyperactivity of salience structures in identifying negative stimuli and hypoactivity of cortical regulatory structures resulting in a negative emotional bias and depression, consistent with emotional bias studies. Immune pathogenesis theories on depression
The newer field of psychoneuroimmunology, the study between the immune system and the nervous system and emotional state, suggests that cytokines may impact depression.
Immune system abnormalities have been observed, including increased levels of cytokines -cells produced by immune cells that affect inflammation- involved in generating sickness behavior, creating a pro-inflammatory profile in MDD. Some people with depression have increased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and some have decreased levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines. Research suggests that treatments can reduce pro-inflammatory cell production, like the experimental treatment of ketamine with treatment-resistant depression. With this, in MDD, people will more likely have a Th-1 dominant immune profile, which is a pro-inflammatory profile. This suggests that there are components of the immune system affecting the pathology of MDD.
Another way cytokines can affect depression is in the kynurenine pathway, and when this is overactivated, it can cause depression. This can be due to too much microglial activation and too little astrocytic activity. When microglia get activated, they release pro-inflammatory cytokines that cause an increase in the production of COX<sub>2</sub>. This, in turn, causes the production of PGE<sub>2</sub>, which is a prostaglandin, and this catalyzes the production of indolamine, IDO. IDO causes tryptophan to get converted into kynurenine, and kynurenine becomes quinolinic acid. Quinolinic acid is an agonist for NMDA receptors, so it activates the pathway. Studies have shown that the post-mortem brains of patients with MDD have higher levels of quinolinic acid than people who did not have MDD. With this, researchers have also seen that the concentration of quinolinic acid correlates to the severity of depressive symptoms.<!--
MRI scans of people with depression have revealed a number of differences in brain structure compared to those who are not depressed. Meta-analyses of neuroimaging studies in major depression report that, compared to controls, people who are depressed have increased volume of the lateral ventricles and adrenal gland and smaller volumes of the basal ganglia, thalamus, hippocampus, and frontal lobe (including the orbitofrontal cortex and gyrus rectus). Hyperintensities have been associated with people with a late age of onset, and have led to the development of the theory of vascular depression. -->
Diagnosis
Assessment
A diagnostic assessment may be conducted by a suitably trained general practitioner, or by a psychiatrist or psychologist, This issue is even more marked in developing countries. Rating scales are not used to diagnose depression, but they provide an indication of the severity of symptoms for a time period, so a person who scores above a given cut-off point can be more thoroughly evaluated for a depressive disorder diagnosis. Several rating scales are used for this purpose;<!-- cites two previous sentences --> these include the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression, the Beck Depression Inventory or the Suicide Behaviors Questionnaire-Revised.
Primary-care physicians have more difficulty with underrecognition and undertreatment of depression compared to psychiatrists. These cases may be missed because for some people with depression, physical symptoms often accompany depression. In addition, there may also be barriers related to the person, provider, and/or the medical system. Non-psychiatrist physicians have been shown to miss about two-thirds of cases, although there is some evidence of improvement in the number of missed cases.
A doctor generally performs a medical examination and selected investigations to rule out other causes of depressive symptoms. These include blood tests measuring TSH and thyroxine to exclude hypothyroidism; basic electrolytes and serum calcium to rule out a metabolic disturbance; and a full blood count including ESR to rule out a systemic infection or chronic disease. Adverse affective reactions to medications or alcohol misuse may be ruled out, as well. Testosterone levels may be evaluated to diagnose hypogonadism, a cause of depression in men. Vitamin D levels might be evaluated, as low levels of vitamin D have been associated with greater risk for depression. Cognitive testing and brain imaging can help distinguish depression from dementia. A CT scan can exclude brain pathology in those with psychotic, rapid-onset or otherwise unusual symptoms. No biological tests confirm major depression. In general, investigations are not repeated for a subsequent episode unless there is a medical indication.
DSM and ICD criteria
The most widely used criteria for diagnosing depressive conditions are found in the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) and the World Health Organization's International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD). The latter system is typically used in European countries, while the former is used in the US and many other non-European nations, and the authors of both have worked towards conforming one with the other. Both DSM and ICD mark out typical (main) depressive symptoms. and the most recent edition of the ICD is the Eleventh Edition (ICD-11).
Under mood disorders, ICD-11 classifies major depressive disorder as either single episode depressive disorder (where there is no history of depressive episodes, or of mania) or recurrent depressive disorder (where there is a history of prior episodes, with no history of mania). ICD-11 symptoms, present nearly every day for at least two weeks, are a depressed mood or anhedonia, accompanied by other symptoms such as "difficulty concentrating, feelings of worthlessness or excessive or inappropriate guilt, hopelessness, recurrent thoughts of death or suicide, changes in appetite or sleep, psychomotor agitation or retardation, and reduced energy or fatigue." Major depressive disorder is classified as a mood disorder in the DSM-5. The diagnosis hinges on the presence of single or recurrent major depressive episodes. Further qualifiers are used to classify both the episode itself and the course of the disorder. The category Unspecified Depressive Disorder is diagnosed if the depressive episode's manifestation does not meet the criteria for a major depressive episode. Episodes may be isolated or recurrent and are categorized as mild (few symptoms in excess of minimum criteria), moderate, or severe (marked impact on social or occupational functioning). An episode with psychotic features—commonly referred to as psychotic depression—is automatically rated as severe.
Bereavement is not an exclusion criterion in the DSM-5, and it is up to the clinician to distinguish between normal reactions to a loss and MDD. Excluded are a range of related diagnoses, including dysthymia, which involves a chronic but milder mood disturbance; recurrent brief depression, consisting of briefer depressive episodes; minor depressive disorder, whereby only some symptoms of major depression are present; and adjustment disorder with depressed mood, which denotes low mood resulting from a psychological response to an identifiable event or stressor.Subtypes
The DSM-5 recognizes six further subtypes of MDD, called specifiers, in addition to noting the length, severity and presence of psychotic features:
* "Melancholic depression" is characterized by a loss of pleasure in most or all activities, a failure of reactivity to pleasurable stimuli, a quality of depressed mood more pronounced than that of grief or loss, a worsening of symptoms in the morning hours, early-morning waking, psychomotor retardation, excessive weight loss (not to be confused with anorexia nervosa), or excessive guilt.
* "Depression with peri-partum onset" refers to the intense, sustained and sometimes disabling depression experienced by women after giving birth or while a woman is pregnant. DSM-IV-TR used the classification "postpartum depression", but this was changed to not exclude cases of depressed woman during pregnancy. Depression with peripartum onset has an incidence rate of 3–6% among new mothers. The DSM-5 mandates that to qualify as depression with peripartum onset, onset occurs during pregnancy or within one month of delivery.<!-- cites paragraph -->
* "Seasonal affective disorder" (SAD) is a form of depression in which depressive episodes come on in the autumn or winter, and resolve in spring. The diagnosis is made if at least two episodes have occurred in colder months with none at other times, over a two-year period or longer.Differential diagnoses
To confirm major depressive disorder as the most likely diagnosis, other potential diagnoses must be considered, including dysthymia, adjustment disorder with depressed mood, or bipolar disorder. Dysthymia is a chronic, milder mood disturbance in which a person reports a low mood almost daily over a span of at least two years. The symptoms are not as severe as those for major depression, although people with dysthymia are vulnerable to secondary episodes of major depression (sometimes referred to as double depression). though a 2005 Cochrane review found that the routine use of screening questionnaires has little effect on detection or treatment. Screening the general population is not recommended by authorities in the UK or Canada for similar reasons, citing insufficient data. Because such interventions appear to be most effective when delivered to individuals or small groups, it has been suggested that they may be able to reach their large target audience most efficiently through the Internet.
The Netherlands mental health care system provides preventive interventions, such as the "Coping with Depression" course (CWD) for people with sub-threshold depression. The course is claimed to be the most successful of psychoeducational interventions for the treatment and prevention of depression (both for its adaptability to various populations and its results), with a risk reduction of 38% in major depression and an efficacy as a treatment comparing favorably to other psychotherapies.Management
The most common and effective treatments for depression are psychotherapy, medication, and electroconvulsive therapy (ECT); a combination of treatments is the most effective approach when depression is resistant to treatment. American Psychiatric Association treatment guidelines recommend that initial treatment should be individually tailored based on factors including severity of symptoms, co-existing disorders, prior treatment experience, and personal preference. Options may include pharmacotherapy, psychotherapy, exercise, ECT, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) or light therapy. Antidepressant medication is recommended as an initial treatment choice in people with mild, moderate, or severe major depression, and should be given to all people with severe depression unless ECT is planned. There is evidence that collaborative care by a team of health care practitioners produces better results than routine single-practitioner care.
Psychotherapy is the treatment of choice (over medication) for people under 18, and cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), third wave CBT and interpersonal therapy may help prevent depression. The UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) 2004 guidelines indicate that antidepressants should not be used for the initial treatment of mild depression because the risk-benefit ratio is poor. The guidelines recommend that antidepressants treatment in combination with psychosocial interventions should be considered for:
Treatment options are more limited in developing countries, where access to mental health staff, medication, and psychotherapy is often difficult. Development of mental health services is minimal in many countries; depression is viewed as a phenomenon of the developed world despite evidence to the contrary, and not as an inherently life-threatening condition. There is insufficient evidence to determine the effectiveness of psychological versus medical therapy in children.Lifestyle
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Physical exercise has been found to be effective for major depression, and may be recommended to people who are willing, motivated, and healthy enough to participate in an exercise program as treatment. It is equivalent to the use of medications or psychological therapies in most people. Sleep and diet may also play a role in depression, and interventions in these areas may be an effective add-on to conventional methods. In studies, smoking cessation has benefits in depression.Talking therapies
Talking therapy (psychotherapy) can be delivered to individuals, groups, or families by mental health professionals, including psychotherapists, psychiatrists, psychologists, clinical social workers, counselors, and psychiatric nurses. A 2012 review found psychotherapy to be better than no treatment but not other treatments. With more complex and chronic forms of depression, a combination of medication and psychotherapy may be used. There is moderate-quality evidence that psychological therapies are a useful addition to standard antidepressant treatment of treatment-resistant depression in the short term. Psychotherapy has been shown to be effective in older people. Successful psychotherapy appears to reduce the recurrence of depression even after it has been stopped or replaced by occasional booster sessions.
The most-studied form of psychotherapy for depression is CBT, which teaches clients to challenge self-defeating, but enduring ways of thinking (cognitions) and change counter-productive behaviors. CBT can perform as well as antidepressants in people with major depression. CBT has the most research evidence for the treatment of depression in children and adolescents, and CBT and interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) are preferred therapies for adolescent depression. In people under 18, according to the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence, medication should be offered only in conjunction with a psychological therapy, such as CBT, interpersonal therapy, or family therapy. Several variables predict success for cognitive behavioral therapy in adolescents: higher levels of rational thoughts, less hopelessness, fewer negative thoughts, and fewer cognitive distortions. CBT is particularly beneficial in preventing relapse. Cognitive behavioral therapy and occupational programs (including modification of work activities and assistance) have been shown to be effective in reducing sick days taken by workers with depression. and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy. Mindfulness-based stress reduction programs may reduce depression symptoms. Mindfulness programs also appear to be a promising intervention in youth. Problem solving therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy, and interpersonal therapy are effective interventions in the elderly. Psychoanalytic techniques are used by some practitioners to treat clients presenting with major depression. A more widely practiced therapy, called psychodynamic psychotherapy, is in the tradition of psychoanalysis but less intensive, meeting once or twice a week. It also tends to focus more on the person's immediate problems, and has an additional social and interpersonal focus. In a meta-analysis of three controlled trials of Short Psychodynamic Supportive Psychotherapy, this modification was found to be as effective as medication for mild to moderate depression.
Antidepressants
(Zoloft) is used primarily to treat major depression in adults.]]
Conflicting results have arisen from studies that look at the effectiveness of antidepressants in people with acute, mild to moderate depression. A review commissioned by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (UK) concluded that there is strong evidence that SSRIs, such as escitalopram, paroxetine, and sertraline, have greater efficacy than placebo on achieving a 50% reduction in depression scores in moderate and severe major depression, and that there is some evidence for a similar effect in mild depression. Similarly, a Cochrane systematic review of clinical trials of the generic tricyclic antidepressant amitriptyline concluded that there is strong evidence that its efficacy is superior to placebo. Antidepressants work less well for the elderly than for younger individuals with depression.
To find the most effective antidepressant medication with minimal side-effects, the dosages can be adjusted, and if necessary, combinations of different classes of antidepressants can be tried. Response rates to the first antidepressant administered range from 50 to 75%, and it can take at least six to eight weeks from the start of medication to improvement. Antidepressant medication treatment is usually continued for 6–9 months after remission, to minimize the chance of recurrence, and even up to two years of continuation is recommended. People who do not respond to one SSRI can be switched to another antidepressant, and this results in improvement in almost 50% of cases.<!--per the WP:MEDRS guideline, review articles should ideally be less than 5 yrs, pref. less than 3 years old--> Another option is to augment the atypical antidepressant bupropion to the SSRI as an adjunctive treatment. Venlafaxine, an antidepressant with a different mechanism of action, may be modestly more effective than SSRIs. However, venlafaxine is not recommended in the UK as a first-line treatment because of evidence suggesting its risks may outweigh benefits, and it is specifically discouraged in children and adolescents as it increases the risk of suicidal thoughts or attempts.
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For children and adolescents with moderate-to-severe depressive disorder, fluoxetine seems to be the best treatment (either with or without cognitive behavioural therapy) but more research is needed to be certain. Some antidepressants have not been shown to be effective. Any antidepressant can cause low blood sodium levels; nevertheless, it has been reported more often with SSRIs. It is not uncommon for SSRIs to cause or worsen insomnia; the sedating atypical antidepressant mirtazapine can be used in such cases. The safety profile is different with reversible monoamine oxidase inhibitors, such as moclobemide, where the risk of serious dietary interactions is negligible and dietary restrictions are less strict.
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It is unclear whether antidepressants affect a person's risk of suicide. For children, adolescents, and probably young adults between 18 and 24 years old, there is a higher risk of both suicidal ideations and suicidal behavior in those treated with SSRIs. For adults, it is unclear whether SSRIs affect the risk of suicidality. One review found no connection; another an increased risk; and a third no risk in those 25–65 years old and a decreased risk in those more than 65. A black box warning was introduced in the United States in 2007 on SSRIs and other antidepressant medications due to the increased risk of suicide in people younger than 24 years old. Similar precautionary notice revisions were implemented by the Japanese Ministry of Health.Other medications and supplementsThe combined use of antidepressants plus benzodiazepines demonstrates improved effectiveness when compared to antidepressants alone, but these effects may not endure. The addition of a benzodiazepine is balanced against possible harms and other alternative treatment strategies when antidepressant mono-therapy is considered inadequate.<!-- cites paragraph -->
For treatment-resistant depression, adding on the atypical antipsychotic brexpiprazole for short-term or acute management may be considered. Brexpiprazole may be effective for some people, however, the evidence as of 2023 supporting its use is weak and this medication has potential adverse effects including weight gain and akathisia. A nasal spray form of esketamine was approved by the FDA in March 2019 for use in treatment-resistant depression when combined with an oral antidepressant; risk of substance use disorder and concerns about its safety, serious adverse effects, tolerability, effect on suicidality, lack of information about dosage, whether the studies on it adequately represent broad populations, and escalating use of the product have been raised by an international panel of experts.
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and cytokine inhibitors are effective in treating depression. For instance, Celecoxib, an NSAID, is a selective COX-2 inhibitor– which is an enzyme that helps in the production of pain and inflammation. In recent clinical trials, this NSAID has been shown helpful with treatment-resistant depression as it helps inhibit proinflammatory signaling.
Statins, which are anti-inflammatory medications prescribed to lower cholesterol levels, have also been shown to have antidepressant effects. When prescribed for patients already taking SSRIs, this add-on treatment was shown to improve anti-depressant effects of SSRIs when compared to the placebo group. With this, statins have been shown to be effective in preventing depression in some cases too.
There is insufficient high quality evidence to suggest omega-3 fatty acids are effective in depression. There is limited evidence that vitamin D supplementation is of value in alleviating the symptoms of depression in individuals who are vitamin D-deficient. Lithium appears effective at lowering the risk of suicide in those with bipolar disorder and unipolar depression by about 80%. There is a narrow range of effective and safe dosages of lithium thus close monitoring may be needed. Low-dose thyroid hormone may be added to existing antidepressants to treat persistent depression symptoms. Limited evidence suggests stimulants, such as amphetamine and modafinil, may be effective in the short term, or as adjuvant therapy. Also, it is suggested that folate supplements may have a role in depression management. There is tentative evidence for benefit from testosterone in males.
Electroconvulsive therapy
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is a standard psychiatric treatment in which seizures are electrically induced in a person with depression to provide relief from psychiatric illnesses. ECT is used with informed consent as a last line of intervention for major depressive disorder. Follow-up treatment is still poorly studied, but about half of people who respond relapse within twelve months. Aside from effects in the brain, the general physical risks of ECT are similar to those of brief general anesthesia. Immediately following treatment, the most common adverse effects are confusion and memory loss. ECT is considered one of the least harmful treatment options available for severely depressed pregnant women.
A usual course of ECT involves multiple administrations, typically given two or three times per week, with a total of six to twelve treatments. ECT is administered under anesthesia with a muscle relaxant. Electroconvulsive therapy can differ in its application in three ways: electrode placement, frequency of treatments, and the electrical waveform of the stimulus. These three forms of application have significant differences in both adverse side effects and symptom remission. After treatment, drug therapy is usually continued, and some people receive maintenance ECT.OtherTranscranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) or deep transcranial magnetic stimulation is a noninvasive method used to stimulate small regions of the brain. TMS was approved by the FDA for treatment-resistant major depressive disorder (trMDD) in 2008. The American Psychiatric Association, the Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Disorders, and the Royal Australia and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists have endorsed TMS for trMDD. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is another noninvasive method used to stimulate small regions of the brain with a weak electric current. Several meta-analyses have concluded that active tDCS was useful for treating depression.
There is a small amount of evidence that sleep deprivation may improve depressive symptoms in some individuals, with the effects usually showing up within a day. This effect is usually temporary. Besides sleepiness, this method can cause a side effect of mania or hypomania. There is insufficient evidence for Reiki and dance movement therapy in depression. Cannabis is specifically not recommended as a treatment.
The microbiome of people with major depressive disorder differs from that of healthy people, and probiotic and synbiotic treatment may achieve a modest depressive symptom reduction. With this, fecal microbiota transplants (FMT) are being researched as add-on therapy treatments for people who do not respond to typical therapies. It has been shown that the patient's depressive symptoms improved, with minor gastrointestinal issues, after a FMT, with improvements in symptoms lasting at least 4 weeks after the transplant.PrognosisStudies have shown that 80% of those with a first major depressive episode will have at least one more during their life, with a lifetime average of four episodes. Other general population studies indicate that around half those who have an episode recover (whether treated or not) and remain well, while the other half will have at least one more, and around 15% of those experience chronic recurrence. Studies recruiting from selective inpatient sources suggest lower recovery and higher chronicity, while studies of mostly outpatients show that nearly all recover, with a median episode duration of 11 months. Around 90% of those with severe or psychotic depression, most of whom also meet criteria for other mental disorders, experience recurrence. Cases when outcome is poor are associated with inappropriate treatment, severe initial symptoms including psychosis, early age of onset, previous episodes, incomplete recovery after one year of treatment, pre-existing severe mental or medical disorder, and family dysfunction.
A high proportion of people who experience full symptomatic remission still have at least one not fully resolved symptom after treatment. Recurrence or chronicity is more likely if symptoms have not fully resolved with treatment.
Major depressive episodes often resolve over time, whether or not they are treated. Outpatients on a waiting list show a 10–15% reduction in symptoms within a few months, with approximately 20% no longer meeting the full criteria for a depressive disorder. The median duration of an episode has been estimated to be 23 weeks, with the highest rate of recovery in the first three months. According to a 2013 review, 23% of untreated adults with mild to moderate depression will remit within 3 months, 32% within 6 months and 53% within 12 months.Ability to workDepression may affect people's ability to work. The combination of usual clinical care and support with return to work (like working less hours or changing tasks) probably reduces sick leave by 15%, and leads to fewer depressive symptoms and improved work capacity, reducing sick leave by an annual average of 25 days per year. Helping depressed people return to work without a connection to clinical care has not been shown to have an effect on sick leave days. Additional psychological interventions (such as online cognitive behavioral therapy) lead to fewer sick days compared to standard management only. Streamlining care or adding specific providers for depression care may help to reduce sick leave. About 50% of people who die of suicide have a mood disorder such as major depression, and the risk is especially high if a person has a marked sense of hopelessness or has both depression and borderline personality disorder. About 2–8% of adults with major depression die by suicide. In the US, the lifetime risk of suicide associated with a diagnosis of major depression is estimated at 7% for men and 1% for women, even though suicide attempts are more frequent in women.
Depressed people also have a higher rate of dying from other causes. There is a 1.5- to 2-fold increased risk of cardiovascular disease, independent of other known risk factors, and is itself linked directly or indirectly to risk factors such as smoking and obesity. People with major depression are less likely to follow medical recommendations for treating and preventing cardiovascular disorders, further increasing their risk of medical complications. Cardiologists may not recognize underlying depression that complicates a cardiovascular problem under their care.Epidemiology
for unipolar depressive disorders per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004:
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Major depressive disorder affected approximately 163 million people in 2017 (2% of the global population). The percentage of people who are affected at one point in their life varies from 7% in Japan to 21% in France. In most countries the number of people who have depression during their lives falls within an 8–18% range. Lifetime rates are higher in the developed world (15%) compared to the developing world (11%). 15% of adolescents, ages 12 to 17, in America are also affected by depression, which is equal to 3.7 million teenagers. Among individuals reporting two or more races, the US prevalence is highest. The relative increase in occurrence is related to pubertal development rather than chronological age, reaches adult ratios between the ages of 15 and 18, and appears associated with psychosocial more than hormonal factors.<!-- the wording of this sentence is very janky, but this best mimics the source. -->
People are most likely to develop their first depressive episode between the ages of 30 and 40, and there is a second, smaller peak of incidence between ages 50 and 60. The risk of major depression is increased with neurological conditions such as stroke, Parkinson's disease, or multiple sclerosis, and during the first year after childbirth (Postpartum depression). It is also more common after cardiovascular illnesses, and is related more to those with a poor cardiac disease outcome than to a better one. Depressive disorders are more common in urban populations than in rural ones and the prevalence is increased in groups with poorer socioeconomic factors, e.g., homelessness. Depression is common among those over 65 years of age and increases in frequency beyond this age. The risk of depression increases in relation to the frailty of the individual. Depression is one of the most important factors which negatively impact quality of life in adults, as well as the elderly. Delay or failure in seeking treatment after relapse and the failure of health professionals to provide treatment are two barriers to reducing disability.ComorbidityMajor depression frequently co-occurs with other psychiatric problems. The 1990–92 National Comorbidity Survey (US) reported that half of those with major depression also have lifetime anxiety and its associated disorders, such as generalized anxiety disorder. Anxiety symptoms can have a major impact on the course of a depressive illness, with delayed recovery, increased risk of relapse, greater disability and increased suicidal behavior. Depressed people have increased rates of alcohol and substance use, particularly dependence, and around a third of individuals diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) develop comorbid depression. Post-traumatic stress disorder and depression often co-occur. Depression is also frequently comorbid with alcohol use disorder and personality disorders. Depression can also be exacerbated during particular months (usually winter) in those with seasonal affective disorder. While overuse of digital media has been associated with depressive symptoms, using digital media may also improve mood in some situations.
Depression and pain often co-occur. One or more pain symptoms are present in 65% of people who have depression, and anywhere from 5 to 85% of people who are experiencing pain will also have depression, depending on the setting—a lower prevalence in general practice, and higher in specialty clinics. Depression is often underrecognized, and therefore undertreated, in patients presenting with pain. Depression often coexists with physical disorders common among the elderly, such as stroke, other cardiovascular diseases, Parkinson's disease, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
History
The Ancient Greek physician Hippocrates described a syndrome of melancholia (, ) as a distinct disease with particular mental and physical symptoms; he characterized all "fears and despondencies, if they last a long time" as being symptomatic of the ailment. It was a similar but far broader concept than today's depression; prominence was given to a clustering of the symptoms of sadness, dejection, and despondency, and often fear, anger, delusions and obsessions were included.
.]]
The term depression itself was derived from the Latin verb , meaning "to press down". From the 14th century, "to depress" meant to subjugate or to bring down in spirits. It was used in 1665 in English author Richard Baker's Chronicle to refer to someone having "a great depression of spirit", and by English author Samuel Johnson in a similar sense in 1753. The term also came into use in physiology and economics. An early usage referring to a psychiatric symptom was by French psychiatrist Louis Delasiauve in 1856, and by the 1860s it was appearing in medical dictionaries to refer to a physiological and metaphorical lowering of emotional function. Since Aristotle, melancholia had been associated with men of learning and intellectual brilliance, a hazard of contemplation and creativity. However, by the 19th century, this association has largely shifted and melancholia became more commonly linked with women. Freud likened the state of melancholia to mourning in his 1917 paper Mourning and Melancholia. He theorized that objective loss, such as the loss of a valued relationship through death or a romantic break-up, results in subjective loss as well; the depressed individual has identified with the object of affection through an unconscious, narcissistic process called the libidinal cathexis of the ego. Such loss results in severe melancholic symptoms more profound than mourning; not only is the outside world viewed negatively but the ego itself is compromised. The person's decline of self-perception is revealed in his belief of his own blame, inferiority, and unworthiness. He also emphasized early life experiences as a predisposing factor. The first version of the DSM (DSM-I, 1952) contained depressive reaction and the DSM-II (1968) depressive neurosis, defined as an excessive reaction to internal conflict or an identifiable event, and also included a depressive type of manic-depressive psychosis within Major affective disorders.
The term unipolar (along with the related term bipolar) was coined by the neurologist and psychiatrist Karl Kleist, and subsequently used by his disciples Edda Neele and Karl Leonhard.
The term Major depressive disorder was introduced by a group of US clinicians in the mid-1970s as part of proposals for diagnostic criteria based on patterns of symptoms (called the "Research Diagnostic Criteria", building on earlier Feighner Criteria), The American Psychiatric Association added "major depressive disorder" to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III), To maintain consistency the ICD-10 used the same criteria, with only minor alterations, but using the DSM diagnostic threshold to mark a mild depressive episode, adding higher threshold categories for moderate and severe episodes. There has been some criticism of the expansion of coverage of the diagnosis, related to the development and promotion of antidepressants and the biological model since the late 1950s.Society and cultureTerminology, Abraham Lincoln, had "melancholy", a condition that now may be referred to as clinical depression.]]
The term "depression" is used in a number of different ways. It is often used to mean this syndrome but may refer to other mood disorders or simply to a low mood. People's conceptualizations of depression vary widely, both within and among cultures. "Because of the lack of scientific certainty," one commentator has observed, "the debate over depression turns on questions of language. What we call it—'disease,' 'disorder,' 'state of mind'—affects how we view, diagnose, and treat it." There are cultural differences in the extent to which serious depression is considered an illness requiring personal professional treatment, or an indicator of something else, such as the need to address social or moral problems, the result of biological imbalances, or a reflection of individual differences in the understanding of distress that may reinforce feelings of powerlessness, and emotional struggle.Cultural dimensionCultural differences contribute to different prevalence of symptoms. "Do the Chinese somatize depression? A cross-cultural study" by Parker et al. discusses the cultural differences in prevalent symptoms of depression between individualistic and collectivistic cultures. The authors reveal that individuals with depression in collectivistic cultures tend to present more somatic symptoms and less affective symptoms compared to those in individualistic cultures. The finding suggests that individualistic cultures 'warranting' or validating one's expression of emotions explains this cultural difference since collectivistic cultures see this as a taboo against the social cooperation it deems one of the most significant values.StigmaHistorical figures were often reluctant to discuss or seek treatment for depression due to social stigma about the condition, or due to ignorance of diagnosis or treatments. Nevertheless, analysis or interpretation of letters, journals, artwork, writings, or statements of family and friends of some historical personalities has led to the presumption that they may have had some form of depression. People who may have had depression include English author Mary Shelley, American-British writer Henry James, and American president Abraham Lincoln. Some well-known contemporary people with possible depression include Canadian songwriter Leonard Cohen and American playwright and novelist Tennessee Williams. Some pioneering psychologists, such as Americans William James and John B. Watson, dealt with their own depression.
publicly announced he would take a leave of absence in order to recover from a depressive episode.]]
There has been a continuing discussion of whether neurological disorders and mood disorders may be linked to creativity, a discussion that goes back to Aristotelian times. British literature gives many examples of reflections on depression. English philosopher John Stuart Mill experienced a several-months-long period of what he called "a dull state of nerves", when one is "unsusceptible to enjoyment or pleasurable excitement; one of those moods when what is pleasure at other times, becomes insipid or indifferent". He quoted English poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge's "Dejection" as a perfect description of his case: "A grief without a pang, void, dark and drear, / A drowsy, stifled, unimpassioned grief, / Which finds no natural outlet or relief / In word, or sigh, or tear." English writer Samuel Johnson used the term "the black dog" in the 1780s to describe his own depression, and it was subsequently popularized by British Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill, who also had the disorder. In the UK, the Royal College of Psychiatrists and the Royal College of General Practitioners conducted a joint Five-year Defeat Depression campaign to educate and reduce stigma from 1992 to 1996; a MORI study conducted afterwards showed a small positive change in public attitudes to depression and treatment.
While serving his first term as Prime Minister of Norway, Kjell Magne Bondevik attracted international attention in August 1998 when he announced that he was suffering from a depressive episode, becoming the highest ranking world leader to admit to suffering from a mental illness while in office. Upon this revelation, Anne Enger became acting Prime Minister for three weeks, from 30 August to 23 September, while he recovered from the depressive episode. Bondevik then returned to office. Bondevik received thousands of supportive letters, and said that the experience had been positive overall, both for himself and because it made mental illness more publicly acceptable.ReferencesCited works
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Diana (mythology)
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, 50–51 BCE]]
Diana; conservative pronunciation: . The name was also written as Deiana by the Romans.}} is a goddess in Roman religion, primarily considered a patroness of the countryside and nature, hunters, wildlife, childbirth, crossroads, the night, and the Moon. She is equated with the Greek goddess Artemis, and absorbed much of Artemis' mythology early in Roman history, including a birth on the island of Delos to parents Jupiter and Latona, and a twin brother, Apollo, though she had an independent origin in Italy.
Diana is considered a virgin goddess and protector of childbirth. Historically, Diana made up a triad with two other Roman deities: Egeria the water nymph, her servant and assistant midwife; and Virbius, the woodland god.
Diana is revered in modern neopagan religions including Roman neopaganism, Stregheria, and Wicca. In the ancient, medieval, and modern periods, Diana has been considered a triple deity, merged with a goddess of the moon (Luna/Selene) and the underworld (usually Hecate).
Etymology
The name Dīāna probably derives from Latin ('godly'), ultimately from Proto-Italic *dīwī, meaning 'divine, heavenly'. It stems from Proto-Indo-European *diwyós ('divine, heavenly'), formed with the stem ('daylight sky') attached the thematic suffix -yós. Cognates appear in Myceanean Greek di-wi-ja, in Ancient Greek (; 'belonging to heaven, godlike'), and in Sanskrit ('heavenly' or 'celestial').
The ancient Latin writers Varro and Cicero considered the etymology of Dīāna as allied to that of dies and connected to the shine of the Moon, noting that one of her titles is Diana Lucifera ("light-bearer").
<blockquote>... people regard Diana and the moon as one and the same. ... the moon (luna) is so called from the verb to shine (lucere). Lucina is identified with it, which is why in our country they invoke Juno Lucina in childbirth, just as the Greeks call on Diana the Light-bearer. Diana also has the name Omnivaga ("wandering everywhere"), not because of her hunting but because she is numbered as one of the seven planets; her name Diana derives from the fact that she turns darkness into daylight (dies). She is invoked at childbirth because children are born occasionally after seven, or usually after nine, lunar revolutions ...
:--Quintus Lucilius Balbus as recorded by Marcus Tullius Cicero and translated by P.G. Walsh. De Natura Deorum (On the Nature of the Gods), Book II, Part ii, Section c </blockquote>DescriptionAs a goddess of the countryside
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The persona of Diana is complex, and contains a number of archaic features. Diana was originally considered to be a goddess of the wilderness and of the hunt, a central sport in both Roman and Greek culture.
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Andreas Alföldi interpreted an image on a late Republican coin as the Latin Diana "conceived as a threefold unity of the divine huntress, the Moon goddess and the goddess of the nether world, Hekate". This coin, minted by P. Accoleius Lariscolus in 43 BCE, has been acknowledged as representing an archaic statue of Diana Nemorensis. It represents Artemis with the bow at one extremity, Luna-Selene with flowers at the other and a central deity not immediately identifiable, all united by a horizontal bar. The iconographical analysis allows the dating of this image to the 6th century at which time there are Etruscan models. The coin shows that the triple goddess cult image still stood in the lucus of Nemi in 43 BCE. Lake Nemi was called Triviae lacus by Virgil (Aeneid 7.516), while Horace called Diana montium custos nemoremque virgo ("keeper of the mountains and virgin of Nemi") and diva triformis ("three-form goddess").
Two heads found in the sanctuary and the Roman theatre at Nemi, which have a hollow on their back, lend support to this interpretation of an archaic triple Diana.
As goddess of crossroads and the underworld
The earliest epithet of Diana was Trivia, and she was addressed with that title by Virgil, Catullus, and many others. "Trivia" comes from the Latin trivium'', "triple way", and refers to Diana's guardianship over roadways, particularly Y-junctions or three-way crossroads. This role carried a somewhat dark and dangerous connotation, as it metaphorically pointed the way to the underworld. The symbol of the crossroads is relevant to several aspects of Diana's domain. It can symbolize the paths hunters may encounter in the forest, lit only by the full moon; this symbolizes making choices "in the dark" without the light of guidance.). A theater in her sanctuary at Lake Nemi included a pit and tunnel that would have allowed actors to easily descend on one side of the stage and ascend on the other, indicating a connection between the phases of the moon and a descent by the moon goddess into the underworld. since they did retain a particular sort of influence over the world and mankind. The celestial character of Diana is reflected in her connection with inaccessibility, virginity, light, and her preference for dwelling on high mountains and in sacred woods. Diana, therefore, reflects the heavenly world in its sovereignty, supremacy, impassibility, and indifference towards such secular matters as the fates of mortals and states. At the same time, however, she is seen as active in ensuring the succession of kings and in the preservation of humankind through the protection of childbirth. These functions are apparent in the traditional institutions and cults related to the goddess:
# The legend of the rex Nemorensis, Diana's sacerdos (priest) in the Arician wood, who held the position until someone else challenged and killed him in a duel, after breaking a branch from a certain tree of the wood. This ever open succession reveals the character and mission of the goddess as a guarantor of kingly status through successive generations. Her function as bestower of authority to rule is also attested in the story related by Livy in which a Sabine man who sacrifices a heifer to Diana wins for his country the seat of the Roman empire.
# Diana was also worshiped by women who wanted to be pregnant or who, once pregnant, prayed for an easy delivery. This form of worship is attested in archaeological finds of votive statuettes in her sanctuary in the nemus Aricinum as well as in ancient sources, e.g. Ovid.
By the 3rd century BCE, Diana is found listed among the twelve major gods of the Roman pantheon by the poet Ennius. Though the Capitoline Triad were the primary state gods of Rome, early Roman myth did not assign a strict hierarchy to the gods the way Greek mythology did, though the Greek hierarchy would eventually be adopted by Roman religion as well.
According to Macrobius (who cited Nigidius Figulus and Cicero), Janus and Jana (Diana) are a pair of divinities, worshiped as the sun and moon. Janus was said to receive sacrifices before all the others because, through him, the way of access to the desired deity is made apparent.
Myth of Actaeon
Diana's mythology incorporated stories which were variants of earlier stories about Artemis. Possibly the most well-known of these is the myth of Actaeon. In Ovid's version of this myth, part of his poem Metamorphoses, he tells of a pool or grotto hidden in the wooded valley of Gargaphie. There, Diana, the goddess of the woods, would bathe and rest after a hunt. Actaeon, a young hunter, stumbled across the grotto and accidentally witnessed the goddess bathing without invitation. In retaliation, Diana splashed him with water from the pool, cursing him, and he transformed into a deer. His own hunting dogs caught his scent, and tore him apart.Worship in the classical period
Roman wall painting depicting a scene of sacrifice in honor of the goddess Diana; she is seen here accompanied by a deer. The fresco was discovered in the triclinium of House of the Vettii in Pompeii, Italy.]]
Diana was an ancient goddess common to all Latin tribes. Therefore, many sanctuaries were dedicated to her in the lands inhabited by Latins. Her primary sanctuary was a woodland grove overlooking Lake Nemi, a body of water also known as "Diana's Mirror", where she was worshiped as Diana Nemorensis, or "Diana of the Wood". In Rome, the cult of Diana may have been almost as old as the city itself. Varro mentions her in the list of deities to whom king Titus Tatius promised to build a shrine. His list included Luna and Diana Lucina as separate entities. Another testimony to the antiquity of her cult is to be found in the lex regia of King Tullus Hostilius that condemns those guilty of incest to the sacratio to Diana. She had a temple in Rome on the Aventine Hill, according to tradition dedicated by king Servius Tullius. Its location is remarkable as the Aventine is situated outside the pomerium, i.e. original territory of the city, in order to comply with the tradition that Diana was a goddess common to all Latins and not exclusively of the Romans. Being placed on the Aventine, and thus outside the pomerium, meant that Diana's cult essentially remained a foreign one, like that of Bacchus; she was never officially transferred to Rome as Juno was after the sack of Veii.
Other known sanctuaries and temples to Diana include Colle di Corne near Tusculum, where she is referred to with the archaic Latin name of deva Cornisca and where existed a collegium of worshippers; at Évora, Portugal; Mount Algidus, also near Tusculum; at Lavinium; and at Tibur (Tivoli), where she is referred to as Diana Opifera Nemorensis. Diana was also worshiped at a sacred wood mentioned by Livy – ad compitum Anagninum (near Anagni), and on Mount Tifata in Campania.
According to Plutarch, men and women alike were worshipers of Diana and were welcomed into all of her temples. The one exception seems to have been a temple on the Vicus Patricius, which men either did not enter due to tradition, or were not allowed to enter. Plutarch related a legend that a man had attempted to assault a woman worshiping in this temple and was killed by a pack of dogs (echoing the myth of Diana and Actaeon), which resulted in a superstition against men entering the temple.
A feature common to nearly all of Diana's temples and shrines by the second century CE was the hanging up of stag antlers. Plutarch noted that the only exception to this was the temple on the Aventine Hill, in which bull horns had been hung up instead. Plutarch explains this by way of reference to a legend surrounding the sacrifice of an impressive Sabine bull by King Servius at the founding of the Aventine temple. According to legendary accounts, the sanctuary was founded by Orestes and Iphigenia after they fled from the Tauri. In this tradition, the Nemi sanctuary was supposedly built on the pattern of an earlier Temple of Artemis Tauropolos, and the first cult statue at Nemi was said to have been stolen from the Tauri and brought to Nemi by Orestes. By the 4th century BCE, the simple shrine at Nemi had been joined by a temple complex.
A festival to Diana, the Nemoralia, was held yearly at Nemi on the Ides of August (August 13–15). Worshipers traveled to Nemi carrying torches and garlands, and once at the lake, they left pieces of thread tied to fences and tablets inscribed with prayers. Diana's festival eventually became widely celebrated throughout Italy, which was unusual given the provincial nature of Diana's cult. The poet Statius wrote of the festival: and no contemporary records exist that support the historical existence of the Rex Nemorensis.Spread and conflation with ArtemisRome hoped to unify into and control the Latin tribes around Nemi, The process of identification between the two goddesses probably began when artists who were commissioned to create new religious statues for Diana's temples outside Nemi were struck by the similar attributes between Diana and the more familiar Artemis, and sculpted Diana in a manner inspired by previous depictions of Artemis. Sibyllene influence and trade with Massilia, where similar cult statues of Artemis existed, would have completed the process. historical and archaeological evidence point to the fact that the characteristics given to both Diana of the Aventine Hill and Diana Nemorensis were the product of the direct or indirect influence of the cult of Artemis, which was spread by the Phoceans among the Greek towns of Campania Cuma and Capua, who in turn had passed it over to the Etruscans and the Latins by the 6th and 5th centuries BCE.
Evidence suggests that a confrontation occurred between two groups of Etruscans who fought for supremacy, those from Tarquinia, Vulci and Caere (allied with the Greeks of Capua) and those of Clusium. This is reflected in the legend of the coming of Orestes to Nemi and of the inhumation of his bones in the Roman Forum near the temple of Saturn. The cult introduced by Orestes at Nemi is apparently that of the Artemis Tauropolos. The literary amplification reveals a confused religious background: different versions of Artemis were conflated under the epithet. As far as Nemi's Diana is concerned there are two different versions, by Strabo and Servius Honoratus. Strabo's version looks to be the most authoritative as he had access to first-hand primary sources on the sanctuaries of Artemis, i.e. the priest of Artemis Artemidoros of Ephesus. The meaning of Tauropolos denotes an Asiatic goddess with lunar attributes, lady of the herds. The only possible interpretatio graeca of high antiquity concerning Diana Nemorensis could have been the one based on this ancient aspect of a deity of light, master of wildlife. Tauropolos is an ancient epithet attached to Artemis, Hecate, and even Athena. According to the legend Orestes founded Nemi together with Iphigenia. At Cuma the Sybil is the priestess of both Phoibos and Trivia. Hesiod and Stesichorus tell the story according to which after her death Iphigenia was divinised under the name of Hecate, a fact which would support the assumption that Artemis Tauropolos had a real ancient alliance with the heroine, who was her priestess in Taurid and her human paragon. This religious complex is in turn supported by the triple statue of Artemis-Hecate. However, the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus had the same custom of the asylum.
In Rome
, a 2nd-century Roman version in the Greek tradition of iconography (Louvre Museum, Paris).]]
Worship of Diana probably spread into the city of Rome beginning around 550 BCE, during her Hellenization and combination with the Greek goddess Artemis. Diana was first worshiped along with her brother and mother, Apollo and Latona, in their temple in the Campus Martius, and later in the Temple of Apollo Palatinus. However, there is no compelling evidence for such an early construction of the temple, and it is more likely that it was built in the 3rd century BCE, following the influence of the temple at Nemi, and probably about the same time the first temples to Vertumnus (who was associated with Diana) were built in Rome (264 BCE).
Later temple dedications often were based on the model for ritual formulas and regulations of the Temple of Diana. Roman politicians built several minor temples to Diana elsewhere in Rome to secure public support. One of these was built in the Campus Martius in 187 BCE; no Imperial period records of this temple have been found, and it is possible it was one of the temples demolished around 55 BCE in order to build a theater. The Romans obtained a large copy of an Ephesian Artemis statue for their temple on the Aventine Hill. Diana was usually depicted for educated Romans in her Greek guise. If she was shown accompanied by a deer, as in the Diana of Versailles, this is because Diana was the patroness of hunting. The deer may also offer a covert reference to the myth of Acteon (or Actaeon), who saw her bathing naked. Diana transformed Acteon into a stag and set his own hunting dogs to kill him.
At Mount Tifata
In Campania, Diana had a major temple at Mount Tifata, near Capua. She was worshiped there as Diana Tifatina. This was one of the oldest sanctuaries in Campania. As a rural sanctuary, it included lands and estates that would have been worked by slaves following the Roman conquest of Campania, and records show that expansion and renovation projects at her temple were funded in part by other conquests by Roman military campaigns. The modern Christian church of Sant'Angelo in Formis was built on the ruins of the Tifata temple.
Household worship
Diana was not only regarded as a goddess of the wilderness and the hunt, but was often worshiped as a patroness of families. She served a similar function to the hearth goddess Vesta, and was sometimes considered to be a member of the Penates, the deities most often invoked in household rituals. In this role, she was often given a name reflecting the tribe of family who worshiped her and asked for her protection. For example, in what is now Wiesbaden, Diana was worshiped as Diana Mattiaca by the Mattiaci tribe. Other family-derived named attested in the ancient literature include Diana Cariciana, Diana Valeriana, and Diana Plancia. As a house goddess, Diana often became reduced in stature compared to her official worship by the Roman state religion. In personal or family worship, Diana was brought to the level of other household spirits, and was believed to have a vested interest in the prosperity of the household and the continuation of the family. The Roman poet Horace regarded Diana as a household goddess in his Odes, and had an altar dedicated to her in his villa where household worship could be conducted. In his poetry, Horace deliberately contrasted the kinds of grand, elevated hymns to Diana on behalf of the entire Roman state, the kind of worship that would have been typical at her Aventine temple, with a more personal form of devotion.
Images of Diana and her associated myths have been found on sarcophagi of wealthy Romans. They often included scenes depicting sacrifices to the goddess, and on at least one example, the deceased man is shown joining Diana's hunt. but as her worship spread, she acquired attributes of other similar goddesses. As she became conflated with Artemis, she became a moon goddess, identified with the other lunar goddesses goddess Luna and Hekate.
Along with Mars, Diana was often venerated at games held in Roman amphitheaters, and some inscriptions from the Danubian provinces show that she was conflated with Nemesis in this role, as Diana Nemesis.
Some late antique sources went even further, syncretizing many local "great goddesses" into a single "Queen of Heaven". The Platonist philosopher Apuleius, writing in the late 2nd century, depicted the goddess declaring:
<blockquote>"I come, Lucius, moved by your entreaties: I, mother of the universe, mistress of all the elements, first-born of the ages, highest of the gods, queen of the shades, first of those who dwell in heaven, representing in one shape all gods and goddesses. My will controls the shining heights of heaven, the health-giving sea-winds, and the mournful silences of hell; the entire world worships my single godhead in a thousand shapes, with divers rites, and under many a different name. The Phrygians, first-born of mankind, call me the Pessinuntian Mother of the gods; the native Athenians the Cecropian Minerva; the island-dwelling Cypriots Paphian Venus; the archer Cretans Dictynnan Diana; the triple-tongued Sicilians Stygian Proserpine; the ancient Eleusinians Actaean Ceres; some call me Juno, some Bellona, others Hecate, others Rhamnusia; but both races of Ethiopians, those on whom the rising and those on whom the setting sun shines, and the Egyptians who excel in ancient learning, honour me with the worship which is truly mine and call me by my true name: Queen Isis."
:--Apuleius, translated by E. J. Kenny. The Golden Ass''</blockquote>
Later poets and historians looked to Diana's identity as a triple goddess to merge her with triads heavenly, earthly, and underworld (cthonic) goddesses. Maurus Servius Honoratus said that the same goddess was called Luna in heaven, Diana on earth, and Proserpina in hell. Michael Drayton praises the Triple Diana in poem The Man in the Moone (1606): "So these great three most powerful of the rest, Phoebe, Diana, Hecate, do tell. Her sovereignty in Heaven, in Earth and Hell".In PlatonismBased on the earlier writings of Plato, the Neoplatonist philosophers of late antiquity united the various major gods of Hellenic tradition into a series of monads containing within them triads, with some creating the world, some animating it or bringing it to life, and others harmonizing it. Within this system, Proclus considered Diana to be one of the primary animating, or life-giving, deities. Proclus, citing Orphic tradition, concludes that Diana "presides over all the generation in nature, and is the midwife of physical productive principles" and that she "extends these genitals, distributing as far as to subterranean natures the prolific power of [Bacchus]." Specifically, Proclus considered the life-generating principle of the highest order, within the Intellectual realm, to be Rhea, whom he identified with Ceres. Within her divinity was produced the cause of the basic principle of life. Projecting this principle into the lower, Hypercosmic realm of reality generated a lower monad, Kore, who could therefore be understood as Ceres' "daughter". Kore embodied the "maidenly" principle of generation that, more importantly, included a principle of division – where Demeter generates life indiscriminately, Kore distributes it individually. This division results in another triad or trinity, known as the Maidenly trinity, within the monad of Kore: namely, Diana, Proserpine, and Minerva, through whom individual living beings are given life and perfected. Specifically, according to a commentary by scholar Spyridon Rangos, Diana (equated with Hecate) gives existence, Proserpine (equated with "Soul") gives form, and Minerva (equated with "Virtue") gives intellect. Later commentators on Proclus have clarified that the virginity of Diana is not an absence of sexual drive, but a renunciation of sexuality. Diana embodies virginity because she generates but precedes active fertility (within Neoplatonism, an important maxim is that "every productive cause is superior to the nature of the produced effect").
Using the ancient Neoplatonists as a basis, Taylor also commented on the triadic nature of Diana and related goddesses, and the ways in which they subsist within one another, partaking unevenly in each other's powers and attributes. For example, Kore is said to embody both Diana/Hecate and Minerva, who create the virtuous or virgin power within her, but also Proserpine (her sole traditional identification), through whom the generative power of the Kore as a whole is able to proceed forth into the world, where it joins with the demiurge to produce further deities, including Bacchus and "nine azure-eyed, flower-producing daughters". References to contemporary Diana worship exist from the 6th century on the Iberian peninsula and what is now southern France,
Additional evidence for surviving pagan practices in the Low Countries region comes from the Vita Eligii, or "Life of Saint Eligius", written by Audoin in the 7th century. Audoin drew together the familiar admonitions of Eligius to the people of Flanders. In his sermons, he denounced "pagan customs" that the people continued to follow. In particular, he denounced several Roman gods and goddesses alongside Druidic mythological beliefs and objects:
<blockquote>"I denounce and contest, that you shall observe no sacrilegious pagan customs. For no cause or infirmity should you consult magicians, diviners, sorcerers or incantators. ..Do not observe auguries ... No influence attaches to the first work of the day or the [phase of the] moon. ... [Do not] make vetulas, little deer or iotticos or set tables at night or exchange New Year gifts or supply superfluous drinks... No Christian... performs solestitia or dancing or leaping or diabolical chants. No Christian should presume to invoke the name of a demon, not Neptune or Orcus or Diana or Minerva or Geniscus... No one should observe Jove's day in idleness. ... No Christian should make or render any devotion to the gods of the trivium, where three roads meet, to the fanes or the rocks, or springs or groves or corners. None should presume to hang any phylacteries from the neck of man nor beast. ..None should presume to make lustrations or incantations with herbs, or to pass cattle through a hollow tree or ditch ... No woman should presume to hang amber from her neck or call upon Minerva or other ill-starred beings in their weaving or dyeing. ... None should call the sun or moon lord or swear by them. ... No one should tell fate or fortune or horoscopes by them as those do who believe that a person must be what he was born to be."</blockquote>
Legends from medieval Belgium concern a natural spring which came to be known as the "Fons Remacli", a location which may have been home to late-surviving worship of Diana. Remacle was a monk appointed by Eligius to head a monastery at Solignac, and he is reported to have encountered Diana worship in the area around the river Warche. The population in this region was said to have been involved in the worship of "Diana of the Ardennes" (a syncretism of Diana and the Celtic goddess Arduinna), with effigies and "stones of Diana" used as evidence of pagan practices. Remacle believed that demonic entities were present in the spring, and had caused it to run dry. He performed and exorcism of the water source, and installed a lead pipe, which allowed the water to flow again.The "Society of Diana"Diana is the only pagan goddess mentioned by name in the New Testament (only in some Bible versions of Acts 19; many other Bibles refer to her as Artemis instead). As a result, she became associated with many folk beliefs involving goddess-like supernatural figures that Catholic clergy wished to demonize. In the Middle Ages, legends of night-time processions of spirits led by a female figure are recorded in the church records of Northern Italy, western Germany, and southern France. The spirits were said to enter houses and consume food which then miraculously re-appeared. They would sing and dance, and dispense advice regarding healing herbs and the whereabouts of lost objects. If the house was in good order, they would bring fertility and plenty. If not, they would bring curses to the family. Some women reported participating in these processions while their bodies still lay in bed. Historian Carlo Ginzburg has referred to these legendary spirit gatherings as "The Society of Diana". The earliest reports of these legends appear in the writings of Regino of Prüm in the year 899, followed by many additional reports and variants of the legend in documents by Ratherius and others. By 1310, the names of the goddess figures attached to the legend were sometimes combined as Herodiana.
Frazer's speculatively reconstructed folklore of Diana's origins and the nature of her cult at Nemi were not well received even by his contemporaries. Godfrey Lienhardt noted that even during Frazer's lifetime, other anthropologists had "for the most part distanced themselves from his theories and opinions", and that the lasting influence of The Golden Bough and Frazer's wider body of work "has been in the literary rather than the academic world." Robert Ackerman wrote that, for anthropologists, Frazer is "an embarrassment" for being "the most famous of them all" and that most distance themselves from his work. While The Golden Bough achieved wide "popular appeal" and exerted a "disproportionate" influence "on so many [20th century] creative writers", Frazer's ideas played "a much smaller part" in the history of academic social anthropology. Arguments against Murray's thesis would eventually include arguments against Leland. Witchcraft scholar Jeffrey Russell devoted some of his 1980 book A History of Witchcraft: Sorcerers, Heretics and Pagans to arguing against the claims Leland presented in Aradia. Historian Elliot Rose's A Razor for a Goat dismissed Aradia as a collection of incantations unsuccessfully attempting to portray a religion. In his book Triumph of the Moon, historian Ronald Hutton doubted not only of the existence of the religion that Aradia claimed to represent, and that the traditions Leland presented were unlike anything found in actual medieval literature, but also of the existence of Leland's sources, arguing that it is more likely that Leland created the entire story than that Leland could be so easily "duped". Religious scholar Chas S. Clifton took exception to Hutton's position, writing that it amounted to an accusation of "serious literary fraud" made by an "argument from absence".Modern worshipBecause Leland's claims about an Italian witch-cult are questionable, the first verifiable worship of Diana in the modern age was probably begun by Wicca. The earliest known practitioners of Neopagan witchcraft were members of a tradition begun by Gerald Gardner. Published versions of the devotional materials used by Gardner's group, dated to 1949, are heavily focused on the worship of Aradia, the daughter of Diana in Leland's folklore. Diana herself was recognized as an aspect of a single "great goddess" in the tradition of Apuleius, as described in the Wiccan Charge of the Goddess (itself adapted from Leland's text). Some later Wiccans, such as Scott Cunningham, would replace Aradia with Diana as the central focus of worship.
In the early 1960s, Victor Henry Anderson founded the Feri Tradition, a form of Wicca that draws from both Charles Leland's folklore and the Gardnerian tradition. Anderson claimed that he had first been initiated into a witchcraft tradition as a child in 1926, and that he had been told the name of the goddess worshiped by witches was Tana. The name Tana originated in Leland's Aradia, where he claimed it was an old Etruscan name for Diana. The Feri Tradition founded by Anderson continues to recognize Tana/Diana as an aspect of the Star Goddess related to the element of fire, and representing "the fiery womb that gives birth to and transforms all matter.").
A few Wiccan traditions would elevate Diana to a more prominent position of worship, and there are two distinct modern branches of Wicca focused primarily on Diana. The first, founded during the early 1970s in the United States by Morgan McFarland and Mark Roberts, has a feminist theology and only occasionally accepts male participants, and leadership is limited to female priestesses. McFarland Dianic Wiccans base their tradition primarily on the work of Robert Graves and his book The White Goddess, and were inspired by references to the existence of medieval European "Dianic cults" in Margaret Murray's book The Witch-Cult in Western Europe.
A third Neopagan tradition heavily inspired by the worship of Diana through the lens of Italian folklore is Stregheria, founded in the 1980s. It centers around a pair of deities regarded as divine lovers, who are known by several variant names including Diana and Dianus, alternately given as Tana and Tanus or Jana and Janus (the later two deity names were mentioned by James Frazer in The Golden Bough as later corruptions of Diana and Dianus, which themselves were alternate and possibly older names for Juno and Jupiter). The tradition was founded by author Raven Grimassi, and influenced by Italian folktales he was told by his mother. One such folktale describes the moon being impregnated by her lover the morning star, a parallel to Leland's mythology of Diana and her lover Lucifer.
Diana was also a subject of worship in certain Feraferian rites, particularly those surrounding the autumnal equinox, beginning in 1967.
Legacy
In language
Both the Romanian words for "fairy" and Sânziană, the Leonese and Portuguese word for "water nymph" xana'', and the Spanish word for "shooting target" and "morning call" () seem to come from the name of Diana.In the arts
}}
. The nude goddess, identified by the crescent moon in her hair and the bow and quiver at her side, reclines on a blue drapery.]]
Since the Renaissance, Diana's myths have often been represented in the visual and dramatic arts, including the opera ''L'arbore di Diana''. In the 16th century, Diana's image figured prominently at the châteaus of Fontainebleau, Chenonceau, and at Anet, in deference to Diane de Poitiers, mistress of Henri of France. At Versailles she was incorporated into the Olympian iconography with which Louis XIV, the Apollo-like "Sun King" liked to surround himself. Diana is also a character in the 1876 Léo Delibes ballet Sylvia. The plot deals with Sylvia, one of Diana's nymphs and sworn to chastity, and Diana's assault on Sylvia's affections for the shepherd Amyntas.
In literature
* Diana Soren, the main character in Carlos Fuentes' novel Diana o la cazadora soltera (Diana, or The Lone Huntress), is described as having the same personality as the goddess.
* In Jonathan Swift's poem: "The Progress of Beauty", as goddess of the moon, Diana is used in comparison to the 17th/early 18th century everyday woman Swift satirically writes about. Starts: 'When first Diana leaves her bed...'
* In Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae ("History of the Kings of Britain"), Diana leads the Trojan Brutus to Britain, where he and his people settle.
* The character of Diana is the principal character in the children's novel The Moon Stallion by Brian Hayles (1978) and the BBC Television series of the same name Diana is played by the actress Sarah Sutton.
* In Rick Riordan's Camp Half-Blood Chronicles, Diana acts as the Roman incarnation of Artemis, although she does not appear until ''The Tyrant's Tomb. Throughout The Heroes of Olympus, along with the other gods, Artemis is split between her Greek and Roman incarnations. In The Tyrant's Tomb'', Apollo summons his sister for help against Tarquin and his undead army. Diana appears with the Hunters of Artemis to slay Tarquin and his army and she heals Apollo's wounds before departing again.
;In Shakespeare
]]
* In Shakespeare's Pericles, Prince of Tyre Diana appears to Pericles in a vision, telling him to go to her temple and tell his story to her followers.
* In ''All's Well That Ends Well'' Diana appears as a figure in the play and Helena makes multiple allusions to her, such as, "Now, Dian, from thy altar do I fly..." and "...wish chastely and love dearly, that your Dian/was both herself and love..." The Steward also says, "...; Dian no queen of virgins,/ that would suffer her poor knight surprised, without/ rescue in the first assault or ransom afterward." It can be assumed that 'Dian' is simply a shortening of 'Diana' since later in the play when Parolles' letter to Diana is read aloud it reads 'Dian'.
;In games and comics
* The character of Diana from the video game League of Legends is largely based on the goddess.
* William Moulton Marston drew from the Diana archetype as an allegorical basis for Wonder Woman's proper name, Princess Diana for DC Comics. Most versions of Wonder Woman's origin story state that she is given the name Diana because her mother Hippolyta was inspired by the goddess of the moon that Diana was born under.
* Diana also is one of the primary gods in the video game Ryse.
* In the manga and anime series Sailor Moon, Diana is the feline companion to Chibiusa, Usagi's daughter. Diana is the daughter of Artemis and Luna. All of these characters are advisers to rulers of the kingdom of the moon and therefore have moon-associated names.
In painting and sculpture
(1938–1942) in bronze at Paseo de la Reforma, Mexico City]]
in bronze at Brookgreen Gardens in Murrells Inlet, South Carolina.]]
. Bronze, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.]]
, housed in Tate Gallery of London ]]
Diana has been one of the most popular themes in art. Painters like Titian, Peter Paul Rubens, François Boucher, Nicolas Poussin and made use of her myth as a major theme. Most depictions of Diana in art featured the stories of Diana and Actaeon, or Callisto, or depicted her resting after hunting. Some famous work of arts with a Diana theme are:
* Diana and Actaeon, Diana and Callisto, and Death of Actaeon by Titian.
* Diana and Callisto, Diana Returning from the Hunt, Diana Resting After a Bath, and Diana Getting Out of Bath by François Boucher.
* Diana Bathing With Her Nymphs by Rembrandt.
* Diana and Endymion by Poussin.
* Diana and Callisto, Diana and Her Nymph Departing From Hunt, Diana and Her Nymphs Surprised By A Faun by Rubens.
* Diana and Endymion by Johann Michael Rottmayr.
* Diana Wounded, bronze statue by Sir Edgar Bertram Mackennal, housed in Tate Gallery of London (purchased 1908).
* The famous fountain at Palace of Caserta, Italy, created by Paolo Persico, Brunelli, Pietro Solari, depicting Diana being surprised by Acteon.
* A sculpture by Christophe-Gabriel Allegrain can be seen at the Musée du Louvre.
* Diana of the Tower a copper statue by Augustus Saint-Gaudens was created as the weather vane for the second Madison Square Garden in 1893. It now is on display at the Philadelphia Museum of Art
* A [https://web.archive.org/web/20140823073936/http://www.dictionaryofsydney.org/item/18337 sculpture] by French sculptor François-Léon Sicard in the Archibald Fountain, Sydney, NSW, Australia
* In Parma at the convent of San Paolo, Antonio Allegri da Correggio painted the chamber of the Abbess Giovanna Piacenza's apartment. He was commissioned in 1519 to paint the ceiling and mantel of the fireplace. On the mantel he painted an image of Diana riding in a chariot possibly pulled by a stag.
* Fuente de la Diana Cazadora [Fountain of the Huntress Diana], a fountain sculpture of huntress Diana with arrow pointing skyward, stands in the roundabout at Paseo de la Reforma, Zona Rosa, Mexico City's Mexican Federal District.
* Diana of the Chase, a bronze statue by Anna Hyatt Huntington in 1922. Diana was a defining symbol at the time, placed at institutions, such as the Fogg Art Museum at Harvard University, the New York Historical Society in New York City, and the Huntington Art Gallery in San Marino, California. One of the most notable of replicas can be found at Brookgreen Gardens in South Carolina, which was founded by Anna Hyatt Huntington and her husband Archer Milton Huntington in 1932.
* Beaux Arts architecture and garden design (late 19th and early 20th centuries) used classic references in a modernized form. Two of the most popular of the period were of Pomona (goddess of orchards) as a metaphor for Agriculture, and Diana, representing Commerce, which is a perpetual hunt for advantage and profits.
(left, symbolizing agriculture), and Diana (symbolizing commerce) as building decoration]]
There are many statues of Diana the Huntress in Yambol, Bulgaria.
In film
*In Jean Cocteau's 1946 film Beauty and the Beast, it is Diana's power which has transformed and imprisoned the beast.
*Diana/Artemis appears at the end of the 'Pastoral Symphony' segment of Fantasia.
*In his 1968 film La Mariée était en noir François Truffaut plays on this mythological symbol. Julie Kohler, played by Jeanne Moreau, poses as Diana/Artemis for the artist Fergus. This choice seems fitting for Julie, a character beset by revenge, of which Fergus becomes the fourth victim. She poses with a bow and arrow, while wearing white.
* In the 1995 comedy Four Rooms, a coven of witches resurrects a petrified Diana on New Year's Eve.
* French based collective LFKs and his film/theatre director, writer and visual artist Jean Michel Bruyere produced a series of 600 shorts and "medium" film, an interactive audiovisual 360° installation (Si poteris narrare licet ("if you are able to speak of it, then you may do so" ...... ) in 2002, and a 3D 360° audiovisual installation La Dispersion du Fils from 2008 to 2016 as well as an outdoor performance, "Une Brutalité pastorale" (2000), all about the myth of Diana and Actaeon. In music
* Diana is a character in Hippolytus and Aricia, an opera by Jean-Philippe Rameau.
* For the album art of progressive metal band Protest the Hero's second studio album Fortress, Diana is depicted protected by rams and other animals. The theme of Diana is carried throughout the album.
* The Norwegian classical composer Martin Romberg wrote a mass for mixed choir in seven parts after a selection of poems from Leland's text Aradia, in which Diana features heavily. The Witch Mass was premiered at the Vestfold International Festival in 2012 with Grex Vocalis. In order to create the right atmosphere for the music, the festival blocked of an entire road tunnel in Tønsberg to use it as a venue. The work was released on CD through Lawo Classics in 2014.
* Artemis, and subsequently Diana, is used as focal point in "Artemis", track twelve of AURORA's 2022 album The Gods We Can Touch
Other
*In the funeral oration of Diana, Princess of Wales in 1997, her brother drew an analogy between the ancient goddess of hunting and his sister – "the most hunted person of the modern age".
*DIANA Mayer & Grammelspacher GmbH & Co.KG, an airgun company, is named after Diana, the goddess of hunting.
* The Royal Netherlands Air Force 323rd Squadron is named Diana and uses a depiction of Diana with her bow in its badge.
* In Ciudad Juárez in Mexico a woman calling herself "Diana Huntress of Bus Drivers" was responsible for the shooting of two bus drivers in 2013 in what may have been vigilante attacks.
*Diana is commemorated in the scientific name of a species of coral snake, Micrurus diana.
See also
* Dianic Wicca
* Janus
* Domus de Janas
* Pachamama
* List of lunar deities
Notes
References
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Bibliography
*
*
*
*
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*A. Alföldi "Diana Nemorensis" in American Journal of Archaeology 64 1960 p. 137-144.
*A. Alföldi Early Rome and the Latins Ann Arbor 1964 p. 47-100.
*E. Paribeni "A note on Diana Nemorensis" in American Journal of Archaeology 65 1961 p. 55.
*P. J. Riis "The Cult Image of Diana Nemorensis" in Acta Archaeologica Kopenhagen 37 1966 p. 69 ff.
*J. Heurgon in Magna Graecia 1969 Jan. Feb. 1969 p. 12 ff.; March Apr. p. 1ff.
*J.G. Frazer Balder the Beautiful II London 1913 p. 95 ff.; 302 ff.
*L. Morpurgo "Nemus Aricinum" in MonAntLincei 13 1903 c. 300 ff.
*A. Merlin "L'Aventin dans l'antiquité" Paris BÉFAR 97 1906.
*G. Wissowa Religion und Kultus der Römer Munich 1912 p. 198 ff.
*F. Altheim Griechischen Götter im alten Rom Giessen 1930 p. 93–172.
*A.E. Gordon "On the Origin of Diana" in Transactions of the AMerican Philological Association 63 1932 p. 177ff.
*A.E. Gordon Local Cults in Aricia University of California Publications in Classical Archaeology 2 1934 p. 1ff.
*J. Heurgon "Recherhes sur... Capoue préromaine" in BÉFAR 154 Paris 1942 p. 307 ff.
*J. Gagé "Apollon Romain" in BÉFAR 182 Paris 1955.
*J. Bayet Histoire politique et psychologique de la religion romaine Paris 1957 p. 20 ff., 39ff.
*K. Latte Römische Religionsgeschichte Munich 1960 p. 169–173.
*R. Schilling "Une victime des vicissitudes politiques, la Diane latine" in Hommages á Jean Bayet, Collection Latomus 45 Bruxelles 1960 p. 650 ff.
*A. Momigliano "Sul dies natalis del santuario federale di Diana sull' Aventino" in RAL 17 1962 p. 387 ff.
*G. Dumézil La religion romaine archaïque Paris 1966 p. 398 ff.
External links
* [http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/picture-of-month/displaypicture.aspx?id=378 Landscape with Diana and Callisto painting] [http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/ladylever/collections/paintings/gallery1/dianaandcallisto.aspx page]
* [https://www.wga.hu/art/d/domenich/1/diana.jpg Diana and her Nymphs painting] [https://www.wga.hu/html_m/d/domenich/1/diana.html description]
* [https://iconographic.warburg.sas.ac.uk/category/vpc-taxonomy-000101 The Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (ca 1150 images of Diana)]
Category:Roman goddesses
Category:Deities in the Aeneid
Category:Lunar goddesses
Category:Hunting goddesses
Category:Animal goddesses
Category:Fertility goddesses
Category:Metamorphoses characters
Category:Divine twins
Category:Mythological archers
Category:Childhood goddesses
Category:Characters in Roman mythology
Category:Nature goddesses
Category:Night goddesses
Category:Dog goddesses
Category:Dii Consentes
Category:Artemis
Category:Wolf deities
Category:Light goddesses
Category:New religious movement deities
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diana_(mythology)
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December 11
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Events
Pre-1600
* 220 – Emperor Xian of Han is forced to abdicate the throne by Cao Cao's son Cao Pi, ending the Han dynasty.
* 361 – Julian enters Constantinople as sole Roman Emperor.
* 861 – Assassination of the Abbasid caliph al-Mutawakkil by the Turkish guard, who raise al-Muntasir to the throne, start of the "Anarchy at Samarra".
* 969 – Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas is assassinated by his wife Theophano and her lover, the later Emperor John I Tzimiskes.
*1041 – Michael V, adoptive son of Empress Zoë of Byzantium, is proclaimed emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire.
*1239 – Treaty of Benavente: the heiresses of the Kingdom of León renounce their throne to King Ferdinand III of Castile
*1282 – Battle of Orewin Bridge: Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, the last native Prince of Wales, is killed at Cilmeri near Builth Wells in mid-Wales.
1601–1900
*1602 – A surprise attack by forces under the command of Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy, and his brother-in-law, Philip III of Spain, is repelled by the citizens of Geneva. (Commemorated annually by the ''Fête de l'Escalade''.)
*1640 – The Root and Branch petition, signed by 15,000 Londoners calling for the abolition of the episcopacy, is presented to the Long Parliament.
*1675 – Antonio de Vea expedition enters San Rafael Lake in western Patagonia.
*1688 – Glorious Revolution: James II of England, while trying to flee to France, throws the Great Seal of the Realm into the River Thames.
*1792 – French Revolution: King Louis XVI of France is put on trial for treason by the National Convention.
*1815 – The U.S. Senate creates a select committee on finance and a uniform national currency, predecessor of the United States Senate Committee on Finance.
*1816 – Indiana becomes the 19th U.S. state.
*1868 – Paraguayan War: Brazilian troops defeat the Paraguayan Army at the Battle of Avay.
*1899 – Second Boer War: In the Battle of Magersfontein the Boers commanded by general Piet Cronjé inflict a defeat on the forces of the British Empire commanded by Lord Methuen trying to relieve the Siege of Kimberley.
1901–present
*1901 – Guglielmo Marconi transmits the first transatlantic radio signal from Poldhu, Cornwall, England to Saint John's, Newfoundland.
*1905 – A workers' uprising occurs in Kyiv, Ukraine (then part of the Russian Empire), and establishes the Shuliavka Republic.
*1907 – The New Zealand Parliament Buildings are almost completely destroyed by fire.
*1913 – More than two years after it was stolen from the Louvre, Leonardo da Vinci's painting Mona Lisa is recovered in Florence, Italy. The thief, Vincenzo Peruggia, is immediately arrested.
*1917 – World War I: British General Edmund Allenby enters Jerusalem on foot and declares martial law.
*1920 – Irish War of Independence: In retaliation for a recent IRA ambush, British forces burn and loot numerous buildings in Cork city. Many civilians report being beaten, shot at, robbed and verbally abused by British forces.
*1925 – Roman Catholic papal encyclical Quas primas introduces the Feast of Christ the King.
*1927 – Guangzhou Uprising: Communist Red Guards launch an uprising in Guangzhou, China, taking over most of the city and announcing the formation of a Guangzhou Soviet.
*1931 – Statute of Westminster 1931: The British Parliament establishes legislative equality between the UK and the Dominions of the Commonwealth—Australia, Canada, Newfoundland, New Zealand, South Africa, and Ireland.
*1934 – Bill Wilson, co-founder of Alcoholics Anonymous, takes his last drink and enters treatment for the final time.
*1936 – Abdication Crisis: Edward VIII's abdication as King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions beyond the Seas, and Emperor of India, becomes effective.
*1937 – Second Italo-Ethiopian War: Italy leaves the League of Nations.
*1941 – World War II: Germany and Italy declare war on the United States, following the Americans' declaration of war on the Empire of Japan in the wake of the attack on Pearl Harbor. The United States, in turn, declares war on them.
* 1941 – World War II: Poland declares war on the Empire of Japan.
* 1941 – World War II: The Imperial Japanese Navy suffers its first loss of surface vessels during the Battle of Wake Island.
*1946 – The United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) is established.
*1948 – Arab–Israeli War: The United Nations passes General Assembly Resolution 194, creating a Conciliation Commission to mediate the conflict.
*1958 – French Upper Volta and French Dahomey gain self-government from France, becoming the Republic of Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso) and the Republic of Dahomey (now Benin), respectively, and joining the French Community.
*1960 – French forces crack down in a violent clash with protesters in French Algeria during a visit by French President Charles de Gaulle.
*1962 – Arthur Lucas, convicted of murder, is the last person to be executed in Canada.
*1964 – Che Guevara speaks at the United Nations General Assembly in New York City.
*1972 – Apollo 17 becomes the sixth and final Apollo mission to land on the Moon.
*1978 – The Lufthansa heist is committed by a group led by Lucchese family associate Jimmy Burke. It was the largest cash robbery ever committed on American soil, at that time.
*1980 – The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (Superfund) is enacted by the U.S. Congress.
*1981 – El Mozote massacre: Armed forces in El Salvador kill an estimated 900 civilians in an anti-guerrilla campaign during the Salvadoran Civil War.
*1988 – A Soviet Air Force Il-76 aircraft crashes while participating in the Armenian earthquake relief, killing 78 people.
*1990 – Demonstrations by students and workers across Albania begin, which eventually trigger the fall of communism in Albania.
* 1990 – Several fatal collisions in the 1990 Interstate 75 fog disaster result in a total of 12 deaths and 42 being injured
*1993 – A block of the Highland Towers condominium complex collapses following a landslide caused by heavy rain and water flowing from a construction site at Ampang district in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 48 of its residents die, including one who died in hospital after being rescued alive, leaving only two survivors.
*1994 – First Chechen War: Russian President Boris Yeltsin orders Russian troops into Chechnya.
* 1994 – A bomb explodes on Philippine Airlines Flight 434, en route from Manila, Philippines, to Tokyo, Japan, killing one. The captain is able to land the plane safely.
*1997 – The Kyoto Protocol opens for signature.
*1998 – Thai Airways Flight 261 crashes near Surat Thani Airport, killing 101. The pilot flying the Airbus A310-200 is thought to have suffered spatial disorientation.
*1999 – SATA Air Açores Flight 530M crashes into Pico da Esperança on São Jorge Island in the Azores, killing 35.
*2001 – China joins the World Trade Organization (WTO).
*2005 – The Buncefield Oil Depot catches fire in Hemel Hempstead, England.
* 2005 – Cronulla riots: Thousands of White Australians demonstrate against ethnic violence resulting in a riot against anyone thought to be Lebanese in Cronulla, New South Wales; these are followed up by retaliatory ethnic attacks on Cronulla.
*2006 – The International Conference to Review the Global Vision of the Holocaust is opened in Tehran, Iran, by then-president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad; nations such as Israel and the United States express concern.
* 2006 – Felipe Calderón, the President of Mexico, launches a military-led offensive to put down the drug cartel violence in the state of Michoacán. This effort is often regarded as the first event in the Mexican Drug War.
*2007 – Insurgency in the Maghreb: Two car bombs explode in Algiers, Algeria, one near the Supreme Constitutional Court and the other near the offices of the United Nations.
*2008 – Bernie Madoff is arrested and charged with securities fraud in a $50 billion Ponzi scheme.
*2009 – Finnish game developer Rovio Entertainment releases the hit mobile game Angry Birds internationally on iOS.
*2012 – At least 125 people are killed and up to 200 injured in bombings in the Alawite village of Aqrab, Syria.
*2017 – New York City Subway bombing: A pipe bomb partially detonates in the New York City Subway, in the Times Square–42nd Street/Port Authority Bus Terminal. Four people are injured, including the perpetrator.
*2019 – The results of the 2019 Bougainvillean independence referendum are announced. The results are overwhelmingly one-sided. Over 98% of voters vote for Bougainville's independence.
*2020 – The Food and Drug Administration issues an Emergency Use Authorization on the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine, the first COVID-19 vaccine to be approved by the agency.BirthsPre-1600
*1445 – Eberhard I, Duke of Württemberg (d. 1496)
*1465 – Ashikaga Yoshihisa, Japanese shogun (d. 1489)
*1475 – Pope Leo X (d. 1521)
*1566 – Manuel Cardoso, Portuguese organist and composer (d. 1650)
*1595 – Heo Mok, Korean politician, poet and scholar (d. 1682)
1601–1900
*1613 – Amar Singh Rathore, Rajput nobleman (d. 1644)
*1712 – Francesco Algarotti, Italian poet, philosopher, and critic (d. 1764)
*1725 – George Mason, American lawyer and politician (d. 1792)
*1758 – Carl Friedrich Zelter, German composer, conductor, and educator (d. 1832)
*1761 – Gian Domenico Romagnosi, Italian physicist, economist, and jurist (d. 1835)
*1781 – David Brewster, Scottish physicist, mathematician, and astronomer (d. 1868)
*1801 – Christian Dietrich Grabbe, German poet and playwright (d. 1836)
*1803 – Hector Berlioz, French composer, conductor, and critic (d. 1869)
*1810 – Alfred de Musset, French dramatist, poet, and novelist (d. 1857)
*1830 – Kamehameha V of Hawaii (d. 1872)
*1837 – Webster Paulson, English civil engineer (d. 1887)
*1838 – John Labatt, Canadian brewer and businessman (d. 1915)
*1843 – Robert Koch, German microbiologist and physician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1910)
*1856 – Georgi Plekhanov, Russian philosopher, theorist, and author (d. 1918)
*1858 – Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko, Russian director, producer, and playwright (d. 1943)
*1861 – Frederick Eveleigh-de-Moleyns, 5th Baron Ventry, British Army officer and Anglo-Irish peer (d. 1923)
*1863 – Annie Jump Cannon, American astronomer and academic (d. 1941)
*1872 – René Bull, British illustrator and photographer (d. 1942)
*1873 – Josip Plemelj, Slovenian mathematician and academic (d. 1967)
*1875 – Yehuda Leib Maimon, Moldovan-Israeli rabbi and politician (d. 1962)
*1880 – Frank Tarrant, Australian cricketer and umpire (d. 1951)
*1882 – Subramania Bharati, Indian journalist and poet (d. 1921)
* 1882 – Max Born, German physicist and mathematician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1970)
* 1882 – Fiorello H. La Guardia, American lawyer and politician, 99th Mayor of New York City (d. 1947)
*1884 – Piet Ooms, Dutch swimmer and water polo player (d. 1961)
*1889 – Walter Knott, American farmer and businessman, founded Knott's Berry Farm (d. 1981)
*1890 – Carlos Gardel, French-Argentinian singer-songwriter and actor (d. 1935)
* 1890 – Mark Tobey, American-Swiss painter and educator (d. 1976)
*1892 – Arnold Majewski, Finnish military hero of Polish descent (d. 1942)
*1893 – Leo Ornstein, Russian-American pianist and composer (d. 2002)
*1897 – Ronald Skirth, English soldier (d. 1977)
*1899 – Julio de Caro, Argentinian violinist, composer, and conductor (d. 1980)
*1900 – Hermína Týrlová, Czechoslovakian animator, screenwriter, and film director (d. 1993)
* 1900 – Gerd Arntz, German Modernist artist, co-creator of Isotype (d. 1988)1901–present*1904 – Marge, American cartoonist (d. 1993)
*1905 – Robert Henriques, English farmer, author, and broadcaster (d. 1967)
* 1905 – Gilbert Roland, Mexican-American actor and singer (d. 1994)
*1908 – Elliott Carter, American composer and academic (d. 2012)
* 1908 – Manoel de Oliveira, Portuguese actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2015)
* 1908 – Hákun Djurhuus, Faroese educator and politician, fourth Prime Minister of the Faroe Islands (d. 1987)
* 1908 – Amon Göth, Austrian Nazi war criminal (d. 1946)
*1909 – Ronald McKie, Australian soldier, journalist, and author (d. 1991)
*1910 – Mildred Cleghorn, Native American chairwoman and educator (d. 1997)
*1911 – Val Guest, English-American director, producer, screenwriter, and composer (d. 2006)
* 1911 – Naguib Mahfouz, Egyptian author, playwright, and screenwriter, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2006)
* 1911 – Qian Xuesen, Chinese aerodynamicist and academic (d. 2009)
*1912 – Carlo Ponti, Italian-Swiss film producer (d. 2007)
*1913 – Jean Marais, French actor and director (d. 1998)
*1916 – Elena Garro, Mexican author and playwright (d. 1998)
* 1916 – Pérez Prado, Cuban-Mexican singer-songwriter, pianist, and bandleader (d. 1989)
*1918 – Clinton Adams, American painter and historian (d. 2002)
* 1918 – Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Russian novelist, historian, and short story writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2008)
*1919 – Cliff Michelmore, English television host and producer (d. 2016)
* 1919 – Marie Windsor, American actress (d. 2000)
*1920 – Mary Ivy Burks, American environmental activist (d. 2007)
* 1920 – Denis Jenkinson, English motorcycle racer and journalist (d. 1996)
*1921 – Ilmar Laaban, Estonian poet and publicist (d. 2000)
* 1921 – Liz Smith, English actress (d. 2016)
*1922 – Grigoris Bithikotsis, Greek singer-songwriter (d. 2005)
* 1922 – Dilip Kumar, Indian actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2021)
* 1922 – Maila Nurmi, Finnish-American actress, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2008)
* 1922 – Grace Paley, American short story writer and poet (d. 2007)
*1923 – Betsy Blair, American actress and dancer (d. 2009)
* 1923 – Lillian Cahn, Hungarian-born American businesswoman, co-founded Coach, Inc. (d. 2013)
* 1923 – Morrie Turner, American comics creator (d. 2014)
*1924 – Doc Blanchard, American football player and colonel (d. 2009)
*1925 – Aaron Feuerstein, American businessman and philanthropist (d. 2021)
* 1925 – Paul Greengard, American neuroscientist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2019)
* 1925 – James Sullivan, American politician (d. 2012)
*1926 – Big Mama Thornton, American singer-songwriter (d. 1984)
*1927 – John Buscema, American illustrator (d. 2002)
*1929 – Axel Anderson, German actor and production manager (d. 2012)
* 1929 – Subhash Gupte, Indian cricketer (d. 2002)
*1930 – Chus Lampreave, Spanish actress (d. 2016)
* 1930 – Jean-Louis Trintignant, French actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2022)
*1931 – Ernie Beck, American basketball player
* 1931 – Ronald Dworkin, American philosopher and scholar (d. 2013)
* 1931 – Rita Moreno, Puerto Rican actress, singer, and dancer
* 1931 – Pierre Pilote, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2017)
* 1931 – Rajneesh, Indian guru, mystic, and educator (d. 1990)
*1932 – Enrique Bermúdez, Nicaraguan colonel and engineer (d. 1991)
* 1932 – Keith Waldrop, American author and poet (d. 2023)
*1933 – Aquilino Pimentel, Jr., Filipino civil servant and politician, 23rd President of the Senate of the Philippines (d. 2019)
*1934 – Salim Durani, Afghan-Indian cricketer (d. 2023)
*1935 – Pranab Mukherjee, Indian journalist and politician, 13th President of India (d. 2020)
* 1935 – Elmer Vasko, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 1998)
*1936 – Hans van den Broek, Dutch lawyer and politician, Dutch Minister of Foreign Affairs
* 1936 – Taku Yamasaki, Japanese politician
*1937 – Jim Harrison, American novelist, essayist, and poet (d. 2016)
*1938 – Enrico Macias, Algerian-French singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1938 – McCoy Tyner, American jazz musician (d. 2020)
*1939 – Tom Hayden, American activist and politician (d. 2016)
* 1939 – Thomas McGuane, American novelist, short story writer, and screenwriter
*1940 – David Gates, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer
* 1940 – Donna Mills, American actress and producer
*1941 – Max Baucus, American lawyer, politician, and diplomat, 11th United States Ambassador to China
* 1941 – J. P. Parisé, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and manager (d. 2015)
* 1941 – Rogier van Otterloo, Dutch conductor and composer (d. 1988)
* 1941 – J. Frank Wilson, American singer-songwriter (d. 1991)
*1942 – Anna Carteret, English actress
*1943 – John Kerry, American lieutenant, lawyer, and politician, 68th United States Secretary of State
*1944 – Teri Garr, American actress and comedian (d. 2024)
* 1944 – Jon Garrison, American tenor and educator
* 1944 – Lynda Day George, American actress
* 1944 – Michael Lang, American concert promoter and producer (d. 2022)
* 1944 – Brenda Lee, American singer-songwriter
*1946 – Rhoma Irama, Indonesian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor
* 1946 – Rick McCosker, Australian cricketer
* 1946 – Diana Palmer, American journalist and author
*1948 – Stamatis Spanoudakis, Greek guitarist and composer
* 1948 – Shinji Tanimura, Japanese singer-songwriter (d. 2023)
*1949 – Christina Onassis, Greek-Argentine businesswoman, socialite, and heiress (d. 1988)
*1951 – Mazlan Othman, Malaysian astrophysicist and astronomer
* 1951 – Ria Stalman, Dutch discus thrower and shot putter
*1953 – Bess Armstrong, American actress
*1954 – Brad Bryant, American golfer
* 1954 – Sylvester Clarke, Barbadian cricketer (d. 1999)
* 1954 – Santiago Creel, Mexican lawyer and politician, Mexican Secretary of the Interior
* 1954 – Jermaine Jackson, American singer-songwriter, bass player, and producer
* 1954 – Guðlaugur Kristinn Óttarsson, Icelandic guitarist, mathematician, and engineer
*1955 – Gene Grossman, American economist and academic
* 1955 – Stu Jackson, American basketball player, coach, and manager
* 1955 – Ray Kelvin, British fashion designer
* 1955 – Christian Sackewitz, German footballer and manager
*1956 – Lani Brockman, American actress and director
* 1956 – Andrew Lansley, English politician, Secretary of State for Health
*1957 – Peter Bagge, American author and illustrator
*1958 – Chris Hughton, English-born Irish footballer and manager
* 1958 – Tom Shadyac, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter
* 1958 – Nikki Sixx, American bass player, songwriter, and producer
*1960 – Anders Eldebrink, Swedish ice hockey player and coach
*1961 – Dave King, Irish-American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1961 – Steve Nicol, Scottish footballer and manager
* 1961 – Macky Sall, Senegalese engineer and politician, fourth President of Senegal
* 1961 – Marco Pierre White, English chef and mentor
*1962 – Ben Browder, American actor
*1963 – Mario Been, Dutch footballer and manager
* 1963 – Mark Greatbatch, New Zealand cricketer
* 1963 – Claudia Kohde-Kilsch, German tennis player
* 1963 – John Lammers, Dutch footballer and manager
* 1963 – Nigel Winterburn, English footballer and coach
*1964 – Justin Currie, Scottish singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1964 – Dave Schools, American singer-songwriter, bass player, and producer
* 1964 – Carolyn Waldo, Canadian swimmer and sportscaster
*1965 – Jay Bell, American baseball player and coach
* 1965 – Gavin Hill, New Zealand rugby player
* 1965 – Glenn Lazarus, Australian rugby league player and politician
* 1965 – Giannis Ragousis, Greek economist and politician, Greek Minister for National Defence
*1966 – Gary Dourdan, American actor
* 1966 – Erik Honoré, Norwegian guitarist and producer
* 1966 – Göran Kropp, Swedish race car driver and mountaineer (d. 2002)
* 1966 – Leon Lai, Hong Kong singer and actor
*1967 – Peter Kelamis, Australian voice actor
* 1967 – Mo'Nique, American comedian, actress, and producer
* 1967 – Chris Shepherd, English animator, director, producer, and screenwriter
* 1967 – Katy Steding, American basketball player and coach
*1968 – Emmanuelle Charpentier, French researcher in microbiology, genetics and biochemistry, and Nobel laureate
* 1968 – Fabrizio Ravanelli, Italian footballer and manager
*1969 – Viswanathan Anand, Indian chess player
* 1969 – Stig Inge Bjørnebye, Norwegian footballer and manager
* 1969 – Max Martini, American actor, director, and screenwriter
* 1969 – Alessandro Melli, Italian footballer and manager
*1970 – Victoria Fuller, American model and actress
*1971 – Willie McGinest, American football player and sportscaster
*1972 – Daniel Alfredsson, Swedish ice hockey player
* 1972 – Sami Al-Jaber, Saudi Arabian footballer and manager
* 1972 – Murray Goodwin, Zimbabwean cricketer
* 1972 – Andriy Husin, Ukrainian footballer and manager (d. 2014)
*1973 – Mos Def, American rapper
*1974 – Maarten Lafeber, Dutch golfer
* 1974 – Rey Mysterio, American wrestler
* 1974 – Lisa Ortiz, American theatre and voice actress
* 1974 – Ben Shephard, English journalist and television host
* 1974 – Gete Wami, Ethiopian runner
*1975 – Gerben de Knegt, Dutch cyclist
*1976 – Shareef Abdur-Rahim, American basketball player, coach, and manager
* 1976 – Yujiro Shirakawa, Japanese actor
*1977 – Mark Streit, Swiss ice hockey player
*1978 – Roy Wood, Jr., American comedian, actor, and radio host
*1979 – Colleen Hoover, American author
* 1979 – Valdis Mintals, Estonian figure skater
* 1979 – Rider Strong, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter
*1980 – Adi Keissar, Israeli poet
* 1980 – Kristjan Kitsing, Estonian basketball player
*1981 – Rebekkah Brunson, American basketball player and coach
* 1981 – Jason Kennedy, American journalist
* 1981 – Jeff McComsey, American author and illustrator
* 1981 – Paul Medhurst, Australian footballer
* 1981 – Javier Saviola, Argentine footballer
*1982 – Roman Harper, American football player
* 1982 – Pablo Pérez Companc, Argentine race car driver
*1984 – Leighton Baines, English footballer
* 1984 – Sandra Echeverría, Mexican actress and singer
* 1984 – James Ellsworth, American wrestler
* 1984 – Xosha Roquemore, American actress
*1985 – Karla Souza, Mexican actress
*1986 – Roy Hibbert, American basketball player
*1987 – Violetta Bock, German politician
* 1987 – Clifton Geathers, American football player
* 1987 – Alex Russell, Australian actor
* 1987 – Miranda Tapsell, Australian actress
*1988 – Tim Southee, New Zealand cricketer
*1989 – Kellie Harrington, Irish boxer
*1990 – Alexa Demie, American actress and singer
*1992 – Tiffany Alvord, American singer-songwriter
* 1992 – Malcolm Brogdon, American basketball player
*1993 – Yalitza Aparicio, Mexican actress
*1995 – Abbi Grant, Scottish footballer
*1996 – Hailee Steinfeld, American actress, singer and songwriter
*1997 – Matthew Tkachuk, American ice hockey player
*2000 – Onyeka Okongwu, American basketball player
<!--Do not add your own name or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 384 – Pope Damasus I (b. c.304)
* 861 – Al-Fath ibn Khaqan, chief confidant and councillor to al-Mutawakkil
* 969 – Nikephoros II Phokas, Byzantine emperor (b. 912)
*1121 – Al-Afdal Shahanshah, Egyptian political adviser (b. 1066)
*1198 – Averroes, Spanish astronomer, physicist, and philosopher (b. 1126)
*1241 – Ögedei Khan, Mongolian emperor (b. 1186)
*1282 – Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, Welsh prince (b. 1223)
* 1282 – Michael VIII Palaiologos, Byzantine emperor (b. 1225)
*1474 – Henry IV of Castile, King of the Crown of Castile (b. 1425)
*1532 – Pietro Accolti, Italian cardinal (b. 1455)
*1582 – Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba, Spanish general and politician, 12th Constable of Portugal (b. 1508)
1601–1900
*1610 – Adam Elsheimer, German artist working in Rome (b. 1578)
*1686 – Louis, Grand Condé, French general (b. 1621)
*1694 – Ranuccio II Farnese, Duke of Parma (b. 1630)
*1737 – John Strype, English priest, historian, and author (b. 1643)
*1747 – Edmund Curll, English bookseller and publisher (b. 1675)
*1797 – Richard Brocklesby, English physician (b. 1722)
*1826 – Maria Leopoldina of Austria (b. 1797)
*1840 – Emperor Kōkaku of Japan (b. 1771)
*1872 – Kamehameha V of Hawaii (b. 1830)
*1880 – Oliver Winchester, American businessman, founded the Winchester Repeating Arms Company (b. 1810)
*1892 – William Milligan, Scottish theologian and scholar (b. 1821)
1901–present
*1906 – Charles Townsend, American fencer, engineer, and academic (b. 1872)
*1909 – Ludwig Mond, German-born chemist and British industrialist who discovered the metal carbonyls (b. 1839)
*1913 – Carl von In der Maur, Governor of Liechtenstein (b. 1852)
*1918 – Ivan Cankar, Slovenian author, poet, and playwright (b. 1876)
*1920 – Olive Schreiner, South African author and activist (b. 1855)
*1936 – Myron Grimshaw, American baseball player (b. 1875)
*1937 – Jaan Anvelt, Estonian theorist and politician (b. 1884)
* 1937 – Hugh Thackeray Turner, English architect and painter (b. 1853)
*1938 – Christian Lous Lange, Norwegian historian and educator, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1869)
*1941 – John Gillespie Magee, Jr., American pilot and poet (b. 1922)
* 1941 – Émile Picard, French mathematician and academic (b. 1856)
*1945 – Charles Fabry, French physicist and academic (b. 1867)
*1950 – Leslie Comrie, New Zealand astronomer and author (b. 1893)
*1951 – Mustafa Muğlalı, Turkish general (b. 1882)
* 1951 – Hijri Dede, Iraqi Turkmen poet and writer (b. 1881)
*1953 – Sedat Simavi, Turkish journalist and director (b. 1896)
*1957 – Musidora, French actress, director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1889)
*1959 – Jim Bottomley, American baseball player and manager (b. 1900)
*1964 – Sam Cooke, American singer-songwriter (b. 1931)
* 1964 – Percy Kilbride, American actor (b. 1888)
*1966 – Augusta Fox Bronner, American psychologist, specialist in juvenile psychology (b. 1881)
*1968 – Richard Sagrits, Estonian painter and author (b. 1910)
* 1968 – Arthur Hays Sulzberger, American publisher (b. 1891)
*1971 – Maurice McDonald, American businessman, co-founded McDonald's (b. 1902)
*1975 – Lee Wiley, American singer (b. 1908)
* 1975 – Nihal Atsız, Turkish philosopher, author, and poet (b. 1905)
*1978 – Vincent du Vigneaud, American biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1901)
* 1978 – Paul O'Dea, American baseball player and manager (b. 1920)
*1979 – James J. Gibson, American psychologist and author (b. 1904)
*1983 – Neil Ritchie, Guyanese-English general (b. 1897)
*1984 – Oskar Seidlin, German-American author, poet, and scholar (b. 1911)
* 1984 – George Waggner, American director, producer and actor (b. 1894)
*1987 – G. A. Kulkarni, Indian author and academic (b. 1923)
*1989 – Louise Dahl-Wolfe, American photographer (b. 1895)
*1991 – Robert Q. Lewis, American actor, comedian, game show host/panelist, and television personality (b. 1921)
* 1991 – Artur Lundkvist, Swedish author and critic (b. 1906)
*1994 – Philip Phillips, American archaeologist and scholar (b. 1900)
*1995 – Greg Bahnsen, American minister and philosopher (b. 1948)
*1996 – Willie Rushton, English cartoonist, author, and publisher, co-founded Private Eye (b. 1937)
*1997 – Eddie Chapman, English spy (b. 1914)
* 1997 – Simon Jeffes, English guitarist and composer (b. 1949)
*1998 – André Lichnerowicz, French physicist and mathematician (b. 1915)
* 1998 – Lynn Strait, American singer-songwriter (b. 1968)
*2000 – Shaista Suhrawardy Ikramullah, Pakistani politician and diplomat (b. 1915)
* 2000 – David Lewis, American actor (b. 1916)
*2001 – Mainza Chona, Zambian lawyer and politician, first Prime Minister of Zambia (b. 1930)
*2003 – Ahmadou Kourouma, Ivorian author and playwright (b. 1927)
*2004 – José Luis Cuciuffo, Argentinian footballer (b. 1962)
* 2004 – Arthur Lydiard, New Zealand runner and coach (b. 1917)
*2008 – Bettie Page, American model (b. 1923)
*2010 – Dick Hoerner, American football player (b. 1922)
*2011 – John Patrick Foley, American cardinal (b. 1935)
*2012 – Galina Vishnevskaya, Russian soprano and actress (b. 1926)
* 2012 – Mendel Weinbach, Polish-Israeli rabbi and scholar (b. 1933)
* 2012 – Ravi Shankar, Indian-American sitar player and composer (b. 1920)
*2013 – Nadir Afonso, Portuguese painter and architect (b. 1920)
* 2013 – Barbara Branden, Canadian-American author and academic (b. 1929)
* 2013 – Javier Jáuregui (boxer), Mexican boxer (b. 1973)
* 2013 – Sheikh Mussa Shariefi, Indian philosopher and scholar (b. 1942)
*2014 – Hans Wallat, German conductor and director (b. 1929)
*2015 – Abish Kekilbayev, Kazakh academic and politician (b. 1939)
* 2015 – H. Arnold Steinberg, Canadian businessman, philanthropist, and academic (b. 1933)
* 2015 – Hema Upadhyay, Indian painter and sculptor (b. 1972)
* 2015 – John "Hot Rod" Williams, American basketball player (b. 1962)
* 2015 – Ken Woolley, Australian architect (b. 1933)
*2017 – Keith Chegwin, British TV presenter (b. 1957)
*2020 – James Flynn, New Zealand intelligence researcher. (b. 1934)
*2021 – Anne Rice, American author (b. 1941)
*2023 – Andre Braugher, American actor (b. 1962)
*2024 – David Bonderman, American billionaire businessman (b. 1942)
*2024 – Khalil Haqqani, Afghan politician and warlord (b. 1966)
*2024 – Purushottam Upadhyay, Indian musician, singer and composer (b. 1934)
<!--Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Holidays and observances
*Christian feast day:
**Cian
**Daniel the Stylite
**María de las Maravillas de Jesús
**Pope Damasus I
**Sabinus of Piacenza
**Victoricus, Fuscian, and Gentian
**December 11 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*Establishment of Kurdish Women's Union (Iraqi Kurdistan)
*Indiana Day (United States)
*International Mountain Day
*National Tango Day (Argentina)
*Pampanga Day (Pampanga province, Philippines)
*Republic Day, the day when Upper Volta became an autonomous republic in the French Community in 1958. (Burkina Faso)
References
External links
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/11 BBC: On This Day]
*
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/december/11 Historical Events on December 11]
Category:Days of December
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_11
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Danny Elfman
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| birth_place = Los Angeles, California, U.S.
| occupation =
| years_active = 1971–present
| spouse
| children = 3
| mother = Blossom Elfman
| relatives = Richard Elfman (brother)<br>Bodhi Elfman (nephew)
| website =
| module
| past_member_of = Oingo Boingo
}}
}}
Daniel Robert Elfman (born May 29, 1953) is an American film composer, singer, songwriter, and musician. He came to prominence as the lead vocalist and primary songwriter for the new wave band Oingo Boingo in the early 1980s. Since scoring his first studio film in 1985, Elfman has garnered international recognition for composing over 100 feature film scores, as well as compositions for television, stage productions, and the concert hall.
Elfman has frequently worked with directors Tim Burton, Sam Raimi, and Gus Van Sant, contributing music to nearly 20 Burton projects, including ''Pee-Wee's Big Adventure, Beetlejuice, Batman, Edward Scissorhands, Batman Returns, Mars Attacks!, Sleepy Hollow, Big Fish and Alice in Wonderland, as well as scoring Raimi's Darkman, A Simple Plan, Spider-Man, Spider-Man 2, Oz the Great and Powerful, and Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness, and Van Sant's Academy Award-winning films Good Will Hunting and Milk. He wrote music for all of the Men in Black and Fifty Shades of Grey franchise films, the songs and score for Henry Selick's animated musical The Nightmare Before Christmas, and the themes for the popular television series Desperate Housewives and The Simpsons.
Among his honors are four Oscar nominations, a Grammy, seven Saturn Awards for Best Music, the 2002 Richard Kirk Award, the 2015 Disney Legend Award, the Max Steiner Film Music Achievement Award in 2017, and the Society of Composers & Lyricists Lifetime Achievement Award in 2022.
Early life
Elfman was born on May 29, 1953, in Los Angeles, California He is a son of Blossom Elfman (née Bernstein), a writer and teacher, and Milton Elfman, a teacher. He is the brother of actor, musician, and journalist Richard Elfman. Elfman was raised in an affluent, racially-mixed community in Baldwin Hills, California, where he spent much of his time at the local movie theater discovering classic sci-fi, fantasy and horror films and first noticed the music of such film composers as Bernard Herrmann and Franz Waxman. Elfman has admitted to fabricating stories about his past out of boredom, including a false birthplace of Amarillo, Texas, and parents in the United States Air Force.
In his early school days, Elfman exhibited an aptitude for science with almost no interest in music, and was even rejected from elementary school orchestra "for having no propensity for music." This would change when he switched high schools in the late 1960s and fell in with a musical crowd, who introduced him to early jazz and the work of Stravinsky and his 20th-century contemporaries.
Elfman left school to follow his brother Richard to France, where he performed violin with Jérôme Savary's Le Grand Magic Circus, an avant-garde musical theater group. He then embarked on a ten-month, self-guided tour through Africa, busking and collecting a range of West African percussion instruments until a series of illnesses forced him to return home. At this time, Richard was forming a new musical theater group in Los Angeles.
Career
Oingo Boingo
After returning to Los Angeles from Africa in the early 1970s, Elfman was asked by his brother Richard to serve as musical director of his street theatre performance art troupe The Mystic Knights of the Oingo Boingo. He also composed original pieces and helped build instruments unique for the group, including an aluminum gamelan, the 'Schlitz celeste' made from tuned beer cans, and a "junkyard orchestra" built from car parts and trash cans.
The Mystic Knights performed on the street and in theaters, and later in nightclubs throughout Los Angeles until Richard left in 1976 to pursue filmmaking.
Before the release of Forbidden Zone, Elfman took over the Mystic Knights as lead singer-songwriter in 1976. In 1979, he pared the group down to eight players to record and tour as a ska-influenced new wave band. That summer, the group's name would change to Oingo Boingo. featuring the hit song "Weird Science" from the movie of the same name. for which Elfman also composed the score. Elfman shifted the band to a more guitar-oriented rock sound in the late 1980s, which continued through their last album Boingo in 1994.
Citing permanent hearing damage from performing live and conflicts with his film-scoring career, On October 31, 2015, Elfman and Oingo Boingo guitarist Steve Bartek performed the song "Dead Man's Party" with an orchestra as an encore to a live-to-film concert of The Nightmare Before Christmas score at the Hollywood Bowl. Elfman told the audience the performance was "20 years to the day" of Oingo Boingo's retirement.
Film scoring
As fans of Oingo Boingo, Tim Burton and Paul Reubens invited Elfman to write the score for their first feature film ''Pee-wee's Big Adventure in 1985. Elfman was initially apprehensive because of his lack of formal training and having never scored a studio feature, but after Burton accepted his initial demo of the title music, and with orchestration assistance from Oingo Boingo guitarist and arranger Steve Bartek, Elfman completed the score to great effect, paying homage to influential film composers Nino Rota and Bernard Herrmann. Elfman described the first time he heard his music played by a full orchestra as one of the most thrilling experiences of his life.
Following Pee Wee's Big Adventure, Elfman scored a string of comedies in the late 1980s, including Back to School'' starring Rodney Dangerfield, Burton's Beetlejuice and the Bill Murray film Scrooged. Non-comedy work included the all-synth score to Emilio Estevez's crime drama Wisdom and the big band, blues-infused music for Martin Brest's buddy cop action film Midnight Run.
In 1989, Elfman's influential, Grammy-winning score for Burton's Batman marked a major stylistic shift to dark, densely orchestrated music in the romantic idiom. scoring all but three of the director's major studio releases. Highlights include Edward Scissorhands (1990), Batman Returns (1992), Sleepy Hollow (1999), Big Fish (2003) and Alice in Wonderland (2010). In 1993, Elfman wrote the score and ten songs for the Burton-produced stop motion animated film The Nightmare Before Christmas, directed by Henry Selick, and also provided the singing voice for main character Jack Skellington, as well as the voices for secondary characters Barrel, the Clown with the Tear-Away Face and others. In 2005, he wrote the score and songs for Burton's Corpse Bride and provided the voice of the character of Bonejangles, and provided the score, songs and Oompa-Loompa vocals for Burton's Charlie and the Chocolate Factory that same year.
In addition to frequent collaborations with Burton, Raimi and Gus Van Sant, Elfman has worked with directors such as Brian De Palma, Peter Jackson, Joss Whedon, Errol Morris, Ang Lee, Richard Donner, Guillermo del Toro, David O. Russell, Taylor Hackford, Jon Amiel, Joe Johnston, and Barry Sonnenfeld. His scores for Sonnenfeld's Men in Black, Van Sant's Good Will Hunting and Milk, and Burton's Big Fish all received Academy Award nominations. and three Fifty Shades films (2015–2018). In 1996, he scored the first film in the Mission: Impossible series, adapting themes for the original television series by Lalo Schifrin as well as composing his own. Elfman scored Raimi's Spider-Man in 2002 and Spider-Man 2 in 2004, themes and selections from which were used for Raimi's Spider-Man 3, scored by Christopher Young. Elfman's Spider-Man theme was incorporated into the MCU film Spider-Man: No Way Home composed by Michael Giacchino.
Elfman entered the Marvel Cinematic Universe by providing additional music in 2015's Avengers: Age of Ultron, receiving composer credit with Brian Tyler. Elfman also scored MCU's Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness in 2022, utilizing Giacchino's theme to the original Doctor Strange film, as well as themes from WandaVision and X-Men: The Animated Series, and music from Beethoven's Fifth Symphony and Bach's Toccata and Fugue.
For several high-profile sequel and reboot projects in the 2010s, Elfman incorporated established musical themes with his own original thematic material, including the DC Extended Universe's Justice League, The Grinch, Dumbo and Men in Black International.
Elfman was featured in the 2016 documentary Score, in which he appeared among over 50 film composers to discuss the craft of movie music and influential figures in the business.Concert musicElfman's first piece of original concert music, Serenada Schizophrana, was commissioned by the American Composers Orchestra, who premiered the piece on February 23, 2005, at Carnegie Hall. Subsequent concert works include his first Violin Concerto "Eleven Eleven", co-commissioned by the Czech National Symphony Orchestra, Stanford Live at Stanford University, and the Royal Scottish National Orchestra, which premiered at Smetana Hall in Prague on June 21, 2017, with Sandy Cameron on violin and John Mauceri conducting the Czech National Symphony Orchestra; the Piano Quartet, co-commissioned by the Lied Center for Performing Arts University of Nebraska and the Berlin Philharmonic Piano Quartet, which premiered February 6, 2018, in Lincoln, Nebraska; and the Percussion Quartet, commissioned by Third Coast Percussion and premiered at the Philip Glass Days And Nights Festival in Big Sur on October 10, 2019.
2022 saw the first performances of three concert works. Elfman's Cello Concerto for Gautier Capuçon was premiered by the Vienna Symphony on March 18, with subsequent performances by the Orchestre Philharmonique de Radio France in May and the San Francisco Symphony US premiere in November. Elfman's Percussion Concerto for Colin Currie premiered on March 25 at London's Royal Festival Hall with London Philharmonic Orchestra, and was later performed at Soka University of America in California, with Pacific Symphony. His Wunderkammer, a commission from the National Youth Orchestra of Great Britain, toured the UK in summer 2022, culminating in a performance in London's Royal Albert Hall as part of the BBC Proms, with national radio and TV broadcasts.
Elfman's Suite for Chamber Orchestra was premiered on May 4, 2023, by Orpheus Chamber Orchestra at St Mark's Episcopal Church in Washington, D.C. The Suite was co-commissioned by the Library of Congress, the Royalty Pool of Andre Kostelanetz, the Los Angeles Chamber Orchestra, and the National Symphony Orchestra of Ireland. Subsequent performances of the Suite include the New York premiere by the Orpheus Chamber Orchestra in July 2023 at 92NY's inaugural MidSummer Music Fest, the West Coast premiere by the Los Angeles Chamber Orchestra in December 2023 at the Alex Theatre in Glendale, California, and a performance by the Reno Chamber Orchestra in October 2024.
Stage music
In 2008, Elfman accepted his first commission for the stage, composing the music for Twyla Tharp's Rabbit and Rogue ballet, co-commissioned by American Ballet Theatre and Orange County Performing Arts Center and premiering on June 3, 2008, at the Metropolitan Opera House, Lincoln Center. Other works for stage include the music for Cirque Du Soleil's Iris in 2011, and incidental music for the Broadway production of Taylor Mac's Gary: A Sequel to Titus Andronicus in 2019.
live at the Hollywood Bowl.]]
In October 2013, Elfman returned to the stage for the first time since his band Oingo Boingo disbanded to sing a handful of The Nightmare Before Christmas songs as part of the concert Danny Elfman's Music from the Films of Tim Burton'', featuring suites of music from 15 Tim Burton films newly arranged by Elfman. The concert has since toured internationally and has played in Japan, Australia, Mexico and throughout Europe and the United States. Since 2015, Elfman has appeared regularly in a Hollywood Bowl Halloween concert featuring full orchestra performing the Nightmare Before Christmas score live to the film projection.
Elfman made his Coachella debut on April 16, 2022, with Danny Elfman: From Boingo to Batman to Big Mess to Beyond! The concert, postponed from Coachella 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, featured Elfman's film and television music arranged for band, orchestra and choir, as well as songs from his solo album Big Mess and new arrangements of songs from his Oingo Boingo catalogue. Conducted by Steve Bartek, and featuring Elfman (vocals, guitar, percussion), Wes Borland (guitar), Stu Brooks (bass), Nili Brosh (guitar), and Josh Freese (drums), the concert was expanded for two shows Halloween weekend 2022 at the Hollywood Bowl.Television and other projectsIn addition to his music for film, Elfman also penned themes for the television series The Simpsons, Tales from the Crypt, The Flash and Desperate Housewives, which won Elfman his first Emmy. He also adapted his original themes for the animated versions of Batman and Beetlejuice. Occasional forays into serial television include episodes of Alfred Hitchcock Presents, Amazing Stories and Pee-wee's Playhouse, the miniseries When We Rise co-composed with Chris Bacon, and themes for the Netflix series Wednesday.
He has composed music for animated shorts, including Sally Cruikshank's Face Like A Frog and Tim Burton's "Stainboy" internet series.
Elfman provided background music for Luigi Serafini's solo exhibition il Teatro della Pittura at the Fondazione Mudima di Milano in Milan, Italy in 1998 and for the Tim Burton exhibition at MoMA in 2009.
In the 1990s, Elfman composed music for advertising campaigns for Nike, Nissan and Lincoln-Mercury, and in 2002 wrote the music for Honda's "Power of Dreams" advertising campaign, which was the first cinema commercial to be shot in the IMAX format.
In 2013 he composed the music and provided the English-language vocals for the Hong Kong Disneyland attraction Mystic Manor.
On October 31, 2019, the MasterClass online educational series released "Making Music out of Chaos," presenting 21 compositional and career lessons from Elfman's four decades of experience primarily in the film industry.
Elfman scored the 10-minute video "Joe Biden," which introduced Joe Biden's acceptance of the presidential candidacy nomination at the 2020 Democratic National Convention.
On November 16, 2021, Disney Branded Television announced that Elfman would compose score and songs of the upcoming Disney Television Animation and 20th Television Animation stop-motion animated comedy series Rhona Who Lives by the River created by Emily Kapnek, Elfman also serves as executive producer for the series.
In June 2024, it was announced that Elfman would compose the music for the Dark Universe section of Universal Epic Universe.SoloIn October 2020, Elfman released the single, "Happy," on Anti- Records and Epitaph Records. From January 2021 on the eleventh day of each month, he released five subsequent singles "Sorry", "Love in the Time of COVID", "Kick Me", "True", and a reworking of the Oingo Boingo song "Insects" from the album Nothing to Fear. This culminated with the release of the double album Big Mess on June 11. Featuring 18 original songs, this was Elfman's first solo studio album since 1984's So-Lo.
On August 11, 2021, Elfman released a remix of "True" with lead vocals shared between Elfman and Nine Inch Nails frontman Trent Reznor. A year later, Elfman released Bigger Messier, a compilation of 23 remixes of songs on the album Big Mess by artists including Reznor, Iggy Pop, Blixa Bargeld, Squarepusher, Boy Harsher and more.
Influences and style
Elfman has said his major influences are composers from Hollywood's Golden Age, such as Bernard Herrmann, Dimitri Tiomkin, Max Steiner, David Tamkin, Erich Wolfgang Korngold, and Carl Stalling; 20th century classical composers Sergei Prokofiev, Igor Stravinsky, Béla Bartók, Dmitri Shostakovich, and Carl Orff; and jazz, experimental and minimalist composers Kurt Weill, Duke Ellington, Harry Partch, Philip Glass, Lou Harrison, Terry Riley, and Steve Reich.
Influences on specific scores include Erik Satie (Forbidden Zone), Nino Rota (''Pee-wee's Big Adventure), George Gershwin (Dick Tracy), Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (Edward Scissorhands), and Jimi Hendrix (Dead Presidents).
Though many believe Richard Wagner informed his influential score to Batman'', Elfman has said it was more likely from Wagner's influence on classic film composers such as Herrmann, Steiner, Waxman and Korngold, as he was unfamiliar with Wagner's work at the time.
Elfman counts Herrmann as his biggest influence, and has said hearing Herrmann's score to The Day the Earth Stood Still when he was a child was the first time he recognized film music as a cinematic art form and realized the powerful contribution a composer makes to the movies. Pastiche of Herrmann's music can be heard in Elfman's ''Pee-wee's Big Adventure'', especially the cues "Stolen Bike" and "Clown Dream", which directly reference Herrmann's music from Psycho and The 7th Voyage of Sinbad respectively. His score to Batman makes more subtle nods to Herrmann's Journey to the Center of the Earth and Vertigo, and more integral homage can be heard in later scores for Mars Attacks! and Hitchcock, as well as the "Blue Strings" movement of his first concert work Serenada Schizophrana.
While Elfman is primarily known for writing large-scale orchestral works in the romantic, 20th century and Hollywood Golden Age film score traditions, his compositions have used a wide range of idioms, including rock and blues (Midnight Run, Hot to Trot), big band and jazz (Dick Tracy, Chicago), operetta (The Nightmare Before Christmas, Corpse Bride), funk and hip hop (Dead Presidents, Notorious), folk and indie rock (Taking Woodstock, Silver Linings Playbook), Americana (Article 99, Sommersby, Big Fish), minimalism (Good Will Hunting, Standard Operating Procedure, The Unknown Known), and atonal or experimental (Freeway, A Simple Plan, The Girl on the Train).
Given his appreciation and study of world music and his vast collection of instruments from non-Western cultures, the "Welcome Christmas" song from the 1966 How the Grinch Stole Christmas! for The Grinch''; At the request of Tim Burton, Charlie and the Chocolate Factory songs drew inspiration from Bollywood, the Mamas and the Papas, ABBA, and Earth, Wind & Fire individually.
Elfman's work in pop music and specifically as songwriter for Oingo Boingo was influenced by the Specials, Madness, the Selecter, Devo, Fun Boy Three, and XTC.
Methods
Film music
For his film scores, Elfman draws musical inspiration almost exclusively from viewing a cut of the film, Elfman then spends a few weeks of free composition and experimentation to begin working out thematic material and to develop sounds and the harmonic palette.
When he has received approval on initial material from the filmmakers, Elfman begins to compose anywhere from 60 to 120 minutes of music cue-by-cue. He says two of the most important things to capture at this point are the tone of each scene and editorial rhythm. Next to thematic development, action set pieces tend to take Elfman the most time given the complexity of timing music to action.
Early in his career, he wrote out his scores using pencil, but has composed largely digitally since the mid-1990s.
Before recording the score, he demos each cue by mocking orchestral and choral parts on synthesizer to get approval from the director. Once approved, he provides a detailed, multi-line sketch of his composition to his lead orchestrator Steve Bartek, who ensures the sketches are appropriately broken down for sections of the orchestra (i.e. string, brass woodwind, some percussion), choir (SATB) and individual players.
Elfman also typically samples or records his own percussion and guitar playing to overlay with live orchestra. More than half of some scores feature Elfman's performance, including Dead Presidents, Mission: Impossible, Planet of the Apes, The Kingdom, The Girl on the Train and The Circle.
To produce the score, Elfman rents a recording studio and hires a conductor and orchestra/choir. He oversees the recording from the control booth so that he can troubleshoot with the film's director and recording engineers. The final recording is given to the film's sound department to mix with dialogue and sound effects for the film's complete soundtrack. Elfman will usually do a separate mix of select cues for an album presentation of the score, and has produced nearly 100 to date.
On the occasion that there are compressed deadlines or in the event he is not available to rescore or adapt his music if there are major edits to the film after the score's completion, Elfman will hire additional composers to work on small cues or sections of cues, adapting his existing material or themes. Examples include Jonathan Sheffer on Darkman, David Buckley on the Fifty Shades films, and Pinar Toprak on Justice League. Since the 1990s, Elfman has occasionally co-composed music or shared music writing credit (e.g.When We Rise, Spy Kids, Avengers: Age of Ultron, Men in Black International), or written themes that are then used or adapted by other composers, including Jonathan Sheffer (Pure Luck), Steve Bartek (Novacaine), John Debney (Heartbreakers), Deborah Lurie (9), and the Newton Brothers (Before I Wake).
Elfman has only collaborated once with another artist: Siouxsie and the Banshees, on the song "Face to Face" for Batman Returns in 1992. It was a long-distance collaboration, as the studio needed the song very quickly; Siouxsie created the foundation of the song and sent it to Elfman, who added elements, and the two would send the track back and forth. Regarding collaboration, Elfman would later state, "I'm not used to collaborating at all with anybody. I did one track with Siouxsie and the Banshees but that's it. I've always been in my own bubble, and that bubble has been very fertile".Concert musicIn the liner notes for the 2006 CD recording of his first concert work Serenada Schizophrana, Elfman wrote: "I began composing several dozen short improvisational compositions, maybe a minute each. Slowly, some of them began to develop themselves until finally I had six separate movements that, in some abstract, absurd way, felt connected."
Vocals
Elfman often incorporates choral or vocal arrangements into his film scores, Silver Linings Playbook, and his music for the Hong Kong Disneyland ride Mystic Manor. For all songs in the film, Elfman sang, manipulated and mixed several layers of his vocals to create the singing voices and harmonies of the Oompa Loompas, and incorporated his vocals into non-song score tracks that featured the characters, including "Loompa Land", "Chocolate River", "The Boat Arrives" and "The River Cruise".Lyrics
Elfman typically writes the lyrics to songs he has composed for movies. He employs song structures from Tin Pan Alley and early musical theatre composers (32-bar form), and pop and rock of the 1950s and 1960s (verse-chorus). As his songs serve to advance the plot and develop characters, lyrics reflect storylines and imagery specific to the film and express the inner life of characters.
He wrote the lyrics and music for ten songs featured in the stop-motion musical The Nightmare Before Christmas. Drawing from Tim Burton's parody poem of A Visit from St. Nicholas and concept drawings, Elfman wrote each song in consultation with Burton before the film even had a script. These include the full-cast songs "This Is Halloween", "Town Meeting Song" and "Making Christmas"; four songs for the main character Jack Skellington, "Jack's Lament", "What's This?", "Jack's Obsession" and "Poor Jack", all sung by Elfman; and the other character songs "Kidnap the Sandy Claws", "Oogie Boogie's Song" and "Sally's Song". An eleventh song, "Finale/Reprise", reworks lyrics from the songs "This Is Halloween", "What's This?" and "Sally's Song" for the film's ending. Though uncredited, Burton contributed some lyrics to Nightmare, including the line "Perhaps it's the head that I found in the lake" in "Town Meeting Song".
Elfman composed five songs for Burton's Corpse Bride: "According to Plan", with lyrics co-written by screenwriter John August; "Remains of the Day" (which he sung as the character Bonejangles) and "Tears to Shed", both with additional lyrics by August; and "The Wedding Song", credited solely to Elfman. The song "Erased" was not used in the final film.
He wrote the lyrics to "Lullaby" from ''Charlotte's Web, the rock track "The Little Things" from Wanted'' which he also sang in English and Russian, and "Alice's Theme" from Alice in Wonderland. Elfman co-wrote the lyrics to "Twice the Love" from Big Fish and the "Wonka's Welcome Song" for Charlie and the Chocolate Factory with John August.
Elfman wrote the lyrics to all of Oingo Boingo's original songs 1979–1994 and has made residuals on the titular two-word opening phrase sung in his The Simpsons theme since the series first aired in 1989.Personal lifeAs a teenager, Elfman dated his classmate Kim Gordon, who would later become one of the members of the rock band Sonic Youth. He has two daughters, Lola and Mali, from his marriage to Geri Eisenmenger. Mali is a film producer and actress. Elfman and Mali collaborated on her 2011 film Do Not Disturb.
On November 29, 2003, Elfman married actress Bridget Fonda. They have a son, Oliver. In 1998, Elfman scored A Simple Plan, starring Fonda. He is the uncle of actor Bodhi Elfman, who is married to actress Jenna Elfman.
Elfman has been an atheist since the age of 11 or 12. In an interview with the New York Post, he referred to himself as a "cynic-ologist". Several of his songs written for Oingo Boingo during this period satirized social politics, although Elfman stated his message was to "question, resist, challenge" and that his songs were not aligned to any one political agenda.
In 2008, Elfman expressed support for Barack Obama. For the 2020 Democratic National Convention, he scored the biographical video played ahead of Joe Biden's acceptance of the presidential nomination in the 2020 United States elections. In a series of posts on his Instagram page discussing the video, Elfman criticized Donald Trump, Richard Nixon, and the electoral college, and linked to several voter resources.
During his 18 years with Oingo Boingo, Elfman developed significant hearing damage as a result of the continuous exposure to the high noise levels involved in performing in a rock band. Afraid of worsening his condition, he decided to leave the band, saying that he would never return to that kind of performance. His impairment was so bad that he could not "even sit in a loud restaurant or bar anymore." However, he found performing in front of orchestras more tolerable, and returned several times to reprise his live performance of Jack Skellington.Sexual harassment allegationsComposer Nomi Abadi has alleged that Elfman had been involved in multiple instances of sexual harassment and misconduct with her that took place from 2015 to 2016. Elfman has denied these claims. The allegations reportedly resulted in Elfman and Abadi agreeing to a non-public settlement and nondisclosure agreement, wherein Elfman would have paid Abadi a total of $830,000 over time. In 2024, Abadi alleged that Elfman had missed payments and had defamed her in statements he made to Rolling Stone magazine in 2023 regarding this matter, suing Elfman for the full settlement of $830,000.
In popular culture
Since The Simpsons' second annual Treehouse of Horror episode aired in 1991, launching "scary names" tradition in the opening and closing titles, Elfman has been alternately credited for the theme music as "Red Wolf Elfman", "Danny Skellingelfman", "Li'l Leakin Brain Elfman", "Boris Elfmonivich", "Danny Elfblood", "Danny 'Hell'fman", "The Bloody Elf", "Danny Elfbones", "Elfmunster" and "Daniel Beilzebelsman".
Elfman's composition "Clown Dream" from ''Pee-wee's Big Adventure is used in the video game Grand Theft Auto V and has often been used as the opening music for Primus concerts.
In the 2007 sixth season Star Wars parody "Blue Harvest", Family Guy'' lampooned Elfman's orchestral style. A scene shows Elfman replacing an incinerated John Williams to conduct a full orchestra playing the score, only to be decapitated by a lightsaber after conducting a few bars of oom-pah music.
Episode five of the 14th season of South Park in 2010 criticized Tim Burton for using the "same" music in all his films, referring to Elfman's scores.
In October 2016, Elfman produced a video clip for Funny or Die with original "horror" music composed to footage of Donald Trump pacing around Hillary Clinton at the second United States presidential election debates, 2016.
In 2019, selections from Elfman's Midnight Run score were used in the third season of Netflix's Stranger Things, including "Stairway Chase" in episodes 5 and 6, and "Wild Ride" and "Package Deal" in episode 6.
Christina Aguilera revealed that Elfman's music inspired her Las Vegas concert residency The Xperience.
List of compositions
Awards and nominations
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American Film Institute
Elfman's scores for Batman and Edward Scissorhands were nominated for AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores.
Discography
Including commercial recordings of his film scores and the Oingo Boingo discography, Elfman has produced over 100 albums as of 2019.<ref name"monger" /><ref name"Prato"/>
Appearances in film and television
See also
*Music of the Marvel Cinematic Universe
*Batman music
References
External links
*
*
*
* [http://www.fabermusic.com/composers/elfman-danny Danny Elfman] at Faber Music
*
*
}}
Category:1953 births
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Category:21st-century American male musicians
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Danny
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Dimension
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, a cube and a tesseract. The square is two-dimensional (2D) and bounded by one-dimensional line segments; the cube is three-dimensional (3D) and bounded by two-dimensional squares; the tesseract is four-dimensional (4D) and bounded by three-dimensional cubes.
]]
thumb|upright=1.2| The first four spatial dimensions, represented in a two-dimensional picture.
]]
In physics and mathematics, the dimension of a mathematical space (or object) is informally defined as the minimum number of coordinates needed to specify any point within it. Thus, a line has a dimension of one (1D) because only one coordinate is needed to specify a point on itfor example, the point at 5 on a number line. A surface, such as the boundary of a cylinder or sphere, has a dimension of two (2D) because two coordinates are needed to specify a point on itfor example, both a latitude and longitude are required to locate a point on the surface of a sphere. A two-dimensional Euclidean space is a two-dimensional space on the plane. The inside of a cube, a cylinder or a sphere is three-dimensional (3D) because three coordinates are needed to locate a point within these spaces.
In classical mechanics, space and time are different categories and refer to absolute space and time. That conception of the world is a four-dimensional space but not the one that was found necessary to describe electromagnetism. The four dimensions (4D) of spacetime consist of events that are not absolutely defined spatially and temporally, but rather are known relative to the motion of an observer. Minkowski space first approximates the universe without gravity; the pseudo-Riemannian manifolds of general relativity describe spacetime with matter and gravity. 10 dimensions are used to describe superstring theory (6D hyperspace + 4D), 11 dimensions can describe supergravity and M-theory (7D hyperspace + 4D), and the state-space of quantum mechanics is an infinite-dimensional function space.
The concept of dimension is not restricted to physical objects. s frequently occur in mathematics and the sciences. They may be Euclidean spaces or more general parameter spaces or configuration spaces such as in Lagrangian or Hamiltonian mechanics; these are abstract spaces, independent of the physical space.
In mathematics
In mathematics, the dimension of an object is, roughly speaking, the number of degrees of freedom of a point that moves on this object. In other words, the dimension is the number of independent parameters or coordinates that are needed for defining the position of a point that is constrained to be on the object. For example, the dimension of a point is zero; the dimension of a line is one, as a point can move on a line in only one direction (or its opposite); the dimension of a plane is two, etc.
The dimension is an intrinsic property of an object, in the sense that it is independent of the dimension of the space in which the object is or can be embedded. For example, a curve, such as a circle, is of dimension one, because the position of a point on a curve is determined by its signed distance along the curve to a fixed point on the curve. This is independent from the fact that a curve cannot be embedded in a Euclidean space of dimension lower than two, unless it is a line. Similarly, a surface is of dimension two, even if embedded in three-dimensional space.
The dimension of Euclidean -space is . When trying to generalize to other types of spaces, one is faced with the question "what makes -dimensional?" One answer is that to cover a fixed ball in by small balls of radius , one needs on the order of such small balls. This observation leads to the definition of the Minkowski dimension and its more sophisticated variant, the Hausdorff dimension, but there are also other answers to that question. For example, the boundary of a ball in looks locally like and this leads to the notion of the inductive dimension. While these notions agree on , they turn out to be different when one looks at more general spaces.
A tesseract is an example of a four-dimensional object. Whereas outside mathematics the use of the term "dimension" is as in: "A tesseract has four dimensions", mathematicians usually express this as: "The tesseract has dimension 4", or: "The dimension of the tesseract is 4".
Although the notion of higher dimensions goes back to René Descartes, substantial development of a higher-dimensional geometry only began in the 19th century, via the work of Arthur Cayley, William Rowan Hamilton, Ludwig Schläfli and Bernhard Riemann. Riemann's 1854 Habilitationsschrift, Schläfli's 1852 Theorie der vielfachen Kontinuität, and Hamilton's discovery of the quaternions and John T. Graves' discovery of the octonions in 1843 marked the beginning of higher-dimensional geometry.
The rest of this section examines some of the more important mathematical definitions of dimension.
Vector spaces
The dimension of a vector space is the number of vectors in any basis for the space, i.e. the number of coordinates necessary to specify any vector. This notion of dimension (the cardinality of a basis) is often referred to as the Hamel dimension or algebraic dimension to distinguish it from other notions of dimension.
For the non-free case, this generalizes to the notion of the length of a module.
Manifolds
<!--Linked from Ball (mathematics)-->
The uniquely defined dimension of every connected topological manifold can be calculated. A connected topological manifold is locally homeomorphic to Euclidean -space, in which the number is the manifold's dimension.
For connected differentiable manifolds, the dimension is also the dimension of the tangent vector space at any point.
In geometric topology, the theory of manifolds is characterized by the way dimensions 1 and 2 are relatively elementary, the high-dimensional cases }} are simplified by having extra space in which to "work"; and the cases 3}} and are in some senses the most difficult. This state of affairs was highly marked in the various cases of the Poincaré conjecture, in which four different proof methods are applied.Complex dimension
mapped to the other pole.]]
The dimension of a manifold depends on the base field with respect to which Euclidean space is defined. While analysis usually assumes a manifold to be over the real numbers, it is sometimes useful in the study of complex manifolds and algebraic varieties to work over the complex numbers instead. A complex number (x + iy) has a real part x and an imaginary part y, in which x and y are both real numbers; hence, the complex dimension is half the real dimension.
Conversely, in algebraically unconstrained contexts, a single complex coordinate system may be applied to an object having two real dimensions. For example, an ordinary two-dimensional spherical surface, when given a complex metric, becomes a Riemann sphere of one complex dimension.Varieties
The dimension of an algebraic variety may be defined in various equivalent ways. The most intuitive way is probably the dimension of the tangent space at any Regular point of an algebraic variety. Another intuitive way is to define the dimension as the number of hyperplanes that are needed in order to have an intersection with the variety that is reduced to a finite number of points (dimension zero). This definition is based on the fact that the intersection of a variety with a hyperplane reduces the dimension by one unless if the hyperplane contains the variety.
An algebraic set being a finite union of algebraic varieties, its dimension is the maximum of the dimensions of its components. It is equal to the maximal length of the chains <math>V_0\subsetneq V_1\subsetneq \cdots \subsetneq V_d</math> of sub-varieties of the given algebraic set (the length of such a chain is the number of "<math>\subsetneq</math>").
Each variety can be considered as an algebraic stack, and its dimension as variety agrees with its dimension as stack. There are however many stacks which do not correspond to varieties, and some of these have negative dimension. Specifically, if V is a variety of dimension m and G is an algebraic group of dimension n acting on V, then the quotient stack [V/G] has dimension m − n.
Krull dimension
The Krull dimension of a commutative ring is the maximal length of chains of prime ideals in it, a chain of length n being a sequence <math>\mathcal{P}_0\subsetneq \mathcal{P}_1\subsetneq \cdots \subsetneq\mathcal{P}_n </math> of prime ideals related by inclusion. It is strongly related to the dimension of an algebraic variety, because of the natural correspondence between sub-varieties and prime ideals of the ring of the polynomials on the variety.
For an algebra over a field, the dimension as vector space is finite if and only if its Krull dimension is 0.
Topological spaces
For any normal topological space , the Lebesgue covering dimension of is defined to be the smallest integer n for which the following holds: any open cover has an open refinement (a second open cover in which each element is a subset of an element in the first cover) such that no point is included in more than elements. In this case dim n}}. For a manifold, this coincides with the dimension mentioned above. If no such integer exists, then the dimension of is said to be infinite, and one writes dim ∞}}. Moreover, has dimension −1, i.e. dim −1}} if and only if is empty. This definition of covering dimension can be extended from the class of normal spaces to all Tychonoff spaces merely by replacing the term "open" in the definition by the term "functionally open".
An inductive dimension may be defined inductively as follows. Consider a discrete set of points (such as a finite collection of points) to be 0-dimensional. By dragging a 0-dimensional object in some direction, one obtains a 1-dimensional object. By dragging a 1-dimensional object in a new direction, one obtains a 2-dimensional object. In general, one obtains an ()-dimensional object by dragging an -dimensional object in a new direction. The inductive dimension of a topological space may refer to the small inductive dimension or the large inductive dimension, and is based on the analogy that, in the case of metric spaces, )-dimensional}} balls have -dimensional boundaries, permitting an inductive definition based on the dimension of the boundaries of open sets. Moreover, the boundary of a discrete set of points is the empty set, and therefore the empty set can be taken to have dimension -1.
Similarly, for the class of CW complexes, the dimension of an object is the largest for which the -skeleton is nontrivial. Intuitively, this can be described as follows: if the original space can be continuously deformed into a collection of higher-dimensional triangles joined at their faces with a complicated surface, then the dimension of the object is the dimension of those triangles.
Hausdorff dimension
The Hausdorff dimension is useful for studying structurally complicated sets, especially fractals. The Hausdorff dimension is defined for all metric spaces and, unlike the dimensions considered above, can also have non-integer real values. The box dimension or Minkowski dimension is a variant of the same idea. In general, there exist more definitions of fractal dimensions that work for highly irregular sets and attain non-integer positive real values.Hilbert spacesEvery Hilbert space admits an orthonormal basis, and any two such bases for a particular space have the same cardinality. This cardinality is called the dimension of the Hilbert space. This dimension is finite if and only if the space's Hamel dimension is finite, and in this case the two dimensions coincide. In physics Spatial dimensions
Classical physics theories describe three physical dimensions: from a particular point in space, the basic directions in which we can move are up/down, left/right, and forward/backward. Movement in any other direction can be expressed in terms of just these three. Moving down is the same as moving up a negative distance. Moving diagonally upward and forward is just as the name of the direction implies i.e., moving in a linear combination of up and forward. In its simplest form: a line describes one dimension, a plane describes two dimensions, and a cube describes three dimensions. (See Space and Cartesian coordinate system.)
{| class"wikitable" style"margin:auto;text-align:center;"
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! Example co-ordinate systems
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| 1 ||
{| border="0"
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! <br />Angle
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{|
|- style="line-height:3.0em;"
!style"padding:1.0em 1.0em 0 0;"| <br />Cartesian <span style"font-size:90%;font-weight:normal;">(two-dimensional)</span>
!style="padding:1.0em 1.0em 0 0;"| <br />Polar
!style="padding:1.0em 1.0em 0 0;"| <br />Latitude and longitude
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{| border="0"
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!style"padding:1.0em 1.0em 0 0;"| <br />Cartesian <span style"font-size:90%;font-weight:normal;">(three-dimensional)</span>
!style="padding:1.0em 1.0em 0 0;"| <br />Cylindrical
!style="padding:1.0em 1.0em 0 0;"| <br />Spherical
|}
|}
Time<!--'Temporal dimension' and 'Temporal dimensions' redirect here-->
A temporal dimension, or time dimension,<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA--> is a dimension of time. Time is often referred to as the "fourth dimension" for this reason, but that is not to imply that it is a spatial dimension. A temporal dimension is one way to measure physical change. It is perceived differently from the three spatial dimensions in that there is only one of it, and that we cannot move freely in time but subjectively move in one direction.
The equations used in physics to model reality do not treat time in the same way that humans commonly perceive it. The equations of classical mechanics are symmetric with respect to time, and equations of quantum mechanics are typically symmetric if both time and other quantities (such as charge and parity) are reversed. In these models, the perception of time flowing in one direction is an artifact of the laws of thermodynamics (we perceive time as flowing in the direction of increasing entropy).
The best-known treatment of time as a dimension is Poincaré and Einstein's special relativity (and extended to general relativity), which treats perceived space and time as components of a four-dimensional manifold, known as spacetime, and in the special, flat case as Minkowski space. Time is different from other spatial dimensions as time operates in all spatial dimensions. Time operates in the first, second and third as well as theoretical spatial dimensions such as a fourth spatial dimension. Time is not however present in a single point of absolute infinite singularity as defined as a geometric point, as an infinitely small point can have no change and therefore no time. Just as when an object moves through positions in space, it also moves through positions in time. In this sense the force moving any object to change is time.
Additional dimensions
In physics, three dimensions of space and one of time is the accepted norm. However, there are theories that attempt to unify the four fundamental forces by introducing extra dimensions/hyperspace. Most notably, superstring theory requires 10 spacetime dimensions, and originates from a more fundamental 11-dimensional theory tentatively called M-theory which subsumes five previously distinct superstring theories. Supergravity theory also promotes 11D spacetime = 7D hyperspace + 4 common dimensions. To date, no direct experimental or observational evidence is available to support the existence of these extra dimensions. If hyperspace exists, it must be hidden from us by some physical mechanism. One well-studied possibility is that the extra dimensions may be "curled up" at such tiny scales as to be effectively invisible to current experiments.
In 1921, Kaluza–Klein theory presented 5D including an extra dimension of space. At the level of quantum field theory, Kaluza–Klein theory unifies gravity with gauge interactions, based on the realization that gravity propagating in small, compact extra dimensions is equivalent to gauge interactions at long distances. In particular when the geometry of the extra dimensions is trivial, it reproduces electromagnetism. However, at sufficiently high energies or short distances, this setup still suffers from the same pathologies that famously obstruct direct attempts to describe quantum gravity. Therefore, these models still require a UV completion, of the kind that string theory is intended to provide. In particular, superstring theory requires six compact dimensions (6D hyperspace) forming a Calabi–Yau manifold. Thus Kaluza-Klein theory may be considered either as an incomplete description on its own, or as a subset of string theory model building.
In addition to small and curled up extra dimensions, there may be extra dimensions that instead are not apparent because the matter associated with our visible universe is localized on a subspace. Thus, the extra dimensions need not be small and compact but may be large extra dimensions. D-branes are dynamical extended objects of various dimensionalities predicted by string theory that could play this role. They have the property that open string excitations, which are associated with gauge interactions, are confined to the brane by their endpoints, whereas the closed strings that mediate the gravitational interaction are free to propagate into the whole spacetime, or "the bulk". This could be related to why gravity is exponentially weaker than the other forces, as it effectively dilutes itself as it propagates into a higher-dimensional volume.
Some aspects of brane physics have been applied to cosmology. For example, brane gas cosmology attempts to explain why there are three dimensions of space using topological and thermodynamic considerations. According to this idea it would be since three is the largest number of spatial dimensions in which strings can generically intersect. If initially there are many windings of strings around compact dimensions, space could only expand to macroscopic sizes once these windings are eliminated, which requires oppositely wound strings to find each other and annihilate. But strings can only find each other to annihilate at a meaningful rate in three dimensions, so it follows that only three dimensions of space are allowed to grow large given this kind of initial configuration.
Extra dimensions are said to be universal if all fields are equally free to propagate within them.
In computer graphics and spatial data
Several types of digital systems are based on the storage, analysis, and visualization of geometric shapes, including illustration software, Computer-aided design, and Geographic information systems. Different vector systems use a wide variety of data structures to represent shapes, but almost all are fundamentally based on a set of geometric primitives corresponding to the spatial dimensions:
* Point (0-dimensional), a single coordinate in a Cartesian coordinate system.
* Line or Polyline (1-dimensional) usually represented as an ordered list of points sampled from a continuous line, whereupon the software is expected to interpolate the intervening shape of the line as straight- or curved-line segments.
* Polygon (2-dimensional) usually represented as a line that closes at its endpoints, representing the boundary of a two-dimensional region. The software is expected to use this boundary to partition 2-dimensional space into an interior and exterior.
* Surface (3-dimensional) represented using a variety of strategies, such as a polyhedron consisting of connected polygon faces. The software is expected to use this surface to partition 3-dimensional space into an interior and exterior.
Frequently in these systems, especially GIS and Cartography, a representation of a real-world phenomenon may have a different (usually lower) dimension than the phenomenon being represented. For example, a city (a two-dimensional region) may be represented as a point, or a road (a three-dimensional volume of material) may be represented as a line. This dimensional generalization correlates with tendencies in spatial cognition. For example, asking the distance between two cities presumes a conceptual model of the cities as points, while giving directions involving travel "up," "down," or "along" a road imply a one-dimensional conceptual model. This is frequently done for purposes of data efficiency, visual simplicity, or cognitive efficiency, and is acceptable if the distinction between the representation and the represented is understood but can cause confusion if information users assume that the digital shape is a perfect representation of reality (i.e., believing that roads really are lines).
More dimensions
1)}}
** 2)}}
}}
List of topics by dimension
See also
References
Further reading
*
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* [https://books.google.com/books?idVgk7BAAAQBAJ Google preview]
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External links
*
Category:Physical quantities
Category:Abstract algebra
Category:Geometric measurement
Category:Mathematical concepts
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Dissolve
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Dissolve may refer to:
Music
Dissolve (band), a musical project of Chris Heaphy and Roy Montgomery
"Dissolve", a 2015 song by Absofacto
"Dissolve", a song by Joji from the 2022 album Smithereens
"Dissolve", a song by Daniel Johns from the 2015 album Talk
"Dissolve", a song by Hundred Reasons from the 2002 album Ideas Above Our Station
The Dissolve (album), by Boxcutter, 2011
Other uses
Solvation, or dissolution, in chemistry
Dissolve (filmmaking), a type of film transition
Dissolve (2019 film), a South Korean film
The Dissolve, a defunct web magazine
See also
Dissolution (disambiguation)
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Duodecimal
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The duodecimal system, also known as base twelve or dozenal, is a positional numeral system using twelve as its base. In duodecimal, the number twelve is denoted "10", meaning 1 twelve and 0 units; in the decimal system, this number is instead written as "12" meaning 1 ten and 2 units, and the string "10" means ten. In duodecimal, "100" means twelve squared (144), "1,000" means twelve cubed (1,728), and "0.1" means a twelfth (0.08333...).
Various symbols have been used to stand for ten and eleven in duodecimal notation; this page uses and , as in hexadecimal, which make a duodecimal count from zero to twelve read 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, , , and finally 10. The Dozenal Societies of America and Great Britain (organisations promoting the use of duodecimal) use turned digits in their published material: <span style"display: inline-block; transform: scale(-1);">2</span> (a turned 2) for ten (dek, pronounced dɛk) and <span style"display: inline-block; transform: scale(-1);">3</span> (a turned 3) for eleven (el, pronounced ɛl).
The number twelve, a superior highly composite number, is the smallest number with four non-trivial factors (2, 3, 4, 6), and the smallest to include as factors all four numbers (1 to 4) within the subitizing range, and the smallest abundant number. All multiples of reciprocals of 3-smooth numbers (}} where are integers) have a terminating representation in duodecimal. In particular, (0.3), (0.4), (0.6), (0.8), and (0.9) all have a short terminating representation in duodecimal. There is also higher regularity observable in the duodecimal multiplication table. As a result, duodecimal has been described as the optimal number system.
In these respects, duodecimal is considered superior to decimal, which has only 2 and 5 as factors, and other proposed bases like octal or hexadecimal. Sexagesimal (base sixty) does even better in this respect (the reciprocals of all 5-smooth numbers terminate), but at the cost of unwieldy multiplication tables and a much larger number of symbols to memorize.
Origin
:In this section, numerals are in decimal. For example, "10" means 9+1, and "12" means 9+3.
Georges Ifrah speculatively traced the origin of the duodecimal system to a system of finger counting based on the knuckle bones of the four larger fingers. Using the thumb as a pointer, it is possible to count to 12 by touching each finger bone, starting with the farthest bone on the fifth finger, and counting on. In this system, one hand counts repeatedly to 12, while the other displays the number of iterations, until five dozens, i.e. the 60, are full. This system is still in use in many regions of Asia.
Languages using duodecimal number systems are uncommon. Languages in the Nigerian Middle Belt such as Janji, Gbiri-Niragu (Gure-Kahugu), Piti, and the Nimbia dialect of Gwandara; and the Chepang language of Nepal are known to use duodecimal numerals.
Germanic languages have special words for 11 and 12, such as eleven and twelve in English. They come from Proto-Germanic *ainlif and *twalif (meaning, respectively, one left and two left), suggesting a decimal rather than duodecimal origin. However, Old Norse used a hybrid decimal–duodecimal counting system, with its words for "one hundred and eighty" meaning 200 and "two hundred" meaning 240. In the British Isles, this style of counting survived well into the Middle Ages as the long hundred.
Historically, units of time in many civilizations are duodecimal. There are twelve signs of the zodiac, twelve months in a year, and the Babylonians had twelve hours in a day (although at some point, this was changed to 24). Traditional Chinese calendars, clocks, and compasses are based on the twelve Earthly Branches or 24 (12×2) Solar terms. There are 12 inches in an imperial foot, 12 troy ounces in a troy pound, 24 (12×2) hours in a day; many other items are counted by the dozen, gross (144, twelve squared), or great gross (1728, twelve cubed). The Romans used a fraction system based on 12, including the uncia, which became both the English words ounce and inch. Historically, many parts of western Europe used a mixed vigesimal–duodecimal currency system of pounds, shillings, and pence, with 20 shillings to a pound and 12 pence to a shilling, originally established by Charlemagne in the 780s.
{| class"wikitable" styletext-align:center
|+ Duodecimally divided units
|-
! rowspan=2 | Relative<br>value
! colspan=2 | Length
! colspan=2 | Weight
|-
! French
! English
! English (Troy)
! Roman
|-
|12<sup>0</sup>
|pied
|foot
|pound
|libra
|-
|12<sup>−1</sup>
|pouce
|inch
|ounce
|uncia
|-
|12<sup>−2</sup>
|ligne
|line
|2 scruples
|2 scrupula
|-
|12<sup>−3</sup>
|point
|point
|seed
|siliqua
|}
Notations and pronunciations
In a positional numeral system of base n (twelve for duodecimal), each of the first n natural numbers is given a distinct numeral symbol, and then n is denoted "10", meaning 1 times n plus 0 units. For duodecimal, the standard numeral symbols for 0–9 are typically preserved for zero through nine, but there are numerous proposals for how to write the numerals representing "ten" and "eleven". More radical proposals do not use any Arabic numerals under the principle of "separate identity."<br/>, }}}}
}}
Several authors have proposed using letters of the alphabet for the transdecimal symbols. Latin letters such as }} (as in hexadecimal) or }} (initials of Ten and Eleven) are convenient because they are widely accessible, and for instance can be typed on typewriters. However, when mixed with ordinary prose, they might be confused for letters. As an alternative, Greek letters such as }} could be used instead. hash or octothorpe).
From 2008 to 2015, the DSA used , }}, the symbols devised by William Addison Dwiggins.
The Dozenal Society of Great Britain (DSGB) proposed symbols <span style"display: inline-block; transform: scale(-1);"></span>, <span style"display: inline-block; transform: scale(-1);"></span>}}. In March 2013, a proposal was submitted to include the digit forms for ten and eleven propagated by the Dozenal Societies in the Unicode Standard. Of these, the British/Pitman forms were accepted for encoding as characters at code points and . They were included in Unicode 8.0 (2015).
After the Pitman digits were added to Unicode, the DSA took a vote and then began publishing PDF content using the Pitman digits instead, but continues to use the letters X and E on its webpage.
{| class"wikitable" id"transdecimal-symbols-table" style="font-size:90%; max-width:50em;"
! colspan=2 | Symbols
! style="width:20em" | Background
! Note
|-
| <big>A</big>
| <big>B</big>
| As in hexadecimal
| Allows entry on typewriters.
|-
| <big>T</big>
| <big>E</big>
| Initials of Ten and Eleven
| Used (in lower case) in music set theory
|-
| <big>X</big>
| <big>E</big>
| X from the Roman numeral; <br> E from Eleven.
|
|-
| <big>X</big>
| <big>Z</big>
| Origin of Z unknown
| Attributed to D'Alembert & Buffon by the DSA.
|-
| <big>X</big>
| <big>Ɛ</big>
| italic X pronounced "dec"; <br> rounded italic Ɛ, pronounced "elf"
| Frank Andrews in New Numbers (1935), with italic 0–9 for other duodecimal numerals.
|-
| <big></big>
| <big></big>
| sextile or six-pointed asterisk,<br/>hash or octothorpe
| On push-button telephones; used by Edna Kramer in The Main Stream of Mathematics (1951); used by the DSA
|-
| <big></big>
| <big></big>
| Pronounced "dek", "el"
| or ) is called a great gross.
Advocacy and "dozenalism"
William James Sidis used 12 as the base for his constructed language Vendergood in 1906, noting it being the smallest number with four factors and its prevalence in commerce.
The case for the duodecimal system was put forth at length in Frank Emerson Andrews' 1935 book New Numbers: How Acceptance of a Duodecimal Base Would Simplify Mathematics. Emerson noted that, due to the prevalence of factors of twelve in many traditional units of weight and measure, many of the computational advantages claimed for the metric system could be realized either by the adoption of ten-based weights and measure or by the adoption of the duodecimal number system.}}
In media In "Little Twelvetoes," an episode of the American educational television series Schoolhouse Rock!, a farmer encounters an alien being with twelve fingers on each hand and twelve toes on each foot who uses duodecimal arithmetic. The alien uses "dek" and "el" as names for ten and eleven, and Andrews' script-X and script-E for the digit symbols.
Duodecimal systems of measurements
Systems of measurement proposed by dozenalists include Tom Pendlebury's TGM system, Takashi Suga's Universal Unit System, Comparison to other number systems
:In this section, numerals are in decimal. For example, "10" means 9+1, and "12" means 9+3.
The Dozenal Society of America argues that if a base is too small, significantly longer expansions are needed for numbers; if a base is too large, one must memorise a large multiplication table to perform arithmetic. Thus, it presumes that "a number base will need to be between about 7 or 8 through about 16, possibly including 18 and 20". Thus, in practical applications, the nuisance of repeating decimals is encountered less often when duodecimal notation is used. Advocates of duodecimal systems argue that this is particularly true of financial calculations, in which the twelve months of the year often enter into calculations.
However, when recurring fractions do occur in duodecimal notation, they are less likely to have a very short period than in decimal notation, because 12 (twelve) is between two prime numbers, 11 (eleven) and 13 (thirteen), whereas ten is adjacent to the composite number 9. Nonetheless, having a shorter or longer period does not help the main inconvenience that one does not get a finite representation for such fractions in the given base (so rounding, which introduces inexactitude, is necessary to handle them in calculations), and overall one is more likely to have to deal with infinite recurring digits when fractions are expressed in decimal than in duodecimal, because one out of every three consecutive numbers contains the prime factor 3 in its factorization, whereas only one out of every five contains the prime factor 5. All other prime factors, except 2, are not shared by either ten or twelve, so they do not
influence the relative likeliness of encountering recurring digits (any irreducible fraction that contains any of these other factors in its denominator will recur in either base).
Also, the prime factor 2 appears twice in the factorization of twelve, whereas only once in the factorization of ten; which means that most fractions whose denominators are powers of two will have a shorter, more convenient terminating representation in duodecimal than in decimal:
* 1/(2<sup>2</sup>)
* 1/(2<sup>3</sup>)
* 1/(2<sup>4</sup>)
* 1/(2<sup>5</sup>)
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="text-align:center;"
| colspan"3"| Decimal base<br><SMALL>Prime factors of the base: <span style"color:Green">2</span>, <span style"color:Green">5</span></SMALL><br><SMALL>Prime factors of one below the base: <span style"color:Blue">3</span></SMALL><br><SMALL>Prime factors of one above the base: <span style"color:Magenta">11</span></SMALL><br><SMALL>All other primes: <span style"color:Red">7</span>, <span style"color:Red">13</span>, <span style"color:Red">17</span>, <span style"color:Red">19</span>, <span style"color:Red">23</span>, <span style"color:Red">29</span>, <span style"color:Red">31</span></SMALL>
| colspan"3"| Duodecimal base<br><SMALL>Prime factors of the base: <span style"color:Green">2</span>, <span style"color:Green">3</span></SMALL><br><SMALL>Prime factors of one below the base: <span style"color:Blue"></span></SMALL><br><SMALL>Prime factors of one above the base: <span style"color:Magenta">11 ()</span></SMALL><br><SMALL>All other primes: <span style"color:Red">5</span>, <span style"color:Red">7</span>, <span style"color:Red">15 ()</span>, <span style"color:Red">17 ()</span>, <span style"color:Red">1 ()</span>, <span style"color:Red">25 ()</span>, <span style"color:Red">27 ()</span></SMALL>
|-
! Fraction
! <SMALL>Prime factors<br>of the denominator</SMALL>
! Positional representation
! Positional representation
! <SMALL>Prime factors<br>of the denominator</SMALL>
! Fraction
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/2
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>
| 0.5
| 0.6
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/2
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/3
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Blue">3</span>
| 0.
| 0.4
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">3</span>
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/3
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/4
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>
| 0.25
| 0.3
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/4
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/5
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">5</span>
| 0.2
| 0.
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Red">5</span>
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/5
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/6
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>, <span style="color:Blue">3</span>
| 0.1
| 0.2
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>, <span style="color:Green">3</span>
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/6
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/7
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Red">7</span>
| 0.
| 0.35}}
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Red">7</span>
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/7
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/8
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>
| 0.125
| 0.16
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/8
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/9
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Blue">3</span>
| 0.
| 0.14
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">3</span>
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/9
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/10
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>, <span style="color:Green">5</span>
| 0.1
| 0.1
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>, <span style="color:Red">5</span>
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/11
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Magenta">11</span>
| 0.
| 0.
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Blue"></span>
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/12
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>, <span style="color:Blue">3</span>
| 0.08
| 0.1
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>, <span style="color:Green">3</span>
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/10
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/13
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Red">13</span>
| 0.
| 0.}}
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Magenta">11</span>
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/11
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/14
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>, <span style="color:Red">7</span>
| 0.0
| 0.035186}}
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>, <span style="color:Red">7</span>
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/12
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/15
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Blue">3</span>, <span style="color:Green">5</span>
| 0.0
| 0.0
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">3</span>, <span style="color:Red">5</span>
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/13
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/16
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>
| 0.0625
| 0.09
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/14
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/17
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Red">17</span>
| 0.
| 0.364297}}
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Red">15</span>
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/15
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/18
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>, <span style="color:Blue">3</span>
| 0.0
| 0.08
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>, <span style="color:Green">3</span>
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/16
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/19
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Red">19</span>
| 0.
| 0.45}}
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Red">17</span>
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/17
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/20
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>, <span style="color:Green">5</span>
| 0.05
| 0.0
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>, <span style="color:Red">5</span>
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/18
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/21
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Blue">3</span>, <span style="color:Red">7</span>
| 0.
| 0.03518}}
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">3</span>, <span style="color:Red">7</span>
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/19
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/22
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>, <span style="color:Magenta">11</span>
| 0.0
| 0.0
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>, <span style="color:Blue"></span>
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/1
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/23
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Red">23</span>
| 0.
| 0.
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Red">1</span>
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/1
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/24
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>, <span style="color:Blue">3</span>
| 0.041
| 0.06
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>, <span style="color:Green">3</span>
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/20
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/25
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">5</span>
| 0.04
| 0.06268781}}
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Red">5</span>
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/21
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/26
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>, <span style="color:Red">13</span>
| 0.0
| 0.0
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>, <span style="color:Magenta">11</span>
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/22
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/27
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Blue">3</span>
| 0.
| 0.054
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">3</span>
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/23
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/28
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>, <span style="color:Red">7</span>
| 0.03
| 0.03}}
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>, <span style="color:Red">7</span>
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/24
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/29
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Red">29</span>
| 0.
| 0.7}}
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Red">25</span>
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/25
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/30
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>, <span style"color:Blue">3</span>, <span style"color:Green">5</span>
| 0.0
| 0.0
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>, <span style"color:Green">3</span>, <span style"color:Red">5</span>
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/26
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/31
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Red">31</span>
| 0.
| 0.093598166743112862355}}
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Red">27</span>
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/27
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/32
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>
| 0.03125
| 0.046
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/28
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/33
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Blue">3</span>, <span style="color:Magenta">11</span>
| 0.
| 0.0
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">3</span>, <span style="color:Blue"></span>
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/29
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/34
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>, <span style="color:Red">17</span>
| 0.0
| 0.070857921436}}
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>, <span style="color:Red">15</span>
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/2
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/35
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">5</span>, <span style="color:Red">7</span>
| 0.0
| 0.3931}}
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Red">5</span>, <span style="color:Red">7</span>
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/2
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/36
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>, <span style="color:Blue">3</span>
| 0.02
| 0.04
| style"text-align:center;"| <span style"color:Green">2</span>, <span style="color:Green">3</span>
| style="text-align:center;"| 1/30
|}
The duodecimal period length of 1/n are (in decimal)
:0, 0, 0, 0, 4, 0, 6, 0, 0, 4, 1, 0, 2, 6, 4, 0, 16, 0, 6, 4, 6, 1, 11, 0, 20, 2, 0, 6, 4, 4, 30, 0, 1, 16, 12, 0, 9, 6, 2, 4, 40, 6, 42, 1, 4, 11, 23, 0, 42, 20, 16, 2, 52, 0, 4, 6, 6, 4, 29, 4, 15, 30, 6, 0, 4, 1, 66, 16, 11, 12, 35, 0, ...
The duodecimal period length of 1/(nth prime) are (in decimal)
:0, 0, 4, 6, 1, 2, 16, 6, 11, 4, 30, 9, 40, 42, 23, 52, 29, 15, 66, 35, 36, 26, 41, 8, 16, 100, 102, 53, 54, 112, 126, 65, 136, 138, 148, 150, 3, 162, 83, 172, 89, 90, 95, 24, 196, 66, 14, 222, 113, 114, 8, 119, 120, 125, 256, 131, 268, 54, 138, 280, ...
Smallest prime with duodecimal period n are (in decimal)
:11, 13, 157, 5, 22621, 7, 659, 89, 37, 19141, 23, 20593, 477517, 211, 61, 17, 2693651, 1657, 29043636306420266077, 85403261, 8177824843189, 57154490053, 47, 193, 303551, 79, 306829, 673, 59, 31, 373, 153953, 886381, 2551, 71, 73, ... Irrational numbers
The representations of irrational numbers in any positional number system (including decimal and duodecimal) neither terminate nor repeat. The following table gives the first digits for some important algebraic and transcendental numbers in both decimal and duodecimal.
{| class="wikitable"
! Algebraic irrational number
! In decimal
! In duodecimal
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| , the square root of 2
| 1.414213562373...
| 1.479170078...
|-
| style"text-align:center;"| (phi), the golden ratio <math>\tfrac{1+\sqrt{5}}{2}</math>
| 1.618033988749...
| 1.746772802...
|-
! Transcendental number
! In decimal
! In duodecimal
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| (pi), the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter
| 3.141592653589...
| 3.18480949391...
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| , the base of the natural logarithm
| 2.718281828459...
| 2.875236069821...
|}
See also
* Vigesimal (base 20)
* Sexagesimal (base 60)
References
External links
* [http://www.dozenal.org/ Dozenal Society of America]
** [https://dozenal.org/drupal/content/dsa-symbology-synopsis.html "The DSA Symbology Synopsis"]
** [https://dozenal.org/drupal/content/resources.html "Resources"], the DSA website's page of external links to third-party tools
* [http://www.dozenalsociety.org.uk/ Dozenal Society of Great Britain]
*
*
Category:Positional numeral systems
Category:12 (number)
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duodecimal
|
2025-04-05T18:28:36.493431
|
8401
|
David Hayes Agnew
|
| birth_place Christiana, Pennsylvania, U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place = Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.
|education=University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine
| relations Margaret Creighton (Irwin) Agnew (wife) <!--alma mater University of Pennsylvania-->
| profession = surgeon, professor
| notable_works = The Principles and Practice of Surgery
|work_institutions=
}}
David Hayes Agnew (November 24, 1818March 22, 1892) was an American surgeon.
Biography
Agnew was born on November 24, 1818, Nobleville, Pennsylvania (present-day Christiana). His parents were Robert Agnew and Agnes Noble. Agnew grew up as a Christian. He was surrounded by a family of doctors and had always known he was going to become a physician. As a young boy, he had a sharp sense of humor and was very intelligent.
He was educated at Jefferson College, and at Delaware College in Newark, Delaware. He graduated from the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine on April 6, 1838.
He was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1872.
Garfield case
On July 2, 1881, President James A. Garfield was shot by Charles J. Guiteau. He held the position of chief consulting surgeon. When a committee came to give him his money for helping, Agnew said, "Gentlemen, I present no bill for my attendance to President Garfield. I gave my services freely and gratuitously". He was never optimistic about the President's case and was not fooled by fallacious beliefs. This procedure helped create Agnew's reputation.
The Agnew Clinic
The Agnew Clinic is an 1889 painting by Thomas Eakins which depicts Agnew conducting a mastectomy operation before a gallery of students and doctors.
Accomplishments
David Agnew wrote The Principles and Practice of Surgery, covers an experience of fifty active years, and its value, preserving and presenting as it does the life-work of such a recognized authority, can hardly be overrated.<ref name"BDA1906" /> It was a three-volume set that he published from 1878 to 1883. He also helped found the Irwin & Agnew Iron Foundry in 1846. Death Agnew caught a severe attack of epidemic influenza in 1890. He never fully recovered. Following this, he had an attack of broncho-vesicular catarrh. On March 9, 1892, he was put to bed for a series of medical problems. After a few days his condition began to improve, but suddenly, on March 12 it became much worse. On March 20, he fell into a comatose condition. Agnew stayed like this until he died at 3:20 p.m. on March 22, 1892. He is now buried in West Laurel Hill Cemetery.<ref name"Adams"/>
References
Citations
Sources
* Who Was Who in America: Historical Volume, 1607–1896. Chicago: Marquis Who's Who, 1963.
*
Attribution:
*External links
*
*[http://resource.nlm.nih.gov/61011240R Agnew, D. Hayes. Practical anatomy: a new arrangement of the London dissector, (Philadelphia, 1856).] From the Digital Repository of the National Library of Medicine.
*[https://electricscotland.com/webclans/atoc/historyoflifeofd00adamiala.pdf History of the Life of D. Hayes Agnew, MD LLD], J. Howe Adams M.D., F.A. Davis Company, Publishers (1892)
Category:1818 births
Category:1892 deaths
Category:Union army surgeons
Category:Burials at West Laurel Hill Cemetery
Category:Physicians from Philadelphia
Category:University of Pennsylvania faculty
Category:Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania alumni
Category:People from Lancaster County, Pennsylvania
Category:Members of the American Philosophical Society
Category:Washington & Jefferson College alumni
Category:University of Delaware alumni
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hayes_Agnew
|
2025-04-05T18:28:36.500174
|
8402
|
Diving (sport)
|
Diving}}
Diving is the sport of jumping or falling into water from a platform or springboard, usually while performing acrobatics. Diving is an internationally recognised sport that is part of the Olympic Games. In addition, unstructured and non-competitive diving is a recreational pastime.
Competitors possess many of the same characteristics as gymnasts and dancers, including strength, flexibility, kinaesthetic judgement and air awareness. Some professional divers were originally gymnasts or dancers as both the sports have similar characteristics to diving. Dmitri Sautin holds the record for most Olympic diving medals won, by winning eight medals in total between 1992 and 2008.
History
Antiquity
In the Tomb of Hunting and Fishing there is a wall painting from around 530 - 500 BCE
that shows a person climbing rocks towards a cliff face and a second person diving down the cliff face towards water.
The Tomb of the Diver in Paestum, contains a fresco dating to around 500 to 475 BCE that also shows a scene of a person diving into a pool or stream of water from a structure.
<gallery mode"packed" widths"180" heights="180">
Tomb of hunting and fishing, Monterozzi necropolis, Tarquinia, Italy.jpg|Fresco. Tomb of Hunting and Fishing. Monterozzi necropolis, Tarquinia, Italy. Around 530 - 500 BCE
The Tomb of the Diver - Paestum - Italy.JPG|Fresco. Tomb of the Diver. Paestum, Italy. 470 BCE
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Plunging
Although diving has been a popular pastime across the world since ancient times, the first modern diving competitions were held in England in the 1880s. The exact origins of the sport are unclear, though it likely derives from the act of diving at the start of swimming races.
In the seventeenth century gymnasts moved their equipment to the beaches and "performed acrobatics over the water."
The 1904 book Swimming by Ralph Thomas notes English reports of plunging records dating back to at least 1865. The 1877 edition to British Rural Sports'' by John Henry Walsh makes note of a "Mr. Young" plunging in 1870, and also states that 25 years prior, a swimmer named Drake could cover .
The English Amateur Swimming Association (at the time called the Swimming Association of Great Britain) first started a "plunging championship" in 1883. The Plunging Championship was discontinued in 1937.Fancy diving
of Long Island.|left]]
Diving into a body of water had also been a method used by gymnasts in Germany and Sweden since the early 19th century. The soft landing allowed for more elaborate gymnastic feats in midair as the jump could be made from a greater height. This tradition evolved into 'fancy diving', while diving as a preliminary to swimming became known as 'Plain diving'.
In England, the practice of high diving – diving from a great height – gained popularity; the first diving stages were erected at the Highgate Ponds at a height of in 1893 and the first world championship event, the National Graceful Diving Competition, was held there by the Royal Life Saving Society in 1895. The event consisted of standing and running dives from either .
It was at this event that the Swedish tradition of fancy diving was introduced to the sport by the athletes Otto Hagborg and C F Mauritzi. They demonstrated their acrobatic techniques from the 10 m diving board at Highgate Pond and stimulated the establishment of the Amateur Diving Association in 1901, the first organisation devoted to diving in the world (later amalgamated with the Amateur Swimming Association). Fancy diving was formally introduced into the championship in 1903.
Olympic era
at the 1908 Olympic Games from the fourth Olympiad]]
Plain diving was first introduced into the Olympics at the 1904 event. The 1908 Olympics in London added 'fancy diving' and introduced elastic boards rather than fixed platforms. Women were first allowed to participate in the diving events for the 1912 Olympics in Stockholm. which is determined from a combination of the moves undertaken, position used, and height. The DD value is multiplied by the scores given by the judges.
To reduce the subjectivity of scoring in major meets, panels of five or seven judges are assembled; major international events such as the Olympics use seven-judge panels. For a five-judge panel, the highest and lowest scores are discarded and the middle three are summed and multiplied by the DD. For seven-judge panels, as of the 2012 London Olympics, the two highest scores and two lowest are discarded, leaving three to be summed and multiplied by the DD. (Prior to the London Olympics, the highest and lowest scores were eliminated, and the remaining five scores were multiplied by , to allow for comparison to five-judge panels.) The cancelling of scores is used to make it difficult for a single judge to manipulate scores.
There is a general misconception about scoring and judging. In serious meets, the absolute score is somewhat meaningless. It is the relative score, not the absolute score that wins meets. Accordingly, good judging implies consistent scoring across the dives. Specifically, if a judge consistently gives low scores for all divers, or consistently gives high scores for the same divers, the judging will yield fair relative results and will cause divers to place in the correct order. However, absolute scores have significance to the individual divers. Besides the obvious instances of setting records, absolute scores are also used for rankings and qualifications for higher level meets.
In synchronised diving events, there is a panel of seven, nine, or eleven judges; two or three to mark the execution of one diver, two or three to mark the execution of the other, and the remaining three or five to judge the synchronisation. The execution judges are positioned two on each side of the pool, and they score the diver which is nearer to them. The 2012 London Olympics saw the first use of eleven judges.
The score is computed similarly to the scores from other diving events, but has been modified starting with the 2012 London Olympics for the use of the larger judging panels. Each group of judges will have the highest and lowest scores dropped, leaving the middle score for each diver's execution and the three middle scores for synchronisation. The total is then weighted by and multiplied by the DD. The result is that the emphasis is on the synchronisation of the divers.
The synchronisation scores are based on:
* time of take-off
* height attained
* synchronisation of rotations and twists
* time of entry to the water
* forward travel from the board
The judges may also disqualify the diver for certain violations during the dive, including:
* receiving a score of 0 on all dives performed in the event
* improper equipment usage (e.g., female divers not using hair ties)
Competitive strategy
To win dive meets, divers create a dive list in advance of the meet. To win the meet the diver must accumulate more points than other divers. Often, simple dives with low DDs will look good to spectators but will not win meets. The competitive diver will attempt the highest DD dives possible with which they can achieve consistent, high scores. If divers are scoring 8 or 9 on most dives, it may be a sign of their extreme skill, or it may be a sign that their dive list is not competitive, and they may lose the meet to a diver with higher DDs and lower scores.
In competition, divers must submit their lists beforehand, and once past a deadline (usually when the event is announced or shortly before it begins) they cannot change their dives. If they fail to perform the dive announced, even if they physically cannot execute the dive announced or if they perform a more difficult dive, they will receive a score of zero. Under exceptional circumstances, a redive may be granted, but these are exceedingly rare (usually for very young divers just learning how to compete, or if some event outside the diver's control has caused them to be unable to perform-such as a loud noise).
In the Olympics or other highly competitive meets, many divers will have nearly the same list of dives as their competitors. The importance for divers competing at this level is not so much the DD, but how they arrange their list. Once the more difficult rounds of dives begin it is important to lead off with a confident dive to build momentum. They also tend to put a very confident dive in front of a very difficult dive to ensure that they will have a good mentality for the difficult dive. Most divers have pre-dive and post-dive rituals that help them either maintain or regain focus. Coaches also play a role in this aspect of the sport. Many divers rely on their coaches to help keep their composure during the meet. In a large meet coaches are rarely allowed on the deck to talk to their athlete so it is common to see coaches using hand gestures or body movements to communicate.
There are some American meets which will allow changes of the position of the dive even after the dive has been announced immediately before execution, but these are an exception to the rules generally observed internationally.
Generally, NCAA rules allow for dives to be changed while the diver is on the board, but the diver must request the change directly after the dive is announced. This applies especially in cases where the wrong dive is announced. If the diver pauses during his or her hurdle to ask for a change of dive, it will be declared a ulk (when the diver stops mid-hurdle) and the change of dive will not be permitted.
Under FINA law, no dive may be changed after the deadline for the dive-sheet to be submitted (generally a period ranging from one hour to 24 hours, depending on the rulings made by the event organiser).
It is the diver's responsibility to ensure that the dive-sheet is filled in correctly, and also to correct the referee or announcer before the dive if they describe it incorrectly. If a dive is performed which is as submitted but not as (incorrectly) announced, it is declared failed and scores zero according to a strict reading of the FINA law. But in practice, a re-dive would usually be granted in these circumstances.
Governance
of synchronised swimming, waves to the crowd before diving into water.]]
The global governing body of diving is FINA, which also governs swimming, synchronised swimming, water polo and open water swimming. Almost invariably, at national level, diving shares a governing body with the other aquatic sports.
This is frequently a source of political friction as the committees are naturally dominated by swimming officials who do not necessarily share or understand the concerns of the diving community. Divers often feel, for example, that they do not get adequate support over issues like the provision of facilities. Other areas of concern are the selection of personnel for the specialised Diving committees and for coaching and officiating at events, and the team selection for international competitions.
There are sometimes attempts to separate the governing body as a means to resolve these frustrations, but they are rarely successful. For example, in the UK the Great Britain Diving Federation was formed in 1992 with the intention of taking over the governance of Diving from the ASA (Amateur Swimming Association). Although it initially received widespread support from the diving community, the FINA requirement that international competitors had to be registered with their National Governing Body was a major factor in the abandonment of this ambition a few years later.
Since FINA refused to rescind recognition of the ASA as the British governing body for all aquatic sports including diving, this meant that the elite divers had to belong to ASA-affiliated clubs to be eligible for selection to international competition.
In the United States scholastic diving is almost always part of the school's swim team. Diving is a separate sport in Olympic and Club Diving. The NCAA will separate diving from swimming in special diving competitions after the swim season is completed.
Safety
Recreational diving
After an incident in Washington in 1993, most US and other pool builders are reluctant to equip a residential swimming pool with a diving springboard so home diving pools are much less common these days. In the incident, 14-year-old Shawn Meneely made a "suicide dive" (holding his hands at his sides, so that his head hit the bottom first) in a private swimming pool and became a tetraplegic. The lawyers for the family, Jan Eric Peterson and Fred Zeder, successfully sued the diving board manufacturer, the pool builder, and the National Spa and Pool Institute over the inappropriate depth of the pool.
The NSPI had specified a minimum depth of 7 ft 6 in (2.29 m) which proved to be insufficient in the above case. The pool into which Meneely dived was not constructed to the published standards. The standards had changed after the diving board was installed on the non-compliant pool by the homeowner. But the courts held that the pool "was close enough" to the standards to hold NSPI liable. The multimillion-dollar lawsuit was eventually resolved in 2001 for US$6.6 million ($8 million after interest was added) in favour of the plaintiff. The NSPI was held to be liable, and was financially strained by the case. It filed twice for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection and was successfully reorganised into a new swimming pool industry association. that "For the purposes of obtaining rough estimates of diving board-related injury risks," the estimated "...rate of SCI [Spinal Cord Injury] due to diving into swimming pools from diving boards to be on the order of 0.028 per 100,000 swimmers..."
Submerged objects
Many diving accidents occur when divers do not account for submerged objects in the water such as rocks and logs. Because of this many beaches and pools prohibit diving in shallow waters or when a lifeguard is not on duty. It was commetend that "...shallow dives can end up in death or permanent injury." and that in 1988 on Lake Powell a person "...was left a quadriplegic after diving just 5 feet off a houseboat into the murky lake." and when a diver hits the water flat from 10 metres they are brought to rest in about 1 ft. The extreme deceleration when hitting the water flat at around 35 mph can cause severe bruising both internal and external, strains to connective tissue securing the organs, possible minor haemorrhaging to lungs and other tissues possibly resulting in a person coughing up blood, a compressed spine, broken bones, or concussion.
It was commented further that "Head, cervical spine, shoulder, and lumbar spine injuries among others are not uncommon, though rates vary significantly in the literature. Existing data suggest that as the level of competition elevates, traumatic injuries (including head injury) become relatively less common, while overuse injuries predominate."
When looking at "...(NCAA) swimming and diving injuries from 2009 to 2014... ...[it was found that there was] an injury rate of 1.94 injuries per 1000 athlete exposures (AE) for males and 2.49 injuries per 1000 AE for females, with more injuries happening during practice over competition."
It has also been commented that 10-metre platform diving can also "...cause repetitive strain injuries from repeatedly pushing off the concrete platform."
It has further been commented that "Concussions are relatively common, as are pulmonary contusions in which the force of impact bruises the lungs." from hitting his head on the diving board.
Tom has also described the deterioration of a knee injury that he received; "During the first lockdown in 2020 I’d torn some cartilage in my knee, but there was no pain and I continued to train. Just when the Olympics was only eight weeks away my knee got tighter and tighter, like a screw being turned. It became locked in a position and I couldn’t straighten it or bend it... ...We booked a scan. We thought maybe it just needed an injection to get it moving again. The doctor also mooted the idea that it might need keyhole surgery. From there I was sent for an MRI scan. From the scan, we could see that the cartilage had not only torn, it had also flipped up and the joint had come back down on top of it... ...It can be flattened and sewn back down, but the surgeon described it as being a bit like a bent credit card that may snap up again or cause more problems. The only other way to fix the problem was to take it out. “There is a recovery time of four to six weeks,” the doctor said... ...A couple of weeks after surgery, I was back in the pool, building my diving back up again." Competitive diving deaths In 1983, at the World University Games in Edmonton, Canada, diver Sergei Chalibashvili, aged 21, died when he was attempting a reverse 3 1/2-somersault and his head collided with the hardwood 10 metre diving platform. After the accident he was taken to hospital and died a week later. The dive he was attempting was a reverse 2 1/2 somersault.
Trajectory
Since the parabola is symmetrical, the travel away from the board as the diver passes it is twice the amount of the forward travel at the peak of the flight. Excessive forward distance to the entry point is penalised when scoring a dive, but obviously an adequate clearance from the diving board is essential on safety grounds.
The greatest possible height that can be achieved is desirable for several reasons:
* the height attained is itself one of the factors that the judges will reward.
* a greater height gives a longer flight time and therefore more time to execute manoeuvres.
* for any given clearance when passing the board, the forward travel distance to the entry point will be less for a higher trajectory.
Control of rotation
The magnitude of angular momentum remains constant throughout the dive, but since
::angular momentum = rotational velocity × moment of inertia,
and the moment of inertia is larger when the body has an increased radius, the speed of rotation may be increased by moving the body into a compact shape, and reduced by opening out into a straight position.
Since the tucked shape is the most compact, it gives the most control over rotational speed, and dives in this position are easier to perform. Dives in the straight position are hardest, since there is almost no scope for altering the speed, so the angular momentum must be created at take-off with a very high degree of accuracy. (A small amount of control is available by moving the position of the arms and by a slight hollowing of the back).
The opening of the body for the entry does not stop the rotation, but merely slows it down. The vertical entry achieved by expert divers is largely an illusion created by starting the entry slightly short of vertical, so that the legs are vertical as they disappear beneath the surface. A small amount of additional tuning is available by 'entry save' techniques, whereby underwater movements of the upper body and arms against the viscosity of the water affect the position of the legs.
Twisting
Dives with multiple twists and somersaults are some of the most spectacular movements, as well as the most challenging to perform.
The rules state that twisting "must not be generated manifestly on take-off". Consequently, divers must use some of the somersaulting angular momentum to generate twisting movements. The physics of twisting can be explained by looking at the components of the angular momentum vector.
As the diver leaves the board, the total angular momentum vector is horizontal, pointing directly to the left for a forward dive for example. For twisting rotation to exist, it is necessary to tilt the body sideways after takeoff, so that there is now a small component of this horizontal angular momentum vector along the body's long axis. The tilt can be seen in the photo.
The tilting is done by the arms, which are outstretched to the sides just before the twist. When one arm is moved up and the other is moved down (like turning a big steering wheel), the body reacts by tilting to the side, which then begins the twisting rotation. At the completion of the required number of twist rotations, the arm motion is reversed (the steering wheel is turned back), which removes the body's tilt and stops the twisting rotation.
An alternative explanation is that the moving arms have precession torque on them which set the body into twisting rotation. Moving the arms back produces opposite torque which stops the twisting rotation.
Entry
The rules state that the body should be vertical, or nearly so, for entry. Strictly speaking, it is physically impossible to achieve a literally vertical position throughout the entry as there will inevitably still be some rotational momentum while the body is entering the water. Divers therefore attempt to create the illusion of being vertical, especially when performing rapidly rotating multiple somersault movements. For back entries, one technique is to allow the upper body to enter slightly short of vertical so that the continuing rotation leaves the final impression of the legs entering vertically. This is called "Knee save". Another is to use "Pike save" movements of scooping the upper body underwater in the direction of rotation so as to counteract the rotation of the legs. Knee saves are performed for back entries and Pike saves are performed for front entries.
The arms must be beside the body for feet-first dives, which are typically competed only on the 1m springboard and only at fairly low levels of 3m springboard, and extended forwards in line for "head-first" dives, which are much more common competitively. It used to be common for the hands to be interlocked with the fingers extended towards the water, but a different technique has become favoured during the last few decades. Now the usual practice is for one hand to grasp the other with palms down to strike the water with a flat surface. This creates a vacuum between the hands, arms and head which, with a vertical entry, will pull down and under any splash until deep enough to have minimal effect on the surface of the water (the so-called "rip entry").
Once a diver is completely under the water they may choose to roll or scoop in the same direction their dive was rotating to pull their legs into a more vertical position. Apart from aesthetic considerations, it is important from a safety point of view that divers reinforce the habit of rolling in the direction of rotation, especially for forward and inward entries. Back injuries such as hyperextension are caused by attempting to re-surface in the opposite direction. Diving from the higher levels increases the danger and likelihood of such injuries.
By country
Canada
In Canada, elite competitive diving is regulated by DPC (Diving Plongeon Canada), although the individual provinces also have organizational bodies. The main competitive season runs from February to July, although some competitions may be held in January or December, and many divers (particularly international level athletes) will train and compete year round.
Most provincial level competitions consist of events for six age groups (Groups A, B, C, D, E, and Open) for both genders on each of the three board levels. These age groups roughly correspond to those standardised by FINA, with the addition of a youngest age group for divers 9 and younger, Group E, which does not compete nationally and does not have a tower event (although divers of this age may choose to compete in Group D). The age group Open is so called because divers of any age, including those over 18, may compete in these events, so long as their dives meet a minimum standard of difficulty.
Although Canada is internationally a fairly strong country in diving, the vast majority of Canadian high schools and universities do not have diving teams, and many Canadian divers accept athletic scholarships from American colleges.
Adult divers who are not competitive at an elite level may compete in masters diving. Typically, masters are either adults who never practised the sport as children or teenagers, or former elite athletes who have retired but still seek a way to be involved in the sport. Many diving clubs have masters teams in addition to their primary competitive ones, and while some masters dive only for fun and fitness, there are also masters competitions, which range from the local to world championship level.
National championships
Divers can qualify to compete at the age group national championships, or junior national championships, in their age groups as assigned by FINA up to the age of 18. This competition is held annually in July. Qualification is based on achieving minimum scores at earlier competitions in the season, although athletes who place very highly at a national championship will be automatically qualified to compete at the next. Divers must qualify at two different competitions, at least one of which must be a level 1 competition, i.e. a competition with fairly strict judging patterns. Such competitions include the Polar Bear Invitational in Winnipeg, the Sting in Victoria, and the Alberta Provincial Championships in Edmonton or Calgary. The qualifying scores are determined by DPC according to the results of the preceding year's national competition, and typically do not have much variation from year to year.
Divers older than 18, or advanced divers of younger ages, can qualify for the senior national championships, which are held twice each year, once roughly in March and once in June or July. Once again, qualification is based on achieving minimum scores at earlier competitions (in this case, within the 12 months preceding the national championships, and in an Open age group event), or high placements in previous national championships or international competitions. It is no longer the case that divers may use results from age group events to qualify for senior nationals, or results from Open events to qualify for age group nationals.
Republic of Ireland
In the Republic of Ireland facilities are limited to one operational pool at the National Aquatic Centre in Dublin. Other facilities with diving boards at the University of Limerick are undergoing staff training in an effort to start diving programmes.
National championships
National championships take place late in the year, usually during November. The competition is held at the National Aquatic Centre in Dublin and consists of four events:
* Irish Open Age Group Championships
* Irish Open Junior Diving Championships
* Irish Open Senior Diving Championships
* Novice Competition (8–18 yrs)
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, diving competitions on all boards run throughout the year. National Masters' Championships are held two or three times per year.
United States
Summer diving
In the United States, summer diving is usually limited to one meter diving at community or country club pools. Some pools organise to form intra-pool competitions. These competitions are usually designed to accommodate all school-age children.
High school diving
In the United States scholastic diving at the high school level is usually limited to one meter diving (but some schools use three meter springboards.). Scores from those one meter dives contribute to the swim team's overall score. High school diving and swimming concludes their season with a state competition. Depending on the state and the number of athletes competing in the state, certain qualifications must be achieved to compete in the state's championship meet. There are often regional championships and district championships which are necessary to compete in before reaching the state meet to narrow the field to only the most competitive athletes. Most state championship meets consist of eleven dives. The eleven dives are usually split up between two categories: five required (voluntary) dives and six optional dives.
Club diving
In the United States, pre-college divers interested in learning one and three meter or platform diving should consider a club sanctioned by either USA Diving or AAU Diving. In USA Diving, Future Champions is the entry level or novice diver category with eight levels of competition. From Future Champions, divers graduate to "Junior Olympic", or JO. JO divers compete in age groups at inter-club competitions, at invitationals, and if qualified, at regional, zone and national competitions. Divers over the age of 19 years of age cannot compete in these events as a JO diver.
USA Diving sanctions the Winter Nationals championship with one, three meter, and platform events. In the summer USA Diving sanctions the Summer Nationals including all three events with both Junior and Senior divers. USA Diving is sanctioned by the United States Olympic Committee to select team representatives for international diving competitions including the World Championships and Olympic Games.
AAU Diving sanctions one national event per year in the summer. AAU competes on the one, three, and tower to determine the All-American team.
College diving
's CRWC Natatorium is home to the United States' largest collegiate swimming pool.]]
In the United States scholastic diving at the college level requires one and three meter diving. Scores from the one and three meter competition contribute to the swim team's overall meet score. College divers interested in tower diving may compete in the NCAA separate from swim team events. NCAA Divisions II and III do not usually compete platform; if a diver wishes to compete platform in college, he or she must attend a Division I school.
Each division also has rules on the number of dives in each competition. Division II schools compete with 10 dives in competition whereas Division III schools compete with 11. Division I schools only compete with 6 dives in competition. These 6 dives consist of either 5 optionals and 1 voluntary, or 6 optionals. If the meet is a 5 optional meet, then the divers will perform 1 optional from each category (Front, Back, Inward, Reverse, and Twister) and then 1 voluntary from the category of their choice. The voluntary in this type of meet is always worth a DD (Degree of Difficulty) of 2.0 even if the real DD is worth more or less on a DD sheet. In a 6 optional meet, the divers will yet again perform one dive from each category, but this time they will perform a 6th optional from the category of their choosing, which is worth its actual DD from the DD sheet.
The highest level of collegiate competition is the NCAA Division 1 Swimming and Diving Championship. Events at the championship include 1 metre springboard, 3 metre springboard, and platform, as well as various swimming individual and relay events. The points scored by swimmers and divers are combined to determine a team swimming & diving champion. To qualify for a diving event at the NCAA championships, a competitor must first finish in the top three at one of five zone championships, which are held after the various conference championship meets. A diver who scores at least 310 points on the 3 metre springboard and 300 points on the 1 metre springboard in a 6 optional meet can participate in the particular zone championship corresponding to the geographic region in which his or her school lies.
A number of colleges and universities offer scholarships to men and women who have competitive diving skills. These scholarships are usually offered to divers with age-group or club diving experience.
The NCAA limits the number of years a college student can represent any school in competitions. The limit is four years, but could be less under certain circumstances.
Masters' Diving
Divers who continue diving past their college years can compete in Masters' Diving programs. Masters' diving programs are frequently offered by college or club programs.
Masters' Diving events are normally conducted in age-groups separated by five or ten years, and attract competitors of a wide range of ages and experience (many, indeed, are newcomers to the sport); the oldest competitor in a Masters' Diving Championship was Viola Krahn, who at the age of 101 was the first person in any sport, male or female, anywhere in the world, to compete in an age-group of 100+ years in a nationally organised competition.
Non-competitive diving
]]
at Colliding Rivers, Glide, Oregon]]
Diving is also popular as a non-competitive activity. Such diving usually emphasises the airborne experience, and the height of the dive, but does not emphasise what goes on once the diver enters the water. The ability to dive underwater can be a useful emergency skill, and is an important part of watersport and navy safety training. Entering water from a height is an enjoyable leisure activity, as is underwater swimming.
Such non-competitive diving can occur indoors and outdoors. Outdoor diving typically takes place from cliffs or other rock formations either into fresh or salt water. However, man-made diving platforms are sometimes constructed in popular swimming destinations. Outdoor diving requires knowledge of the water depth and currents as conditions can be dangerous.
On occasion, the diver will inadvertently belly flop, entering the water horizontally or nearly so. The diver typically displaces a larger than usual amount of water.
High diving
A recently developing section of the sport is High Diving (e.g. see 2013 World Aquatics Championships), conducted in open air locations, usually from improvised platforms up to high (as compared with as used in Olympic and World Championship events). Entry to the water is invariably feet-first to avoid the risk of injury that would be involved in head-first entry from that height. The final half-somersault is almost always performed backwards, enabling the diver to spot the entry point and control their rotation.
Competitive high diving is run as the Red Bull Cliff Diving World Series.
See also
*Aquatic timing system
*Cannonball (diving)
*
*Diving at the Summer Olympics
*Diving at the Asian Games
*La Quebrada Cliff Divers
*List of Olympic medalists in diving
*Scuba diving
*Shallow diving
*List of 10 meter diving platforms in the United States
References
External links
*[http://www.FINA.org/ FINA]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20140228090415/http://www.teamusa.org/USA-Diving USA Diving]
*[http://diveaau.org/ AAU Diving]
*[http://www.NCAA.org/ NCAA]
*[http://www.mastersdiving.org/ USA Masters' Diving].
*[http://www.usadiver.com/diving_articles/diving_bore_hobie_htm.htm Diving mentality]
Category:Summer Olympic sports
Category:Acrobatic sports
Category:Aquatics
Category:Jumping sports
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diving_(sport)
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Dative case
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In grammar, the dative case (abbreviated , or sometimes when it is a core argument) is a grammatical case used in some languages to indicate the recipient or beneficiary of an action, as in "", Latin for "Maria gave Jacob a drink". In this example, the dative marks what would be considered the indirect object of a verb in English.
Sometimes the dative has functions unrelated to giving. In Scottish Gaelic and Irish, the term dative case is used in traditional grammars to refer to the prepositional case-marking of nouns following simple prepositions and the definite article. In Georgian and Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu), the dative case can also mark the subject of a sentence. This is called the dative construction. In Hindi, the dative construction is not limited to only certain verbs or tenses and it can be used with any verb in any tense or mood.
The dative was common among early Indo-European languages and has survived to the present in the Balto-Slavic branch, the Germanic branch, Albanian and others. It also exists in similar forms in several non-Indo-European languages, such as the Uralic family of languages. In some languages, the dative case has assimilated the functions of other, now extinct cases. In Ancient Greek, the dative has the functions of the Proto-Indo-European locative and instrumental as well as those of the original dative.
Under the influence of English, which uses the preposition "to" for (among other uses) both indirect objects (give to) and directions of movement (go to), the term "dative" has sometimes been used to describe cases that in other languages would more appropriately be called lative.
Etymology
"Dative" comes from Latin cāsus datīvus ("case for giving"), a translation of Greek δοτικὴ πτῶσις, dotikē ptôsis ("inflection for giving"). Dionysius Thrax in his Art of Grammar also refers to it as epistaltikḗ "for sending (a letter)", from the verb epistéllō "send to", a word from the same root as epistle.
English
The Old English language had a dative case; however, the English case system gradually fell into disuse during the Middle English period, when the accusative and dative of pronouns merged into a single oblique case that was also used with all prepositions. This conflation of case in Middle and Modern English has led most modern grammarians to discard the "accusative" and "dative" labels as obsolete in reference to English, often using the term "objective" for oblique.
Set expressions
The dative case is rare in modern English usage, but it can be argued that it survives in a few set expressions. One example is the word "methinks", with the meaning "it seems to me". It survives in this fixed form from Old English (having undergone, however, phonetic changes with the rest of the language), in which it was constructed as "[it]" + "me" (the dative case of the personal pronoun) + "thinks" (i.e., "seems",
There are several uses for the dative case ():
(dative of purpose), e.g. – "[we learn] not for school, but for life", – "to call for help", – "I'm coming for help", – "I receive [this] as a gift" or – "[this] is for the girl's decoration", or "... for decoration for the girl" (as could be either dative or genitive)
, which means action for (or against) somebody, e.g., – "to till fields for Greeks"; Combination of and (double dative): "to you for joy"
(possessive dative) which means possession, e.g. – literally "to (or for) the angels are wings", this is typically found with a copula and translated as "angels have wings".
(ethic dative) indicates that the person in the dative is or should be especially concerned about the action, e.g. "What is Celsus doing for me?" (expressing the speaker being especially interested in what Celsus is doing for him or her); or "Whose interest does this serve?" (literally "To whom does this do good?")
, meaning; 'in the eyes of', e.g., 'he seems to me to be a good man'.
The dative expresses agency with the gerundive when the gerundive is used to convey obligation or necessity, e.g., , 'these things must be done by us.'
Greek
Ancient
In addition to its main function as the dativus, the dative case has other functions in Classical Greek: (The chart below uses the Latin names for the types of dative; the Greek name for the dative is δοτική πτῶσις, like its Latin equivalent, derived from the verb "to give"; in Ancient Greek, δίδωμι.)
Dativus finalis: The dativus finalis, or the 'dative of purpose', is when the dative is used to denote the purpose of a certain action. For example:
""
"I fight for the king".
""
"I die for honour".
Dativus commŏdi (incommodi): The dativus commodi sive incommodi, or the 'dative of benefit (or harm)' is the dative that expresses the advantage or disadvantage of something for someone. For example:
For the benefit of: "" (Sophocles, Ajax 1366).
"Every man toils for himself".
For the harm or disadvantage of: "" (Thucydides 2.12.4).
"This day will be the beginning of great sorrows for the Greeks (i.e., for their disadvantage)".
Dativus possessivus: The dativus possessivus, or the 'dative of possession' is the dative used to denote the possessor of a certain object or objects. For example:
"" (Thucycdides 1.86.3).
"For others have a lot of money and ships and horses, but we have good allies (i.e., To others there is a lot of money...)".
Dativus ethicus: The dativus ethicus, or the 'ethic or polite dative,' is when the dative is used to signify that the person or thing spoken of is regarded with interest by someone. This dative is mostly, if not exclusively, used in pronouns. As such, it is also called the "dative of pronouns." For example:
"" (Demosthenes 18.178).
"Pay close attention to this, I beg you (i.e., please pay..)".
"" (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 18.178).
"Oh, mother, how handsome grandpa is (I've just realized!)".
Dativus auctoris: The dativus auctoris, or the 'dative of agent,' is the dative used to denote the doer of an action. Note, however, that in Classical Greek, the agent is usually in the genitive after (by, at the hands of). The agent is in the dative most often with the perfect and pluperfect passive, and with the verbal adjective in . For example:
"" (Isocrates 8.39)
"Many cures have been discovered by doctors."
Dativus instrumenti: The dativus instrumenti, or the 'dative of instrument,' is when the dative is used to denote an instrument or means of a certain action (or, more accurately, as the instrumental case). For example:
"." (Homer, Odyssey 9.407)
"He kills me with a bait (i.e., by means of a bait)."
Dativus modi: The dativus modi, or the 'dative of manner,' is the dative used to describe the manner or way by which something happened. For example:
"" (Thucydides 8.84)
"having died of (from) a disease."
Dativus mensurae: The dativus mensurae, or the 'dative of measurement,' is the dative used to denote the measurement of difference. For example:
"" (Plato, Phaedo 101a)
"taller by a head."
"" (Plato, Laws 729d)
"by far the best."
The articles in the Greek dative are
+Definite article Masculine Neuter Feminine Singular ΤΩΙ (τῷ) ΤΗΙ (τῇ) Plural ΤΟΙΣ (τοῖς) ΤΑΙΣ (ταῖς)
Modern
The dative case, strictly speaking, no longer exists in Modern Greek, except in fossilized expressions like δόξα τω Θεώ (from the ecclesiastical τῷ Θεῷ δόξα, "Glory to God") or εν τάξει (ἐν τάξει, lit. "in order", i.e. "all right" or "OK"). Otherwise, most of the functions of the dative are expressed by the genitive or by prepositional phrases.
Slavic languages
In Russian, the dative case is used for indicating the indirect object of an action (that to which something is given, thrown, read, etc.). In the instance where a person is the goal of motion, dative is used instead of accusative to indicate motion toward. This is usually achieved with the preposition + destination in dative case; , meaning "to the doctor."
Dative is also the necessary case taken by certain prepositions when expressing certain ideas. For instance, when the preposition по is used to mean "along", its object is always in dative case, as in , meaning "along the sides."
Other Slavic languages apply the dative case (and the other cases) more or less the same way as does Russian; some languages may use the dative in other ways. The following examples are from Polish:
after certain verbs (dziękować komuś "to thank someone", pomóc komuś "to help someone", wierzyć komuś "to believe someone")
in certain expressions (Czy podoba ci się piosenka? "Do you like the song?", Jest mi zimno "I'm cold", Jest nam smutno "We're feeling sad", Będzie wam trudniej... "It will be more difficult for you guys"), Śniło jej się, że... "She dreamt that"
dativus commodi to indicate action for somebody (Zbuduję temu człowiekowi dom "I will build a house for this person")
when something is taken away or something occurs to someone (Zdechł im pies "Their dog died"; Zabrali mu komputer "They took away his computer"; Zepsuł nam się samochód "Our car broke down"; Coś mi się przypomniało "I just remembered something")
Some other kinds of dative use as found in the Serbo-Croatian language are: Dativus finalis (Titaniku u pomoć "to Titanic's rescue"), Dativus commodi/incommodi (Operi svojoj majci suđe "Wash the dishes for your mother"), Dativus possessivus (Ovcama je dlaka gusta "Sheep's hair is thick"), Dativus ethicus (Šta/što mi radi Boni? "What is Boni doing? (I am especially interested in what it is)") and Dativus auctoris (Izgleda mi okej "It seems okay to me").
Unusual in other Indo-European branches but common among Slavic languages, endings of nouns and adjectives are different based on grammatical function. Other factors are gender and number. In some cases, the ending may not be obvious, even when those three factors (function, gender, number) are considered. For example, in Polish, 'syn' ("son") and 'ojciec' ("father") are both masculine singular nouns, yet appear as syn → synowi and ojciec → ojcu in the dative.
Baltic languages
Both Lithuanian and Latvian have a distinct dative case in the system of nominal declensions.
Lithuanian nouns preserve Indo-European inflections in the dative case fairly well: (o-stems) vaikas -> sg. vaikui, pl. vaikams; (ā-stems) ranka -> sg. rankai, pl. rankoms; (i-stems) viltis -> sg. vilčiai, pl. viltims; (u-stems) sūnus -> sg. sūnui, pl. sūnums; (consonant stems) vanduo -> sg. vandeniui, pl. vandenims.
Adjectives in the dative case receive pronominal endings (this might be the result of a more recent development): tas geras vaikas -> sg. tam geram vaikui, pl. tiems geriems vaikams.
The dative case in Latvian underwent further simplifications – the original masculine endings of both nouns and adjectives have been replaced with pronominal inflections: tas vīrs -> sg. tam vīram, pl. vīriem. Also, the final "s" in all Dative forms has been dropped. The only exception is personal pronouns in the plural: mums (to us), jums (to you). In colloquial Lithuanian the final "s" in the dative is often omitted, as well: time geriem vaikam.
In both Latvian and Lithuanian, the main function of the dative case is to render the indirect object in a sentence: (lt) aš duodu vyrui knygą; (lv) es dodu [duodu] vīram grāmatu – I am giving a book to the man.
The dative case can also be used with gerundives to indicate an action preceding or simultaneous with the main action in a sentence: (lt) jam įėjus, visi atsistojo – when he walked in, everybody stood up, lit. to him having walked in, all stood up; (lt) jai miegant, visi dirbo – while she slept, everybody was working, lit. to her sleeping, all were working.
In modern standard Lithuanian, Dative case is not required by prepositions, although in many dialects it is done frequently: (dial.) iki (+D) šiai dienai, (stand.) iki (+G) šios dienos – up until this day.
In Latvian, the dative case is taken by several prepositions in the singular and all prepositions in the plural (due to peculiar historical changes): sg. bez (+G) tevis (without thee) ~ pl. bez (+D) jums (without you); sg. pa (+A) ceļu (along the road) ~ pl. pa (+D) ceļiem (along the roads).
Armenian
In modern Eastern Armenian, the dative is attained by adding any article to the genitive:
dog = շուն
GEN > շան (of the dog; dog's) with no articles
DAT > շանը or շանն (to the dog) with definite articles (-ն if preceding a vowel)
DAT > մի շան (to a dog) with indefinite article
DAT > շանս (to my dog) with 1st person possessive article
DAT > շանդ (to your dog) with 2nd person possessive article
There is a general tendency to view -ին as the standard dative suffix, but only because that is its most productive (and therefore common) form. The suffix -ին as a dative marker is nothing but the standard, most common, genitive suffix -ի accompanied by the definite article -ն. But the dative case encompasses indefinite objects as well, which will not be marked by -ին:
Definite DAT > Ես գիրքը տվեցի տղային: (I gave the book to the boy)
Indefinite DAT> Ես գիրքը տվեցի մի տղայի: (I gave the book to a boy)
The main function of the dative marking in Armenian is to indicate the receiving end of an action, more commonly the indirect object which in English is preceded by the preposition to. In the use of "giving" verbs like give, donate, offer, deliver, sell, bring... the dative marks the recipient. With communicative verbs like tell, say, advise, explain, ask, answer... the dative marks the listener. Other verbs whose indirect objects are marked by the dative case in Armenian are show, reach, look, approach...
Eastern Armenian also uses the dative case to mark the time of an event, in the same way English uses the preposition at, as in Meet me at nine o' clock.
Indo-Aryan languages
Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu)
Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu) has true dative case for pronouns, but for nouns the dative case has to be constructed using the dative case-marker (postposition) को کو (ko) to the nouns in their oblique case. Pronouns in Hindustani also have an oblique case, so dative pronouns can also be alternatively constructed using the dative case-marker को کو (ko) with the pronouns in their oblique case, hence forming two sets of synonymous dative pronouns. The following table shows the pronouns in their nominative and their dative forms. Hindustani lacks pronouns in the third person and the demonstrative pronouns double as the third person pronouns.
CasePersonal PronounsNon-Personal Pronouns1st Person2nd PersonDemonstrativeRelativeInterrogativeIntimateNeutralFormalProximalDistalSingularPluralSingularSingular & PluralSingularPluralSingularPluralSingularPluralSingularPluralNominativeमैं
میں
ma͠iहम
ہم
hamतू
تو
tūतुम
تم
tumआप
آپ
āpयह
یہ
yahये
یے
yeवह
وہ
vahवे
وے
veजो
جو
joकौन
کون
kaunDativeमुझे
مجھے
mujheहमें
ہمیں
hamẽतुझे
تجھے
tujheतुम्हें
تمھیں
tumhẽ—इसे
اسے
iseइन्हें
انہیں
inhẽउसे
اسے
useउन्हें
انہیں
unhẽजिसे
جسے
jiseजिन्हें
جنہیں
jinhẽकिसे
کیسے
kiseकिन्हें
کنھیں
kinhẽ
The table below shows the oblique cases of Hindustani for the nouns boy and girl which take in the dative case-marker after them to assign the combination of the oblique case and the case-marker the dative case. The oblique case of Hindustani by itself has no meaning and adding the case-marker को کو (ko) assigns the oblique case the function of the dative case.
CaseboygirlSingularPluralSingularPluralNominativeलड़का
لڑکا
laṛkāलड़के
لڑکے
laṛkeलड़की
لڑکی
laṛkīलड़कियाँ
لڑکیاں
laṛkiyā̃Dativeलड़के को
لڑکے کو
laṛke-koलड़कों को
لڑکوں کو
laṛkõ-koलड़की को
لڑکی کو
laṛkī-koलड़कियों को
لڑکیوں کو
laṛkiyõ-ko
Dative case in Hindustani can also mark the subject of a sentence. This is called the dative construction or quirky subjects.
Finnish
Finnish does not have a separate dative case. However, the allative case can fulfill essentially the same role as dative, beyond its primary meaning of directional movement (that is, going somewhere or approaching someone). For example: He lahjoittivat kaikki rahansa köyhille (They donated all their money to the poor.) It is similar in Estonian.
Tsez
In the Northeast Caucasian languages, such as Tsez, the dative also takes the functions of the lative case in marking the direction of an action. By some linguists, they are still regarded as two separate cases in those languages, although the suffixes are exactly the same for both cases. Other linguists list them separately only for the purpose of separating syntactic cases from locative cases. An example with the ditransitive verb "show" (literally: "make see") is given below:
The dative/lative is also used to indicate possession, as in the example below, because there is no such verb as "to have".
As in the examples above, the dative/lative case usually occurs in combination with another suffix as poss-lative case; this should not be regarded as a separate case, however, as many of the locative cases in Tsez are constructed analytically; hence, they are, in fact, a combination of two case suffixes. See Tsez language#Locative case suffixes for further details.
Verbs of perception or emotion (like "see", "know", "love", "want") also require the logical subject to stand in the dative/lative case. In this example the "pure" dative/lative without its POSS-suffix is used.
Turkish
The dative case (yönelme durumu) in the Turkish language is formed by adding the -e" or "-a suffixes to the end of the noun, in accordance with the effected noun's vowel harmony. The word that should be in the dative case can be found as an answer to the questions 'neye?' (to what?), 'kime?' (to whom?) and 'nereye?' (to where?) will lead to find a dative case in a sentence. There are many different uses for the dative case.
The dative also is for objects, usually indirect objects, but sometimes objects that in English would be considered direct:
The dative case tells whither, that is, the place to which. Thus it has roughly the meaning of the English prepositions "to" and "into", and also "in" when it can be replaced with "into":
See also
Dative construction
Declension in English
Double dative
References
External links
German dative case A lesson covering the dative case in the German language
Hungarian dative case from www. HungarianReference.com
Russian Dative: , ,
Category:Grammatical cases
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dative_case
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Dodecahedron
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{| class"wikitable floatright" width320
|+ Common dodecahedra
|- style="text-align:center;"
!colspan=4|I, order 120
|- style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom;"
|Regular
|Small stellated
|Great
|Great stellated
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!T, order 24
!T, order 12
!O, order 48
!Johnson (J)
|- style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom;"
|Pyritohedron
|Tetartoid
|Rhombic
|Triangular
|- style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom;"
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|- align=center
!colspan=2|D, order 16
!colspan=2|D, order 12
|- align=center
|Rhombo-hexagonal
|Rhombo-square
|Trapezo-rhombic
|Rhombo-triangular
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In geometry, a dodecahedron ( ()|}}; ()|twelve|| ()|base, seat, face}}) or duodecahedron is any polyhedron with twelve flat faces. The most familiar dodecahedron is the regular dodecahedron with regular pentagons as faces, which is a Platonic solid. There are also three regular star dodecahedra, which are constructed as stellations of the convex form. All of these have icosahedral symmetry, order 120.
Some dodecahedra have the same combinatorial structure as the regular dodecahedron (in terms of the graph formed by its vertices and edges), but their pentagonal faces are not regular:
The pyritohedron, a common crystal form in pyrite, has pyritohedral symmetry, while the tetartoid has tetrahedral symmetry.
The rhombic dodecahedron can be seen as a limiting case of the pyritohedron, and it has octahedral symmetry. The elongated dodecahedron and trapezo-rhombic dodecahedron variations, along with the rhombic dodecahedra, are space-filling. There are numerous other dodecahedra.
While the regular dodecahedron shares many features with other Platonic solids, one unique property of it is that one can start at a corner of the surface and draw an infinite number of straight lines across the figure that return to the original point without crossing over any other corner.
Regular dodecahedron
The convex regular dodecahedron is one of the five regular Platonic solids and can be represented by its Schläfli symbol {5,3}.
The dual polyhedron is the regular icosahedron {3,5}, having five equilateral triangles around each vertex.
{| classwikitable aligncenter
|+ Four kinds of regular dodecahedra
|- align=center
|<br>Convex regular dodecahedron
|<br>Small stellated dodecahedron
|<br>Great dodecahedron
|<br>Great stellated dodecahedron
|}
The convex regular dodecahedron also has three stellations, all of which are regular star dodecahedra. They form three of the four Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra. They are the small stellated dodecahedron ,5}, the great dodecahedron {5,}, and the great stellated dodecahedron ,3}. The small stellated dodecahedron and great dodecahedron are dual to each other; the great stellated dodecahedron is dual to the great icosahedron {3,}. All of these regular star dodecahedra have regular pentagonal or pentagrammic faces. The convex regular dodecahedron and great stellated dodecahedron are different realisations of the same abstract regular polyhedron; the small stellated dodecahedron and great dodecahedron are different realisations of another abstract regular polyhedron.
Other pentagonal dodecahedra
In crystallography, two important dodecahedra can occur as crystal forms in some symmetry classes of the cubic crystal system that are topologically equivalent to the regular dodecahedron but less symmetrical: the pyritohedron with pyritohedral symmetry, and the tetartoid with tetrahedral symmetry:
Pyritohedron
{| class"wikitable floatright" style"width:260px;"
|-
! style"background:#e7dcc3;" colspan"2"|Pyritohedron
|-
| style"text-align:center;" colspan"2"|<br><small>(See here for a rotating model.)</small>
|-
| style="background:#e7dcc3;"|Face polygon||isosceles pentagon
|-
| style="background:#e7dcc3;"|Coxeter diagrams||<br>
|-
| style="background:#e7dcc3;"|Faces||12
|-
| style="background:#e7dcc3;"|Edges||30 (6 + 24)
|-
| style="background:#e7dcc3;"|Vertices||20 (8 + 12)
|-
| style="background:#e7dcc3;"|Symmetry group||T<sub>h</sub>, [4,3<sup>+</sup>], (3*2), order 24
|-
| style="background:#e7dcc3;"|Rotation group||T, [3,3]<sup>+</sup>, (332), order 12
|-
| style="background:#e7dcc3;"|Dual polyhedron||Pseudoicosahedron
|-
| style="background:#e7dcc3;"|Properties||face transitive
|- align=center
|colspan=2|Net<br>
|}
A pyritohedron is a dodecahedron with pyritohedral (T<sub>h</sub>) symmetry. Like the regular dodecahedron, it has twelve identical pentagonal faces, with three meeting in each of the 20 vertices (see figure). However, the pentagons are not constrained to be regular, and the underlying atomic arrangement has no true fivefold symmetry axis. Its 30 edges are divided into two sets – containing 24 and 6 edges of the same length. The only axes of rotational symmetry are three mutually perpendicular twofold axes and four threefold axes.
Although regular dodecahedra do not exist in crystals, the pyritohedron form occurs in the crystals of the mineral pyrite, and it may be an inspiration for the discovery of the regular Platonic solid form. The true regular dodecahedron can occur as a shape for quasicrystals (such as holmium–magnesium–zinc quasicrystal) with icosahedral symmetry, which includes true fivefold rotation axes.
s]]
Crystal pyrite
The name crystal pyrite comes from one of the two common crystal habits shown by pyrite (the other one being the cube). In pyritohedral pyrite, the faces have a Miller index of (210), which means that the dihedral angle is 2·arctan(2) ≈ 126.87° and each pentagonal face has one angle of approximately 121.6° in between two angles of approximately 106.6° and opposite two angles of approximately 102.6°. The following formulas show the measurements for the face of a perfect crystal (which is rarely found in nature).
<math>\text{Height} = \frac{\sqrt{5}}{2} \cdot \text{Long side}</math>
<math>\text{Width} = \frac{4}{3} \cdot \text{Long side}</math>
<math>\text{Short sides} = \sqrt{\frac{7}{12}} \cdot \text{Long side}</math>
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Cartesian coordinates
The eight vertices of a cube have the coordinates (±1, ±1, ±1).
The coordinates of the 12 additional vertices are
<big>(</big>0, ±(1 + h), ±(1 − h<sup>2</sup>)<big>)</big>,
<big>(</big>±(1 + h), ±(1 − h<sup>2</sup>), 0<big>)</big> and
<big>(</big>±(1 − h<sup>2</sup>), 0, ±(1 + h)<big>)</big>.
h is the height of the wedge<nowiki>-shaped</nowiki> "roof" above the faces of that cube with edge length 2.
An important case is h = (a quarter of the cube edge length) for perfect natural pyrite (also the pyritohedron in the Weaire–Phelan structure).
Another one is h 0.618... for the regular dodecahedron. See section Geometric freedom for other cases.
Two pyritohedra with swapped nonzero coordinates are in dual positions to each other like the dodecahedra in the compound of two dodecahedra.
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!colspan="2"| Animations
|- style="background-color: white;"
|style="width: 350px;"|
|style="width: 350px;"|
|-
| Honeycomb of alternating convex and concave pyritohedra with heights between ±
| Heights between 0 (cube)<br>and 1 (rhombic dodecahedron)
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Geometric freedom
The pyritohedron has a geometric degree of freedom with limiting cases of a cubic convex hull at one limit of collinear edges, and a rhombic dodecahedron as the other limit as 6 edges are degenerated to length zero. The regular dodecahedron represents a special intermediate case where all edges and angles are equal.
It is possible to go past these limiting cases, creating concave or nonconvex pyritohedra. The endo-dodecahedron is concave and equilateral; it can tessellate space with the convex regular dodecahedron. Continuing from there in that direction, we pass through a degenerate case where twelve vertices coincide in the centre, and on to the regular great stellated dodecahedron where all edges and angles are equal again, and the faces have been distorted into regular pentagrams. On the other side, past the rhombic dodecahedron, we get a nonconvex equilateral dodecahedron with fish-shaped self-intersecting equilateral pentagonal faces.
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed"
!colspan="8"| Special cases of the pyritohedron
|-
|colspan="8"| Versions with equal absolute values and opposing signs form a honeycomb together. (Compare this animation.)<br>The ratio shown is that of edge lengths, namely those in a set of 24 (touching cube vertices) to those in a set of 6 (corresponding to cube faces).
|-
! Ratio
!1 : 1
!0 : 1
!1 : 1
!2 : 1
!1 : 1
!0 : 1
!1 : 1
|-
!rowspan="2"| h
! − + 1|2}}
!rowspan="2"| −1
! + 1|2}}
!rowspan="2"| 0
! − 1|2}}
!rowspan="2"| 1
! + 1|2}}
|-
! −1.618...
! −0.618...
! 0.618...
! 1.618...
|- style="text-align: center; vertical-align: top;"
!style="vertical-align: middle;"| Image
|<br>Regular star, great stellated dodecahedron, with regular pentagram faces
|<BR>Degenerate, 12 vertices in the center
|<br>The concave equilateral dodecahedron, called an endo-dodecahedron.
|<br>A cube can be divided into a pyritohedron by bisecting all the edges, and faces in alternate directions.
|<br>A regular dodecahedron is an intermediate case with equal edge lengths.
|<br>A rhombic dodecahedron is a degenerate case with the 6 crossedges reduced to length zero.
|<BR>Self-intersecting equilateral dodecahedron
|}
Tetartoid
{| class"wikitable floatright" style"width:260px;"
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! style"background:#e7dcc3;" colspan"2"|Tetartoid<br>Tetragonal pentagonal dodecahedron
|-
| style"text-align:center;" colspan"2"|<br><small>(See here for a rotating model.)</small>
|-
| style="background:#e7dcc3;"|Face polygon||irregular pentagon
|-
| style="background:#e7dcc3;"|Conway notation||gT
|-
| style="background:#e7dcc3;"|Faces||12
|-
| style="background:#e7dcc3;"|Edges||30 (6+12+12)
|-
| style="background:#e7dcc3;"|Vertices||20 (4+4+12)
|-
| style="background:#e7dcc3;"|Symmetry group||T, [3,3]<sup>+</sup>, (332), order 12
<!--|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Dual polyhedron||Pseudoicosahedron-->
|-
| style="background:#e7dcc3;"|Properties||convex, face transitive
<!--|- align=center
|colspan=2|Net<BR>-->
|}
A tetartoid (also tetragonal pentagonal dodecahedron, pentagon-tritetrahedron, and tetrahedric pentagon dodecahedron) is a dodecahedron with chiral tetrahedral symmetry (T). Like the regular dodecahedron, it has twelve identical pentagonal faces, with three meeting in each of the 20 vertices. However, the pentagons are not regular and the figure has no fivefold symmetry axes.
Although regular dodecahedra do not exist in crystals, the tetartoid form does. The name tetartoid comes from the Greek root for one-fourth because it has one fourth of full octahedral symmetry, and half of pyritohedral symmetry. The mineral cobaltite can have this symmetry form.
Abstractions sharing the solid's topology and symmetry can be created from the cube and the tetrahedron. In the cube each face is bisected by a slanted edge. In the tetrahedron each edge is trisected, and each of the new vertices connected to a face center. (In Conway polyhedron notation this is a gyro tetrahedron.)
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! Relationship to the dyakis dodecahedron
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|style="width: 760px;"|
A tetartoid can be created by enlarging 12 of the 24 faces of a dyakis dodecahedron.
(The tetartoid shown here is based on one that is itself created by enlarging 24 of the 48 faces of the disdyakis dodecahedron.)
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|}<!--end inner table-->
The crystal model on the right shows a tetartoid created by enlarging the blue faces of the dyakis dodecahedral core. Therefore, the edges between the blue faces are covered by the red skeleton edges.
|}
Cartesian coordinates
The following points are vertices of a tetartoid pentagon under tetrahedral symmetry:
:(a, b, c); (−a, −b, c); (−, −, ); (−c, −a, b); (−, , ),
under the following conditions:
:,
:n = a<sup>2</sup>c − bc<sup>2</sup>,
:d<sub>1</sub> = a<sup>2</sup> − ab + b<sup>2</sup> + ac − 2bc,
:d<sub>2</sub> = a<sup>2</sup> + ab + b<sup>2</sup> − ac − 2bc,
:.Geometric freedom
The regular dodecahedron is a tetartoid with more than the required symmetry. The triakis tetrahedron is a degenerate case with 12 zero-length edges. (In terms of the colors used above this means, that the white vertices and green edges are absorbed by the green vertices.)
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed"
!colspan="8"| Tetartoid variations from regular dodecahedron to triakis tetrahedron
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Dual of triangular gyrobianticupola
A lower symmetry form of the regular dodecahedron can be constructed as the dual of a polyhedron constructed from two triangular anticupola connected base-to-base, called a triangular gyrobianticupola. It has D<sub>3d</sub> symmetry, order 12. It has 2 sets of 3 identical pentagons on the top and bottom, connected 6 pentagons around the sides which alternate upwards and downwards. This form has a hexagonal cross-section and identical copies can be connected as a partial hexagonal honeycomb, but all vertices will not match.
:
Rhombic dodecahedron
The rhombic dodecahedron is a zonohedron with twelve rhombic faces and octahedral symmetry. It is dual to the quasiregular cuboctahedron (an Archimedean solid) and occurs in nature as a crystal form. The rhombic dodecahedron packs together to fill space.
The rhombic dodecahedron can be seen as a degenerate pyritohedron where the 6 special edges have been reduced to zero length, reducing the pentagons into rhombic faces.
The rhombic dodecahedron has several stellations, the first of which is also a parallelohedral spacefiller.
Another important rhombic dodecahedron, the Bilinski dodecahedron, has twelve faces congruent to those of the rhombic triacontahedron, i.e. the diagonals are in the ratio of the golden ratio. It is also a zonohedron and was described by Bilinski in 1960. This figure is another spacefiller, and can also occur in non-periodic spacefillings along with the rhombic triacontahedron, the rhombic icosahedron and rhombic hexahedra.Other dodecahedra
There are 6,384,634 topologically distinct convex dodecahedra, excluding mirror images—the number of vertices ranges from 8 to 20. (Two polyhedra are "topologically distinct" if they have intrinsically different arrangements of faces and vertices, such that it is impossible to distort one into the other simply by changing the lengths of edges or the angles between edges or faces.)
Topologically distinct dodecahedra (excluding pentagonal and rhombic forms)
*Uniform polyhedra:
**Decagonal prism – 10 squares, 2 decagons, D<sub>10h</sub> symmetry, order 40.
**Pentagonal antiprism – 10 equilateral triangles, 2 pentagons, D<sub>5d</sub> symmetry, order 20
*Johnson solids (regular faced):
**Pentagonal cupola – 5 triangles, 5 squares, 1 pentagon, 1 decagon, C<sub>5v</sub> symmetry, order 10
**Snub disphenoid – 12 triangles, D<sub>2d</sub>, order 8
**Elongated square dipyramid – 8 triangles and 4 squares, D<sub>4h</sub> symmetry, order 16
**Metabidiminished icosahedron – 10 triangles and 2 pentagons, C<sub>2v</sub> symmetry, order 4
*Congruent irregular faced: (face-transitive)
**Hexagonal bipyramid – 12 isosceles triangles, dual of hexagonal prism, D<sub>6h</sub> symmetry, order 24
**Hexagonal trapezohedron – 12 kites, dual of hexagonal antiprism, D<sub>6d</sub> symmetry, order 24
**Triakis tetrahedron – 12 isosceles triangles, dual of truncated tetrahedron, T<sub>d</sub> symmetry, order 24
*Other less regular faced:
**Hendecagonal pyramid – 11 isosceles triangles and 1 regular hendecagon, C<sub>11v</sub>, order 11
**Trapezo-rhombic dodecahedron – 6 rhombi, 6 trapezoids – dual of triangular orthobicupola, D<sub>3h</sub> symmetry, order 12
**Rhombo-hexagonal dodecahedron or elongated Dodecahedron – 8 rhombi and 4 equilateral hexagons, D<sub>4h</sub> symmetry, order 16
**Truncated pentagonal trapezohedron, D<sub>5d</sub>, order 20, topologically equivalent to regular dodecahedron
Practical usage
Armand Spitz used a dodecahedron as the "globe" equivalent for his Digital Dome planetarium projector, based upon a suggestion from Albert Einstein.
Regular dodecahedrons are sometimes used as dice, when they are known as d12s, especially in games such as Dungeons and Dragons.
See also
* 120-cell – a regular polychoron (4D polytope) whose surface consists of 120 dodecahedral cells
* – a dodecahedron shaped coccolithophore (a unicellular phytoplankton algae)
* Pentakis dodecahedron
* Roman dodecahedron
* Snub dodecahedron
* Truncated dodecahedron
References
<!--See Wikipedia:Footnotes for instructions.-->
External links
*''Plato's Fourth Solid and the "Pyritohedron"'', by Paul Stephenson, 1993, The Mathematical Gazette, Vol. 77, No. 479 (Jul., 1993), pp. 220–226 [https://www.jstor.org/pss/3619718]
*[http://bulatov.org/polyhedra/dodeca270/index.html Stellation of Pyritohedron] VRML models and animations of Pyritohedron and its stellations
*
*[http://www.dr-mikes-math-games-for-kids.com/polyhedral-nets.html?net1bk9bWiCSjJz6LpNRYDsAu8YDBWnSMrt0ydjpIfF8jmyc682nzINN9xaGayOA9FBx396IIYMhulg2mGXcK0mAk5Rmo8qm9ut0kE1qP&nameDodecahedron#applet Editable printable net of a dodecahedron with interactive 3D view]
*[http://www.mathconsult.ch/showroom/unipoly/ The Uniform Polyhedra]
*[https://www.flickr.com/photos/pascalin/sets/72157594234292561/ Origami Polyhedra] – Models made with Modular Origami
*[http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vp.html Virtual Reality Polyhedra] The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra
*[http://www.kjmaclean.com/Geometry/GeometryHome.html K.J.M. MacLean, A Geometric Analysis of the Five Platonic Solids and Other Semi-Regular Polyhedra]
*[http://www.bodurov.com/VectorVisualizer/?vectors=-0.94/-2.885/-3.975/-1.52/-4.67/-0.94v-3.035/0/-3.975/-4.91/0/-0.94v3.975/-2.885/-0.94/1.52/-4.67/0.94v1.52/-4.67/0.94/-1.52/-4.67/-0.94v0.94/-2.885/3.975/1.52/-4.67/0.94v-3.975/-2.885/0.94/-1.52/-4.67/-0.94v-3.975/-2.885/0.94/-4.91/0/-0.94v-3.975/2.885/0.94/-4.91/0/-0.94v-3.975/2.885/0.94/-1.52/4.67/-0.94v-2.455/1.785/3.975/-3.975/2.885/0.94v-2.455/-1.785/3.975/-3.975/-2.885/0.94v-1.52/4.67/-0.94/-0.94/2.885/-3.975v4.91/0/0.94/3.975/-2.885/-0.94v3.975/2.885/-0.94/2.455/1.785/-3.975v2.455/-1.785/-3.975/3.975/-2.885/-0.94v1.52/4.67/0.94/-1.52/4.67/-0.94v3.035/0/3.975/0.94/2.885/3.975v0.94/2.885/3.975/-2.455/1.785/3.975v-2.455/1.785/3.975/-2.455/-1.785/3.975v-2.455/-1.785/3.975/0.94/-2.885/3.975v0.94/-2.885/3.975/3.035/0/3.975v2.455/1.785/-3.975/-0.94/2.885/-3.975v-0.94/2.885/-3.975/-3.035/0/-3.975v-3.035/0/-3.975/-0.94/-2.885/-3.975v-0.94/-2.885/-3.975/2.455/-1.785/-3.975v2.455/-1.785/-3.975/2.455/1.785/-3.97v3.035/0/3.975/4.91/0/0.94v4.91/0/0.94/3.975/2.885/-0.94v3.975/2.885/-0.94/1.52/4.67/0.94v1.52/4.67/0.94/0.94/2.885/3.975 Dodecahedron 3D Visualization]
*[http://www.software3d.com/Stella.php Stella: Polyhedron Navigator]: Software used to create some of the images on this page.
*[http://video.fc2.com/content/20141015mMG9QR5R How to make a dodecahedron from a Styrofoam cube]
Category:Individual graphs
Category:Planar graphs
Category:Platonic solids
Category:12 (number)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dodecahedron
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2025-04-05T18:28:36.649966
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Darwin, Northern Territory
|
| state = nt
| image =Skyline
|caption1 = Darwin CBD
| image2 = Darwin Waterfront.jpgDarwin Waterfront
|caption2 = Darwin Waterfront
| image3 = Aerial view of the Darwin Convention Centre.jpg Darwin Convention Centre
|caption3 = Convention Centre
| image4 = Northern Territory Legislative Assembly, Darwin, 2021, 02.jpgParliament House
|caption4 = Parliament House
| image5 = Government House, Darwin.jpgGovernment House
|caption5 = Government House
}}
| coordinates
| relief = yes
| force_national_map = yes
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Australia
| pop = 139902
| pop_year = 2021
| pop_footnotes
| poprank = 17th
| density | density_footnotes
| est = 1869
| area = 3163.8
| area_footnotes (2011 urban)
| timezone = ACST
| utc = +9:30
| lga = Darwin, Palmerston, Litchfield
| stategov = Port Darwin (and 14 others)
| fedgov = Solomon, Lingiari
| county = Palmerston County
| dist1 = 1679
| location1 Cairns
| dist2 = 2616
| location2 Adelaide
| dist3 = 2652
| location3 Perth
| dist4 = 2846
| location4 Brisbane
| dist5 = 3127
| location5 Canberra
| mintemp = 23.4
| maxtemp = 32.2
| rainfall = 1811.7
| mayor = Katrina Fong Lim
}}
Darwin (Larrakia: ) is the capital city of the Northern Territory, Australia. The city has nearly 53% of the Northern Territory's population, with 139,902 at the 2021 census. During the dry season, the city has clear skies and mild sea breezes from the harbour.
The Larrakia people are the traditional owners of the Darwin area, and Aboriginal people are a significant proportion of the population. On 9 September 1839, sailed into Darwin Harbour during its survey of the area. John Clements Wickham named the region "Port Darwin" in honour of Charles Darwin, who had sailed with them on the ship's previous voyage. The settlement there became the town of Palmerston in 1869, but was renamed Darwin in 1911. The city has been almost entirely rebuilt four times, following devastation caused by a cyclone in 1897, another one in 1937, Japanese air raids during World War II, and Cyclone Tracy in 1974.
History
Indigenous history
The Aboriginal people of the Larrakia language group are the traditional custodians and earliest known inhabitants of the greater Darwin area. Their name for the area is Garramilla, They had trading routes with Southeast Asia (see Macassan contact with Australia) and imported goods from as far afield as South and Western Australia. Established songlines penetrated throughout the country, allowing stories and histories to be told and retold along the routes. The extent of shared songlines and history of multiple clan groups within this area is contestable. Pre-20th century The Dutch visited Australia's northern coastline in the 1600s and landed on the Tiwi Islands only to be attacked by the Tiwi peoples. The Dutch created the first European maps of the area. This accounts for the Dutch names in the area, such as Arnhem Land and Groote Eylandt. During this period, Dutch explorers named the region around Darwin—sometimes including nearby Kimberley—variations of "Van Diemen's Land", after the VOC governor-general Anthony van Diemen. This should not be confused with the more general and prolonged use of the same name for Tasmania.
The first Briton to see Darwin harbour appears to have been Lieutenant John Lort Stokes of on 9 September 1839. The ship's captain, Commander John Clements Wickham, named the port after Charles Darwin, the British naturalist who had sailed with him when he served as first lieutenant on the earlier second expedition of the Beagle.
In 1863, the Northern Territory was transferred from New South Wales to South Australia. In 1864 South Australia sent B. T. Finniss north as Government Resident to survey and found a capital for its new territory. Finniss chose a site at Escape Cliffs, near the entrance to Adelaide River, about northeast of the modern city. This attempt was short-lived, and the settlement abandoned by 1865. On 5 February 1869, George Goyder, the Surveyor-General of South Australia, established a small settlement of 135 people at Port Darwin between Fort Hill and the escarpment. Goyder named the settlement Palmerston after British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston. In 1870, the first poles for the Overland Telegraph were erected in Darwin, connecting Australia to the rest of the world. The discovery of gold by employees of the Australian Overland Telegraph Line digging holes for telegraph poles at Pine Creek in the 1880s spawned a gold rush, which further boosted the colony's development.
In February 1872 the brigantine Alexandra was the first private vessel to sail from an English port directly to Darwin, carrying people many of whom were coming to recent gold finds.
In early 1875 Darwin's white population had grown to approximately 300 because of the gold rush. On 17 February 1875 the left Darwin en route for Adelaide. The approximately 88 passengers and 34 crew (surviving records vary) included government officials, circuit-court judges, Darwin residents taking their first furlough, and miners. While travelling south along the north Queensland coast, the Gothenburg encountered a cyclone-strength storm and was wrecked on a section of the Great Barrier Reef. Only 22 men survived, while between 98 and 112 people perished. Many passengers who perished were Darwin residents, and news of the tragedy severely affected the small community, which reportedly took several years to recover.
In the 1870s, relatively large numbers of Chinese settled at least temporarily in the Northern Territory; many were contracted to work the goldfields and later to build the Palmerston to Pine Creek railway. By 1888 there were 6,122 Chinese in the Northern Territory, mostly in or around Darwin. The early Chinese settlers were mainly from Guangdong Province. The Chinese community established Darwin Chinatown. At the end of the 19th century, anti-Chinese feelings grew in response to the 1890s economic depression, and the White Australia policy meant many Chinese left the territory. But some stayed, became British subjects, and established a commercial base in Darwin.
Early 20th century
The Northern Territory was initially settled and administered by South Australia, until its transfer to the Commonwealth in 1911. In the same year, the city's official name changed from Palmerston to Darwin.
]]
The period between 1911 and 1919 was filled with political turmoil, particularly with trade union unrest, which culminated on 17 December 1918. Led by Harold Nelson, some 1,000 demonstrators marched to Government House at Liberty Square in Darwin, where they burnt an effigy of the Administrator of the Northern Territory, John Gilruth, and demanded his resignation. The incident became known as the Darwin Rebellion. Their grievances were against the two main Northern Territory employers: Vestey's Meatworks and the federal government. Both Gilruth and the Vestey company left Darwin soon afterward.
On 18 October 1918, during the Spanish flu pandemic, the SS Mataram sailing from Singapore with infectious diseases arrived in Darwin.
In 1931, the 17 remaining patients from the leprosarium at Cossack, Western Australia were moved to Darwin, after it closed down. It was at a time when many Aboriginal people who were thought to have leprosy or other infectious diseases were sent to lock hospitals and leprosariums under the Aborigines Act 1905, which gave the Chief Protector of Aborigines powers to arrest and send any Indigenous person suspected of having a range of diseases to one of these institutions.
Around 10,000 Australian and other Allied troops arrived in Darwin at the outset of World War II to defend Australia's northern coast. On 19 February 1942 at 9:57am, 188 Japanese warplanes attacked Darwin in two waves. It was the same fleet that had bombed Pearl Harbor, though considerably more bombs were dropped on Darwin than on Pearl Harbor. The attack killed at least 243 people and caused immense damage to the town, airfields, and aircraft. These were by far the most serious attacks on Australia in time of war, in terms of fatalities and damage. They were the first of many raids on Darwin.
Darwin Chinatown which lay within the heart of Darwin was razed to the ground by the Japanese bombing and was never rebuilt. Northern Territory administrator Aubrey Abbott wanted to eliminate the Chinese community and forcibly seized their land as it was considered prime real estate.<!-- The statement about Sydney and Newcastle was wrong; there were about 100 air raids, including one on Broome which killed more than 80 people. -->
Darwin was further developed after the war, with sealed roads constructed connecting the region to Alice Springs to the south and Mount Isa to the southeast, and Manton Dam built in the south to provide the city with water. On Australia Day (26 January) 1959, Darwin was granted city status.
1970–present
]]
On 25 December 1974, Darwin was struck by Cyclone Tracy, which killed 71 people and destroyed over 70% of the city's buildings, including many old stone buildings such as the Palmerston Town Hall, which could not withstand the lateral forces the winds generated. After the disaster, 30,000 of the population of 46,000 were evacuated in the biggest airlift in Australia's history. was part of the original Darwin Civil Aerodrome in Parap and is now a museum that still bears scars from the bombing of Darwin during World War II.
Darwin was home to Australian and U.S. pilots during the war, with airstrips built in and around Darwin. Today Darwin provides a staging ground for military exercises.
Darwin was a compulsory stopover and checkpoint in the London-to-Melbourne Centenary Air Race in 1934. The official name of the race was the MacRobertson Air Race. Winners of the race were Tom Campbell Black and C. W. A. Scott.
The following is an excerpt from Time magazine, 29 October 1934:
over water on one motor, risked death landing on a field made soggy by the first rain in seven months. Said sandy-haired Lieutenant Scott: "We've had a devil of a trip." But they had flown in two days, had broken the England to Australia record of 162 hr. in the unbelievable time of 52hr. 33 min., were only from their goal at Melbourne.}}
The Darwin Aviation Museum is about from the city centre on the Stuart Highway and is one of only three places outside the United States where a B-52 bomber (on permanent loan from the United States Air Force) is on public display. Geography Darwin is a coastal city, situated along the western shoreline of the Northern Territory. The water meets the land from the Beagle Gulf, which extends out into the Timor Sea. The central business district occupies a low bluff overlooking Darwin Harbour to the south, beyond which lie East Arm, Middle Arm, Northern Territory, and, across the gulf, West Arm. Middle Arm has an industrial precinct on the peninsula, which is being promoted as a sustainable development area that will include plants for industries such as low-emission petrochemicals, renewable hydrogen, and carbon capture storage. The city is flanked by Frances Bay to the east and Cullen Bay to the west.
The rest of the city is relatively flat and low-lying, and areas bordering the coast are home to recreational reserves, extensive beaches, and excellent fishing.
City and suburbs
Darwin and its suburbs spread in an approximately triangular shape, with the older southwestern suburbs—and the city itself—forming one corner, the newer northern suburbs another, and the eastern suburbs, progressing towards Palmerston, forming the third.
The older part of Darwin is separated from the newer northern suburbs by Darwin International Airport and RAAF Base Darwin. Palmerston is a satellite city east of Darwin that was established in the 1980s and is one of Australia's fastest-growing municipalities. Darwin's rural areas, including Howard Springs, Humpty Doo and Berry Springs, are experiencing strong growth.
]]
Darwin's central business district (CBD) is bounded by Daly Street in the northwest, McMinn Street in the northeast, Mitchell Street on the southwest, and Bennett Street on the southeast. The CBD has been the focus of a number of major projects, such as the billion-dollar redevelopment of the Stokes Hill wharf waterfront area, including a convention centre with seating for 1,500 people and approximately of exhibition space. The developers announced that this includes hotels, residential apartments, and public space. The city's main industrial areas are along the Stuart Highway toward Palmerston, centred on Winnellie. The area'a largest shopping precinct is Casuarina Square.
The most expensive residential areas stand along the coast in suburbs such as the marina of Cullen Bay, Larrakeyah, Bayview and Brinkin. These low-lying regions are at risk during cyclones and higher tides, but adequate drainage and stringent building regulations have reduced the potential damage to buildings or injury to residents. The inner northern suburbs are home to lower-income households, although low-income Territory Housing units are scattered throughout the metropolitan area. The suburb of Lyons was part of a multi-stage land release and development in the Northern Suburbs; planning, development and construction took place from 2004 to 2009. More recent developments near Lyons subdivision includes the suburb of Muirhead. Climate Darwin has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen Aw) with distinct wet and dry seasons, and the average maximum temperature is similar year round. The Australian Building Codes Board classifies it as Climate Zone 1 under the National Construction Code (NCC). Climate zones are a broad classification of climate zones in the NCC ranging from one to eight, categorising the different climates of Australia. The sun passes directly overhead in mid-October and mid-February. The dry season runs from about May to September, during which nearly every day is sunny, and afternoon relative humidity averages around 30%. The hottest months are October and November, just before the onset of the main rain season. The temperature is usually below , but the heat index sometimes rises above due to humidity levels. The wet season runs generally between December and March, with a transition towards the dry season in April.
The average temperature of the sea ranges from in July to in December.
Dry season
The driest period of the year, seeing about of monthly rainfall on average, is between May and September. In the coolest months, June and July, the daily minimum temperature may dip as low as , but very rarely lower, and a temperature lower than has never been recorded in the city centre. Outer suburbs away from the coast occasionally record temperatures as low as in the dry season. Because of its long dry season, Darwin has the second-highest average daily hours of sunshine (8.4) of any Australian capital, with the most sunshine from April to November; only Perth, Western Australia, averages more (8.8).Wet seasonThe wet season is associated with tropical cyclones and monsoon rains. Most rainfall occurs between December and March when thunderstorms are common, and afternoon relative humidity averages over 70 percent during the wettest months. February 2011 was also Darwin's wettest month ever recorded, with at the airport.
For a 147‑day period during the 2012 dry season, from 5 May to 29 September, Darwin recorded no precipitation. Prolonged periods of no precipitation are common in the dry season in Northern Australia (particularly in the Northern Territory and northern regions of Western Australia), although a no-rainfall event of this extent is rare.
Darwin occupies one of the most lightning-prone areas in Australia. On 31 January 2002 an early-morning squall line produced over 5,000 cloud-to-ground lightning strikes within a radius of Darwin alone—about three times the amount of lightning that Perth experiences on average in an entire year.
{|style"width:100%;text-align:center;line-height:1.2em;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto" class"wikitable mw-collapsible"
|-
!Colspan14|Climate data for Darwin airport
|-
!Month
!Jan
!Feb
!Mar
!Apr
!May
!Jun
!Jul
!Aug
!Sep
!Oct
!Nov
!Dec
!style="border-left-width:medium"|Year
|-
!Mean number of days with precipitation >
|style="background:#40A0FF;color:#000000;"|11.4
|style="background:#66B2FF;color:#000000;"|10.0
|style="background:#66B2FF;color:#000000;"|8.7
|style="background:#C0E0FF;color:#000000;"|2.8
|style="background:#CCE5FF;color:#000000;"|0.7
|style="background:#FFFFFF;color:#000000;"|0
|style="background:#FFFFFF;color:#000000;"|0
|style="background:#FFFFFF;color:#000000;"|0
|style="background:#CCE5FF;color:#000000;"|0.4
|style="background:#C0E0FF;color:#000000;"|2.2
|style="background:#99CCFF;color:#000000;"|4.1
|style="background:#80C0FF;color:#000000;"|7.4
|style="background:#C0E0FF;color:#000000;border-left-width:medium"|47.7
|-
!Mean number of days with Max temperature >
|style="background:#800000;color:#ffffff;"|26.8
|style="background:#C00000;color:#ffffff;"|23.6
|style="background:#660000;color:#ffffff;"|28.2
|style="background:#660000;color:#ffffff;"|28.8
|style="background:#660000;color:#ffffff;"|28.9
|style="background:#C00000;color:#ffffff;"|23.5
|style="background:#990000;color:#ffffff;"|24.8
|style="background:#660000;color:#ffffff;"|29.3
|style="background:#660000;color:#ffffff;"|29.9
|style="background:#400000;color:#ffffff;"|30.8
|style="background:#660000;color:#ffffff;"|29.8
|style="background:#660000;color:#ffffff;"|29.1
|style="background:#800000;color:#ffffff;border-left-width:medium"|333.4
|-
!Mean number of cloudy days
|style="background:#404040;color:#ffffff;"|23.3
|style="background:#4C4C4C;color:#ffffff;"|21.2
|style="background:#666666;color:#ffffff;"|17.1
|style="background:#A0A0A0;color:#000000;"|11.4
|style="background:#CCCCCC;color:#000000;"|4.2
|style="background:#E0E0E0;color:#000000;"|2.8
|style="background:#E5E5E5;color:#000000;"|1.4
|style="background:#E5E5E5;color:#000000;"|1.4
|style="background:#E0E0E0;color:#000000;"|2.6
|style="background:#E0E0E0;color:#000000;"|3.9
|style="background:#B2B2B2;color:#000000;"|9.7
|style="background:#606060;color:#ffffff;"|19.5
|style="background:#B2B2B2;color:#ffffff;border-left-width:medium"|118.5
|-
!Mean number of days with wind speed >
|style="background:#C0C0C0;color:#000000;"|7.8
|style="background:#C0C0C0;color:#000000;"|7.5
|style="background:#E3DAC9;color:#000000;"|2.9
|style="background:#F9F6EE;color:#000000;"|1.5
|style="background:#E3DAC9;color:#000000;"|2.0
|style="background:#E3DAC9;color:#000000;"|3.1
|style="background:#E3DAC9;color:#000000;"|2.5
|style="background:#F9F6EE;color:#000000;"|1.2
|style="background:#F9F6EE;color:#000000;"|0.9
|style="background:#F9F6EE;color:#000000;"|1.3
|style="background:#F9F6EE;color:#000000;"|1.4
|style="background:#E3DAC9;color:#000000;"|3.5
|style="background:#E3DAC9;color:#000000;border-left-width:medium"|35.6
|-
!Mean wind speed
|style="background:#FEFEFA;color:#000000;"|4.1
|style="background:#FEFEFA;color:#000000;"|4.1
|style="background:#FEFEFA;color:#000000;"|3.3
|style="background:#FEFEFA;color:#000000;"|3.3
|style="background:#FEFEFA;color:#000000;"|3.6
|style="background:#FEFEFA;color:#000000;"|3.7
|style="background:#FEFEFA;color:#000000;"|3.6
|style="background:#FEFEFA;color:#000000;"|3.5
|style="background:#FEFEFA;color:#000000;"|3.5
|style="background:#FEFEFA;color:#000000;"|3.6
|style="background:#FEFEFA;color:#000000;"|3.4
|style="background:#FEFEFA;color:#000000;"|3.6
|style="background:#FEFEFA;color:#000000;border-left-width:medium"|3.6
|}
Demographics
Ancestry and immigration{| class"wikitable" style="float:right;"
|+ Country of birth (2021)
! Birthplace !! Population
|-
| Australia || 89,266
|-
| Philippines ||5,283
|-
| India|| 3,820
|-
| England||3,764<!-- Not including Wales. England and Scotland are listed separately as per the source. Do not combine. -->
|-
| Nepal||2,540
|-
| New Zealand||2,437
|-
| Mainland China ||1,407<!-- Mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau SARs are listed separately as per the source. Do not combine -->
|-
| Indonesia||1,292
|-
| Greece||1,146
|}
Darwin's population changed after the Second World War. Like many other Australian cities, Darwin experienced influxes from Europe, with significant numbers of Italians and Greeks during the 1960s and 1970s. It also began to experience an influx from other European countries, which included the Dutch, Germans, and many others. A significant proportion of Darwin's residents are recent immigrants from Asia, including the peoples of East Timor.
At the 2016 census, the most commonly nominated ancestries were:}}
* English (32.7%)
* Irish (11.1%)
* Scottish (8.8%)
* Indigenous (8.7%)
* German (5%)
* Filipino (4.8%)
* Chinese (4.5%)
* Greek (3.2%)
* Indian (2.8%)
* Italian (2.6%)
* Dutch (1.5%)
* Indonesian (1.1%)
* New Zealander (1.1%)
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38.3% of the population at the 2016 census was born overseas. The five largest groups of overseas-born were from the Philippines (3.6%), England (3.1%), New Zealand (2.1%), India (2%) and Greece (0.9%).
Age
In 2011, the Darwin population averaged 33 years old (compared to the national average of around 37), to a large extent because of the military presence and because many people opt to retire elsewhere. Religion As of 2021, 41.7% of Darwin had no religion, so described. The largest religious denomination was Roman Catholicism (18.2%) and Anglican (5.2%). Law and government
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The Darwin City Council (incorporated under the Northern Territory Local Government Act 1993) governs the City of Darwin, which takes in the CBD and the suburbs. The city has been governed by a city council form of government since 1957. The council consists of 13 elected members, the lord mayor, and 12 aldermen.
The City of Darwin electorate is organised into four electoral units or wards. The wards are Chan, Lyons, Richardson, and Waters. The constituents of each ward are directly responsible for electing three aldermen. Constituents of all wards are directly responsible for electing the Lord Mayor of Darwin. Since the August 2017 council elections, the mayor has been Kon Vatskalis.
The rest of the Darwin area is divided into two local government areas—the Palmerston City Council and the Shire of Coomalie. These areas have elected councils that are responsible for functions delegated to them by the Northern Territory Government, such as planning and garbage collection.
The Legislative Assembly of the Northern Territory convenes in Darwin in the Northern Territory Parliament House. Government House, the official residence of the Administrator of the Northern Territory, is on the Esplanade.
Darwin is split between nine electoral divisions in the Legislative Assembly—Port Darwin, Fannie Bay, Fong Lim, Nightcliff, Sanderson, Johnston, Casuarina, Wanguri, and Karama. Historically, Darwin voters elected Country Liberal Party members, but since the turn of the 21st century, voters have often selected Labor members, particularly in the more diverse northern section; as of the 2020 Northern Territory general election, all of Darwin's nine Legislative Assembly electoral divisions are held by Labor, with Labor also holding both the Northern Territory's federal electorates, Solomon and Lingiari.
Also on the Esplanade is the Supreme Court of the Northern Territory. Darwin has a Magistrate's Court on the corner of Cavenagh and Bennett streets, close to the Darwin City Council Chambers. Crime
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Darwin's police force are members of the Northern Territory Police, under the NT Police Darwin Metropolitan Command. The Darwin urban centre includes Darwin City and the associated suburbs from Buffalo Creek, Berrimah, and East Arm westwards, representing around 35% of the Northern Territory's population. Palmerston urban centre closely approximates the Palmerston Local Government Area, and represents approximately 13% of the Northern Territory's population.
Darwin has had a history of alcohol abuse and violent crime, with 6,000 assaults in 2009, of which 350 resulted in broken jaws and noses—more than anywhere else in the world, according to the Royal Darwin Hospital.
Mitchell Street, with its numerous pubs, clubs and other entertainment venues, was one of the areas policed by the CitySafe Unit, officially launched by the NT Chief Minister Paul Henderson on 25 February 2009. It was credited with success in tackling alcohol abuse linked to crime, and the NT police were looking at establishing a specialist licensing enforcement unit in 2010.
The First Response Patrol, run by Larrakia Nation, which helps move homeless Indigenous women out of dangerous situations, was credited with the decline in sexual assaults in 2009. The service operates every day from 5am to 2am.
Recent trends
In the 10 months between 1 October 2018, the date that the alcohol floor price and various other measures were imposed by the NT government following the Riley Review, and 31 July 2019, alcohol-related assaults dropped by 16% and domestic violence by 9% in the Darwin area.
The rate of offending in most categories of crime dropped in the Darwin urban area between 2018 and 2019, with the notable exceptions of motor vehicle theft and break-ins (both up about 12%).
Mining and energy industry production exceeds $2.5 billion per annum. The most important mineral resources are gold, zinc, and bauxite, along with manganese and many others. The energy production is mostly off-shore with oil and natural gas from the Timor Sea, although there are significant uranium deposits near Darwin. Tourism employs 8% of Darwin residents and is expected to grow as domestic and international tourists now spend time in Darwin during the wet and dry seasons. Federal spending is also a major contributor to the local economy.
Darwin's importance as a port is expected to grow, due to the increased exploitation of petroleum in the nearby Timor Sea and to the completion of the railway link and continued expansion in trade with Asia. During 2005, a number of major construction projects started in Darwin. One is the redevelopment of the Wharf Precinct, which includes a large convention and exhibition centre, apartment housing including Outrigger Pandanas and Evolution on Gardiner, retail and entertainment outlets including a large wave pool and safe swimming lagoon. The Chinatown project has also started with plans to construct Chinese-themed retail and dining outlets.
is a popular tourist hub]]
Tourism
Tourism is one of Darwin's largest industries and a major employment sector for the Northern Territory. In 2005–2006, 1.38 million people visited the Northern Territory. They stayed for 9.2 million nights and spent over $1.5 billion. The tourism industry directly employed 8,391 Territorians in June 2006, and, when indirect employment is included, tourism typically accounts for more than 14,000 jobs across the Territory.
Darwin is a hub for tours to Kakadu National Park, Litchfield National Park and Katherine Gorge. The year is traditionally divided into the wet and dry seasons, but there are up to six traditional seasons in Darwin. It is warm and sunny from May to September. Humidity rises during the green season, from October to April, bringing thunderstorms and monsoonal rains that rejuvenate the landscape. Tourism is largely seasonal, with most tourists visiting during the cooler dry season, from April to September. Military
The military presence in both Darwin and the wider Northern Territory is a substantial source of employment.<!---some of the following could be in history---> On 16 November 2011, Prime Minister Julia Gillard and President Barack Obama announced that the United States would station troops in Australia for the first time since World War II. The agreement between the U.S. and Australia would involve a contingent of 250 Marines arriving in Darwin in 2012, with the total number rising to a maximum of 2,500 troops by 2017 on six-month rotations as well as a supporting air element including F-22 Raptors, F-35 Joint Strike Fighters and KC-135 refuellers. China and Indonesia have expressed concern about the decision. Some analysts have argued that an expanded U.S. presence could pose a threat to security. Gillard announced that the first 200 U.S. Marines had arrived in Darwin from Hawaii on 3 April 2012. In 2013, further news of other expansion vectors aired in U.S. media, with no comment or confirmation from Australian authorities. The agreement between the two governments remains hidden from public scrutiny. Marine numbers based in Darwin increased to more than 1,150 by 2014. In a 2019 telephone survey of local residents, 51% of respondents had positive feelings about the U.S. troop presence, with 6% responding negatively. In late 2021, the U.S. Department of Defense signed a contract to create a fuel storage facility at East Arm.
Darwin hosts biennial multi-nation exercises named "Pitch Black"; in 2014 this involved military personnel from Australia, New Zealand, Singapore, Thailand, United Arab Emirates, and the United States.
Education
Education is overseen territory-wide by the Department of Education and Training (DET), whose role is to continually improve education outcomes for all students, with a focus on Indigenous students.
Preschool, primary and secondary
Darwin is served by a number of public and private schools that cater to local and overseas students. Over 16,500 primary and secondary students are enrolled in schools in Darwin, with 10,524 students attending primary education, and 5,932 students attending secondary education. Over 12,089 students are enrolled in government schools, and 2,124 in independent schools. There are over 35 primary and pre-schools and 12 secondary schools, including both government and non-government. Most schools in the city are secular, but there are a small number of Catholic and Lutheran institutions. Students intending to complete their secondary education work toward either the Northern Territory Certificate of Education, the Victorian Certificate of Education, or the Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning (the latter two are offered only at Haileybury Rendall School). Until the sale and restructuring of Kormilda College in 2018, it was the only school to offer the International Baccalaureate in the Northern Territory.
Schools have been restructured into Primary, Middle, and High schools since the beginning of 2007.
Tertiary and vocational
Darwin's largest university is Charles Darwin University, the Northern Territory's central provider of tertiary education. It has both vocational and academic courses, acting as both a university and an Institute of TAFE. More than 5,500 students are enrolled in tertiary and further education courses. and Latitude College. Architecture As Darwin was destroyed by cyclones several times and suffered severe bomb damage during World War II, few historic buildings remain in town. The Administrator's Office dating from 1883 was used as a law court and as a police station and was only slightly damaged by bombs, but in 1974, the cyclone completely destroyed it. In 1979, it was decided to rebuild, and the reconstruction was finished in 1981. The building houses government offices today. Opposite the building, Survivors Lookout offers a view of the marina.]]In a park in the south of the CBD, the ruin of the Town Hall built in 1883 and destroyed by the cyclone in 1974 can be seen. Browns Mart is a stone building dating from 1880 opposite the park. Browns Mart was originally used in many different activities including commerce, storage, shipping and insurance agency, mining exchange and meetings of local organisations but it was transformed into a theatre.
One of Darwin's most prominent buildings is the Chinese Temple, which was founded in 1887 and damaged by cyclones in 1897 and in 1937. It was severely damaged by bombs in 1942 and rebuilt after the war. On 24 December 1974 the cyclone completely destroyed it. Reconstruction was completed in 1978.
There are various modern churches in Darwin. St Mary's Star of the Sea Roman Catholic Cathedral was inaugurated in 1962. Christ Church Anglican Cathedral was rebuilt in 1977 after being severely damaged by bombs in 1942 and destroyed by Cyclone Tracy in 1974. The Uniting Memorial Church was built in 1960.
Events and festivals
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*The annual Darwin Fringe Festival runs for 10 days each July as an open-access festival.
*The Darwin Festival occurs each August, and includes comedy, dance, theatre, music, film and visual art, and the NT Indigenous Music Awards.
*The Nightcliff Seabreeze Festival, which started in 2005, is held on the second week of May in the suburb of Nightcliff. It showcases local talent, and a popular event is Saturday family festivities along the Nightcliff foreshore, one of Darwin's most popular fitness tracks.
*The Darwin beer-can regatta, held in August, celebrates Darwin's love affair with beer, and contestants race boats made of beer cans. Also in Darwin during August are the Darwin Cup horse race and the rodeo and Mud Crab Tying Competition.
*The World Solar Challenge race attracts teams from around the world, most fielded by universities or corporations and some by high schools. The race has a 20-year history spanning nine races, with the inaugural event taking place in 1987.
*The Royal Darwin Show is held annually in July at the Darwin Showgrounds. Exhibitions include agriculture and livestock, and horse events. Entertainment and sideshows are also included over the three days of the event.
*The Darwin Street Art Festival is an annual event in September where street artists from around the world create large outdoor murals.
*A yearly music festival, BASSINTHEGRASS, has been held since 2003. Since 2019 it has been held at Mindil Beach.
*On 1 July, Territorians celebrate Territory Day. This is the only day of the year, apart from the Chinese New Year and New Year's Eve, that fireworks are permitted. In Darwin, the main celebrations occur at Mindil Beach, where the government commissions a large firework display.
*Other festivals include the Glenti, which showcases Darwin's large Greek community, and India@Mindil, a similar festival held by the city's Indian community. The Chinese New Year is also celebrated with great festivity, highlighting the East Asian influence in Darwin.
Arts and culture
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The Darwin Symphony Orchestra was assembled in 1989 and has performed throughout the Territory. The Darwin Theatre Company is a locally produced professional theatre production company, performing locally and nationally.
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The Darwin Entertainment Centre is the city's main concert venue and hosts theatre and orchestral performances. Other theatres include the Darwin Convention Centre, which opened in July 2008. The Darwin Convention Centre is part of the $1.1 billion Darwin Waterfront project.
The Northern Territory Museum and Art Gallery (MAGNT) in Darwin gives an overview of the history of the area, including exhibits on Cyclone Tracy and the boats of the Pacific Islands. The MAGNT also organises the annual Telstra National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Art Award, the longest-running Indigenous art award in Australia. The MAGNT also manages the Defence of Darwin Experience, a multi-media installation that tells the story of the Japanese air raids on Darwin during World War II.
<!---redirects target this anchor until article is created.--->The NT Dance Company is led by choreographer Gary Lang, who has been artistic director since 2012. Lang previously taught at many leading dance companies, including Bangarra Dance Theatre, after studying dance at NAISDA in Sydney and working as a dancer for years. The company has a strong focus on culture, and also works with disadvantaged young Indigenous people.
Local and visiting bands can be heard at venues including the Darwin Entertainment Centre, The Vic Hotel, Happy Yess, and Brown's Mart. Artists such as Jessica Mauboy and The Groovesmiths call Darwin home.
The multiculturalism of Darwin has helped make Southeast Asian noodle broth laksa the city's favourite meal.
Other entertainment
Weekly markets include the popular Mindil Beach Sunset Market (Thursdays and Sundays during the dry season); Parap Market; Nightcliff Market; and Rapid Creek market.
Darwin's only casino opened in 1979 as the Don Casino, operating out of the Don Hotel on Cavenagh Street. The present site of the hotel and casino on Darwin's Mindil Beach opened in 1983, at which point gambling operations ceased at the Don Hotel and resumed at the newly built facilities. The new hotel and casino was named Mindil Beach Casino until 1985, when the name changed to the Diamond Beach Hotel Casino. Upon its acquisition by MGM Grand the hotel was rebranded as the MGM Grand Darwin, before it changed to Skycity Darwin after Skycity Entertainment Group purchased the hotel in 2004.
Mitchell Street in the central business district is lined with nightclubs, takeaways, and restaurants. This is the city's entertainment hub. There are several smaller theatres, two cinema complexes (Casuarina, and Palmerston), and the Deckchair Cinema. An open-air cinema operates through the dry season, from April to October, screening independent and arthouse films.
Recreation
Beaches
<!---Vesteys Beach, Bundilla Beach and Casuarina Beach, Northern Territory direct here.--->]]
During the months of October–May the sea contains deadly box jellyfish, known locally as stingers or sea wasps. Saltwater crocodiles are common in all waterways surrounding Darwin and are occasionally found in Darwin Harbour and on local beaches. An active trapping program is carried out by the NT Government to limit numbers of crocodiles within the Darwin urban waterway area.
The city has many kilometres of beaches, including the Casuarina Beach and renowned Mindil Beach, home of the Mindil Beach markets. Darwin City Council has designated an area of Casuarina Beach as a free beach, which has been designated as a nudist beach area since 1976.
Bundilla Beach was formerly named Vesteys Beach, In March 2021, the beach was formally renamed Bundilla Beach, the name by which it had long been known to the traditional owners, the Larrakia people.
The Darwin Surf Life Saving Club operates longboats and surf skis and provides events and lifesaving accreditations.
Lake Alexander is a man-made swimming lake at East Point Reserve.
Fishing
Fishing is a popular recreation among Darwin locals. Visitors fish for the barramundi, an iconic fish in the region. This fish thrives in the Daly River, Moyle River, Roper River, Anson Bay, Mary River, and South and East Alligator River.
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Blue-water fishing is also available off the coast of Darwin; Spanish mackerel, black jewfish, queenfish, and snapper are found in the area.
Parks and gardens
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Darwin has extensive parks and gardens. These include the George Brown Darwin Botanic Gardens, East Point Reserve, Casuarina Coastal Reserve, Charles Darwin National Park, Knuckey Lagoons Conservation Reserve, Leanyer Recreation Park, the Nightcliff Foreshore, Bicentennial Park and the Jingili Water Gardens.
Wildlife
Darwin is a popular bird-watching site, with locations such as the George Brown Darwin Botanic Gardens, East Point Reserve, Buffalo Creek, Leanyer Ponds, and Knuckey Lagoon. Slightly further from the city is one of the best birding sites in the country, Fogg Dam Conservation Reserve.
Some species of native mammals are more abundant in Darwin than in the surrounding native forest and woodland ecosystems of the region, including the common brushtail possum and black-footed tree-rat. This is likely due to the presence of well-watered gardens and parks, the absence of frequent fires, and the availability of denning sites (e.g. the roofs of houses).
Darwin is also home to many species of frogs and reptiles. There are more species of snake in Darwin than any other Australian capital city, with 34 non-marine snake species found in the region, of which 23 have been recorded by professional snake catchers in Darwin itself. Fortunately for the citizens of Darwin, a far smaller proportion of these snakes are highly venomous than is typically found in other cities, due to the low numbers of front-fanged elapid species and dominance of relatively harmless pythons and colubrid species. Of the 23 more regularly encountered snake species in Darwin, it seems that species with broader habitat and dietary preferences, as well as a penchant for arboreality, are associated with more frequent human–snake interactions. Shifts in snake behaviour or movement also occur throughout the year, with species specific differences in abundance and occurrence in certain months. Sports
The Marrara Sports Complex near the airport has stadiums for Australian rules (TIO Stadium), cricket, rugby league, football, basketball (and indoor court sports), athletics and field hockey. Every two years since 1991 (excluding 2003 due to the SARS outbreak), Darwin has hosted the Arafura Games, a major regional sporting event. In July 2003, the city hosted its first international test cricket match between Australia and Bangladesh, followed by Australia and Sri Lanka in 2004.
Australian rules is played all year round and the Territory's premier league competition, the Northern Territory Football League is based in Darwin. Australian Football League clubs generally sell a handful of games to the Northern Territory each year, some of which are played at Marrara Oval. Darwin is part of a bid for a Northern Territory AFL license for proposed entry into the competition by 2028 at the earliest. The Darwin-based Indigenous All-Stars have participated in the AFL pre-season competition. In 2003, a record crowd of 17,500 attended a pre-season game between the All-Stars and Carlton Football Club at Marrara.
Rugby League and Rugby Union club competitions are played in Darwin each year, organised by the NTRL and NTRU respectively. The Darwin Hottest Sevens in the World tournament is hosted in Darwin each January, with Rugby Sevens club teams from countries including Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Malaysia, and Singapore competing. Darwin's Hottest 7s is the richest Rugby 7s tournament in the Southern Hemisphere.
Darwin hosts a round of the Supercars Championship every year, bringing thousands of motorsports fans to the Hidden Valley Raceway. Also in Hidden Valley, adjacent to the road-racing circuit, is Darwin's dirt track racing venue, Northline Speedway. The speedway has hosted a number of Australian Championships over the years for different categories including Sprintcars, Speedcars, and Super Sedans.
The Darwin Cup culminating on the first Monday of August is a popular horse race event for Darwin and draws large crowds every year to Fannie Bay Racecourse. While it is not as popular as the Melbourne Cup, it does draw a crowd and, in 2003, Sky Racing began televising most of the races. The Darwin Cup day is a public holiday for the Northern Territory (Picnic Day public holiday).
There is one greyhound racing track in Darwin at Winnellie Park on Hook Road. It is the only track in the Northern Territory.
In 2022, the Darwin Salties basketball club will debut in the Queensland-based NBL1 North competition, making the NBL1 the first Australian sport league to have clubs based in and playing out of every state and territory in Australia. Media
Darwin studios and headquarters]]
Darwin's major newspapers are the Northern Territory News (Monday–Saturday), The Sunday Territorian (Sunday), and the national daily, The Australian (Monday–Friday) and The Weekend Australian (Saturday), all published by News Corp. Free weekly community newspapers include Sun Newspapers (delivered in Darwin, Palmerston and Litchfield), and published by the NT News. Another newspaper, the Centralian Advocate (1947–present), is printed in Darwin and trucked to Alice Springs.
Former publications in (or connected to) Darwin include:
*Moonta Herald and Northern Territory Gazette (1869)
*Northern Territory Times and Gazette (1873–1927)
*The North Australian (1883–1889)
*The North Australian and Northern Territory Government Gazette (1889–1890)
*The Northern Territory Times (1927–1932)
*The Northern Standard (c.1929–1942)
*Army News (1941–1946) – for the troops stationed in Darwin
*The Darwin Sun (1981–1982) – a community newsletter
Five free-to-air channels service Darwin. Commercial television channels are provided by Seven Darwin (Seven Network affiliate), Nine Darwin (formerly branded as Channel 8) and Ten Darwin (Network Ten relay), which launched on 28 April 2008. The two government-owned national broadcast services in Darwin are the ABC and SBS. Subscription television services Foxtel via Cable and Fetch TV via IPTV are available in the Darwin/Palmerston/Litchfield areas.
Darwin has radio stations on AM and FM frequencies, as well as on DAB+ (digital radio). ABC stations include ABC Local Radio (105.7 FM), ABC Radio National (657 AM), ABC News Radio (102.5 FM), ABC Classic (107.3 FM) and Triple J (103.3 FM). SBS Radio (100.9 FM) also broadcasts its national radio network to Darwin. There are three commercial radio stations, Hot 100, Mix 104.9 and Top Country 92.3. Other stations in Darwin include university-based station Territory FM 104.1, dance music station KIK FM 91.5, Palmerston FM 88.0 and Niche Radio 87.6 Non-English stations include Arabic-language channel 2ME 1638 AM, Chinese-language channel 2CR 1701 AM, Greek-language channel 2MM 1656AM, Italian-language channel Rete Italia 1476 AM and Spanish-language channel Radio Austral 90.7 FM. Indigenous community-based stations Radio Larrakia 94.5 FM and Radio Yolngu 1530 AM. The two sports stations TAB Radio 1242 AM and SEN 1611 AM. As well as Christian stations Faith 88.4 FM, Rhema 97.7 FM and Vision Radio 1323 AM.
Transport
The Territory's public transport services are managed by the Department of Lands and Planning, Public Transport Division. Darwin has a bus network serviced by a range of contracted bus operators, which provides transport to the main suburbs of Darwin.
Darwin has no commuter rail system, but long-distance passenger rail services do operate out of the city. The Alice Springs-Darwin railway line was completed in 2003, linking Darwin to Adelaide. The first service ran in 2004. The Ghan passenger train service between Adelaide and Darwin railway station via Alice Springs and Katherine runs once per week in each direction, with some exceptions.
Historically, the North Australia Railway carried passengers and freight from Darwin into the interior, reaching Pine Creek in 1889, Katherine in 1917, and Birdum in 1929. It was closed due to declining traffic in 1976.
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Darwin International Airport, in the suburb of Eaton, is Darwin's only airport, which shares its runways with the Royal Australian Air Force's RAAF Base Darwin.
Darwin can be reached via the Stuart Highway, which runs the length of the Northern Territory from Darwin through Katherine, Tennant Creek, Alice Springs, and on to Adelaide. Other major roads in Darwin include Tiger Brennan Drive, Amy Johnson Avenue, Dick Ward Drive, Bagot Road, Trower Road, and McMillans Road. Bus service in the greater Darwin area is provided by Darwinbus.
Port
Ferries leave from Port Darwin to island locations, mainly for tourists. A ferry service to the Tiwi Islands, the Arafura Pearl, operates from Cullen Bay.
Darwin has a deepwater port, East Arm Wharf, which opened in 2000. It has of wharf line and is capable of handling Panamax-sized ships of a maximum length of and a DWT of up to .
Infrastructure
Health
The Government of the Northern Territory Department of Health and Families oversees one public hospital in the Darwin metropolitan region. The Royal Darwin Hospital, in Tiwi, is the city's major teaching and referral hospital, and the largest in the Northern Territory.
There is one major private hospital, Darwin Private Hospital, in Tiwi, adjacent to the Royal Darwin Hospital. Darwin Private Hospital is operated and owned by Healthscope Ltd, a private hospital corporation.
A new hospital called Palmerston Regional Hospital was opened in August 2018 to help ease the pressure of patient numbers at the Royal Darwin Hospital. Utilities
Water storage, supply and power for Darwin is managed by PowerWater. The corporation is also responsible for management of sewage and the major water catchments in the region. Water is mainly stored in the largest dam, The Darwin River Dam, which holds up to 90% of Darwin's water supply. For many years, Darwin's principal water supply came from Manton Dam.
Darwin and its suburbs, Palmerston and Katherine, are powered by the Channel Island Power Station, the Northern Territory's largest power plant, and the Weddell Power Station. Telecommunications Darwin once had Australia's only international connection to the outside world in the form of an overseas telegraph cable, connecting Darwin to Java. The southern section of the cable connected Darwin with Adelaide and was known as the overland telegraph line. In 2022, the Northern Territory Government announced that an international undersea cable system would land into Darwin, directly connecting it to Indonesia, Singapore, the United States and Timor Leste. The new cable system, representing an investment of $700 million, is expected to create a new digital economy as it is coupled with recent announcements on Data Centre Investment into Darwin. The plans for Darwin for Data Centres and International cables are outlined in the Northern Territory's Digital Strategy the Terabit Territory. See also
* List of films shot in Darwin
* List of mayors and lord mayors of Darwin
* List of people from Darwin
* Local government areas of the Northern Territory
* List of Darwin suburbs
Explanatory notes
References External links
* [https://www.darwin.nt.gov.au City of Darwin Official Website]
* [https://norther.com.au/darwin/ Darwin]
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Category:1869 establishments in Australia
Category:1869 establishments in Oceania
Category:Australian capital cities
Category:Cities in the Northern Territory
Category:Coastal cities in Australia
Category:Port cities in the Northern Territory
Category:Timor Sea
Category:Populated places established in 1869
Category:Tourist attractions in the Northern Territory
Category:World War II sites in Australia
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Dictator
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, General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union; Adolf Hitler, Führer of Nazi Germany; Augusto Pinochet, President of Chile; Mao Zedong, Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party; Benito Mussolini, Duce and Prime Minister of Italy; and Kim Il Sung, Supreme Leader of North Korea.]]
outmaneuvered his opponents in Ancient Rome to install himself as dictator for life.]]
A dictator is a political leader who possesses absolute power. A dictatorship is a state ruled by one dictator or by a polity. The word originated as the title of a Roman dictator elected by the Roman Senate to rule the republic in times of emergency. A wide variety of leaders coming to power in different kinds of regimes, such as one-party or dominant-party states and civilian governments under a personal rule, have been described as dictators.
__TOC__
Etymology
The word dictator comes from the Latin word dictātor, agent noun from dictare (say repeatedly, assert, order). A dictator was a Roman magistrate given sole power for a limited duration. Originally an emergency legal appointment in the Roman Republic and the Etruscan culture, the term dictator'' did not have the negative meaning it has now. It started to get its modern negative meaning with Cornelius Sulla's ascension to the dictatorship following Sulla's civil war, making himself the first Dictator in Rome in more than a century (during which the office was ostensibly abolished) as well as de facto eliminating the time limit and need of senatorial acclamation.
He avoided a major constitutional crisis by resigning the office after about one year, dying a few years later. Julius Caesar followed Sulla's example in 49 BC and in February 44 BC was proclaimed , "Dictator in perpetuity", officially doing away with any limitations on his power, which he kept until his assassination the following month. Following Caesar's assassination, his heir Augustus was offered the title of dictator, but he declined it. Later successors also declined the title of dictator, and usage of the title soon diminished among Roman rulers. Modern era
| caption2 2017 Democracy Index by The Economist in which countries marked in different shades of red are considered undemocratic, with many being dictatorships
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As late as the second half of the 19th century, the term dictator had occasional positive implications. For example, during the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, the national leader Lajos Kossuth was often referred to as dictator, without any negative connotations, by his supporters and detractors alike, although his official title was that of regent-president. When creating a provisional executive in Sicily during the Expedition of the Thousand in 1860, Giuseppe Garibaldi officially assumed the title of "dictator" (see Dictatorship of Garibaldi). Shortly afterwards, during the 1863 January uprising in Poland, "Dictator" was also the official title of four leaders, the first being Ludwik Mierosławski.
of Equatorial Guinea is Africa's longest serving dictator.]]
Past that time, however, the term dictator assumed an invariably negative connotation. In popular usage, a dictatorship is often associated with brutality and oppression. As a result, it is often also used as a term of abuse against political opponents. The term has also come to be associated with megalomania. Many dictators create a cult of personality around themselves and they have also come to grant themselves increasingly grandiloquent titles and honours. For instance, Idi Amin Dada, who had been a British army lieutenant prior to Uganda's independence from Britain in October 1962, subsequently styled himself "His Excellency, President for Life, Field Marshal Al Hadji Doctor Idi Amin Dada, VC, DSO, MC, Conqueror of the British Empire in Africa in General and Uganda in Particular". In the movie The Great Dictator (1940), Charlie Chaplin satirized not only Adolf Hitler but the institution of dictatorship itself.
Characteristics
Benevolent dictatorship
A benevolent dictatorship refers to a government in which an authoritarian leader exercises absolute political power over the state but is perceived to do so with regard for the benefit of the population as a whole, standing in contrast to the decidedly malevolent stereotype of a dictator. A benevolent dictator may allow for some civil liberties or democratic decision-making to exist, such as through public referendums or elected representatives with limited power, and often makes preparations for a transition to genuine democracy during or after their term. The label has been applied to leaders such as Mustafa Kemal Atatürk of Turkey (1923–38), Josip Broz Tito of SFR Yugoslavia (1953–80), and Lee Kuan Yew of Singapore (1959–90).
Military roles
The association between a dictator and the military is a common one. Many dictators take great pains to emphasize their connections with the military and they often wear military uniforms. In some cases, this is perfectly legitimate; for instance, Francisco Franco was a general in the Spanish Army before he became Chief of State of Spain, and Manuel Noriega was officially commander of the Panamanian Defense Forces. In other cases, the association is mere pretense. Crowd manipulation Some dictators have been masters of crowd manipulation, such as Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler. Others were more prosaic speakers, such as Joseph Stalin and Francisco Franco. Typically, the dictator's people seize control of all media, censor or destroy the opposition, and give strong doses of propaganda daily, often built around a cult of personality.
Mussolini and Hitler used similar titles referring to them as "the Leader". Mussolini used "Il Duce" and Hitler was generally referred to as "der Führer", both meaning 'Leader' in Italian and German respectively. Franco used a similar title, "El Caudillo" ("the Head", 'the chieftain') and for Stalin his adopted name, meaning "Man of Steel", became synonymous with his role as the absolute leader. For Mussolini, Hitler, and Franco, the use of modest, non-traditional titles displayed their absolute power even stronger as they did not need any, not even a historic legitimacy either. However, in the case of Franco, the title "Caudillo" did have a longer history for political-military figures in both Latin America and Spain. Franco also used the phrase "By the Grace of God" on coinage or other material displaying him as Caudillo, whereas Hitler and Mussolini rarely used such language or imagery. Human rights abuses, war crimes and genocides , Syrian military inflicted industrial-scale atrocities on civilian population during the Syrian civil war. These include hundreds of chemical attacks, such as the Ghouta chemical attack, the largest chemical attack in the 21st century.]]
Over time, dictators have been known to use tactics that violate human rights. For example, under the Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin, government policy was enforced by secret police and the Gulag system of prison labour camps. Most Gulag inmates were not political prisoners, although significant numbers of political prisoners could be found in the camps at any one time. Data collected from Soviet archives gives the death toll from Gulags as 1,053,829. The International Criminal Court issued an arrest warrant for Sudan's military dictator Omar al-Bashir over alleged war crimes in Darfur.
Similar crimes were committed during Chairman Mao Zedong's rule over the People's Republic of China during China's Cultural Revolution, where Mao set out to purge dissidents, primarily through the use of youth groups strongly committed to his cult of personality, and during Augusto Pinochet's junta in Chile. Some dictators have been associated with genocide on certain races or groups; the most notable and wide-reaching example is the Holocaust, Adolf Hitler's genocide of eleven million people, of whom six million were Jews. Later on in Democratic Kampuchea, General Secretary Pol Pot and his policies killed an estimated 1.7 million people (out of a population of 7 million) during his four-year dictatorship. As a result, Pol Pot is sometimes described as "the Hitler of Cambodia" and "a genocidal tyrant". Modern usage in formal titles , celebrated as one of the greatest generals of modern times and as the "Hero of the Two Worlds" because of his military enterprises in South America and Europe, who fought in many military campaigns that led to Italian unification. He proclaimed himself dictator of Sicily in 1860 during the Expedition of the Thousand]]
Because of its negative and pejorative connotations, modern authoritarian leaders very rarely (if ever) use the term dictator in their formal titles, instead they most often simply have title of president. In the 19th century, however, its official usage was more common:
* The Dictatorial Government of Sicily (27 May – 4 November 1860) was a provisional executive government appointed by Giuseppe Garibaldi to rule Sicily during the Expedition of the Thousand. The government ended when Sicily's annexation into the Kingdom of Italy was ratified by plebiscite.
* Marian Langiewicz of Poland proclaimed himself Dictator and attempted (unsuccessfully) to form a Polish government in March 1863.
* Romuald Traugutt was Dictator of Poland from 17 October 1863 to 10 April 1864.
* The Dictatorial Government of the Philippines (24 May – 23 June 1898) was an insurgent government in the Philippines which was headed by Emilio Aguinaldo, who formally held the title of Dictator. The dictatorial government was superseded by the revolutionary government with Aguinaldo as president.
Criticism
The usage of the term dictator in western media has been criticized by the left-leaning organization Fairness & Accuracy in Reporting as "Code for Government We Don't Like". According to them, leaders that would generally be considered authoritarian but are allied with the United States such as Paul Biya or Nursultan Nazarbayev are rarely referred to as "dictators", while leaders of countries opposed to U.S. policy such as Nicolás Maduro or Bashar al-Assad have the term applied to them much more liberally. See also
* Absolute monarchy
* Benevolent dictator
* Democracy indices
* Dictator novel
* Dictatorship of the proletariat
* Absolutism and Enlightened absolutism
* Emergency powers
* Greek junta
* List of political leaders who suspended the constitution
* Strongman (politics)
* Supreme Leader (disambiguation)
* Totalitarianism
References
Informational notes
* A He conferred a doctorate of law on himself from Makerere University.
* B The Victorious Cross (VC) was a medal made to emulate the British Victoria Cross. Citations Further reading * [https://archive.org/search.php?querytitle%3A%28%27Dictatorship+%29&and%5B%5Dmediatype%3A%22texts%22&sort-date&page=2 Online books on dictatorship] at the Internet Archive (search of titles containing "dictator").
* .
*
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* Scholarly focus on 19th century Europe.
*
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* How the Conservative government in Britain dealt with them.
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* Popular; eBook.
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External links
*[https://www.britannica.com/topic/dictatorship Dictatorship]- Encyclopedia Britannica
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Category:Heads of government
Category:Heads of state
Category:Positions of authority
Category:Titles
Category:Titles of national or ethnic leadership
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Decibel
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bel
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The decibel (symbol: dB) is a relative unit of measurement equal to one tenth of a bel (B). It expresses the ratio of two values of a power or root-power quantity on a logarithmic scale. Two signals whose levels differ by one decibel have a power ratio of 10<sup>1/10</sup> (approximately ) or root-power ratio of 10<sup>1/20</sup> (approximately ).
The unit fundamentally expresses a relative change but may also be used to express an absolute value as the ratio of a value to a fixed reference value; when used in this way, the unit symbol is often suffixed with letter codes that indicate the reference value. For example, for the reference value of 1 volt, a common suffix is "V" (e.g., "20 dBV").
Two principal types of scaling of the decibel are in common use. When expressing a power ratio, it is defined as ten times the logarithm with base 10. That is, a change in power by a factor of 10 corresponds to a 10 dB change in level. When expressing root-power quantities, a change in amplitude by a factor of 10 corresponds to a 20 dB change in level. The decibel scales differ by a factor of two, so that the related power and root-power levels change by the same value in linear systems, where power is proportional to the square of amplitude.
The definition of the decibel originated in the measurement of transmission loss and power in telephony of the early 20th century in the Bell System in the United States. The bel was named in honor of Alexander Graham Bell, but the bel is seldom used. Instead, the decibel is used for a wide variety of measurements in science and engineering, most prominently for sound power in acoustics, in electronics and control theory. In electronics, the gains of amplifiers, attenuation of signals, and signal-to-noise ratios are often expressed in decibels.
History
The decibel originates from methods used to quantify signal loss in telegraph and telephone circuits. Until the mid-1920s, the unit for loss was miles of standard cable (MSC). 1 MSC corresponded to the loss of power over one mile (approximately 1.6 km) of standard telephone cable at a frequency of radians per second (795.8 Hz), and matched closely the smallest attenuation detectable to a listener. A standard telephone cable was "a cable having uniformly distributed resistance of 88 ohms per loop-mile and uniformly distributed shunt capacitance of 0.054 microfarads per mile" (approximately corresponding to 19 gauge wire).
In 1924, Bell Telephone Laboratories received a favorable response to a new unit definition among members of the International Advisory Committee on Long Distance Telephony in Europe and replaced the MSC with the Transmission Unit (TU). 1 TU was defined such that the number of TUs was ten times the base-10 logarithm of the ratio of measured power to a reference power.
The definition was conveniently chosen such that 1 TU approximated 1 MSC; specifically, 1 MSC was 1.056 TU. In 1928, the Bell system renamed the TU into the decibel, being one tenth of a newly defined unit for the base-10 logarithm of the power ratio. It was named the bel, in honor of the telecommunications pioneer Alexander Graham Bell.
The bel is seldom used, as the decibel was the proposed working unit.
The naming and early definition of the decibel is described in the NBS Standard's Yearbook of 1931:
In 1954, J. W. Horton argued that the use of the decibel as a unit for quantities other than transmission loss led to confusion, and suggested the name logit for "standard magnitudes which combine by multiplication", to contrast with the name unit for "standard magnitudes which combine by addition".
In April 2003, the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) considered a recommendation for the inclusion of the decibel in the International System of Units (SI), but decided against the proposal. However, the decibel is recognized by other international bodies such as the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and International Organization for Standardization (ISO). The IEC permits the use of the decibel with root-power quantities as well as power and this recommendation is followed by many national standards bodies, such as NIST, which justifies the use of the decibel for voltage ratios.
Two signals whose levels differ by one decibel have a power ratio of 10<sup>1/10</sup>, which is approximately , and an amplitude (root-power quantity) ratio of 10<sup>1/20</sup> ().
The method of expressing a ratio as a level in decibels depends on whether the measured property is a power quantity or a root-power quantity; see Power, root-power, and field quantities for details.
Power quantities
When referring to measurements of power quantities, a ratio can be expressed as a level in decibels by evaluating ten times the base-10 logarithm of the ratio of the measured quantity to reference value. Thus, the ratio of P (measured power) to P<sub>0</sub> (reference power) is represented by L<sub>P</sub>, that ratio expressed in decibels, which is calculated using the formula:
: <math>
L_P \frac{1}{2} \ln\!\left(\frac{P}{P_0}\right)\,\text{Np} 10 \log_{10}\!\left(\frac{P}{P_0}\right)\,\text{dB}
</math>
The base-10 logarithm of the ratio of the two power quantities is the number of bels. The number of decibels is ten times the number of bels (equivalently, a decibel is one-tenth of a bel). P and P<sub>0</sub> must measure the same type of quantity, and have the same units before calculating the ratio. If P<sub>0</sub> in the above equation, then L<sub>P</sub> = 0. If P is greater than P<sub>0</sub> then L<sub>P</sub> is positive; if P is less than P<sub>0</sub> then L<sub>P</sub> is negative.
Rearranging the above equation gives the following formula for P in terms of P<sub>0</sub> and L<sub>P</sub> :
: <math>
P = 10^\frac{L_P}{10\,\text{dB}} P_0
</math>
Root-power (field) quantities
When referring to measurements of root-power quantities, it is usual to consider the ratio of the squares of F (measured) and F<sub>0</sub> (reference). This is because the definitions were originally formulated to give the same value for relative ratios for both power and root-power quantities. Thus, the following definition is used:
: <math>
L_F \ln\!\left(\frac{F}{F_0}\right)\,\text{Np} 10 \log_{10}\!\left(\frac{F^2}{F_0^2}\right)\,\text{dB} = 20 \log_{10} \left(\frac{F}{F_0}\right)\,\text{dB}
</math>
The formula may be rearranged to give
: <math>
F = 10^\frac{L_F}{20\,\text{dB}} F_0
</math>
Similarly, in electrical circuits, dissipated power is typically proportional to the square of voltage or current when the impedance is constant. Taking voltage as an example, this leads to the equation for power gain level L<sub>G</sub>:
: <math>
L_G = 20 \log_{10}\!\left (\frac{V_\text{out}}{V_\text{in}}\right)\,\text{dB}
</math>
where V<sub>out</sub> is the root-mean-square (rms) output voltage, V<sub>in</sub> is the rms input voltage. A similar formula holds for current.
The term root-power quantity is introduced by ISO Standard 80000-1:2009 as a substitute of field quantity. The term field quantity is deprecated by that standard and root-power is used throughout this article.
Relationship between power and root-power levels
Although power and root-power quantities are different quantities, their respective levels are historically measured in the same units, typically decibels. A factor of 2 is introduced to make changes in the respective levels match under restricted conditions such as when the medium is linear and the same waveform is under consideration with changes in amplitude, or the medium impedance is linear and independent of both frequency and time. This relies on the relationship
:<math> \frac{P(t)}{P_0} = \left(\frac{F(t)}{F_0}\right)^2 </math>
holding. In a nonlinear system, this relationship does not hold by the definition of linearity. However, even in a linear system in which the power quantity is the product of two linearly related quantities (e.g. voltage and current), if the impedance is frequency- or time-dependent, this relationship does not hold in general, for example if the energy spectrum of the waveform changes.
For differences in level, the required relationship is relaxed from that above to one of proportionality (i.e., the reference quantities P and F need not be related), or equivalently,
: <math> \frac{P_2}{P_1} = \left(\frac{F_2}{F_1}\right)^2 </math>
must hold to allow the power level difference to be equal to the root-power level difference from power P and F to P and F. An example might be an amplifier with unity voltage gain independent of load and frequency driving a load with a frequency-dependent impedance: the relative voltage gain of the amplifier is always 0 dB, but the power gain depends on the changing spectral composition of the waveform being amplified. Frequency-dependent impedances may be analyzed by considering the quantities power spectral density and the associated root-power quantities via the Fourier transform, which allows elimination of the frequency dependence in the analysis by analyzing the system at each frequency independently.
Conversions
Since logarithm differences measured in these units often represent power ratios and root-power ratios, values for both are shown below. The bel is traditionally used as a unit of logarithmic power ratio, while the neper is used for logarithmic root-power (amplitude) ratio.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Conversion between units of level and a list of corresponding ratios
!Unit !! In decibels !! In bels !! In nepers !! Power ratio !! Root-power ratio
|-
| 1 dB || 1 dB || 0.1 B || Np || 10<sup>1/10</sup> ≈ || 10<sup>1/20</sup> ≈
|-
| 1 Np || dB || B || 1 Np || e<sup>2</sup> ≈ || e ≈
|-
| 1 B || 10 dB || 1 B || 1.151 3 Np || 10 || 10<sup>1/2</sup> ≈ 3.162 28
|}
Examples
The unit dBW is often used to denote a ratio for which the reference is 1 W, and similarly dBm for a reference point.
* Calculating the ratio in decibels of (one kilowatt, or watts) to yields: <math display="block">
L_G 10 \log_{10} \left(\frac{1\,000\,\text{W}}{1\,\text{W}}\right)\,\text{dB} 30\,\text{dB}
</math>
* The ratio in decibels of V ≈ 31.62 V}} to is: <math display"block">
L_G 20 \log_{10} \left(\frac{31.62\,\text{V}}{1\,\text{V}}\right)\,\text{dB} 30\,\text{dB}
</math>
, illustrating the consequence from the definitions above that L<sub>G</sub> has the same value, 30 dB, regardless of whether it is obtained from powers or from amplitudes, provided that in the specific system being considered power ratios are equal to amplitude ratios squared.
* The ratio in decibels of to (one milliwatt) is obtained with the formula: <math display="block">
L_G 10 \log_{10} \left(\frac{10\text{W}}{0.001\text{W}}\right)\,\text{dB} 40\,\text{dB}
</math>
* The power ratio corresponding to a change in level is given by: <math display="block">
G 10^\frac{3}{10} \times 1 1.995\,26\ldots \approx 2
</math>
A change in power ratio by a factor of 10 corresponds to a change in level of . A change in power ratio by a factor of 2 or is approximately a change of 3 dB. More precisely, the change is ± dB, but this is almost universally rounded to 3 dB in technical writing. This implies an increase in voltage by a factor of ≈}} . Likewise, a doubling or halving of the voltage, corresponding to a quadrupling or quartering of the power, is commonly described as 6 dB rather than ± dB.
Should it be necessary to make the distinction, the number of decibels is written with additional significant figures. 3.000 dB corresponds to a power ratio of 10<sup>3/10</sup>, or , about 0.24% different from exactly 2, and a voltage ratio of , about 0.12% different from exactly . Similarly, an increase of 6.000 dB corresponds to a power ratio of , about 0.5% different from 4.
Properties
The decibel is useful for representing large ratios and for simplifying representation of multiplicative effects, such as attenuation from multiple sources along a signal chain. Its application in systems with additive effects is less intuitive, such as in the combined sound pressure level of two machines operating together. Care is also necessary with decibels directly in fractions and with the units of multiplicative operations.
Reporting large ratios
The logarithmic scale nature of the decibel means that a very large range of ratios can be represented by a convenient number, in a manner similar to scientific notation. This allows one to clearly visualize huge changes of some quantity. See Bode plot and Semi-log plot. For example, 120 dB SPL may be clearer than "a trillion times more intense than the threshold of hearing". Representation of multiplication operations Level values in decibels can be added instead of multiplying the underlying power values, which means that the overall gain of a multi-component system, such as a series of amplifier stages, can be calculated by summing the gains in decibels of the individual components, rather than multiply the amplification factors; that is, log(A) + log(B) + log(C). Practically, this means that, armed only with the knowledge that 1 dB is a power gain of approximately 26%, 3 dB is approximately 2× power gain, and 10 dB is 10× power gain, it is possible to determine the power ratio of a system from the gain in dB with only simple addition and multiplication. For example:
*A system consists of 3 amplifiers in series, with gains (ratio of power out to in) of 10 dB, 8 dB, and 7 dB respectively, for a total gain of 25 dB. Broken into combinations of 10, 3, and 1 dB, this is: With an input of 1 watt, the output is approximately Calculated precisely, the output is 1 W × 10<sup>25/10</sup> ≈ 316.2 W. The approximate value has an error of only +0.4% with respect to the actual value, which is negligible given the precision of the values supplied and the accuracy of most measurement instrumentation.
However, according to its critics, the decibel creates confusion, obscures reasoning, is more related to the era of slide rules than to modern digital processing, and is cumbersome and difficult to interpret.
Quantities in decibels are not necessarily additive, thus being "of unacceptable form for use in dimensional analysis".
Thus, units require special care in decibel operations. Take, for example, carrier-to-noise-density ratio C/N<sub>0</sub> (in hertz), involving carrier power C (in watts) and noise power spectral density N<sub>0</sub> (in W/Hz). Expressed in decibels, this ratio would be a subtraction (C/N<sub>0</sub>)<sub>dB</sub> C<sub>dB</sub> − N<sub>0 dB</sub>. However, the linear-scale units still simplify in the implied fraction, so that the results would be expressed in dB-Hz. Representation of addition operations <span class"anchor" id"Addition"></span>
According to Mitschke, "The advantage of using a logarithmic measure is that in a transmission chain, there are many elements concatenated, and each has its own gain or attenuation. To obtain the total, addition of decibel values is much more convenient than multiplication of the individual factors." However, for the same reason that humans excel at additive operation over multiplication, decibels are awkward in inherently additive operations:<blockquote>if two machines each individually produce a sound pressure level of, say, 90 dB at a certain point, then when both are operating together we should expect the combined sound pressure level to increase to 93 dB, but certainly not to 180 dB!; suppose that the noise from a machine is measured (including the contribution of background noise) and found to be 87 dBA but when the machine is switched off the background noise alone is measured as 83 dBA. [...] the machine noise [level (alone)] may be obtained by 'subtracting' the 83 dBA background noise from the combined level of 87 dBA; i.e., 84.8 dBA.; in order to find a representative value of the sound level in a room a number of measurements are taken at different positions within the room, and an average value is calculated. [...] Compare the logarithmic and arithmetic averages of [...] 70 dB and 90 dB: logarithmic average 87 dB; arithmetic average = 80 dB.</blockquote>
Addition on a logarithmic scale is called logarithmic addition, and can be defined by taking exponentials to convert to a linear scale, adding there, and then taking logarithms to return. For example, where operations on decibels are logarithmic addition/subtraction and logarithmic multiplication/division, while operations on the linear scale are the usual operations:
:<math>87\,\text{dBA} \ominus 83\,\text{dBA} = 10 \cdot \log_{10}\bigl(10^{87/10} - 10^{83/10}\bigr)\,\text{dBA} \approx 84.8\,\text{dBA}</math>
:<math>
\begin{align}
M_\text{lm}(70, 90) &= \left(70\,\text{dBA} + 90\,\text{dBA}\right)/2 \\
&= 10 \cdot \log_{10}\left(\bigl(10^{70/10} + 10^{90/10}\bigr)/2\right)\,\text{dBA} \\
&= 10 \cdot \left(\log_{10}\bigl(10^{70/10} + 10^{90/10}\bigr) - \log_{10} 2\right)\,\text{dBA}
\approx 87\,\text{dBA}
\end{align}
</math>
The logarithmic mean is obtained from the logarithmic sum by subtracting <math>10\log_{10} 2</math>, since logarithmic division is linear subtraction.
Fractions
Attenuation constants, in topics such as optical fiber communication and radio propagation path loss, are often expressed as a fraction or ratio to distance of transmission. In this case, represents decibel per meter, represents decibel per mile, for example. These quantities are to be manipulated obeying the rules of dimensional analysis, e.g., a 100-meter run with a fiber yields a loss of 0.1 km. Uses Perception The human perception of the intensity of sound and light more nearly approximates the logarithm of intensity rather than a linear relationship (see Weber–Fechner law), making the dB scale a useful measure. Acoustics
The decibel is commonly used in acoustics as a unit of sound power level or sound pressure level. The reference pressure for sound in air is set at the typical threshold of perception of an average human and there are common comparisons used to illustrate different levels of sound pressure. As sound pressure is a root-power quantity, the appropriate version of the unit definition is used:
: <math>
L_p = 20 \log_{10}\!\left(\frac{p_{\text{rms}}}{p_{\text{ref}}}\right)\,\text{dB},
</math>
where p<sub>rms</sub> is the root mean square of the measured sound pressure and p<sub>ref</sub> is the standard reference sound pressure of 20 micropascals in air or 1 micropascal in water.
Use of the decibel in underwater acoustics leads to confusion, in part because of this difference in reference value.
Sound intensity is proportional to the square of sound pressure. Therefore, the sound intensity level can also be defined as:
: <math>
L_p = 10 \log_{10}\!\left(\frac{I}{I_{\text{ref}}}\right)\,\text{dB},
</math>
The human ear has a large dynamic range in sound reception. The ratio of the sound intensity that causes permanent damage during short exposure to that of the quietest sound that the ear can hear is equal to or greater than 1 trillion (10<sup>12</sup>). Such large measurement ranges are conveniently expressed in logarithmic scale: the base-10 logarithm of 10<sup>12</sup> is 12, which is expressed as a sound intensity level of 120 dB re 1 pW/m<sup>2</sup>. The reference values of I and p in air have been chosen such that this corresponds approximately to a sound pressure level of 120 dB re 20 μPa.
Since the human ear is not equally sensitive to all sound frequencies, the acoustic power spectrum is modified by frequency weighting (A-weighting being the most common standard) to get the weighted acoustic power before converting to a sound level or noise level in decibels. Telephony The decibel is used in telephony and audio. Similarly to the use in acoustics, a frequency weighted power is often used. For audio noise measurements in electrical circuits, the weightings are called psophometric weightings. Electronics
In electronics, the decibel is often used to express power or amplitude ratios (as for gains) in preference to arithmetic ratios or percentages. One advantage is that the total decibel gain of a series of components (such as amplifiers and attenuators) can be calculated simply by summing the decibel gains of the individual components. Similarly, in telecommunications, decibels denote signal gain or loss from a transmitter to a receiver through some medium (free space, waveguide, coaxial cable, fiber optics, etc.) using a link budget.
The decibel unit can also be combined with a reference level, often indicated via a suffix, to create an absolute unit of electric power. For example, it can be combined with m for milliwatt to produce the dBm. A power level of 0 dBm corresponds to one milliwatt, and 1 dBm is one decibel greater (about 1.259 mW).
In professional audio specifications, a popular unit is the dBu. This is relative to the root mean square voltage which delivers 1 mW (0 dBm) into a 600-ohm resistor, or ≈ 0.775 V<sub>RMS</sub>. When used in a 600-ohm circuit (historically, the standard reference impedance in telephone circuits), dBu and dBm are identical.
Optics
In an optical link, if a known amount of optical power, in dBm (referenced to 1 mW), is launched into a fiber, and the losses, in dB (decibels), of each component (e.g., connectors, splices, and lengths of fiber) are known, the overall link loss may be quickly calculated by addition and subtraction of decibel quantities.
In spectrometry and optics, the blocking unit used to measure optical density is equivalent to −1 B.
Video and digital imaging
In connection with video and digital image sensors, decibels generally represent ratios of video voltages or digitized light intensities, using 20 log of the ratio, even when the represented intensity (optical power) is directly proportional to the voltage generated by the sensor, not to its square, as in a CCD imager where response voltage is linear in intensity.
Thus, a camera signal-to-noise ratio or dynamic range quoted as 40 dB represents a ratio of 100:1 between optical signal intensity and optical-equivalent dark-noise intensity, not a 10,000:1 intensity (power) ratio as 40 dB might suggest.
Sometimes the 20 log ratio definition is applied to electron counts or photon counts directly, which are proportional to sensor signal amplitude without the need to consider whether the voltage response to intensity is linear.
However, as mentioned above, the 10 log intensity convention prevails more generally in physical optics, including fiber optics, so the terminology can become murky between the conventions of digital photographic technology and physics. Most commonly, quantities called dynamic range or signal-to-noise (of the camera) would be specified in , but in related contexts (e.g. attenuation, gain, intensifier SNR, or rejection ratio) the term should be interpreted cautiously, as confusion of the two units can result in very large misunderstandings of the value.
Photographers typically use an alternative base-2 log unit, the stop, to describe light intensity ratios or dynamic range.
Suffixes and reference values <span class"anchor" id"Suffixes"></span>
Suffixes are commonly attached to the basic dB unit in order to indicate the reference value by which the ratio is calculated. For example, dBm indicates power measurement relative to 1 milliwatt.
In cases where the unit value of the reference is stated, the decibel value is known as "absolute". If the unit value of the reference is not explicitly stated, as in the dB gain of an amplifier, then the decibel value is considered relative.
This form of attaching suffixes to dB is widespread in practice, albeit being against the rules promulgated by standards bodies (ISO and IEC), given the "unacceptability of attaching information to units"}} and the "unacceptability of mixing information with units".}} The IEC 60027-3 standard recommends the following format: This is used to measure microphone sensitivity, and also to specify the consumer line-level of , in order to reduce manufacturing costs relative to equipment using a line-level signal.
; dB or dB : RMS voltage relative to {{nowrap|<math>V \sqrt{600\ \Omega\ \cdot\ 0.001\ \mathsf{W}\;} \approx 0.7746\ \mathsf{V}\ </math>}} (i.e. the voltage that would dissipate 1 mW into a 600 Ω load). An RMS voltage of 1 V therefore corresponds to <math>\ 20\cdot\log_{10} \left( \frac{\ 1\ V_\mathsf{RMS}\ }{ \sqrt{0.6\ }\ V} \right) 2.218\ \mathsf{dB_u} ~.</math> The v comes from volt, while u comes from the volume unit displayed on a VU meter.dB can be used as a measure of voltage, regardless of impedance, but is derived from a 600 Ω load dissipating 0 dB (1 mW). The reference voltage comes from the computation <math>\ 7 \mathsf{V} = \sqrt{R \cdot P\ }\ </math> where <math>\ R\ </math> is the resistance and <math>\ P\ </math> is the power.
: In professional audio, equipment may be calibrated to indicate a "0" on the VU meters some finite time after a signal has been applied at an amplitude of . Consumer equipment typically uses a lower "nominal" signal level of .}} Therefore, many devices offer dual voltage operation (with different gain or "trim" settings) for interoperability reasons. A switch or adjustment that covers at least the range between }} and }} is common in professional equipment.
; dB : Defined by Recommendation ITU-R V.574 ; dB: dB(mV<sub>RMS</sub>) – root mean square voltage relative to 1 millivolt across 75 Ω. Widely used in cable television networks, where the nominal strength of a single TV signal at the receiver terminals is about 0 dB. Cable TV uses 75 Ω coaxial cable, so 0 dB corresponds to −78.75 dB )}} or approximately 13 nW.
; dB or dB : dB(μV<sub>RMS</sub>) – voltage relative to 1 microvolt. Widely used in television and aerial amplifier specifications. 60 dBμV 0 dB. Acoustics
Probably the most common usage of "decibels" in reference to sound level is dB, sound pressure level referenced to the nominal threshold of human hearing: The measures of pressure (a root-power quantity) use the factor of 20, and the measures of power (e.g. dB and dB) use the factor of 10.
; dB : dB (sound pressure level) – for sound in air and other gases, relative to 20 micropascals (μPa), or , a level of 0 dB is approximately the quietest sound a human can hear. For sound in water and other liquids, a reference pressure of 1 μPa is used. An RMS sound pressure of one pascal corresponds to a level of 94 dB SPL.
; dB : dB sound intensity level – relative to 10<sup>−12</sup> W/m<sup>2</sup>, which is roughly the threshold of human hearing in air.
; dB : dB sound power level – relative to 10<sup>−12</sup> W.
; dB, dB, and dB : These symbols are often used to denote the use of different weighting filters, used to approximate the human ear's response to sound, although the measurement is still in dB (SPL). These measurements usually refer to noise and its effects on humans and other animals, and they are widely used in industry while discussing noise control issues, regulations and environmental standards. Other variations that may be seen are dB or dB(A). According to standards from the International Electro-technical Committee (IEC 61672-2013) and the American National Standards Institute, ANSI S1.4, the preferred usage is to write dB .}} Nevertheless, the units dB and dB(A) are still commonly used as a shorthand for Aweighted measurements. Compare dB, used in telecommunications.
; dB : dB hearing level is used in audiograms as a measure of hearing loss. The reference level varies with frequency according to a minimum audibility curve as defined in ANSI and other standards, such that the resulting audiogram shows deviation from what is regarded as 'normal' hearing.
; dB : sometimes used to denote weighted noise level, commonly using the ITU-R 468 noise weighting
; dB : relative to the peak to peak sound pressure.
; dB : G‑weighted spectrum
Audio electronics
See also dB and dB above.
; dB : dB(mW) – power relative to 1 milliwatt. In audio and telephony, dB is typically referenced relative to a 600 Ω impedance, which corresponds to a voltage level of 0.775 volts or 775 millivolts.
; dB : Power in dB (described above) measured at a zero transmission level point.
; dB : dB(full scale) – the amplitude of a signal compared with the maximum which a device can handle before clipping occurs. Full-scale may be defined as the power level of a full-scale sinusoid or alternatively a full-scale square wave. A signal measured with reference to a full-scale sine-wave appears 3 dB weaker when referenced to a full-scale square wave, thus: 0 dBFS(fullscale sine wave) = −3 dB (fullscale square wave).
; dB : dB volume unit
; dB : dB(true peak) – peak amplitude of a signal compared with the maximum which a device can handle before clipping occurs. In digital systems, 0 dB would equal the highest level (number) the processor is capable of representing. Measured values are always negative or zero, since they are less than or equal to full-scale.
Radar
; dB : dB(Z) – decibel relative to Z 1 mm⋅m: energy of reflectivity (weather radar), related to the amount of transmitted power returned to the radar receiver. Values above 20 dB usually indicate falling precipitation.
; dB : dB(m²) – decibel relative to one square meter: measure of the radar cross section (RCS) of a target. The power reflected by the target is proportional to its RCS. "Stealth" aircraft and insects have negative RCS measured in dB, large flat plates or non-stealthy aircraft have positive values.
Radio power, energy, and field strength
; dB : relative to carrier – in telecommunications, this indicates the relative levels of noise or sideband power, compared with the carrier power. Compare dB, used in acoustics.
; dB : relative to the maximum value of the peak power.
; dB : energy relative to 1 joule. 1 joule 1 watt second 1 watt per hertz, so power spectral density can be expressed in dB.
; dB : dB(mW) – power relative to 1 milliwatt. In the radio field, dB is usually referenced to a 50 Ω load, with the resultant voltage being 0.224 volts.
; dB, dB, or dB : dB(μV/m) – electric field strength relative to 1 microvolt per meter. The unit is often used to specify the signal strength of a television broadcast at a receiving site (the signal measured at the antenna output is reported in dBμ).
; dB : dB(fW) – power relative to 1 femtowatt.
; dB : dB(W) – power relative to 1 watt.
; dB : dB(kW) – power relative to 1 kilowatt.
; dB : dB electrical.
; dB : dB optical. A change of 1 dB in optical power can result in a change of up to 2 dB in electrical signal power in a system that is thermal noise limited. Antenna measurements ; dB : dB(isotropic) <span id"dBi_anchor" class="anchor"></span> – the gain of an antenna compared with the gain of a theoretical isotropic antenna, which uniformly distributes energy in all directions. Linear polarization of the EM field is assumed unless noted otherwise.
; dB : dB(dipole) – the gain of an antenna compared with the gain a half-wave dipole antenna. 0 dBd = 2.15 dBi
; dB : dB(isotropic circular) – the gain of an antenna compared to the gain of a theoretical circularly polarized isotropic antenna. There is no fixed conversion rule between dB and dB, as it depends on the receiving antenna and the field polarization.
; dB : dB(quarterwave) – the gain of an antenna compared to the gain of a quarter wavelength whip. Rarely used, except in some marketing material; }} = }}
; dB : dB, dB(m²) – decibels relative to one square meter: A measure of the effective area for capturing signals of the antenna.
; dB : dB(m) – decibels relative to reciprocal of meter: measure of the antenna factor.
Other measurements
; dB or dB‑Hz : dB(Hz) – bandwidth relative to one hertz. E.g., 20 dBHz corresponds to a bandwidth of 100 Hz. Commonly used in link budget calculations. Also used in carrier-to-noise-density ratio (not to be confused with carrier-to-noise ratio, in dB).
; dB or dB: dB(overload) – the amplitude of a signal (usually audio) compared with the maximum which a device can handle before clipping occurs. Similar to dB FS, but also applicable to analog systems. According to ITU-T Rec. G.100.1 the level in dB ov of a digital system is defined as: <math display "block">\ L_\mathsf{ov} 10 \log_{10} \left( \frac{ P }{\ P_\mathsf{max}\ } \right)\ [\mathsf{dB_{ov}}]\ ,</math> with the maximum signal power <math>\ P_\mathsf{max} 1.0\ ,</math> for a rectangular signal with the maximum amplitude <math>\ x_\mathsf{over} ~.</math> The level of a tone with a digital amplitude (peak value) of <math>\ x_\mathsf{over}\ </math> is therefore <math>\ L_\mathsf{ov} -3.01\ \mathsf{dB_{ov}} ~.</math>
; dB : dB(relative) – simply a relative difference from something else, which is made apparent in context. The difference of a filter's response to nominal levels, for instance.
; dB : dB above reference noise. See also dB
; dB : dB(rnC) represents an audio level measurement, typically in a telephone circuit, relative to a −90 dB reference level, with the measurement of this level frequency-weighted by a standard C-message weighting filter. The C-message weighting filter was chiefly used in North America. The psophometric filter is used for this purpose on international circuits.
; dB : dB(K) – decibels relative to 1 K; used to express noise temperature.
; dB or dB : dB(K⁻¹) – decibels relative to 1 K⁻¹. — not decibels per Kelvin: Used for the }} (G/T) factor, a figure of merit used in satellite communications, relating the antenna gain to the receiver system noise equivalent temperature . List of suffixes in alphabetical order Unpunctuated suffixes
; dB : see dB(A).
; dB : see dB adjusted.
; dB : see dB(B).
; dB : relative to carrier – in telecommunications, this indicates the relative levels of noise or sideband power, compared with the carrier power.
; dB : see dB(C).
; dB : see dB(D).
; dB : dB(dipole) – the forward gain of an antenna compared with a half-wave dipole antenna. 0 dBd = 2.15 dB
; dB : dB electrical.
; dB : dB(fW) – power relative to 1 femtowatt.
; dB : dB(full scale) – the amplitude of a signal compared with the maximum which a device can handle before clipping occurs. Full-scale may be defined as the power level of a full-scale sinusoid or alternatively a full-scale square wave. A signal measured with reference to a full-scale sine-wave appears 3 dB weaker when referenced to a full-scale square wave, thus: 0 dB (fullscale sine wave) = −3 dB (full-scale square wave).
; dB : G-weighted spectrum
; dB : dB(isotropic) – the forward gain of an antenna compared with the hypothetical isotropic antenna, which uniformly distributes energy in all directions. Linear polarization of the EM field is assumed unless noted otherwise.
; dB : dB(isotropic circular) – the forward gain of an antenna compared to a circularly polarized isotropic antenna. There is no fixed conversion rule between dB and dB, as it depends on the receiving antenna and the field polarization.
; dB : energy relative to 1 joule: 1 joule 1 watt-second 1 watt per hertz, so power spectral density can be expressed in dB.
; dB : dB(kW) – power relative to 1 kilowatt.
; dB :dB(K) – decibels relative to kelvin: Used to express noise temperature.
; dB : dB(mW) – power relative to 1 milliwatt.
; dB or dB : dB(m²) – decibel relative to one square meter
; dB : Power in dB measured at a zero transmission level point.
; dB : Defined by Recommendation ITU-R V.574.
; dB : dB(mV<sub>RMS</sub>) – voltage relative to 1 millivolt across 75 Ω.
; dB : dB optical. A change of 1 dB in optical power can result in a change of up to 2 dB in electrical signal power in system that is thermal noise limited.
; dB : see dB
; dB or dB : dB(overload) – the amplitude of a signal (usually audio) compared with the maximum which a device can handle before clipping occurs.
; dB : relative to the peak to peak sound pressure.
; dB : relative to the maximum value of the peak electrical power.
; dB : dB(quarterwave) – the forward gain of an antenna compared to a quarter wavelength whip. Rarely used, except in some marketing material. 0 dBq = −0.85 dB
; dB : dB(relative) – simply a relative difference from something else, which is made apparent in context. The difference of a filter's response to nominal levels, for instance.
; dB : dB above reference noise. See also dB
; dB : dB represents an audio level measurement, typically in a telephone circuit, relative to the circuit noise level, with the measurement of this level frequency-weighted by a standard C-message weighting filter. The C-message weighting filter was chiefly used in North America.
; dB : see dB
; dB : dB(true peak) – peak amplitude of a signal compared with the maximum which a device can handle before clipping occurs.
; dB or dB : RMS voltage relative to <math>\ \sqrt{0.6\; }\ \mathsf{V}\ \approx 0.7746\ \mathsf{V}\ \approx -2.218\ \mathsf{dB_V} ~.</math>
; dB : Defined by Recommendation ITU-R V.574.
; dB : see dB
; dB : see dB
; dB : see dB
; dB : dB(V<sub>RMS</sub>) – voltage relative to 1 volt, regardless of impedance.
; dB : dB(VU) dB volume unit
; dB : dB(W) – power relative to 1 watt.
; dB : spectral density relative to 1 W·m⁻²·Hz⁻¹
; dB : dB(Z) – decibel relative to Z = 1 mm<sup>6</sup>⋅m<sup>−3</sup>
; dB : see dB
; dB or dB : dB(μV<sub>RMS</sub>) – voltage relative to 1 root mean square microvolt.
; dB, dB, or dB : dB(μV/m) – electric field strength relative to 1 microvolt per meter.
Suffixes preceded by a space
; dB HL : dB hearing level is used in audiograms as a measure of hearing loss.
; dB Q : sometimes used to denote weighted noise level
; dB SIL : dB sound intensity level – relative to 10<sup>−12</sup> W/m<sup>2</sup>
; dB SPL : dB SPL (sound pressure level) – for sound in air and other gases, relative to 20 μPa in air or 1 μPa in water
; dB SWL : dB sound power level – relative to 10<sup>−12</sup> W.
Suffixes within parentheses
; dB(A), dB(B), dB(C), dB(D), dB(G),<!-- possibly also dB(M), but I haven't seen this in practise yet --> and dB(Z) : These symbols are often used to denote the use of different weighting filters, used to approximate the human ear's response to sound, although the measurement is still in dB (SPL). These measurements usually refer to noise and its effects on humans and other animals, and they are widely used in industry while discussing noise control issues, regulations and environmental standards. Other variations that may be seen are dB<sub>A</sub> or dBA.
Other suffixes
; dB or dB-Hz : dB(Hz) – bandwidth relative to one Hertz
; dB or dB : dB(K⁻¹) – decibels relative to reciprocal of kelvin
; dB : dB(m⁻¹) – decibel relative to reciprocal of meter: measure of the antenna factor
; mB : mB(mW) – power relative to 1 milliwatt, in millibels (one hundredth of a decibel). 100 mB 1 dB. This unit is in the Wi-Fi drivers of the Linux kernel and the regulatory domain sections.
See also
* Apparent magnitude
* Cent (music)
* Day–evening–night noise level (L<sub>den</sub>) and day-night average sound level (Ldl), European and American standards for expressing noise level over an entire day
* dB drag racing
* Decade (log scale)
* Loudness
* Neper
*
* pH
* Phon
* Richter magnitude scale
* Sone
Notes
References
Further reading
*
* External links
* [http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/jw/dB.html What is a decibel? With sound files and animations]
* [http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-soundlevel.htm Conversion of sound level units: dBSPL or dBA to sound pressure p and sound intensity J]
* [https://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_tableSTANDARDS&p_id9735 OSHA Regulations on Occupational Noise Exposure]
* [http://learnemc.com/working-with-decibels Working with Decibels] (RF signal and field strengths)
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Category:Acoustics
Category:Audio electronics
Category:Radio frequency propagation
Category:Telecommunications engineering
Category:Units of level
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Darwinism
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thumb|Charles Darwin in 1868
Darwinism is a term used to describe a theory of biological evolution developed by the English naturalist Charles Darwin (1809–1882) and others. The theory states that all species of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small, inherited variations that increase the individual's ability to compete, survive, and reproduce. Also called Darwinian theory, it originally included the broad concepts of transmutation of species or of evolution which gained general scientific acceptance after Darwin published On the Origin of Species in 1859, including concepts which predated Darwin's theories. English biologist Thomas Henry Huxley coined the term Darwinism in April 1860.
Terminology
Darwinism subsequently referred to the specific concepts of natural selection, the Weismann barrier, or the central dogma of molecular biology. Though the term usually refers strictly to biological evolution, creationists have appropriated it to refer to the origin of life or to cosmic evolution, that are distinct to biological evolution, and therefore consider it to be the belief and acceptance of Darwin's and of his predecessors' work, in place of other concepts, including divine design and extraterrestrial origins.
English biologist Thomas Henry Huxley coined the term Darwinism in April 1860. It was used to describe evolutionary concepts in general, including earlier concepts published by English philosopher Herbert Spencer. Many of the proponents of Darwinism at that time, including Huxley, had reservations about the significance of natural selection, and Darwin himself gave credence to what was later called Lamarckism. The strict neo-Darwinism of German evolutionary biologist August Weismann gained few supporters in the late 19th century. During the approximate period of the 1880s to about 1920, sometimes called "the eclipse of Darwinism", scientists proposed various alternative evolutionary mechanisms which eventually proved untenable. The development of the modern synthesis in the early 20th century, incorporating natural selection with population genetics and Mendelian genetics, revived Darwinism in an updated form.
While the term Darwinism has remained in use amongst the public when referring to modern evolutionary theory, it has increasingly been argued by science writers such as Olivia Judson, Eugenie Scott, and Carl Safina that it is an inappropriate term for modern evolutionary theory. For example, Darwin was unfamiliar with the work of the Moravian scientist and Augustinian friar Gregor Mendel, and as a result had only a vague and inaccurate understanding of heredity. He naturally had no inkling of later theoretical developments and, like Mendel himself, knew nothing of genetic drift, for example.
In the United States and to some extent in the United Kingdom, creationists often use the term "Darwinism" as a pejorative term in reference to beliefs such as scientific materialism.
Huxley, upon first reading Darwin's theory in 1858, responded, "How extremely stupid not to have thought of that!"
While the term Darwinism had been used previously to refer to the work of Erasmus Darwin in the late 18th century, the term as understood today was introduced when Charles Darwin's 1859 book On the Origin of Species was reviewed by Thomas Henry Huxley in the April 1860 issue of The Westminster Review. Having hailed the book as "a veritable Whitworth gun in the armoury of liberalism" promoting scientific naturalism over theology, and praising the usefulness of Darwin's ideas while expressing professional reservations about Darwin's gradualism and doubting if it could be proved that natural selection could form new species, Huxley compared Darwin's achievement to that of Nicolaus Copernicus in explaining planetary motion:
These are the basic tenets of evolution by natural selection as defined by Darwin:
More individuals are produced each generation than can survive.
Phenotypic variation exists among individuals and the variation is heritable.
Those individuals with heritable traits better suited to the environment will survive.
When reproductive isolation occurs new species will form.
Other 19th-century usage
"Darwinism" soon came to stand for an entire range of evolutionary (and often revolutionary) philosophies about both biology and society. One of the more prominent approaches, summed in the 1864 phrase "survival of the fittest" by Herbert Spencer, later became emblematic of Darwinism even though Spencer's own understanding of evolution (as expressed in 1857) was more similar to that of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck than to that of Darwin, and predated the publication of Darwin's theory in 1859. What is now called "Social Darwinism" was, in its day, synonymous with "Darwinism"—the application of Darwinian principles of "struggle" to society, usually in support of anti-philanthropic political agenda. Another interpretation, one notably favoured by Darwin's half-cousin Francis Galton, was that "Darwinism" implied that because natural selection was apparently no longer working on "civilized" people, it was possible for "inferior" strains of people (who would normally be filtered out of the gene pool) to overwhelm the "superior" strains, and voluntary corrective measures would be desirable—the foundation of eugenics.
In Darwin's day there was no rigid definition of the term "Darwinism", and it was used by opponents and proponents of Darwin's biological theory alike to mean whatever they wanted it to in a larger context. The ideas had international influence, and Ernst Haeckel developed what was known as Darwinismus in Germany, although, like Spencer's "evolution", Haeckel's "Darwinism" had only a rough resemblance to the theory of Charles Darwin, and was not centred on natural selection. In 1886, Alfred Russel Wallace went on a lecture tour across the United States, starting in New York and going via Boston, Washington, Kansas, Iowa and Nebraska to California, lecturing on what he called "Darwinism" without any problems.
In his book Darwinism (1889), Wallace had used the term pure-Darwinism which proposed a "greater efficacy" for natural selection. George Romanes dubbed this view as "Wallaceism", noting that in contrast to Darwin, this position was advocating a "pure theory of natural selection to the exclusion of any supplementary theory." Taking influence from Darwin, Romanes was a proponent of both natural selection and the inheritance of acquired characteristics. The latter was denied by Wallace who was a strict selectionist. Romanes' definition of Darwinism conformed directly with Darwin's views and was contrasted with Wallace's definition of the term.
Contemporary usage
The term Darwinism is often used in the United States by promoters of creationism, notably by leading members of the intelligent design movement, as an epithet to attack evolution as though it were an ideology (an "-ism") based on philosophical naturalism, atheism, or both. For example, in 1993, UC Berkeley law professor and author Phillip E. Johnson made this accusation of atheism with reference to Charles Hodge's 1874 book What Is Darwinism? However, unlike Johnson, Hodge confined the term to exclude those like American botanist Asa Gray who combined Christian faith with support for Darwin's natural selection theory, before answering the question posed in the book's title by concluding: "It is Atheism."
Creationists use pejoratively the term Darwinism to imply that the theory has been held as true only by Darwin and a core group of his followers, whom they cast as dogmatic and inflexible in their belief. In the 2008 documentary film Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed, which promotes intelligent design (ID), American writer and actor Ben Stein refers to scientists as Darwinists. Reviewing the film for Scientific American, John Rennie says "The term is a curious throwback, because in modern biology almost no one relies solely on Darwin's original ideas ... Yet the choice of terminology isn't random: Ben Stein wants you to stop thinking of evolution as an actual science supported by verifiable facts and logical arguments and to start thinking of it as a dogmatic, atheistic ideology akin to Marxism."
However, Darwinism is also used neutrally within the scientific community to distinguish the modern evolutionary synthesis, which is sometimes called "neo-Darwinism", from those first proposed by Darwin. Darwinism also is used neutrally by historians to differentiate his theory from other evolutionary theories current around the same period. For example, Darwinism may refer to Darwin's proposed mechanism of natural selection, in comparison to more recent mechanisms such as genetic drift and gene flow. It may also refer specifically to the role of Charles Darwin as opposed to others in the history of evolutionary thought—particularly contrasting Darwin's results with those of earlier theories such as Lamarckism or later ones such as the modern evolutionary synthesis.
In political discussions in the United States, the term is mostly used by its enemies. Biologist E. O. Wilson at Harvard University described the term as being "a rhetorical device to make evolution seem like a kind of faith, like 'Maoism [...] Scientists don't call it 'Darwinism'." In the United Kingdom, the term often retains its positive sense as a reference to natural selection, and for example British ethologist and evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins wrote in his collection of essays A Devil's Chaplain, published in 2003, that as a scientist he is a Darwinist.
In his 1995 book Darwinian Fairytales, Australian philosopher David Stove used the term "Darwinism" in a different sense from the above examples. Describing himself as non-religious and as accepting the concept of natural selection as a well-established fact, Stove nonetheless attacked what he described as flawed concepts proposed by some "Ultra-Darwinists". Stove alleged that by using weak or false ad hoc reasoning, these Ultra-Darwinists used evolutionary concepts to offer explanations that were not valid: for example, Stove suggested that the sociobiological explanation of altruism as an evolutionary feature was presented in such a way that the argument was effectively immune to any criticism. English philosopher Simon Blackburn wrote a rejoinder to Stove, though a subsequent essay by Stove's protégé James Franklin suggested that Blackburn's response actually "confirms Stove's central thesis that Darwinism can 'explain' anything."
In more recent times, the Australian moral philosopher and professor Peter Singer, who serves as the Ira W. DeCamp Professor of Bioethics at Princeton University, has proposed the development of a "Darwinian left" based on the contemporary scientific understanding of biological anthropology, human evolution, and applied ethics in order to achieve the establishment of a more equal and cooperative human society in accordance with the sociobiological explanation of altruism.
Esoteric usage
In evolutionary aesthetics theory, there is evidence that perceptions of beauty are determined by natural selection and therefore Darwinian; that things, aspects of people and landscapes considered beautiful are typically found in situations likely to give enhanced survival of the perceiving human's genes.
See also
Darwin Awards
Evidence of common descent
History of evolutionary thought
Modern evolutionary synthesis
Neural Darwinism
Pangenesis—Charles Darwin's hypothetical mechanism for heredity
Social Darwinism
Speciation
Universal Darwinism
References
Sources
Further reading
Fiske, John. (1885). Darwinism, and Other Essays. Houghton Mifflin and Company.
Mayr, Ernst. (1985). The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance. Harvard University Press.
Romanes, John George. (1906). Darwin and After Darwin: An Exposition of the Darwinian Theory and a Discussion of Post-Darwinian Questions. Volume 2: Heredity and Utility. The Open Court Publishing Company.
Wallace, Alfred Russel. (1889). Darwinism: An Exposition of the Theory of Natural Selection, with Some of Its Applications. Macmillan and Company.
Simon, C. (2019). Taking Darwinism seriously. Animal Sentience, 3(23), 47.
External links
Category:1860s neologisms
Category:Biology theories
Category:History of evolutionary biology
Category:Charles Darwin
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Doraemon
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volume cover, featuring Doraemon
| ja_kanji = ドラえもん
| genre <!-- Genres should be based on what reliable sources list them as and not on personal interpretations. Limit of the three most relevant genres in accordance with MOS:A&M. -->
}}
| demographic = Children
| imprint = Tentōmushi Comics
| magazine = CoroCoro Comic
| first = 1969
| last = 1997
}}
(red) were published]]
is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Fujiko F. Fujio. First serialized in 1969, the manga's chapters were collected in 45 volumes published by Shogakukan from 1974 to 1996. The story revolves around an earless robotic cat named Doraemon, who travels back from the 22nd century to help a boy named Nobita Nobi.
The manga spawned a media franchise. Three anime TV series have been adapted in 1973, 1979, and 2005. Additionally, Shin-Ei Animation has produced over forty animated films, including two 3D computer-animated films, all of which are distributed by Toho. Various types of merchandise and media have been developed, including soundtrack albums, video games, and musicals. The manga series was licensed for an English language release in North America, via Amazon Kindle, by a collaboration of Fujiko F. Fujio Pro with Voyager Japan and AltJapan Co., Ltd. The anime series was licensed by Disney for an English-language release in North America in 2014, and LUK International in Europe, the Middle East and Africa.
Doraemon was well received by critics and became a hit in many Asian countries. It won numerous awards, including the Japan Cartoonists Association Award in 1973 and 1994, the Shogakukan Manga Award for children's manga in 1982, and the Tezuka Osamu Cultural Prize in 1997. As of 2024, it has sold over 300 million copies worldwide, becoming one of the best-selling manga series of all time. The character of Doraemon has been viewed as a Japanese cultural icon, and was appointed as the first "anime ambassador" in 2008 by the country's Foreign Ministry.
Synopsis
List of Doraemon characters}}
Nobita Nobi is a ten-year-old Japanese school boy, who is kind-hearted and honest, but also lazy, unlucky, weak, gets bad grades and is bad at sports. One day, a blue robot cat from the 22nd century named Doraemon is sent back to the past by Nobita's future great-great-grandson, Sewashi Nobi, to take care of Nobita so that his descendants can have a better life. Doraemon has a four-dimensional pocket in which he stores tools, inventions, and gadgets from the future to aid Nobita whenever he is faced with a problem. Although Doraemon is a cat robot, he has a fear of mice because of an incident where robotic mice chewed off his ears. This is why Doraemon lost his original yellow color and turned blue, from sadness.
Nobita has three main friends: Takeshi Goda (nicknamed Gian), Suneo Honekawa (Gian's sidekick), and Shizuka Minamoto, Nobita's best friend and love-interest. Gian is a strong, leading and domineering boy, but also loyal to his friends. Suneo is a wealthy and spoiled boy who uses his friendship with Gian to win the respect of other schoolmates. Shizuka is a gentle and kind girl who frequently plays with Nobita. Nobita has a crush on Shizuka; she is his prospective future wife (Nobita's future wife is initially Gian's younger sister). Although Gian and Suneo are Nobita's friends, they also typically bully and abuse him. Nobita normally responds by using Doraemon's gadgets to fight back against them, but Nobita has a tendency to get carried away with using the gadgets (or Gian and Suneo, if they steal it away), which typically results in unintended consequences for him and others.
In addition to Gian, Suneo, and Shizuka, Dorami and Hidetoshi Dekisugi are also recurring characters. Dorami is Doraemon's younger sister, and Dekisugi is a gifted student boy who as Shizuka's close friend, frequently attracts the jealousy of Nobita.
Creation and conception
Development and themes
Doraemon is written and illustrated by Fujiko F. Fujio, the pen name of Japanese manga artist Hiroshi Fujimoto. According to Fujio, it was originally conceived following a series of three events: when searching for ideas for a new manga, he wished a machine existed that would come up with ideas for him, he tripped over his daughter's toy, and heard cats fighting in his neighborhood. To set up the plot and characters, he used some elements from his earlier manga series, Obake no Q-Tarō, which involve an living with humans, with a similar formula. Fujio said that the idea for Doraemon came after "an accumulation of trial and error", during which he finally found the most suitable style of manga to him. Initially, the series achieved little success as was well known at the time, and only became a hit after its adaptation into an anime TV series and multiple feature films. He used the same sequences of cartoons with regularity and continuity to enhance the reader's ease of understanding. In addition, blue, a characteristic color of Doraemon, was chosen as the main color in magazine publications, which used to have a yellow cover and red title. Problems, if occur, were resolved in a way so as not to rely on violence and eroticism, and the stories were integrated with the concept of environmentalism. The manga also insisted on the ethical values of integrity, perseverance, courage, family and respect.
In order to underline the crucial role of the young generation in society, the manga's creator chose to have the act carried out in a "children's domain" where young people can live with happiness, freedom and power without adult's interference. As Saya S. Shiraishi noted, the existence of the "domain" helped Doraemon to have a strong appeal in various Asian countries.
According to Zensho Ito, Fujio's former student, the "length" of time in the universe is one of the ideas that inspired Fujio to make Doraemon. Frequently displayed in its stories is Nobita's desire to control time, and there exist time-control gadgets that he uses to satisfy that desire, particularly the "Time Machine", which lies in his desk drawer. Unlike Western works on science fiction, the manga did not explain the theory nor the applied technology behind these tools, but instead focusing on how the characters exploit their advantages, making it more children-friendly. Origin of the name The name "Doraemon" can be roughly translated to "stray". Unusually, the name is written in a mixture of two Japanese scripts: Katakana () and Hiragana (). "Dora" derives from , and is a corruption of nora (stray), The name "Nobita Nobi" refers to "nobi nobi", meaning "the way a young child grows up free, healthy, and happy, unrestrained in any sense". Gadgets Gadgets, or , are Doraemon's tools from the future, usually used to help the characters. Fujio said that Doraemon has a total of 1,293 gadgets; according to a 2004 analysis by Yasuyuki Yokoyama of Toyama University, there are 1,963 gadgets found in 1,344 sketches. The most important gadgets include "Take-Copter", a small piece of headgear made out of bamboo that can allow its users to fly; "Time Machine", a machine used for time travel; "Anywhere Door", a pink-colored door that allows people to travel according to the thoughts of the person who turns the knob; "Time Kerchief", a handkerchief which can turn an object new or old or a person young or old; "Translator Tool", a cuboid jelly that allow one to converse in any language; and "Designer", a camera used to instantly dress-up the user.
Saya S. Shiraishi wrote that most of the gadgets were "an impressive testimony to the standards of quality control and innovation that exist in the twenty-second century".
Conclusion
The series ceased its original run in 1994 and was not given an ending before Fujimoto's death in 1996; this has since aroused numerous urban legends throughout the years. One of the most well-known "endings" of the manga was by an amateur manga cartoonist under the pen name "Yasue T. Tajima", first appeared on the Internet in 1998 and made up into a manga in 2005. The story takes place when Doraemon's battery dies, and Nobita later grows up becoming a robot engineer, potentially revive Doraemon and live a happy life. Tajima issued an apology in 2007, and the profits were shared with Shogakukan and the copyright owner, Fujiko F. Fujio Pro.
Ryūichi Yagi and Takashi Yamazaki, the directors of Stand by Me Doraemon, confirmed that it had only one opening, while the ending has been rewritten several times. Because of this, Shogakukan had to clarify that only if the marriage of Nobita and Shizuka is finalized will the mission be accomplished, and then Doraemon will return to the future.
Since the debut of Doraemon in 1969, the stories have been selectively collected into forty-five volumes that were published under Shogakukan's imprint from July 31, 1974, to April 26, 1996. These volumes are collected in the Takaoka Central Library in Toyama, Japan, where Fujio was born. Between April 25, 2005, and February 28, 2006, Shōgakukan published a series of five manga volumes under the title Doraemon Plus (Doraemon+), featuring short stories which did not appear in the forty-five original volumes; a sixth volume, the first volume in eight years, was published on December 1, 2014. Additionally, 119 unpublished stories were compiled into six colored-manga volumes under the title Doraemon Kara Sakuhin-shu , published from July 17, 1999, to September 2, 2006. Between July 24, 2009, and September 25, 2012, Shogakukan published a master works collection consisting of twenty volumes with all 1,345 stories written by Fujio. In December 2019, on the 50th anniversary of Doraemon, a "Volume 0" was published by Shogakukan featuring six different versions of Doraemon's first appearance.
There have been two series of bilingual, Japanese and English, volumes of the manga by Shogakukan English Comics under the title Doraemon: Gadget Cat from the Future, and two audio versions. The first series has ten volumes and the second one has six. and Chingwin Publishing Group released bilingual English-Chinese versions in Taiwan.
In July 2013, Fujiko F. Fujio Pro announced that they would be collaborating with ebook publisher Voyager Japan and localization company AltJapan Co., Ltd. to release an English-language version of the manga in full color digitally via the Amazon Kindle platform in North America. Shogakukan released the first volume in November 2013; by 2016, a total of 200 volumes have been published. This English version incorporates a variety of changes to character names; Nobita is "Noby", Shizuka is "Sue", Suneo is "Sneech", and Gian is "Big G", while dorayaki is "Yummy Bun/Fudgy Pudgy Pie". Also, by 2016, four volumes of the manga have been published in English in print by Shogakukan Asia.
Shogakukan started digital distribution of all forty-five original volumes throughout Japan from July 16, 2015.
Long Stories
''Doraemon's Long Tales, also known as Doraemon's Long Stories'', is a manga and movie series ongoing since 1979, featuring longer and continuous narratives about the characters' adventures into various lands of science fiction and fantasy. The series consists of twenty-four tankōbon volumes published from 1983 to 2004.Spin-offsSeveral spin-off manga series of Doraemon have been made. The Doraemons, a manga illustrated by Michiaki Tanaka based on Doraemon, was published by Shogakukan in six tankōbon volumes from 1996 to 2001. Between 1997 and 2003, Shogakukan also published fifteen volumes of The Doraemons Special, created by Yukihiro Mitani and Masaru Miyazaki as a complement part of The Doraemons, including twelve from the main series and three from the Robot Training School Edition. Dorabase, a baseball-themed manga written and illustrated by Mugiwara Shintarō, is another spin-off of Doraemon; twenty-three volumes of the manga were published by Shogakukan from April 26, 2001, to October 28, 2011. Anime
Doraemon (1973 TV series)|Doraemon (1979 TV series)Doraemon (1979 TV series)|Doraemon (2005 TV series)Doraemon (2005 TV series)}}
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The first attempt of a Doraemon animated series was in 1973, by Nippon Television. After a January 1973 pilot named Doraemon Mirai Kara Yattekuru , twenty-six episodes, each with two segments, were broadcast on Nippon TV from April 1 to September 30 of the same year. The series was directed by Mitsuo Kaminashi with voice cast from Aoni Production; the character Doraemon was voiced by Kōsei Tomita, then later by Masako Nozawa. Later in the series, the animation studio, Nippon TeleMovie Productions, went bankrupt, and the masters were sold off or destroyed. The series was re-aired on Nippon TV and several local stations until 1979, when Shogakukan requested Toyama Television to cease broadcasting. Some of the segments were found in the archives of Imagica in 1995, and some others were recovered by Jun Masami in 2003.
Doraemon remained fairly exclusive in manga form until 1979 when an animation studio, Shin-Ei Animation (now owned by TV Asahi) produced an animated second attempt of Doraemon. The series aired on TV Asahi from April 2, 1979. Ryo Motohira served as chief director from 1981, and Tsutomu Shibayama from 1984. Eiichi Nakamura served as director of character designer, while Shunsuke Kikuchi was the composer. Nobuyo Ōyama voiced Doraemon in the series; because of this, in Asia, this version is sometimes referred to as the Ōyama Edition. In total, 1,787 episodes were produced and released in VHS and DVD by Toho. On April 15, 2005, a major renewal was carried out, including the replacement of voice actors and staff, and updated character designs. The third series is sometimes referred to in Asia as the Mizuta Edition, as a tribute for the voice actress for Doraemon, Wasabi Mizuta.
In May 2014, TV Asahi Corporation announced an agreement with The Walt Disney Company to bring the 2005 series to the Disney XD television channel and Disney Channel in the United States beginning in the summer of that year. Besides using the name changes that were used in AltJapan's English adaptation of the original manga, other changes and edits have also been made to make the show more relatable to an American audience, such as Japanese text being replaced with English text on certain objects like signs and graded papers, items such as yen notes being replaced by US dollar bills, and the setting being changed from Japan to the United States. Initial response to the edited dub was positive. The Disney adaptation began broadcast in Japan on Disney Channel from February 1, 2016. The broadcast offered the choice of the English voice track or a newly recorded Japanese track by the Japanese cast of the 2005 series.
The anime has also been aired in over sixty countries worldwide. It premiered in Thailand in 1982, the Philippines in 1999, India in 2005, and Vietnam in 2010. Other Asian countries that broadcast the series include China, Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan, Malaysia, Indonesia, and South Korea. The series is licensed in EMEA regions by LUK International; it premiered in Spain in 1993 and France in 2003. It has also been distributed in South American countries, including Brazil, Colombia, and Chile. In 2017, POPS Worldwide, a Vietnamese multimedia company, collaborated with TV Asahi to release the anime series on YouTube and other digital platforms. Films
List of Doraemon films}}
By 2024, there have been 43 annual feature-length animated films produced by Shin-Ei Animation and released by Toho. The first twenty-five films are based on the 1979 anime, while the rest are based on the 2005 anime.
A 3D computer animated film, Stand by Me Doraemon, debuted in Japan on August 8, 2014. Directed by Takashi Yamazaki and Ryūichi Yagi, it combines elements from the short stories of the manga series: "All the Way from the Country of the Future", "Imprinting Egg", "Goodbye, Shizuka-chan", "Romance in Snowy Mountain", "Nobita's the Night Before a Wedding", and "Goodbye, Doraemon ..." into a new complete story, from the first time Doraemon came to Nobita's house to Doraemon bidding farewell to Nobita. The film was a box office success, grossing $183.4 million worldwide. A sequel, Stand by Me Doraemon 2, also directed by Yamazaki and Yagi, was released on November 20, 2020. Short films, OVA and crossover Several Doraemon short films were produced and released between 1989 and 2004. ''Doraemon: Nobita's the Night Before a Wedding, a film about the events related to the marriage of Nobita and Shizuka; The Day When I Was Born and Doraemon: A Grandmother's Recollections'', the films about the relationship between Nobita and his parents along with his grandmother. Other short films focus on Dorami and The Doraemons.
In 1994, an educational OVA was made, titled Doraemon: Nobita to Mirai Note , where the main characters express the hope for a better Earth. The OVA was released in DVD along with the 13th issue of Fujiko F. Fujio Wonderland magazine in September 2004. A crossover episode of Doraemon with AIBOU: Tokyo Detective Duo aired on TV Asahi on November 9, 2018. Music
List of Doraemon soundtrack albums}}
The soundtrack of the 1973 anime series was composed by Nobuyoshi Koshibe, When the anime got a reboot in 2005, Kan Sawada was the composer of the series. There are four other opening themes, including an instrumental version of "Doraemon no Uta" performed by Twelve Girls Band; "Hagushichao" performed by Rimi Natsukawa; "Yume wo Kanaete Doraemon" , the opening theme broadcast from 2007 to 2018; and "Doraemon" performed by Gen Hoshino, broadcast since October 2019.
Numerous collections of theme songs of the anime series and feature films were initially available in cassettes. Since the 1990s, Doraemon songs have been released in CD, under the type of singles and compilation albums. Soundtracks of Doraemon feature films have been released by Nippon Columbia since 2001 in the album series . Musical shows Doraemon has been adapted into a musical, titled |Butaiban Doraemon: Nobita to Animaru Puranetto}}. Based on the 1990 anime film of the same name, it debuted at Tokyo Metropolitan Art Space on September 4, 2008, running through September 14. Shoji Kokami was the director and writer, Makoto Sakamoto played Nobita and Reiko Suho as Shizuka; Jaian and Suneo were portrayed by Tomohiro Waki and Kensaku Kobayashi, respectively; Wasabi Mizuta voiced Doraemon. The musical was later revived and ran at Sunshine Theater, Tokyo from March 26 to April 2, 2017, then later in other prefectures including Fukuoka, Osaka, Miyagi and Aichi. The 2017 revival is also directed and written by Kokami, with Mizuta reprising her role;Video gamesMany Japanese-only video games based on Doraemon have been developed. For instance, in 1983, Bandai developed , an arcade game inspired by Pac-Man. Doraemon, a NES video game made by Hudson Soft, was released on December 12, 1986, and became one of the best-selling games of that year in Japan with over 1.15 million copies sold. On December 6, 2007, Sega published Doraemon Wii, the first Doraemon video game released on Wii. Doraemon can also be seen in Namco's Taiko no Tatsujin rhythm game series, such as in Taiko no Tatsujin: Sesson de Dodon ga Don! (2017). The first Doraemon game to receive a Western release was Doraemon Story of Seasons (2019). Card games with Doraemon themes have also been made in several special occasions, sometimes to exploit the popularity of feature films. In 2016, a special edition of Uno about the series' characters was released exclusively in Japan, as a result of a cooperation between Asatsu-DK and Mattel.
Merchandise
In Japan, the Doraemon merchandising rights belong to Shogakukan-Shueisha Productions, which has produced and distributed a wide range of products under its brand, such as toys, food, stationery, action figures, , shoes, clothing, and others. Several companies have collaborated on the creation and distribution of products on the series and its characters, including Sanrio, Converse, Moleskine, and ESP Guitars, which has made guitars decorated with Doraemon characters; a further partnership of Doraemon with Uniqlo led to a line of clothing designed by Takashi Murakami. The Doraemon franchise has also collaborated with various Japanese brands, including Tsi Groove & Sports's Jack Bunny!! golf apparel brand, Unicharm's MamiPoko diaper brand, and the video games LINE Pop 2, Monster Strike, and Granblue Fantasy. Viz Media owns the Doraemon merchandising rights in North and Latin America, and themed Happy Meals in a 2015 collaboration with McDonald's. Viz Media Europe (now Crunchyroll EMEA) manages the merchandising in Europe except Spain and Portugal; LUK International has obtained licenses in these two countries.
Characters from Doraemon have been used in advertising through specific agreements with Shogakukan. For instance, following the Cool Japan initiative promoted by the Japanese government, Sharp Corporation produced a series of commercials featuring the characters of Doraemon and Nobita, which were broadcast in several ASEAN countries. In late 2011, Shogakukan and Toyota Motor Corporation joined forces to create a series of live-action commercials as part of Toyota's ReBorn ad campaign, which depicted the manga's characters two decades after being grown up, where Hollywood actor Jean Reno played Doraemon. Reception List of non-Japanese Doraemon versions}} General Doraemon is considered one of the best-known manga of all time, a true Japanese cultural icon, Akihiro Motoyama observed that "mothers who watched the movies when they were children are now taking their own children to see them". It was also commercially successful: over books were sold in Japan by 1996. The 1979 also achieved high ratings on television. With the film ''Doraemon: Nobita's Secret Gadget Museum, the Doraemon anime film series reached 100 million tickets sold at the Japanese box office, surpassing Godzilla'' as the highest-grossing film franchise in Japan. By 2015, it had sold over 103 million tickets, and was the largest franchise by numbers of admissions in the country.
Doraemon was also a hit in Asia in general, and was considered one of the typical cases of Japanese soft power, although it was published without a license in some countries. The anime television series is available in over 60 countries, However, Doraemon was less successful in Western countries, because it was viewed as a children-only series, and there were some tight restrictions about publishing manga and broadcasting anime series there. The manga has sold over copies worldwide by 2012; over 250 million by 2019; and over 300 million by 2024. Estimates show that Doraemon has generated at least more than in merchandise sales by 2019, ()
**1999 – billion}}
**2000 –
**2003 –
**2007 – billion}}
**2010 – billion}}
*Worldwide (2015–2016) –
**2015 –
**2016 – ( million|longno}})|grouplower-alpha}} and over $1.7 billion from anime feature films by 2020, making it one of the highest-grossing media franchises of all time.
Outside Japan, Doraemon achieved particular success in Vietnam, with a record-breaking 40 million copies sold by 2006. The manga was first launched there in 1992 by Kim Đồng Publishing House, but the copyright from Shogakukan was not fully acquired until 1996. In 1993, the Vietnamese Ministry of Culture considered the manga's publication to be "an impactful event for the improvement of children, youth and adult's likings ... [Doraemon] is a comprehensively educational book series which has the effect of developing children's personality". Critical response and analysis Doraemon received favorable reviews. Mark Schilling wrote, "For kids whose lives are often so regulated, Doraemon represents a welcome breath of freedom and a glimpse of a funnier, friendlier world where all dreams, even foolish ones, can come true." Italian writer Massimo Nicora wrote that the manga "can be interpreted as a type of book that criticizes, with irony, the omnipotence of science that pretends to solve every problem with its tools", alluding to the fact that Doraemon's gadgets often end up making the problems even worse than they initially were, more than anything else. He added that it represents "the metaphor of the childish imagination, which always manages to find the most bizarre and original solutions, in a continuous game of transformation of reality".
Some critics considered that Nobita's flawed personality and modest background is different from the special or extraordinary characteristics usually seen in other typical anime and manga protagonists; this portrayal has been seen as reasons of its appeal as well as the contrary, especially in the United States.
In his 2000 article, Leo Ching explained that the success of Doraemon in Asia was because it had reflected the Asian values such as imagination and responsibility, the same reason that Oshin, another Japanese cultural export, became well known there. On the other hand, according to an analysis by Anne Allison, professor of cultural anthropology at Duke University, the strong point of it was not the variety of the gadgets, but the relationship between Doraemon and Nobita, which was particularly appreciated. Jason Thompson praised the "silly situations" and "old fashioned, simple artwork", with Doraemon's expression and comments adding to the "surrounding elementary-school mischief".
Awards, accolades and public recognition
Doraemon has received numerous accolades. It won the Japan Cartoonists Association Award twice in 1973 and 1994, the former for Excellence Award while the latter for Minister of Education, Science and Technology Award. In 1982, it received the first Shogakukan Manga Award for children's manga. In 1997, the manga won the Grand Prize at the first Tezuka Osamu Cultural Prize. The 1979 series won the award from the Japanese Agency for Cultural Affairs four times for best television series in 1984, 1985, 1988 and 1989.
A 2006 poll among 80,000 Japanese fans for the 10th anniversary of the Japan Media Arts Festival placed Doraemon at fifth among the top ten best manga of all time. The 2005 and 2006 surveys conducted by TV Asahi found the Doraemon anime ranked fifth and third, respectively, among the 100 most favorite anime series of all time. In 2010, a survey conducted by researchers of Tokyo Polytechnic University found that most responders considered Doraemon, along with Dragon Ball franchise, to be the anime series that represents Cool Japan. In a 2013 survey, Doraemon was found to be the best anime recommended for foreign people.
Criticisms
Doraemon has been blamed for having a negative impact on children, due to the controversial traits of the characters in the anime. The character has received criticism in China, where some media outlets considered Doraemon to be a politically subversive character and that it was a tool of Japan's "cultural invasion". Some education groups in Taiwan demanded the anime to be banned, as the plot involve bullying which would encourage campus bullying. In 2016, a resolution to ban Hindi dubbed Doraemon anime series was submitted in Pakistan. Disney Channel India, the regional broadcaster of the anime, was banned in Bangladesh and Pakistan citing non-availability of localized dubs for content including Doraemon.
Cultural impact and legacy
The Doraemon manga has inspired many other mangakas; these include Eiichiro Oda, the creator of One Piece with the idea of "Devil Fruits", and Masashi Kishimoto, the creator of Naruto, who showed interest in drawing characters from anime shows during his childhood, including Doraemon. The manga has also been mentioned in Gin Tama and Great Teacher Onizuka. The character Doraemon is considered one of the cultural icons in Japan, and one of the most well-known characters in manga history; Mark Schilling noted that Doraemon's "Take-Copter" is familiar among Japanese people "just as Snoopy's biplane is familiar to most Americans".
On April 22, 2002, on the special issue of Asian Hero in Time magazine, Doraemon was the only anime character to be named one of the twenty-two Asian Heroes, and was described as "The Cuddliest Hero in Asia". A 2007 poll by Oricon shown that Doraemon was the second-strongest manga character ever, behind only Son Goku of Dragon Ball. Doraemon is also referred as something with the ability to satisfy all wishes. In 2008, the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs appointed Doraemon as the first anime cultural ambassador; a Ministry spokesperson explained the decision as an attempt to help people in other countries understand Japanese anime better and to deepen their interest in Japanese culture. On September 3, 2012, Doraemon was granted official residence in the city of Kawasaki, Kanagawa, one hundred years before he was born. In the same year, Hong Kong celebrated the birthday of Doraemon 100 years early with a series of displays of the character. In April 2013, Doraemon was chosen as Japan's ambassador in Tokyo's bid to host the 2020 Summer Olympics and 2020 Summer Paralympics. He appeared in the 2016 Summer Olympics closing ceremony to promote the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo.
A Fujiko F. Fujio museum opened in Kawasaki on September 3, 2011, featuring Doraemon as the star of the museum. The National Museum of Singapore held a time-travelling exhibition in October 2020 as a tribute to the manga. After the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, Shogakukan released an earthquake survival guidebook, which included the main cast of the Doraemon manga series. TV Asahi launched the Doraemon Fund charity fund to raise money for natural disasters in 2004, and in 2011. In 2020, Mumbai's Sion Friends Circle group distributed food and books to kids using mascots, one being Doraemon, to help during the COVID-19 pandemic. In Vietnam, a Doraemon scholarship fund was established in 1996, and the Doraemon character has been used for education of traffic safety. Doraemon<nowiki/>'s creator, Fujiko F. Fujio, received the Culture Fighter Medal from the Vietnamese Ministry of Culture in 1996 for his contributions to young education through the manga.
Many prominent figures have been nicknamed after the cast of Doraemon: politician Osamu Fujimura is known as the "Doraemon of Nagatacho" due to his figure and warm personality, and sumo wrestler Takamisugi was nicknamed "Doraemon" because of his resemblance to the character. In 2015, a group of people in a drought-affected village in northern Thailand used a Doraemon toy to complete a rain-ritual, in order to avoid controversies that would occur by using real animals.
A parody of Doraemon created by Hikari Fujisaki, titled Nozoemon , was first serialized in Nihon Bungeisha's Comic Heaven magazine in September 2014, with the compiled book volume released on June 9, 2015; however, it was discontinued in August 2015 due to content issues.ReferencesNotesCitationsBibliography*
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External links
*[http://www.tv-asahi.co.jp/doraemon/ Doraemon official TV Asahi website]
*[http://www.doraemon.com/ Doraemon official US website]
*[https://dora-world.com/ Doraemon Channel official website]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120503202652/http://www.shin-ei-animation.jp/doraemon/ Doraemon official Shin-Ei Animation website]
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Category:1969 manga
Category:Comedy anime and manga
Category:Comics about time travel
Category:CoroCoro Comic
Category:Fictional artificial intelligences
Category:Fujiko F Fujio
Category:Manga adapted into films
Category:Science fiction anime and manga
Category:Shogakukan franchises
Category:Shogakukan manga
Category:Winners of the Tezuka Osamu Cultural Prize (Grand Prize)
Category:Winners of the Shogakukan Manga Award for children's manga
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doraemon
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Dartmoor Preservation Association
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| location = Old Duchy Hotel, Princetown, Yelverton, Devon, PL20 6QF
| area_served = Dartmoor National Park
| homepage =
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Dartmoor Preservation Association (DPA) is one of the oldest environmental or amenity bodies in the UK. It was founded in 1883. It concerns itself with Dartmoor, a National Park in Devon, south-west England. It began with two main areas of concern. Firstly, commoners' rights were being eroded through army use, including the firing of live artillery shells, and piecemeal enclosure of land around the margins. Secondly, there was increasing public interest in Dartmoor's scenery, archaeology, history and wildlife
The DPA has opposed what it considered to be unsuitable developments on Dartmoor throughout its history. In its founding year, the secretary, Robert Burnard persuaded the War Department not to fire on the Okehampton Firing Range on Saturdays to allow access to the public. Many battles have been fought since, particularly against the military presence and the proposed building of reservoirs on the moor, notably under the Chairmanship of Lady Sayer, granddaughter of Robert Burnard.
The DPA continues to follow the same objectives as when it was founded. For example, in June 2015, it supported the inhabitants of Widecombe-in-the-Moor against the erecting of a telecommunications mast in an area of pristine countryside against the wishes of the local population.
Dartmoor Preservation Association is a registered charity, Number 215665.
Background
Dartmoor is said to be one of the last remaining areas of wilderness in Britain, but it has been a managed landscape since the late Neolithic (3,000-2,500 BCE). The Bronze Age inhabitants (from 2,500 to 750 BCE) cleared ancient forest and developed farming. They made extensive use of surface moorstone in the construction of roundhouses (their remains now seen as "hut circles"), enclosures, land-dividing reaves, stone rows, stone circles, menhirs and kistvaens.
Farming has continued through the medieval period to the present day, but a more disruptive activity to the landscape was the appearance of tin-mining, firstly by stream-working, then by lode-working and finally by underground mining. Many valleys have been dug over and scarred, leaving a rich industrial archaeology. Other activities such as newtake wall building, peat cutting, rabbit warrening, quarrying, clay extraction and the building of a prominent prison have all left marks on the moor. Recent undertakings have left more obvious changes: the building of reservoirs and the planting of conifer forests.
History of the association
The use of moorstone continued up to recent times with the extensive building of dry stone walls around farm newtakes. Later, stone was cut and dressed. The use of moorstone continued to such an extent that in 1847 boundary markers were cut around Pew Tor to protect it. Marker stones were erected around Roos Tor. The taking of stone started to change the Dartmoor landscape: for example Eric Hemery (writing in 1983) stated that Swell Tor had been "decapitated and disembowelled by the quarrymen".
In August 1881, a public meeting was convened by the Portreeve of Tavistock in the Guildhall to discuss the continued taking of stone, particularly from landmark tors.Commoners' rightsThe first publication of the DPA, in 1890, was a short history of commoners' rights on Dartmoor and the commons of Devon. They are used for small arms, mortars and artillery smoke and illuminating shells.
The use of the moor by the military has been a major concern of the DPA since its founding. In its first year, Robert Burnard (DPA Secretary) persuaded the War Department not to fire on the Okehampton Firing Range on Saturdays so that there may be some public access to the area. In 1963 the DPA published a widely circulated 24-page booklet entitled Misuse of a National Park which includes photographs of unexploded shells lying on the open moor, corrugated iron buildings, large craters, a derelict tank used as a target, bullet marks on standing stones, etc. It also contains details of a 1958 incident in which a young boy was killed by a mortar shell near Cranmere Pool.
Since the 1960s there has been much less military damage and litter as a result of the DPA persuading the Services to be more cautious. The current leases run for many years, with Cramber Tor most recently being granted a further 40-year licence.
Afforestation
Early afforestation occurred when Brimpts was planted with trees in 1862.ReservoirsThere are eight Dartmoor reservoirs, with the earliest being Tottiford Reservoir, 1861. Three were built in the mid-20th century: Fernworthy, 1942; Avon, 1957 and Meldon, 1972, and the DPA fought many battles over these. It opposed plans for reservoirs on Brent Moor (1899) and Holne Moor (1901) where, later, the Avon Reservoir and Venford Reservoirs were respectively built. The DPA was one of many local and national amenity bodies that fought the building of the Meldon dam. The DPA offered a viable alternative site, Gorhuish Valley, for various reasons, including the fact that minerals such as arsenic would leach into the water supply if Meldon were selected. The Meldon story was discussed many times in Parliament. Another battle was fought against the flooding of the Swincombe valley to form another reservoir. This was rejected in parliament in 1970, revived in 1974 and finally resolved by the building of the Roadford Reservoir to the west of the moor. In 1985 the DPA used funds from a bequest to purchase 50 acres of land where the dam of a reservoir at Swincombe would have to be. and confirmed on 30 October 1951. Shortly after this, the DPA tried to ensure that the new National Park was run by an independent committee and not by the Dartmoor Standing Committee that was a subcommittee of Devon County Council Planning Committee.
North Hessary Tor TV mast
The DPA learned in October 1951 that the BBC planned to build a 750-foot television mast on North Hessary Tor, near Princetown, that was erected in 1955. This was to be a relay from a transmitting station at Wenvoe, South Wales. The DPA objected to this threat and sought expert opinion, offered alternative solutions, pressed for a public enquiry, engaged a lawyer, held public meetings, distributed pamphlets, wrote to the press and petitioned parliament.
Sharpitor
During World War II, the Royal Air Force (RAF) built a mast and buildings on Peek Hill, as RAF Sharpitor. In 1956, permission was granted to rebuild the station as part of the "Gee" radio navigation system, to be occupied for ten years. There followed delay in leaving and a proposal was made in 1970 by Devon & Cornwall Police to use the mast, which was rejected. Then later that year Plymouth Corporation wanted to use the exposed site for housing juvenile offenders. This was also rejected, but Plymouth appealed. At a public enquiry in June 1973 Lady Sylvia Sayer represented the DPA and permission for development on the site was refused. A few years later, DPA fought successfully in support of South West Water (SWW) against renewed calls for a new reservoir at Swincombe. To mark the victory, Sylvia Sayer asked SWW if DPA could purchase the rocky outcrop of Sharpitor. The DPA purchased 32 acres in February 1984.
Okehampton bypass
Okehampton lies on the A30 main road, the shortest route from London to west Devon and Cornwall. The need for a bypass was mooted in 1963. In 1975, three routes were considered: a northern route through mainly farmland, a central route using a railway, and a southern route through Dartmoor National Park. In August 1976, the Department of the Environment announced the preferred route was through the National Park. A major event on the timeline of this project was a 96-day public enquiry from 1 May 1979 to 4 February 1980 held in Okehampton. In March 1984, the DPA with other organisations petitioned Parliament opposing compulsory purchase orders on public open spaces. The Secretary of State announced in July 1985 that he was introducing a bill to reverse the decision of a Joint Parliamentary Committee and confirm a route through the National Park. This was followed by a confirmation bill in November 1985 that was passed in the House of Lords on 5 December 1985. Construction started in November 1986 and the road was opened on 19 July 1988.
Since 2000
The DPA continues to follow the same objectives as when it was founded. The activities have widened, involving local partners, it has a calendar of events, walks and work days with its Conservation Team undertaking a variety of moorland projects, it funds the supply of walking boots to some children who need them for the Duke of Edinburgh Award Scheme through the Moor Boots Scheme, it collaborates with the Campaign for National Parks, it monitors the activities of Dartmoor National Park Authority who run the National Park. It objected to eight planning proposals (with success in seven cases), with many other achievements in the DPA Director's Annual Report. The DPA remains true to its original objectives and has also added other activities in support of Dartmoor and its inhabitants.China clay expansionThe china clay industry on Dartmoor was established long before the DPA was founded. The earliest record of a china clay pit refers to Hook Lake in 1502. The area was surveyed around 1827 by Cornishmen with thirty years experience in the clay industry. They obtained a 21-year lease in 1830, from the Earl of Morley who owned the land, to work the area between Lee Moor and Shaugh Moor. A rival pit was opened at Leftlake in about 1850 and at Hemerdon and Broomage in about 1855. Further pits were opened at Cholwichtown, Whitehill Yeo and Wigford Down/Brisworthy (circa 1860). Others followed at Smallhanger and Headon in the 1870s.
The DPA argues that this is an activity that does not agree with the ethos of a National Park, whose purpose is to protect landscape from unsuitable development. In 1994, the National Park boundaries were changed to include common land at Shaugh Moor and exclude china clay worked land at Lee Moor. The DPA revived its campaign with the publication of a booklet in 1999 when the Blackabrook Valley, Crownhill Down and Shaugh Moor, near the popular tourist area of Cadover Bridge, all came under threat from exploitation or dumping of waste. The china clay companies relinquished planning permissions in 2001. A presumed Bronze Age barrow, known as Emmets Post, was to be removed and three other monuments may be affected. The DPA were recorded twice, with other bodies, in a Devon County Council Development Management Committee Report for their representations in securing the future of the three areas where planning permissions were relinquished in 2001. Oxford Archaeology held an open day during their excavation of Emmets Post in 2014 prior to its removal.House of Lords receptionThe DPA and Exmoor Society held a joint reception at the House of Lords on 6 November 2008, hosted by Baroness Mallalieu, to lobby members of both Houses of Parliament and relevant Ministers about ensuring that environmental schemes for the uplands are "fit for purpose". Both organisations funded an invited number of upland hill farmers to attend.Whitehorse Hill excavationThe excavation in August 2011 on the north moor of a Bronze Age burial kistvaen, or cist, that was originally uncovered in 2001 was part-funded by the DPA, along with other bodies.South West Uplands Federation ConferenceA conference for the upland farmers of Bodmin Moor, Exmoor and Dartmoor was held as a joint venture between the South West Uplands Federation and the DPA. It was run by the DPA at Exeter Racecourse in October 2012, with 150 delegates. Speakers came from the Foundation for Common Land, the Forest of Dartmoor Commoners, the University of Gloucestershire, the National Farmers Union of England and Wales and the Open Spaces Society. The CEO raised sponsorship from Dartmoor National Park, Exmoor National Park, Natural England, Duchy of Cornwall and the Exmoor Society - this reflecting the standing of the DPA with those bodies.
Undergrounding power cables
Two major projects to underground overhead power cables in Dartmoor National Park have been completed in a joint project between Western Power Distribution, the South West Protected Landscapes Forum (SWPLF) and Dartmoor National Park Authority. The two schemes on Holne Moor and Walkhampton Common between them remove nearly 6 km of overhead line from open moorland. At nearly 5 km, the Walkhampton scheme is the largest to be undertaken in the South West region by Western Power Distribution. The old overhead line was readily visible from the B3212 Princetown to Yelverton Road, strung across Walkhampton Common from Devil's Elbow to just above Horseyeatt at Peek Hill. The works to provide the new underground supply were mainly undertaken on the highway to minimise the impact on the sensitive moorland landscape, its archaeology, wildlife and livestock. The DPA has supported the undergrounding of these visually intrusive power lines for many years.
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The Dartmoor Conservation Garden
The Dartmoor Conservation Garden is a joint project between DPA and Dartmoor National Park Authority (DNPA) and is located in the Jack Wigmore Garden behind the High Moorland Centre in Princetown: this is a memorial garden to a former Chair of the Authority. It is planted with a cross-section of typical native Dartmoor plants. It also houses some typical Dartmoor archaeological features, such as a 4,000-year-old Bronze Age burial kistvaen (or cist) and a medieval granite cross from Ter Hill. This marked the Monk's Path but was constantly being pushed over by cattle. The purpose of the Garden is to illustrate the biodiversity on Dartmoor. The project came online in June 2015.
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Widecombe telecommunications mast
The DPA were involved in a campaign in June 2015 against four telecommunications masts planned for Dartmoor, with the first to be erected in the village of Widecombe. At short notice, the DPA banners were taken out, letters written, press interviews given and support given to the villagers when an inflatable mast was demonstrated – with the effect that the planning application was withdrawn.Friends of DartmoorIn common with other amenity bodies, such as those for the Lake District, Peak District, Pembrokeshire Coast, Yorkshire Dales Three Peaks and the New Forest Trust, the image of Dartmoor Preservation Association is evolving from its Victorian origins, although the original name is being retained. Friends of Dartmoor projects a more modern image of preservation where several years of diplomacy have achieved good relations with the partner agencies that operate in the Dartmoor arena. This is due mainly to the efforts of the previous CEO, James Paxman and his successor, Phil Hutt.
The objectives enshrined in the constitution are the protection, preservation and enhancement in the public interest of the landscape, antiquities, flora and fauna, natural beauty, cultural heritage and scientific interest of Dartmoor. Also the protection and preservation of public access to and on Dartmoor subject to the ancient rights of commoners. Co-operation with the commoners and any organisation in achieving DPA objectives, also the study of and the recording and publication of information upon the antiquities, history and natural history of Dartmoor.
The DPA has twenty-two policies listed on its web site: regarding access and rights of way, fencing, protecting monuments, diverse habitats, bracken, china clay quarrying, military training and live firing, hill farming and small scale traditional local industries, quarrying, television and telephone masts, wind farms, planning applications, housing developments, woodlands and forestry, ponies, swaling, and recreational activities.
Conservation
The DPA conservation team meet throughout the year to work on a number of ongoing projects; from gorse clearance, to habitat protection and archaeological surveying. A quarterly timetable is released both on the organisation's website and through its member publications, along with details of how to get involved. The team also host an annual open day at the DPA land holding of Pudsham Meadows.
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References
Further reading
* Brewer, Dave. Dartmoor Boundary Markers. Halsgrove. Tiverton, Devon, 2002.
* Crossing, William. Crossing’s Dartmoor Worker. 2nd Edn. Peninsula Press, Newton Abbot, Devon, 1992.
* Dartmoor Preservation Association. "The Meldon Story". DPA Publication No. 7. Crapstone, Plymouth, 1972. UIN BLL01004145656.
* Greeves, Tom. Tin Mines and Miners of Dartmoor: A Photographic Record. Devon Books, Kingkerswell, Devon, 1986. .
* Greeves, Tom. "Sacred Land – Working Land: the case for the preservation of the Blackabrook Valley, Crownhill Down and Shaugh Moor from the expansion of the china clay industry." Dartmoor Preservation Association, Princetown, 1999. .
* Harris, Helen. Industrial Archaeology of Dartmoor. David & Charles, Newton Abbot, Devon, 1968. .
* Hemery, Eric. High Dartmoor. Robert Hale Ltd, London, 1983.
* Kelly, Matthew. Quartz and Feldspar: Dartmoor - A British Landscape in Modern Times, Jonathan Cape, London, 2015.
* Moore, Stuart A. "A short history of the rights of common upon the Forest of Dartmoor and the commons of Devon". Dartmoor Preservation Association, Plymouth, 1890.
* Newman, Phil. The Dartmoor Tin Industry: A Field Guide. Newton Abbot, Devon, 1968. .
* Somers Cocks, John. "Exploitation". In Dartmoor: A New Study. Editor Crispin Gill. David & Charles, Newton Abbot Devon, 1970. .
* Somers Cocks, J. "A Dartmoor Century 1883-1983: One hundred years of the Dartmoor Preservation Association". Dartmoor Preservation Association. Yelverton, Devon, 1983. .
* Stanbrook, Elisabeth. Dartmoor Forest Farms. Devon Books, Kinkerswell, 1994.
* Wade, E.A. The Redlake Tramway & China Clay Works. Twelveheads Press, Truro, 2004. .
*External links
* [http://www.cnp.org.uk/ Campaign for National Parks website]
* [http://apps.charitycommission.gov.uk/Showcharity/RegisterOfCharities/CharityFramework.aspx?RegisteredCharityNumber215665&SubsidiaryNumber0 Charity Commission Register: Dartmoor Preservation Association]
*
Category:Dartmoor
Category:Organizations established in 1883
Category:1883 establishments in England
Category:Charities based in Devon
Category:Nature conservation organisations based in the United Kingdom
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dartmoor_Preservation_Association
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Dartmouth College
|
Britannia Royal Naval College Dartmouth|other uses|Dartmouth (disambiguation)}}
(Latin – A quotation from
the Book of Isaiah in the Old Testament)
| mottoeng "A voice crying out in the wilderness"
| type = Private research university
| established
| academic_affiliations =
| accreditation = NECHE
| endowment $7.9 billion (2023)
| budget $1.5 billion (2024)
| president = Sian Beilock
| provost = David F. Kotz
| administrative_staff 2,938 full time, 328 part time (Fall 2018)
| faculty 943 (fall 2018)
| undergrad 4,447 (fall 2023)
| campus_size = (total)
| free_label2 = Newspaper
| free2 = The Dartmouth
| colors
| athletics_nickname = Big Green
| sporting_affiliations =
| website =
| logo = Dartmouth College logo.svg
| logo_upright = 1.1
}}
Dartmouth College ( ) is a private Ivy League research university in Hanover, New Hampshire, United States. Established in 1769 by Eleazar Wheelock, Dartmouth is one of the nine colonial colleges chartered before the American Revolution. Emerging into national prominence at the turn of the 20th century, Dartmouth has since been considered among the most prestigious undergraduate colleges in the United States. In addition to the undergraduate faculty of arts and sciences, Dartmouth has four professional and graduate schools: the Geisel School of Medicine, the Thayer School of Engineering, the Tuck School of Business, and the Guarini School of Graduate and Advanced Studies.
Situated on a terrace above the Connecticut River, Dartmouth's main campus is in the rural Upper Valley region of New England. The university functions on a quarter system, operating year-round on four ten-week academic terms. Dartmouth is known for its undergraduate focus, Greek culture, and campus traditions. 25 U.S. governors, 8 U.S. Cabinet secretaries, 3 Nobel Prize laureates, 2 U.S. Supreme Court justices, and a U.S. vice president. Other notable alumni include 81 Rhodes Scholars, 26 Marshall Scholarship recipients, 13 Pulitzer Prize recipients, 10 CEOs of Fortune 500 companies, and 51 Olympic medalists. History
, Dartmouth College founder]]
Dartmouth was founded by Eleazar Wheelock, a Yale graduate and Congregational minister from Windham, Connecticut, who had sought to establish a school to train Native Americans as Christian missionaries. It was one of the nine colonial colleges chartered before the American Revolution. Wheelock's ostensible inspiration for such an establishment resulted from his relationship with Mohegan Indian Samson Occom. Occom became an ordained minister after studying under Wheelock from 1743 to 1747, and later moved to Long Island to preach to the Montauks. and Dartmouth "was recognized in the African-American community as a place where a man of color could go to get educated". One of them, Jonathan C. Gibbs, served as Secretary of State and Superintendent of Public Instruction for the state of Florida.
In 1866, the New Hampshire College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts was incorporated in Hanover, in connection with Dartmouth College. The institution was officially associated with Dartmouth and was directed by Dartmouth's president. The new college was moved to Durham, New Hampshire, in 1891, and later became known as the University of New Hampshire.
Dartmouth emerged onto the national academic stage at the turn of the 20th century. Prior to this period, the college had clung to traditional methods of instruction and was relatively poorly funded. John Sloan Dickey, serving as president from 1945 until 1970, strongly emphasized the liberal arts, particularly public policy and international relations.
During the 1990s, the college saw a major academic overhaul under President James O. Freedman and a controversial (and ultimately unsuccessful) 1999 initiative to encourage the school's single-sex Greek houses to go coed.
In 2019, Dartmouth College was elected to the Association of American Universities (AAU).
In April 2022, Dartmouth College returned the papers of Samson Occom, who helped Eleazar Wheelock secure the funds for Dartmouth College for what Occom believed would be a school for Native students in Connecticut, to the Mohegan Tribe.
On June 12, 2023 Sian Beilock began her tenure as the first female president of Dartmouth.
In September of 2023, Dartmouth convened an event entitled The Future of Mental Health and Wellness, which included the seven living U.S. Surgeons General at the time. In 2024, the College hired a chief wellness office in order to provide increased mental health support on campus and to help students to manage daily stressors.
In April of 2024, Dartmouth announced the creation of the Dartmouth Climate Collaboration, pledging $500 million towards the goal of eliminating carbon emissions on campus by 2050. The plan includes the installation of high-capacity heat pumps and a geoexchange system, making it the largest operational change in the College’s history.
Academics
Dartmouth, a liberal arts institution, offers a four-year Bachelor of Arts and ABET-accredited Bachelor of Engineering degree to undergraduate students. The Economics Department, whose prominent professors include David Blanchflower, Andrew Samwick, and Diego Comin, among others, also holds the distinction as the top-ranked bachelor's-only economics program in the world. Faculty members have been at the forefront of such major academic developments as the Dartmouth Workshop, the Dartmouth Time-Sharing System, Dartmouth BASIC, and Dartmouth ALGOL 30. In 2005, sponsored project awards to Dartmouth faculty research amounted to $169 million. With the exception of Dartmouth College Press titles, in 2021, Brandeis become the sole owner of all copyrights and titles of UPNE.
Rankings
{| class"wikitable floatright" style"width: 22em;"
|+USNWR graduate school rankings
|-
! scope"row" colspan"2" | Business
| 6
|-
! scope"row" colspan"2" | Engineering
| 55
|-
! scope"row" rowspan"2" | Medicine
! scope="row" | Primary Care
| 46
|-
! scope="row" | Research
| 48
|}
{|class"wikitable floatright" style"width: 22em;"
|+USNWR departmental rankings Dartmouth's undergraduate teaching was previously ranked 1st by U.S. News for five years in a row (2009–2013). Dartmouth College is accredited by the New England Commission of Higher Education.
In Forbes 2019 rankings of 650 universities, liberal arts colleges and service academies, Dartmouth ranked 10th overall and 10th in research universities. In the Forbes 2018 "grateful graduate" rankings, Dartmouth came in first for the second year in a row.
The 2021 Academic Ranking of World Universities ranked Dartmouth among the 90–110th best universities in the nation. However, this specific ranking has drawn criticism from scholars for not adequately adjusting for the size of an institution, which leads to larger institutions ranking above smaller ones like Dartmouth.
The 2006 Carnegie Foundation classification listed Dartmouth as the only "majority-undergraduate", "arts-and-sciences focus[ed]", "research university" in the country that also had "some graduate coexistence" and "very high research activity".
|admit rate = Overall: 6.23%<br />ED: 19.9%<br />: 4.6%
|yield rate |SAT EBRW 710–770
|SAT EBRW change |SAT Math 730–790
|SAT Math change |ACT 32–35<!-- use an en-dash (–) -->
|ACT change |top decile 94.5%
|top decile change |top quarter 98.3%
|top quarter change |top half 99.8%
|top half change |alignleft
}}
Undergraduate admission to Dartmouth College is characterized by the Carnegie Foundation and U.S. News & World Report as "most selective". The Princeton Review, in its 2024 edition, gave the university an admissions selectivity rating of 99 out of 99.
For the freshman class entering Fall 2023, Dartmouth received a record 28,841 applications of which 6.2% were accepted, consistent with the prior two years; approximately 67% of those accepted are expected to matriculate. Of those admitted students who reported class rank, 444 were ranked first or second in their class, while 96% ranked in the top decile. The admitted students' academic profile showed an all-time high SAT average score of 1501, while the average composite ACT score remained at 33.
Additionally, for the 2016–2017 academic year, Dartmouth received 685 transfer applications of which 5.1% were accepted, with an average SAT composite score of 1490, average composite ACT score of 34, and average college GPA of about 3.85. Dartmouth meets 100% of students' demonstrated financial need in order to attend the college, and currently admits all students, including internationals, on a need-blind basis.
In 2020, Dartmouth made it optional for students applying to the college to submit their SAT scores due to the Covid-19 pandemic. In 2024, the college became the first Ivy League school to announce that it would once again require applicants to submit their test scores.
Financial aid
Dartmouth guarantees to meet 100% of the demonstrated need of every admitted student who applies for financial aid at the time of admission. Dartmouth is one of seven American universities to practice international need-blind admissions. This means that all applicants, including U.S. permanent residents, undocumented students in the U.S., and international students, are admitted to the college without regard to their financial circumstances. At Dartmouth, free tuition is provided for students from families with total incomes of $125,000 or less and possessing typical assets. Dartmouth is also one of a few U.S. universities to eliminate undergraduate student loans and replace them with expanded scholarship grants. In 2015, $88.8 million (~$}} in ) in need-based scholarships were awarded to Dartmouth students.
The median family income of Dartmouth students is $200,400, with 58% of students coming from the top 10% highest-earning families and 14% from the bottom 60%.
However, a 2022 article from The Dartmouth disputes the college's claims by saying the following: "To put it all together with the $9 million of student debt from the Class of 2021, this change in Dartmouth policy, hailed as "eliminat[ing] loans for undergraduate students" actually eliminated only about a quarter—27.4% to be exact—of student loans for undergraduate students. So, while Dartmouth gets glowing coverage in news publications across the country, 72.6% of the debt it saddles its students with remains."
In March 2024, the estate of Glenn Britt gifted over $150 million to Dartmouth to enable students from middle-income families to attend the college for free.
The Dartmouth Plan
]]
Dartmouth functions on a quarter system, operating year-round on four ten-week academic terms. The Dartmouth Plan (or simply "D-Plan") is an academic scheduling system that permits the customization of each student's academic year. All undergraduates are required to be in residence for the fall, winter, and spring terms of their freshman year and two terms of their senior year, as well as the summer term of their sophomore year. During all terms, students are permitted to choose between studying on-campus, studying at an off-campus program, or taking a term off for vacation, outside internships, or research projects. UArctic is an international cooperative network based in the Circumpolar Arctic region, consisting of more than 200 universities, colleges, and other organizations with an interest in promoting education and research in the Arctic region. Campus
{{quote box | width30% | alignright | quoteThis is what a college is supposed to look like.|source —U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1953 The campus also has the largest Kentucky coffeetree in New Hampshire, at 91 ft tall.
While Dartmouth's campus is located in a rural setting, it is connected to several major cities by intercity bus services that directly serve Dartmouth and Hanover. Dartmouth Coach provides service from Hanover to South Station and Logan International Airport in Boston as well as New York City, while Greyhound Lines operates a daily route connecting Hanover and Montreal. All three cities are popular weekend/vacation destinations for Dartmouth students.
Academic facilities
]]
The college's creative and performing arts facility is the Hopkins Center for the Arts ("the Hop"). Opened in 1962, the Hop houses the college's drama, music, film, and studio arts departments, as well as a woodshop, pottery studio, and jewelry studio which are open for use by students and faculty. The center will house the Computer Science department and Magnuson Center for Entrepreneurship. In October 2019, construction began on the Irving Institute of Energy and Society. Both were completed by Spring 2022, and the Center for Engineering and Computer Science was renamed the Class of 1982 Engineering and Computer Science Center.
Dartmouth's libraries are all part of the collective Dartmouth College Library, which comprises 2.48 million volumes and 6 million total resources, including videos, maps, sound recordings, and photographs.
Residential housing and student life facilities
Beginning in the fall term of 2016, Dartmouth placed all undergraduate students in one of six House communities, similar to residential colleges, including Allen House, East Wheelock House, North Park House, School House, South House, and West House, alongside independent Living Learning Communities. Dartmouth used to have nine residential communities located throughout campus, instead of ungrouped dormitories or residential colleges.
Campus meals are served by Dartmouth Dining Services, which operates 11 dining establishments around campus.
!Freshman buildings
!Color
|-
|Allen House
|2016
|426
|257
|Gile Hall, Streeter Hall, Lord Hall
|Bissell Hall, Cohen Hall
|Red
|-
|East Wheelock House
|2016
|327
|327
|Andres Hall, Zimmerman Hall, Morton Hall, McCulloch Hall
|
|Orange
|-
|North Park House
|2016
|214
|137
|Thomas Hall, Goldstein Hall, Byrne II Hall, Rauner Hall, Bildner Hall, Berry Hall
|
|Dark Blue
|-
|School House
|2016
|561
|333
|North, Mid- and South Massachusetts Halls, Hitchcock Hall
|Brown Hall, Little Hall, Wheeler Hall
|Light Blue
|-
|South House
|2016
|592
|366
|Topliff Hall, New Hampshire Hall, The Lodge
|North, Mid- and South Fayerweather Halls, Richardson Hall
|Black
|-
|West House
|2016
|520
|335
|Russell Sage Hall, Butterfield Hall, Fahey Hall, McLane Hall
|French Hall, Judge Hall
|Purple
|}
<gallery>
File:Dartmouth College campus 2007-06-23 Lord Hall.JPG|Lord Hall, Allen House
File:Dartmouth College campus 2007-06-23 Morton Hall 01.JPG|Morton Hall, East Wheelock House
File:Dartmouth College campus 2007-06-23 Woodward Hall 02.JPG|Woodward Hall, North Park House
File:Dartmouth College campus 2007-06-23 Mid Massachusetts Hall 02.JPG|Mid Massachusetts Hall, School House
File:Dartmouth College campus 2007-06-23 Topliff Hall 03.JPG|Topliff Hall, South House
File:Dartmouth College campus 2007-10-21 03 - Russell Sage Hall.JPG|Russell Sage Hall, West House
</gallery>
Student life
{| class="wikitable floatright sortable collapsible"; text-align:right; font-size:80%;"
|+ style="font-size:90%" |Student body composition as of May 2, 2022
|-
! Race and ethnicity
! colspan"2" data-sort-typenumber |Total
|-
| White
|align=right|
|-
| Asian
|align=right|
|-
| Foreign national
|align=right|
|-
| Hispanic
|align=right|
|-
| Other
|align=right|
|-
| Black
|align=right|
|-
| Native American
|align=right|
|-
! colspan"4" data-sort-typenumber |Economic diversity
|-
| Low-income
|align=right|
|-
| Affluent
|align=right|
|}
Dartmouth Student Government represents students on issues related to student life. Annually, students elect a student body president, vice president, and undergraduate senate to represent them in the following academic year. In 2006, The Princeton Review ranked Dartmouth third in its "Quality of Life" category, and sixth for having the "Happiest Students".
In 2014, Dartmouth College was the third highest in the nation in "total of reports of rape" on their main campus, with 42 reports of rape. In 2015, the Huffington Post reported that Dartmouth had the highest rate of bystander intervention of any college surveyed, with 57.7% of Dartmouth students reporting that they would take some sort of action if they saw someone acting in a "sexually violent or harassing manner," compared to 45.5% of students nationally.
Dartmouth fraternities have an extensive history of hazing and alcohol abuse, leading to police raids and accusations of sexual harassment.
Student groups
. The building is a designated stop along the Appalachian Trail.]]
fraternity house]]
Dartmouth's more than 200 student organizations and clubs cover a wide range of interests.
The college has an additional classification of social/residential organizations known as undergraduate societies. Dartmouth's athletic teams compete in the NCAA Division I eight-member Ivy League conference; some teams also participate in the Eastern College Athletic Conference (ECAC). The Dartmouth Men's Rugby Team, founded in 1951, has been ranked among the best collegiate teams in that sport, winning for example the Ivy Rugby Conference every year between 2008 and 2020. In the spring, Green Key is a weekend mostly devoted to campus parties and celebration. originating in the 1860s, is based on students' adoption of a shade of forest green ("Dartmouth Green") as the school's official color in 1866. According to a 2008 article in The Wall Street Journal based on data from payscale.com, Dartmouth graduates also earn higher median salaries at least 10 years after graduation than alumni of any other American university surveyed. Top employers of new graduates include Goldman Sachs, Morgan Stanley, McKinsey & Company, Bain & Company, Amazon, Microsoft, and Google.
Nelson A. Rockefeller, 41st Vice President of the United States and 49th Governor of New York, graduated cum laude from Dartmouth with a degree in economics in 1930. Over 164 Dartmouth graduates have served in the United States Senate and United States House of Representatives, the 42nd Governor of Illinois, businessman Bruce Rauner; and the 31st governor and current senator from North Dakota, John Hoeven (R), are also Dartmouth alumni. Ernesto de la Guardia, class of 1925, was president of the Republic of Panama.
In literature and journalism, Dartmouth has produced 13 Pulitzer Prize winners: Thomas M. Burton, Paul Gigot, Frank Gilroy, Jake Hooker, Frost, who received four Pulitzer Prizes for Poetry in his lifetime, attended but did not graduate from Dartmouth; he is, however, the only person to have received two honorary degrees from Dartmouth.
In the area of religion and theology, Dartmouth alumni include priests and ministers Ebenezer Porter, Jonathan Clarkson Gibbs, Caleb Sprague Henry, Arthur Whipple Jenks, Solomon Spalding, and Joseph Tracy; Transcendental Meditation Movement leader John Hagelin; and rabbis Marshall Meyer, Arnold Resnicoff, and David E. Stern. Jeffrey R. Immelt (General Electric),
Dick Durrance and Tim Caldwell competed for the United States in skiing in the 1936 and 1976 Winter Olympics, respectively. and is based loosely on a series of stories he wrote about his fraternity days at Dartmouth. In a CNN interview, John Landis said the movie was "based on Chris Miller's real fraternity at Dartmouth", Alpha Delta Phi.
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Further reading
* Behrens, Richard K., "From the Connecticut Valley to the West Coast: The Role of Dartmouth College in the Building of the Nation," Historical New Hampshire, 63 (Spring 2009), 45–68.
* Calloway, Colin G. The Indian History of an American Institution: Native Americans and Dartmouth (Dartmouth College Press, 2010) [https://books.google.com/books?idCNLMam3j_48C&dqDartmouth+students&pg=PR2 online].
* Campbell, David P. "The Vocational Interests of Dartmouth College Freshmen: 1947‐67." Personnel and Guidance Journal 47.6 (1969): 521–530. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/j.2164-4918.1969.tb02952.x online]
* ([https://books.google.com/books?idF8KEAAAAIAAJ&qA%20history%20of%20Dartmouth%20College%20and%20the%20town%20of%20Hanover%2C%20New%20Hampshire%2C%20Volume%202 Read and download public domain copy via Google Books] .)
*
*
*
* Hoge, Dean R. "Changes in college students' value patterns in the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s." Sociology of Education (1976): 155–163. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2112520 online]
*
* Kegerreis, Richard. "The Handel Society of Dartmouth." American Music (1986): 177–193. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3051980 online]
* Person, Harlow S. "The Amos Tuck School of Dartmouth College." Journal of Political Economy 21.2 (1913): 117–126. [https://scholar.google.com/scholar?outputinstlink&qinfo:d6iUbvOjJ5EJ:scholar.google.com/&hlen&as_sdt0,27&scillfp17338886192089823011&oille online]
*Putnam, Constance. (2015) ''The Science We Have Loved and Taught: Dartmouth Medical School's First Two Centuries (Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, 2015).[https://books.google.com/books?idaCczCwAAQBAJ&dqDartmouth&pg=PP1 online]
*
* Syrett, Nicholas L. "The boys of Beaver Meadow: A homosexual community at 1920s Dartmouth College." American Studies 48.2 (2007): 9–18. [https://journals.ku.edu/amerstud/article/download/3137/3905 online]
* Tobias, Marilyn. (1982) Old Dartmouth on trial: The transformation of the academic community in nineteenth-century America (NYU Press, 1982) [https://books.google.com/books?idth4UCgAAQBAJ&dqMarilyn+Tobias&pg=PR11 online]
* [http://www.artseditor.com/html/features/0509_concha.shtml Listen, Look, Likeness: examining the portraits of Félix de la Concha''] 2009 ArtsEditor.com article
External links
*
* [http://www.dartmouthsports.com/ Dartmouth Athletics website]
|list =
}}
Category:1769 establishments in the Thirteen Colonies
Category:Colonial colleges
Category:Educational institutions established in 1769
Category:Universities and colleges in Grafton County, New Hampshire
Category:Private universities and colleges in New Hampshire
Category:Tribal colleges and universities
Category:Antebellum educational institutions that admitted African Americans
Category:Buildings and structures in Hanover, New Hampshire
Category:Need-blind educational institutions
Category:Ivy Plus universities
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dartmouth_College
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Dartmouth, Devon
|
| population = 5,064
| population_ref = (2011)
| shire_county = Devon
| shire_district = South Hams
| civil_parish = Dartmouth
| region = South West England
| constituency_westminster = South Devon
| post_town = DARTMOUTH
| postcode_district = TQ6
| postcode_area = TQ
| dial_code = 01803
| static_image_name = dartmouth.town.750pix.jpg
| static_image_caption = Dartmouth from the River Dart
| os_grid_reference = SX877514
}}
Dartmouth () is a town and civil parish in the English county of Devon. It is a tourist destination set on the western bank of the estuary of the River Dart, which is a long narrow tidal ria that runs inland as far as Totnes. It lies within the South Devon Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty and South Hams district, and had a population of 5,512 in 2001, reducing to 5,064 at the 2011 census. There are two electoral wards in the Dartmouth area (Townstal & Kingswear). Their combined population at the above census was 6,822.
History
In 1086, the Domesday Book listed Dunestal as the only settlement in the area which now makes up the parish of Dartmouth. It was held by Walter of Douai. It paid tax on half a hide, and had two plough teams, two slaves, five villagers and four smallholders. There were six cattle, 40 sheep and 15 goats. At this time Townstal (as the name became) was apparently a purely agricultural settlement, centred around the church. Walter of Douai rebelled against William II, and his lands were confiscated and added to the Honour of Marshwood (Dorset), which sublet Townstal and Dartmouth to the FitzStephens. It was probably during the early part of their proprietorship that Dartmouth began to grow as a port, as it was of strategic importance as a deep-water port for sailing vessels. The port was used as the sailing point for the Crusades of 1147 and 1190, and Warfleet Creek, close to Dartmouth Castle is supposed by some to be named for the vast fleets which assembled there. Dartmouth was a home of the Royal Navy from the reign of Edward III and was twice surprised and sacked during the Hundred Years' War, after which the mouth of the estuary was closed every night with a great chain. The narrow mouth of the Dart is protected by two fortified castles, Dartmouth Castle and Kingswear Castle. Originally Dartmouth's only wharf was Bayard's Cove, a relatively small area protected by a fort at the southern end of the town.
In 1373 Geoffrey Chaucer visited and among the pilgrims in his Canterbury Tales,
Notwithstanding Dartmouth's connections with the crown and respectable society, it was a major base for privateering in medieval times. John Hawley or Hauley, a licensed privateer and sometime mayor of Dartmouth is reputed to be a model for Chaucer's "schipman".
The earliest street in Dartmouth to be recorded by name (in the 13th century) is Smith Street. Several of the houses on the street are originally late 16th century or early 17th century and probably rebuilt on the site of earlier medieval dwellings. The street name undoubtedly derives from the smiths and shipwrights who built and repaired ships here when the tidal waters reached as far as this point. Smith Street was also the site of the town pillory in medieval times.
The first church in the parish was St Clement's, Townstal, which may have existed in some form before the 1190s. It was granted by the FitzStephens to Torre Abbey in about 1198, the Abbey having been founded in 1196, and the present stone-built church was probably started shortly after this.
Manorial transactions are first recorded in 1220, when the manor house was at Norton, about half a mile west of Townstal. Names of occupations also started to appear, including taverner, tailor, coggar, korker, goldsmith, glover, skinner and baker. The "Fosse", now Foss Street, a dam across the creek known later as The Mill Pool, was first mentioned in 1243. The flow of water out of the pool through the Mill Gullet powered a tidal mill. The dam was used as an unofficial footpath linking Clifton, to the south, with Hardness, to the north. Before this it was necessary to go westwards to the head of the creek at Ford to travel between the two settlements. The lord of the manor was given the rights to hold a weekly market and an annual fair in 1231. In 1281, a legal case proved that the Lord of Totnes had the right to charge tolls on ships using the river, and this right was bought by Nicholas of Tewkesbury in 1306, who conveyed the town, river and port to the king in 1327, so making Dartmouth a Royal Borough. The king gave the river to the Duchy of Cornwall in 1333, who still own the "fundus" or bed of the river. In 1335 Edward III granted Dartmouth to Joan of Carew, whose husband was Lord of Stoke Fleming, and almost immediately she obediently passed the lordship to Guy de Bryan, one of the king's leading ministers. In 1341, the town was granted a Royal Charter, which allowed for the election of a mayor. The borough was required to provide two ships for forty days per year. After 1390, no more is heard of lordship rights, and the borough became effectively independent of any lord.
St Saviour's Church was constructed in 1335 and consecrated in 1372. It contains a pre-Reformation oak rood screen built in 1480 and several monuments including the tomb of John Hawley (died 1408) and his two wives, covered with a large brass plate effigy of all three. A large medieval ironwork door is decorated with two leopards of the Plantagenets and is possibly the original portal. Although it is dated "1631", this is thought to be the date of a subsequent refurbishment coincidental with major renovations of the church in the 17th century. The gallery of the church is decorated with the heraldic crests of prominent local families and is reputed to be constructed of timbers from ships captured during the defeat of the Spanish Armada, although this has not been categorically substantiated. An engraving of a painting by Thomas Allom of the interior of the church, showing the rood screen, provided the inspiration for Letitia Elizabeth Landon's poetical illustration Dartmouth Church in Fisher's Drawing Room scrap Book, 1833.
In medieval times, land access from the Totnes direction passed the manor at Norton and the parish church at Townstal before falling steeply along what are now Church Road, Mount Boone and Ridge Hill to the river at Hardness. There were steeper routes via Townstal Hill and Clarence Street and also via Brown's Hill. These were all too steep for vehicles, so the only land access was by packhorse. In 1671 there is the first mention of the building of the "New Ground". A previously existing sandbank was built up using ships' ballast, and a quay wall was built around it to provide more mooring space. The area proved too unstable to be built on, and is now the Royal Avenue Gardens. It was originally linked to the corner of the Quay by a bridge, opposite Duke Street. At the other end of The Quay, Spithead extended into the river for a few yards.
at Dartmouth Harbour, 18 September 1592]]
Dartmouth sent numerous ships to join the English fleet that attacked the Spanish Armada, including the Roebuck, Crescent and Hart. The Nuestra Señora del Rosario'', the Spanish Armada's "payship" commanded by Admiral Pedro de Valdés, was captured along with all its crew by Sir Francis Drake. It was reportedly anchored in the River Dart for more than a year and the crew were used as labourers on the nearby Greenway Estate which was the home of Sir Humphrey Gilbert and his half-brother Sir Walter Raleigh. Greenway was later the home of Dame Agatha Christie.
In 1592 the Madre de Deus, a Portuguese treasure ship captured by the English in the Azores, docked at Dartmouth Harbour. It attracted all manner of traders, dealers, cutpurses and thieves and by the time Sir Walter Raleigh arrived to reclaim the Crown's share of the loot, a cargo estimated at half a million pounds had been reduced to £140,000. Still, ten freighters were needed to carry the treasure to London.
Henry Hudson put into Dartmouth on his return from North America, and was arrested for sailing under a foreign flag. The Pilgrim Fathers put into Dartmouth's Bayard's Cove, en route from Southampton to America. They rested a while before setting off on their journey in the Mayflower and the Speedwell on 20 August 1620. About 300 miles west of Land's End, upon realising that the Speedwell was unseaworthy, it returned to Plymouth. The Mayflower departed alone to complete the crossing to Cape Cod. Dartmouth's sister city is Dartmouth, Massachusetts.
]]
The town contains many medieval and Elizabethan streetscapes and is a patchwork of narrow lanes and stone stairways. A significant number of the historic buildings are listed. One of the most obvious is the Butterwalk, built 1635 to 1640. Its intricately carved wooden fascia is supported on granite columns. Charles II held court in the Butterwalk whilst sheltering from storms in 1671 in a room which now forms part of Dartmouth Museum. Much of the interior survives from that time.
The Royal Castle Hotel was built in 1639 on the then new quay. The building was re-fronted in the 19th century, and as the new frontage is itself listed, it is not possible to see the original which lies beneath. A claimant for the oldest building is a former merchant's house in Higher Street, now a Good Beer Guide listed public house called the Cherub, built circa 1380. Agincourt House (next to the Lower Ferry) is also 14th century.
The remains of a fort at Gallants Bower just outside the town are some of the best preserved remains of a Civil War defensive structure. The fort was built by Royalist occupation forces in c. 1643 to the south east of the town, with a similar fort at Mount Ridley on the opposite slopes of what is now Kingswear. The Parliamentarian General Fairfax attacked from the north in 1646, taking the town and forcing the Royalists to surrender, after which Gallants Bower was demolished.
19th century
Before 1671, what is now the town centre was almost entirely tidal mud flats. The New Road (now Victoria Road) was constructed across the bed of the (silted up) Mill Pool and up the Ford valley after 1823. Spithead was extended in 1864 when the Dartmouth and Torbay Railway arrived in Kingswear and a pontoon was constructed, linked to Spithead by a bridge. The railway directors and others formed the Dartmouth Harbour Commissioners.
At this time, all the roads in those parts of Dartmouth which were not land reclamations were very narrow. In 1864-7 Higher Street was widened into Southtown and linked to Lower Street, which was also widened, with the northern part renamed Fairfax Place. Some of the buildings were rebuilt further back with decorative frontages.
In 1881 the Harbour Commissioners produced a scheme for an embankment or esplanade from near the Lower Ferry to Hardness, across the remains of The Pool, to provide an attraction for tourists and further mooring space. It was completed in 1885 after much disagreement between the Borough, the Commissioners and the Railway (now the Great Western Railway). A new station was also built at this time. The building of the Embankment left a section of river isolated between Spithead and the New Ground, which is known as The Boatfloat, and is linked to the river by a bridge for small vessels under the road.
The coming of steam ships led to Dartmouth being used as a bunkering port, with coal being brought in by ship or train. Coal lumpers were members of gangs, who competed to bunker the ships by racing to be first to a ship. This led to the men living as close as possible to the river, and their tenements became grossly overcrowded, with the families living in slum conditions, with up to 15 families in one house, one family to a room.
The Royal National Lifeboat Institution opened the Dart Lifeboat Station at the Sand Quay in 1878, but it was closed in 1896. In all this time only one effective rescue was made by the lifeboat.20th century
The area to the north of Ridge Hill was a shallow and muddy bay ("Coombe Mud") with a narrow road running along the shore linking with the Higher Ferry. The mud was a dumping ground for vessels, including a submarine. The reclamation was completed in 1937 by the extension of the Embankment and the reclamation of the mud behind it, which became Coronation Park.
In the 1920s, aided by government grants, the council made a start on clearing the slums. This was aided by the decline in the use of coal as a fuel for ships. The slums were demolished, and the inhabitants were rehoused in new houses in the Britannia Avenue area, to the west of the old village or hamlet of Townstal. The process was interrupted by the second world war, but was resumed with the construction of many prefabs, and later more houses. Community facilities were minimal at first, but a central area was reserved for a church, which was used by the Baptists and opened in 1954, together with a speedway track. The latter was later used for housing, but a new community centre was opened nearby, together with a leisure centre, an outdoor swimming pool, and later an indoor pool, and supermarkets. There are also light industrial units.
In the latter part of the Second World War the town was a base for American forces and one of the departure points for Utah Beach in the D Day landings. Slipways and harbour improvements were also constructed. Much of the surrounding countryside and notably Slapton Sands was closed to the public while it was used by US troops for practise landings and manoeuvres.
Between 1985 and 1990 the Embankment was widened by 6 metres and raised to prevent flooding at spring tides. A tidal lock gate was provided at the Boatfloat bridge, which could be closed at such times.
21st century
Dart Lifeboat Station was reopened in 2007, the first time that a lifeboat had been stationed in the town since 1896. It has initially been kept in a temporary building in Coronation Park.GovernanceThe town was an ancient borough, incorporated by Edward III, known formally as Clifton-Dartmouth-Hardness, and consisting of the three parishes of St Petrox, St Saviour and Townstal, and incorporating the hamlets of Ford, Old Mill and Norton. It was reformed under the Municipal Corporations Act 1835. The town returned two members of parliament from the 13th century until 1835, after which one Member of Parliament (MP) was elected until the town was disenfranchised in 1868. It remained a municipal borough until 1974, when it was merged into the South Hams district, and became a successor parish of Dartmouth with a town council.
Dartmouth Town Council is the lowest of three tiers of local government. It consists of 16 councillors representing the two wards of Clifton and Townstal. At the second tier, Dartmouth forms part of the Dartmouth and Kingswear ward of South Hams District Council, which returns three councillors. At the upper tier of local government Dartmouth and Kingswear Electoral Division elects one member to Devon County Council.Culture and tourism
The Port of Dartmouth Royal Regatta takes place annually over three days at the end of August. The event sees the traditional regatta boat races along with markets, fun fairs, community games, musical performances, air displays including the Red Arrows and fireworks. A Royal Navy guard ship is often present at the event.
Other cultural events include beer festivals in February and July (the latter in Kingswear), a music festival and an art and craft weekend in June, a food festival in October and a Christmas candlelit event.
The Flavel Centre incorporates the public library and performance spaces, featuring films, live music and comedy and exhibitions.
Bayard's Cove has been used in several television productions, including The Onedin Line a popular BBC television drama series that ran from 1971 to 1980. Many of the scenes from the BBC's popular series Down to Earth, starring Ricky Tomlinson, were filmed at various locations around the town.
Notable tourist attractions include the Dartmouth Royal Naval College, Bayard's Cove Fort, Dartmouth Castle and the Dartmouth Steam Railway which terminates at Kingswear on the opposite bank of the river.
Boat cruises to nearby places along the coast (such as Torbay and Start Bay) and up the river (to Totnes, Dittisham and the Greenway Estate) are provided by several companies. The paddlesteamer PS Kingswear Castle returned to the town in 2013. The South West Coast Path National Trail passes through the town, and also through extensive National Trust coastal properties at Little Dartmouth and Brownstone (Kingswear). The Dart Valley Trail starts in Dartmouth, with routes either side of the River Dart as far as Dittisham, and continuing to Totnes via Cornworthy, Tuckenhay and Ashprington. The area has long been well regarded for yachting, and there are extensive marinas at Sandquay, Kingswear and Noss (approximately one mile north of Kingswear).
Climate
The nearest Met Office weather station is Slapton, about 5 miles south-south west of Dartmouth and a similar distance from the coast. As with the rest of the British Isles and South West England, the area experiences a maritime climate with warm summers and mild winters—this is particularly pronounced due to its position near the coast—extremes range from a record low of just in January 1987 up to a record high of during June 1976.
, 1981–2010 normals, extremes 1960–present
| collapsed = y
| metric first = y
| single line = y
| Jan record high C = 14.6
| Feb record high C = 16.2
| Mar record high C = 19.5
| Apr record high C = 20.5
| May record high C = 24.0
| Jun record high C = 30.5
| Jul record high C = 28.0
| Aug record high C = 28.5
| Sep record high C = 25.0
| Oct record high C = 21.9
| Nov record high C = 17.7
| Dec record high C = 15.7
| Jan high C = 9.2
| Feb high C = 9.1
| Mar high C = 10.8
| Apr high C = 12.8
| May high C = 15.7
| Jun high C = 18.6
| Jul high C = 20.7
| Aug high C = 20.7
| Sep high C = 18.5
| Oct high C = 15.2
| Nov high C = 12.0
| Dec high C = 9.8
| year high C = 14.5
| Jan mean C = 6.5
| Feb mean C = 6.3
| Mar mean C = 7.8
| Apr mean C = 9.2
| May mean C = 12.1
| Jun mean C = 14.6
| Jul mean C = 16.8
| Aug mean C = 16.9
| Sep mean C = 15.0
| Oct mean C = 12.3
| Nov mean C = 9.2
| Dec mean C = 7.1
| year mean C = 11.1
| Jan low C = 3.8
| Feb low C = 3.5
| Mar low C = 4.8
| Apr low C = 5.6
| May low C = 8.4
| Jun low C = 10.6
| Jul low C = 12.8
| Aug low C = 13.0
| Sep low C = 11.4
| Oct low C = 9.3
| Nov low C = 6.4
| Dec low C = 4.4
| year low C = 7.9
| Jan record low C = -8.0
| Feb record low C = -6.8
| Mar record low C = -6.5
| Apr record low C = -2.5
| May record low C = -0.1
| Jun record low C = 2.5
| Jul record low C = 6.2
| Aug record low C = 6.0
| Sep record low C = 3.9
| Oct record low C = 0.2
| Nov record low C = -2.7
| Dec record low C = -6.0
| precipitation colour = green
| Jan precipitation mm = 123.5
| Feb precipitation mm = 94.0
| Mar precipitation mm = 90.0
| Apr precipitation mm = 70.4
| May precipitation mm = 67.0
| Jun precipitation mm = 60.9
| Jul precipitation mm = 63.8
| Aug precipitation mm = 66.1
| Sep precipitation mm = 71.9
| Oct precipitation mm = 114.3
| Nov precipitation mm = 118.6
| Dec precipitation mm = 133.5
| year precipitation mm = 1074.0
| unit precipitation days = 1.0 mm
| Jan precipitation days = 14.7
| Feb precipitation days = 11.5
| Mar precipitation days = 12.7
| Apr precipitation days = 10.5
| May precipitation days = 9.9
| Jun precipitation days = 8.2
| Jul precipitation days = 8.6
| Aug precipitation days = 9.2
| Sep precipitation days = 9.7
| Oct precipitation days = 13.7
| Nov precipitation days = 14.5
| Dec precipitation days = 14.6
| year precipitation days = 137.7
| Jan sun = 57.5
| Feb sun = 76.4
| Mar sun = 118.5
| Apr sun = 180.7
| May sun = 210.7
| Jun sun = 213.9
| Jul sun = 215.6
| Aug sun = 198.0
| Sep sun = 154.9
| Oct sun = 102.3
| Nov sun = 74.8
| Dec sun = 48.3
| year sun = 1651.6
| source 1 Met Office
| source 2 KNMI
}}
Transport
Dartmouth is linked to Kingswear, on the other side of the River Dart, by three ferries. The Higher Ferry and the Lower Ferry are both vehicular ferries. The Passenger Ferry, as its name suggests, carries only passengers, principally to connect with the Dartmouth Steam Railway at Kingswear railway station. The nearest bridge across the Dart is in Totnes, some away by road.
The A379 road runs through Dartmouth, linking the town to Slapton and Kingsbridge to the southwest and to Torbay to the east across the Higher Ferry. The A3122 connects Dartmouth to a junction with the A381, and hence to both Totnes and a more direct route to Kingsbridge.
Stagecoach South West provides local town bus services and links to Plymouth, Totnes and Exeter, and Kingsbridge. In addition it provides links to the Torbay resorts of Brixham, Paignton and Torquay from Kingswear via the ferry.
No railway has ever run to Dartmouth, but the town does have a railway station, opened on 31 March 1890 to replace the original facility on the pontoon, although it is now a restaurant. In fact Dartmouth Railway Station was built while the line from Paignton to the River Dart was still being built, anticipating a bridge across the river being built near the present Greenway Halt. The railway line to Kingswear was opened in 1864. As a result of shortage of capital, a deviation from the original scheme to run the line from Churston to Greenway with a steamer service to Dartmouth was proposed, but defeated in Parliament. It had been suggested that this could, at a later date, be used as a jumping off point for a bridge to the west bank of the Dart and a line direct to Dartmouth. In 1900, a Light Railway scheme was proposed for a crossing of the Dart near Maypool to join another line from Totnes and then proceed to Kingsbridge and Yealmpton, with a branch to Salcombe. This was also defeated by lack of funds. The railway terminated at a station called "Kingswear for Dartmouth" (now on the Dartmouth Steam Railway) and a ferry took passengers across the river to the station at Dartmouth railway station, which had a dedicated pontoon. British Railways formally closed the line to mainline passenger trains in 1973, but it immediately re-opened as a heritage line and has run as one ever since.
Media
Local TV coverage is provided by BBC West and ITV West Country. Television signals are received from the Beacon Hill TV transmitter and the local relay transmitter situated south east of the town.
Local radio stations include BBC Radio Devon on 104.3 FM, Heart West on 96.4 FM, Greatest Hits Radio South Devon on 105.5 FM, and Radio Exe on 107.3 FM.
The Dartmouth Chronicle is the town's local weekly newspaper.
Education
Britannia Royal Naval College
The town is home to the Royal Navy's officer training college (Britannia Royal Naval College), where all officers of the Royal Navy and many foreign naval officers are trained.
Schools
Dartmouth has one primary school—St John the Baptist R.C. Primary School, and one all-through school—Dartmouth Academy—for those aged 3–16. Dartmouth also has a pre-school in the centre of town, established for over 40 years and based in the old Victorian school rooms at South Ford Road. It provides care for 2- to 5-year-olds and is run as a charitable organisation.
Sport and leisure
Dartmouth has a Non-League football club Dartmouth A.F.C. who play at Long Cross.
Dartmouth also hosts the annual "World Indoor Rally Championship", based on slot car racing in the late summer.
At the end of August and early September there is the annual Port of Dartmouth Royal Regatta.
Since 1905 Dartmouth has had a greenhouse as part of the Royal Avenue Gardens. In May 2013 this building, used for the previous 10 years by Dartmouth in Bloom, a not-for-profit organisation affiliated with Britain in Bloom, was closed as structurally unsound. There are proposals to restore the greenhouse to its prior Edwardian style.
Notable residents
* George Parker Bidder (1806–1878), the civil engineer and calculating prodigy, notable for his work on railways over much of the world, as well as the docks of the East End in the Port of London. Bidder died at his home at Paradise Point near Warfleet Creek and is buried at nearby Stoke Fleming.
* Simon Drew (born 1952), a commercially successful cartoonist and illustrator, lives in Dartmouth and runs a shop on Fosse Street.
* John Flavel (ca.1627–1691), an English Puritan Presbyterian minister and author.
* Gordon Onslow Ford (1912–2003), a leading British surrealist painter, attended the Royal Naval College.
* Sir John Harvey Jones (1924–2008), businessman and television presenter, attended the Royal Naval College.
* Rachel Kempson (1910–2003), stage and film actress, was born in Dartmouth. She was the wife of Sir Michael Redgrave and mother of Vanessa, Lynn and Corin, and published her autobiography, Life Among the Redgraves, in 1988.
* Christopher Robin Milne (1920–1996), son of A. A. Milne, after whom the character Christopher Robin in the Winnie-the-Pooh books was named, used to own the Harbour Bookshop. The bookshop closed in September 2011.
* Thomas Newcomen (1664–1729), the inventor of the atmospheric engine – the first successful steam-powered pumping engine—was born in Dartmouth in 1663. An 18th-century working Newcomen steam engine is on display in the town.
* Sir Nicholas Harris Nicolas (1799–1848), an English antiquary.
* Mary Nightingale (born 1963), ITV newscaster, lived in Dartmouth for much of her childhood.
* John "Jack" Russell (1795–1883), an English parson, an enthusiastic fox-hunter and dog breeder.
* Flora Thompson (1876–1947), lived in Above Town between 1928 and 1940, writing Lark Rise and Over to Candleford during this time. The books were later published as Lark Rise to Candleford. She is buried at Longcross Cemetery.
* Theodore Veale (1892–1980), recipient of the Victoria Cross during the First World War.
* John L. Wimbush (1854–1914), landscape and portrait painter.
* Stephen Beresford, BAFTA winning screenwriter and playwright grew up in the town and has written several plays set in Dartmouth, including The Last of the Haussmans first performed at the Royal National Theatre.
References
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160303212507/http://www.britannia.com/history/devon/castles/dartmouthcast.html Charles Oman, "Dartmouth and Kingswear Castles: Twin Dart estuary defenders]
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Category:Towns in Devon
Category:Port cities and towns in South West England
Category:Seaside resorts in England
Category:Civil parishes in South Hams
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dartmouth,_Devon
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2025-04-05T18:28:37.147837
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8420
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Dodo
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Pezophaps solitaria (Rodrigues solitaire)
|2=Raphus cucullatus (dodo)
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of the Oxford specimen's foot, which has been used to sample DNA for genetic analyses]]
A similar cladogram was published in 2007, inverting the placement of Goura and Didunculus and including the pheasant pigeon (Otidiphaps nobilis) and the thick-billed ground pigeon (Trugon terrestris) at the base of the clade. The DNA used in these studies was obtained from the Oxford specimen, and since this material is degraded, and no usable DNA has been extracted from subfossil remains, these findings still need to be independently verified. Based on behavioural and morphological evidence, Jolyon C. Parish proposed that the dodo and Rodrigues solitaire should be placed in the subfamily Gourinae along with the Goura pigeons and others, in agreement with the genetic evidence. In 2014, DNA of the only known specimen of the recently extinct spotted green pigeon (Caloenas maculata) was analysed, and it was found to be a close relative of the Nicobar pigeon, and thus also the dodo and Rodrigues solitaire.
The 2002 study indicated that the ancestors of the dodo and the solitaire diverged around the Paleogene-Neogene boundary, about 23.03 million years ago. The Mascarene Islands (Mauritius, Réunion, and Rodrigues), are of volcanic origin and are less than 10 million years old. Therefore, the ancestors of both birds probably remained capable of flight for a considerable time after the separation of their lineage. The Nicobar and spotted green pigeon were placed at the base of a lineage leading to the Raphinae, which indicates the flightless raphines had ancestors that were able to fly, were semi-terrestrial, and inhabited islands. This in turn supports the hypothesis that the ancestors of those birds reached the Mascarene islands by island hopping from South Asia. Despite its divergent skull morphology and adaptations for larger size, many features of its skeleton remained similar to those of smaller, flying pigeons. Another large, flightless pigeon, the Viti Levu giant pigeon (Natunaornis gigoura), was described in 2001 from subfossil material from Fiji. It was only slightly smaller than the dodo and the solitaire, and it too is thought to have been related to the crowned pigeons. Etymology
One of the original names for the dodo was the Dutch "Walghvoghel", first used in the journal of Dutch Vice Admiral Wybrand van Warwijck, who visited Mauritius during the Second Dutch Expedition to Indonesia in 1598. Walghe means "tasteless", "insipid", or "sickly", and means "bird". The name was translated by Jakob Friedlib into German as Walchstök or Walchvögel. The original Dutch report titled Waarachtige Beschryving was lost, but the English translation survived:
}}
Another account from that voyage, perhaps the first to mention the dodo, states that the Portuguese referred to them as penguins. The meaning may not have been derived from penguin (the Portuguese referred to those birds as "fotilicaios" at the time), but from pinion, a reference to the small wings. This crew also called them "griff-eendt" and "kermisgans", in reference to fowl fattened for the Kermesse festival in Amsterdam, which was held the day after they anchored on Mauritius.
, showing a broad-billed parrot, a red rail, and a dodo]]
The etymology of the word dodo is unclear. Some ascribe it to the Dutch word dodoor for "sluggard", but it is more probably related to Dodaars, which means either "fat-arse" or "knot-arse", referring to the knot of feathers on the hind end. The first record of the word Dodaars is in Captain Willem Van West-Zanen's journal in 1602. The English writer Sir Thomas Herbert was the first to use the word dodo in print in his 1634 travelogue claiming it was referred to as such by the Portuguese, who had visited Mauritius in 1507. Another Englishman, Emmanuel Altham, had used the word in a 1628 letter in which he also claimed its origin was Portuguese. The name "dodar" was introduced into English at the same time as dodo, but was only used until the 18th century. As far as is known, the Portuguese never mentioned the bird. Nevertheless, some sources still state that the word dodo derives from the Portuguese word doudo (currently doido), meaning "fool" or "crazy". It has also been suggested that dodo was an onomatopoeic approximation of the bird's call, a two-note pigeon-like sound resembling "doo-doo".
The Latin name cucullatus ("hooded") was first used in 1635 by the Spanish Jesuit Juan Eusebio Nieremberg as Cygnus cucullatus, in reference to Carolus Clusius's 1605 depiction of a dodo. In the tenth edition of his 18th-century classic work Systema Naturae, the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus used cucullatus as the specific name, but combined it with the genus name Struthio (ostrich). Mathurin Jacques Brisson coined the genus name Raphus (referring to the bustards) in 1760, resulting in the current name Raphus cucullatus. In 1766, Linnaeus coined the new binomial Didus ineptus (meaning "inept dodo"). This has become a synonym of the earlier name because of nomenclatural priority.
Description
As no complete dodo specimens exist, its external appearance, such as plumage and colouration, is hard to determine. According to most representations, the dodo had greyish or brownish plumage, with lighter primary feathers and a tuft of curly light feathers high on its rear end. The head was grey and naked, the beak green, black and yellow, and the legs were stout and yellowish, with black claws. A study of the few remaining feathers on the Oxford specimen head showed that they were pennaceous rather than plumaceous (downy) and most similar to those of other pigeons.
Subfossil remains and remnants of the birds that were brought to Europe in the 17th century show that dodos were very large birds, measuring about in height. Also in 1993, Andrew C. Kitchener attributed a high contemporary weight estimate and the roundness of dodos depicted in Europe to these birds having been overfed in captivity; weights in the wild were estimated to have been in the range of , and fattened birds could have weighed . A 2011 estimate by Angst and colleagues gave an average weight as low as . This has also been questioned, and there is still controversy over weight estimates. A 2016 study estimated the weight at , based on CT scans of composite skeletons. It has also been suggested that the weight depended on the season, and that individuals were fat during cool seasons, but less so during hot.SkeletonThe skull of the dodo differed much from those of other pigeons, especially in being more robust, the bill having a hooked tip, and in having a short cranium compared to the jaws. The upper bill was nearly twice as long as the cranium, which was short compared to those of its closest pigeon relatives. The openings of the bony nostrils were elongated along the length of the beak, and they contained no bony septum. The cranium (excluding the beak) was wider than it was long, and the frontal bone formed a dome-shape, with the highest point above the hind part of the eye sockets. The skull sloped downwards at the back. The eye sockets occupied much of the hind part of the skull. The sclerotic rings inside the eye were formed by eleven ossicles (small bones), similar to the amount in other pigeons. The mandible was slightly curved, and each half had a single fenestra (opening), as in other pigeons.}}
One of the most detailed descriptions is by Herbert in A Relation of Some Yeares Travaille into Afrique and the Greater Asia from 1634:
}} Contemporary depictions The travel journal of the Dutch ship Gelderland (1601–1603), rediscovered in the 1860s, contains the only known sketches of living or recently killed specimens drawn on Mauritius. They have been attributed to the professional artist Joris Joostensz Laerle, who also drew other now-extinct Mauritian birds, and to a second, less refined artist. Apart from these sketches, it is unknown how many of the twenty or so 17th-century illustrations of the dodos were drawn from life or from stuffed specimens, which affects their reliability.
The traditional image of the dodo is of a very fat and clumsy bird, but this view may be exaggerated. The general opinion of scientists today is that many old European depictions were based on overfed captive birds or crudely stuffed specimens. It has also been suggested that the images might show dodos with puffed feathers, as part of display behaviour.
's Dodo, painted by Roelant Savery in 1626]]
An Indian Mughal painting rediscovered in the Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, in 1955 shows a dodo along with native Indian birds. It depicts a slimmer, brownish bird, and its discoverer Aleksander Iwanow and British palaeontologist Julian Hume regarded it as one of the most accurate depictions of the living dodo; the surrounding birds are clearly identifiable and depicted with appropriate colouring. It is believed to be from the 17th century and has been attributed to the Mughal painter Ustad Mansur. The bird depicted probably lived in the menagerie of the Mughal Emperor Jahangir, located in Surat, where the English traveller Peter Mundy also claimed to have seen two dodos sometime between 1628 and 1633.
All post-1638 depictions appear to be based on earlier images, around the time reports mentioning dodos became rarer. Differences in the depictions led ornithologists such as Anthonie Cornelis Oudemans and Masauji Hachisuka to speculate about sexual dimorphism, ontogenic traits, seasonal variation, and even the existence of different species, but these theories are not accepted today. Because details such as markings of the beak, the form of the tail feathers, and colouration vary from account to account, it is impossible to determine the exact morphology of these features, whether they signal age or sex, or if they even reflect reality. Hume argued that the nostrils of the living dodo would have been slits, as seen in the Gelderland'', Cornelis Saftleven, Savery's Crocker Art Gallery, and Mansur images. According to this claim, the gaping nostrils often seen in paintings indicate that taxidermy specimens were used as models. In 2016, the first 3D endocast was made from the brain of the dodo; the brain-to-body-size ratio was similar to that of modern pigeons, indicating that dodos were probably equal in intelligence.
Many endemic species of Mauritius became extinct after the arrival of humans, so the ecosystem of the island is badly damaged and hard to reconstruct. Before humans arrived, Mauritius was entirely covered in forests, but very little remains of them today, because of deforestation. The surviving endemic fauna is still seriously threatened. The dodo lived alongside other recently extinct Mauritian birds such as the flightless red rail, the broad-billed parrot, the Mascarene grey parakeet, the Mauritius blue pigeon, the Mauritius scops owl, the Mascarene coot, the Mauritian shelduck, the Mauritian duck, and the Mauritius night heron. Extinct Mauritian reptiles include the saddle-backed Mauritius giant tortoise, the domed Mauritius giant tortoise, the Mauritian giant skink, and the Round Island burrowing boa. The small Mauritian flying fox and the snail Tropidophora carinata lived on Mauritius and Réunion, but vanished from both islands. Some plants, such as Casearia tinifolia and the palm orchid, have also become extinct. Diet and feeding
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A 1631 Dutch letter (long thought lost, but rediscovered in 2017) is the only account of the dodo's diet, and also mentions that it used its beak for defence. The document uses word-play to refer to the animals described, with dodos presumably being an allegory for wealthy mayors:
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It is not known how the young were fed, but related pigeons provide crop milk. Contemporary depictions show a large crop, which was probably used to add space for food storage and to produce crop milk. It has been suggested that the maximum size attained by the dodo and the solitaire was limited by the amount of crop milk they could produce for their young during early growth.
In 1973, the tambalacoque, also known as the dodo tree, was thought to be dying out on Mauritius, to which it is endemic. There were supposedly only 13 specimens left, all estimated to be about 300 years old. Stanley Temple hypothesised that it depended on the dodo for its propagation, and that its seeds would germinate only after passing through the bird's digestive tract. He claimed that the tambalacoque was now nearly coextinct because of the disappearance of the dodo. Temple overlooked reports from the 1940s that found that tambalacoque seeds germinated, albeit very rarely, without being abraded during digestion. Others have contested his hypothesis and suggested that the decline of the tree was exaggerated or seeds were also distributed by other extinct animals such as Cylindraspis tortoises, fruit bats, or the broad-billed parrot. According to Wendy Strahm and Anthony Cheke, two experts in the ecology of the Mascarene Islands, the tree, while rare, has germinated since the demise of the dodo and numbers several hundred, not 13 as claimed by Temple, hence, discrediting Temple's view as to the dodo and the tree's sole survival relationship.
The Brazilian ornithologist Carlos Yamashita suggested in 1997 that the broad-billed parrot may have depended on dodos and Cylindraspis tortoises to eat palm fruits and excrete their seeds, which became food for the parrots. Anodorhynchus macaws depended on now-extinct South American megafauna in the same way, but now rely on domesticated cattle for this service. Reproduction and development
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As it was flightless and terrestrial and there were no mammalian predators or other kinds of natural enemy on Mauritius, the dodo probably nested on the ground. The account by François Cauche from 1651 is the only description of the egg and the call:
The Dutch Empire acquired Mauritius in 1598, renaming it after Maurice of Nassau, and it was used for the provisioning of trade vessels of the Dutch East India Company henceforward. The earliest known accounts of the dodo were provided by Dutch travellers during the Second Dutch Expedition to Indonesia, led by admiral Jacob van Neck in 1598. They appear in reports published in 1601, which also contain the first published illustration of the bird. Since the first sailors to visit Mauritius had been at sea for a long time, their interest in these large birds was mainly culinary. The 1602 journal by Willem Van West-Zanen of the ship Bruin-Vis mentions that 24–25 dodos were hunted for food, which were so large that two could scarcely be consumed at mealtime, their remains being preserved by salting. An illustration made for the 1648 published version of this journal, showing the killing of dodos, a dugong, and possibly Mascarene grey parakeets, was captioned with a Dutch poem, here in Hugh Strickland's 1848 translation:
</poem>}}
Some early travellers found dodo meat unsavoury, and preferred to eat parrots and pigeons; others described it as tough, but good. Some hunted dodos only for their gizzards, as this was considered the most delicious part of the bird. Dodos were easy to catch, but hunters had to be careful not to be bitten by their powerful beaks.
The appearance of the dodo and the red rail led Peter Mundy to speculate, 230 years before Charles Darwin's theory of evolution:
Like many animals that evolved in isolation from significant predators, the dodo was entirely fearless of humans. This fearlessness and its inability to fly made the dodo easy prey, but predation by humans was not the main cause of extinction, contrary to popular belief. Although some scattered reports describe mass killings of dodos for ships' provisions, archaeological investigations have found scant evidence of human predation. Bones of at least two dodos were found in caves at Baie du Cap that sheltered fugitive slaves and convicts in the 17th century, which would not have been easily accessible to dodos because of the high, broken terrain. The impact of the introduced animals on the dodo population, especially the pigs and macaques, is today considered more severe than that of hunting. Rats were perhaps not much of a threat to the nests, since dodos would have been used to dealing with local land crabs.
It has been suggested that the dodo may already have been rare or localised before the arrival of humans on Mauritius, since it would have been unlikely to become extinct so rapidly if it had occupied all the remote areas of the island. A 2005 expedition found subfossil remains of dodos and other animals killed by a flash flood. Such mass mortalities would have further jeopardised a species already in danger of becoming extinct. Yet the fact that the dodo survived hundreds of years of volcanic activity and climatic changes shows the bird was resilient within its ecosystem.}}
The dodos on this islet may not necessarily have been the last members of the species. The last claimed sighting of a dodo was reported in the hunting records of Isaac Johannes Lamotius in 1688. A 2003 statistical analysis of these records by the biologists David L. Roberts and Andrew R. Solow gave a new estimated extinction date of 1693, with a 95% confidence interval of 1688–1715. These authors also pointed out that because the last sighting before 1662 was in 1638, the dodo was probably already quite rare by the 1660s, and thus a disputed report from 1674 by an escaped slave could not be dismissed out of hand.
The British ornithologist Alfred Newton suggested in 1868 that the name of the dodo was transferred to the red rail after the former had gone extinct. Cheke also pointed out that some descriptions after 1662 use the names "Dodo" and "Dodaers" when referring to the red rail, indicating that they had been transferred to it. He therefore pointed to the 1662 description as the last credible observation. A 1668 account by English traveller John Marshall, who used the names "Dodo" and "Red Hen" interchangeably for the red rail, mentioned that the meat was "hard", which echoes the description of the meat in the 1681 account. Even the 1662 account has been questioned by the writer Errol Fuller, as the reaction to distress cries matches what was described for the red rail. Until this explanation was proposed, a description of "dodos" from 1681 was thought to be the last account, and that date still has proponents.
Cheke stated in 2014 that then recently accessible Dutch manuscripts indicate that no dodos were seen by settlers in 1664–1674. In 2020, Cheke and the British researcher Jolyon C. Parish suggested that all mentions of dodos after the mid-17th century instead referred to red rails, and that the dodo had disappeared due to predation by feral pigs during a hiatus in settlement of Mauritius (1658–1664). The dodo's extinction therefore was not realised at the time, since new settlers had not seen real dodos, but as they expected to see flightless birds, they referred to the red rail by that name instead. Since red rails probably had larger clutches than dodos and their eggs could be incubated faster, and their nests were perhaps concealed, they probably bred more efficiently, and were less vulnerable to pigs.
It is unlikely the issue will ever be resolved, unless late reports mentioning the name alongside a physical description are rediscovered. The IUCN Red List accepts Cheke's rationale for choosing the 1662 date, taking all subsequent reports to refer to red rails. In any case, the dodo was probably extinct by 1700, about a century after its discovery in 1598.
Physical remains
17th-century specimens
The only extant remains of dodo specimens taken to Europe in the 17th century are a dried head and foot in the Oxford University Museum of Natural History, a foot once housed in the British Museum but now lost, a skull in the University of Copenhagen Zoological Museum, and an upper jaw in the National Museum, Prague. The last two were rediscovered and identified as dodo remains in the mid-19th century. Several stuffed dodos were also mentioned in old museum inventories, but none are known to have survived. Apart from these remains, a dried foot which belonged to Dutch professor Pieter Pauw was mentioned by Carolus Clusius in 1605. Its provenance is unknown, and it is now lost, but it may have been collected during the Van Neck voyage. In 2018, it was reported that scans of the Oxford dodo's head showed that its skin and bone contained lead shot, which was used to hunt birds in the 17th century. This indicates that the Oxford dodo was shot either before being transported to Britain, or some time after arriving. The circumstances of its killing are unknown, and the pellets are to be examined to identify where the lead was mined from.
Many sources state that the Ashmolean Museum burned the stuffed dodo around 1755 because of severe decay, saving only the head and leg. Statute 8 of the museum states "That as any particular grows old and perishing the keeper may remove it into one of the closets or other repository; and some other to be substituted." The deliberate destruction of the specimen is now believed to be a myth; it was removed from exhibition to preserve what remained of it. This remaining soft tissue has since degraded further; the head was dissected by Strickland and Melville, separating the skin from the skull in two-halves. The foot is in a skeletal state, with only scraps of skin and tendons. Very few feathers remain on the head. It is probably a female, as the foot is 11% smaller and more gracile than the London foot, yet appears to be fully grown. The specimen was exhibited at the Oxford museum from at least the 1860s and until 1998, where-after it was mainly kept in storage to prevent damage. Casts of the head can today be found in many museums worldwide. It may be what remains of one of the stuffed dodos known to have been at the menagerie of Emperor Rudolph II, possibly the specimen painted by Hoefnagel or Savery there. Subfossil specimens
Until 1860, the only known dodo remains were the four incomplete 17th-century specimens. Philip Burnard Ayres found the first subfossil bones in 1860, which were sent to Richard Owen at the British Museum, who did not publish the findings. In 1863, Owen requested the Mauritian Bishop Vincent Ryan to spread word that he should be informed if any dodo bones were found. Harry Pasley Higginson, a railway engineer from Yorkshire, reports discovering the Mare aux Songes bones at the same time as Clark and there is some dispute over who found them first. Higginson sent boxes of these bones to Liverpool, Leeds and York museums. The swamp yielded the remains of over 300 dodos, but very few skull and wing bones, possibly because the upper bodies were washed away or scavenged while the lower body was trapped. The situation is similar to many finds of moa remains in New Zealand marshes. Most dodo remains from the Mare aux Songes have a medium to dark brown colouration. In 1889, Théodor Sauzier was commissioned to explore the "historical souvenirs" of Mauritius and find more dodo remains in the Mare aux Songes. He was successful, and also found remains of other extinct species.
In 2005, after a hundred years of neglect, a part of the Mare aux Songes swamp was excavated by an international team of researchers (International Dodo Research Project). To prevent malaria, the British had covered the swamp with hard core during their rule over Mauritius, which had to be removed. Many remains were found, including bones of at least 17 dodos in various stages of maturity (though no juveniles), and several bones obviously from the skeleton of one individual bird, which have been preserved in their natural position. These findings were made public in December 2005 in the Naturalis museum in Leiden. 63% of the fossils found in the swamp belonged to turtles of the extinct genus Cylindraspis, and 7.1% belonged to dodos, which had been deposited within several centuries, 4,000 years ago. Subsequent excavations suggested that dodos and other animals became mired in the Mare aux Songes while trying to reach water during a long period of severe drought about 4,200 years ago. Though many small skeletal elements were found during the recent excavations of the swamp, few were found during the 19th century, probably owing to the employment of less refined methods when collecting. Thrioux's heirs sold a second mounted composite skeleton (composed of at least two skeletons, with a mainly reconstructed skull) to the Durban Museum of Natural Science in South Africa in 1918. Together, these two skeletons represent the most completely known dodo remains, including bone elements previously unrecorded (such as knee-caps and wing bones). Though some contemporary writers noted the importance of Thrioux's specimens, they were not scientifically studied, and were largely forgotten until 2011, when sought out by a group of researchers. The mounted skeletons were laser scanned, from which 3-D models were reconstructed, which became the basis of a 2016 monograph about the osteology of the dodo. In 2006, explorers discovered a complete skeleton of a dodo in a lava cave in Mauritius. This was only the second associated skeleton of an individual specimen ever found, and the only one in recent times.
Worldwide, 26 museums have significant holdings of dodo material, almost all found in the Mare aux Songes. The Natural History Museum, American Museum of Natural History, Cambridge University Museum of Zoology, the Senckenberg Museum, and others have almost complete skeletons, assembled from the dissociated subfossil remains of several individuals. In 2011, a wooden box containing dodo bones from the Edwardian era was rediscovered at the Grant Museum at University College London during preparations for a move. They had been stored with crocodile bones until then.
White dodo
The supposed "white dodo" (or "solitaire") of Réunion is now considered an erroneous conjecture based on contemporary reports of the Réunion ibis and 17th-century paintings of white, dodo-like birds by Pieter Withoos and Pieter Holsteyn that surfaced in the 19th century. The confusion began when Willem Ysbrandtszoon Bontekoe, who visited Réunion around 1619, mentioned fat, flightless birds that he referred to as "Dod-eersen" in his journal, though without mentioning their colouration. When the journal was published in 1646, it was accompanied by an engraving of a dodo from Savery's "Crocker Art Gallery sketch". A white, stocky, and flightless bird was first mentioned as part of the Réunion fauna by Chief Officer J. Tatton in 1625. Sporadic mentions were subsequently made by Sieur Dubois and other contemporary writers.
Baron Edmond de Sélys Longchamps coined the name Raphus solitarius for these birds in 1848, as he believed the accounts referred to a species of dodo. When 17th-century paintings of white dodos were discovered by 19th-century naturalists, it was assumed they depicted these birds. Oudemans suggested that the discrepancy between the paintings and the old descriptions was that the paintings showed females, and that the species was therefore sexually dimorphic. Some authors also believed the birds described were of a species similar to the Rodrigues solitaire, as it was referred to by the same name, or even that there were white species of both dodo and solitaire on the island.
The Pieter Withoos painting, which was discovered first, appears to be based on an earlier painting by Pieter Holsteyn, three versions of which are known to have existed. According to Hume, Cheke, and Valledor de Lozoya, it appears that all depictions of white dodos were based on Roelant Savery's painting Landscape with Orpheus and the animals, or on copies of it. The painting has generally been dated to 1611, though a post-1614, or even post-1626, date has also been proposed. The painting shows a whitish specimen and was apparently based on a stuffed specimen then in Prague; a walghvogel described as having a "dirty off-white colouring" was mentioned in an inventory of specimens in the Prague collection of the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II, to whom Savery was contracted at the time (1607–1611). Savery's several later images all show greyish birds, possibly because he had by then seen another specimen. Cheke and Hume believe the painted specimen was white, owing to albinism.
In 1987, scientists described fossils of a recently extinct species of ibis from Réunion with a relatively short beak, Borbonibis latipes, before a connection to the solitaire reports had been made. Cheke suggested to one of the authors, Francois Moutou, that the fossils may have been of the Réunion solitaire, and this suggestion was published in 1995. The ibis was reassigned to the genus Threskiornis, now combined with the specific epithet from the binomial R. solitarius. Birds of this genus are also white and black with slender beaks, fitting the old descriptions of the Réunion solitaire. No fossil remains of dodo-like birds have ever been found on the island.
The dodo appears frequently in works of popular fiction, and even before its extinction, it was featured in European literature, as a symbol for exotic lands, and of gluttony, due to its apparent fatness. In 1865, the same year that George Clark started to publish reports about excavated dodo fossils, the newly vindicated bird was featured as a character in Lewis Carroll's ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland''. It is thought that he included the dodo because he identified with it and had adopted the name as a nickname for himself because of his stammer, which made him accidentally introduce himself as "Do-do-dodgson", his legal surname. Popular depictions of the dodo often became more exaggerated and cartoonish following its Alice in Wonderland fame, which was in line with the inaccurate belief that it was clumsy, tragic, and destined for extinction.
The dodo is used as a mascot for many kinds of products, especially in Mauritius. It appears as a supporter on the coat of arms of Mauritius, on Mauritius coins, is used as a watermark on all Mauritian rupee banknotes, and features as the background of the Mauritian immigration form. A smiling dodo is the symbol of the Brasseries de Bourbon, a popular brewer on Réunion, whose emblem displays the white species once thought to have lived there.
The dodo is used to promote the protection of endangered species by environmental organisations, such as the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust and the Durrell Wildlife Park. The Center for Biological Diversity gives an annual 'Rubber Dodo Award', to "those who have done the most to destroy wild places, species and biological diversity". In 2011, the nephiline spider Nephilengys dodo, which inhabits the same woods as the dodo once did, was named after the bird to raise awareness of the urgent need for protection of the Mauritius biota. Two species of ant from Mauritius have been named after the dodo: Pseudolasius dodo in 1946 and Pheidole dodo in 2013. A species of isopod from a coral reef off Réunion was named Hansenium dodo in 1991.
The name dodo has been used by scientists naming genetic elements, honouring the dodo's flightless nature. A fruitfly gene within a region of a chromosome required for flying ability was named "dodo". In addition, a defective transposable element family from Phytophthora infestans was named DodoPi as it contained mutations that eliminated the element's ability to jump to new locations in a chromosome.
In 2009, a previously unpublished 17th-century Dutch illustration of a dodo went for sale at Christie's and was expected to sell for £6,000. It is unknown whether the illustration was based on a specimen or on a previous image, and the artist is unidentified. It sold for £44,450.
</poem>}}
See also
* Holocene extinction
* List of African animals extinct in the Holocene
* List of extinct bird species since 1500
References
Bibliography
* External links
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T6cu1YfWyTQ Painting the Dodo]: Two-minute video about Julian Hume's modern interpretation of Roelant Savery's Dodo
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Te_WHneeD3s Dodo Bird Unboxing]: Seven-minute video showing the Oxford specimen being taken out of storage and discussed
*[http://www.aves3d.org/species_instances/2--Raphus-cucullatus Aves3D – Raphus cucullatus] : Interactive 3D scans of various dodo elements
Category:Bird extinctions since 1500
Category:Birds described in 1758
Category:Birds of Mauritius
Category:Extinct animals of Mauritius
Category:Extinct birds of Indian Ocean islands
Category:Extinct flightless birds
Category:National symbols of Mauritius
Category:Raphinae
Category:Species made extinct by human activities
Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
Category:Dutch Mauritius
Category:Species that are or were threatened by use as food
Category:Species that are or were threatened by habitat loss
Category:Species that are or were threatened by invasive species
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Sideroxylon grandiflorum
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Sideroxylon grandiflorum, also known as the tambalacoque or dodo tree, is a long-lived species of tree in the sapote family Sapotaceae. It is endemic to Mauritius.
Description
The fruit of Sideroxylon grandiflorum is analogous to a peach. Each is termed a drupe because each has a hard endocarp, or pit, surrounding the seed. The plant itself superficially resembles the unrelated Plumeria, but the dodo tree's flowers and fruit are cauliflorous.Ecology
In 1973, it was argued that the species was becoming extinct. There were supposedly only 13 specimens left, all estimated to be about 300 years old; the true age could not be determined because tambalacoque has no growth rings. Stanley Temple hypothesized that the dodo, which became extinct in the 17th century, ate tambalacoque fruits, and that only after passing through the digestive tract of the dodo could the seeds germinate. Temple force-fed seventeen tambalacoque fruits to wild turkeys in 1977. Seven of the fruits were crushed by the bird's gizzard, while the remaining ten were either regurgitated or passed with the bird's feces. Temple planted the remaining ten fruits, three of which germinated. Temple did not try to germinate any seeds from control fruits that had not been fed to turkeys so the effect on germination of feeding fruits to turkeys was unknown. Studies on tambalacoque seed germination by Hill (1941) and King (1946) found that the seeds germinated without abrading.
Temple's hypothesis that the tree required the dodo was contested. Others have suggested that the decline of the tree was exaggerated or that other extinct animals, such as giant tortoises, fruit bats, or the broad-billed parrot, may also have been distributing the seeds. The decline of the tree may be due to introduction of domestic pigs and crab-eating macaques, and competition from introduced plants. Alternatively, the difference in reported tree numbers may arise from the fact that young trees are not distinct in appearance and may easily be confused with similar species. Catling (2001) in a summary cites Owadally and Temple (1979) and Witmer (1991), while Hershey (2004) reviewed the flaws in Temple's dodo-tambalacoque hypothesis.
In 2004, the Botanical Society of America's Plant Science Bulletin disputed Temple's research as flawed. The Bulletin published evidence as to why the dodo's extinction did not directly cause the increasing disappearance of young trees, including suggestions that the Cylindraspis giant tortoises would have been more likely to disperse the seeds than dodos, casting doubt on Temple's view as to the dodo and the tree's sole survival relationship. More recently, the tree’s decline within native forests was shown to be in fact driven by invasive introduced species: The tree’s first germination in its native habitat were observed in 2001 (26 seedlings) exclusively where invasive alien weeds had been cleared and further observations and controlled experiments showed that invasive introduced macaques (<i>Macaca fascicularis</i> Rafles 1821) pick most of the tree’s fruits when still unripe, killing the seeds, and reducing natural germination rates by up to about 40 times.UsesThe dodo tree is highly valued for its wood in Mauritius, which has led some foresters to scrape the pits by hand to make them sprout and grow.See also* Sideroxylon majus, a species native to Réunion, that has been confounded with Sideroxylon grandiflorum (particularly under its synonym Calvaria major)ReferencesExternal links* Catling, P. M. (2001): Extinction and the importance of history and dependence in conservation. Biodiversity 2(3): 2-13
* Helfferich, C. (1990): [https://www.gi.alaska.edu/alaska-science-forum/turkey-and-tambalacoque-tree The Turkey and the Tambalacoque Tree]
* Hershey, D. R. (2004): [http://www.botany.org/PlantScienceBulletin/psb-2004-50-4.php#Dodo The widespread misconception that the tambalacoque absolutely required the dodo for its seeds to germinate.] Plant Science Bulletin 50: 105–108.
* Hill, A. W. (1941): The genus Calvaria, with an account of the stony endocarp and germination of the seed, and description of the new species. Annals of Botany 5(4): 587–606. [https://archive.today/20121228024247/http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/5/4/587 PDF fulltext] (requires user account)
* King, H. C. (1946): Interim Report on Indigenous Species in Mauritius. Port Louis, Mauritius: Government Printer.
* Owadally, A. W. & Temple, Stanley A. (1979): The dodo and the tambalacoque tree. Science 203(4387): 1363–1364.
* Quammen, David (1996): The Song of the Dodo: Island Biogeography in an Age of Extinction. Touchstone, New York. <small></small><!-- 1997 is reprint -->
* Temple, Stanley A. (1977): Plant-animal mutualism: coevolution with Dodo leads to near extinction of plant. Science 197(4306): 885–886. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1744474 HTML abstract]
* Witmer, M. C. & Cheke, A. S. (1991): The dodo and the tambalacoque tree: an obligate mutualism reconsidered. Oikos 61(1): 133–137. [http://cat.inist.fr/?aModeleafficheN&cpsidt5082004 HTML abstract]
grandiflorum
Category:Endemic flora of Mauritius
Category:Trees of Africa
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Dwight Schultz
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| birth_place = Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.
| alma_mater = Towson University
| known_for =
| occupation = Actor
| years_active = 1970–present
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William Dwight Schultz (born November 24, 1947) is an American television, film and voice actor.
He is known for his roles as Captain "Howling Mad" Murdock on the 1980s action series The A-Team and as Reginald Barclay in the Star Trek franchise.
He is also known in animation as the megalomaniacal mad scientist Dr. Animo in the Ben 10 series, Adrian Toomes/Vulture in some Marvel video games, Chef Mung Daal in the children's animated series Chowder, and Eddie the Squirrel in CatDog. He is of German descent and a Roman Catholic. He attended Calvert Hall College High School and Towson University.
Career
Schultz's breakthrough role was that of Captain "Howling Mad" Murdock on The A-Team. He appeared in several films, including The Fan (1981), and he starred in Fat Man and Little Boy (1989) as J. Robert Oppenheimer. In the early 1990s, he had a recurring role as Lieutenant Reginald Barclay in Star Trek: The Next Generation; he reprised the role in Star Trek: Voyager and the film Star Trek: First Contact. He played in the 1992 television film Child of Rage, starring opposite Mel Harris as a compassionate couple who adopt a troubled girl who has been sexually abused. In November 2009, Schultz confirmed that he and former A-Team co-star Dirk Benedict would make cameo appearances in the feature film The A-Team. He also posts political commentaries and podcasts on his official fansite.
Personal life
Schultz married actress Wendy Fulton in 1983. They have a daughter.
Schultz is Catholic and a conservative. In 2012 he began regular appearances on The Glazov Gang, an Internet political talk show hosted by Jamie Glazov, managing editor of FrontPage Magazine.FilmographyFilm{| class"wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
|-
! style="background:#b0c4de;"| Year
! style="background:#b0c4de;"| Series
! style="background:#b0c4de;"| Role
! style"background:#b0c4de;" class"unsortable"| Notes
! style"background:#b0c4de;" class"unsortable"| Source
|-
| 1981
| The Fan
| TV Director
|
|
|-
| 1982
| Alone in the Dark
| Dan Potter
|
|
|-
| 1989
| Fat Man and Little Boy
| J. Robert Oppenheimer
|
|
|-
| 1990
| The Long Walk Home
| Norman Thompson
|
|
|-
| 1993
| The Temp
| Roger Jasser
|
|
|-
| 1996
| Star Trek: First Contact
| Lieutenant Reginald Barclay
|
|
|-
| 2010
| The A-Team
| German Doctor #1
| Cameo
|
|}
Voice
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
|-
! style="background:#b0c4de;"| Year
! style="background:#b0c4de;"| Series
! style="background:#b0c4de;"| Role
! style"background:#b0c4de;" class"unsortable"| Notes
! style"background:#b0c4de;" class"unsortable"| Source
|-
| 1998
| Golgo 13: Queen Bee
| Robert Hardy
| rowspan=2|English dub
|
|-
| 2000
| Vampire Hunter D: Bloodlust
| Benge, Old Man of Barbarois
| rowspan"4" |
|-
| rowspan=2|2003
| The Chronicles of Riddick: Dark Fury
| Skiff A.I.
| rowspan="3" |Direct to video
|-
| The Animatrix
| Nonaka
|-
| rowspan=2|2004
| Van Helsing: The London Assignment
| Dr. Henry Jekyll / Jack the Ripper
|-
| Kaena: The Prophecy
| Ilpo
|
|
|-
| rowspan=3|2006
| Asterix and the Vikings
| Dubbledekabus
|
| rowspan"2" |
|-
|2024
|Watchmen Chapter 1
|Detective Steve Fine, Happy Harry
|
|}
Television
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
|-
! style="background:#b0c4de;"| Year
! style="background:#b0c4de;"| Series
! style="background:#b0c4de;"| Role
! style"background:#b0c4de;" class"unsortable"| Notes
! style"background:#b0c4de;" class"unsortable"| Source
|-
| rowspan=7|1981
| Thin Ice
| Mr. Ritchie
|
|
|-
| Hill Street Blues
| Carmichael
| Episode: "Life, Death, Eternity"
|
|-
| CHiPS
| Lyle Pickett
| Episode: "The Hawk and the Hunter"
|
|-
| Dial M for Murder
| TV Director
|
|
|-
| Bitter Harvest
| Schlatter
|
|
|-
| Standing Room Only
| Bassick
| Episode: "Sherlock Holmes"
|
|-
| Nurse
| Dr. Kevin Michaels
| Episode: "Going Home"
|
|-
| 1983
| When Your Lover Leaves
| Richard Reese
| Television film
|
|-
| 1983–1987
| The A-Team
| Captain H. M. "Howling Mad" Murdock
| 97 episodes
|
|-
| 1987–1989
| Perry Mason
| Andrew Lloyd, Tony Franken
| 2 episodes
|
|-
| 1990
| A Killer Among Us
| Clifford Gillette
| Television film
|
|-
| 1990–1994
| Star Trek: The Next Generation
| Lieutenant Reginald Barclay
| 5 episodes
|
|-
| rowspan=3|1992
| Last Wish
| Ed Edwards
| rowspan="4" | Television film
|
|-
| Child of Rage
| Rob Tyler
|
|-
| Woman with a Past
| Mick
|
|-
| 1993
| Victim of Love: The Shannon Mohr Story
| Dave Davis
|
|-
| rowspan=3|1994
| Babylon 5
| Amis
| Episode: "The Long Dark"
|
|-
| Menendez: A Killing in Beverly Hills
| Dr. Jerome Oziel
| Television film
|
|-
| Weird Science
| Hank
| Episode: "Circuit Courtship"
|
|-
| 1995–2001
| Star Trek: Voyager
| Lieutenant Reginald Barclay
| 6 episodes
|
|-
| rowspan=5|1995
| The Outer Limits
| Leviticus Mitchell
| Episode: "If These Walls Could Talk"
|
|-
| Flipper
| Wayne Cole
| Episode: "The Green Freak"
|
|-
| Deadly Games
| Nathan Abrams
| Episode: "Motivational Speaker"
|
|-
| Diagnosis: Murder
| Dr. Henry Wexler
| Episode: "Naked Babes"
|
|-
| Enola Gay and the atomic bombing of Japan
| Narrator
| Television film
|
|-
| rowspan=3|1996
| Nowhere Man
| Harrison Barton
| Episode: "Hidden Agenda"
|
|-
| Touched by an Angel
| Dr. Adam Litowski
| Episode: "A Joyful Noise"
|
|-
| Hart to Hart: Till Death Do Us Hart
| Peter Donner
| Television film
|
|-
| 1997
| Diagnosis: Murder
| Dr. Gavin Reed
| Episode: "Delusions of Murder"
|
|-
| 1998
| Stargate SG-1
| The Keeper
| Episode: "The Gamekeeper"
|
|-
| 1999
| Walker, Texas Ranger
| Lloyd Allen
| Episode: "Safe House"
|
|-
| 2001
| The Agency
| Russell Orland
| Episode: "Closure"
|
|}
Cartoons
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
|-
! style="background:#b0c4de;"| Year
! style="background:#b0c4de;"| Series
! style="background:#b0c4de;"| Role
! style"background:#b0c4de;" class"unsortable"| Notes
! style"background:#b0c4de;" class"unsortable"| Source
|-
| rowspan=2|1997
| Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman
| Garret Grady
| Episode: "AKA Superman"
|
|-
| Reign: The Conqueror
| Attalos
|
|
|-
| 1998–2001
|CatDog
| Eddie the Squirrel, additional voices
| Main role
| rowspan"2" |<!-- urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vkFWAUrJGTCA -->
|-
| EverQuest II
|
|
|-
|Spider-Man 2
| The Vulture
| PSP and DS versions only
|<!-- urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vC4QlobVeTMQ -->
|-
| The Darkness
| Uncle Paulie Franchetti
|
|
|-
| Mafia II
| Additional voices
|
|
|-
| Resonance of Fate
| Gelsey
|
|
|-
| Fallout 4
| Knight Captain Cade
|
|
|-
| World of Warcraft: Legion
| Additional voices
|
|
|-
| Lego Dimensions
| H. M. "Howling Mad" Murdock, S. B. "Scowling Bad" Burdock, Mr. Wing
|
|
|-
| Middle-earth: Shadow of War
| Nemesis Orcs
|
| rowspan"6" | <ref name"btva"/>
|-
|2018
| Marvel's Spider-Man
| The Vulture
|
|-
| rowspan=2|2019
| Crash Team Racing Nitro-Fueled
| Papu Papu, Nash, Geary
|
|-
| Marvel Ultimate Alliance 3: The Black Order
| Odin
|
|-
| 2020
| Iron Man VR
| Willie Lumpkin / S.H.I.E.L.D. Agent E
|
|-
| 2024
| Batman: Arkham Shadow
| Arnold Wesker, Woody, Cyrus Pinckney
|
|-
|}
Broadway
*Night and Day
*The Crucifer of Blood
*The Water Engine
Radio
*Dark Matters Radio with Don Ecker and Special Co-Host Dwight Schultz
*Howling Mad Radio
*The Jerry Doyle Show
*The Laura Ingraham Show
*The Rusty Humphries Show
*The Savage Nation''
References
External links
*
*
*
*
*
Category:1947 births
Category:Living people
Category:20th-century American male actors
Category:21st-century American male actors
Category:American bloggers
Category:American male bloggers
Category:American male film actors
Category:American male stage actors
Category:American male television actors
Category:American male video game actors
Category:American male voice actors
Category:American people of German descent
Category:American political podcasters
Category:American Roman Catholics
Category:California Republicans
Category:Calvert Hall College High School alumni
Category:Cartoon Network people
Category:Male actors from Baltimore
Category:Maryland Republicans
Category:Towson University alumni
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwight_Schultz
|
2025-04-05T18:28:37.306758
|
8429
|
Density
|
{{Infobox physical quantity
| bgcolour | name Density
| image = Density column.JPG
| image_size = 100px
| caption = A test tube holding four non-miscible colored liquids with different densities
| unit = kg/m<sup>3</sup>
| symbols = ρ, D
| dimension = wikidata
| extensive = No
| intensive = Yes
| conserved = No
| derivations <math> \rho \frac{m}{V}</math>
}}
Density (volumetric mass density or specific mass) is a substance's mass per unit of volume. The symbol most often used for density is ρ (the lower case Greek letter rho), although the Latin letter D can also be used. Mathematically, density is defined as mass divided by volume:
<math display"block"> \rho \frac{m}{V},</math>
where ρ is the density, m is the mass, and V is the volume. In some cases (for instance, in the United States oil and gas industry), density is loosely defined as its weight per unit volume, although this is scientifically inaccurate this quantity is more specifically called specific weight.
For a pure substance the density has the same numerical value as its mass concentration.
Different materials usually have different densities, and density may be relevant to buoyancy, purity and packaging. Osmium is the densest known element at standard conditions for temperature and pressure.
To simplify comparisons of density across different systems of units, it is sometimes replaced by the dimensionless quantity "relative density" or "specific gravity", i.e. the ratio of the density of the material to that of a standard material, usually water. Thus a relative density less than one relative to water means that the substance floats in water.
The density of a material varies with temperature and pressure. This variation is typically small for solids and liquids but much greater for gases. Increasing the pressure on an object decreases the volume of the object and thus increases its density. Increasing the temperature of a substance (with a few exceptions) decreases its density by increasing its volume. In most materials, heating the bottom of a fluid results in convection of the heat from the bottom to the top, due to the decrease in the density of the heated fluid, which causes it to rise relative to denser unheated material.
The reciprocal of the density of a substance is occasionally called its specific volume, a term sometimes used in thermodynamics. Density is an intensive property in that increasing the amount of a substance does not increase its density; rather it increases its mass.
Other conceptually comparable quantities or ratios include specific density, relative density (specific gravity), and specific weight.
History
Density, floating, and sinking
The understanding that different materials have different densities, and of a relationship between density, floating, and sinking must date to prehistoric times. Much later it was put in writing. Aristotle, for example, wrote:
Volume vs. density; volume of an irregular shape
In a well-known but probably apocryphal tale, Archimedes was given the task of determining whether King Hiero's goldsmith was embezzling gold during the manufacture of a golden wreath dedicated to the gods and replacing it with another, cheaper alloy. Archimedes knew that the irregularly shaped wreath could be crushed into a cube whose volume could be calculated easily and compared with the mass; but the king did not approve of this. Baffled, Archimedes is said to have taken an immersion bath and observed from the rise of the water upon entering that he could calculate the volume of the gold wreath through the displacement of the water. Upon this discovery, he leapt from his bath and ran naked through the streets shouting, "Eureka! Eureka!" (). As a result, the term eureka entered common parlance and is used today to indicate a moment of enlightenment.
The story first appeared in written form in Vitruvius' books of architecture, two centuries after it supposedly took place. Some scholars have doubted the accuracy of this tale, saying among other things that the method would have required precise measurements that would have been difficult to make at the time.
Nevertheless, in 1586, Galileo Galilei, in one of his first experiments, made a possible reconstruction of how the experiment could have been performed with ancient Greek resources
Units
From the equation for density (), mass density has any unit that is mass divided by volume. As there are many units of mass and volume covering many different magnitudes there are a large number of units for mass density in use. The SI unit of kilogram per cubic metre (kg/m<sup>3</sup>) and the cgs unit of gram per cubic centimetre (g/cm<sup>3</sup>) are probably the most commonly used units for density. One g/cm<sup>3</sup> is equal to 1000 kg/m<sup>3</sup>. One cubic centimetre (abbreviation cc) is equal to one millilitre. In industry, other larger or smaller units of mass and or volume are often more practical and US customary units may be used. See below for a list of some of the most common units of density.
The litre and tonne are not part of the SI, but are acceptable for use with it, leading to the following units:
* kilogram per litre (kg/L)
* gram per millilitre (g/mL)
* tonne per cubic metre (t/m<sup>3</sup>)
Densities using the following metric units all have exactly the same numerical value, one thousandth of the value in (kg/m<sup>3</sup>). Liquid water has a density of about 1 kg/dm<sup>3</sup>, making any of these SI units numerically convenient to use as most solids and liquids have densities between 0.1 and 20 kg/dm<sup>3</sup>.
* kilogram per cubic decimetre (kg/dm<sup>3</sup>)
* gram per cubic centimetre (g/cm<sup>3</sup>)
** 1 g/cm<sup>3</sup> = 1000 kg/m<sup>3</sup>
* megagram (metric ton) per cubic metre (Mg/m<sup>3</sup>)
In US customary units density can be stated in:
* Avoirdupois ounce per cubic inch (1 g/cm<sup>3</sup> ≈ 0.578036672 oz/cu in)
* Avoirdupois ounce per fluid ounce (1 g/cm<sup>3</sup> ≈ 1.04317556 oz/US fl oz = 1.04317556 lb/US fl pint)
* Avoirdupois pound per cubic inch (1 g/cm<sup>3</sup> ≈ 0.036127292 lb/cu in)
* pound per cubic foot (1 g/cm<sup>3</sup> ≈ 62.427961 lb/cu ft)
* pound per cubic yard (1 g/cm<sup>3</sup> ≈ 1685.5549 lb/cu yd)
* pound per US liquid gallon (1 g/cm<sup>3</sup> ≈ 8.34540445 lb/US gal)
* pound per US bushel (1 g/cm<sup>3</sup> ≈ 77.6888513 lb/bu)
* slug per cubic foot
Imperial units differing from the above (as the Imperial gallon and bushel differ from the US units) in practice are rarely used, though found in older documents. The Imperial gallon was based on the concept that an Imperial fluid ounce of water would have a mass of one Avoirdupois ounce, and indeed 1 g/cm<sup>3</sup> ≈ 1.00224129 ounces per Imperial fluid ounce = 10.0224129 pounds per Imperial gallon. The density of precious metals could conceivably be based on Troy ounces and pounds, a possible cause of confusion.
Knowing the volume of the unit cell of a crystalline material and its formula weight (in daltons), the density can be calculated. One dalton per cubic ångström is equal to a density of 1.660 539 066 60 g/cm<sup>3</sup>.
Measurement
A number of techniques as well as standards exist for the measurement of density of materials. Such techniques include the use of a hydrometer (a buoyancy method for liquids), Hydrostatic balance (a buoyancy method for liquids and solids), immersed body method (a buoyancy method for liquids), pycnometer (liquids and solids), air comparison pycnometer (solids), oscillating densitometer (liquids), as well as pour and tap (solids). However, each individual method or technique measures different types of density (e.g. bulk density, skeletal density, etc.), and therefore it is necessary to have an understanding of the type of density being measured as well as the type of material in question.
Homogeneous materials
The density at all points of a homogeneous object equals its total mass divided by its total volume. The mass is normally measured with a scale or balance; the volume may be measured directly (from the geometry of the object) or by the displacement of a fluid. To determine the density of a liquid or a gas, a hydrometer, a dasymeter or a Coriolis flow meter may be used, respectively. Similarly, hydrostatic weighing uses the displacement of water due to a submerged object to determine the density of the object.
Heterogeneous materials
If the body is not homogeneous, then its density varies between different regions of the object. In that case the density around any given location is determined by calculating the density of a small volume around that location. In the limit of an infinitesimal volume the density of an inhomogeneous object at a point becomes: <math>\rho(\vec{r}) = dm / dV</math>, where <math>dV</math> is an elementary volume at position <math>\vec r</math>. The mass of the body then can be expressed as
<math display"block"> m \int_V \rho(\vec{r})\,dV. </math>
Non-compact materials
In practice, bulk materials such as sugar, sand, or snow contain voids. Many materials exist in nature as flakes, pellets, or granules.
Voids are regions which contain something other than the considered material. Commonly the void is air, but it could also be vacuum, liquid, solid, or a different gas or gaseous mixture.
The bulk volume of a material —inclusive of the void space fraction— is often obtained by a simple measurement (e.g. with a calibrated measuring cup) or geometrically from known dimensions.
Mass divided by bulk volume determines bulk density. This is not the same thing as the material volumetric mass density.
To determine the material volumetric mass density, one must first discount the volume of the void fraction. Sometimes this can be determined by geometrical reasoning. For the close-packing of equal spheres the non-void fraction can be at most about 74%. It can also be determined empirically. Some bulk materials, however, such as sand, have a variable void fraction which depends on how the material is agitated or poured. It might be loose or compact, with more or less air space depending on handling.
In practice, the void fraction is not necessarily air, or even gaseous. In the case of sand, it could be water, which can be advantageous for measurement as the void fraction for sand saturated in water—once any air bubbles are thoroughly driven out—is potentially more consistent than dry sand measured with an air void.
In the case of non-compact materials, one must also take care in determining the mass of the material sample. If the material is under pressure (commonly ambient air pressure at the earth's surface) the determination of mass from a measured sample weight might need to account for buoyancy effects due to the density of the void constituent, depending on how the measurement was conducted. In the case of dry sand, sand is so much denser than air that the buoyancy effect is commonly neglected (less than one part in one thousand).
Mass change upon displacing one void material with another while maintaining constant volume can be used to estimate the void fraction, if the difference in density of the two voids materials is reliably known.
Changes of density
In general, density can be changed by changing either the pressure or the temperature. Increasing the pressure always increases the density of a material. Increasing the temperature generally decreases the density, but there are notable exceptions to this generalization. For example, the density of water increases between its melting point at 0 °C and 4 °C; similar behavior is observed in silicon at low temperatures.
The effect of pressure and temperature on the densities of liquids and solids is small. The compressibility for a typical liquid or solid is 10<sup>−6</sup> bar<sup>−1</sup> (1 bar = 0.1 MPa) and a typical thermal expansivity is 10<sup>−5</sup> K<sup>−1</sup>. This roughly translates into needing around ten thousand times atmospheric pressure to reduce the volume of a substance by one percent. (Although the pressures needed may be around a thousand times smaller for sandy soil and some clays.) A one percent expansion of volume typically requires a temperature increase on the order of thousands of degrees Celsius.
In contrast, the density of gases is strongly affected by pressure. The density of an ideal gas is
<math display"block">\rho \frac {MP}{RT},</math>
where is the molar mass, is the pressure, is the universal gas constant, and is the absolute temperature. This means that the density of an ideal gas can be doubled by doubling the pressure, or by halving the absolute temperature.
In the case of volumic thermal expansion at constant pressure and small intervals of temperature the temperature dependence of density is
<math display"block">\rho \frac{\rho_{T_0}}{1 + \alpha \cdot \Delta T},</math>
where <math>\rho_{T_0}</math> is the density at a reference temperature, <math>\alpha</math> is the thermal expansion coefficient of the material at temperatures close to <math>T_0</math>.
Density of solutions
The density of a solution is the sum of mass (massic) concentrations of the components of that solution.
Mass (massic) concentration of each given component <math>\rho_i</math> in a solution sums to density of the solution,
<math displayblock>\rho \sum_i \rho_i .</math>
Expressed as a function of the densities of pure components of the mixture and their volume participation, it allows the determination of excess molar volumes:
<math displayblock>\rho \sum_i \rho_i \frac{V_i}{V}\, \sum_i \rho_i \varphi_i \sum_i \rho_i \frac{V_i}{\sum_i V_i + \sum_i {V^E}_i},</math>
provided that there is no interaction between the components.
Knowing the relation between excess volumes and activity coefficients of the components, one can determine the activity coefficients:
<math displayblock>\overline{V^E}_i RT \frac{\partial\ln\gamma_i}{\partial P}.</math>
List of densities
Various materials
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:center;"
|+Densities of various materials covering a range of values
|-
! Material
! ρ (kg/m<sup>3</sup>)
! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-0.08988
| Hydrogen || 0.0898 ||
|-
| Helium || 0.179 ||
|-
| Aerographite || 0.2 ||
|-
| Metallic microlattice || 0.9 ||
|-
| Cork || 240 || Approximate
|-
| Lithium || 535 || Least dense metal
|-
| Wood || 700 || Seasoned, typical
|-
| Oak || 710 ||
|-
| Ice || 916.7 || At temperature < 0 °C<!-- Sourced from the "Ice" page -->
|-
| Cooking oil || 910–930 ||
|-
| Sodium || 970 ||
|-
| Water (fresh) || 1,000 || At 4 °C, the temperature of its maximum density
|-
| Water (salt) || 1,030 || 3%
|-
| Liquid oxygen || 1,141 || At approximately −219 °C
|-
| Nylon || 1,150 ||
|-
| Plastics || 1,175 || Approximate; for polypropylene and PETE/PVC
|-
| Glycerol || 1,261 ||
|-
| Tetrachloroethene || 1,622 ||
|-
| Sand || 1,600 || Between 1,600 and 2,000
|-
| Glass || 2,500 ||
|-
| Quartzite || 2,600 ||
|-
| Basalt || 3,000 ||
|-
| Local Interstellar Cloud || data-sort-value"0.0000000000000000000005" | || Based on 0.3 hydrogen atoms per cubic centimetre
|-
| Earth's inner core || 13,000 || Approx., as listed in Earth.
|-
| The core of the Sun || 33,000–160,000 || Approx.
|-
| White dwarf star || || Approx.
|-
| Atomic nuclei || || Does not depend strongly on size of nucleus
|-
| Neutron star || ||
|}
Water
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center;"
|+ Density of liquid water at 1 atm pressure
|-
! Temp. (°C)
! Density (kg/m<sup>3</sup>)
|-
| −30 || 983.854
|-
| −20 || 993.547
|-
| −10 || 998.117
|-
| 0 || 999.8395
|-
| 4 || 999.9720
|-
| 10 || 999.7026
|-
| 15 || 999.1026
|-
| 20 || 998.2071
|-
| 22 || 997.7735
|-
| 25 || 997.0479
|-
| 30 || 995.6502
|-
| 40 || 992.2
|-
| 60 || 983.2
|-
| 80 || 971.8
|-
| 100 || 958.4
|-
|colspan=2 |Notes:
|}
Air
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center;"
|+Density of air at 1 atm pressure
|-
! T (°C)
! ρ (kg/m<sup>3</sup>)
|-
| −25 || 1.423
|-
| −20 || 1.395
|-
| −15 || 1.368
|-
| −10 || 1.342
|-
| −5 || 1.316
|-
| 0 || 1.293
|-
| 5 || 1.269
|-
| 10 || 1.247
|-
| 15 || 1.225
|-
| 20 || 1.204
|-
| 25 || 1.184
|-
| 30 || 1.164
|-
| 35 || 1.146
|}
Molar volumes of liquid and solid phase of elements
See also
* Densities of the elements (data page)
* List of elements by density
* Air density
* Area density
* Bulk density
* Buoyancy
* Charge density
* Density current
* Density gradient
* Density prediction by the Girolami method
* Dord
* Energy density
* Lighter than air
* Linear density
* Number density
* Orthobaric density
* Paper density
* Specific weight
* Spice (oceanography)
* Standard temperature and pressure
* Volumic quantity
References
External links
*
*
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eY-44iPSWIU Video: Density Experiment with Oil and Alcohol]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=96NFH2Z7GSA Video: Density Experiment with Whiskey and Water]
* [http://glassproperties.com/density/room-temperature/ Glass Density Calculation – Calculation of the density of glass at room temperature and of glass melts at 1000 – 1400°C]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080505011613/http://www.science.co.il/PTelements.asp?s=Density List of Elements of the Periodic Table – Sorted by Density]
* [http://ddbonline.ddbst.de/DIPPR105DensityCalculation/DIPPR105CalculationCGI.exe Calculation of saturated liquid densities for some components]
* [http://www.denichsoiltest.com/field/field-density-test.html Field density test]
* [http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/water-density-specific-weight-d_595.html Water – Density and specific weight]
* [http://www.sengpielaudio.com/ConvDensi.htm Temperature dependence of the density of water – Conversions of density units]
* [http://www.adamequipment.com/education/Documents/EdExp1.pdf A delicious density experiment]
* [http://linkingweatherandclimate.com/ocean/waterdensitycalc.php Water density calculator] Water density for a given salinity and temperature.
* [https://archive.today/20130122123510/http://www.enggcyclopedia.com/welcome-to-enggcyclopedia/calculators/liquid-density Liquid density calculator] Select a liquid from the list and calculate density as a function of temperature.
* [https://archive.today/20130122124432/http://www.enggcyclopedia.com/welcome-to-enggcyclopedia/thermodynamics/gas-density Gas density calculator] Calculate density of a gas for as a function of temperature and pressure.
* [http://www.jaredzone.info/2010/09/densities.html Densities of various materials.]
* [http://amrita.olabs.co.in/?sub1&brch1&sim2&cnt9 Determination of Density of Solid], instructions for performing classroom experiment.
*
*
*
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Density
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2025-04-05T18:28:37.345112
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8432
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Dave Barry
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| birth_place = Armonk, New York, U.S.
| death_date | death_place
| occupation = Humorist<br />Author
| spouse Ann Shelnutt (1969–19?) Early life and education Barry was born in Armonk, New York, where his father, David W. Barry,<!-- his father did not have the same middle name, and therefore it's not a Jr/Sr thing. This is as per Barry's assistant} --> was a Presbyterian minister. He was educated at Wampus Elementary School, Harold C. Crittenden Junior High School (both in Armonk), and Pleasantville High School, where he was elected "Class Clown" in 1965. He earned a bachelor of arts degree in English from Haverford College in 1969.
As an alumnus of a Quaker-affiliated college, he avoided military service during the Vietnam War by registering as a religious conscientious objector. Barry decided "early on" that he was an atheist. He said, "The problem with writing about religion is that you run the risk of offending sincerely religious people, and then they come after you with machetes."
At Burger, he taught effective writing to businesspeople. In his own words, he "spent nearly eight years trying to get various businesspersons to...stop writing things like 'Enclosed please find the enclosed enclosures,' but...eventually realized that it was hopeless."
In 1981, he wrote a humorous guest column in The Philadelphia Inquirer about watching the birth of his son, which attracted the attention of Gene Weingarten, then an editor of the Miami Herald Sunday magazine, Tropic. Weingarten hired Barry as a humor columnist in 1983. Barry's column was syndicated nationally. Barry won a Pulitzer Prize for Commentary in 1988 for "his consistently effective use of humor as a device for presenting fresh insights into serious concerns".
Barry's first novel, Big Trouble, was published in 1999. The book was adapted into a motion picture directed by Barry Sonnenfeld and starring Tim Allen, Rene Russo, and Patrick Warburton, with a cameo by Barry (deleted in post-production). The movie was originally due for release in September 2001, but was postponed following the September 11, 2001 attacks because the story involved terrorists smuggling a nuclear weapon onto an airplane. The film was released in April 2002.
In response to a column in which Barry mocked the cities of Grand Forks, North Dakota, and East Grand Forks, Minnesota, for calling themselves the "Grand Cities", Grand Forks named a sewage pumping station after Barry in January 2002. Barry traveled to Grand Forks for the dedication ceremony.
Articles written by Barry have appeared in publications such as Boating, Home Office Computing, and ''Reader's Digest, in addition to the Chicken Soup for the Soul inspirational book series. Two of his articles have been included in The Best American Sports Writing series. One of his columns was used as the introduction to the book Pirattitude!: So You Wanna Be a Pirate? Here's How!'' (), a follow-up to Barry's role in publicizing International Talk Like a Pirate Day. His books have frequently appeared on The New York Times Best Seller list.
On October 31, 2004, Barry announced that he would be taking an indefinite leave of absence of at least a year from his weekly column to spend more time with his family. In December 2005, Barry said in an interview with Editor & Publisher that he would not resume his weekly column, although he would continue such features as his yearly gift guide, his year-in-review feature, and his blog, as well as an occasional article or column.
In 2005, Barry won the Walter Cronkite Award for Excellence in Journalism.
''Dave's World television series
From 1993 to 1997, CBS broadcast the sitcom Dave's World based on the books Dave Barry Turns 40 and Dave Barry's Greatest Hits. The show starred Harry Anderson as Barry and DeLane Matthews as his wife Beth. In an early episode, Barry appeared in a cameo role. After four seasons, the program was canceled shortly after being moved from its "coveted" Monday night slot to the "Friday night death slot", so named because of its association with low viewership.
Music
During college, Barry was in a band called the Federal Duck (the band issued a self-titled album on Musicor Records in 1968, but by that time Barry was no longer in the group). While at the Miami Herald, he and several of his colleagues created a band called the Urban Professionals, with Barry on lead guitar and vocals. They performed an original song called "The Tupperware Song" at the Tupperware headquarters in Orlando, Florida.
Beginning in 1992, Barry played lead guitar in the Rock Bottom Remainders, a rock band made up of published authors. Remainder'' is a publishing term for a book that does not sell. The band was founded by Barry's sister-in-law, Kathi Kamen Goldmark, for an American Booksellers Association convention, and has included Stephen King, Amy Tan, Ridley Pearson, Scott Turow, Mitch Albom, Roy Blount Jr., Barbara Kingsolver, Matt Groening, and Barry's brother Sam, among others. The band's members "are not musically skilled, but they are extremely loud", according to Barry. Several high-profile musicians, including Al Kooper, Warren Zevon, and Roger McGuinn have performed with the band, and Bruce Springsteen sat in at least once. The band's road tour resulted in the book, Mid-Life Confidential: The Rock Bottom Remainders Tour America with Three Chords and an Attitude. The Rock Bottom Remainders disbanded in 2012 following Goldmark's death from breast cancer. They have reunited several times, performing at the Tucson Festival of Books in 2016 and 2018. Other activities Beginning in 1984, Barry and Tropic editors Gene Weingarten and Tom Shroder have organized the Tropic Hunt (now the Herald Hunt), an annual puzzlehunt in Miami. A Washington, D.C., spinoff, the Post Hunt, began in 2008.
Barry has run several mock campaigns for president of the United States, running on a libertarian platform. He has also written for the Libertarian Party's national newsletter.
The screen adaptation of Barry's book ''Dave Barry's Complete Guide to Guys was released in 2005; it is available on DVD.
Personal life
Barry married Lois Ann Shelnutt in 1969. He married Beth Lenox in 1976. Barry and Lenox worked together at the Daily Local News, where they began their journalism careers on the same day in September 1971; they had one child, Robert, born 1980. Barry and Lenox divorced in 1993. In 1996, Barry married Miami Herald'' sportswriter Michelle Kaufman; they had a daughter, Sophie, in 2000.
Barry's father and his youngest brother suffered from alcoholism, and his father died in 1984; his sister Mary Katherine was institutionalized for schizophrenia; and his mother died by suicide in 1987.
Barry has had dogs named Goldie, Earnest, Zippy, and now Lucy. All have been mentioned regularly in Barry's columns. Works Non-fiction
* The Taming of the Screw (1983, with illustrator Jerry O'Brien)
* Babies and Other Hazards of Sex: How to Make a Tiny Person in Only 9 Months With Tools You Probably Have Around the Home (1984, with illustrator Jerry O'Brien)
* ''Stay Fit and Healthy Until You're Dead'' (1985, with illustrator Jerry O'Brien)
* Claw Your Way to the Top: How to Become the Head of a Major Corporation in Roughly a Week (1986, with illustrator Jerry O'Brien)
* ''Dave Barry's Guide to Marriage and/or Sex'' (1987 with illustrator Jerry O'Brien)
* Homes and Other Black Holes (1988)
* Dave Barry Slept Here: A Sort of History of the United States (1989)
* Dave Barry Turns 40 (1990)
* ''Dave Barry's Only Travel Guide You'll Ever Need (1991)
* Dave Barry's Guide to Life (1991) (includes Dave Barry's Guide to Marriage and/or Sex, Babies and Other Hazards of Sex, Stay Fit and Healthy Until You're Dead and Claw Your Way to the Top)
* Dave Barry Does Japan (1992)
* Dave Barry's Gift Guide to End All Gift Guides (1994)
* Dave Barry's Complete Guide to Guys (1996)
* Dave Barry in Cyberspace (1996)
* Dave Barry's Book of Bad Songs (1997)
* Dave Barry Turns 50 (1998)
* Dave Barry Hits Below the Beltway: A Vicious and Unprovoked Attack on Our Most Cherished Political Institutions (2001)
* "My Teenage Son's Goal in Life is to Make Me Feel 3,500 Years Old" and Other Thoughts On Parenting From Dave Barry (2001)
* "The Greatest Invention in the History Of Mankind Is Beer" And Other Manly Insights From Dave Barry (2001)
* Dave Barry's Money Secrets (2006)
* Dave Barry on Dads (2007)
* Dave Barry's History of the Millennium (So Far) (2007)
* I'll Mature When I'm Dead: Dave Barry's Amazing Tales of Adulthood (2010)
* You Can Date Boys When You're Forty: Dave Barry on Parenting and Other Topics He Knows Very Little About (2014)
* Live Right and Find Happiness (Although Beer is Much Faster): Life Lessons and Other Ravings from Dave Barry (2015)
* Best. State. Ever.: A Florida Man Defends His Homeland (2015)
* For This We Left Egypt?: A Passover Haggadah for Jews and Those Who Love Them (2017, with Alan Zweibel and Adam Mansbach)
* Lessons from Lucy (2019)
* A Field Guide to the Jewish People (2019, with Adam Mansbach and Alan Zweibel)
Collected columns
* Dave Barry's Bad Habits: A 100% Fact-Free Book (1985)
* Dave Barry's Greatest Hits (1988)
* Dave Barry Talks Back (1991)
* The World According to Dave Barry (1994) (includes Dave Barry Talks Back, Dave Barry Turns 40 and Dave Barry's Greatest Hits)
* Dave Barry is NOT Making This Up (1995)
* Dave Barry Is from Mars and Venus (1997)
* Dave Barry Is Not Taking This Sitting Down (2000)
* Boogers Are My Beat (2003)
Fiction
* Big Trouble (1999). .
* Tricky Business (2002). .
* Peter and the Starcatchers (2004, with Ridley Pearson). .
* Peter and the Shadow Thieves (2006, with Ridley Pearson). .
* Peter and the Secret of Rundoon (2007, with Ridley Pearson). .
* Escape From the Carnivale (2006, with Ridley Pearson). .
* The Shepherd, the Angel, and Walter the Christmas Miracle Dog (2006). .
* Cave of the Dark Wind (2007, with Ridley Pearson). .
* Science Fair (2008, with Ridley Pearson). .
* Peter and the Sword of Mercy (2009, with Ridley Pearson). .
* Blood Tide (2008, with Ridley Pearson). .
* The Bridge to Neverland (2011, with Ridley Pearson). .
* Lunatics (2012, with Alan Zweibel). .
* Insane City (2013). .
* The Worst Class Trip Ever (2015). .
* The Worst Night Ever (2016). .
* Swamp Story (2023). .
Film adaptations
* Big Trouble (2002)
* Dave Barry's Complete Guide to Guys (2005)
* Peter and the Starcatchers (Disney project, announced May 17, 2012. Release date TBA)
Collaborations
* Mid-Life Confidential: The Rock Bottom Remainders Tour America With Three Chords and an Attitude (1994) with Stephen King, Kathi Kamen Goldmark, Al Kooper, Ridley Pearson, Roy Blount, Jr., Joel Selvin, Amy Tan, Dave Marsh, Tad Bartimus, Matt Groening, Greil Marcus, Tabitha King, Barbara Kingsolver, Michael Dorris
* Naked Came the Manatee (1998) with Carl Hiaasen, Elmore Leonard, James W. Hall, Edna Buchanan, Les Standiford, Paul Levine, Brian Antoni, Tananarive Due, John Dufresne, Vicki Hendricks, Carolina Hospital, Evelyn Mayerson
* Novels (as listed above) with Ridley Pearson and Alan Zweibel
* Hard Listening, (July 2013) is an interactive ebook about his participation in a writer/musician band, the Rock Bottom Remainders. Published by digital publisher, Coliloquy, LLC
Audio recordings
* A Totally Random Evening With Dave Barry (1992)
* A Prairie Home Companion: English Majors: A Comedy Collection for the Highly Literate (as guest) (1997)
* Stranger than Fiction (compilation album) (1998)
See also
* Exploding whale
* International Talk Like a Pirate Day
Notes
External links
* [http://writetv.okstate.edu/bestofWOL.html Write TV'' Public Television Interview with Dave Barry]
*
*
*
Category:1947 births
Category:Living people
Category:20th-century American novelists
Category:20th-century American male writers
Category:21st-century American novelists
Category:Absurdist fiction
Category:American atheists
Category:American male bloggers
Category:American bloggers
Category:American columnists
Category:American satirists
Category:American parodists
Category:American satirical columnists
Category:American children's writers
Category:American conscientious objectors
Category:American crime fiction writers
Category:American humorists
Category:American male novelists
Category:Haverford College alumni
Category:New York (state) Libertarians
Category:People from Armonk, New York
Category:People from Pleasantville, New York
Category:Pulitzer Prize for Commentary winners
Category:Rock Bottom Remainders members
Category:Miami Herald people
Category:Novelists from Florida
Category:21st-century American non-fiction writers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave_Barry
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2025-04-05T18:28:37.363703
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8436
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David Angell
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| birth_place = Providence, Rhode Island, U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place = New York City, U.S.
| years_active = 1977–2001
| alma_mater = Providence College
| spouse =
| notable_works = Wings<br />Frasier
| occupation =
| relatives = Kenneth Angell (brother)
| awards = 8 Emmy Awards}}
David Lawrence Angell (April 10, 1946 – September 11, 2001)
Early life
Angell was born in Providence, Rhode Island, to Henry and Mae (née Cooney) Angell. He received a bachelor's degree in English literature from Providence College. He married Lynn Edwards on August 14, 1971. Soon after Angell entered the U.S. Army upon graduation and served at the Pentagon until 1972. His brother, the Most Rev. Kenneth Angell, was a Roman Catholic prelate and Bishop of Burlington, Vermont.Legacy
's North Pool, along with other passengers from Flight 11.]]
The American Screenwriters Association awards the annual David Angell Humanitarian Award to any individual in the entertainment industry who contributes to global well-being through donations of time, expertise or other support to improve the human condition.
In 2004, The Angell Foundation of Los Angeles, California, awarded Providence College a gift of $2 million for the Smith Center for the Arts.
At the National September 11 Memorial, Angell and his wife are memorialized at the North Pool, on Panel N-1, along with other passengers from Flight 11.ReferencesExternal links
*
*
*
Category:1946 births
Category:2001 deaths
Category:20th-century American male writers
Category:20th-century American screenwriters
Category:American Airlines Flight 11 victims
Category:American male screenwriters
Category:American male television writers
Category:American television producers
Category:American television writers
Category:People from Barrington, Rhode Island
Category:Primetime Emmy Award winners
Category:Providence College alumni
Category:Screenwriters from Rhode Island
Category:American showrunners
Category:Television show creators
Category:United States Army soldiers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Angell
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2025-04-05T18:28:37.382067
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Diedrich Hermann Westermann
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right|thumb|220px|Westermann's 1911 Die Sudansprachen.Diedrich Hermann Westermann (24 June 1875 – 31 May 1956) was a German missionary, Africanist, and linguist. He substantially extended and revised the work of Carl Meinhof, his teacher, although he rejected some of Meinhof's theories only implicitly. Westermann is seen as one of the founders of modern African linguistics.
He carried out extensive linguistic and anthropological research in the area ranging from Senegal eastwards to the Upper Nile. His linguistic publications cover a wide range of African languages, including the Gbe languages, Nuer, Kpelle, Shilluk, Hausa, and Guang.
Westermann's comparative work, begun in 1911, initially brought together much of today's Niger–Congo and Nilo-Saharan language phyla under the name Sudanic languages. His most important later publication Die westlichen Sudansprachen 1927a divided these into East and West Sudanic languages and laid the basis for what would become Niger–Congo. In this book and a series of associated articles between 1925 and 1928, Westermann both identified a large number of roots that form the basis of our understanding of Niger–Congo and set out the evidence for the coherence of many of the families that constitute it. Much of the classification of African languages associated with Joseph Greenberg actually derives from the work of Westermann.
In 1927 Westermann published a Practical Orthography of African Languages, which became later known as the Westermann script. Subsequently, he published the influential and oft-reprinted Practical Phonetics for Students of African Languages in collaboration with Ida C. Ward (1933).
He was born in Baden near Bremen and also died there.
Bibliography
Westermann, Diedrich H. (1911) Die Sudansprachen [The Sudanic languages].
Westermann, Diedrich H. (1912) The Shilluk People. Berlin.
Westermann, Diedrich H. (1925) Das Tschi und Guang. Ihre Stellung innerhalb der Ewe-Tschi Gruppe. MSOS, 28:1-85.
Westermann, Diedrich H. (1926a) Das Ibo in Nigerien. Seine Stellung innerhalb der Kwa-Sprachen. MSOS, 29:32-60.
Westermann, Diedrich H. (1926b) Das Edo in Nigerien. Seine Stellung innerhalb der Kwa-Sprachen. MSOS, 29:1-31.
Westermann, Diedrich H. (1927a) 'Die westlichen Sudansprachen und ihre Beziehungen zum Bantu' Berlin: de Gruyter.
Westermann, Diedrich H. (1927b) Das Nupe in Nigerien. Seine Stellung innerhalb der Kwa-Sprachen. MSOS, 30:173-207.
Westermann, Diedrich H. (1928) Die westatlantische Gruppe der Sudansprachen. MSOS, 31:63-86.
Westermann, Diedrich Hermann & Ward, Ida C. (1933) Practical phonetics for students of African languages. London: Oxford University Press for the International African Institute.
Westermann, Diedrich H. (1940) Africans recount their lives. Eleven self-portraits (Afrikaner erzählen ihr Leben. Elf Selbstdarstellungen), Essener Verlagsanstalt
Westermann, Diedrich H. (1948). The missionary and anthropological research. Oxford University Press for the International African Institute.
Westermann, Diedrich H. (1949). Sprachbeziehungen und Sprachverwandtschaft in Afrika. Sitzungsberichte der Deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Philosophisch-Historische Klasse, 1948 (Nr. 1). Berlin: Akademie-Verlag.
Westermann, Diedrich H. (1952). The languages of West Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Westermann, Diedrich H. (1964). Practical phonetics for students of African languages (4th improvement). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Further reading
Kallaway, Peter. Diedrich Westermann and the Ambiguities of Colonial Science in the Inter-War Era. The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 2017 vol. 45 no. 6, p. 871–893
External links
Category:1875 births
Category:1956 deaths
Category:Creators of writing systems
Category:Linguists of Niger–Congo languages
Category:Historical linguists
Category:Linguists of Nilo-Saharan languages
Category:German missionary linguists
Category:20th-century German linguists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diedrich_Hermann_Westermann
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Diacritic
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Diacritics (journal)}}
A diacritic (also diacritical mark, diacritical point, diacritical sign, or accent) is a glyph added to a letter or to a basic glyph. The term derives from the Ancient Greek (, "distinguishing"), from (, "to distinguish"). The word diacritic is a noun, though it is sometimes used in an attributive sense, whereas diacritical is only an adjective. Some diacritics, such as the acute , grave , and circumflex (all shown above an 'o'), are often called accents. Diacritics may appear above or below a letter or in some other position such as within the letter or between two letters.
The main use of diacritics in Latin script is to change the sound-values of the letters to which they are added. Historically, English has used the diaeresis diacritic to indicate the correct pronunciation of ambiguous words, such as "coöperate", without which the <oo> letter sequence could be misinterpreted to be pronounced . Other examples are the acute and grave accents, which can indicate that a vowel is to be pronounced differently than is normal in that position, for example not reduced to /ə/ or silent as in the case of the two uses of the letter e in the noun résumé (as opposed to the verb resume) and the help sometimes provided in the pronunciation of some words such as doggèd, learnèd, blessèd, and especially words pronounced differently than normal in poetry (for example movèd, breathèd).
Most other words with diacritics in English are borrowings from languages such as French to better preserve the spelling, such as the diaeresis on and , the acute from , the circumflex in the word , and the cedille in . All these diacritics, however, are frequently omitted in writing, and English is the only major modern European language that does not have diacritics in common usage.
In Latin-script alphabets in other languages, diacritics may distinguish between homonyms, such as the French ("there") versus ("the"), which are both pronounced . In Gaelic type, a dot over a consonant indicates lenition of the consonant in question. In other writing systems, diacritics may perform other functions. Vowel pointing systems, namely the Arabic harakat and the Hebrew niqqud systems, indicate vowels that are not conveyed by the basic alphabet. The Indic virama ( <big>्</big> etc.) and the Arabic sukūn ( <big></big> ) mark the absence of vowels. Cantillation marks indicate prosody. Other uses include the Early Cyrillic titlo stroke ( <big>◌҃</big> ) and the Hebrew gershayim ( <big></big> ), which, respectively, mark abbreviations or acronyms, and Greek diacritical marks, which showed that letters of the alphabet were being used as numerals. In Vietnamese and the Hanyu Pinyin official romanization system for Mandarin in China, diacritics are used to mark the tones of the syllables in which the marked vowels occur.
In orthography and collation, a letter modified by a diacritic may be treated either as a new, distinct letter or as a letter–diacritic combination. This varies from language to language and may vary from case to case within a language.
In some cases, letters are used as "in-line diacritics", with the same function as ancillary glyphs, in that they modify the sound of the letter preceding them, as in the case of the "h" in the English pronunciation of "sh" and "th". Such letter combinations are sometimes even collated as a single distinct letter. For example, the spelling sch was traditionally often treated as a separate letter in German. Words with that spelling were listed after all other words spelled with s in card catalogs in the Vienna public libraries, for example (before digitization).
Types
, below}}
Among the types of diacritic used in alphabets based on the Latin script are:
* accents (so called because the acute, grave, and circumflex were originally used to indicate different types of pitch accents in the polytonic transcription of Greek)
<!-- This list uses <span style="font-family: serif"> because of rendering limitation in Android (as of v13), that its default sans font fails to render "dotted circle + diacritic", so visitors just get a meaningless (to most) [X] mark. Please retain at least until the issue is resolved because this is a very large proportion of visitors. -->
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – acute (); for example
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – grave; for example
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – circumflex; for example
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – caron, wedge; for example
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – double acute; for example
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – double grave; for example
** <!-- called in Spanish but not in English and this is en.wikipedia -->
* one dot
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – an overdot is used in many orthographies and transcriptions; for example
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – an underdot is also used in many orthographies and transcriptions; for example
** – an interpunct is used in the Catalan (l·l)
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – a dot above right is used in Pe̍h-ōe-jī
** tittle, the superscript dot of the modern lowercase Latin and
*two dots:
** two overdots <span style="font-family: serif">(</span>) are used for umlaut, diaeresis and others; (for example )
** two underdots (<span style="font-family: serif"></span>) are used in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) and the ALA-LC romanization system
** – triangular colon, used in the IPA to mark long vowels (the "dots" are triangular, not circular).
* curves
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – breve; for example
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – inverted breve; for example
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – sicilicus, a palaeographic diacritic similar to a caron or breve
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – tilde; for example
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – titlo
* vertical stroke
** <span style"font-family: serif"></span> – a subscript vertical stroke is used in IPA to mark syllabicity and in to mark a schwa
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – a superscript vertical stroke is used in Pe̍h-ōe-jī
* macron or horizontal line
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – macron; for example
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – underbar
* overlays
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – vertical bar through the character
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – slash through the character; for example
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – crossbar through the character
* ring
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – overring: for example
* superscript curls
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – apostrophe
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – inverted apostrophe
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – reversed apostrophe
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – hook above ()
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – horn (); for example
* subscript curls
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – undercomma; for example
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – cedilla; for example
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – hook, left or right, sometimes superscript
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – ogonek; for example
* double marks (over or under two base characters)
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – double breve
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – tie bar or top ligature
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – double circumflex
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – longum
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – double tilde
* double sub/superscript diacritics
**<span style="font-family: serif"></span> – double cedilla
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – double ogonek
** <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – double diaeresis
**<span style="font-family: serif"></span> – double ypogegrammeni
The tilde, dot, comma, titlo, apostrophe, bar, and colon are sometimes diacritical marks, but also have other uses.
Not all diacritics occur adjacent to the letter they modify. In the Wali language of Ghana, for example, an apostrophe indicates a change of vowel quality, but occurs at the beginning of the word, as in the dialects ’Bulengee and ’Dolimi. Because of vowel harmony, all vowels in a word are affected, so the scope of the diacritic is the entire word. In abugida scripts, like those used to write Hindi and Thai, diacritics indicate vowels, and may occur above, below, before, after, or around the consonant letter they modify.
The tittle (dot) on the letter or the letter , of the Latin alphabet originated as a diacritic to clearly distinguish from the minims (downstrokes) of adjacent letters. It first appeared in the 11th century in the sequence ii (as in ), then spread to i adjacent to m, n, u, and finally to all lowercase is. The , originally a variant of i, inherited the tittle. The shape of the diacritic developed from initially resembling today's acute accent to a long flourish by the 15th century. With the advent of Roman type it was reduced to the round dot we have today.
Several languages of eastern Europe use diacritics on both consonants and vowels, whereas in western Europe digraphs are more often used to change consonant sounds. Most languages in Europe use diacritics on vowels, aside from English where there are typically none (with some exceptions).
Diacritics specific to non-Latin alphabets
Arabic
* (ئ ؤ إ أ and stand alone ء) : indicates a glottal stop.
* (ــًــٍــٌـ) () symbols: Serve a grammatical role in Arabic. The sign ـً is most commonly written in combination with alif, e.g. .
* (ــّـ) : Gemination (doubling) of consonants.
* (ٱ) : Comes most commonly at the beginning of a word. Indicates a type of that is pronounced only when the letter is read at the beginning of the talk.
* (آ) : A written replacement for a that is followed by an alif, i.e. (). Read as a glottal stop followed by a long , e.g. are written out respectively as . This writing rule does not apply when the alif that follows a is not a part of the stem of the word, e.g. is not written out as as the stem does not have an alif that follows its .
* (ــٰـ) superscript (also "short" or "dagger alif": A replacement for an original alif that is dropped in the writing out of some rare words, e.g. is not written out with the original alif found in the word pronunciation, instead it is written out as .
* (In Arabic: also called ):
** (ــَـ) (a)
** (ــِـ) (i)
** (ــُـ) (u)
** (ــْـ) (no vowel)
* The or vowel points serve two purposes:
** They serve as a phonetic guide. They indicate the presence of short vowels (, , or ) or their absence ().
** At the last letter of a word, the vowel point reflects the inflection case or conjugation mood.
*** For nouns, The is for the nominative, for the accusative, and for the genitive.
*** For verbs, the is for the imperfective, for the perfective, and the is for verbs in the imperative or jussive moods.
* Vowel points or should not be confused with consonant points or () – one, two or three dots written above or below a consonant to distinguish between letters of the same or similar form.
Greek
These diacritics are used in addition to the acute, grave, and circumflex accents and the diaeresis:
* <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – iota subscript ()
* <span style="font-family: serif"></span> – rough breathing (, ): aspiration
* <span style"font-family: serif"></span> – smooth (or soft) breathing (, ): lack of aspirationHebrew
in red</span>, <span style="color:#0000CC;">cantillation in blue</span>]]
* Niqqud
** }} – Dagesh
** }} – Mappiq
** }} – Rafe
** }} – Shin dot (at top right corner)
** }} – Sin dot (at top left corner)
** }} – Shva
** }} – Kubutz
** }} – Holam
** }} – Kamatz
** }} – Patakh
** }} – Segol
** }} – Tzeire
** }} – Hiriq
(Cantillation marks do not generally render correctly; refer to Hebrew cantillation#Names and shapes of the ta'amim for a complete table together with instructions for how to maximize the possibility of viewing them in a web browser.)
* Other
** }} – Geresh
** }} – Gershayim
Korean
, the Korean alphabet]]
The diacritics 〮 and 〯 , known as Bangjeom (), were used to mark pitch accents in Hangul for Middle Korean. They were written to the left of a syllable in vertical writing and above a syllable in horizontal writing.
Sanskrit and Indic
thumb|center|upright=3.4|Devanagari scripts (from Brahmic family) compound letters, which are vowels combined with consonants, have diacritics. Here, (k) is shown with vowel diacritics.
That is:
, etc.Syriac
* A dot above and a dot below a letter represent , transliterated as a or ă,
* Two diagonally-placed dots above a letter represent , transliterated as ā or â or å,
* Two horizontally-placed dots below a letter represent , transliterated as e or ĕ; often pronounced and transliterated as i in the East Syriac dialect,
* Two diagonally-placed dots below a letter represent , transliterated as ē,
* A dot underneath the Beth represent a soft sound, transliterated as v
* A tilde (~) placed under Gamel represent a sound, transliterated as j
* The letter Waw with a dot below it represents , transliterated as ū or u,
* The letter Waw with a dot above it represents , transliterated as ō or o,
* The letter Yōḏ with a dot beneath it represents , transliterated as ī or i,
* A tilde (~) under Kaph represent a sound, transliterated as ch or č,
* A semicircle under Peh represents an sound, transliterated as f or ph.
In addition to the above vowel marks, transliteration of Syriac sometimes includes ə, e̊ or superscript <sup>e</sup> (or often nothing at all) to represent an original Aramaic schwa that became lost later on at some point in the development of Syriac. Some transliteration schemes find its inclusion necessary for showing spirantization or for historical reasons.
Non-alphabetic scripts
Some non-alphabetic scripts also employ symbols that function essentially as diacritics.
* Non-pure abjads (such as Hebrew and Arabic script) and abugidas use diacritics for denoting vowels. Hebrew and Arabic also indicate consonant doubling and change with diacritics; Hebrew and Devanagari use them for foreign sounds. Devanagari and related abugidas also use a diacritical mark called a virama to mark the absence of a vowel. In addition, Devanagari uses the moon-dot chandrabindu'' ( ँ ) for vowel nasalization.
* Unified Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics use several types of diacritics, including the diacritics with alphabetic properties known as Medials and Finals. Although long vowels originally were indicated with a negative line through the Syllabic glyphs, making the glyph appear broken, in the modern forms, a dot above is used to indicate vowel length. In some of the styles, a ring above indicates a long vowel with a [j] off-glide. Another diacritic, the "inner ring" is placed at the glyph's head to modify [p] to [f] and [t] to [θ]. Medials such as the "w-dot" placed next to the Syllabics glyph indicates a [w] being placed between the syllable onset consonant and the nucleus vowel. Finals indicate the syllable coda consonant; some of the syllable coda consonants in word medial positions, such as with the "h-tick", indicate the fortification of the consonant in the syllable following it.
* The Japanese hiragana and katakana syllabaries use the dakuten (◌゛) and handakuten (◌゜) (in Japanese: 濁点 and 半濁点) symbols, also known as nigori (濁 "muddying") or ten-ten (点々 "dot dot") and maru (丸 "circle"), to indicate voiced consonants or other phonetic changes.
* Emoticons are commonly created with diacritic symbols, especially Japanese emoticons on popular imageboards.
Alphabetization or collation
Different languages use different rules to put diacritic characters in alphabetical order. For example, French and Portuguese treat letters with diacritical marks the same as the underlying letter for purposes of ordering and dictionaries. The Scandinavian languages and the Finnish language, by contrast, treat the characters with diacritics , , and as distinct letters of the alphabet, and sort them after . Usually (a-umlaut) and (o-umlaut) [used in Swedish and Finnish] are sorted as equivalent to (ash) and (o-slash) [used in Danish and Norwegian]. Also, aa, when used as an alternative spelling to , is sorted as such. Other letters modified by diacritics are treated as variants of the underlying letter, with the exception that is frequently sorted as .
Languages that treat accented letters as variants of the underlying letter usually alphabetize words with such symbols immediately after similar unmarked words. For instance, in German where two words differ only by an umlaut, the word without it is sorted first in German dictionaries (e.g. schon and then schön, or fallen and then fällen). However, when names are concerned (e.g. in phone books or in author catalogues in libraries), umlauts are often treated as combinations of the vowel with a suffixed ; Austrian phone books now treat characters with umlauts as separate letters (immediately following the underlying vowel).
In Spanish, the grapheme is considered a distinct letter, different from and collated between and , as it denotes a different sound from that of a plain . But the accented vowels , , , , are not separated from the unaccented vowels , , , , , as the acute accent in Spanish only modifies stress within the word or denotes a distinction between homonyms, and does not modify the sound of a letter.
For a comprehensive list of the collating orders in various languages, see Collating sequence.
Generation with computers
Modern computer technology was developed mostly in countries that speak Western European languages (particularly English), and many early binary encodings were developed with a bias favoring Englisha language written without diacritical marks. With computer memory and computer storage at premium, early character sets were limited to the Latin alphabet, the ten digits and a few punctuation marks and conventional symbols. The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII), first published in 1963, encoded just 95 printable characters. It included just four free-standing diacriticsacute, grave, circumflex and tildewhich were to be used by backspacing and overprinting the base letter. The ISO/IEC 646 standard (1967) defined national variations that replace some American graphemes with precomposed characters (such as , and ), according to languagebut remained limited to 95 printable characters.
Unicode was conceived to solve this problem by assigning every known character its own code; if this code is known, most modern computer systems provide a method to input it. For historical reasons, almost all the letter-with-accent combinations used in European languages were given unique code points and these are called precomposed characters. For other languages, it is usually necessary to use a combining character diacritic together with the desired base letter. Unfortunately, even as of 2024, many applications and web browsers remain unable to operate the combining diacritic concept properly.
Depending on the keyboard layout and keyboard mapping, it is more or less easy to enter letters with diacritics on computers and typewriters. Keyboards used in countries where letters with diacritics are the norm, have keys engraved with the relevant symbols. In other cases, such as when the US international or UK extended mappings are used, the accented letter is created by first pressing the key with the diacritic mark, followed by the letter to place it on. This method is known as the dead key technique, as it produces no output of its own but modifies the output of the key pressed after it.
Languages with letters containing diacritics
The following languages have letters with diacritics that are orthographically distinct from those without diacritics.
Latin script
Baltic
:* Latvian has the following letters: , , , , , , , , , ,
:* Lithuanian. In general usage, where letters appear with the caron (, and ), they are considered as separate letters from , or and collated separately; letters with the ogonek (, , and ), the macron () and the overdot () are considered as separate letters as well, but not given a unique collation order.
Celtic
:* Welsh uses the circumflex, diaeresis, acute, and grave accents on its seven vowels , , , , , , (hence the composites , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ). However all except the circumflex (which is used as a macron) are fairly rare.
:* Following spelling reforms since the 1970s, Scottish Gaelic uses graves only, which can be used on any vowel (, , , , ). Formerly acute accents could be used on , and , which were used to indicate a specific vowel quality. With the elimination of these accents, the new orthography relies on the reader having prior knowledge of pronunciation of a given word.
:* Manx uses the cedilla diacritic combined with h to give the digraph (pronounced ) to mark the distinction between it and the digraph (pronounced or ). Other diacritics used in Manx included the circumflex and diaeresis, as in , , , etc. to mark the distinction between two similarly spelled words but with slightly differing pronunciation.
:* Irish uses only acute accents to mark long vowels, following the 1948 spelling reform. Lenition is indicated using an overdot in Gaelic type (,,, , , , , ); in Roman type, a suffixed is used. Thus, <span style"font-family:Duibhlinn, Ceanannas, Corcaigh, sans-serif"></span> is equivalent to <span style"font-family:Times New Roman, serif"></span>.
:* Breton does not have a single orthography (spelling system), but uses diacritics for a number of purposes. The diaeresis is used to mark that two vowels are pronounced separately and not as a diphthong/digraph. The circumflex is used to mark long vowels, but usually only when the vowel length is not predictable by phonology. Nasalization of vowels may be marked with a tilde, or following the vowel with the letter . The plural suffix -où is used as a unified spelling to represent a suffix with a number of pronunciations in different dialects, and to distinguish this suffix from the digraph which is pronounced as . An apostrophe is used to distinguish , pronounced as the digraph is used in other Celtic languages, from the French-influenced digraph ch, pronounced .
Finno-Ugric
:* Estonian has a distinct letter , which contains a tilde. Estonian vowels with double-dot diacritics , , are similar to German, but these are also distinct letters, unlike
German umlauted letters. All four have their own place in the alphabet, between and . Carons in or appear only in foreign proper names and loanwords. Also these are distinct letters, placed in the alphabet between s and t.
:* Finnish uses double-dotted vowels ( and ). As in Swedish and Estonian, these are regarded as individual letters, rather than 'vowel + diacritic' combinations (as happens in German). It also uses the characters , and in foreign names and loanwords. In the Finnish and Swedish alphabets, , and collate as separate letters after , the others as variants of their base letter.
:* Hungarian uses the double-dot, the acute and double acute diacritics (the last is unique to Hungarian): (, ), (, , , , ) and (, ). The acute accent indicates the long form of a vowel (in case of /, /, /) while the double acute performs the same function for and . The acute accent can also indicate a different sound (more open, as in case of /, /). Both long and short forms of the vowels are listed separately in the Hungarian alphabet, but members of the pairs /, /, /, /, /, / and / are collated in dictionaries as the same letter.
:* Livonian has the following letters: , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , .
Germanic
:* German uses the two-dots diacritic (): letters , , , used to indicate the fronting of back vowels (see umlaut (linguistics)).
:* Dutch uses acute, circumflex, grave and two-dots diacritics with most vowels and cedilla with c, as in French. This results in , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and . This is mostly on words (and names) originating from French (like crème, café, gêne, façade). The acute accent is also used to stress the vowel (like één). The two-dots diacritic is used as a linguistic diaeresis (a vowel hiatus) that splits the two vowels, e.g., reële, reünie, coördinatie), rather than to indicate a linguistic as used in German.
:* Afrikaans uses 16 additional vowel forms, both uppercase and lowercase: , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . <!-- The precomposed digraph ʼn is not a letter and its use is deprecated. -->
:* Faroese uses acutes and some additional letters. All are considered separate letters and have their own place in the alphabet: , , , , and .
:* Icelandic uses acutes and other additional letters. All are considered separate letters, and have their own place in the alphabet: , , , , , and .
:* Danish and Norwegian use additional characters like the o-slash and the a-overring . These letters come after and in the order , . Historically, the has developed from a ligature by writing a small superscript over a lowercase ; if an character is unavailable, some Scandinavian languages allow the substitution of a doubled a, thus . The Scandinavian languages collate these letters after , but have different national collation standards.
:* Swedish uses a-diaeresis () and o-diaeresis () in the place of () and slashed o () in addition to the a-overring (). Historically, the two-dots diacritic for the Swedish letters and developed from a small Gothic written above the letters. These letters are collated after , in the order , , .
Romance
:* In Asturian, Galician and Spanish, the character is a letter and collated between n and o.
:* Asturian uses an underdot: (lower case, ), and (lower case )
:* Catalan uses the acute accent , , , , the grave accent , , , the diaeresis , , the cedilla , and the interpunct .
::* In Valencian, the circumflex , , , , may also be used.
:* Corsican uses the following in its alphabet: /, /, /, /, /.
:* French uses four diacritics, appearing on vowels (circumflex, acute, grave, diaeresis) and the cedilla appearing in .
:* Italian uses two diacritics, appearing on vowels (acute, grave)
:* Leonese: could use or .
:* Portuguese uses a tilde with the vowels and and a cedilla with c.
:* Romanian uses a breve on the letter a () to indicate the sound schwa , as well as a circumflex over the letters a () and i () for the sound . Romanian also writes a comma below the letters s () and t () to represent the sounds and , respectively. These characters are collated after their non-diacritic equivalent.
:* Spanish uses acute accents (, , , , ) to indicate stress falling on a different syllable than the one it would fall on based on default rules, and to distinguish certain one-syllable homonyms (e.g. (masculine singular definite article) and [he]). The acute accent is also used to break up sequences of vowels that would normally be pronouced as a diphthong into two syllables, as in the word . Diaeresis is used on u only, to distinguish the combinations from , e.g. . The tilde on is not considered a diacritic as is considered a distinct letter from , not a mutated form of it.
Slavic
:* Gaj's Latin alphabet, used in Croatian and latinized Serbian, has the symbols , , , and , which are considered separate letters and are listed as such in dictionaries and other contexts in which words are listed according to alphabetical order. It also has one digraph including a diacritic, dž, which is also alphabetized independently, and follows and precedes in the alphabetical order.
:* The Czech alphabet uses the acute (á é í ó ú ý), caron (č ď ě ň ř š ť ž), and for one letter (ů) the ring. (In ď and ť the caron is modified to look rather like an apostrophe.) Letter with caron are considered separate letters, whereas vowels are considered only as longer variants of the unaccented letters. Acute does not affect alphabetical order, letters with caron are ordered after original counterparts.
:* Polish has the following letters: ą ć ę ł ń ó ś ź ż. These are considered to be separate letters: each of them is placed in the alphabet immediately after its Latin counterpart (e.g. between and ), and are placed after in that order.
:* The Serbian Cyrillic alphabet has no diacritics, instead it has a grapheme (glyph) for every letter of its Latin counterpart (including Latin letters with diacritics and the digraphs dž, lj and nj).
:* The Slovak alphabet uses the acute (á é í ó ú ý ĺ ŕ), caron (č ď ľ ň š ť ž dž), umlaut (ä) and circumflex accent (ô). All of those are considered separate letters and are placed directly after the original counterpart in the alphabet.
:* The basic Slovenian alphabet has the symbols , , and , which are considered separate letters and are listed as such in dictionaries and other contexts in which words are listed according to alphabetical order. Letters with a caron are placed right after the letters as written without the diacritic. The letter ('d with bar') may be used in non-transliterated foreign words, particularly names, and is placed after and before .
Turkic
:*Azerbaijani includes the distinct Turkish alphabet letters Ç, Ğ, I, İ, Ö, Ş and Ü.
:* Crimean Tatar includes the distinct Turkish alphabet letters Ç, Ğ, I, İ, Ö, Ş and Ü. Unlike Turkish, Crimean Tatar also has the letter Ñ.
:* Gagauz includes the distinct Turkish alphabet letters Ç, Ğ, I, İ, Ö and Ü. Unlike Turkish, Gagauz also has the letters Ä, Ê Ș and Ț. Ș and Ț are derived from the Romanian alphabet for the same sounds. Sometime the Turkish Ş may be used instead of Ș.
:* Turkish uses a with a breve (), two letters with two dots ( and , representing two rounded front vowels), two letters with a cedilla ( and , representing the affricate and the fricative ), and also possesses a dotted capital (and a dotless lowercase representing a high unrounded back vowel). In Turkish each of these are separate letters, rather than versions of other letters, where dotted capital and lower case are the same letter, as are dotless capital and lowercase . Typographically, and are sometimes rendered with an underdot, as in . The new Azerbaijani, Crimean Tatar, and Gagauz alphabets are based on the Turkish alphabet and its same diacriticized letters, with some additions.
:* Turkmen includes the distinct Turkish alphabet letters Ç, Ö, Ş and Ü. In addition, Turkmen uses A with diaeresis (Ä) to represent , N with caron () to represent the velar nasal , Y with acute () to represent the palatal approximant , and Z with caron () to represent .
Other
:*Albanian has two special letters Ç and Ë upper and lowercase. They are placed next to the most similar letters in the alphabet, c and e correspondingly.
:* Esperanto has the symbols ŭ, ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ and ŝ, which are included in the alphabet, and considered separate letters.
:* Filipino also has the character ñ as a letter and is collated between n and o.
:* Modern Greenlandic does not use any diacritics, although ø and å are used to spell loanwords, especially from Danish and English. From 1851 until 1973, Greenlandic was written in an alphabet invented by Samuel Kleinschmidt, where long vowels and geminate consonants were indicated by diacritics on vowels (in the case of consonant gemination, the diacritics were placed on the vowel preceding the affected consonant). For example, the name Kalaallit Nunaat was spelled Kalâdlit Nunât. This scheme uses the circumflex (◌̂) to indicate a long vowel (e.g. ; modern: ), an acute accent (◌́) to indicate gemination of the following consonant: (i.e. ; modern: ) and, finally, a tilde (◌̃) or a grave accent (◌̀), depending on the author, indicates vowel length and gemination of the following consonant (e.g. ; modern: ). , used only before , are now written in Greenlandic.
:* Hawaiian uses the kahakō (macron) over vowels, although there is some disagreement over considering them as individual letters. The kahakō over a vowel can completely change the meaning of a word that is spelled the same but without the kahakō.
:*Kurdish uses the symbols Ç, Ê, Î, Ş and Û with other 26 standard Latin alphabet symbols.
:*Lakota alphabet uses the caron for the letters č, ȟ, ǧ, š, and ž. It also uses the acute accent for stressed vowels á, é, í, ó, ú, áŋ, íŋ, úŋ.
:*Malay uses some diacritics such as á, ā, ç, í, ñ, ó, š, ú. Uses of diacritics was continued until late 19th century except ā and ē.
:*Maltese uses a C, G, and Z with a dot over them (Ċ, Ġ, Ż), and also has an H with an extra horizontal bar. For uppercase H, the extra bar is written slightly above the usual bar. For lowercase H, the extra bar is written crossing the vertical, like a t, and not touching the lower part (Ħ, ħ). The above characters are considered separate letters. The letter 'c' without a dot has fallen out of use due to redundancy. 'Ċ' is pronounced like the English 'ch' and 'k' is used as a hard c as in 'cat'. 'Ż' is pronounced just like the English 'Z' as in 'Zebra', while 'Z' is used to make the sound of 'ts' in English (like 'tsunami' or 'maths'). 'Ġ' is used as a soft 'G' like in 'geometry', while the 'G' sounds like a hard 'G' like in 'log'. The digraph 'għ' (called għajn after the Arabic letter name ʻayn for غ) is considered separate, and sometimes ordered after 'g', whilst in other volumes it is placed between 'n' and 'o' (the Latin letter 'o' originally evolved from the shape of Phoenician ʻayin, which was traditionally collated after Phoenician nūn).
:* The romanization of Syriac uses the altered letters of. Ā, Č, Ḏ, Ē, Ë, Ġ, Ḥ, Ō, Š, Ṣ, Ṭ, Ū, Ž alongside the 26 standard Latin alphabet symbols.
:*Vietnamese uses the horn diacritic for the letters ơ and ư; the circumflex for the letters â, ê, and ô; the breve for the letter ă; and a bar through the letter đ. Separately, it also has á, à, ả, ã and ạ, the five tones used for vowels besides the flat tone 'a'.
Cyrillic letters
:*Belarusian and Uzbek Cyrillic have a letter .
:* Belarusian, Bulgarian, Russian and Ukrainian have the letter .
:* Belarusian and Russian have the letter . In Russian, this letter is usually replaced by , although it has a different pronunciation. The use of instead of does not affect the pronunciation. Ё is always used in children's books and in dictionaries. A minimal pair is все (''vs'e, "everybody" pl.) and всё (vs'o, "everything" n. sg.). In Belarusian the replacement by is a mistake; in Russian, it is permissible to use either or for but the former is more common in everyday writing (as opposed to instructional or juvenile writing).
:* The Cyrillic Ukrainian alphabet has the letters , and . Ukrainian Latynka has many more.
:* Macedonian has the letters and .
:* In Bulgarian and Macedonian the possessive pronoun ѝ (ì, "her") is spelled with a grave accent in order to distinguish it from the conjunction и (i'', "and").
:* The acute accent above any vowel in Cyrillic alphabets is used in dictionaries, books for children and foreign learners to indicate the word stress, it also can be used for disambiguation of similarly spelled words with different lexical stresses.
Diacritics that do not produce new letters
shows students' efforts at placing the ü and acute accent diacritic used in Spanish orthography.]]
English
English is one of the few European languages that does not have many words that contain diacritical marks. Instead, digraphs are the main way the Modern English alphabet adapts the Latin to its phonemes. Exceptions are unassimilated foreign loanwords, including borrowings from French (and, increasingly, Spanish, like jalapeño and piñata); however, the diacritic is also sometimes omitted from such words. Loanwords that frequently appear with the diacritic in English include café, résumé or resumé (a usage that helps distinguish it from the verb resume), soufflé, and naïveté (see English terms with diacritical marks). In older practice (and even among some orthographically conservative modern writers), one may see examples such as élite, mêlée and rôle.
English speakers and writers once used the diaeresis more often than now in words such as coöperation (from Fr. coopération), zoölogy (from Grk. zoologia), and seeër (now more commonly see-er or simply seer) as a way of indicating that adjacent vowels belonged to separate syllables, but this practice has become far less common. The New Yorker magazine is a major publication that continues to use the diaeresis in place of a hyphen for clarity and economy of space.
A few English words, often when used out of context, especially in isolation, can only be distinguished from other words of the same spelling by using a diacritic or modified letter. These include exposé, lamé, maté, öre, øre, résumé and rosé. In a few words, diacritics that did not exist in the original have been added for disambiguation, as in maté (from Sp. and Port. mate), saké (the standard Romanization of the Japanese has no accent mark), and Malé (from Dhivehi މާލެ), to clearly distinguish them from the English words mate, sake, and male.
The acute and grave accents are occasionally used in poetry and lyrics: the acute to indicate stress overtly where it might be ambiguous (rébel vs. rebél) or nonstandard for metrical reasons (caléndar), the grave to indicate that an ordinarily silent or elided syllable is pronounced (warnèd, parlìament).
In certain personal names such as Renée and Zoë, often two spellings exist, and the person's own preference will be known only to those close to them. Even when the name of a person is spelled with a diacritic, like Charlotte Brontë, this may be dropped in English-language articles, and even in official documents such as passports, due either to carelessness, the typist not knowing how to enter letters with diacritical marks, or technical reasons (California, for example, does not allow names with diacritics, as the computer system cannot process such characters). They also appear in some worldwide company names and/or trademarks, such as Nestlé and Citroën.Other languages
The following languages have letter-diacritic combinations that are not considered independent letters.
* Afrikaans uses a diaeresis to mark vowels that are pronounced separately and not as one would expect where they occur together, for example voel (to feel) as opposed to voël (bird). The circumflex is used in ê, î, ô and û generally to indicate long close-mid, as opposed to open-mid vowels, for example in the words wêreld (world) and môre (morning, tomorrow). The acute accent is used to add emphasis in the same way as underlining or writing in bold or italics in English, for example Dit is jóú boek (It is your book). The grave accent is used to distinguish between words that are different only in placement of the stress, for example appel (apple) and appèl (appeal) and in a few cases where it makes no difference to the pronunciation but distinguishes between homophones. The two most usual cases of the latter are in the sayings òf... òf (either... or) and nòg... nòg (neither... nor) to distinguish them from of (or) and nog (again, still).
* Aymara uses a diacritical horn over p, q, t, k, ch.
* Catalan has the following composite characters: à, ç, é, è, í, ï, ó, ò, ú, ü, l·l. The acute and the grave indicate stress and vowel height, the cedilla marks the result of a historical palatalization, the diaeresis indicates either a hiatus, or that the letter u is pronounced when the graphemes gü, qü are followed by e or i, the interpunct (·) distinguishes the different values of .
* Some orthographies of Cornish such as Kernowek Standard and Unified Cornish use diacritics, while others such as Kernewek Kemmyn and the Standard Written Form do not (or only use them optionally in teaching materials).
* Dutch uses the diaeresis. For example, in ruïne it means that the u and the i are separately pronounced in their usual way, and not in the way that the combination ui is normally pronounced. Thus it works as a separation sign and not as an indication for an alternative version of the i. Diacritics can be used for emphasis (érg koud for very cold) or for disambiguation between a number of words that are spelled the same when context does not indicate the correct meaning (één appel one apple, een appel an apple; vóórkomen to occur, voorkómen to prevent). Grave and acute accents are used on a very small number of words, mostly loanwords. The ç also appears in some loanwords.
* Faroese. Non-Faroese accented letters are not added to the Faroese alphabet. These include é, ö, ü, å and recently also letters like š, ł, and ć.
* Filipino has the following composite characters: á, à, â, é, è, ê, í, ì, î, ó, ò, ô, ú, ù, û. Everyday use of diacritics for Filipino is, however, uncommon, and meant only to distinguish between homonyms between a word with the usual penultimate stress and one with a different stress placement. This aids both comprehension and pronunciation if both are relatively adjacent in a text, or if a word is itself ambiguous in meaning. The letter ñ ("eñe") is not a n with a diacritic, but rather collated as a separate letter, one of eight borrowed from Spanish. Diacritics appear in Spanish loanwords and names observing Spanish orthography rules.
* Finnish. Carons in š and ž appear only in foreign proper names and loanwords, but may be substituted with sh or zh if and only if it is technically impossible to produce accented letters in the medium. Contrary to Estonian, š and ž are not considered distinct letters in Finnish.
* French uses five diacritics. The grave (accent grave) marks the sound when over an e, as in père ("father") or is used to distinguish words that are otherwise homographs such as a/à ("has"/"to") or ou/où ("or"/"where"). The acute (accent aigu) is only used in "é", modifying the "e" to make the sound , as in étoile ("star"). The circumflex (accent circonflexe) generally denotes that an S once followed the vowel in Old French or Latin, as in fête ("party"), the Old French being feste and the Latin being festum. Whether the circumflex modifies the vowel's pronunciation depends on the dialect and the vowel. The cedilla (cédille) indicates that a normally hard "c" (before the vowels "a", "o", and "u") is to be pronounced , as in ça ("that"). The diaeresis diacritic () indicates that two adjacent vowels that would normally be pronounced as one are to be pronounced separately, as in Noël ("Christmas").
* Galician vowels can bear an acute (á, é, í, ó, ú) to indicate stress or difference between two otherwise same written words (é, 'is' vs. e, 'and'), but the diaeresis is only used with ï and ü to show two separate vowel sounds in pronunciation. Only in foreign words may Galician use other diacritics such as ç (common during the Middle Ages), ê, or à.
* German uses the three umlauted characters ä, ö and ü. These diacritics indicate vowel changes. For instance, the word Ofen "oven" has the plural Öfen . The mark originated as a superscript e; a handwritten blackletter e resembles two parallel vertical lines, like a diaeresis. Due to this history, "ä", "ö" and "ü" can be written as "ae", "oe" and "ue" respectively, if the umlaut letters are not available.
* Hebrew has many various diacritic marks known as niqqud that are used above and below script to represent vowels. These must be distinguished from cantillation, which are keys to pronunciation and syntax.
* The International Phonetic Alphabet uses diacritic symbols and characters to indicate phonetic features or secondary articulations.
* Irish uses the acute to indicate that a vowel is long: á, é, í, ó, ú. It is known as síneadh fada "long sign" or simply fada "long" in Irish. In the older Gaelic type, overdots are used to indicate lenition of a consonant: ḃ, ċ, ḋ, ḟ, ġ, ṁ, ṗ, ṡ, ṫ.
* Italian mainly has the acute and the grave (à, è/é, ì, ò/ó, ù), typically to indicate a stressed syllable that would not be stressed under the normal rules of pronunciation but sometimes also to distinguish between words that are otherwise spelled the same way (e.g. "e", and; "è", is). Despite its rare use, Italian orthography allows the circumflex (î) too, in two cases: it can be found in old literary context (roughly up to 19th century) to signal a syncope (fêro→fecero, they did), or in modern Italian to signal the contraction of ″-ii″ due to the plural ending -i whereas the root ends with another -i; e.g., s. demonio, p. demonii→demonî; in this case the circumflex also signals that the word intended is not demoni, plural of "demone" by shifting the accent (demònî, "devils"; dèmoni, "demons").
* Lithuanian uses the acute, grave and tilde in dictionaries to indicate stress types in the language's pitch accent system.
* Maltese also uses the grave on its vowels to indicate stress at the end of a word with two syllables or more:– lowercase letters: à, è, ì, ò, ù; capital letters: À, È, Ì, Ò, Ù
* Māori makes use of macrons to mark long vowels.
* Occitan has the following composite characters: á, à, ç, é, è, í, ï, ó, ò, ú, ü, n·h, s·h. The acute and the grave indicate stress and vowel height, the cedilla marks the result of a historical palatalization, the diaeresis indicates either a hiatus, or that the letter u is pronounced when the graphemes gü, qü are followed by e or i, and the interpunct (·) distinguishes the different values of nh/n·h and sh/s·h (i.e., that the letters are supposed to be pronounced separately, not combined into "ny" and "sh").
* Portuguese has the following composite characters: à, á, â, ã, ç, é, ê, í, ó, ô, õ, ú. The acute and the circumflex indicate stress and vowel height, the grave indicates crasis, the tilde represents nasalization, and the cedilla marks the result of a historical lenition.
* Acutes are also used in Slavic language dictionaries and textbooks to indicate lexical stress, placed over the vowel of the stressed syllable. This can also serve to disambiguate meaning (e.g., in Russian писа́ть (pisáť) means "to write", but пи́сать (písať) means "to piss"), or "бо́льшая часть" (the biggest part) vs "больша́я часть" (the big part).
* Spanish uses the acute and the diaeresis. The acute is used on a vowel in a stressed syllable in words with irregular stress patterns. It can also be used to "break up" a diphthong as in tío (pronounced , rather than as it would be without the accent). Moreover, the acute can be used to distinguish words that otherwise are spelled alike, such as si ("if") and sí ("yes"), and also to distinguish interrogative and exclamatory pronouns from homophones with a different grammatical function, such as donde/¿dónde? ("where"/"where?") or como/¿cómo? ("as"/"how?"). The acute may also be used to avoid typographical ambiguity, as in 1 ó 2 ("1 or 2"; without the acute this might be interpreted as "1 0 2". The diaeresis is used only over u (ü) for it to be pronounced in the combinations gue and gui, where u is normally silent, for example ambigüedad. In poetry, the diaeresis may be used on i and u as a way to force a hiatus. As foreshadowed above, in nasal ñ the tilde (squiggle) is not considered a diacritic sign at all, but a composite part of a distinct glyph, with its own chapter in the dictionary: a glyph that denotes the 15th letter of the Spanish alphabet.
* Swedish uses the acute to show non-standard stress, for example in (café) and (résumé). This occasionally helps resolve ambiguities, such as ide (hibernation) versus idé (idea). In these words, the acute is not optional. Some proper names use non-standard diacritics, such as Carolina Klüft and Staël von Holstein. For foreign loanwords the original accents are strongly recommended, unless the word has been infused into the language, in which case they are optional. Hence crème fraîche but ampere. Swedish also has the letters å, ä, and ö, but these are considered distinct letters, not a and o with diacritics.
* Tamil does not have any diacritics in itself, but uses the Arabic numerals<!-- Please confirm it is not using Indian or other numerals--> 2, 3 and 4 as diacritics to represent aspirated, voiced, and voiced-aspirated consonants when Tamil script is used to write long passages in Sanskrit.
* Thai has its own system of diacritics derived from Indian numerals, which denote different tones.
* Vietnamese uses the acute (dấu sắc), the grave (dấu huyền), the tilde (dấu ngã), the underdot (dấu nặng) and the hook above (dấu hỏi) on vowels as tone indicators.
* Welsh uses the circumflex, diaeresis, acute, and grave on its seven vowels a, e, i, o, u, w, y. The most common is the circumflex (which it calls to bach, meaning "little roof", or acen grom "crooked accent", or hirnod "long sign") to denote a long vowel, usually to disambiguate it from a similar word with a short vowel or a semivowel. The rarer grave accent has the opposite effect, shortening vowel sounds that would usually be pronounced long. The acute accent and diaeresis are also occasionally used, to denote stress and vowel separation respectively. The w-circumflex and the y-circumflex are among the most commonly accented characters in Welsh, but unusual in languages generally, and were until recently very hard to obtain in word-processed and HTML documents.
Transliteration
Several languages that are not written with the Roman alphabet are transliterated, or romanized, using diacritics. Examples:
* Arabic has several romanisations, depending on the type of the application, region, intended audience, country, etc. many of them extensively use diacritics, e.g., some methods use an underdot for rendering emphatic consonants (ṣ, ṭ, ḍ, ẓ, ḥ). The macron is often used to render long vowels. š is often used for , ġ for .
* Chinese has several romanizations that use the umlaut, but only on u (ü). In Hanyu Pinyin, the four tones of Mandarin Chinese are denoted by the macron (first tone), acute (second tone), caron (third tone) and grave (fourth tone) diacritics. Example: ā, á, ǎ, à.
* Romanized Japanese (Rōmaji) occasionally uses macrons to mark long vowels. The Hepburn romanization system uses macrons to mark long vowels, and the Kunrei-shiki and Nihon-shiki systems use a circumflex.
* Sanskrit, as well as many of its descendants, like Hindi and Bengali, uses a lossless romanization system, IAST. This includes several letters with diacritical markings, such as the macron (ā, ī, ū), over- and underdots (ṛ, ḥ, ṃ, ṇ, ṣ, ṭ, ḍ) as well as a few others (ś, ñ).
Limits
Orthographic
Possibly the greatest number of combining diacritics required to compose a valid character in any Unicode language is 8, for the "well-known grapheme cluster in Tibetan and Ranjana scripts" or .
It consists of
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
An example of rendering, may be broken depending on browser:
}}
Unorthographic/ornamental
Some users have explored the limits of rendering in web browsers and other software by "decorating" words with excessive nonsensical diacritics per character to produce so-called Zalgo text.
List of diacritics in Unicode
Diacritics for Latin script in Unicode:
{| class"wikitable collapsible sortable" style"font-size: 90%; min-width: 60%;"
|-
|+ Diacritics in Unicode for Latin script
|-
! Character
! Character name<br/>
! Mark
! General category
! Script
|-
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See also
* Latin-script alphabets
* Alt code
* :Category:Letters with diacritics
* Collating sequence
* Combining character
* Compose key
* English terms with diacritical marks
* Heavy metal umlaut
* ISO/IEC 8859 8-bit extended-Latin-alphabet European character encodings
* Latin alphabet
* List of Latin letters
* List of precomposed Latin characters in Unicode
* List of U.S. cities with diacritics
* Romanization
Notes
References
External links
* [http://urtd.net/projects/cod/ Context of Diacritics A research project]
* [http://diacritics.typo.cz/ Diacritics Project]
* [https://www.unicode.org/ Unicode]
* [http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/wells/dia/diacritics-revised.htm Orthographic diacritics and multilingual computing, by J. C. Wells]
* [http://www.elisanet.fi/mlang/strip.html Notes on the use of the diacritics, by Markus Lång]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160728011859/http://www.tuxmagazine.com/node/1000044 Entering International Characters (in Linux, KDE)]
* [https://www.adobe.com/type/pdfs/characcessmac.pdf Standard Character Set for Macintosh] PDF at Adobe
Category:Orthography
Category:Punctuation
Category:Typography
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Digraph
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Digraph, often misspelled as diagraph, may refer to:
Digraph (orthography), a pair of characters used together to represent a single sound, such as "nq" in Hmong RPA
Ligature (writing), the joining of two letters as a single glyph, such as "æ"
Digraph (computing), a group of two characters in computer source code to be treated as a single character
A directed graph, in graph theory
Digraph, a component of a CIA cryptonym, a covert code name
Digraph, a two-letter ISO 639-1 language code
See also
Digraphia, use of multiple complete writing systems for one language.
Digram (disambiguation) / Digramme
Bigram
Trigraph (disambiguation)
Multigraph (disambiguation)
Unigraph
wikt:Diagraph, a combination of a protractor and a scale ruler
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Didgeridoo
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thumb|Didgeridoo and clapstick players performing at Nightcliff, Northern Territory
thumb|240px|Sound of didgeridoo
thumb|240px|A didgeribone, a sliding-type didgeridoo
The didgeridoo (;()), also spelt didjeridu, among other variants, is a wind instrument, played with vibrating lips to produce a continuous drone while using a special breathing technique called circular breathing. The didgeridoo was developed by Aboriginal peoples of northern Australia at least 1,000 years ago, and is now in use around the world, though still most strongly associated with Indigenous Australian music. In the Yolŋu languages of the indigenous people of northeast Arnhem Land the name for the instrument is the yiḏaki, or more recently by some, mandapul. In the Bininj Kunwok language of West Arnhem Land it is known as mako (pronounced, and sometimes spelt, as mago).
A didgeridoo is usually cylindrical or conical, and can measure anywhere from long. Most are around long. Generally, the longer the instrument, the lower its pitch or key. Flared instruments play a higher pitch than unflared instruments of the same length.
History
There are no reliable sources of the exact age of the didgeridoo. Archaeological studies suggest that people of the Kakadu region in Northern Australia have been using the didgeridoo for less than 1,000 years, based on the dating of rock art paintings. (that had begun 1500 years ago) shows a didgeridoo player and two song-men participating in an Ubarr ceremony. It is thus thought that it was developed by Aboriginal peoples of northern Australia, possibly in Arnhem Land.
T. B. Wilson's Narrative of a Voyage Round the World (1835) includes a drawing of an Aboriginal man from Raffles Bay on the Cobourg Peninsula (about east of Darwin) playing the instrument. Others observed such an instrument in the same area, made of bamboo and about long. In 1893, English palaeontologist Robert Etheridge, Junior observed the use of "three very curious trumpets" made of bamboo in northern Australia. There were then two native species of bamboo growing along the Adelaide River, Northern Territory".
Etymology
The name didgeridoo is not of Aboriginal Australian linguistic origin and is considered to be an onomatopoetic word. The earliest occurrences of the word in print include a 1908 edition of the Hamilton Spectator referring to a did-gery-do' (hollow bamboo)", a 1914 edition of The Northern Territory Times and Gazette, and a 1919 issue of Smith's Weekly, in which it was referred to as a "didjerry" and was said to produce the sound "didjerry, didjerry, didjerry and so on ad infinitum".
A rival explanation, that didgeridoo is a corruption of the Irish phrase or Scottish Gaelic , is controversial. Irish or , and Scottish Gaelic , are nouns that, depending on the context, may mean "trumpeter", "hummer", "crooner" or "puffer", while Irish means "black", and Scottish Gaelic means "native".
Other names
There are numerous names for the instrument among the Aboriginal peoples of northern Australia, none of which closely resemble the word "didgeridoo" (see below). Some didgeridoo enthusiasts, scholars and Aboriginal people advocate using local language names for the instrument.
Yiḏaki (transcribed yidaki in English, sometimes spelt yirdaki) is one of the most commonly used names although, strictly speaking, it refers to a specific type of the instrument made and used by the Yolngu peoples of north-east Arnhem Land. Some Yolngu people began using the word mandapul after 2011, out of respect for the passing of a Manggalili man who had a name sounding similar to yidaki.
In west Arnhem Land, it is known as a mako, a name popularised by virtuoso player David Blanasi, a Bininj man, whose language was Kunwinjku, and who brought the didgeridoo to world prominence. The word is pronounced mago and is sometimes spelt that way.
There are at least 45 names for the didgeridoo, several of which suggest its original construction of bamboo, such as bambu, bombo, kambu, and pampu, which are still used in the lingua franca by some Aboriginal people. The following are some of the more common regional names.
People Region Local name Anindilyakwa Groote Eylandt ngarrriralkpwina Arrernte Alice Springs ilpirra Djinang (a Yolngu people) Arnhem Land yiḏaki Gagudju Arnhem Land / Kakadu garnbak Gupapuygu Arnhem Land yiraka Iwaidja Cobourg Peninsula artawirr Jawoyn Katherine / Nitmiluk / Kakadu gunbarrk Kunwinjku Arnhem Land / Kakadu mako Mayali Alligator Rivers martba Ngarluma Roebourne, W.A. kurmur Nyul Nyul Kimberleys ngaribi Pintupi Central Australia paampu Warray Adelaide River bambu Yolngu Arnhem Land mandapul (yiḏaki)
Description and construction
A didgeridoo is usually cylindrical or conical, and can measure anywhere from long. Most are around long. Generally, the longer the instrument, the lower its pitch or key. However, flared instruments play a higher pitch than unflared instruments of the same length.
The didgeridoo is classified as a wind instrument and is similar in form to a straight trumpet, but made of wood. It has also been called a dronepipe.
Traditional
thumb|A wax mouthpiece can soften during play, forming a better seal.
Traditional didgeridoos are usually made from hardwoods, especially the various eucalyptus species that are endemic to northern and central Australia. Generally the main trunk of the tree is harvested, though a substantial branch may be used instead. Traditional didgeridoo makers seek suitably hollow live trees in areas with obvious termite activity. Termites attack these living eucalyptus trees, removing only the dead heartwood of the tree, as the living sapwood contains a chemical that repels the insects. Various techniques are employed to find trees with a suitable hollow, including knowledge of landscape and termite activity patterns, and a kind of tap or knock test, in which the bark of the tree is peeled back, and a fingernail or the blunt end of a tool, such as an axe, is knocked against the wood to determine if the hollow produces the right resonance. Once a suitably hollow tree is found, it is cut down and cleaned out, the bark is taken off, the ends trimmed, and the exterior is shaped; this results in a finished instrument. A rim of beeswax may be applied to the mouthpiece end.
Modern
Non-traditional didgeridoos can be made from native or non-native hard woods (typically split, hollowed and rejoined), glass, fibreglass, metal, agave, clay, resin, PVC piping and carbon fibre. These typically have an upper inside diameter of around down to a bell end of anywhere between and have a length corresponding to the desired key. The end of the pipe can be shaped and smoothed to create a comfortable mouthpiece or an added mouthpiece can be made of any shaped and smoothed material such as rubber, a rubber stopper with a hole or beeswax.
Modern didgeridoo designs are distinct from the traditional Australian Aboriginal didgeridoo, and are innovations recognised by musicologists. Didgeridoo design innovation started in the late 20th century, using non-traditional materials and non-traditional shapes. The practice has sparked, however, a good deal of debate among indigenous practitioners and non-indigenous people about its aesthetic, ethical, and legal issues.
Decoration
Didgeridoos can be painted by their maker or a dedicated artist using traditional or modern paints while others retain the natural wood grain design with minimal or no decoration.
Playing
thumb| Ŋalkan Munuŋgurr performing with East Journey
A didgeridoo can be played simply by producing a vibrating sound of the lips to produce the basic drone. More advanced playing involves the technique known as circular breathing. The circular breathing technique requires breathing in through the nose whilst simultaneously using the muscles of the cheeks to compress the cheeks and release the stored air out of the mouth. By using this technique, a skilled player can replenish the air in their lungs, and with practice they can sustain a note for as long as desired. Recordings exist of modern didgeridoo players playing continuously for more than 40 minutes; Mark Atkins on Didgeridoo Concerto (1994) plays for over 50 minutes continuously. Although circular breathing does eliminate the need to stop playing to take a breath, discomfort might still develop during a period of extended play due to chapped lips or other oral discomfort.
The didgeridoo functions "...as an aural kaleidoscope of timbres" and "the extremely difficult virtuoso techniques developed by expert performers find no parallel elsewhere."
Other variations in the didgeridoo's sound can be made by adding vocalisations to the drone. Most of the vocalisations are related to sounds emitted by Australian animals, such as the dingo or the kookaburra. To produce these sounds, the players use their vocal folds to produce the sounds of the animals whilst continuing to blow air through the instrument. The results range from very high-pitched sounds to much lower sounds involving interference between the lip and vocal fold vibrations. Adding vocalisations increases the complexity of the playing.
In popular culture
Charlie McMahon, who formed the group Gondwanaland, was one of the first non-Aboriginal players to gain fame as a professional didgeridoo player. He has toured internationally with Midnight Oil. He invented the didjeribone, a sliding didgeridoo made from two lengths of plastic tubing; its playing style is somewhat in the manner of a trombone.
It was featured on the British children's TV series Blue Peter.
Industrial music bands like Test Dept use the didgeridoo.
Early songs by the acid jazz band Jamiroquai featured didgeridoo player Wallis Buchanan, including the band's first single "When You Gonna Learn", which features prominent didgeridoo in the introduction and solo sections.
Ambient artist Steve Roach uses it in his collaborative work Australia: Sound of the Earth with Australian Aboriginal artist David Hudson and cellist Sarah Hopkins, as well as Dreamtime Return.
It is used in the Indian song "Jaane Kyon" from the film Dil Chahta Hai.
Chris Brooks, lead singer of the New Zealand hard rock band Like a Storm, uses the didgeridoo in some songs, including "Love the Way You Hate Me" from their album Chaos Theory: Part 1 (2012).
Kate Bush made extensive use of the didgeridoo, played by Australian musician Rolf Harris, on her album The Dreaming (1982), which was written and recorded after a holiday in Australia.
Singer and multi-instrumentalist Xavier Rudd plays the didgeridoo and features the instrument frequently in his recordings
Cultural significance
thumb|upright|An Indigenous Australian man playing a didgeridoo
thumb|upright|Musician playing a travel or reticulated didgeridoo
Traditionally, the didgeridoo was played as an accompaniment to ceremonial dancing and singing and for solo or recreational purposes. For Aboriginal peoples of northern Australia, the yidaki is still used to accompany singers and dancers in cultural ceremonies. For the Yolngu people, the yidaki is part of their whole physical and cultural landscape and environment, comprising the people and spirit beings which belong to their country, kinship system and the Yolngu Matha language. It is connected to Yolngu Law and underpinned by ceremony, in song, dance, visual art and stories. establish the beat for the songs during ceremonies. The rhythm of the didgeridoo and the beat of the clapsticks are precise, and these patterns have been handed down for many generations. In the Wangga genre, the song-man starts with vocals and then introduces bilma to the accompaniment of didgeridoo.
Sex-based traditional prohibition debate
Traditionally, only men play the didgeridoo and sing during ceremonial occasions; playing by women is sometimes discouraged by Aboriginal communities and elders. In 2008, publisher HarperCollins apologised for its book The Daring Book for Girls, which openly encouraged girls to play the instrument, after Aboriginal academic Mark Rose described such encouragement as "extreme cultural insensitivity" and "an extreme faux pas... part of a general ignorance that mainstream Australia has about Aboriginal culture." However, Linda Barwick, an ethnomusicologist, said that though traditionally women have not played the didgeridoo in ceremony, in informal situations there is no prohibition in the Dreaming Law. For example, in 1966, ethnomusicologist Alice Marshall Moyle made a recording in Borroloola of Jemima Wimalu, a Mara woman from the Roper River, proficiently playing the didgeridoo. In 1995, musicologist Steve Knopoff observed Yirrkala women performing djatpangarri songs that are traditionally performed by men and in 1996, ethnomusicologist Elizabeth MacKinley reported women of the Yanyuwa group giving public performances.
Although there is no prohibition in the area of the didgeridoo's origin, such restrictions have been applied by other Indigenous communities. The didgeridoo was introduced to the Kimberleys in the early 20th century but it was only much later, such as in Rose's 2008 criticism of The Daring Book for Girls, that Aboriginal men showed adverse reactions to women playing the instrument and prohibitions are especially evident in the South East of Australia. The belief that women are prohibited from playing is widespread among non-Aboriginal people and is also common among Aboriginal communities in Southern Australia; some ethnomusicologists believe that the dissemination of the taboo belief and other misconceptions is a result of commercial agendas and marketing. The majority of commercial didgeridoo recordings available are distributed by multinational recording companies and feature non-Aboriginal people playing a New Age style of music with liner notes promoting the instrument's spirituality which misleads consumers about the didgeridoo's secular role in traditional Aboriginal culture. A small 2010 study noted marked improvements in the asthma management of 10 Aboriginal adults and children following a six-month programme of once-weekly didgeridoo lessons.
See also
Aboriginal Centre for the Performing Arts
Alphorn
William Barton, didgeridoo virtuoso and orchestral composer
Digeridoo (EP) – song by Aphex Twin
Djalu Gurruwiwi, master maker and player of yiḏaki
Erke
List of didgeridoo players
Mayan trumpet
References
Bibliography
Ah Chee Ngala, P., Cowell C. (1996): How to Play the Didgeridoo – and history.
Chaloupka, G. (1993): Journey in Time. Reed, Sydney.
Cope, Jonathan (2000): How to Play the Didgeridoo: a practical guide for everyone. .
Jones, T. A. (1967): "The didjeridu. Some comparisons of its typology and musical functions with similar instruments throughout the world". Studies in Music 1, pp. 23–55.
Kaye, Peter (1987): How to Play the Didjeridu of the Australian Aboriginal – A Newcomer's Guide.
Kennedy, K. (1933): "Instruments of music used by the Australian Aborigines". Mankind (August edition), pp. 147–157.
Lindner, D. (ed) (2005): The Didgeridoo Phenomenon. From Ancient Times to the Modern Age. Traumzeit-Verlag, Germany.
Moyle, A. M. (1981): "The Australian didjeridu: A late musical intrusion". in World Archaeology, 12(3), 321–31.
Neuenfeldt, K. (ed) (1997): The didjeridu: From Arnhem Land to Internet. Sydney: J. Libbey/Perfect Beat Publications.
External links
The Didjeridu W3 Server
The physics of the didj
Didgeridoo acoustics from the University of New South Wales
Database of audio recordings of traditional Arnhem Land music, samples included, many with didgeridoo
The Didjeridu: A Guide By Joe Cheal – General info on the didgeridoo, with citations and references
Yidakiwuy Dhawu Miwatjngurunydja comprehensive site by traditional owners of the instrument
Category:Australian Aboriginal music
Category:Australian English
Category:Australian musical instruments
Category:Circular breathing
Category:Natural horns and trumpets
Category:Sacred musical instruments
Category:Articles containing video clips
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Developmental biology
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Developmental Biology (journal)}}
Developmental biology is the study of the process by which animals and plants grow and develop. Developmental biology also encompasses the biology of regeneration, asexual reproduction, metamorphosis, and the growth and differentiation of stem cells in the adult organism.
Perspectives
The main processes involved in the embryonic development of animals are: tissue patterning (via regional specification and patterned cell differentiation); tissue growth; and tissue morphogenesis.
* Regional specification refers to the processes that create the spatial patterns in a ball or sheet of initially similar cells. This generally involves the action of cytoplasmic determinants, located within parts of the fertilized egg, and of inductive signals emitted from signaling centers in the embryo. The early stages of regional specification do not generate functional differentiated cells, but cell populations committed to developing to a specific region or part of the organism. These are defined by the expression of specific combinations of transcription factors.
* Cell differentiation relates specifically to the formation of functional cell types such as nerve, muscle, secretory epithelia, etc. Differentiated cells contain large amounts of specific proteins associated with cell function.
* Morphogenesis relates to the formation of a three-dimensional shape. It mainly involves the orchestrated movements of cell sheets and of individual cells. Morphogenesis is important for creating the three germ layers of the early embryo (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm) and for building up complex structures during organ development.
* Tissue growth involves both an overall increase in tissue size, and also the differential growth of parts (allometry) which contributes to morphogenesis. Growth mostly occurs through cell proliferation but also through changes in cell size or the deposition of extracellular materials.
The development of plants involves similar processes to that of animals. However, plant cells are mostly immotile so morphogenesis is achieved by differential growth, without cell movements. Also, the inductive signals and the genes involved are different from those that control animal development.
Generative biology
Generative biology is the generative science that explores the dynamics guiding the development and evolution of a biological morphological form. Developmental processes Cell differentiation Cell differentiation is the process whereby different functional cell types arise in development. For example, neurons, muscle fibers and hepatocytes (liver cells) are well known types of differentiated cells. Differentiated cells usually produce large amounts of a few proteins that are required for their specific function and this gives them the characteristic appearance that enables them to be recognized under the light microscope. The genes encoding these proteins are highly active. Typically their chromatin structure is very open, allowing access for the transcription enzymes, and specific transcription factors bind to regulatory sequences in the DNA in order to activate gene expression. For example, NeuroD is a key transcription factor for neuronal differentiation, myogenin for muscle differentiation, and HNF4 for hepatocyte differentiation.
Cell differentiation is usually the final stage of development, preceded by several states of commitment which are not visibly differentiated. A single tissue, formed from a single type of progenitor cell or stem cell, often consists of several differentiated cell types. Control of their formation involves a process of lateral inhibition, based on the properties of the Notch signaling pathway. For example, in the neural plate of the embryo this system operates to generate a population of neuronal precursor cells in which NeuroD is highly expressed.
Regeneration
Regeneration indicates the ability to regrow a missing part. This is very prevalent amongst plants, which show continuous growth, and also among colonial animals such as hydroids and ascidians. But most interest by developmental biologists has been shown in the regeneration of parts in free living animals. In particular four models have been the subject of much investigation. Two of these have the ability to regenerate whole bodies: Hydra, which can regenerate any part of the polyp from a small fragment, and planarian worms, which can usually regenerate both heads and tails. Both of these examples have continuous cell turnover fed by stem cells and, at least in planaria, at least some of the stem cells have been shown to be pluripotent. The other two models show only distal regeneration of appendages. These are the insect appendages, usually the legs of hemimetabolous insects such as the cricket, and the limbs of urodele amphibians. Considerable information is now available about amphibian limb regeneration and it is known that each cell type regenerates itself, except for connective tissues where there is considerable interconversion between cartilage, dermis and tendons. In terms of the pattern of structures, this is controlled by a re-activation of signals active in the embryo.
There is still debate about the old question of whether regeneration is a "pristine" or an "adaptive" property. If the former is the case, with improved knowledge, we might expect to be able to improve regenerative ability in humans. If the latter, then each instance of regeneration is presumed to have arisen by natural selection in circumstances particular to the species, so no general rules would be expected.
Embryonic development of animals
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The sperm and egg fuse in the process of fertilization to form a fertilized egg, or zygote. This undergoes a period of divisions to form a ball or sheet of similar cells called a blastula or blastoderm. These cell divisions are usually rapid with no growth so the daughter cells are half the size of the mother cell and the whole embryo stays about the same size. They are called cleavage divisions.
Mouse epiblast primordial germ cells (see Figure: "The initial stages of human embryogenesis") undergo extensive epigenetic reprogramming. This process involves genome-wide DNA demethylation, chromatin reorganization and epigenetic imprint erasure leading to totipotency.
Morphogenetic movements convert the cell mass into a three layered structure consisting of multicellular sheets called ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. These sheets are known as germ layers. This is the process of gastrulation. During cleavage and gastrulation the first regional specification events occur. In addition to the formation of the three germ layers themselves, these often generate extraembryonic structures, such as the mammalian placenta, needed for support and nutrition of the embryo, and also establish differences of commitment along the anteroposterior axis (head, trunk and tail).
Regional specification is initiated by the presence of cytoplasmic determinants in one part of the zygote. The cells that contain the determinant become a signaling center and emit an inducing factor. Because the inducing factor is produced in one place, diffuses away, and decays, it forms a concentration gradient, high near the source cells and low further away. The remaining cells of the embryo, which do not contain the determinant, are competent to respond to different concentrations by upregulating specific developmental control genes. This results in a series of zones becoming set up, arranged at progressively greater distance from the signaling center. In each zone a different combination of developmental control genes is upregulated. These genes encode transcription factors which upregulate new combinations of gene activity in each region. Among other functions, these transcription factors control expression of genes conferring specific adhesive and motility properties on the cells in which they are active. Because of these different morphogenetic properties, the cells of each germ layer move to form sheets such that the ectoderm ends up on the outside, mesoderm in the middle, and endoderm on the inside.
Morphogenetic movements not only change the shape and structure of the embryo, but by bringing cell sheets into new spatial relationships they also make possible new phases of signaling and response between them. In addition, first morphogenetic movements of embryogenesis, such as gastrulation, epiboly and twisting, directly activate pathways involved in endomesoderm specification through mechanotransduction processes. This property was suggested to be evolutionary inherited from endomesoderm specification as mechanically stimulated by marine environmental hydrodynamic flow in first animal organisms (first metazoa). Twisting along the body axis by a left-handed chirality is found in all chordates (including vertebrates) and is addressed by the axial twist theory.
Growth in embryos is mostly autonomous. For each territory of cells the growth rate is controlled by the combination of genes that are active. Free-living embryos do not grow in mass as they have no external food supply. But embryos fed by a placenta or extraembryonic yolk supply can grow very fast, and changes to relative growth rate between parts in these organisms help to produce the final overall anatomy.
The whole process needs to be coordinated in time and how this is controlled is not understood. There may be a master clock able to communicate with all parts of the embryo that controls the course of events, or timing may depend simply on local causal sequences of events.
Metamorphosis
Developmental processes are very evident during the process of metamorphosis. This occurs in various types of animal such as insects, amphibians, some fish, and many marine invertebrates. Well-known examples are seen in frogs, which usually hatch as a tadpole and metamorphoses to an adult frog, and certain insects which hatch as a larva and then become remodeled to the adult form during a pupal stage.
All the developmental processes listed above occur during metamorphosis. Examples that have been especially well studied include tail loss and other changes in the tadpole of the frog Xenopus, and the biology of the imaginal discs, which generate the adult body parts of the fly Drosophila melanogaster. Plant development
Plant development is the process by which structures originate and mature as a plant grows. It is studied in plant anatomy and plant physiology as well as plant morphology.
Plants constantly produce new tissues and structures throughout their life from meristems located at the tips of organs, or between mature tissues. Thus, a living plant always has embryonic tissues. By contrast, an animal embryo will very early produce all of the body parts that it will ever have in its life. When the animal is born (or hatches from its egg), it has all its body parts and from that point will only grow larger and more mature.
The properties of organization seen in a plant are emergent properties which are more than the sum of the individual parts. "The assembly of these tissues and functions into an integrated multicellular organism yields not only the characteristics of the separate parts and processes but also quite a new set of characteristics which would not have been predictable on the basis of examination of the separate parts."
Growth
A vascular plant begins from a single celled zygote, formed by fertilisation of an egg cell by a sperm cell. From that point, it begins to divide to form a plant embryo through the process of embryogenesis. As this happens, the resulting cells will organize so that one end becomes the first root, while the other end forms the tip of the shoot. In seed plants, the embryo will develop one or more "seed leaves" (cotyledons). By the end of embryogenesis, the young plant will have all the parts necessary to begin its life.
Once the embryo germinates from its seed or parent plant, it begins to produce additional organs (leaves, stems, and roots) through the process of organogenesis. New roots grow from root meristems located at the tip of the root, and new stems and leaves grow from shoot meristems located at the tip of the shoot. Branching occurs when small clumps of cells left behind by the meristem, and which have not yet undergone cellular differentiation to form a specialized tissue, begin to grow as the tip of a new root or shoot. Growth from any such meristem at the tip of a root or shoot is termed primary growth and results in the lengthening of that root or shoot. Secondary growth results in widening of a root or shoot from divisions of cells in a cambium.
In addition to growth by cell division, a plant may grow through cell elongation. This occurs when individual cells or groups of cells grow longer. Not all plant cells will grow to the same length. When cells on one side of a stem grow longer and faster than cells on the other side, the stem will bend to the side of the slower growing cells as a result. This directional growth can occur via a plant's response to a particular stimulus, such as light (phototropism), gravity (gravitropism), water, (hydrotropism), and physical contact (thigmotropism).
Plant growth and development are mediated by specific plant hormones and plant growth regulators (PGRs) (Ross et al. 1983). Endogenous hormone levels are influenced by plant age, cold hardiness, dormancy, and other metabolic conditions; photoperiod, drought, temperature, and other external environmental conditions; and exogenous sources of PGRs, e.g., externally applied and of rhizospheric origin.
Morphological variation
Plants exhibit natural variation in their form and structure. While all organisms vary from individual to individual, plants exhibit an additional type of variation. Within a single individual, parts are repeated which may differ in form and structure from other similar parts. This variation is most easily seen in the leaves of a plant, though other organs such as stems and flowers may show similar variation. There are three primary causes of this variation: positional effects, environmental effects, and juvenility.
Evolution of plant morphology
Transcription factors and transcriptional regulatory networks play key roles in plant morphogenesis and their evolution. During plant landing, many novel transcription factor families emerged and are preferentially wired into the networks of multicellular development, reproduction, and organ development, contributing to more complex morphogenesis of land plants.
Most land plants share a common ancestor, multicellular algae. An example of the evolution of plant morphology is seen in charophytes. Studies have shown that charophytes have traits that are homologous to land plants. There are two main theories of the evolution of plant morphology, these theories are the homologous theory and the antithetic theory. The commonly accepted theory for the evolution of plant morphology is the antithetic theory. The antithetic theory states that the multiple mitotic divisions that take place before meiosis, cause the development of the sporophyte. Then the sporophyte will development as an independent organism.
Developmental model organisms
Much of developmental biology research in recent decades has focused on the use of a small number of model organisms. It has turned out that there is much conservation of developmental mechanisms across the animal kingdom. In early development different vertebrate species all use essentially the same inductive signals and the same genes encoding regional identity. Even invertebrates use a similar repertoire of signals and genes although the body parts formed are significantly different. Model organisms each have some particular experimental advantages which have enabled them to become popular among researchers. In one sense they are "models" for the whole animal kingdom, and in another sense they are "models" for human development, which is difficult to study directly for both ethical and practical reasons. Model organisms have been most useful for elucidating the broad nature of developmental mechanisms. The more detail is sought, the more they differ from each other and from humans.
Plants
* Thale cress (Arabidopsis thaliana)
Vertebrates
* Frog: Xenopus Good embryo supply. Especially suitable for microsurgery.
* Zebrafish: Danio rerio. Good embryo supply. Well developed genetics.
* Chicken: Gallus gallus. Early stages similar to mammal, but microsurgery easier. Low cost.
* Mouse: Mus musculus. A mammal Good embryo supply. Well developed genetics.
* Nematode: Caenorhabditis elegans. Good embryo supply. Well developed genetics. Low cost.Unicellular* Algae: Chlamydomonas For studies of regeneration urodele amphibians such as the axolotl Ambystoma mexicanum are used, and also planarian worms such as Schmidtea mediterranea. Plant development has focused on the thale cress Arabidopsis thaliana as a model organism. See also
References
Further reading
*
*
*
External links
* [http://www.sdbonline.org/ Society for Developmental Biology]
* [http://www.sdbcore.org/ Collaborative resources]
* [http://10e.devbio.com/ Developmental Biology - 10th edition]
* [http://bcs.wiley.com/he-bcs/Books?actionindex&bcsId7612&itemId=0470923512 Essential Developmental Biology 3rd edition]
* [https://embryo.asu.edu/ Embryo Project Encyclopedia]
Category:Philosophy of biology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_biology
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December 27
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Events
Pre-1600
* 537 – The second Hagia Sophia in Constantinople is consecrated.
*1512 – The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the conduct of settlers with regard to native Indians in the New World.
*1521 – The Zwickau prophets arrive in Wittenberg, disturbing the peace and preaching the Apocalypse.
1601–1900
*1655 – Second Northern War/the Deluge: Monks at the Jasna Góra Monastery in Częstochowa are successful in fending off a month-long siege.
*1657 – The Flushing Remonstrance articulates for the first time in North American history that freedom of religion is a fundamental right.
*1703 – Portugal and England sign the Methuen Treaty which allows Portugal to export wines to England on favorable trade terms.
*1814 – War of 1812: The destruction of the schooner brings to an end Commodore Daniel Patterson's makeshift fleet, which fought a series of delaying actions that contributed to Andrew Jackson's victory at the Battle of New Orleans.
*1831 – Charles Darwin embarks on his journey aboard , during which he will begin to formulate his theory of evolution.
*1836 – The worst ever avalanche in England occurs at Lewes, Sussex, killing eight people.
*1845 – Ether anesthetic is used for childbirth for the first time by Dr. Crawford Long in Jefferson, Georgia.
* 1845 – Having coined the phrase "manifest destiny" the previous July, journalist John L. O'Sullivan argued in his newspaper New York Morning News that the United States had the right to claim the entire Oregon Country.1901–present
*1911 – "Jana Gana Mana", the national anthem of India, is first sung in the Calcutta Session of the Indian National Congress.
*1918 – The Great Poland Uprising against the Germans begins.
* 1918 – Ukrainian War of Independence: The Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine occupies Yekaterinoslav and seizes seven airplanes from the UPRAF, establishing an Insurgent Air Fleet.
*1922 – becomes the first purpose-built aircraft carrier to be commissioned in the world.
*1927 – Kern and Hammerstein's musical play Show Boat, considered to be the first true American musical play, opens at the Ziegfeld Theatre on Broadway.
*1929 – Soviet General Secretary Joseph Stalin orders the "liquidation of the kulaks as a class".
*1932 – Radio City Music Hall, "Showplace of the Nation", opens in New York City.
*1935 – Regina Jonas is ordained as the first female rabbi in the history of Judaism.
*1939 – The 7.8 Erzincan earthquake shakes eastern Turkey with a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI (Extreme). At least 32,700 people were killed.
* 1939 – Winter War: Finland holds off a Soviet attack in the Battle of Kelja.
*1945 – The International Monetary Fund is created with the signing of an agreement by 29 nations.
*1949 – Indonesian National Revolution: The Netherlands officially recognizes Indonesian independence. End of the Dutch East Indies.
*1966 – The Cave of Swallows, the largest known cave shaft in the world, is discovered in Aquismón, San Luis Potosí, Mexico.
*1968 – Apollo program: Apollo 8 splashes down in the Pacific Ocean, ending the first orbital crewed mission to the Moon.
*1968 – North Central Airlines Flight 458 crashes at O'Hare International Airport, killing 28.
*1978 – Spain becomes a democracy after 40 years of fascist dictatorship.
*1983 – Pope John Paul II visits Mehmet Ali Ağca in Rebibbia's prison and personally forgives him for the 1981 attack on him in St. Peter's Square.
*1985 – Palestinian guerrillas kill eighteen people inside the airports of Rome, Italy, and Vienna, Austria.
*1989 – The Romanian Revolution concludes, as the last minor street confrontations and stray shootings abruptly end in the country's capital, Bucharest.
*1991 – Scandinavian Airlines System Flight 751 crashes in Gottröra in the Norrtälje Municipality in Sweden, injuring 92.
*1996 – Taliban forces retake the strategic Bagram Airfield which solidifies their buffer zone around Kabul, Afghanistan.
*1997 – Protestant paramilitary leader Billy Wright is assassinated in Northern Ireland, United Kingdom.
*1999 – Burger King and the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission order a recall of plastic Poké Ball containers after they are determined to be a choking hazard.
*2002 – Two truck bombs kill 72 and wound 200 at the pro-Moscow headquarters of the Chechen government in Grozny, Chechnya, Russia.
*2004 – Radiation from an explosion on the magnetar SGR 1806-20 reaches Earth. It is the brightest extrasolar event known to have been witnessed on the planet.
*2007 – Former Pakistani prime minister Benazir Bhutto is assassinated in a shooting incident.
* 2007 – Riots erupt in Mombasa, Kenya, after Mwai Kibaki is declared the winner of the presidential election, triggering a political, economic, and humanitarian crisis.
*2008 – Operation Cast Lead: Israel launches three-week operation on Gaza.
*2009 – Iranian election protests: On the Day of Ashura in Tehran, Iran, government security forces fire upon demonstrators.
*2019 – Bek Air Flight 2100 crashes during takeoff from Almaty International Airport in Almaty, Kazakhstan, killing 13.BirthsPre-1600*1350 – John I of Aragon (d. 1395)
*1390 – Anne de Mortimer, claimant to the English throne (d. 1411)
*1459 – John I Albert, King of Poland (d. 1501)
*1481 – Casimir, Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth, Margrave of Bayreuth (d. 1527)
*1493 – Johann Pfeffinger, German theologian (d. 1573)
*1566 – Jan Jesenius, Bohemian physician, politician and philosopher (d. 1621)
*1571 – Johannes Kepler, German mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer (d. 1630)
*1572 – Johannes Vodnianus Campanus, Czech poet, playwright, and composer (d. 1622)
*1584 – Philipp Julius, Duke of Pomerania (d. 1625)
*1595 – Bohdan Khmelnytsky, hetman of Ukraine (d. 1657)
1601–1900
*1622 – Teofil Rutka, Polish philosopher (d. 1700)
*1633 – Jean de Lamberville, French missionary (d. 1714)
*1636 – William Whitelock, English gentleman, Member of Parliament (d. 1717)
*1637 – Petar Kanavelić, Venetian writer (d. 1719)
*1645 – Giovanni Antonio Viscardi, Swiss architect (d. 1713)
*1655 – Abstrupus Danby, English politician (d. 1727)
*1660 – Veronica Giuliani, Italian Capuchin mystic (d. 1727)
*1663 – Johann Melchior Roos, German painter (d. 1731)
*1683 – Conyers Middleton, English priest and theologian (d. 1750)
*1689 – Jacob August Franckenstein, Encyclopedia editor, professor (d. 1733)
*(baptised) 1692 – Francis Blake Delaval, British Royal Navy officer and Member of Parliament (d. 1752)
*1697 – Sollom Emlyn, Irish legal writer (d. 1754)
*1705 – Prince Frederick Henry Eugen of Anhalt-Dessau, German prince of the House of Ascania (d. 1781)
*1713 – Giovanni Battista Borra, Italian architect and engineer (d. 1770)
*1714 – George Whitefield, English preacher and saint (d. 1770)
*1715 – Philippe de Noailles, French general (d. 1794)
*1721 – François Hemsterhuis, Dutch philosopher and author (d. 1790)
*(baptised) 1761 – Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly, Russian field marshal and politician, Governor-General of Finland (d. 1818)
*1773 – George Cayley, English engineer and politician (d. 1857)
*1776 – Nikolay Kamensky, Russian general (d. 1811)
*1797 – Ghalib, Indian poet (d. 1869)
* 1797 – Charles Hodge, American theologian (d. 1878)
*1803 – François-Marie-Thomas Chevalier de Lorimier, Canadian activist (d. 1839)
*1809 – Alexandros Rizos Rangavis, Greek poet and politician, Foreign Minister of Greece (d. 1892)
*1822 – Louis Pasteur, French chemist and microbiologist (d. 1895)
*1823 – Mackenzie Bowell, English-Canadian journalist and politician, 5th Prime Minister of Canada (d. 1917)
*1827 – Stanisław Mieroszewski, Polish-born politician, writer, historian and member of the Imperial Council of Austria (d. 1900)
*1832 – Pavel Tretyakov, Russian businessman and philanthropist, founded the Tretyakov Gallery (d. 1897)
*1838 – Lars Oftedal, Norwegian priest, social reformer, politician, and newspaper editor (d. 1900)
*1858 – Juan Luis Sanfuentes, Chilean lawyer and politician, 17th President of Chile (d. 1930)
*1863 – Louis Lincoln Emmerson, American lawyer and politician, 27th Governor of Illinois (d. 1941)
*1864 – Hermann-Paul, French painter and illustrator (d. 1940)
*1878 – Kalle Korhonen, Finnish politician (d. 1938)
*1879 – Sydney Greenstreet, English-American actor (d. 1954)
*1882 – Mina Loy, British modernist poet and artist (d. 1966)
*1883 – Cyrus S. Eaton, Canadian-American businessman and philanthropist (d. 1979)
*1888 – Thea von Harbou, German actress, director, and screenwriter (d. 1954)
*1892 – Alfred Edwin McKay, Canadian captain and pilot (d. 1917)
*1896 – Louis Bromfield, American author and theorist (d. 1956)
* 1896 – Maurice De Waele, Belgian cyclist (d. 1952)
* 1896 – Carl Zuckmayer, German author and playwright (d. 1977)
*1898 – Inejiro Asanuma, Japanese politician (d. 1960)
*1900 – Hans Stuck, German racing driver (d. 1978)
1901–present
*1901 – Marlene Dietrich, German-American actress and singer (d. 1992)
* 1901 – Irene Handl, English actress (d. 1987)
*1904 – René Bonnet, French racing driver and engineer (d. 1983)
*1905 – Cliff Arquette, American actor and comedian (d. 1974)
*1906 – Oscar Levant, American pianist, composer, and actor (d. 1972)
*1907 – Asaf Halet Çelebi, Turkish poet (d. 1958)
* 1907 – Sebastian Haffner, German journalist and author (d. 1999)
* 1907 – Mary Howard, English author (d. 1991)
* 1907 – Conrad L. Raiford, American baseball player and activist (d. 2002)
* 1907 – Willem van Otterloo, Dutch conductor and composer (d. 1978)
*1909 – James Riddell, English skier and author (d. 2000)
*1910 – Charles Olson, American poet and educator (d. 1970)
*1911 – Anna Russell, English-Canadian singer and actress (d. 2006)
*1913 – Elizabeth Smart, Canadian poet and novelist (d. 1986)
*1915 – William Masters, American gynecologist, author, and academic (d. 2001)
* 1915 – Gyula Zsengellér, Hungarian-Cypriot footballer and manager (d. 1999)
*1916 – Werner Baumbach, German pilot (d. 1953)
* 1916 – Cathy Lewis, American actress (d. 1968)
*1917 – Buddy Boudreaux, American saxophonist and clarinet player (d. 2015)
* 1917 – T. Nadaraja, Sri Lankan lawyer and academic (d. 2004)
* 1917 – Onni Palaste, Finnish soldier and author (d. 2009)
*1918 – John Celardo, American captain and illustrator (d. 2012)
*1919 – Charles Sweeney, American general and pilot (d. 2004)
*1920 – Bruce Hobbs, American jockey and trainer (d. 2005)
*1921 – John Whitworth, English countertenor (d. 2013)
*1923 – Bruno Bobak, Polish-Canadian painter and educator (d. 2012)
* 1923 – Lucas Mangope, South African politician (d. 2018)
*1924 – Jean Bartik, American computer scientist and engineer (d. 2011)
* 1924 – James A. McClure, American soldier, lawyer, and politician (d. 2011)
*1925 – Michel Piccoli, French actor, singer, director, and producer (d. 2020)
*1926 – Jerome Courtland, American actor, director, and producer (d. 2012)
*1927 – Antony Gardner, English engineer and politician (d. 2011)
* 1927 – Nityanand Swami, Indian lawyer and politician, 1st Chief Minister of Uttarakhand (d. 2012)
* 1927 – Audrey Wagner, American baseball player, obstetrician, and gynecologist (d. 1984)
*1930 – Marshall Sahlins, American anthropologist and academic (d. 2021)
* 1930 – Wilfrid Sheed, English-born American novelist and essayist (d. 2011)
*1931 – Scotty Moore, American guitarist and songwriter (d. 2016)
*1933 – Dave Marr, American golfer (d. 1997)
*1934 – Larisa Latynina, Ukrainian gymnast and coach
* 1934 – Jeffrey Sterling, Baron Sterling of Plaistow, English businessman
*1935 – Michael Turnbull, English bishop
*1936 – James Harrison, Australian blood plasma donor (d. 2025)
*1936 – Phil Sharpe, English cricketer (d. 2014)
* 1936 – Eve Uusmees, Estonian swimmer and coach
*1939 – John Amos, American actor (d. 2024)
* 1943 – Joan Manuel Serrat, Spanish singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1943 – Peter Sinfield, English songwriter and producer (d. 2024)
* 1943 – Roy White, American baseball player and coach
*1944 – Mick Jones, English guitarist, songwriter, and producer
*1947 – Bill Eadie, American wrestler and coach
* 1947 – Doug Livermore, English footballer and manager
* 1947 – Willy Polleunis, Belgian runner
*1948 – Gérard Depardieu, French-Russian actor
*1949 – Terry Ito, Japanese director, producer, and critic
*1950 – Haris Alexiou, Greek singer-songwriter
* 1950 – Roberto Bettega, Italian footballer and manager
* 1950 – Terry Bozzio, American drummer and songwriter
*1951 – Karla Bonoff, American singer-songwriter
*1952 – Jay Hill, Canadian farmer and politician
* 1952 – David Knopfler, Scottish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer
* 1954 – Mandie Fletcher, English director, producer, and production manager
* 1954 – Teo Chee Hean, Singaporean politician and 5th Senior Minister of Singapore
*1955 – Brad Murphey, American race car driver
* 1955 – Barbara Olson, American journalist and author (d. 2001)
*1956 – Doina Melinte, Romanian runner
*1958 – Steve Jones, American golfer
*1959 – Gerina Dunwich, American astrologer, historian, and author
* 1959 – Andre Tippett, American football player and coach
*1960 – Maryam d'Abo, English actress
*1969 – Jean-Christophe Boullion, French racing driver
* 1969 – Chyna, American professional wrestler and actress (d. 2016)
*1971 – Duncan Ferguson, Scottish footballer and coach
* 1971 – Guthrie Govan, English guitarist and educator
* 1971 – Savannah Guthrie, American television journalist
*1975 – Aigars Fadejevs, Latvian race walker and therapist
* 1975 – Heather O'Rourke, American actress (d. 1988)
*1979 – Pascale Dorcelus, Canadian weightlifter
* 1979 – David Dunn, English footballer and manager
* 1979 – Carson Palmer, American football player
*1980 – Bernard Berrian, American football player
* 1980 – Claudio Castagnoli, Swiss wrestler
* 1980 – Dahntay Jones, American basketball player
* 1980 – Meelis Kompus, Estonian journalist
*1981 – David Aardsma, American baseball player
* 1981 – Emilie de Ravin, Australian actress
*1985 – Logan Bailly, Belgian footballer
* 1985 – Jérôme d'Ambrosio, Belgian racing driver
* 1985 – Adil Rami, French footballer
* 1985 – Paul Stastny, Canadian-American ice hockey player
*1986 – Torah Bright, Australian snowboarder
* 1986 – Jamaal Charles, American football player
* 1986 – Shelly-Ann Fraser-Pryce, Jamaican sprinter
*1987 – Lily Cole, English model
*1988 – Jorge Gutiérrez, Mexican basketball player
* 1988 – Hera Hilmar, Icelandic actress
* 1988 – Zavon Hines, Jamaican-English footballer
* 1988 – Ok Taec-yeon, South Korean singer and actor
* 1988 – Rick Porcello, American baseball player
* 1988 – Hayley Williams, American singer-songwriter
*1990 – Max Lindholm, Finnish figure skater
* 1990 – Jonathan Marchessault, Canadian ice hockey player
* 1990 – Milos Raonic, Canadian tennis player
* 1990 – Zelina Vega, American wrestler
*1991 – Chloe Bridges, American actress
* 1991 – Danny Wilson, Scottish footballer
*1992 – Joel Indermitte, Estonian footballer
* 1992 – Maicel Uibo, Estonian decathlete
*1993 – Olivia Cooke, English actress
*1995 – Timothée Chalamet, French-American actor
* 1995 – Ghislain Konan, Ivorian footballer
* 1995 – Mark Lapidus, Estonian chess player
*1997 – Mads Juel Andersen, Danish footballer
* 1997 – Vachirawit Chivaaree, Thai actor and singer
* 1997 – Ana Konjuh, Croatian tennis player
* 1997 – Jang Gyu-ri, South Korean actress
*1998 – Luka Garza, American basketball player
*1999 – Brock Purdy, American football player
*2001 – Ander Barrenetxea, Spanish footballer
<!-- Please do not add yourself or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. -->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 683 – Gaozong of Tang, 3rd emperor of the Chinese Tang dynasty (b. 628)
* 870 – Aeneas of Paris, Frankish bishop
* 975 – Balderic, bishop of Utrecht (b. 897)
*1003 – Emma of Blois, French duchess and regent
*1005 – Nilus the Younger, Byzantine abbot (b. 910)
*1076 – Sviatoslav II, Grand Prince of Kiev (b. 1027)
*1087 – Bertha of Savoy, Holy Roman Empress (b. 1051)
*1381 – Edmund Mortimer, 3rd Earl of March, English politician (b. 1352)
*1518 – Mahmood Shah Bahmani II, sultan of the Bahmani Sultanate (b. c. 1470)
*1543 – George, margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach (b. 1484)
*1548 – Francesco Spiera, Italian lawyer and jurist (b. 1502)
1601–1900
*1603 – Thomas Cartwright, English minister and theologian (b. 1535)
*1637 – Vincenzo Giustiniani, Italian banker (b. 1564)
*1641 – Francis van Aarssens, Dutch diplomat (b. 1572)
*1642 – Herman op den Graeff, Dutch bishop (b. 1585)
*1656 – Andrew White, English Jesuit missionary (b. 1579)
*1660 – Hervey Bagot, English politician (b. 1591)
*1663 – Christine of France, Duchess of Savoy (b. 1606)
*1672 – Jacques Rohault, French philosopher (b. 1618)
*1683 – Maria Francisca of Savoy, Queen consort of Portugal (b. 1646)
*1689 – Gervase Bryan, English clergyman (b. 1622)
*1693 – Henri de Villars, French prelate (b. 1621)
*1694 – Henrik Span, naval officer in the Dutch (b. 1634)
*1704 – Hans Albrecht von Barfus, Prussian field marshal and politician (b. 1635)
*1707 – Jean Mabillon, French monk and scholar (b. 1632)
*1707 – Robert Leke, 3rd Earl of Scarsdale, English earl, politician (b. 1654)
*1737 – William Bowyer, English printer (b. 1663)
*1743 – Hyacinthe Rigaud, French painter (b. 1659)
*1771 – Henri Pitot, French engineer, invented the Pitot tube (b. 1695)
*1776 – Johann Rall, Hessian colonel (b. )
*1782 – Henry Home, Lord Kames, Scottish judge and philosopher (b. 1697)
*1800 – Hugh Blair, Scottish minister and author (b. 1718)
*1812 – Joanna Southcott, English religious leader (b. 1750)
*1834 – Charles Lamb, English essayist and poet (b. 1775)
*1836 – Stephen F. Austin, American soldier and politician (b. 1793)
*1858 – Alexandre Pierre François Boëly, French pianist and composer (b. 1785)
*1895 – Eivind Astrup, Norwegian explorer (b. 1871)
*1896 – John Brown, English businessman and politician (b. 1816)
*1900 – William Armstrong, 1st Baron Armstrong, English engineer and businessman, founded Armstrong Whitworth (b. 1810)
1901–present
*1914 – Charles Martin Hall, American chemist and engineer (b. 1863)
*1919 – Achilles Alferaki, Russian-Greek composer and politician, Governor of Taganrog (b. 1846)
*1923 – Gustave Eiffel, French architect and engineer, co-designed the Eiffel Tower (b. 1832)
*1924 – Agda Meyerson, Swedish nurse and healthcare activist (b. 1866)
*1936 – Mehmet Akif Ersoy, Turkish poet, academic, and politician (b. 1873)
*1938 – Calvin Bridges, American geneticist and academic (b. 1889)
* 1938 – Osip Mandelstam, Polish-Russian poet and critic (b. 1891)
* 1938 – Zona Gale, American novelist, short story writer, and playwright (b. 1874)
*1939 – Rinaldo Cuneo, American painter (b. 1877)
*1943 – Ants Kurvits, Estonian general and politician, 10th Estonian Minister of War (b. 1887)
*1950 – Max Beckmann, German-American painter and sculptor (b. 1884)
*1952 – Patrick Joseph Hartigan, Australian priest, author, and educator (b. 1878)
*1953 – Şükrü Saracoğlu, Turkish soldier and politician, 6th Prime Minister of Turkey (b. 1887)
* 1953 – Julian Tuwim, Polish poet and author (b. 1894)
*1955 – Alfred Carpenter, English admiral, Victoria Cross recipient (b. 1881)
*1956 – Lambert McKenna, Irish priest and lexicographer (b. 1870)
*1965 – Edgar Ende, German painter (b. 1901)
*1972 – Lester B. Pearson, Canadian historian and politician, 14th Prime Minister of Canada, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1897)
*1974 – Vladimir Fock, Russian physicist and mathematician (b. 1898)
* 1974 – Amy Vanderbilt, American author (b. 1908)
*1978 – Chris Bell, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1951)
* 1978 – Houari Boumediene, Algerian colonel and politician, 2nd President of Algeria (b. 1932)
* 1978 – Bob Luman, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1937)
*1979 – Hafizullah Amin, Afghan educator and politician, 2nd General Secretary of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (b. 1929)
*1981 – Hoagy Carmichael, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and actor (b. 1899)
*1982 – Jack Swigert, American pilot, astronaut, and politician (b. 1931)
*1985 – Jean Rondeau, French racing driver (b. 1946)
*1986 – George Dangerfield, English-American historian and journalist (b. 1904)
* 1986 – Dumas Malone, American historian and author (b. 1892)
*1987 – Rewi Alley, New Zealand writer and political activist (b. 1897)
*1988 – Hal Ashby, American director and producer (b. 1929)
*1992 – Kay Boyle, American novelist, poet, and educator (b. 1902)
*1993 – Feliks Kibbermann, Estonian chess player and philologist (b. 1902)
* 1993 – Evald Mikson, Estonian footballer (b. 1911)
* 1993 – André Pilette, Belgian racing driver (b. 1918)
*1994 – Fanny Cradock, English author and critic (b. 1909)
* 1994 – J. B. L. Reyes, Filipino lawyer and jurist (b. 1902)
*1995 – Shura Cherkassky, Ukrainian-American pianist (b. 1909)
* 1995 – Genrikh Kasparyan, Armenian chess player and composer (b. 1910)
*1997 – Brendan Gill, American journalist and essayist (b. 1914)
* 1997 – Billy Wright, Northern Irish loyalist leader (b. 1960)
*1999 – Michael McDowell, American author and screenwriter (b. 1950)
*2002 – George Roy Hill, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1921)
*2003 – Alan Bates, English actor (b. 1934)
* 2003 – Iván Calderón, Puerto Rican-American baseball player (b. 1962)
*2004 – Hank Garland, American guitarist (b. 1930)
*2007 – Benazir Bhutto, Pakistani politician, Prime Minister of Pakistan (b. 1953)
* 2007 – Jerzy Kawalerowicz, Polish director and screenwriter (b. 1922)
* 2007 – Jaan Kross, Estonian author and poet (b. 1920)
*2008 – Delaney Bramlett, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b. 1939)
* 2008 – Robert Graham, Mexican-American sculptor (b. 1938)
*2009 – Isaac Schwartz, Ukrainian-Russian composer and educator (b. 1923)
*2011 – Catê, Brazilian footballer and manager (b. 1973)
* 2011 – Michael Dummett, English soldier, philosopher, and academic (b. 1925)
* 2011 – Helen Frankenthaler, American painter and educator (b. 1928)
* 2011 – Johnny Wilson, Canadian-American ice hockey player and coach (b. 1929)
*2012 – Harry Carey, Jr., American actor, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1921)
* 2012 – Lloyd Charmers, Jamaican singer, keyboard player, and producer (b. 1938)
* 2012 – Tingye Li, Chinese-American physicist and engineer (b. 1931)
* 2012 – Archie Roy, Scottish astronomer and academic (b. 1924)
* 2012 – Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr., American general and engineer (b. 1934)
* 2012 – Salt Walther, American race car driver (b. 1947)
*2013 – Richard Ambler, English-Scottish biologist and academic (b. 1933)
* 2013 – Mohamad Chatah, Lebanese economist and politician, Lebanese Minister of Finance (b. 1951)
* 2013 – Gianna D'Angelo, American soprano and educator (b. 1929)
* 2013 – John Matheson, Canadian colonel, lawyer, and politician (b. 1917)
* 2013 – Farooq Sheikh, Indian actor, philanthropist and a popular television presenter (b. 1948)
*2014 – Ben Ammi Ben-Israel, American-Israeli religious leader, founded the African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem (b. 1939)
* 2014 – Ulises Estrella, Ecuadorian poet and academic (b. 1939)
* 2014 – Ronald Li, Hong Kong accountant and businessman (b. 1929)
* 2014 – Karel Poma, Belgian bacteriologist and politician (b. 1920)
*2015 – Stein Eriksen, Norwegian-American skier (b. 1927)
* 2015 – Dave Henderson, American baseball player and sportscaster (b. 1958)
* 2015 – Ellsworth Kelly, American painter and sculptor (b. 1923)
* 2015 – Meadowlark Lemon, American basketball player and minister (b. 1932)
* 2015 – Alfredo Pacheco, Salvadoran footballer (b. 1982)
* 2015 – Stevie Wright, English-Australian singer-songwriter (b. 1947)
*2016 – Carrie Fisher, American actress, screenwriter, author, producer, and speaker (b. 1956)
* 2016 – Ratnasiri Wickremanayake, Sri Lankan politician (b. 1933)
*2018 – Frank Blaichman, Polish resistance fighter (b. 1922)
*2019 – Maria Creveling, American League of Legends player (b. 1995)
*2023 – Lee Sun-kyun, South Korean actor (b. 1975)
*2023 – Gaston Glock, Austrian firearm engineer and founder of Glock (b. 1929)
*2024 – Greg Gumbel, American sportscaster (b. 1946)
*2024 – Olivia Hussey, Argentinian-English actress (b. 1951)
*2024 – Charles Shyer, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1941)
<!-- Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust “this year in history” websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. -->
Holidays and observances
* Christian feast day:
** Blessed Francesco Spoto
** Blessed Sára Salkaházi
** Fabiola
** John the Apostle
** Pope Maximus of Alexandria
** Nicarete
** Theodorus and Theophanes
** December 27 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
* Constitution Day (North Korea)
* Emergency Rescuer's Day (Russia)
* Saint Stephen's Day (Eastern Orthodox Church; a public holiday in Romania)
* The third of the Twelve Days of Christmas (Western Christianity)
References
External links
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/27 BBC: On This Day]
*
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/december/27 Historical Events on December 27]
Category:Days of December
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_27
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8454
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Double planet
|
and the Moon (above right) and Pluto–Charon (below right)]]
In astronomy, a double planet (also binary planet) is a binary satellite system where both objects are planets, or planetary-mass objects, and whose barycenter is external to both planetary bodies.
Although up to a third of the star systems in the Milky Way are binary, double planets are expected to be much rarer given the typical planet to satellite mass ratio is around 1:10,000, they are influenced heavily by the gravitational pull of the parent star and according to the giant-impact hypothesis are gravitationally stable only under particular circumstances.
The Solar System does not have an official double planet, however the Earth–Moon system is sometimes considered to be one. In promotional materials advertising the SMART-1 mission, the European Space Agency referred to the Earth–Moon system as a double planet.
Several dwarf planet candidates can be described as binary planets. At its 2006 General Assembly, the International Astronomical Union considered a proposal that Pluto and Charon be reclassified as a double planet, but the proposal was abandoned in favor of the current IAU definition of planet. Other trans-Neptunian systems with proportionally large planetary-mass satellites include Eris–Dysnomia, Orcus–Vanth and Varda–Ilmarë.
Binary asteroids with components of roughly equal mass are sometimes referred to as double minor planets. These include binary asteroids 69230 Hermes and 90 Antiope and binary Kuiper belt objects (KBOs) 79360 Sila–Nunam and .
Definition of "double planet"
. Using this definition, the satellites of Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune can all easily be excluded; they all have masses less than 0.00025 () of the planets around which they revolve. Some dwarf planets, too, have satellites substantially less massive than the dwarf planets themselves.
The most notable exception is the Pluto–Charon system. The Charon-to-Pluto mass ratio of 0.122 (≈ ) is close enough to 1 that Pluto and Charon have frequently been described by many scientists as "double dwarf planets" ("double planets" prior to the 2006 definition of "planet"). The International Astronomical Union (IAU) earlier classified Charon as a satellite of Pluto, but had also explicitly expressed the willingness to reconsider the bodies as double dwarf planets in the future. However, a 2006 IAU report classified Charon–Pluto as a double planet.
The Moon-to-Earth mass ratio of 0.01230 (≈ ) is also notably close to 1 when compared to all other satellite-to-planet ratios. Consequently, some scientists view the Earth–Moon system as a double planet as well, though this is a minority view. Eris's lone satellite, Dysnomia, has a radius somewhere around that of Eris; assuming similar densities (Dysnomia's compositional make-up may or may not differ substantially from Eris's), the mass ratio would be near , a value intermediate to the Moon–Earth and Charon–Pluto ratios.
Center-of-mass position
Currently, the most commonly proposed definition for a double-planet system is one in which the barycenter, around which both bodies orbit, lies outside both bodies. Under this definition, Pluto and Charon are double dwarf planets, since they orbit a point clearly outside of Pluto, as visible in animations created from images of the New Horizons space probe in June 2015.
Under this definition, the Earth–Moon system is not currently a double planet; although the Moon is massive enough to cause the Earth to make a noticeable revolution around this center of mass, this point nevertheless lies well within Earth. However, the Moon currently migrates outward from Earth at a rate of approximately per year; in a few billion years, the Earth–Moon system's center of mass will lie outside Earth, which would make it a double-planet system.
–Charon system: the barycenter lies outside of Pluto.]]
The center of mass of the Jupiter–Sun system lies outside the surface of the Sun, though arguing that Jupiter and the Sun are a double star is not analogous to arguing Pluto–Charon is a double dwarf planet. Jupiter is too light to be a fusor; were it thirteen times heavier, it would achieve deuterium fusion and become a brown dwarf. Tug-of-war value Isaac Asimov suggested a distinction between planet–moon and double-planet structures based in part on what he called a "tug-of-war" value, which does not consider their relative sizes. This quantity is simply the ratio of the force exerted on the smaller body by the larger (primary) body to the force exerted on the smaller body by the Sun. This can be shown to equal
<math displayblock>\text{tug-of-war value} \frac{m_\mathrm{p}}{m_\mathrm{s}} \cdot \left( \frac{d_\mathrm{s}}{d_\mathrm{p}} \right)^2</math>
where is the mass of the primary (the larger body), is the mass of the Sun, is the distance between the smaller body and the Sun, and is the distance between the smaller body and the primary.| Isaac Asimov}}
See the Path of Earth and Moon around Sun section in the "Orbit of the Moon" article for a more detailed explanation.
This definition of double planet depends on the pair's distance from the Sun. If the Earth–Moon system happened to orbit farther away from the Sun than it does now, then Earth would win the tug of war. For example, at the orbit of Mars, the Moon's tug-of-war value would be 1.05. Also, several tiny moons discovered since Asimov's proposal would qualify as double planets by this argument. Neptune's small outer moons Neso and Psamathe, for example, have tug-of-war values of 0.42 and 0.44, less than that of Earth's Moon. Yet their masses are tiny compared to Neptune's, with an estimated ratio of 1.5 () and 0.4 ().
Formation of the system
A final consideration is the way in which the two bodies came to form a system. Both the Earth–Moon and Pluto–Charon systems are thought to have been formed as a result of giant impacts: one body was impacted by a second body, resulting in a debris disk, and through accretion, either two new bodies formed or one new body formed, with the larger body remaining (but changed). However, a giant impact is not a sufficient condition for two bodies being "double planets" because such impacts can also produce tiny satellites, such as the four small outer satellites of Pluto.
A now-abandoned hypothesis for the origin of the Moon was actually called the "double-planet hypothesis"; the idea was that the Earth and the Moon formed in the same region of the Solar System's proto-planetary disk, forming a system under gravitational interaction. This idea, too, is a problematic condition for defining two bodies as "double planets" because planets can "capture" moons through gravitational interaction. For example, the moons of Mars (Phobos and Deimos) are thought to be asteroids captured long ago by Mars. Such a definition would also deem Neptune–Triton a double planet, since Triton was a Kuiper belt body the same size and of similar composition to Pluto, later captured by Neptune.
See also
* 2006 definition of planet
* 3753 Cruithne
* Co-orbital configuration
* Definition of a planet
* Ecliptic
* Hill sphere
* Natural satellite
* Orbit of the Moon
* Quasi-satellite
* Satellite system (astronomy)
References
Informational notes
Citations
Bibliography
*
*
Further reading
*
*
*
External links
*
Category:Types of planet
Category:Binary systems
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_planet
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8456
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Denaturation (biochemistry)
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activity.<br> Top: increasing temperature increases the rate of reaction (Q10 coefficient). <br>Middle: the fraction of folded and functional enzyme decreases above its denaturation temperature.<br> Bottom: consequently, an enzyme's optimal rate of reaction is at an intermediate temperature.]]
In biochemistry, denaturation is a process in which proteins or nucleic acids lose folded structure present in their native state due to various factors, including application of some external stress or compound, such as a strong acid or base, a concentrated inorganic salt, an organic solvent (e.g., alcohol or chloroform), agitation, radiation, or heat. If proteins in a living cell are denatured, this results in disruption of cell activity and possibly cell death. Protein denaturation is also a consequence of cell death. Denatured proteins can exhibit a wide range of characteristics, from conformational change and loss of solubility or dissociation of cofactors to aggregation due to the exposure of hydrophobic groups. The loss of solubility as a result of denaturation is called coagulation. Denatured proteins lose their 3D structure, and therefore, cannot function.
Proper protein folding is key to whether a globular or membrane protein can do its job correctly; it must be folded into the native shape to function. However, hydrogen bonds and cofactor-protein binding, which play a crucial role in folding, are rather weak, and thus, easily affected by heat, acidity, varying salt concentrations, chelating agents, and other stressors which can denature the protein. This is one reason why cellular homeostasis is physiologically necessary in most life forms.
<span id"Cooking"></span> Common examples
'' in the egg white undergoes denaturation and loss of solubility when the egg is cooked. (Bottom) Paperclips provide a visual analogy to help with the conceptualization of the denaturation process.]]
When food is cooked, some of its proteins become denatured. This is why boiled eggs become hard and cooked meat becomes firm.
A classic example of denaturing in proteins comes from egg whites, which are typically largely egg albumins in water. Fresh from the eggs, egg whites are transparent and liquid. Cooking the thermally unstable whites turns them opaque, forming an interconnected solid mass. The same transformation can be effected with a denaturing chemical. Pouring egg whites into a beaker of acetone will also turn egg whites translucent and solid. The skin that forms on curdled milk is another common example of denatured protein. The cold appetizer known as ceviche is prepared by chemically "cooking" raw fish and shellfish in an acidic citrus marinade, without heat. Protein denaturation
Denatured proteins can exhibit a wide range of characteristics, from loss of solubility to protein aggregation.
thumb| Functional proteins have four levels of structural organization:
thumb|Process of denaturation:
Background
Proteins or polypeptides are polymers of amino acids. A protein is created by ribosomes that "read" RNA that is encoded by codons in the gene and assemble the requisite amino acid combination from the genetic instruction, in a process known as translation. The newly created protein strand then undergoes posttranslational modification, in which additional atoms or molecules are added, for example copper, zinc, or iron. Once this post-translational modification process has been completed, the protein begins to fold (sometimes spontaneously and sometimes with enzymatic assistance), curling up on itself so that hydrophobic elements of the protein are buried deep inside the structure and hydrophilic elements end up on the outside. The final shape of a protein determines how it interacts with its environment.
Protein folding consists of a balance between a substantial amount of weak intra-molecular interactions within a protein (Hydrophobic, electrostatic, and Van Der Waals Interactions) and protein-solvent interactions. As a result, this process is heavily reliant on environmental state that the protein resides in.
When a protein is denatured, secondary and tertiary structures are altered but the peptide bonds of the primary structure between the amino acids are left intact. Since all structural levels of the protein determine its function, the protein can no longer perform its function once it has been denatured. This is in contrast to intrinsically unstructured proteins, which are unfolded in their native state, but still functionally active and tend to fold upon binding to their biological target.
How denaturation occurs at levels of protein structure
* In quaternary structure denaturation, protein sub-units are dissociated and/or the spatial arrangement of protein subunits is disrupted.
* Tertiary structure denaturation involves the disruption of:
** Covalent interactions between amino acid side-chains (such as disulfide bridges between cysteine groups)
** Non-covalent dipole-dipole interactions between polar amino acid side-chains (and the surrounding solvent)
** Van der Waals (induced dipole) interactions between nonpolar amino acid side-chains.
* In secondary structure denaturation, proteins lose all regular repeating patterns such as alpha-helices and beta-pleated sheets, and adopt a random coil configuration.
* Primary structure, such as the sequence of amino acids held together by covalent peptide bonds, is not disrupted by denaturation. Loss of function Most biological substrates lose their biological function when denatured. For example, enzymes lose their activity, because the substrates can no longer bind to the active site, and because amino acid residues involved in stabilizing substrates' transition states are no longer positioned to be able to do so. The denaturing process and the associated loss of activity can be measured using techniques such as dual-polarization interferometry, CD, QCM-D and MP-SPR. Loss of activity due to heavy metals and metalloids By targeting proteins, heavy metals have been known to disrupt the function and activity carried out by proteins. Heavy metals fall into categories consisting of transition metals as well as a select amount of metalloid. This understanding has led to the notion that all the information needed for proteins to assume their native state was encoded in the primary structure of the protein, and hence in the DNA that codes for the protein, the so-called "Anfinsen's thermodynamic hypothesis".
Denaturation can also be irreversible. This irreversibility is typically a kinetic, not thermodynamic irreversibility, as a folded protein generally has lower free energy than when it is unfolded. Through kinetic irreversibility, the fact that the protein is stuck in a local minimum can stop it from ever refolding after it has been irreversibly denatured. Protein denaturation due to pH Denaturation can also be caused by changes in the pH which can affect the chemistry of the amino acids and their residues. The ionizable groups in amino acids are able to become ionized when changes in pH occur. A pH change to more acidic or more basic conditions can induce unfolding. Acid-induced unfolding often occurs between pH 2 and 5, base-induced unfolding usually requires pH 10 or higher. The area of partially separated DNA is known as the denaturation bubble, which can be more specifically defined as the opening of a DNA double helix through the coordinated separation of base pairs. However, the Poland-Scheraga Model is now considered elementary because it fails to account for the confounding implications of DNA sequence, chemical composition, stiffness and torsion.
Recent thermodynamic studies have inferred that the lifetime of a singular denaturation bubble ranges from 1 microsecond to 1 millisecond. This information is based on established timescales of DNA replication and transcription. Other than denaturation by heat, nucleic acids can undergo the denaturation process through various chemical agents such as formamide, guanidine, sodium salicylate, dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), propylene glycol, and urea. These chemical denaturing agents lower the melting temperature (T<sub>m</sub>) by competing for hydrogen bond donors and acceptors with pre-existing nitrogenous base pairs. Some agents are even able to induce denaturation at room temperature. For example, alkaline agents (e.g. NaOH) have been shown to denature DNA by changing pH and removing hydrogen-bond contributing protons. Chemical denaturation as an alternative The optical activity (absorption and scattering of light) and hydrodynamic properties (translational diffusion, sedimentation coefficients, and rotational correlation times) of formamide denatured nucleic acids are similar to those of heat-denatured nucleic acids. Therefore, depending on the desired effect, chemically denaturing DNA can provide a gentler procedure for denaturing nucleic acids than denaturation induced by heat. Studies comparing different denaturation methods such as heating, beads mill of different bead sizes, probe sonication, and chemical denaturation show that chemical denaturation can provide quicker denaturation compared to the other physical denaturation methods described. These molecules compete with surrounding hydrogen bond acceptors for hydrogen bond donors, therefore acting as "hydrogen bond breakers" and weakening interactions between surrounding molecules in the environment. nitrogen and oxygen therefore maintain the potential to weaken the integrity of DNA when exposed to air. As a result, DNA strands exposed to air require less force to separate and exemplify lower melting temperatures.
* Trichloroacetic acid 12% in water
* Sulfosalicylic acid
Bases
Bases work similarly to acids in denaturation. They include:
* Sodium bicarbonate
Solvents
Most organic solvents are denaturing, including:
* Ethanol
Cross-linking reagents
Cross-linking agents for proteins include:
* Formaldehyde
* Glutaraldehyde
Chaotropic agents
Chaotropic agents include:
* Urea 6–8 mol/L
* Guanidinium chloride 6 mol/L
* Lithium perchlorate 4.5 mol/L
* Sodium dodecyl sulfate
Disulfide bond reducers
Agents that break disulfide bonds by reduction include:
* 2-Mercaptoethanol
* Dithiothreitol
* TCEP (tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine)
Chemically reactive agents
Agents such as hydrogen peroxide, elemental chlorine, hypochlorous acid (chlorine water), bromine, bromine water, iodine, nitric and oxidising acids, and ozone react with sensitive moieties such as sulfide/thiol, activated aromatic rings (phenylalanine) in effect damage the protein and render it useless.
Other
* Mechanical agitation
* Picric acid
* Radiation
* Temperature
Nucleic acid denaturants
Chemical
Acidic nucleic acid denaturants include:
* Acetic acid
* HCl
* Nitric acid
Basic nucleic acid denaturants include:
* NaOH
Other nucleic acid denaturants include:
* DMSO
* Formamide
* Guanidine
* Sodium salicylate
* Propylene glycol
* Urea
Physical
* Thermal denaturation
* Beads mill
* Probe sonication
* Radiation
See also
* Denatured alcohol
* Equilibrium unfolding
* Fixation (histology)
* Molten globule
* Protein folding
* Random coil
References
External links
* [http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072943696/student_view0/chapter2/animation__protein_denaturation.html McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center — Animation: Protein Denaturation]
Category:Biochemical reactions
Category:Nucleic acids
Category:Protein structure
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denaturation_(biochemistry)
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8459
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Dwight L. Moody
|
| birth_name = Dwight Lyman Moody
| birth_date =
| birth_place = Northfield, Massachusetts, U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place = Northfield, Massachusetts, U.S.
| spouse =
| children = 3, including Paul Dwight Moody
| signature = Signature of Dwight Lyman Moody (1837–1899).png
}}
in 1855]]
Dwight Lyman Moody (February 5, 1837 – December 22, 1899), also known as D. L. Moody, was an American evangelist and publisher connected with Keswickianism, who founded the Moody Church, Northfield School and Mount Hermon School in Massachusetts (now Northfield Mount Hermon School), Moody Bible Institute, and Moody Publishers. One of his most famous quotes was "Faith makes all things possible... Love makes all things easy." Moody gave up his lucrative boot and shoe business to devote his life to revivalism, working first in the Civil War with Union troops through YMCA in the United States Christian Commission. In Chicago, he built one of the major evangelical centers in the nation, which is still active. Working with singer Ira Sankey, he toured the country and the British Isles, drawing large crowds with a dynamic speaking style.
Early life
Dwight Moody was born in Northfield, Massachusetts, as the seventh child of a large family. His father, Edwin J. Moody (1800–1841), was a small farmer and stonemason. His mother was Betsey Moody (née Holton; 1805–1896). They had five sons and a daughter before Dwight's birth. His father died when Dwight was age four; fraternal twins, a boy, and a girl were born one month after the father's death. Their mother struggled to support the nine children, but she still found it necessary to send some off to work for their room and board. Dwight too was sent off, where he received cornmeal porridge, and milk three times a day. He complained to his mother, but when she learned that he was getting all he wanted to eat, she sent him back. During this time, she continued to send the children to church. Together with his eight siblings, Dwight was raised in the Unitarian church. His oldest brother ran away and was not heard from by the family until many years later.
When Moody turned 17, he moved to Boston to work (after receiving many job rejections locally) in an uncle's shoe store. One of the uncle's requirements was that Moody attend the Congregational Church of Mount Vernon, where Dr. Edward Norris Kirk served as the pastor. In April 1855 Moody was converted to evangelical Christianity when his Sunday school teacher, Edward Kimball, talked to him about how much God loved him. His conversion sparked the start of his career as an evangelist. Moody first applied to the church in May 1855, but he was not received as a church member until May 4, 1856.
According to Moody's memoir, his teacher, Edward Kimball, said:
Civil War
D. L. Moody "could not conscientiously enlist" in the Union Army during the Civil War, later describing himself as "a Quaker" in this respect. After the Civil War started, he became involved with the United States Christian Commission of YMCA. He paid nine visits to the battlefront, being present among the Union soldiers after the Battle of Shiloh (a.k.a. Pittsburg Landing) and the Battle of Stones River; he also entered Richmond, Virginia, with the troops of General Grant.
On August 28, 1862, Moody married Emma C. Revell, with whom he had a daughter, Emma Reynolds Moody, and two sons, William Revell Moody and Paul Dwight Moody.
Chicago and the postwar years
In 1858, he started a Sunday school.
The growing Sunday School congregation needed a permanent home, so Moody started a church in Chicago, the Illinois Street Church in 1864.
In June 1871 at an International Sunday School Convention in Indianapolis, Indiana, Dwight Moody met Ira D. Sankey. He was a gospel singer, with whom Moody soon began to cooperate and collaborate.
Four months later, in October 1871, the Great Chicago Fire destroyed Moody's church building, as well as his house and those of most of his congregation. Many had to flee the flames, saving only their lives, and ending up completely destitute. Moody, reporting on the disaster, said about his own situation that: "...he saved nothing but his reputation and his Bible."
In the years after the fire, Moody's wealthy Chicago patron John V. Farwell tried to persuade him to make his permanent home in the city, offering to build a new house for Moody and his family. But the newly famous Moody, also sought by supporters in New York, Philadelphia, and elsewhere, chose a tranquil farm he had purchased near his birthplace in Northfield, Massachusetts. He felt he could better recover from his lengthy preaching trips in a rural setting.
Evangelistic travels
, April 3, 1875]]
During a trip to the United Kingdom in the spring of 1872, Moody became well known as an evangelist. Literary works published by the Moody Bible Institute claim that he was the greatest evangelist of the 19th century.<!-- On what scale of criteria? --> He preached almost a hundred times and came into communion with the Plymouth Brethren. On several occasions, he filled stadia of a capacity of 2,000 to 4,000. According to his memoir, in the Botanic Gardens Palace, he attracted an audience estimated at between 15,000 and 30,000.
That turnout continued throughout 1874 and 1875, with crowds of thousands at all of his meetings. During his visit to Scotland, Moody was helped and encouraged by Andrew A. Bonar. The famous London Baptist preacher Charles Spurgeon invited him to speak, and he promoted the American as well. When Moody returned to the US, he was said to frequently attract crowds of 12,000 to 20,000, such crowds being as common as they had been in England. President Grant and some of his cabinet officials attended a Moody meeting on January 19, 1876. Moody held evangelistic meetings from Boston to New York, throughout New England, and as far west as San Francisco, also visiting other West Coast towns from Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada to San Diego.
Moody aided the work of cross-cultural evangelism by promoting "The Wordless Book", a teaching tool Charles Spurgeon had developed in 1866. In 1875, Moody added a fourth color to the design of the three-color evangelistic device: gold — to "represent heaven." This "book" has been and is still used to teach uncounted thousands of illiterate people, young and old, around the globe about the gospel message.
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Moody visited Britain with Ira D. Sankey, with Moody preaching and Sankey singing at meetings. Together they published books of Christian hymns. In 1883, they visited Edinburgh and raised £10,000 for the building of a new home for the Carrubbers Close Mission. Moody later preached at the laying of the foundation stone for what is now called the Carrubbers Christian Centre, one of the few buildings on the Royal Mile which continues to be used for its original purpose.
International acclaim
His influence was felt among Swedes. Being of English heritage, never visiting Sweden or any other Scandinavian country, and never speaking a word of Swedish, nonetheless, he became a hero revivalist among Swedish Mission Friends () in Sweden and America.
News of Moody's large revival campaigns in Great Britain from 1873 through 1875 traveled quickly to Sweden, making "Mr. Moody" a household name in homes of many Mission Friends. Moody's sermons published in Sweden were distributed in books, newspapers, and colporteur tracts, and they led to the spread of Sweden's "Moody fever" from 1875 through 1880.
He preached his last sermon on November 16, 1899, in Kansas City, Missouri. Becoming ill, he returned home by train to Northfield. During the preceding several months, friends had observed he had added some to his already ample frame. Although his illness was never diagnosed, it has been speculated that he suffered from congestive heart failure. He died on December 22, 1899, surrounded by his family. Already installed as the leader of the Chicago Bible Institute, R. A. Torrey succeeded Moody as its pastor.
Legacy
Religious historian James Findlay says that:
: Speaking before thousands in the dark business suit, bearded, rotund Dwight L. Moody seemed the epitome of the "businessman in clerical garb" who typified popular religion in late 19th-century America... Earthy, unlettered, a dynamo of energy, the revivalist was very much a man of his times... Moody adapted revivalism, one of the major institutions of evangelical Protestantism, to the urban context. ... His organizational ability, demonstrated in the great revivals he conducted in England, combined to fashion his spectacular career as the creator of modern mass revivalism.
Ten years after Moody's death the Chicago Avenue Church was renamed the Moody Church in his honor, and the Chicago Bible Institute was likewise renamed the Moody Bible Institute.
Dwight D. Eisenhower, who was born in 1890, was named after him. During World War II, the Liberty ship was built in Panama City, Florida, and named in his honor.Works
*Heaven Diggory Press
* Prevailing Prayer—What Hinders it? Diggory Press
*Secret Power Diggory Press
*The Ten Commandments
*Also, A Life for Christ—What a Normal Christian Life Looks Like.
* The Way to God and How to Find it
See also
*William Phillips Hall, a close friend Moody influenced to become an evangelist and lay preacher.
*Horatio Spafford, a friend of Moody's who wrote the words to the hymn It Is Well With My Soul
*Northfield Mount Hermon School
References
Sources
*
* [http://www.christianitytoday.com/ch/131christians/evangelistsandapologists/moody.html "Dwight Moody: evangelist with a common touch"] Christianity Today, August 8, 2008.
* [http://www.wholesomewords.org/biography/biomoody.html Christian Biography Resources]
* Dorsett, L. W., A Passion for Souls: The Life of D. L. Moody. (1997)
* Findlay, J. F. Jr., Dwight L. Moody: American Evangelist 1837–1899. (1969)
* Gundry, S. N., Love them in: The Proclamation Theology of D. L. Moody. (1976)
* Evensen, B. J., ''God's Man for Gilded Age: D. L. Moody and the Rise of Mass Evangelism. (2003)
* Gloege, Timothy, Guaranteed Pure: The Moody Bible Institute, Business, and the Making of Modern Evangelicalism (2017)
* Gustafson, David M., "D.L. Moody and the Swedish-American Evangelical Free." Swedish-American Historical Quarterly 55 (2004): 107–135. [http://www.academia.edu/download/40729858/D._L._Moody_and_the_Evangelical_Free.pdf online]
* Hamilton, Michael S., "The Interdenominational Evangelicalism of D.L. Moody and the Problem of Fundamentalism" in Darren Dochuk et al. eds. American Evangelicalism: George Marsden and the State of American Religious History (2014) ch 11.
*
* .
* Moody, Paul Dwight, The Shorter Life of D. L. Moody. (1900) [https://archive.org/details/lifedwightlmood00moodgoog/page/n25 <!-- pg17 quoteDwight Moody. --> online]
* Moody, W. R., The Life of Dwight L. Moody (1900)
* Pollock, John, Moody Without Sankey'' (1963)
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121213103337/http://www.moodyqc.org/d-l-moody-reads-the-beatitudes/ Recording of Moody reading the Beatitudes]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060909125551/http://sermondepository.com/DLMoody.htm Sample sermons by D. L. Moody]
* [http://www.anabaptists.org/tracts/moodywar.html "Shall I enter the Army?" Moody said, "No."]
*
*
*
** [https://archive.org/details/gladtidingscomp00moodgoog Glad Tidings, sermons by D. L. Moody]
** [https://archive.org/details/gospelawakening01remlgoog The Gospel Awakening, sermons by D. L. Moody]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120701114657/http://fundamentalbaptistsermons.net/Site6/EBOOKS/reading.htm books by D. L. Moody]
Category:1837 births
Category:1899 deaths
Category:19th-century American male writers
Category:19th-century American musicians
Category:19th-century American non-fiction writers
Category:19th-century American philanthropists
Category:19th-century evangelicals
Category:American Christian hymnwriters
Category:American Christian pacifists
Category:American Evangelical writers
Category:American evangelists
Category:American male non-fiction writers
Category:American sermon writers
Category:Christian revivalists
Category:Founders of American schools and colleges
Category:Keswickianism
Category:Moody Bible Institute people
Category:People from Northfield, Massachusetts
Category:Songwriters from Massachusetts
Category:YMCA leaders
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Dieting
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Dieting is the practice of eating food in a regulated way to decrease, maintain, or increase body weight, or to prevent and treat diseases such as diabetes and obesity. As weight loss depends on calorie intake, different kinds of calorie-reduced diets, such as those emphasising particular macronutrients (low-fat, low-carbohydrate, etc.), have been shown to be no more effective than one another. Regardless, the outcome of a diet can vary widely depending on the individual.
Some guidelines recommend dieting to lose weight for people with weight-related health problems, but not for otherwise healthy people. One survey found that almost half of all American adults attempt to lose weight through dieting, including 66.7% of obese adults and 26.5% of normal weight or underweight adults. Dieters who are overweight (but not obese), who are normal weight, or who are underweight may have an increased mortality rate as a result of dieting.
One of the first dietitians was the English doctor George Cheyne. He himself was tremendously overweight and would constantly eat large quantities of rich food and drink. He began a meatless diet, taking only milk and vegetables, and soon regained his health. He began publicly recommending his diet for everyone who was obese. In 1724, he wrote An Essay of Health and Long Life, in which he advises exercise and fresh air and avoiding luxury foods.
The Scottish military surgeon, John Rollo, published Notes of a Diabetic Case in 1797. It described the benefits of a meat diet for those with diabetes, basing this recommendation on Matthew Dobson's discovery of glycosuria in diabetes mellitus. By means of Dobson's testing procedure (for glucose in the urine) Rollo worked out a diet that had success for what is now called type 2 diabetes.
The first popular diet was "Banting", named after the English undertaker William Banting. In 1863, he wrote a booklet called Letter on Corpulence, Addressed to the Public, which contained the particular plan for the diet he had successfully followed. His own diet was four meals per day, consisting of meat, greens, fruits, and dry wine. The emphasis was on avoiding sugar, sweet foods, starch, beer, milk and butter. Banting's pamphlet was popular for years to come, and would be used as a model for modern diets. The pamphlet's popularity was such that the question "Do you bant?" referred to his method, and eventually to dieting in general. His booklet remains in print as of 2007.
The first weight-loss book to promote calorie counting, and the first weight-loss book to become a bestseller, was the 1918 Diet and Health: With Key to the Calories by American physician and columnist Lulu Hunt Peters.
It was estimated that over 1000 weight-loss diets have been developed up to 2014.
Low-fat
Low-fat diets involve the reduction of the percentage of fat in one's diet. Calorie consumption is reduced because less fat is consumed. Diets of this type include NCEP Step I and II. A meta-analysis of 16 trials of 2–12 months' duration found that low-fat diets (without intentional restriction of caloric intake) resulted in average weight loss of over habitual eating.
Low-carbohydrate
Low-calorie
Low-calorie diets usually produce an energy deficit of 500–1,000 calories per day, which can result in a weight loss per week. The National Institutes of Health reviewed 34 randomized controlled trials to determine the effectiveness of low-calorie diets. They found that these diets lowered total body mass by 8% in the short term, over 3–12 months. They subject the body to starvation and produce an average loss of per week. "2-4-6-8", a popular diet of this variety, follows a four-day cycle in which only 200 calories are consumed the first day, 400 the second day, 600 the third day, 800 the fourth day, and then totally fasting, after which the cycle repeats. There is some evidence that these diets results in considerable weight loss. Crash dieting can be highly dangerous because it can cause various kind of issues for the human body. Crash dieting can produce weight loss but without professional supervision all along, the extreme reduction in calories and potential unbalance in the diet's composition can lead to detrimental effects, including sudden death.Fasting
Fasting is the act of intentional taking a long time interval between meals. Lengthy fasting (multiple days in a week) might be dangerous due to the risk of malnutrition. During prolonged fasting or very low calorie diets the reduction of blood glucose, the preferred energy source of the brain, causes the body to deplete its glycogen stores. although some dispute this. The use of short-term fasting, or various forms of intermittent fasting, have been used as a form of dieting to circumvent the issues of long fasting.
Intermittent fasting commonly takes the form of periodic fasting, alternate-day fasting, time-restricted feeding, and/or religious fasting. Studies have suggested that for people in intensive care, an intermittent fasting regimen might "[preserve] energy supply to vital organs and tissues... [and] powerfully activates cell-protective and cellular repair pathways, including autophagy, mitochondrial biogenesis and antioxidant defenses, which may promote resilience to cellular stress." The effects of decreased serum glucose and depleted hepatic glycogen causing the body to switch to ketogenic metabolism are similar to the effects of reduced carbohydrate-based diets. There is evidence demonstrating profound metabolic benefits of intermittent fasting in rodents. Exclusion of animal products can reduce the intake of certain nutrients, which might lead to nutritional deficiencies of protein, iron, zinc, calcium, and vitamins D and B<sub>12</sub>. including meat, nuts, eggs, some oils, fresh fruits, and vegetables.
Environmentally sustainable
Another kind of diet focuses not on the dieter's health effects, but on its environment. The One Blue Dot plan of the BDA offers recommendations towards reducing diets' environmental impacts, by:
# Reducing meat to 70g per person per day.
# Prioritising plant proteins.
# Promoting fish from sustainable sources.
# Moderate dairy consumption.
# Focusing on wholegrain starchy foods.
# Promoting seasonal locally sourced fruits and vegetables.
# Reducing high fat, sugar and salty foods overconsumption.
# Promoting tap water and unsweetened tea/coffee as the de facto choice for healthy hydration.
# Reducing food waste.
Effectiveness
Several diets are effective for short-term weight loss for obese individuals, As weight maintenance depends on calorie intake, A meta-analysis of six randomized controlled trials found no difference between low-calorie, low-carbohydrate, and low-fat diets in terms of short-term weight loss, with a 2–4 kilogram weight loss over 12–18 months in all studies. Most diet studies do not assess long-term weight loss. A 2001 meta-analysis of 29 American studies found that participants of structured weight-loss programs maintained an average of 23% (3 kg) of their initial weight loss after five years, representing a sustained 3.2% reduction in body mass. sometimes called a Health at Every Size (HAES) approach or a "weight neutral" approach.
Long term losses from dieting are best maintained with continuing professional support, long term increases in physical activity, the use of anti-obesity medications, continued use of meal replacements, and additional periods of dieting to undo weight regain.
Adverse effects
Increased mortality rate
A number of studies have found that intentional weight loss is associated with an increase in mortality in people without weight-related health problems. A 2009 meta-analysis of 26 studies found that "intentional weight loss had a small benefit for individuals classified as unhealthy (with obesity-related risk factors), especially unhealthy obese, but appeared to be associated with slightly increased mortality for healthy individuals, and for those who were overweight but not obese." Supplements should not replace foods that are important to a healthy diet. A 2006 study found that dieting and unhealthy weight-control behaviors were predictive of obesity and eating disorders five years later, with the authors recommending a "shift away from dieting and drastic weight-control measures toward the long-term implementation of healthful eating and physical activity".
Mechanism
When the body is expending more energy than it is consuming (e.g. when exercising), the body's cells rely on internally stored energy sources, such as complex carbohydrates and fats, for energy. The first source to which the body turns is glycogen (by glycogenolysis). Glycogen is a complex carbohydrate, 65% of which is stored in skeletal muscles and the remainder in the liver (totaling about 2,000 kcal in the whole body). It is created from the excess of ingested macronutrients, mainly carbohydrates. When glycogen is nearly depleted, the body begins lipolysis, the mobilization and catabolism of fat stores for energy. In this process fats, obtained from adipose tissue, or fat cells, are broken down into glycerol and fatty acids, which can be used to generate energy. The primary by-products of metabolism are carbon dioxide and water; carbon dioxide is expelled through the respiratory system.
Set-Point Theory
The Set-Point Theory, first introduced in 1953, postulated that each body has a preprogrammed fixed weight, with regulatory mechanisms to compensate. This theory was quickly adopted and used to explain failures in developing effective and sustained weight loss procedures. A 2019 systematic review of multiple weight change procedures, including alternate day fasting and time-restricted feeding but also exercise and overeating, found systematic "energetic errors" for all these procedures. This shows that the body cannot precisely compensate for errors in energy/calorie intake, countering the Set-Point Theory and potentially explaining both weight loss and weight gain such as obesity. This review was conducted on short-term studies, therefore such a mechanism cannot be excluded in the long term, as evidence is currently lacking on this timeframe.
Methods
Meal timing
A meal timing schedule is known to be an important factor of any diet. Recent evidence suggest that new scheduling strategies, such as intermittent fasting or skipping meals, and strategically placed snacks before meals, may be recommendable to reduce cardiovascular risks as part of a broader lifestyle and dietary change.
Food diary
A 2008 study published in the American Journal of Preventive Medicine showed that dieters who kept a daily food diary (or diet journal), lost twice as much weight as those who did not keep a food log, suggesting that if a person records their eating, they are more aware of what they consume and therefore eat fewer calories.Water
A 2009 review found limited evidence suggesting that encouraging water consumption and substituting energy-free beverages for energy-containing beverages (i.e., reducing caloric intake) may facilitate weight management. A 2009 article found that drinking 500 ml of water prior to meals for a 12-week period resulted in increased long-term weight reduction. (References given in main article.)
Society
It is estimated that about 1 out of 3 Americans is dieting at any given time. 85% of dieters are women. Approximately sixty billion dollars are spent every year in the USA on diet products, including "diet foods", such as light sodas, gym memberships or specific regimes. 80% of dieters start by themselves, whereas 20% see a professional or join a paid program. The typical dieter attempts 4 tries per year.
Weight loss groups
Some weight loss groups aim to make money, others work as charities. The former include Weight Watchers and Peertrainer. The latter include Overeaters Anonymous, TOPS Club and groups run by local organizations.
These organizations' customs and practices differ widely. Some groups are modelled on twelve-step programs, while others are quite informal. Some groups advocate certain prepared foods or special menus, while others train dieters to make healthy choices from restaurant menus and while grocery-shopping and cooking.
Attending group meetings for weight reduction programmes rather than receiving one-on-one support may increase the likelihood that obese people will lose weight. Those who participated in groups had more treatment time and were more likely to lose enough weight to improve their health. Study authors suggested that one explanation for the difference is that group participants spent more time with the clinician (or whoever delivered the programme) than those receiving one-on-one support.
See also
<!-- Please maintain alphabetical order -->
*Body image
*Carbon footprint
*Dietary Guidelines for Americans
*Food faddism
*High residue diet
*Intuitive eating
*List of diets
*National Weight Control Registry
*Nutrigenomics
*Nutrition psychology
*Nutrition scale
*Nutritional rating systems
*Online weight loss plans
*Superfood
*Table of food nutrients
*Underweight
References
Further reading
*
*
*
*Schwartz, Hillel. Never Satisfied: A Cultural History of Diets, Fantasies, and Fat. New York: Free Press/Macmillan, 1986.
External links
<!-- Do not post links to commercial sites. They will be removed immediately. -->
*[https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/healthy-weight/diet-reviews/ Diet reviews by the Harvard School of Public Health]
Category:Diets
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Diet
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Diet may refer to:
Food
Diet (nutrition), the sum of the food consumed by an organism or group
Dieting, the deliberate selection of food to control body weight or nutrient intake
Diet food, foods that aid in creating a diet for weight loss or gain
Healthy diet, the process of helping to maintain or improve overall health
Politics
Diet (assembly), a formal deliberative assembly
Current
National Diet, Japan's bicameral legislature, in its current form since 1947, composed of the House of Representatives and the House of Councillors
Landtag, a diet of states and provinces in Germany, Austria, South Tyrol in Italy, and the national parliament of Liechtenstein
Bundestag (Deutscher Bundestag), the lower house of Germany's Parliament, was established in West Germany in 1949, and all of Germany in 1990
Historical
Diet of Finland, the legislative assembly of the Grand Duchy of Finland from 1809 to 1906
Diet of Hungary, the legislative assembly of the Kingdom of Hungary from 15th century to 1946
Imperial Diet (Holy Roman Empire), the imperial assembly of the princes of the Holy Roman Empire until 1806
Federal Convention (German Confederation), or Confederate Diet (German: Bundesversammlung or Bundestag) was the only central institution of the German Confederation (1815–1848 and 1850–1866)
Reichstag
Reichstag (German Empire) (Reichstag), the Diet of the Empire, the legislative assembly of the German Empire, 1871–1917
Reichstag (Weimar Republic), (Reichstag), the Diet of the Weimar Republic, from 1919 to 1933
Reichstag (Nazi Germany), (Reichstag), the Diet of Nazi Germany, from 1933 to 1945, a purely ceremonial "parliament" in a totalitarian dictatorship without elections
Television, film, or music
"Diet", an episode of the Adult Swim animated television series, Aqua Teen Hunger Force
The Diet (cartoon), a Beetle Bailey animated short
"Diet", a 2020 single by Peakboy
Other uses
DIET, an open-source middleware for high-performance computing
See also
Diets, a historical name for the Dutch language in general
Dietsch (disambiguation), distinguishes the southern dialects in the Middle Dutch language
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Dubnium
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Dubnium is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol Db and atomic number 105. It is highly radioactive: the most stable known isotope, dubnium-268, has a half-life of about 16 hours. This greatly limits extended research on the element.
Dubnium does not occur naturally on Earth and is produced artificially. The Soviet Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) claimed the first discovery of the element in 1968, followed by the American Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory in 1970. Both teams proposed their names for the new element and used them without formal approval. The long-standing dispute was resolved in 1993 by an official investigation of the discovery claims by the Transfermium Working Group, formed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry and the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics, resulting in credit for the discovery being officially shared between both teams. The element was formally named dubnium in 1997 after the town of Dubna, the site of the JINR.
Theoretical research establishes dubnium as a member of group 5 in the 6d series of transition metals, placing it under vanadium, niobium, and tantalum. Dubnium should share most properties, such as its valence electron configuration and having a dominant +5 oxidation state, with the other group 5 elements, with a few anomalies due to relativistic effects. A limited investigation of dubnium chemistry has confirmed this.
Introduction
Discovery BackgroundUranium, element 92, is the heaviest element to occur in significant quantities in nature; heavier elements can only be practically produced by synthesis. The first synthesis of a new element—neptunium, element 93—was achieved in 1940 by a team of researchers in the United States. In the following years, American scientists synthesized the elements up to mendelevium, element 101, which was synthesized in 1955. From element 102, the priority of discoveries was contested between American and Soviet physicists. Their rivalry resulted in a race for new elements and credit for their discoveries, later named the Transfermium Wars.
Reports
, 105, and 106]]
The first report of the discovery of element 105 came from the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) in Dubna, Moscow Oblast, Soviet Union, in April 1968. The scientists bombarded <sup>243</sup>Am with a beam of <sup>22</sup>Ne ions, and reported 9.4 MeV (with a half-life of 0.1–3 seconds) and 9.7 MeV (t<sub>1/2</sub> > 0.05 s) alpha activities followed by alpha activities similar to those of either <sup>256</sup>103 or <sup>257</sup>103. Based on prior theoretical predictions, the two activity lines were assigned to <sup>261</sup>105 and <sup>260</sup>105, respectively. After collecting more data, JINR proposed the name bohrium (Bo) in honor of the Danish nuclear physicist Niels Bohr, a founder of the theories of atomic structure and quantum theory; they soon changed their proposal to nielsbohrium (Ns) to avoid confusion with boron. Another proposed name was dubnium. When LBL first announced their synthesis of element 105, they proposed that the new element be named hahnium (Ha) after the German chemist Otto Hahn, the "father of nuclear chemistry", thus creating an element naming controversy.
In the early 1970s, both teams reported synthesis of the next element, element 106, but did not suggest names. JINR suggested establishing an international committee to clarify the discovery criteria. This proposal was accepted in 1974 and a neutral joint group formed. Neither team showed interest in resolving the conflict through a third party, so the leading scientists of LBL—Albert Ghiorso and Glenn Seaborg—traveled to Dubna in 1975 and met with the leading scientists of JINR—Georgy Flerov, Yuri Oganessian, and others—to try to resolve the conflict internally and render the neutral joint group unnecessary; after two hours of discussions, this failed. The joint neutral group never assembled to assess the claims, and the conflict remained unresolved.
In 1981, the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung (GSI; Society for Heavy Ion Research) in Darmstadt, Hesse, West Germany, claimed synthesis of element 107; their report came out five years after the first report from JINR but with greater precision, making a more solid claim on discovery. GSI acknowledged JINR's efforts by suggesting the name nielsbohrium for the new element. This recommendation was criticized by the American scientists for several reasons. Firstly, their suggestions were scrambled: the names rutherfordium and hahnium, originally suggested by Berkeley for elements 104 and 105, were respectively reassigned to elements 106 and 108. Secondly, elements 104 and 105 were given names favored by JINR, despite earlier recognition of LBL as an equal co-discoverer for both of them. Thirdly and most importantly, IUPAC rejected the name seaborgium for element 106, having just approved a rule that an element could not be named after a living person, even though the 1993 report had given the LBL team the sole credit for its discovery.
In 1995, IUPAC abandoned the controversial rule and established a committee of national representatives aimed at finding a compromise. They suggested seaborgium for element 106 in exchange for the removal of all the other American proposals, except for the established name lawrencium for element 103. The equally entrenched name nobelium for element 102 was replaced by flerovium after Georgy Flerov, following the recognition by the 1993 report that that element had been first synthesized in Dubna. This was rejected by American scientists and the decision was retracted.
In 1996, IUPAC held another meeting, reconsidered all names in hand, and accepted another set of recommendations; it was approved and published in 1997. Element 105 was named dubnium (Db), after Dubna in Russia, the location of the JINR; the American suggestions were used for elements 102, 103, 104, and 106. The name dubnium had been used for element 104 in the previous IUPAC recommendation. The American scientists "reluctantly" approved this decision. IUPAC pointed out that the Berkeley laboratory had already been recognized several times, in the naming of berkelium, californium, and americium, and that the acceptance of the names rutherfordium and seaborgium for elements 104 and 106 should be offset by recognizing JINR's contributions to the discovery of elements 104, 105, and 106.
Even after 1997, LBL still sometimes used the name hahnium for element 105 in their own material, doing so as recently as 2014. However, the problem was resolved in the literature as Jens Volker Kratz, editor of Radiochimica Acta, refused to accept papers not using the 1997 IUPAC nomenclature.
Isotopes
Dubnium, having an atomic number of 105, is a superheavy element; like all elements with such high atomic numbers, it is very unstable. The longest-lasting known isotope of dubnium, <sup>268</sup>Db, has a half-life of around a day. No stable isotopes have been seen, and a 2012 calculation by JINR suggested that the half-lives of all dubnium isotopes would not significantly exceed a day. or <sup>292</sup>122 of a half-life of over 100 million years in 2009; neither claim gained acceptance.}}
The short half-life of dubnium limits experimentation. This is exacerbated by the fact that the most stable isotopes are the hardest to synthesize. Elements with a lower atomic number have stable isotopes with a lower neutron–proton ratio than those with higher atomic number, meaning that the target and beam nuclei that could be employed to create the superheavy element have fewer neutrons than needed to form these most stable isotopes. (Different techniques based on rapid neutron capture and transfer reactions are being considered as of the 2010s, but those based on the collision of a large and small nucleus still dominate research in the area.)
Only a few atoms of <sup>268</sup>Db can be produced in each experiment, and thus the measured lifetimes vary significantly during the process. As of 2022, following additional experiments performed at the JINR's Superheavy Element Factory (which started operations in 2019), the half-life of <sup>268</sup>Db is measured to be hours. 1.3 h, and 1.6 h. These two are the heaviest isotopes of dubnium to date, and both were produced as a result of decay of the heavier nuclei <sup>288</sup>Mc and <sup>294</sup>Ts rather than directly, because the experiments that yielded them were originally designed in Dubna for <sup>48</sup>Ca beams. For its mass, <sup>48</sup>Ca has by far the greatest neutron excess of all practically stable nuclei, both quantitative and relative, Predicted properties According to the periodic law, dubnium should belong to group 5, with vanadium, niobium, and tantalum. Several studies have investigated the properties of element 105 and found that they generally agreed with the predictions of the periodic law. Significant deviations may nevertheless occur, due to relativistic effects, which dramatically change physical properties on both atomic and macroscopic scales. These properties have remained challenging to measure for several reasons: the difficulties of production of superheavy atoms, the low rates of production, which only allows for microscopic scales, requirements for a radiochemistry laboratory to test the atoms, short half-lives of those atoms, and the presence of many unwanted activities apart from those of synthesis of superheavy atoms. So far, studies have only been performed on single atoms.
In 2009, at the JAEA tandem accelerator in Japan, dubnium was processed in nitric and hydrofluoric acid solution, at concentrations where niobium forms and tantalum forms . Dubnium's behavior was close to that of niobium but not tantalum; it was thus deduced that dubnium formed . From the available information, it was concluded that dubnium often behaved like niobium, sometimes like protactinium, but rarely like tantalum.
In 2021, the volatile heavy group 5 oxychlorides MOCl<sub>3</sub> (M Nb, Ta, Db) were experimentally studied at the JAEA tandem accelerator. The trend in volatilities was found to be NbOCl<sub>3</sub> > TaOCl<sub>3</sub> ≥ DbOCl<sub>3</sub>, so that dubnium behaves in line with periodic trends. Notes References Bibliography * |titleThe NUBASE2016 evaluation of nuclear properties |doi10.1088/1674-1137/41/3/030001 |last1Audi |first1G. |last2Kondev |first2F. G. |last3Wang |first3M. |last4Huang |first4W. J. |last5Naimi |first5S. |display-authors3 |journalChinese Physics C |volume41 |issue3 <!--Citation bot deny-->|pages030001 |year2017 |bibcode=2017ChPhC..41c0001A }}<!--for consistency and specific pages, do not replace with -->
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Category:Chemical elements
Category:Transition metals
Category:Synthetic elements
Category:Chemical elements with body-centered cubic structure
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Disaccharide
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thumb|287x287px|Sucrose, a disaccharide formed from condensation of a molecule of glucose and a molecule of fructose
A disaccharide (also called a double sugar or biose) is the sugar formed when two monosaccharides are joined by glycosidic linkage. Like monosaccharides, disaccharides are simple sugars soluble in water. Three common examples are sucrose, lactose, and maltose.
Disaccharides are one of the four chemical groupings of carbohydrates (monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides). The most common types of disaccharides—sucrose, lactose, and maltose—have 12 carbon atoms, with the general formula C12H22O11. The differences in these disaccharides are due to atomic arrangements within the molecule.
The joining of monosaccharides into a double sugar happens by a condensation reaction, which involves the elimination of a water molecule from the functional groups only. Breaking apart a double sugar into its two monosaccharides is accomplished by hydrolysis with the help of a type of enzyme called a disaccharidase. As building the larger sugar ejects a water molecule, breaking it down consumes a water molecule. These reactions are vital in metabolism. Each disaccharide is broken down with the help of a corresponding disaccharidase (sucrase, lactase, and maltase).
Classification
There are two functionally different classes of disaccharides:
Reducing disaccharides, in which one monosaccharide, the reducing sugar of the pair, still has a free hemiacetal unit that can perform as a reducing aldehyde group; lactose, maltose and cellobiose are examples of reducing disaccharides, each with one hemiacetal unit, the other occupied by the glycosidic bond, which prevents it from acting as a reducing agent. They can easily be detected by the Woehlk test or Fearon's test on methylamine.
Non-reducing disaccharides, in which the component monosaccharides bond through an acetal linkage between their anomeric centers. This results in neither monosaccharide being left with a hemiacetal unit that is free to act as a reducing agent. Sucrose and trehalose are examples of non-reducing disaccharides because their glycosidic bond is between their respective hemiacetal carbon atoms. The reduced chemical reactivity of the non-reducing sugars, in comparison to reducing sugars, may be an advantage where stability in storage is important.
Formation
The formation of a disaccharide molecule from two monosaccharide molecules proceeds by displacing a hydroxy group from one molecule and a hydrogen nucleus (a proton) from the other, so that the new vacant bonds on the monosaccharides join the two monomers together. Because of the removal of the water molecule from the product, the term of convenience for such a process is "dehydration reaction" (also "condensation reaction" or "dehydration synthesis"). For example, milk sugar (lactose) is a disaccharide made by condensation of one molecule of each of the monosaccharides glucose and galactose, whereas the disaccharide sucrose in sugar cane and sugar beet, is a condensation product of glucose and fructose. Maltose, another common disaccharide, is condensed from two glucose molecules.
The dehydration reaction that bonds monosaccharides into disaccharides (and also bonds monosaccharides into more complex polysaccharides) forms what are called glycosidic bonds.
Properties
The glycosidic bond can be formed between any hydroxy group on the component monosaccharide. So, even if both component sugars are the same (e.g., glucose), different bond combinations (regiochemistry) and stereochemistry (alpha- or beta-) result in disaccharides that are diastereoisomers with different chemical and physical properties. Depending on the monosaccharide constituents, disaccharides are sometimes crystalline, sometimes water-soluble, and sometimes sweet-tasting and sticky-feeling. Disaccharides can serve as functional groups by forming glycosidic bonds with other organic compounds, forming glycosides.
Assimilation
Digestion of disaccharides involves breakdown into monosaccharides.
Common disaccharides
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Disaccharide
! Unit 1
! Unit 2
! Bond
|-
| Sucrose (table sugar, cane sugar, beet sugar, or saccharose)
| Glucose || Fructose || α(1→2)β
|-
| Lactose (milk sugar)
| Galactose || Glucose || β(1→4)
|-
| Maltose (malt sugar)
| Glucose || Glucose || α(1→4)
|-
| Trehalose
| Glucose || Glucose || α(1→1)α
|-
| Cellobiose
| Glucose || Glucose || β(1→4)
|-
| Chitobiose
| Glucosamine || Glucosamine || β(1→4)
|}
Maltose, cellobiose, and chitobiose are hydrolysis products of the polysaccharides starch, cellulose, and chitin, respectively.
Less common disaccharides include:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Disaccharide
! Units
! Bond
|-
| Kojibiose || Two glucoses || α(1→2)
|-
| Nigerose || Two glucoses || α(1→3)
|-
| Isomaltose || Two glucoses || α(1→6)
|-
| β,β-Trehalose || Two glucoses || β(1→1)β
|-
| α,β-Trehalose || Two glucoses || α(1→1)β
|-
| Sophorose || Two glucoses || β(1→2)
|-
| Laminaribiose || Two glucoses || β(1→3)
|-
| Gentiobiose || Two glucoses || β(1→6)
|-
| Trehalulose
| One glucose and one fructose
| α(1→1)
|-
| Turanose || One glucose and one fructose || α(1→3)
|-
| Maltulose || One glucose and one fructose || α(1→4)
|-
| Leucrose || One glucose and one fructose || α(1→5)
|-
| Isomaltulose || One glucose and one fructose || α(1→6)
|-
| Gentiobiulose || One glucose and one fructose || β(1→6)
|-
| Mannobiose || Two mannoses || Either α(1→2), α(1→3), α(1→4), or α(1→6)
|-
| Melibiose || One galactose and one glucose || α(1→6)
|-
| Allolactose || One galactose and one glucose || β(1→6)
|-
| Melibiulose || One galactose and one fructose || α(1→6)
|-
| Lactulose || One galactose and one fructose || β(1→4)
|-
| Rutinose || One rhamnose and one glucose || α(1→6)
|-
| Rutinulose || One rhamnose and one fructose || β(1→6)
|-
| Xylobiose || Two xylopyranoses || β(1→4)
|}
References
External links
Category:Carbohydrate chemistry
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disaccharide
|
2025-04-05T18:28:37.760698
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Dactylic hexameter
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Dactylic hexameter is a form of meter used in Ancient Greek epic and didactic poetry as well as in and epic, didactic, and satirical, and pastoral Latin poetry.
Its name is derived from Greek , ("six"), and it consists of six feet, the first five feet containing either two long syllables, a spondee (– –), or a long syllable followed by two short syllables, a dactyl (–ᴗᴗ), and the last foot consisting of either a spondee or a long syllable followed by one short syllable, a trochee(– ᴗ), schematically represented below:
{| style="text-align: center;"
| 1 || <nowiki>|</nowiki> || 2 || <nowiki>|</nowiki> || 3 || <nowiki>|</nowiki> || 4 || <nowiki>|</nowiki> || 5 || <nowiki>|</nowiki> || 6
|-
| – <u>ᴗ ᴗ</u> || <nowiki>|</nowiki> || – <u>ᴗ ᴗ</u> || <nowiki>|</nowiki> || – <u>ᴗ ᴗ</u> || <nowiki>|</nowiki> || – <u>ᴗ ᴗ</u> || <nowiki>|</nowiki> || – <u>ᴗ ᴗ</u> || <nowiki>|</nowiki> || – x
|}
The hexameter is traditionally associated with classical epic poetry in both Greek and Latin and was consequently considered to be the grand style of Western classical poetry. Some well known examples of its use are Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, Apollonius of Rhodes's Argonautica, Virgil's Aeneid, Ovid's Metamorphoses, Lucan's Pharsalia (an epic on Caesar's civil war), Valerius Flaccus's Argonautica, and Statius's Thebaid.
However, this meter had a wide use outside of epic. Greek works in dactylic hexameter include Hesiod's Works and Days and Theogony, Theocritus's Idylls, and Callimachus's hymns. In Latin famous works include Lucretius's philosophical , Virgil's Eclogues and Georgics, book 10 of Columella's manual on agriculture, as well as Latin satirical poems by the poets Lucilius, Horace, Persius, and Juvenal. The hexameter continued to be used in Christian times, for example in the of the 5th-century Irish poet Sedulius and Bernard of Cluny's 12th-century satire among many others.
Hexameters also form part of elegiac poetry in both languages, the elegiac couplet being a dactylic hexameter line paired with a dactylic pentameter line. This form of verse was used for love poetry by Propertius, Tibullus, and Ovid, for Ovid's letters from exile, and for many of the epigrams of Martial. Structure The most fundamental structure of dactylic hexameter poetry is a line. Lines are further divided into feet, and feet are divided into syllables. Feet A hexameter verse contains six feet. The first five feet can be either a dactyl or a spondee. However, because Latin is much richer in long syllables than Greek, spondaic feet are more common in Latin hexameter. In both Greek and Latin hexameter the fifth feet is usually a dactyl, and a spondee is also rare in the third feet in Greek hexameter. The sixth foot can be filled by either a trochee or a spondee. Thus a dactylic hexameter line is scanned as follows:
: – <u>ᴗ ᴗ</u> | – <u>ᴗ ᴗ</u> | – <u>ᴗ ᴗ</u> | – <u>ᴗ ᴗ</u> | – <u>ᴗ ᴗ</u> | – x
An example of this in Latin is the first line of Virgil's Aeneid:
:
:"I sing of arms, and of the man who first from the shores of Troy ..."
The scansion is generally marked as follows, by placing long and short marks above the central vowel of each syllable:
– u u | – u u | – – | – – | – u u | – –
ar ma vi | rum que ca | nō Troj | jae quī | prī mu sa | bō rīs
dactyl | dactyl | spondee | spondee | dactyl | spondee
In dactylic verse, short syllables always come in pairs, so words such as "soldiers" or "more easily" cannot be used in a hexameter.
Syllables
Unlike English verse, which is based on stress, ancient Greek and Latin poetry is based on the length, i.e. relative duration, of a syllable. In scansion only the sounds are meaningful, and word boundaries do not matter.
In Greek, a long syllable is () and a short syllable is (). In Latin the terms are and .
Greek
In Greek a syllable is long if it contains a long vowel or a dipthong or two consonants follow the vowel(s) of the syllable. That is to say, a syllable with a short vowel is scanned as long if contains a long vowel or a dipthong or if it is closed; and a syllable is closed only if it ends with a consonant, otherwise it is open.
For example, all syllables in , , and are long. However, there are many exceptions to simple rules mentioned above, as a matter of fact too many to be listed here.
Latin
In Latin a syllable is long (by nature) if it contains a long vowel or a dipthong and long (by position) if it contains a short vowel followed by two consonants, even if these are in different words. For example, all syllables in and are long by nature, whereas , , , and in , are long by position.
However, when a liquid -- l or r -- follows a plosive, a syllable containing a short vowel may remain short by position. For example, could be scanned either as having a short first syllable or as having a long first syllable .
In scansion the letter h is ignored, and qu counts as a single consonant. So, for example in the phrase the syllable et remains short, and in the word the first syllable remains short too.
The semiconsonantal i and u are scanned as consonants. For example, in and , i is considered a consonant, pronounced like the English y. Thus has three syllables and has two. But, in the first I is a vowel and forms a separate syllable. Additionally, an i between two or more vowels stands almost without exeption for a double consonant; so, for example , standing for has two syllables.
In some editions of Latin texts the consonant v is written as u, in which case u is also often consonantal. This can sometimes cause ambiguity; e.g., in the word () "he rolls" the second u is a consonant, but in ( ) "he wanted" the second u is a vowel.
Elision
In Latin, when a word ends in a vowel or -m and is followed by a word starting with a vowel or h, the last vowel is usually suppressed or elided. For example, .
In Greek, short vowels elide freely; however, long wovels are not elided, though they may be shortened in some cases: E.g. ().
In modern Greek writing the elision is shown by an apostrophe. For example:
<br>
<br>
which caused countless sufferings for the Achaeans
|author=Homer
|title=Iliad, 1.2
}}
The Greek style of not eliding a long vowel is sometimes imitated in Latin for special effect, for example, "with womanly wailing" (Aen. 9.477).
When a vowel is elided, it does not count in the scansion. So, for the purposes of scansion, has four syllables. Caesura Caesura is a word break in the middle of a foot or metron. In Greek hexameter there must be a caesura after i) the first syllable of the 3rd foot, a strong or masculine caesura, ii) the second syllable of a dactyl in the 3rd foot, a weak or feminine caesura, or iii) the first syllable of the 4th foot; the first two being much more common than the last.
In Latin hexameter the weak caesura is rarer than in Greek hexameter. On the one hand, in Virgil the strong caesura is found in ca. 85% of the time.
An example of a weak caesura can be found from the first line of Homer's Odyssey:
:
:
:"Tell me, Muse, of the man of many wiles, who very much"
And an example of a strong caesura follows on the next line of Odyssey:
:
:
:"wandered, after having sacked the sacred citadel of Troy."
In Latin (but not in Greek, as the above example shows), a feminine caesura in the 3rd foot is usually accompanied with masculine caesuras in the 2nd and especially in the 4th feet:
:
:"You are bidding me, o queen, to renew an unspeakable sorrow"
Sometimes caesuras in the 2nd and 4th feet of a line make do, and there is no caesura in the 3rd foot. For example:
:
:"then from his high couch Father Aeneas began as follows"
In Greek
The hexameter was first used by early Greek poets of the oral tradition, and the most complete extant examples of their works are the Iliad and the Odyssey, which influenced the authors of all later classical epics that survive today. Early epic poetry was also accompanied by music, and pitch changes associated with the accented Greek must have highlighted the melody, though the exact mechanism is still a topic of discussion.
The first line of Homer's Iliad provides an example:
:
:
:"Sing, goddess, the anger of Peleus’ son Achilles"
Dividing the line into metrical units or feet it can be scanned as follows:
:
: (-deō is one syllable)
: — ∪ ∪ | — ∪ ∪ | — — | — ∪ ∪ | — ∪ ∪ | — —
This line also includes a masculine caesura after , a break that separates the line into two parts. Homer employs a feminine caesura more commonly than later writers. An example occurs in Iliad 1.5:
:
:"... and every bird; and the plan of Zeus was fulfilled"
:
:
: — — | — ∪ ∪ | — ∪, ∪ | — ∪ ∪ | — ∪ ∪ | — —
Homer's hexameters contain a higher proportion of dactyls than later hexameter poetry. They are also characterised by a laxer following of verse principles than later epicists almost invariably adhered to. For example, Homer allows spondaic fifth feet (albeit not often), whereas many later authors do not.
Homer also altered the forms of words to allow them to fit the hexameter, typically by using a dialectal form: ptolis is an epic form used instead of the Attic polis as necessary for the meter. Proper names sometimes take forms to fit the meter, for example Pouludamas instead of the metrically unviable Poludamas.
Some lines require a knowledge of the digamma for their scansion, e.g. Iliad 1.108:
:
:
:"you have not yet spoken a good word nor brought one to pass"
:
:
: — — | — ∪ ∪ | — — | — ∪ ∪ | — ∪ ∪ | — —
Here the word (epos) was originally (wepos) in Ionian; the digamma, later lost, lengthened the last syllable of the preceding (eipas) and removed the apparent defect in the meter. A digamma also saved the hiatus in the third foot. This example demonstrates the oral tradition of the Homeric epics that flourished before they were written down sometime in the 7th century BC.
Most of the later rules of hexameter composition have their origins in the methods and practices of Homer. In Latin
]]
The dactylic hexameter was adapted from Greek to Latin. Though the metre was taken from Greek unaltered, the Latin language has a higher proportion of long syllables than Greek, and so it is by nature more spondaic. Additionally, the Roman poets did not avoid the weak caesura in the fourth foot as much as the Greeks did. Ennius The earliest example of hexameter in Latin poetry is the panegyric history of Rome, Annales'', by Ennius, establishing a standard for later Latin epics. Ennius experimented with different kinds of lines, for example, lines with five dactyls:
:
:"Then the trumpet with terrifying sound went 'taratantara!'"
or lines consisting entirely of spondees:
:
:"To him replied the king of Alba Longa"
lines without a caesura:
:
:"With scattered long spears the plain gleams and bristles"
lines ending in a one-syllable word or in words of more than three syllables:
:
:"A single man, by delaying, restored the situation for us."
:
:
:"I do not demand gold for myself nor should you give me a price:
:not buying and selling war, but waging it"
or even lines starting with two short syllables:
:
: | u u – | – – | –, u u | – – | – u u | – –
:"the blacktail, the rainbow wrasse, the bird wrasse, and the maigre" (kinds of fish)
However, most of these features were abandoned by later writers or used only occasionally for special effect.Later writersLater Republican writers, such as Lucretius, Catullus, and even Cicero, wrote hexameter compositions, and it was at this time that the principles of Latin hexameter were firmly established and followed by later writers such as Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Lucan, and Juvenal. Virgil's opening line for the Aeneid is a classic example:
:
:"I sing of arms and of the man who first from the shores of Troy ..."
In Latin, lines were arranged so that the metrically long syllables —- those occurring at the beginning of a foot -— often avoided the natural stress of a word. In the earlier feet of a line, meter and stress were expected to clash, while in the last two feet they were expected to coincide, as in above. The coincidence of word accent and meter in the last two feet could be achieved by restricting the last word to one of two or three syllables.
Most lines (about 85% in Virgil) have a caesura or word division after the first syllable of the 3rd foot, as above . Because of the penultimate accent in Latin, this ensures that the word accent and meter will not coincide in the 3rd foot. But in those lines with a feminine or weak caesura, such as the following, there is inevitably a coincidence of meter and accent in the 3rd foot:
:
:"there follows shouting of men and rattling of ropes"
To offset this, whenever there was a feminine caesura in the 3rd foot, there was usually also a masculine caesura in the 2nd and 4th feet, to ensure that in those feet at least, the word accent and meter did not coincide.
Metrical effects
By the age of Augustus, poets like Virgil closely followed the rules of the meter and approached it in a highly rhetorical way, looking for effects that can be exploited in skilled recitation. For example, the following line from the Aeneid (8.596) describes the movement and sound of galloping horses:
:
:"with four-footed sound the hoof shakes the crumbling plain"
This line is made up of five dactyls and a closing spondee, an unusual rhythmic arrangement that imitates the described action. A different effect is found in 8.452, where Virgil describes how the blacksmith sons of Vulcan forged Aeneas' shield. The five spondees and the word accents cutting across the verse rhythm give an impression of huge effort:
:
:"They with much force raise their arms one after another"
A slightly different effect is found in the following line (3.658), describing the terrifying one-eyed giant Polyphemus, blinded by Ulysses. Here again there are five spondees but there are also three elisions, which cause the word accent of all the words but to coincide with the beginning of each foot:
:
:"A horrendous huge shapeless monster, whose eye (lit. light) had been removed"
A succession of long syllables in some lines indicates slow movement, as in the following example where Aeneas and his companion the Sibyl (a priestess of Apollo) were entering the darkness of the world of the dead:
:
:"they were going in the darkness beneath the lonely night through the shadow"
The following example (Aeneid 2.9) describes how Aeneas is reluctant to begin his narrative, since it is already past midnight. The feminine caesura after without a following 4th-foot caesura ensures that all the last four feet have word accent at the beginning, which is unusual. The monotonous effect is reinforced by the assonance of dent ... dent and the alliteration of S ... S:
:
:
:"And already the moist night is falling from the sky
:and the setting constellations are inviting sleep"
Dactyls are associated with sleep again in the following unusual line, which describes the activity of a priestess who is feeding a magic serpent (Aen. 4.486). In this line, there are five dactyls, and every one is accented on the first syllable:
:
:"sprinkling moist honey and sleep-inducing poppy"
A different technique, at 1.105, is used when describing a ship at sea during a storm. Here Virgil places a single-syllable word at the end of the line. This produces a jarring rhythm that echoes the crash of a large wave against the side of the ship:
:
:
:"(The boat) gives its side to the waves; there immediately follows in a heap a steep mountain of water."
The Roman poet Horace uses a similar trick to highlight the comedic irony in this famous line from his Ars Poetica (line 139):
:
:"The mountains will be in labor, but all that will be born is a ridiculous ... mouse"
Usually in Latin the 5th foot of a hexameter is a dactyl. However, in his poem 64, Catullus several times uses a 5th foot spondee, which gives a Greek flavour to his verse, as in this line describing the forested Vale of Tempe in northern Greece:
:
:"Tempe, which woods surround, hanging over it"
Virgil also occasionally imitates Greek practice, for example, in the first line of his 3rd Eclogue:
:
:"Tell me, Damoetas, whose cattle are these? Are they Meliboeus's?"
Here there is a break in sense after a 4th-foot dactyl, a feature known as a bucolic diaeresis, because it is frequently used in Greek pastoral poetry. In fact it is common in Homer too (as in the first line of the Odyssey quoted above), but rare in Latin epic.
Stylistic features of epic
Certain stylistic features are characteristic of epic hexameter poetry, especially as written by Virgil.
Enjambment
Hexameters are frequently enjambed—the meaning runs over from one line to the next, without terminal punctuation—which helps to create the long, flowing narrative of epic. Sentences can also end in different places in the line, for example, after the first foot. In this, classical epic differs from medieval Latin, where the lines are often composed individually, with a break in sense at the end of each one.
Poetic vocabulary
Often in poetry ordinary words are replaced by poetic ones, for example or for water, for sea, for ship, for river, and so on. Some ordinary Latin words are avoided, e.g. etc., simply because they cannot be fitted into a hexameter verse.
Hyperbaton
It is common in poetry for adjectives to be widely separated from their nouns, and quite often one adjective–noun pair is interleaved with another. This feature is known as hyperbaton "stepping over". An example is the opening line of Lucan's epic on the Civil War:
:
:"Wars through the Emathian – more than civil – plains"
Another example is the opening of Ovid's mythological poem Metamorphoses where the word "new" is in a different line from "bodies" which it describes:
: (Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.1)
:"My spirit leads me to tell of forms transformed into new bodies."
One particular arrangement of words that seems to have been particularly admired is the golden line, a line which contains two adjectives, a verb, and two nouns, with the first adjective corresponding to the first noun such as:
:
:"and the barbarian pipe was strident with horrible music"
Catullus was the first to use this kind of line, as in the above example. Later authors used it rarely (1% of lines in Ovid), but in silver Latin it became increasingly popular.
Alliteration and assonance
Virgil in particular used alliteration and assonance frequently, although it is much less common in Ovid. Often more than one consonant was alliterated and not necessarily at the beginning of words, for example:
:
:
:"But the queen, now long wounded by grave anxiety,
:feeds the wound in her veins and is tormented by an unseen fire"
Also in Virgil:
: "places silent with night everywhere"
: "those ones with oars sweep the dark shallows"
Sometimes the same vowel is repeated:
:
:"on me, me, I who did it am here, turn your swords on me!"
:
:"he does not let go of the reins, but he is not strong enough to hold them back, and he does not know the names of the horses"
Rhetorical techniques
Rhetorical devices such as anaphora, antithesis, and rhetorical questions are frequently used in epic poetry. Tricolon is also common:
:
:
:"All this crowd that you see, are the poor and unburied;
:that ferryman is Charon; these, that the wave is carrying, are the buried."
Genre of subject matter
The poems of Homer, Virgil, and Ovid often vary their narrative with speeches. Well known examples are the speech of Queen Dido cursing Aeneas in book 4 of the Aeneid, the lament of the nymph Juturna when she is unable to save her brother Turnus in book 12 of the Aeneid, and the quarrel between Ajax and Ulysses over the arms of Achilles in book 13 of Ovid's Metamorphoses. Some speeches are themselves narratives, as when Aeneas tells Queen Dido about the fall of Troy and his voyage to Africa in books 2 and 3 of the Aeneid. Other styles of writing include vivid descriptions, such as Virgil's description of the god Charon in Aeneid 6, or Ovid's description of Daedalus's labyrinth in book 8 of the Metamorphoses; similes, such as Virgil's comparison of the souls of the dead to autumn leaves or clouds of migrating birds in Aeneid 6; and lists of names, such as when Ovid names 36 of the dogs who tore their master Actaeon to pieces in book 3 of the Metamorphoses.
Conversational style
Raven divides the various styles of the hexameter in classical Latin into three types: the early stage (Ennius), the fully developed type (Cicero, Catullus, Virgil, and Ovid, with Lucretius about midway between Ennius and Cicero), and the conversational type, especially Horace, but also to an extent Persius and Juvenal. One feature which marks these off is their often irregular line endings (for example, words of one syllable) and also the very conversational, un-epic style. Horace in fact called his satires ("conversations"). The word order and vocabulary is much as might be expected in prose. An example is the opening of the 9th satire of book 1:
:
:
:
:
:"I was walking by chance along the Sacred Way, as is my custom,
:meditating on some trifle or other, completely absorbed in it,
:when suddenly up ran a certain person known to me by name only.
:He grabbed my hand and said 'How are you, sweetest of things?'"
Silver Age and Late Empire
The verse innovations of the Augustan writers were carefully imitated by their successors in the Silver Age of Latin literature. The verse form itself then was little changed as the quality of a poet's hexameter was judged against the standard set by Virgil and the other Augustan poets, a respect for literary precedent encompassed by the Latin word . Deviations were generally regarded as idiosyncrasies or hallmarks of personal style and were not imitated by later poets. Juvenal, for example, was fond of occasionally creating verses that placed a sense break between the fourth and fifth foot (instead of in the usual caesura positions), but this technique—known as the bucolic diaeresis—did not catch on with other poets.
In the late empire, writers experimented again by adding unusual restrictions to the standard hexameter. The rhopalic verse of Ausonius is a good example; besides following the standard hexameter pattern, each word in the line is one syllable longer than the previous, e.g.:
:
:
:
:"O God, Hope of Eternal Life, Conciliator,
:if, with chaste entreaties, hoping for pardon, we keep vigil,
:look kindly on us and grant these prayers."
Also notable is the tendency among late grammarians to thoroughly dissect the hexameters of Virgil and earlier poets. A treatise on poetry by Diomedes Grammaticus is a good example, as this work categorizes dactylic hexameter verses in ways that were later interpreted under the golden line rubric. Independently, these two trends show the form becoming highly artificial—more like a puzzle to solve than a medium for personal poetic expression.
Middle Ages
By the Middle Ages, some writers adopted more relaxed versions of the meter. Bernard of Cluny, in the 12th century, for example, employs it in his De Contemptu Mundi, but ignores classical conventions in favor of accentual effects and predictable rhyme both within and between verses, e.g.:
:
:
:
:
:"These are the last days, the worst of times: let us keep watch.
:Behold the menacing arrival of the supreme Judge.
:He is coming, he is coming to end evil, to crown just actions,
:Reward what is right, free us from anxieties, and give the heavens."
Not all medieval writers are so at odds with the Virgilian standard, and with the rediscovery of classical literature, later Medieval and Renaissance writers are far more orthodox, but by then the form had become an academic exercise. Petrarch, for example, devoted much time to his Africa, a dactylic hexameter epic on Scipio Africanus, completed in 1341, but this work was unappreciated in his time and remains little read today. It begins as follows:
:
:
:
:"To me also, o Muse, tell of the man,
:conspicuous for his merits and fearsome in war,
:to whom noble Africa, broken beneath Italian arms,
:first gave its eternal name."
In contrast, Dante decided to write his epic, the Divine Comedy in Italian—a choice that defied the traditional epic choice of Latin dactylic hexameters—and produced a masterpiece beloved both then and now.
With the Neo-Latin period, the language itself came to be regarded as a medium only for serious and learned expression, a view that left little room for Latin poetry. The emergence of Recent Latin in the 20th century restored classical orthodoxy among Latinists and sparked a general (if still academic) interest in the beauty of Latin poetry. Today, the modern Latin poets who use the dactylic hexameter are generally as faithful to Virgil as Rome's Silver Age poets.
In modern languages
In English
Many poets have attempted to write dactylic hexameters in English, though few works composed in the meter have stood the test of time. Most such works are accentual rather than quantitative. Perhaps the most famous is Longfellow's "Evangeline", whose first lines are as follows:
:"This is the / forest pri/meval. The / murmuring / pines and the / hemlocks
:Bearded with / moss, and in / garments / green, indis/tinct in the / twilight,
:Stand like / Druids of / eld, with / voices / sad and pro/phetic..."
Contemporary poet Annie Finch wrote her epic libretto Among the Goddesses in dactylic tetrameter, which she claims is the most accurate English accentual equivalent of dactylic hexameter. Poets who have written quantitative hexameters in English include Robert Bridges and Rodney Merrill, whose translation of part of the Iliad'' begins as follows (see External links below):
:"Sing now, / goddess, the / wrath of A/chilles the / scion of / Peleus,
:Ruinous / rage, which / brought the A/chaeans un/counted af/flictions;
:Many the / powerful / souls it / sent to the / dwelling of / Hades..."
Although the rules seem simple, it is hard to use classical hexameter in English because English is a stress-timed language that condenses vowels and consonants between stressed syllables, while hexameter relies on the regular timing of the phonetic sounds. Languages having the latter properties (i.e., languages that are not stress-timed) include Ancient Greek, Latin, Lithuanian and Hungarian.
In German
Dactylic hexameter has proved more successful in German than in most modern languages. Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock's epic Der Messias popularized accentual dactylic hexameter in German. Subsequent German poets to employ the form include Goethe (notably in his Reineke Fuchs) and Schiller.
The opening lines of Goethe's ("Reynard the Fox"), written in 1793–1794, are:
:
:
:
:
:
:"Pentecost, the lovely festival, had come; field and forest
:grew green and bloomed; on hills and ridges, in bushes and hedges
:The newly encouraged birds practised a merry song;
:Every meadow sprouted with flowers in fragrant grounds,
:The sky shone festively cheerfully and the earth was colourful."
In French
Jean-Antoine de Baïf (1532–1589) wrote poems regulated by quantity on the Greco–Roman model, a system which came to be known as vers mesurés, or ''vers mesurés à l'antique, which the French language of the Renaissance permitted. To do this, he invented a special phonetic alphabet. In works like his Étrénes de poézie Franzoęze an vęrs mezurés (1574) or Chansonnettes'' he used the dactylic hexameter, and other meters, in a quantitative way.
An example of one of his elegiac couplets is as follows. The final -e of , , and is sounded, and the word is pronounced /i/:
:
:
:| – u u | – – | – u u | – – | – u u | – –
:| – u u | – u u | – || – u u | – u u | –
:"Let the handsome Narcissus come, who never loved another except himself,
:and let him look at your eyes, and let him try not to love you."
A modern attempt at reproducing the dactylic hexameter in French is this one, by André Markowicz (1985), translating Catullus's poem 63. Again the final -e and -es of , , and are sounded:
:
:
:| – – | – u u | – u u | – u u | – u u | – – |
:| – u u | – – | – u u | – u u | – u u | – – |
:"Is it for this that you have snatched me from the altars of my ancestors,
:to abandon me, traitorous Theseus, on these deserted shores?"
In Hungarian
Hungarian is extremely suitable to hexameter (and other forms of poetry based on quantitative meter). It has been applied to Hungarian since 1541, introduced by the grammarian János Sylvester.
A hexameter can even occur spontaneously. For example, a student may extricate themselves from failing to remember a poem by saying the following, which is a hexameter in Hungarian:
:Itt ela/kadtam, / sajnos / nem jut e/szembe a / többi.
:"I'm stuck here, unfortunately the rest won't come into my mind."
Sándor Weöres included an ordinary nameplate text in one of his poems (this time, a pentameter):
:Tóth Gyula / bádogos / és // vízveze/ték-szere/lő.
:"Gyula Tóth tinsmith and plumber"
A label on a bar of chocolate went as follows, another hexameter, noticed by the poet Dániel Varró:
:Tejcsoko/ládé / sárgaba/rack- és / kekszdara/bokkal
:"Milk chocolate with apricot and biscuit bits"
Due to this feature, the hexameter has been widely used both in translated (Greek and Roman) and in original Hungarian poetry up to the twentieth century (e.g. by Miklós Radnóti).
In Lithuanian
The Seasons (Metai) by Kristijonas Donelaitis is a famous Lithuanian poem in quantitative dactylic hexameters. Because of the nature of Lithuanian, more than half of the lines of the poem are entirely spondaic save for the mandatory dactyl in the fifth foot.
See also
* Latin rhythmic hexameter
* Prosody (Greek)
* Prosody (Latin)
* Meters of Roman comedy
* Trochaic septenarius
* Brevis in longo
* Anceps
* Biceps
* Resolution (meter)
Notes
References
* Bassett, S. E. (1905). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/282666.pdf "Notes on the Bucolic Diaeresis".] Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association Vol. 36 (1905), pp. 111–124.
* Heikkinen, S. (2015). From Persius to Wilkinson: The Golden Line Revisited. Arctos 49, pp. 57–77.
External links
* [http://www.skidmore.edu/academics/classics/courses/metrica/ Introduction to dactylic hexameter] for Latin verse.
* [http://www.aoidoi.org/articles/meter/reading_dact_hex.php Reading dactylic hexameter], specifically Homer.
* [https://vimeo.com/89749260 Recitation of Homer Iliad 23.62-107] (in Greek), by Stanley Lombardo.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121002001956/http://www.rhapsodes.fll.vt.edu/aeneid1.htm Oral reading of Virgil's Aeneid], by Robert Sonkowsky, University of Minnesota.
* [http://www.thesaurus.flf.vu.lt/eiledara/index.php Greek hexameter analysis online tool], University of Vilnius.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100322202531/http://www.classicsprofessor.com/VergilAP/scanning_hexameter.htm Audio/Visual Tutorials for Vergil's Hexameter], by Dale Grote, UNC Charlotte.
* [http://www.hexameter.co Hexameter.co], practice scanning lines of dactylic hexameter from a variety of Latin authors.
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XAm525BJYh4 Rodney Merrill reading his translation of Homer's Iliad], in English dactylic hexameter verse.
Category:Types of verses
Category:Ancient Greek epic poetry
Category:Latin poetry
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dactylic_hexameter
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Dorado
|
, genitive
| symbolism = the dolphinfish
| RA =
| dec=
| family = Bayer
| quadrant = SQ1
| areatotal = 179
| arearank = 72nd
| numbermainstars = 3
| numberbfstars = 14
| numberstarsplanets = 5
| numberbrightstars = 1
| numbernearbystars = 0
| brighteststarname = α Dor
| starmagnitude = 3.27
| neareststarname = GJ 2036
| stardistancely = 36.50
| stardistancepc = 11.19
| numbermessierobjects = 0
| meteorshowers = None
| bordering = Caelum<br/>Horologium<br/>Reticulum<br/>Hydrus<br/>Mensa<br/>Volans<br/>Pictor
| latmax = 20
| latmin = 90
| month = January
| notes=
}}
Dorado (, ) is a constellation in the Southern Sky. It was named in the late 16th century and is now one of the 88 modern constellations. Its name refers to the mahi-mahi (Coryphaena hippurus), which is known as dorado ("golden") in Spanish, although it has also been depicted as a swordfish. Dorado contains most of the Large Magellanic Cloud, the remainder being in the constellation Mensa. The South Ecliptic pole also lies within this constellation.
Even though the name Dorado is not Latin but Spanish, astronomers give it the Latin genitive form Doradus when naming its stars; it is treated (like the adjacent asterism Argo Navis) as a feminine proper name of Greek origin ending in -ō (like Io or Callisto or Argo), which have a genitive ending -ūs.
History
Dorado was one of twelve constellations named by Petrus Plancius from the observations of Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman. It appeared:
* On a celestial globe published in 1597 (or 1598) in Amsterdam by Plancius with Jodocus Hondius.<!-- Preceding information not sourced to Staal 1988 -->
* First depiction in a celestial atlas, in Johann Bayer's Uranometria of 1603.
* In Johannes Kepler's edition of Tycho Brahe's star list in the Rudolphine Tables of 1627; this was the first time that it was given the alternative name Xiphias, the swordfish. The name Dorado ultimately became dominant and was adopted by the IAU.
Dorado represents a dolphinfish; it has also been called the goldfish because Dorado are gold-colored.
Features
Stars
Alpha Doradus is a blue-white star of magnitude 3.3, 176 light-years from Earth. It is the brightest star in Dorado. Beta Doradus is a notably bright Cepheid variable star. It is a yellow-tinged supergiant star that has a minimum magnitude of 4.1 and a maximum magnitude of 3.5. One thousand and forty light-years from Earth, Beta Doradus has a period of 9 days and 20 hours.
R Doradus is one of the many variable stars in Dorado. S Dor, 9.721 hypergiant in the Large Magellanic Cloud, is the prototype of S Doradus variable stars. The variable star R Doradus 5.73 has the largest-known apparent size of any star other than the Sun. Gamma Doradus is the prototype of the Gamma Doradus variable stars.
Supernova 1987A was the closest supernova to occur since the invention of the telescope. SNR 0509-67.5 is the remnant of an unusually energetic Type 1a supernova from about 400 years ago.
HE 0437-5439 is a hypervelocity star escaping from the Milky Way/Magellanic Cloud system.
Dorado is also the location of the South Ecliptic pole, which lies near the fish's head. The pole was called "Polus Doradinalis" by Philipp von Zesen, aka Caesius.
In early 2020, the exoplanet TOI-700 d was discovered orbiting the star TOI-700 in Dorado. This is the first potentially Earth-like exoplanet to be discovered by the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite.
Deep-sky objects
Because Dorado contains part of the Large Magellanic Cloud, it is rich in deep sky objects. The Large Magellanic Cloud, 25,000 light-years in diameter, is a satellite galaxy of the Milky Way Galaxy, located at a distance of 179,000 light-years. It has been deformed by its gravitational interactions with the larger Milky Way. In 1987, it became host to SN 1987A, the first supernova of 1987 and the closest since 1604. This 25,000-light-year-wide galaxy contains over 10,000 million stars. All coordinates given are for Epoch J2000.0.
is an intermediate spiral galaxy.]]
* N 180B is an emission nebula located in the Large Magellanic Cloud.
* NGC 1566 (RA 04h 20m 00s Dec -56° 56.3′) is a face-on spiral galaxy. It gives its name to the NGC 1566 Group of galaxies.
* NGC 1755 (RA 04h 55m 13s Dec -68° 12.2′) is a globular cluster.
* NGC 1763 (RA 04h 56m 49s Dec -68° 24.5′) is a bright nebula associated with three type B stars.
* NGC 1761 (RA 04h 56m 37s Dec -66° 28.4') is an open cluster.
* NGC 1820 (RA 05h 04m 02s Dec -67° 15.9′) is an open cluster.
* NGC 1850 (RA 05h 08m 44s Dec -68° 45.7′) is a globular cluster.
* NGC 1854 (RA 05h 09m 19s Dec -68° 50.8′) is a globular cluster.
* NGC 1869 (RA 05h 13m 56s Dec -67° 22.8′) is an open cluster.<!-- Please verify this - BDM-->
* NGC 1901 (RA 05h 18m 15s Dec -68° 26.2′) is an open cluster.<!-- Please verify this - BDM-->
* NGC 1910 (RA 05h 18m 43s Dec -69° 13.9′) is an open cluster.<!-- Please verify this - BDM-->
* NGC 1936 (RA 05h 22m 14s Dec -67° 58.7′) is a bright nebula and is one of four NGC objects in close proximity, the others being NGC 1929, NGC 1934 and NGC 1935.<!-- Please verify this - BDM-->
* NGC 1978 (RA 05h 28m 36s Dec -66° 14.0′) is an open cluster.
* NGC 2002 (RA 05h 30m 17s Dec -66° 53.1′) is an open cluster.
* NGC 2014 (RA 05h 44m 12.7s Dec −67° 42′ 57″) is a red emission nebula.
* NGC 2020 (RA 05h 44m 12.7s Dec −67° 42′ 57″) is an HII region surrounding a Wolf–Rayet star.
* NGC 2027 (RA 05h 35m 00s Dec -66° 55.0′) is an open cluster.<!-- Please verify this - BDM-->
* NGC 2032 (RA 05h 35m 21s Dec -67° 34.1′; also known as "Seagull Nebula") is a nebula complex that contains four NGC designations: NGC 2029, NGC 2032, NGC 2035 and NGC 2040. <!-- Please verify this - BDM-->
is a classic example of a spiral galaxy.]]
* NGC 2074 (RA 05h 39m 03.0s Dec −69° 29′ 54″) is an emission nebula.
* NGC 2078 (RA 05h 39m 54s Dec −69° 44′ 54″) is an emission nebula.
* NGC 2080, also called the "Ghost Head Nebula", is an emission nebula that is 50 light-years wide in the Large Magellanic Cloud. It is named for the two distinct white patches that it possesses, which are regions of recent star formation. The western portion is colored green from doubly ionized oxygen, the southern portion is red from hydrogen alpha emissions, and the center region is colored yellow from both oxygen and hydrogen emissions. The western white patch, A1, has one massive, recently formed star inside. The eastern patch, A2, has several stars hidden in its dust.
* Tarantula Nebula is in the Large Magellanic Cloud, named for its spiderlike shape. It is also designated 30 Doradus, as it is visible to the naked eye as a slightly out-of-focus star. Larger than any nebula in the Milky Way at 1,000 light-years in diameter, it is also brighter, because it is illuminated by the open star cluster NGC 2070, which has at its center the star cluster R136. The illuminating stars are supergiants.
<!-- *NGC 2157 (RA 05h 57m 35s Dec -69° 11.8′) is an open cluster. Commented out because the nature of object is unverified. The Skyview image looks like a globular cluster and Google shows conflicting information about this object - BDM -->
* NGC 2164 (RA 05h 58m 53s Dec -68° 30.9′) is a globular cluster.
* N44 is a superbubble in the Large Magellanic Cloud that is 1,000 light-years wide. Its overall structure is shaped by the 40 hot stars towards its center. Within the superbubble of N44 is a smaller bubble catalogued as N44F. It is approximately 35 light-years in diameter and is shaped by an incredibly hot star at its center, which has a stellar wind speed of 7 million kilometers per hour. N44F also features dust columns with probable star formation hidden inside.
Equivalents
In Chinese astronomy, the stars of Dorado are in two of Xu Guangqi's Southern Asterisms (近南極星區, Jìnnánjíxīngōu): the White Patches Attached (夾白, Jiābái) and the Goldfish (金魚, Jīnyú).Namesakes* Dorado (SS-248) and Dorado (SS-526), two United States Navy submarines, were named after the same sea creature as the constellation.Gallery
<gallery>
NGC1706 - HST - Potw1943a.tif|NGC 1706 is a spiral galaxy, about 230 million light-years away.
</gallery>
See also
* Dorado in Chinese astronomy
* IAU-recognized constellations
References
;Notes
* The above deep sky objects appear in ''Norton's Star Atlas'', 1973 edition.
* Co-ordinates are obtained from [https://web.archive.org/web/20050417221758/http://fortunecity.com/roswell/borley/49/chartidx.htm Uranometria Chart Index] and [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/titlepage.pl Skyview].
* Images of the deep sky objects described herein may be viewed at [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/titlepage.pl Skyview].
;Citations
Sources
*
<!-- * -->
*
External links
* [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/dorado/constell.html The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Dorado]
* [http://astrojan.nhely.hu/dorado.htm The clickable Dorado]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050723082905/http://www.astronomical.org/portal/modules/wfsection/article.php?articleid=33 Peoria Astronomical Society - Dorado]
* [http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/dorado.html Star Tales – Dorado]
Category:Southern constellations
Category:Constellations listed by Petrus Plancius
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorado
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Draco (lawgiver)
|
Draco}}
Draco (; , }}), also called Drako or Drakon, according to Athenian tradition, was the first legislator of Athens in Ancient Greece. He replaced the system of oral law and blood feud by the Draconian constitution, a written code to be enforced only by a court of law. His laws were supposed to have been very harsh, establishing the death penalty for most offenses. Tradition held that all of his laws were repealed by Solon, save for those on homicide. An inscription from 409/8 BC contains part of the current law and refers to it as "the law of Draco about homicide". Nothing is known about the specifics of other laws established by Draco.
According to some scholars, Draco may have been a fictional figure, entirely or in part. Biographical information about him is almost entirely lacking; he was held to have established his legal code in the year 621/620 BC. Since the 19th century, the adjective draconian (Greek: , ) refers to similarly unforgiving rules or laws in Greek, English, and other European languages.
Historicity
Nothing is known about Draco's life except that he established his legal code during the reign of the archon Aristaechmus in the year 621/620 BC. The Suda, the 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia, records a folkloric story about Draco's death: he went to Aegina to establish laws and was suffocated in the theater when his supporters honored him by throwing many hats, shirts and cloaks on him. Some scholars question whether Draco was a real historical figure or consider that he may have been partially fictional. Karl Julius Beloch hypothesized that Draco was not a person; drakon means 'serpent' in Greek, and a sacred serpent on the acropolis was worshipped in the Athenian religion. Therefore, the "laws of Draco" may have been laws issued in the name of the sacred serpent by its priests; later, this origin was forgotten and Draco was reinterpreted as a lawgiver. Raphael Sealey notes that this hypothesis helps explain how the seemingly protracted development of Athenian homicide law could be attributed to a single source. However, most scholars believe that Draco really did establish laws on homicide and other offenses, and some accept the attribution to him of the inscription partially recording the homicide law.Draconian constitution
The laws ( – ) that he laid were the first written constitution of Athens. So that no one would be unaware of them, they were posted on wooden tablets ( – ), where they were preserved for almost two centuries on steles of the shape of four-sided pyramids ( – ). The tablets were called , perhaps because they could be pivoted along the pyramid's axis to read any side.
The constitution featured several major innovations:
*Instead of oral laws known to a special class, arbitrarily applied and interpreted, all laws were written, thus being made known to all literate citizens (who could appeal to the Areopagus for injustices): "the constitution formed under Draco, when the first code of laws was drawn up". (Aristotle: [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/athemain.asp Athenian Constitution], [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/ancient/athe5.asp Part 5, Section 41])
*The laws distinguish between murder and involuntary homicide, a novel concept at that time.
The laws were particularly harsh. For example, any debtor whose status was lower than that of his creditor was forced into slavery. The punishment was more lenient for those owing a debt to a member of a lower class. The death penalty was the punishment for even minor offences, such as stealing a cabbage. Concerning the liberal use of the death penalty in the Draconic code, Plutarch states:
All Draco's laws were repealed by Solon in the early 6th century BC, with the exception of the homicide law.Homicide lawAfter much debate, the Athenians decided to revise the laws, including the homicide law, in 409 BC. The text of the homicide law is partially preserved in a fragmentary inscription. It states that it is up to the victim's relatives to prosecute a killer.
According to the preserved part of the inscription, unintentional homicides received a sentence of exile. It is not clear whether Draco's law specified the punishment for intentional homicide. In 409 BC, intentional homicide was punished by death, but Draco's law begins: "." Although ambiguous and difficult to translate, one suggested translation is: "Even if a man not intentionally kills another, he is exiled."Council of Four HundredDraco introduced the lot-chosen Council of Four Hundred, distinct from the Areopagus, which evolved in later constitutions to play a large role in Athenian democracy. Aristotle notes that Draco, while having the laws written, merely legislated for an existing unwritten Athenian constitution such as setting exact qualifications for eligibility for office.
According to Aristotle, Draco extended the franchise to all free men who could furnish themselves with a set of military equipment. However, this claim is not based on the authentic tradition, thus untrue as claimed by Welwei in 1998. They elected the Council of Four Hundred from among their number; nine archons and the treasurers were drawn from persons possessing an unencumbered property of not less than ten minas, the generals (strategoi) and commanders of cavalry (hipparchoi) from those who could show an unencumbered property of not less than a hundred minas and had children born in lawful wedlock over ten years of age. Thus, in the event of their death, their estate could pass to a competent heir. These officers were required to hold to account the prytanes (councillors), strategoi (generals) and hipparchoi (cavalry officers) of the preceding year until their accounts had been audited. "The Council of Areopagus was guardian of the laws, and kept watch over the magistrates to see that they executed their offices in accordance with the laws. Any person who felt himself wronged might lay an information before the Council of Areopagus, on declaring what law was broken by the wrong done to him. But, as has been said before, loans were secured upon the persons of the debtors, and the land was in the hands of a few."
See also
* Ancient Greek law
* Hammurabi, a Babylonian who wrote some of the earliest codes of law
* Cruel and unusual punishment
* Retributive justice
* List of Ancient Greeks
* List of eponymous laws (those named after their inventor)
References
Further reading
*
*
*
*
*
* External links
* [https://www.atticinscriptions.com/inscription/IGI3/104 Decree to republish Draco’s law on homicide]—Translation of original inscription
*
Category:7th-century BC Athenians
Category:Ancient Greek law
Category:Ancient legislators
Category:Archaic Athens
Category:Government of ancient Athens
Category:Year of birth unknown
Category:Year of death unknown
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draco_(lawgiver)
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Determinant
|
In mathematics, the determinant is a scalar-valued function of the entries of a square matrix. The determinant of a matrix is commonly denoted , , or }}. Its value characterizes some properties of the matrix and the linear map represented, on a given basis, by the matrix. In particular, the determinant is nonzero if and only if the matrix is invertible and the corresponding linear map is an isomorphism.
The determinant is completely determined by the two following properties: the determinant of a product of matrices is the product of their determinants, and the determinant of a triangular matrix is the product of its diagonal entries.
The determinant of a matrix is
:<math>\begin{vmatrix} a & b\\c & d \end{vmatrix}=ad-bc,</math>
and the determinant of a matrix is
:<math> \begin{vmatrix}
a & b & c \\
d & e & f \\
g & h & i
\end{vmatrix} = aei + bfg + cdh - ceg - bdi - afh.</math>
The determinant of an matrix can be defined in several equivalent ways, the most common being Leibniz formula, which expresses the determinant as a sum of <math>n!</math> (the factorial of ) signed products of matrix entries. It can be computed by the Laplace expansion, which expresses the determinant as a linear combination of determinants of submatrices, or with Gaussian elimination, which allows computing a row echelon form with the same determinant, equal to the product of the diagonal entries of the row echelon form.
Determinants can also be defined by some of their properties. Namely, the determinant is the unique function defined on the matrices that has the four following properties:
# The determinant of the identity matrix is .
# The exchange of two rows multiplies the determinant by .
# Multiplying a row by a number multiplies the determinant by this number.
# Adding a multiple of one row to another row does not change the determinant.
The above properties relating to rows (properties 2–4) may be replaced by the corresponding statements with respect to columns.
The determinant is invariant under matrix similarity. This implies that, given a linear endomorphism of a finite-dimensional vector space, the determinant of the matrix that represents it on a basis does not depend on the chosen basis. This allows defining the determinant of a linear endomorphism, which does not depend on the choice of a coordinate system.
Determinants occur throughout mathematics. For example, a matrix is often used to represent the coefficients in a system of linear equations, and determinants can be used to solve these equations (Cramer's rule), although other methods of solution are computationally much more efficient. Determinants are used for defining the characteristic polynomial of a square matrix, whose roots are the eigenvalues. In geometry, the signed -dimensional volume of a -dimensional parallelepiped is expressed by a determinant, and the determinant of a linear endomorphism determines how the orientation and the -dimensional volume are transformed under the endomorphism. This is used in calculus with exterior differential forms and the Jacobian determinant, in particular for changes of variables in multiple integrals.
Two by two matrices
The determinant of a matrix <math>\begin{pmatrix} a & b \\c & d \end{pmatrix}</math> is denoted either by "" or by vertical bars around the matrix, and is defined as
:<math>\det \begin{pmatrix} a & b \\c & d \end{pmatrix} \begin{vmatrix} a & b \\c & d \end{vmatrix} ad - bc.</math>
For example,
:<math>\det \begin{pmatrix} 3 & 7 \\1 & -4 \end{pmatrix} \begin{vmatrix} 3 & 7 \\ 1 & {-4} \end{vmatrix} (3 \cdot (-4)) - (7 \cdot 1) -19.</math> First properties The determinant has several key properties that can be proved by direct evaluation of the definition for <math>2 \times 2</math>-matrices, and that continue to hold for determinants of larger matrices. They are as follows: first, the determinant of the identity matrix <math>\begin{pmatrix}1 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 \end{pmatrix}</math> is 1.
Second, the determinant is zero if two rows are the same:
:<math>\begin{vmatrix} a & b \\ a & b \end{vmatrix} ab - ba 0.</math>
This holds similarly if the two columns are the same. Moreover,
:<math>\begin{vmatrix}a & b + b' \\ c & d + d' \end{vmatrix} a(d+d')-(b+b')c \begin{vmatrix}a & b\\ c & d \end{vmatrix} + \begin{vmatrix}a & b' \\ c & d' \end{vmatrix}.</math>
Finally, if any column is multiplied by some number <math>r</math> (i.e., all entries in that column are multiplied by that number), the determinant is also multiplied by that number:
:<math>\begin{vmatrix} r \cdot a & b \\ r \cdot c & d \end{vmatrix} rad - brc r(ad-bc) r \cdot \begin{vmatrix} a & b \\c & d \end{vmatrix}.</math>Geometric meaning
If the matrix entries are real numbers, the matrix represents the linear map that maps the basis vectors to the columns of . The images of the basis vectors form a parallelogram that represents the image of the unit square under the mapping. The parallelogram defined by the columns of the above matrix is the one with vertices at , , , and , as shown in the accompanying diagram.
The absolute value of is the area of the parallelogram, and thus represents the scale factor by which areas are transformed by .
The absolute value of the determinant together with the sign becomes the signed area of the parallelogram. The signed area is the same as the usual area, except that it is negative when the angle from the first to the second vector defining the parallelogram turns in a clockwise direction (which is opposite to the direction one would get for the identity matrix).
To show that is the signed area, one may consider a matrix containing two vectors and representing the parallelogram's sides. The signed area can be expressed as u v sin θ}} for the angle θ between the vectors, which is simply base times height, the length of one vector times the perpendicular component of the other. Due to the sine this already is the signed area, yet it may be expressed more conveniently using the cosine of the complementary angle to a perpendicular vector, e.g. , so that u<sup>⊥</sup> v cos θ′}} becomes the signed area in question, which can be determined by the pattern of the scalar product to be equal to according to the following equations:
: <math>\text{Signed area} |\boldsymbol{u}|\,|\boldsymbol{v}|\,\sin\,\theta \left|\boldsymbol{u}^\perp\right|\,\left|\boldsymbol{v}\right|\,\cos\,\theta' \begin{pmatrix} -c \\ a \end{pmatrix} \cdot \begin{pmatrix} b \\ d \end{pmatrix} ad - bc.
</math>
Thus the determinant gives the area scale factor and the orientation induced by the mapping represented by A. When the determinant is equal to one, the linear mapping defined by the matrix preserves area and orientation.
is the absolute value of the determinant of the matrix formed by the columns constructed from the vectors r1, r2, and r3.]]
If an real matrix A is written in terms of its column vectors <math>A = \left[\begin{array}{c|c|c|c} \mathbf{a}_1 & \mathbf{a}_2 & \cdots & \mathbf{a}_n\end{array}\right]</math>, then
:<math>
A\begin{pmatrix}1 \\ 0\\ \vdots \\0\end{pmatrix} = \mathbf{a}_1, \quad
A\begin{pmatrix}0 \\ 1\\ \vdots \\0\end{pmatrix} = \mathbf{a}_2, \quad
\ldots, \quad
A\begin{pmatrix}0 \\0 \\ \vdots \\1\end{pmatrix} = \mathbf{a}_n.
</math>
This means that <math>A</math> maps the unit n-cube to the n-dimensional parallelotope defined by the vectors <math>\mathbf{a}_1, \mathbf{a}_2, \ldots, \mathbf{a}_n,</math> the region <math>P \left\{c_1 \mathbf{a}_1 + \cdots + c_n\mathbf{a}_n \mid 0 \leq c_i\leq 1 \ \forall i\right\}</math> (<math display"inline">\forall</math> stands for "for all" as a logical symbol.)
The determinant gives the signed n-dimensional volume of this parallelotope, <math>\det(A) \pm \text{vol}(P),</math> and hence describes more generally the n-dimensional volume scale factor of the linear transformation produced by A. (The sign shows whether the transformation preserves or reverses orientation.) In particular, if the determinant is zero, then this parallelotope has volume zero and is not fully n-dimensional, which indicates that the dimension of the image of A is less than n. This means that A produces a linear transformation which is neither onto nor one-to-one, and so is not invertible. Definition
Let A be a square matrix with n rows and n columns, so that it can be written as
:<math>A = \begin{bmatrix}
a_{1,1} & a_{1,2} & \cdots & a_{1,n} \\
a_{2,1} & a_{2,2} & \cdots & a_{2,n} \\
\vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\
a_{n,1} & a_{n,2} & \cdots & a_{n,n}
\end{bmatrix}.</math>
The entries <math>a_{1,1}</math> etc. are, for many purposes, real or complex numbers. As discussed below, the determinant is also defined for matrices whose entries are in a commutative ring.
The determinant of A is denoted by det(A), or it can be denoted directly in terms of the matrix entries by writing enclosing bars instead of brackets:
:<math>\begin{vmatrix}
a_{1,1} & a_{1,2} & \cdots & a_{1,n} \\
a_{2,1} & a_{2,2} & \cdots & a_{2,n} \\
\vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\
a_{n,1} & a_{n,2} & \cdots & a_{n,n}
\end{vmatrix}.</math>
There are various equivalent ways to define the determinant of a square matrix A, i.e. one with the same number of rows and columns: the determinant can be defined via the Leibniz formula, an explicit formula involving sums of products of certain entries of the matrix. The determinant can also be characterized as the unique function depending on the entries of the matrix satisfying certain properties. This approach can also be used to compute determinants by simplifying the matrices in question.
Leibniz formula
3 × 3 matrices
The Leibniz formula for the determinant of a matrix is the following:
:<math>\begin{vmatrix}a&b&c\\d&e&f\\g&h&i\end{vmatrix}
= aei + bfg + cdh - ceg - bdi - afh.\ </math>
In this expression, each term has one factor from each row, all in different columns, arranged in increasing row order. For example, bdi has b from the first row second column, d from the second row first column, and i from the third row third column. The signs are determined by how many transpositions of factors are necessary to arrange the factors in increasing order of their columns (given that the terms are arranged left-to-right in increasing row order): positive for an even number of transpositions and negative for an odd number. For the example of bdi, the single transposition of bd to db gives dbi, whose three factors are from the first, second and third columns respectively; this is an odd number of transpositions, so the term appears with negative sign.
]]
The rule of Sarrus is a mnemonic for the expanded form of this determinant: the sum of the products of three diagonal north-west to south-east lines of matrix elements, minus the sum of the products of three diagonal south-west to north-east lines of elements, when the copies of the first two columns of the matrix are written beside it as in the illustration. This scheme for calculating the determinant of a matrix does not carry over into higher dimensions.
n × n matrices
Generalizing the above to higher dimensions, the determinant of an <math>n \times n</math> matrix is an expression involving permutations and their signatures. A permutation of the set <math>\{1, 2, \dots, n \}</math> is a bijective function <math>\sigma</math> from this set to itself, with values <math>\sigma(1), \sigma(2),\ldots,\sigma(n)</math> exhausting the entire set. The set of all such permutations, called the symmetric group, is commonly denoted <math>S_n</math>. The signature <math>\sgn(\sigma)</math> of a permutation <math>\sigma</math> is <math>+1,</math> if the permutation can be obtained with an even number of transpositions (exchanges of two entries); otherwise, it is <math>-1.</math>
Given a matrix
:<math>A=\begin{bmatrix}
a_{1,1}\ldots a_{1,n}\\
\vdots\qquad\vdots\\
a_{n,1}\ldots a_{n,n}
\end{bmatrix},</math>
the Leibniz formula for its determinant is, using sigma notation for the sum,
:<math>\det(A)=\begin{vmatrix}
a_{1,1}\ldots a_{1,n}\\
\vdots\qquad\vdots\\
a_{n,1}\ldots a_{n,n}
\end{vmatrix} = \sum_{\sigma \in S_n}\sgn(\sigma)a_{1,\sigma(1)}\cdots a_{n,\sigma(n)}.</math>
Using pi notation for the product, this can be shortened into
:<math>\det(A) \sum_{\sigma \in S_n} \left( \sgn(\sigma) \prod_{i1}^n a_{i,\sigma(i)}\right)</math>.
The Levi-Civita symbol <math>\varepsilon_{i_1,\ldots,i_n}</math> is defined on the -tuples of integers in <math>\{1,\ldots,n\}</math> as if two of the integers are equal, and otherwise as the signature of the permutation defined by the n-tuple of integers. With the Levi-Civita symbol, the Leibniz formula becomes
:<math>\det(A) = \sum_{i_1,i_2,\ldots,i_n} \varepsilon_{i_1\cdots i_n} a_{1,i_1} \!\cdots a_{n,i_n},</math>
where the sum is taken over all -tuples of integers in <math>\{1,\ldots,n\}.</math>
Properties
Characterization of the determinant
The determinant can be characterized by the following three key properties. To state these, it is convenient to regard an <math>n \times n</math> matrix A as being composed of its <math>n</math> columns, so denoted as
:<math>A = \big ( a_1, \dots, a_n \big ),</math>
where the column vector <math>a_i</math> (for each i) is composed of the entries of the matrix in the i-th column.
# <li value"A"> <math>\det\left(I\right) 1</math>, where <math>I</math> is an identity matrix.
# <li value"B"> The determinant is multilinear: if the jth column of a matrix <math>A</math> is written as a linear combination <math>a_j r \cdot v + w</math> of two column vectors v and w and a number r, then the determinant of A is expressible as a similar linear combination:
#: <math>\begin{align}|A|
&= \big | a_1, \dots, a_{j-1}, r \cdot v + w, a_{j+1}, \dots, a_n | \\
&= r \cdot | a_1, \dots, v, \dots a_n | + | a_1, \dots, w, \dots, a_n |
\end{align}</math>
# <li value="C">The determinant is alternating: whenever two columns of a matrix are identical, its determinant is 0:
#: <math>| a_1, \dots, v, \dots, v, \dots, a_n| = 0.</math>
If the determinant is defined using the Leibniz formula as above, these three properties can be proved by direct inspection of that formula. Some authors also approach the determinant directly using these three properties: it can be shown that there is exactly one function that assigns to any <math>n \times n</math> matrix A a number that satisfies these three properties. This also shows that this more abstract approach to the determinant yields the same definition as the one using the Leibniz formula.
To see this it suffices to expand the determinant by multi-linearity in the columns into a (huge) linear combination of determinants of matrices in which each column is a standard basis vector. These determinants are either 0 (by property 9) or else ±1 (by properties 1 and 12 below), so the linear combination gives the expression above in terms of the Levi-Civita symbol. While less technical in appearance, this characterization cannot entirely replace the Leibniz formula in defining the determinant, since without it the existence of an appropriate function is not clear.Immediate consequences
These rules have several further consequences:
* The determinant is a homogeneous function, i.e., <math display"block">\det(cA) c^n\det(A)</math> (for an <math>n \times n</math> matrix <math>A</math>).
* Interchanging any pair of columns of a matrix multiplies its determinant by −1. This follows from the determinant being multilinear and alternating (properties 2 and 3 above): <math display"block">|a_1, \dots, a_j, \dots a_i, \dots, a_n| - |a_1, \dots, a_i, \dots, a_j, \dots, a_n|.</math> This formula can be applied iteratively when several columns are swapped. For example <math display"block">|a_3, a_1, a_2, a_4 \dots, a_n| - |a_1, a_3, a_2, a_4, \dots, a_n| = |a_1, a_2, a_3, a_4, \dots, a_n|.</math> Yet more generally, any permutation of the columns multiplies the determinant by the sign of the permutation.
* If some column can be expressed as a linear combination of the other columns (i.e. the columns of the matrix form a linearly dependent set), the determinant is 0. As a special case, this includes: if some column is such that all its entries are zero, then the determinant of that matrix is 0.
* Adding a scalar multiple of one column to another column does not change the value of the determinant. This is a consequence of multilinearity and being alternative: by multilinearity the determinant changes by a multiple of the determinant of a matrix with two equal columns, which determinant is 0, since the determinant is alternating.
* If <math>A</math> is a triangular matrix, i.e. <math>a_{ij}0</math>, whenever <math>i>j</math> or, alternatively, whenever <math>i<j</math>, then its determinant equals the product of the diagonal entries: <math display"block">\det(A) a_{11} a_{22} \cdots a_{nn} \prod_{i1}^n a_{ii}.</math> Indeed, such a matrix can be reduced, by appropriately adding multiples of the columns with fewer nonzero entries to those with more entries, to a diagonal matrix (without changing the determinant). For such a matrix, using the linearity in each column reduces to the identity matrix, in which case the stated formula holds by the very first characterizing property of determinants. Alternatively, this formula can also be deduced from the Leibniz formula, since the only permutation <math>\sigma</math> which gives a non-zero contribution is the identity permutation.Example
These characterizing properties and their consequences listed above are both theoretically significant, but can also be used to compute determinants for concrete matrices. In fact, Gaussian elimination can be applied to bring any matrix into upper triangular form, and the steps in this algorithm affect the determinant in a controlled way. The following concrete example illustrates the computation of the determinant of the matrix <math>A</math> using that method:
:<math>A = \begin{bmatrix}
-2 & -1 & 2 \\
2 & 1 & 4 \\
-3 & 3 & -1
\end{bmatrix}. </math>
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Computation of the determinant of matrix <math>A</math>
|-
| Matrix || <math>B = \begin{bmatrix}
-3 & -1 & 2 \\
3 & 1 & 4 \\
0 & 3 & -1
\end{bmatrix} </math> ||
<math>C = \begin{bmatrix}
-3 & 5 & 2 \\
3 & 13 & 4 \\
0 & 0 & -1
\end{bmatrix} </math>
||
<math>D = \begin{bmatrix}
5 & -3 & 2 \\
13 & 3 & 4 \\
0 & 0 & -1
\end{bmatrix} </math>
||
<math>E = \begin{bmatrix}
18 & -3 & 2 \\
0 & 3 & 4 \\
0 & 0 & -1
\end{bmatrix} </math>
|-
| Obtained by ||
add the second column to the first
||
add 3 times the third column to the second
||
swap the first two columns
||
add <math>-\frac{13} 3</math> times the second column to the first
|-
| Determinant || <math>|A| = |B|</math> ||
<math>|B| = |C|</math>
||
<math>|D| = -|C|</math>
||
<math>|E| = |D|</math>
|}
Combining these equalities gives <math>|A| -|E| -(18 \cdot 3 \cdot (-1)) 54.</math>Transpose
The determinant of the transpose of <math>A</math> equals the determinant of A:
:<math>\det\left(A^\textsf{T}\right) = \det(A)</math>.
This can be proven by inspecting the Leibniz formula. This implies that in all the properties mentioned above, the word "column" can be replaced by "row" throughout. For example, viewing an matrix as being composed of n rows, the determinant is an n-linear function. Multiplicativity and matrix groups
The determinant is a multiplicative map, i.e., for square matrices <math>A</math> and <math>B</math> of equal size, the determinant of a matrix product equals the product of their determinants:
:<math>\det(AB) = \det (A) \det (B)</math>
This key fact can be proven by observing that, for a fixed matrix <math>B</math>, both sides of the equation are alternating and multilinear as a function depending on the columns of <math>A</math>. Moreover, they both take the value <math>\det B</math> when <math>A</math> is the identity matrix. The above-mentioned unique characterization of alternating multilinear maps therefore shows this claim.
A matrix <math>A</math> with entries in a field is invertible precisely if its determinant is nonzero. This follows from the multiplicativity of the determinant and the formula for the inverse involving the adjugate matrix mentioned below. In this event, the determinant of the inverse matrix is given by
:<math>\det\left(A^{-1}\right) \frac{1}{\det(A)} [\det(A)]^{-1}</math>.
In particular, products and inverses of matrices with non-zero determinant (respectively, determinant one) still have this property. Thus, the set of such matrices (of fixed size <math>n</math> over a field <math>K</math>) forms a group known as the general linear group <math>\operatorname{GL}_n(K)</math> (respectively, a subgroup called the special linear group <math>\operatorname{SL}_n(K) \subset \operatorname{GL}_n(K)</math>. More generally, the word "special" indicates the subgroup of another matrix group of matrices of determinant one. Examples include the special orthogonal group (which if n is 2 or 3 consists of all rotation matrices), and the special unitary group.
Because the determinant respects multiplication and inverses, it is in fact a group homomorphism from <math>\operatorname{GL}_n(K)</math> into the multiplicative group <math>K^\times</math> of nonzero elements of <math>K</math>. This homomorphism is surjective and its kernel is <math>\operatorname{SL}_n(K)</math> (the matrices with determinant one). Hence, by the first isomorphism theorem, this shows that <math>\operatorname{SL}_n(K)</math> is a normal subgroup of <math>\operatorname{GL}_n(K)</math>, and that the quotient group <math>\operatorname{GL}_n(K)/\operatorname{SL}_n(K)</math> is isomorphic to <math>K^\times</math>.
The Cauchy–Binet formula is a generalization of that product formula for rectangular matrices. This formula can also be recast as a multiplicative formula for compound matrices whose entries are the determinants of all quadratic submatrices of a given matrix.
Laplace expansion
Laplace expansion expresses the determinant of a matrix <math>A</math> recursively in terms of determinants of smaller matrices, known as its minors. The minor <math>M_{i,j}</math> is defined to be the determinant of the <math>(n-1) \times (n-1)</math> matrix that results from <math>A</math> by removing the <math>i</math>-th row and the <math>j</math>-th column. The expression <math>(-1)^{i+j}M_{i,j}</math> is known as a cofactor. For every <math>i</math>, one has the equality
:<math>\det(A) \sum_{j1}^n (-1)^{i+j} a_{i,j} M_{i,j},</math>
which is called the Laplace expansion along the th row. For example, the Laplace expansion along the first row (<math>i=1</math>) gives the following formula:
:<math>
\begin{vmatrix}a&b&c\\ d&e&f\\ g&h&i\end{vmatrix} =
a\begin{vmatrix}e&f\\ h&i\end{vmatrix} - b\begin{vmatrix}d&f\\ g&i\end{vmatrix} + c\begin{vmatrix}d&e\\ g&h\end{vmatrix}
</math>
Unwinding the determinants of these <math>2 \times 2</math>-matrices gives back the Leibniz formula mentioned above. Similarly, the Laplace expansion along the <math>j</math>-th column is the equality
:<math>\det(A)\sum_{i1}^n (-1)^{i+j} a_{i,j} M_{i,j}.</math>
Laplace expansion can be used iteratively for computing determinants, but this approach is inefficient for large matrices. However, it is useful for computing the determinants of highly symmetric matrix such as the Vandermonde matrix
<math display="block">\begin{vmatrix}
1 & 1 & 1 & \cdots & 1 \\
x_1 & x_2 & x_3 & \cdots & x_n \\
x_1^2 & x_2^2 & x_3^2 & \cdots & x_n^2 \\
\vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\
x_1^{n-1} & x_2^{n-1} & x_3^{n-1} & \cdots & x_n^{n-1}
\end{vmatrix} =
\prod_{1 \leq i < j \leq n} \left(x_j - x_i\right).
</math>The n-term Laplace expansion along a row or column can be generalized to write an n x n determinant as a sum of <math>\tbinom nk</math> terms, each the product of the determinant of a k x k submatrix and the determinant of the complementary (n−k) x (n−k) submatrix.
Adjugate matrix
The adjugate matrix <math>\operatorname{adj}(A)</math> is the transpose of the matrix of the cofactors, that is,
: <math>(\operatorname{adj}(A))_{i,j} = (-1)^{i+j} M_{ji}.</math>
For every matrix, one has
: <math>(\det A) I A\operatorname{adj}A (\operatorname{adj}A)\,A. </math>
Thus the adjugate matrix can be used for expressing the inverse of a nonsingular matrix:
: <math>A^{-1} \frac 1{\det A}\operatorname{adj}A. </math> Block matrices
The formula for the determinant of a <math>2 \times 2</math> matrix above continues to hold, under appropriate further assumptions, for a block matrix, i.e., a matrix composed of four submatrices <math>A, B, C, D</math> of dimension <math>m \times m</math>, <math>m \times n</math>, <math>n \times m</math> and <math>n \times n</math>, respectively. The easiest such formula, which can be proven using either the Leibniz formula or a factorization involving the Schur complement, is
:<math>\det\begin{pmatrix}A& 0\\ C& D\end{pmatrix} \det(A) \det(D) \det\begin{pmatrix}A& B\\ 0& D\end{pmatrix}.</math>
If <math>A</math> is invertible, then it follows with results from the section on multiplicativity that
:<math>\begin{align}
\det\begin{pmatrix}A& B\\ C& D\end{pmatrix}
& = \det(A)\det\begin{pmatrix}A& B\\ C& D\end{pmatrix}
\underbrace{\det\begin{pmatrix}A^{-1}& -A^{-1} B\\ 0& I_n\end{pmatrix}}_{\,\det(A^{-1})\,\,(\det A)^{-1}}\\
& = \det(A) \det\begin{pmatrix}I_m& 0\\ C A^{-1}& D-C A^{-1} B\end{pmatrix}\\
& = \det(A) \det(D - C A^{-1} B),
\end{align}</math>
which simplifies to <math>\det (A) (D - C A^{-1} B)</math> when <math>D</math> is a <math>1 \times 1</math> matrix.
A similar result holds when <math>D</math> is invertible, namely
:<math>\begin{align}
\det\begin{pmatrix}A& B\\ C& D\end{pmatrix}
& = \det(D)\det\begin{pmatrix}A& B\\ C& D\end{pmatrix}
\underbrace{\det\begin{pmatrix}I_m& 0\\ -D^{-1} C& D^{-1}\end{pmatrix}}_{\,\det(D^{-1})\,\,(\det D)^{-1}}\\
& = \det(D) \det\begin{pmatrix}A - B D^{-1} C& B D^{-1}\\ 0& I_n\end{pmatrix}\\
& = \det(D) \det(A - B D^{-1} C).
\end{align}</math>
Both results can be combined to derive Sylvester's determinant theorem, which is also stated below.
If the blocks are square matrices of the same size further formulas hold. For example, if <math>C</math> and <math>D</math> commute (i.e., <math>CDDC</math>), then
:<math>\det\begin{pmatrix}A& B\\ C& D\end{pmatrix} = \det(AD - BC).</math>
This formula has been generalized to matrices composed of more than <math>2 \times 2</math> blocks, again under appropriate commutativity conditions among the individual blocks.
For <math>A D </math> and <math>B C</math>, the following formula holds (even if <math>A</math> and <math>B</math> do not commute)
:<math>\det\begin{pmatrix}A& B\\ B& A\end{pmatrix} \det(A - B) \det(A + B).</math> Sylvester's determinant theorem
Sylvester's determinant theorem states that for A, an matrix, and B, an matrix (so that A and B have dimensions allowing them to be multiplied in either order forming a square matrix):
:<math>\det\left(I_\mathit{m} + AB\right) = \det\left(I_\mathit{n} + BA\right),</math>
where I<sub>m</sub> and I<sub>n</sub> are the and identity matrices, respectively.
From this general result several consequences follow.
{{ordered list
| list-style-type=lower-alpha
| For the case of column vector c and row vector r, each with m components, the formula allows quick calculation of the determinant of a matrix that differs from the identity matrix by a matrix of rank 1:
:<math>\det\left(I_\mathit{m} + cr\right) = 1 + rc.</math>
| More generally, for any invertible matrix X,
:<math>\det(X + AB) = \det(X) \det\left(I_\mathit{n} + BX^{-1}A\right),</math>
| For a column and row vector as above:
: <math>\det(X + cr) \det(X) \det\left(1 + rX^{-1}c\right) \det(X) + r\,\operatorname{adj}(X)\,c.</math>
| For square matrices <math>A</math> and <math>B</math> of the same size, the matrices <math>AB</math> and <math>BA</math> have the same characteristic polynomials (hence the same eigenvalues).
}}
A generalization is <math>\det\left(Z + AWB\right) \det\left( Z\right) \det\left(W \right) \det\left(W^{-1} + B Z^{-1} A\right)</math>(see Matrix_determinant_lemma), where Z is an invertible matrix and W is an invertible matrix.Sum
The determinant of the sum <math>A+B</math> of two square matrices of the same size is not in general expressible in terms of the determinants of A and of B.
However, for positive semidefinite matrices <math>A</math>, <math>B</math> and <math>C</math> of equal size,
<math display=block>\det(A + B + C) + \det(C) \geq \det(A + C) + \det(B + C)\text{,}</math>
with the corollary
<math display=block>\det(A + B) \geq \det(A) + \det(B)\text{.}</math>
Brunn–Minkowski theorem implies that the th root of determinant is a concave function, when restricted to Hermitian positive-definite <math>n\times n</math> matrices. Therefore, if and are Hermitian positive-definite <math>n\times n</math> matrices, one has
<math displayblock>\sqrt[n]{\det(A+B)}\geq\sqrt[n]{\det(A)}+\sqrt[n]{\det(B)},</math> since the th root of the determinant is a homogeneous function. Sum identity for 2×2 matrices
For the special case of <math>2\times 2</math> matrices with complex entries, the determinant of the sum can be written in terms of determinants and traces in the following identity:
:<math>\det(A+B) \det(A) + \det(B) + \text{tr}(A)\text{tr}(B) - \text{tr}(AB).</math> Properties of the determinant in relation to other notions Eigenvalues and characteristic polynomial
The determinant is closely related to two other central concepts in linear algebra, the eigenvalues and the characteristic polynomial of a matrix. Let <math>A</math> be an <math>n \times n</math> matrix with complex entries. Then, by the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, <math>A</math> must have exactly n eigenvalues <math>\lambda_1, \lambda_2, \ldots, \lambda_n</math>. (Here it is understood that an eigenvalue with algebraic multiplicity occurs times in this list.) Then, it turns out the determinant of is equal to the product of these eigenvalues,
:<math>\det(A) \prod_{i1}^n \lambda_i=\lambda_1\lambda_2\cdots\lambda_n.</math>
The product of all non-zero eigenvalues is referred to as pseudo-determinant.
From this, one immediately sees that the determinant of a matrix <math>A</math> is zero if and only if <math>0</math> is an eigenvalue of <math>A</math>. In other words, <math>A</math> is invertible if and only if <math>0</math> is not an eigenvalue of <math>A</math>.
The characteristic polynomial is defined as
:<math>\chi_A(t) = \det(t \cdot I - A).</math>
Here, <math>t</math> is the indeterminate of the polynomial and <math>I</math> is the identity matrix of the same size as <math>A</math>. By means of this polynomial, determinants can be used to find the eigenvalues of the matrix <math>A</math>: they are precisely the roots of this polynomial, i.e., those complex numbers <math>\lambda</math> such that
:<math>\chi_A(\lambda) = 0.</math>
A Hermitian matrix is positive definite if all its eigenvalues are positive. Sylvester's criterion asserts that this is equivalent to the determinants of the submatrices
:<math>A_k := \begin{bmatrix}
a_{1,1} & a_{1,2} & \cdots & a_{1,k} \\
a_{2,1} & a_{2,2} & \cdots & a_{2,k} \\
\vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\
a_{k,1} & a_{k,2} & \cdots & a_{k,k}
\end{bmatrix}</math>
being positive, for all <math>k</math> between <math>1</math> and <math>n</math>. Trace
The trace tr(A) is by definition the sum of the diagonal entries of and also equals the sum of the eigenvalues. Thus, for complex matrices ,
:<math>\det(\exp(A)) = \exp(\operatorname{tr}(A))</math>
or, for real matrices ,
:<math>\operatorname{tr}(A) = \log(\det(\exp(A))).</math>
Here exp() denotes the matrix exponential of , because every eigenvalue of corresponds to the eigenvalue exp() of exp(). In particular, given any logarithm of , that is, any matrix satisfying
:<math>\exp(L) = A</math>
the determinant of is given by
:<math>\det(A) = \exp(\operatorname{tr}(L)).</math>
For example, for , , and , respectively,
:<math>\begin{align}
\det(A) &= \frac{1}{2}\left(\left(\operatorname{tr}(A)\right)^2 - \operatorname{tr}\left(A^2\right)\right), \\
\det(A) &= \frac{1}{6}\left(\left(\operatorname{tr}(A)\right)^3 - 3\operatorname{tr}(A) ~ \operatorname{tr}\left(A^2\right) + 2 \operatorname{tr}\left(A^3\right)\right), \\
\det(A) &= \frac{1}{24}\left(\left(\operatorname{tr}(A)\right)^4 - 6\operatorname{tr}\left(A^2\right)\left(\operatorname{tr}(A)\right)^2 + 3\left(\operatorname{tr}\left(A^2\right)\right)^2 + 8\operatorname{tr}\left(A^3\right)~\operatorname{tr}(A) - 6\operatorname{tr}\left(A^4\right)\right).
\end{align}</math>
cf. Cayley-Hamilton theorem. Such expressions are deducible from combinatorial arguments, Newton's identities, or the Faddeev–LeVerrier algorithm. That is, for generic , (−1)<sup>n</sup>c<sub>0</sub>}} the signed constant term of the characteristic polynomial, determined recursively from
:<math>c_n 1; ~~~c_{n-m} -\frac{1}{m}\sum_{k=1}^m c_{n-m+k} \operatorname{tr}\left(A^k\right) ~~(1 \le m \le n)~.</math>
In the general case, this may also be obtained from
:<math>\det(A) \sum_{\begin{array}{c}k_1,k_2,\ldots,k_n \geq 0\\k_1+2k_2+\cdots+nk_nn\end{array}}\prod_{l=1}^n \frac{(-1)^{k_l+1}}{l^{k_l}k_l!} \operatorname{tr}\left(A^l\right)^{k_l},</math>
where the sum is taken over the set of all integers satisfying the equation
:<math>\sum_{l1}^n lk_l n.</math>
The formula can be expressed in terms of the complete exponential Bell polynomial of n arguments s<sub>l</sub> = −(l – 1)! tr(A<sup>l</sup>) as
:<math>\det(A) = \frac{(-1)^n}{n!} B_n(s_1, s_2, \ldots, s_n).</math>
This formula can also be used to find the determinant of a matrix with multidimensional indices and . The product and trace of such matrices are defined in a natural way as
:<math>(AB)^I_J \sum_K A^I_K B^K_J, \operatorname{tr}(A) \sum_I A^I_I.</math>
An important arbitrary dimension identity can be obtained from the Mercator series expansion of the logarithm when the expansion converges. If every eigenvalue of A is less than 1 in absolute value,
:<math>\det(I + A) \sum_{k0}^\infty \frac{1}{k!} \left(-\sum_{j=1}^\infty \frac{(-1)^j}{j} \operatorname{tr}\left(A^j\right)\right)^k\,,</math>
where is the identity matrix. More generally, if
:<math>\sum_{k0}^\infty \frac{1}{k!} \left(-\sum_{j1}^\infty \frac{(-1)^j s^j}{j}\operatorname{tr}\left(A^j\right)\right)^k\,,</math>
is expanded as a formal power series in then all coefficients of <sup></sup> for are zero and the remaining polynomial is .
Upper and lower bounds
For a positive definite matrix , the trace operator gives the following tight lower and upper bounds on the log determinant
:<math>\operatorname{tr}\left(I - A^{-1}\right) \le \log\det(A) \le \operatorname{tr}(A - I)</math>
with equality if and only if . This relationship can be derived via the formula for the Kullback-Leibler divergence between two multivariate normal distributions.
Also,
:<math>\frac{n}{\operatorname{tr}\left(A^{-1}\right)} \leq \det(A)^\frac{1}{n} \leq \frac{1}{n}\operatorname{tr}(A) \leq \sqrt{\frac{1}{n}\operatorname{tr}\left(A^2\right)}.</math>
These inequalities can be proved by expressing the traces and the determinant in terms of the eigenvalues. As such, they represent the well-known fact that the harmonic mean is less than the geometric mean, which is less than the arithmetic mean, which is, in turn, less than the root mean square.
Derivative
The Leibniz formula shows that the determinant of real (or analogously for complex) square matrices is a polynomial function from <math>\mathbf R^{n \times n}</math> to <math>\mathbf R</math>. In particular, it is everywhere differentiable. Its derivative can be expressed using Jacobi's formula:
:<math>\frac{d \det(A)}{d \alpha} = \operatorname{tr}\left(\operatorname{adj}(A) \frac{d A}{d \alpha}\right).</math>
where <math>\operatorname{adj}(A)</math> denotes the adjugate of <math>A</math>. In particular, if <math>A</math> is invertible, we have
:<math>\frac{d \det(A)}{d \alpha} = \det(A) \operatorname{tr}\left(A^{-1} \frac{d A}{d \alpha}\right).</math>
Expressed in terms of the entries of <math>A</math>, these are
: <math> \frac{\partial \det(A)}{\partial A_{ij}}\operatorname{adj}(A)_{ji} \det(A)\left(A^{-1}\right)_{ji}.</math>
Yet another equivalent formulation is
:<math>\det(A + \epsilon X) - \det(A) \operatorname{tr}(\operatorname{adj}(A) X) \epsilon + O\left(\epsilon^2\right) \det(A) \operatorname{tr}\left(A^{-1} X\right) \epsilon + O\left(\epsilon^2\right)</math>,
using big O notation. The special case where <math>A = I</math>, the identity matrix, yields
:<math>\det(I + \epsilon X) = 1 + \operatorname{tr}(X) \epsilon + O\left(\epsilon^2\right).</math>
This identity is used in describing Lie algebras associated to certain matrix Lie groups. For example, the special linear group <math>\operatorname{SL}_n</math> is defined by the equation <math>\det A = 1</math>. The above formula shows that its Lie algebra is the special linear Lie algebra <math>\mathfrak{sl}_n</math> consisting of those matrices having trace zero.
Writing a <math>3 \times 3</math> matrix as <math>A = \begin{bmatrix}a & b & c\end{bmatrix}</math> where <math>a, b,c</math> are column vectors of length 3, then the gradient over one of the three vectors may be written as the cross product of the other two:
: <math>\begin{align}
\nabla_\mathbf{a}\det(A) &= \mathbf{b} \times \mathbf{c} \\
\nabla_\mathbf{b}\det(A) &= \mathbf{c} \times \mathbf{a} \\
\nabla_\mathbf{c}\det(A) &= \mathbf{a} \times \mathbf{b}.
\end{align}</math>
History
Historically, determinants were used long before matrices: A determinant was originally defined as a property of a system of linear equations.
The determinant "determines" whether the system has a unique solution (which occurs precisely if the determinant is non-zero).
In this sense, determinants were first used in the Chinese mathematics textbook The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art (九章算術, Chinese scholars, around the 3rd century BCE). In Europe, solutions of linear systems of two equations were expressed by Cardano in 1545 by a determinant-like entity.
Determinants proper originated separately from the work of Seki Takakazu in 1683 in Japan and parallelly of Leibniz in 1693. stated, without proof, Cramer's rule. Both Cramer and also were led to determinants by the question of plane curves passing through a given set of points.
Vandermonde (1771) first recognized determinants as independent functions. gave the general method of expanding a determinant in terms of its complementary minors: Vandermonde had already given a special case. Immediately following, Lagrange (1773) treated determinants of the second and third order and applied it to questions of elimination theory; he proved many special cases of general identities.
Gauss (1801) made the next advance. Like Lagrange, he made much use of determinants in the theory of numbers. He introduced the word "determinant" (Laplace had used "resultant"), though not in the present signification, but rather as applied to the discriminant of a quadratic form. Gauss also arrived at the notion of reciprocal (inverse) determinants, and came very near the multiplication theorem.
The next contributor of importance is Binet (1811, 1812), who formally stated the theorem relating to the product of two matrices of m columns and n rows, which for the special case of reduces to the multiplication theorem. On the same day (November 30, 1812) that Binet presented his paper to the Academy, Cauchy also presented one on the subject. (See Cauchy–Binet formula.) In this he used the word "determinant" in its present sense, summarized and simplified what was then known on the subject, improved the notation, and gave the multiplication theorem with a proof more satisfactory than Binet's. With him begins the theory in its generality.
used the functional determinant which Sylvester later called the Jacobian. In his memoirs in ''Crelle's Journal for 1841 he specially treats this subject, as well as the class of alternating functions which Sylvester has called alternants''. About the time of Jacobi's last memoirs, Sylvester (1839) and Cayley began their work. introduced the modern notation for the determinant using vertical bars.
The study of special forms of determinants has been the natural result of the completion of the general theory. Axisymmetric determinants have been studied by Lebesgue, Hesse, and Sylvester; persymmetric determinants by Sylvester and Hankel; circulants by Catalan, Spottiswoode, Glaisher, and Scott; skew determinants and Pfaffians, in connection with the theory of orthogonal transformation, by Cayley; continuants by Sylvester; Wronskians (so called by Muir) by Christoffel and Frobenius; compound determinants by Sylvester, Reiss, and Picquet; Jacobians and Hessians by Sylvester; and symmetric gauche determinants by Trudi. Of the textbooks on the subject Spottiswoode's was the first. In America, Hanus (1886), Weld (1893), and Muir/Metzler (1933) published treatises.
Applications
Cramer's rule
Determinants can be used to describe the solutions of a linear system of equations, written in matrix form as <math>Ax = b</math>. This equation has a unique solution <math>x</math> if and only if <math>\det (A)</math> is nonzero. In this case, the solution is given by Cramer's rule:
:<math>x_i \frac{\det(A_i)}{\det(A)} \qquad i 1, 2, 3, \ldots, n</math>
where <math>A_i</math> is the matrix formed by replacing the <math>i</math>-th column of <math>A</math> by the column vector <math>b</math>. This follows immediately by column expansion of the determinant, i.e.
:<math>\det(A_i) =
\det\begin{bmatrix}a_1 & \ldots & b & \ldots & a_n\end{bmatrix}
</math>
<math>
\sum_{j1}^n x_j\det\begin{bmatrix}a_1 & \ldots & a_{i-1} & a_j & a_{i+1} & \ldots & a_n\end{bmatrix} =
x_i\det(A)
</math>
where the vectors <math>a_j</math> are the columns of A. The rule is also implied by the identity
:<math>A\, \operatorname{adj}(A) \operatorname{adj}(A)\, A \det(A)\, I_n.</math>
Cramer's rule can be implemented in <math>\operatorname O(n^3)</math> time, which is comparable to more common methods of solving systems of linear equations, such as LU, QR, or singular value decomposition.
Linear independence
Determinants can be used to characterize linearly dependent vectors: <math>\det A</math> is zero if and only if the column vectors of the matrix <math>A</math> are linearly dependent. For example, given two linearly independent vectors <math>v_1, v_2 \in \mathbf R^3</math>, a third vector <math>v_3</math> lies in the plane spanned by the former two vectors exactly if the determinant of the <math>3 \times 3</math> matrix consisting of the three vectors is zero. The same idea is also used in the theory of differential equations: given functions <math>f_1(x), \dots, f_n(x)</math> (supposed to be <math>n-1</math> times differentiable), the Wronskian is defined to be
:<math>W(f_1, \ldots, f_n)(x) =
\begin{vmatrix}
f_1(x) & f_2(x) & \cdots & f_n(x) \\
f_1'(x) & f_2'(x) & \cdots & f_n'(x) \\
\vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\
f_1^{(n-1)}(x) & f_2^{(n-1)}(x) & \cdots & f_n^{(n-1)}(x)
\end{vmatrix}.</math>
It is non-zero (for some <math>x</math>) in a specified interval if and only if the given functions and all their derivatives up to order <math>n-1</math> are linearly independent. If it can be shown that the Wronskian is zero everywhere on an interval then, in the case of analytic functions, this implies the given functions are linearly dependent. See the Wronskian and linear independence. Another such use of the determinant is the resultant, which gives a criterion when two polynomials have a common root. Orientation of a basis
The determinant can be thought of as assigning a number to every sequence of n vectors in R<sup>n</sup>, by using the square matrix whose columns are the given vectors. The determinant will be nonzero if and only if the sequence of vectors is a basis for R<sup>n</sup>. In that case, the sign of the determinant determines whether the orientation of the basis is consistent with or opposite to the orientation of the standard basis. In the case of an orthogonal basis, the magnitude of the determinant is equal to the product of the lengths of the basis vectors. For instance, an orthogonal matrix with entries in R<sup>n</sup> represents an orthonormal basis in Euclidean space, and hence has determinant of ±1 (since all the vectors have length 1). The determinant is +1 if and only if the basis has the same orientation. It is −1 if and only if the basis has the opposite orientation.
More generally, if the determinant of A is positive, A represents an orientation-preserving linear transformation (if A is an orthogonal or matrix, this is a rotation), while if it is negative, A switches the orientation of the basis.
Volume and Jacobian determinant
As pointed out above, the absolute value of the determinant of real vectors is equal to the volume of the parallelepiped spanned by those vectors. As a consequence, if <math>f : \mathbf R^n \to \mathbf R^n</math> is the linear map given by multiplication with a matrix <math>A</math>, and <math>S \subset \mathbf R^n</math> is any measurable subset, then the volume of <math>f(S)</math> is given by <math>|\det(A)|</math> times the volume of <math>S</math>. More generally, if the linear map <math>f : \mathbf R^n \to \mathbf R^m</math> is represented by the <math>m \times n</math> matrix <math>A</math>, then the <math>n</math>-dimensional volume of <math>f(S)</math> is given by:
:<math>\operatorname{volume}(f(S)) = \sqrt{\det\left(A^\textsf{T} A\right)} \operatorname{volume}(S).</math>
By calculating the volume of the tetrahedron bounded by four points, they can be used to identify skew lines. The volume of any tetrahedron, given its vertices <math>a, b, c, d</math>, <math>\frac 1 6 \cdot |\det(a-b,b-c,c-d)|</math>, or any other combination of pairs of vertices that form a spanning tree over the vertices.
For a general differentiable function, much of the above carries over by considering the Jacobian matrix of f. For
:<math>f: \mathbf R^n \rightarrow \mathbf R^n,</math>
the Jacobian matrix is the matrix whose entries are given by the partial derivatives
:<math>D(f) = \left(\frac {\partial f_i}{\partial x_j}\right)_{1 \leq i, j \leq n}.</math>
Its determinant, the Jacobian determinant, appears in the higher-dimensional version of integration by substitution: for suitable functions f and an open subset U of R<sup>n</sup> (the domain of f), the integral over f(U) of some other function is given by
:<math>\int_{f(U)} \phi(\mathbf{v})\, d\mathbf{v} = \int_U \phi(f(\mathbf{u})) \left|\det(\operatorname{D}f)(\mathbf{u})\right| \,d\mathbf{u}.</math>
The Jacobian also occurs in the inverse function theorem.
When applied to the field of Cartography, the determinant can be used to measure the rate of expansion of a map near the poles. Abstract algebraic aspects Determinant of an endomorphism The above identities concerning the determinant of products and inverses of matrices imply that similar matrices have the same determinant: two matrices A and B are similar, if there exists an invertible matrix X such that . Indeed, repeatedly applying the above identities yields
:<math>\det(A) \det(X)^{-1} \det(B)\det(X) \det(B) \det(X)^{-1} \det(X) = \det(B).</math>
The determinant is therefore also called a similarity invariant. The determinant of a linear transformation
:<math>T : V \to V</math>
for some finite-dimensional vector space V is defined to be the determinant of the matrix describing it, with respect to an arbitrary choice of basis in V. By the similarity invariance, this determinant is independent of the choice of the basis for V and therefore only depends on the endomorphism T.
Square matrices over commutative rings
The above definition of the determinant using the Leibniz rule holds works more generally when the entries of the matrix are elements of a commutative ring <math>R</math>, such as the integers <math>\mathbf Z</math>, as opposed to the field of real or complex numbers. Moreover, the characterization of the determinant as the unique alternating multilinear map that satisfies <math>\det(I) 1</math> still holds, as do all the properties that result from that characterization.
A matrix <math>A \in \operatorname{Mat}_{n \times n}(R)</math> is invertible (in the sense that there is an inverse matrix whose entries are in <math>R</math>) if and only if its determinant is an invertible element in <math>R</math>. For <math>R \mathbf Z</math>, this means that the determinant is +1 or −1. Such a matrix is called unimodular.
The determinant being multiplicative, it defines a group homomorphism
:<math>\operatorname{GL}_n(R) \rightarrow R^\times, </math>
between the general linear group (the group of invertible <math>n \times n</math>-matrices with entries in <math>R</math>) and the multiplicative group of units in <math>R</math>. Since it respects the multiplication in both groups, this map is a group homomorphism.
Given a ring homomorphism <math>f : R \to S</math>, there is a map <math>\operatorname{GL}_n(f) : \operatorname{GL}_n(R) \to \operatorname{GL}_n(S)</math> given by replacing all entries in <math>R</math> by their images under <math>f</math>. The determinant respects these maps, i.e., the identity
:<math>f(\det((a_{i,j}))) = \det ((f(a_{i,j})))</math>
holds. In other words, the displayed commutative diagram commutes.
For example, the determinant of the complex conjugate of a complex matrix (which is also the determinant of its conjugate transpose) is the complex conjugate of its determinant, and for integer matrices: the reduction modulo <math>m</math> of the determinant of such a matrix is equal to the determinant of the matrix reduced modulo <math>m</math> (the latter determinant being computed using modular arithmetic). In the language of category theory, the determinant is a natural transformation between the two functors <math>\operatorname{GL}_n</math> and <math>(-)^\times</math>. Adding yet another layer of abstraction, this is captured by saying that the determinant is a morphism of algebraic groups, from the general linear group to the multiplicative group,
:<math>\det: \operatorname{GL}_n \to \mathbb G_m.</math>
Exterior algebra
The determinant of a linear transformation <math>T : V \to V</math> of an <math>n</math>-dimensional vector space <math>V</math> or, more generally a free module of (finite) rank <math>n</math> over a commutative ring <math>R</math> can be formulated in a coordinate-free manner by considering the <math>n</math>-th exterior power <math>\bigwedge^n V</math> of <math>V</math>. The map <math>T</math> induces a linear map
:<math>\begin{align}
\bigwedge^n T: \bigwedge^n V &\rightarrow \bigwedge^n V \\
v_1 \wedge v_2 \wedge \dots \wedge v_n &\mapsto T v_1 \wedge T v_2 \wedge \dots \wedge T v_n.
\end{align}</math>
As <math>\bigwedge^n V</math> is one-dimensional, the map <math>\bigwedge^n T</math> is given by multiplying with some scalar, i.e., an element in <math>R</math>. Some authors such as use this fact to define the determinant to be the element in <math>R</math> satisfying the following identity (for all <math>v_i \in V</math>):
:<math>\left(\bigwedge^n T\right)\left(v_1 \wedge \dots \wedge v_n\right) = \det(T) \cdot v_1 \wedge \dots \wedge v_n.</math>
This definition agrees with the more concrete coordinate-dependent definition. This can be shown using the uniqueness of a multilinear alternating form on <math>n</math>-tuples of vectors in <math>R^n</math>.
For this reason, the highest non-zero exterior power <math>\bigwedge^n V</math> (as opposed to the determinant associated to an endomorphism) is sometimes also called the determinant of <math>V</math> and similarly for more involved objects such as vector bundles or chain complexes of vector spaces. Minors of a matrix can also be cast in this setting, by considering lower alternating forms <math>\bigwedge^k V</math> with <math>k < n</math>.
Generalizations and related notions
Determinants as treated above admit several variants: the permanent of a matrix is defined as the determinant, except that the factors <math>\sgn(\sigma)</math> occurring in Leibniz's rule are omitted. The immanant generalizes both by introducing a character of the symmetric group <math>S_n</math> in Leibniz's rule.
Determinants for finite-dimensional algebras
For any associative algebra <math>A</math> that is finite-dimensional as a vector space over a field <math>F</math>, there is a determinant map
:<math>\det : A \to F.</math>
This definition proceeds by establishing the characteristic polynomial independently of the determinant, and defining the determinant as the lowest order term of this polynomial. This general definition recovers the determinant for the matrix algebra <math>A = \operatorname{Mat}_{n \times n}(F)</math>, but also includes several further cases including the determinant of a quaternion,
:<math>\det (a + ib+jc+kd) = a^2 + b^2 + c^2 + d^2</math>,
the norm <math>N_{L/F} : L \to F</math> of a field extension, as well as the Pfaffian of a skew-symmetric matrix and the reduced norm of a central simple algebra, also arise as special cases of this construction.
Infinite matrices
For matrices with an infinite number of rows and columns, the above definitions of the determinant do not carry over directly. For example, in the Leibniz formula, an infinite sum (all of whose terms are infinite products) would have to be calculated. Functional analysis provides different extensions of the determinant for such infinite-dimensional situations, which however only work for particular kinds of operators.
The Fredholm determinant defines the determinant for operators known as trace class operators by an appropriate generalization of the formula
:<math>\det(I+A) = \exp(\operatorname{tr}(\log(I+A))). </math>
Another infinite-dimensional notion of determinant is the functional determinant.
Operators in von Neumann algebras
For operators in a finite factor, one may define a positive real-valued determinant called the Fuglede−Kadison determinant using the canonical trace. In fact, corresponding to every tracial state on a von Neumann algebra there is a notion of Fuglede−Kadison determinant.
Related notions for non-commutative rings
For matrices over non-commutative rings, multilinearity and alternating properties are incompatible for , so there is no good definition of the determinant in this setting.
For square matrices with entries in a non-commutative ring, there are various difficulties in defining determinants analogously to that for commutative rings. A meaning can be given to the Leibniz formula provided that the order for the product is specified, and similarly for other definitions of the determinant, but non-commutativity then leads to the loss of many fundamental properties of the determinant, such as the multiplicative property or that the determinant is unchanged under transposition of the matrix. Over non-commutative rings, there is no reasonable notion of a multilinear form (existence of a nonzero with a regular element of R as value on some pair of arguments implies that R is commutative). Nevertheless, various notions of non-commutative determinant have been formulated that preserve some of the properties of determinants, notably quasideterminants and the Dieudonné determinant. For some classes of matrices with non-commutative elements, one can define the determinant and prove linear algebra theorems that are very similar to their commutative analogs. Examples include the q-determinant on quantum groups, the Capelli determinant on Capelli matrices, and the Berezinian on supermatrices (i.e., matrices whose entries are elements of <math>\mathbb Z_2</math>-graded rings). Manin matrices form the class closest to matrices with commutative elements. Calculation Determinants are mainly used as a theoretical tool. They are rarely calculated explicitly in numerical linear algebra, where for applications such as checking invertibility and finding eigenvalues the determinant has largely been supplanted by other techniques. Computational geometry, however, does frequently use calculations related to determinants.
While the determinant can be computed directly using the Leibniz rule this approach is extremely inefficient for large matrices, since that formula requires calculating <math>n!</math> (<math>n</math> factorial) products for an <math>n \times n</math> matrix. Thus, the number of required operations grows very quickly: it is of order <math>n!</math>. The Laplace expansion is similarly inefficient. Therefore, more involved techniques have been developed for calculating determinants.
Gaussian elimination
Gaussian elimination consists of left multiplying a matrix by elementary matrices for getting a matrix in a row echelon form. One can restrict the computation to elementary matrices of determinant . In this case, the determinant of the resulting row echelon form equals the determinant of the initial matrix. As a row echelon form is a triangular matrix, its determinant is the product of the entries of its diagonal.
So, the determinant can be computed for almost free from the result of a Gaussian elimination.
Decomposition methods
Some methods compute <math>\det(A)</math> by writing the matrix as a product of matrices whose determinants can be more easily computed. Such techniques are referred to as decomposition methods. Examples include the LU decomposition, the QR decomposition or the Cholesky decomposition (for positive definite matrices). These methods are of order <math>\operatorname O(n^3)</math>, which is a significant improvement over <math>\operatorname O (n!)</math>.
For example, LU decomposition expresses <math>A</math> as a product
:<math> A = PLU. </math>
of a permutation matrix <math>P</math> (which has exactly a single <math>1</math> in each column, and otherwise zeros), a lower triangular matrix <math>L</math> and an upper triangular matrix <math>U</math>.
The determinants of the two triangular matrices <math>L</math> and <math>U</math> can be quickly calculated, since they are the products of the respective diagonal entries. The determinant of <math>P</math> is just the sign <math>\varepsilon</math> of the corresponding permutation (which is <math>+1</math> for an even number of permutations and is <math> -1 </math> for an odd number of permutations). Once such a LU decomposition is known for <math>A</math>, its determinant is readily computed as
:<math> \det(A) \varepsilon \det(L)\cdot\det(U). </math> Further methods The order <math>\operatorname O(n^3)</math> reached by decomposition methods has been improved by different methods. If two matrices of order <math>n</math> can be multiplied in time <math>M(n)</math>, where <math>M(n) \ge n^a</math> for some <math>a>2</math>, then there is an algorithm computing the determinant in time <math>O(M(n))</math>. This means, for example, that an <math>\operatorname O(n^{2.376})</math> algorithm for computing the determinant exists based on the Coppersmith–Winograd algorithm. This exponent has been further lowered, as of 2016, to 2.373.
In addition to the complexity of the algorithm, further criteria can be used to compare algorithms.
Especially for applications concerning matrices over rings, algorithms that compute the determinant without any divisions exist. (By contrast, Gauss elimination requires divisions.) One such algorithm, having complexity <math>\operatorname O(n^4)</math> is based on the following idea: one replaces permutations (as in the Leibniz rule) by so-called closed ordered walks, in which several items can be repeated. The resulting sum has more terms than in the Leibniz rule, but in the process several of these products can be reused, making it more efficient than naively computing with the Leibniz rule. Algorithms can also be assessed according to their bit complexity, i.e., how many bits of accuracy are needed to store intermediate values occurring in the computation. For example, the Gaussian elimination (or LU decomposition) method is of order <math>\operatorname O(n^3)</math>, but the bit length of intermediate values can become exponentially long. By comparison, the Bareiss Algorithm, is an exact-division method (so it does use division, but only in cases where these divisions can be performed without remainder) is of the same order, but the bit complexity is roughly the bit size of the original entries in the matrix times <math>n</math>.
If the determinant of A and the inverse of A have already been computed, the matrix determinant lemma allows rapid calculation of the determinant of , where u and v are column vectors.
Charles Dodgson (i.e. Lewis Carroll of ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' fame) invented a method for computing determinants called Dodgson condensation. Unfortunately this interesting method does not always work in its original form.
See also
* Cauchy determinant
* Cayley–Menger determinant
* Dieudonné determinant
* Slater determinant
* Determinantal conjecture
Notes
References
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* G. Baley Price (1947) "Some identities in the theory of determinants", American Mathematical Monthly 54:75–90
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* [http://www.totoha.net/archiv/scott1880.pdf Robert Forsyth Scott (1880): A Treatise on the Theory of Determinants and Their Applications in Analysis and Geometry, Cambridge University Press]
* [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1967268 E. R. Hedrick: On Three Dimensional Determinants, Annals of Mathematics, Vol.1, No.1/4 (1899-1900), pp.49-67 (19pages). https://doi.org/10.2307/1967268] # Note: This is not the ordinal determinant.
External links
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* [http://people.revoledu.com/kardi/tutorial/LinearAlgebra/MatrixDeterminant.html Determinant Interactive Program and Tutorial]
* [http://www.umat.feec.vutbr.cz/~novakm/determinanty/en/ Linear algebra: determinants.] Compute determinants of matrices up to order 6 using Laplace expansion you choose.
* [https://physandmathsolutions.com/Menus/matrix_determinant_calculator.php Determinant Calculator] Calculator for matrix determinants, up to the 8th order.
* [http://www.economics.soton.ac.uk/staff/aldrich/matrices.htm Matrices and Linear Algebra on the Earliest Uses Pages]
* [http://algebra.math.ust.hk/course/content.shtml Determinants explained in an easy fashion in the 4th chapter as a part of a Linear Algebra course.]
Category:Matrix theory
Category:Linear algebra
Category:Homogeneous polynomials
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determinant
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2025-04-05T18:28:37.904891
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